Solution Manual For Employee Training & Development 9th Edition By Raymond Noe

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Solution Manual For Employee Training & Development 9th Edition By Raymond Noe Chapter 1-11 Chapter 1

Introduction to Employee Training & Development

This introductory chapter discusses why training is important to help companies successfully compete in today’s business environment. The chapter provides an overview of training practices, the training profession, forces impacting training, and how to design effective training. The chapter begins with a discussion of how a variety of companies use training to improve their competitive advantage. The chapter proceeds to define a number of terms relating to training, followed by an overview of the basic Instructional System Design (ISD) model, the foundation for effective training. Next, forces influencing working and learning are presented, concluding with an overview of current training practices.

Objectives 1.

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3.

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5.

6.

Discuss the forces influencing the workplace and learning and explain how training can help companies deal with these forces.

Draw a figure or diagram and explain how training, development, informal learning, and knowledge management contribute to business success.

Discuss various aspects of the training design process.

Describe the amount and types of training occurring in U.S. companies.

Discuss the key roles for training professionals.

Identify appropriate resources (e.g., journals and websites) for learning about training research and practice.

Introduction Companies are experiencing great change due to new technologies, rapid development of new knowledge, globalization, and e-commerce. To help with such change, companies need to devote significant resources to attract, retain, and motivate their workforces. Human resource management (HRM) refers to the policies, practices, and systems that influence employee behavior, attitudes, and performance. Training is one of the key components of the HRM function. The overarching theme of this text is that training, development, and related learning activities are central to organizations being successful in the marketplace.

Training and Development: Key Components of Learning

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It is important to understand what training means in the broader business context. The overall goal of training is learning. Learning refers to employees acquiring knowledge, skills, competencies, attitudes, or behaviors. When employees learn, it leads to the development of human capital. Human capital refers to knowledge, advanced skills, system understanding and creativity, and motivation to deliver high-quality products and services. Human capital may be more important than other types of capital in helping a company achieve competitive advantage. Below are a number of key terms related to training, development, and learning.

1.

Training refers to a planned effort by a company to facilitate learning of job-related competencies, knowledge, skills, and behaviors. The goal of training is for employees to master the knowledge, skills, and behaviors and then apply them on the job.

2.

Development refers to training, formal education, job experiences, relationships, and assessments of personality, skills, and abilities that help employees prepare for future jobs or positions.

3.

Formal training and development refers to training and development programs, courses, and events that are developed and organized by the company.

4.

Informal learning refers to learning that is learner initiated, involves action and doing, is motivated by an intent to develop, and does not occur in a formal learning setting. Informal learning may be particularly important because it leads to the development of tacit knowledge.

5.

Explicit knowledge refers to knowledge that is well documented, easily articulated, and easily transferred from person-to-person. Examples of explicit knowledge include processes, checklists, flowcharts, formulas, and definitions.

6.

Tacit knowledge refers to personal knowledge based on individual experiences that is difficult to codify.

7.

Knowledge management refers to the process of enhancing company performance by designing and implementing tools, processes, systems, structures, and cultures to improve the creation, sharing, and use of knowledge.

Designing Effective Training Training must be systematically designed to help ensure maximum impact. The training design process should follow the principles of Instructional System Design (ISD), a step-by-step process for designing and developing training programs. Following a systematic approach helps ensure that training targets the most important learning needs, adopts the most appropriate methods, and has a meaningful on-the-job impact.

The ISD process involves seven interrelated steps: 1. Conduct a needs assessment—determine who and what needs to be trained 2. Ensure employee readiness for training—ensure employees are prepared and motivated to attend training 3. Create a learning environment—create an environment that has the features for learning to occur

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4.

5.

6.

7.

Ensure transfer of training—ensure support is in place to facilitate the transfer of trained skills Develop an evaluation plan—determine how the effectiveness of training will be assessed Design and conduct training —select training methods and deliver training Monitor and evaluate—assess the effectiveness of training

The training design process sometimes is referred to as the ADDIE model because it includes analysis, design, development, implementation, and evaluation.

Regardless of the specific ISD approach used, all share the following assumptions: o Training design is effective only if it helps employees reach instructional goals and objectives. o Measurable learning objectives should be identified before training program begins. o Evaluation plays an important part in planning and choosing a training method, monitoring the training program, and suggesting changes to the training design process.

Overcoming Flaws of the ISD Model Some training professionals argue that the ISD model is flawed for several reasons. First, in organizations, the training design process rarely follows the neat, orderly, step-by-step approach of activities. Second, in trying to standardize their own ISD method used in the training function, some organizations require trainers to provide detailed documents of each activity found in the model. Third, the ISD implies an end point: evaluation. Fourth, many companies claim to use an instructional design approach but dilute its application. The ISD model certainly has value. Yet, the training design process should flexible enough to adapt to changing business needs.

To overcome the limitations of the ISD model, companies are starting to use agile learning design. Agile learning or agile instructional design refers to any approach to training development that focuses on speed, flexibility, collaboration, repeated review, and reuse of existing content, if appropriate. Course development occurs in what are known as “short bursts” or “sprints.” There are likely several of these sprints involved for each part of a course. Each “sprint” includes planning, designing, developing, testing, deploying, reviewing, and launching. The process starts again for each element of the course and ends when the entire course is complete.

The Forces Influencing Working and Learning Economic Cycles Irrespective of the current economic cycle, training has been shown to positively contribute to an organization’s performance. The global pandemic caused by COVID-19 caused the creation of a “new normal.” The “new normal” meant businesses had to quickly adapt their business models, supply chains, and ways to engage consumers or risk going out of business. Many companies retooled to provide products and services needed during the pandemic. closing daycares and forcing school aged children to attend classes online from home. The U.S. government, workers themselves, and companies all took actions to lessen the impact of the pandemic and prepare for post-pandemic employment. The government passed several pieces of legislation designed to aid workers and businesses.

Globalization

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Many companies are involved in international markets by exporting their products overseas, building manufacturing facilities or service centers in other countries, entering into alliances with foreign companies, and engaging in e-commerce.

Global trade and investment have slowed due to the pandemic, an increase in nationalistic policies around the world such as “Buy American” or “Made in India,” concerns about national security threats from purchasing and selling technology, and countries' dependence on others for essential products and resources. Globalization is not going to disappear. But the rate of globalization in the future is likely to depend on how soon the world can resolve the pandemic and the types of trade policies and practices enacted by countries around the world.

The pandemic, costs, and changes in countries' employment policies have caused companies to reconsider whether sending employees to work in other countries on a long-term basis is worthwhile.

Globalization also means that employees working in the United States will come from other countries.

There is an ongoing debate in the U.S. government about the role of both legal and illegal immigration in terrorism and the reduction of job opportunities for U.S. citizens.

American companies will likely continue to struggling to fill jobs despite the recent expiration of restrictions on work visas that occurred due to pandemic and Trump administration policies. Despite the high unemployment rate because of the pandemic, potential workers are not attracted to the low paying and seasonal jobs typically held by immigrants.

Globalization also means that U.S. companies have to carefully consider the costs and benefits of moving jobs overseas or using foreign suppliers. Offshoring refers to the exporting of jobs from developed countries, such as the United States, to countries where labor and other costs are lower.

Increased Value Placed on Intangible Assets and Human Capital Intangible assets such as human capital contribute to a company’s competitive advantage because they are difficult to duplicate and imitate. Intangible assets are equally as valuable as financial and physical assets, but they are not something that can be touched and they are nonmonetary.

There are four types of intangible assets: 1. Human capital refers to the sum of the attributes, life experiences, knowledge, inventiveness, energy, and enthusiasm that the company’s employees invest in their work.

2. Intellectual capital refers to the codified knowledge that exists in a company 3. Social capital refers to relationships in the company 4. Customer capital refers to the value of relationships with persons or other organizations outside the company for accomplishing the goals of the company (e.g., relationships with suppliers, customers, vendors, and government agencies) Training and development have a direct influence on human and social capital because they affect education, work-related know-how and competence, and work relationships. Training and development can have an indirect influence on customer and social capital by helping employees better serve customers and providing them with the knowledge needed to create patents and intellectual property.

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The value of intangible assets and human capital has three important implications, including a focus on knowledge workers, employee engagement, and an increased emphasis on adapting to change and continuous learning. o Knowledge workers are employees who contribute not through manual labor but through what they know, perhaps about customers or a specialized body of knowledge. o Employee engagement refers to the degree to which employees are fully involved in their work and committed to their job and the company. o A learning organization embraces a culture of lifelong learning, enabling all employees to continually acquire and share knowledge.

Focus on Links to Business Strategy Given the important role that intangible assets and human capital play in a company’s competitiveness, managers are beginning to see a more important role for training and development as a means to support a company’s business strategy—that is, its plans for meeting broad goals such as profitability, market share, and quality. Managers expect training and development professionals to design and develop learning activities that will help the company successfully implement its strategy and reach business goals.

Changing Demographics and Diversity of the Workforce Companies face several challenges as a result of changing demographics and the diversity of the workplace. In particular, the workforce will be older and more culturally diverse. Not only must organizations provide a fair workplace, they must provide training to enhance diversity and help accommodate the needs of different groups.

Between 2019 and 2029, the U.S. labor force will continue to grow more ethnically and racially diverse due to immigration, increased participation of minorities in the workforce, and higher minority fertility rates.

The aging population means that companies are likely to employ a growing share of older workers— many of them in their second or third careers. Older people want to work, and many say they plan a working retirement.

The popular press suggests that five generations are represented in the workforce; each one may have unique and similar characteristics to the others. Consider some of the attributes that have been suggested. For example, Gen Z are supposedly more attached to mobile phones and tablets for learning and connecting with others than are millennials. Baby boomers, the “Me” generation, are characterized as being competitive, hard-working, and concerned with the fair treatment of all employees. It is important to note that research does not support the existence of generational differences. That is, generational differences are more fiction than fact. It is important to understand the needs, experiences. and preferences of learners but that should be based on an audience analysis, rather than assumptions about generational differences.

The death of George Floyd, #MeToo, the Black Lives Matter movement, verbal and physical attacks against Asian-Americans, the multigenerational workforce, and the COVID-19 pandemic has intensified the attention to issues of diversity, equity, and inclusion in U.S. companies. o Diversity can be considered any dimension that differentiates one person from another.

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o

o

Equity refers to fair treatment, access, equality of opportunity, and advancement for all employees, while at the same time striving to identify and eliminate barriers that have prevented the full participation of some groups.

Inclusion refers to creating an environment in which employees share a sense of belonging, mutual respect, and a commitment to others so they can perform their best work.

Diversity, equity, and inclusion can help companies gain a competitive advantage. Training and development may be instrumental in this regard. Important outcomes expected from diversity practices include improved public image of the company, improved financial bottom line, decreased complaints and litigation, and retention and recruitment of a diverse workforce.

Talent Management Talent management refers to the systematic, planned, and strategic effort by a company to use bundles of HRM practices, including acquiring and assessing employees, learning and development, performance management, and compensation to attract, retain, develop, and motivate highly skilled employees.

Talent management is becoming increasingly more important because of changes in demand for certain occupations and jobs, skill requirements, the retirement of Baby Boomers, and the need to develop managerial talent and skills of the next generation of company leaders.

The results of surveys suggest that opportunities for career growth, learning, and development, and the performance of exciting and challenging work are some of the most important factors in determining commitment to employers, especially among Millennials.

The pandemic has highlighted the war for talent as companies involved in producing vaccines have thousands of job openings but were competing for a limited number of workers who have pharmaceutical manufacturing or bio-tech degrees or willing to work overnight shifts on production lines.

A number of talent management challenges are confronting organizations today: o

Changes in demand for occupations and jobs. Approximately 46.5 million job openings are expected, with more than three-fourths resulting from the need to replace workers who retire or leave an occupation. Most new jobs added between 2019 and 2029 will be in service-providing occupations, particularly health care and social assistance. The occupations with the most new jobs projected between 2019 and 2029 include home health and personal care aids, software developers and software quality assurance analysts and testers, fast-food and counter workers, registered nurses, and restaurant cooks.

o

Skills requirements. Several studies illustrate how jobs are changing, the influence this is having on skill requirements, and the difficulty companies are having finding qualified workers. Skills shortages are occurring in manufacturing and service jobs and are expected to continue into the future. Skill shortages are also occurring in three service industries that together employ almost one-third of all U.S. workers: retail; health and social assistance; and leisure and hospitality.

o

Developing leadership. Companies report that the most important talent management challenges they face are identifying employees with managerial talent and training and developing them for managerial positions. This is attributed to the aging of the workforce, globalization, and the need

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for managers to contribute to employee engagement. Executive, administrative, and managerial occupations will experience the greatest turnover due to death or retirement.

Customer Service and Quality Emphasis Due to increased availability of knowledge and competition, consumers are very knowledgeable and expect excellent service. This presents a challenge for employees who interact with customers. To compete in today’s economy, companies and employees need to be better skilled than ever.

Total Quality Management (TQM) is a companywide effort to continuously improve the ways people, machines, and systems accomplish work. The following are key principles of TQM: o Methods and processes are designed to meet the needs of internal and external customers o Every employee in the company receives training in quality o Quality is built into a product or service so that errors are prevented from occurring rather than being detected and corrected o The company promotes cooperation with vendors, suppliers, and customers to improve quality and hold down costs o Managers measure progress with feedback based on data The emphasis on quality is seen in the establishment of the Malcolm Baldrige National Quality Award and the ISO 9000:2000 quality standards. To become eligible for the Baldrige, which is awarded annually, a company must complete a detailed application that consists of basic information about the firm and an in-depth presentation of how it addresses specific criteria related to quality improvement. The Baldrige Award winners usually excel with training and development.

The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) develops standards related to management and a wide variety of other areas. The ISO 9000 is a family of standards related to quality (ISO 9000, ISO 9001, ISO 9004, and ISO 19011). The ISO 9000 quality standards address what a company needs to do to meet regulatory requirements and the customer’s quality requirements while striving to improve customer satisfaction and continuous improvement.

Many companies are also using Six Sigma for monitoring and improving quality. The Six Sigma process refers to a process of measuring, analyzing, improving, and then controlling processes once they have been brought within the narrow Six Sigma quality standards. Training is an important component of the Six Sigma process.

Training can help companies meet the quality challenge by teaching employees a concept known as “lean thinking.” Lean thinking is a way to do more with less effort, equipment, space, and time, but still provide customers with what they need and want. Part of lean thinking includes training workers in new skills or teaching them how to apply old skills in new ways so they can quickly take over new responsibilities or use new skills to help fill customer orders.

New Technology Advances in sophisticated technology along with reduced costs for the technology are changing the delivery of training, making training more realistic, and giving employees the opportunity to choose where and when they will work. New technologies allow training to occur at any time and any place.

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The most important implication of technology for training is that it has facilitated the development of digital learning. Digital learning refers to learning that can occur daily in the work setting using devices such as smartphones, tablets, and computers. It can help employees solve problems and communicate and collaborate with peers. Digital learning can be enabled by the company when it provides access to specific learning activities such as courses, videos, or discussion boards. But digital learning can also occur spontaneously when employees search the Internet, search for videos on YouTube, or interact with others on social media.

Companies are embracing digital learning because it allows them to create a workplace where employees can engage in continuous learning focused on upskilling and reskilling. Upskilling refers to employees improving or expanding their current skills. Reskilling refers to employees acquiring new knowledge or skills. This training helps employees engage in upskilling and reskilling, both of which are important for their growth and employability.

Digital learning solutions can include the use of artificial intelligence and wearables. Artificial intelligence is a technology that simulates human thinking. It works through queries that allow it to learn from data over time so that it can identify trends and patterns that influence future searches and suggestions.

Wearables are increasingly being used for training and performance support solutions. Wearable Intelligence provides smart eyewear technology and camera technology to give employees hands-free, voice-activated access to procedures and checklists and live access to experts using tablet computers.

These technologies allow data and live video sharing, the opportunity to review best-practice videos before or during the performance of complex procedures and operations, and real-time notifications and alerts.

Flexibility in where and when work is performed.

Technology can enhance flexibility in where and when work is performed. Many companies are recognizing the benefits that can be gained by both the company and employees through providing flexible work schedules, allowing work at-home arrangements, protecting employees’ free time, and more productively using employees’ work time. The benefits include the ability to have an advantage in attracting and retaining talented employees, reduced stress resulting in healthier employees, and a rested workforce that can maximize the use of their skills. Employees in managerial, business, and financial, operations and professional occupations are most likely to do some or all of their work at home. It appears that many workers would prefer to continue working remotely after the pandemic is over.

Increased Use of Nontraditional Employment.

More companies are moving away the traditional employment model based on full-time workers to increasingly rely on nontraditional employment. Nontraditional employment includes the use of independent contractors, freelancers, on-call workers, temporary workers, and contract company workers.

What does nontraditional employment look like? Often, a website or mobile app is used to assign work, and the worker sets his or her own schedule. Because these workers do not work for a company, they do not have taxes withheld from their earnings, they do not have to receive minimum wage or overtime pay, and they are not eligible for worker’s compensation and unemployment insurance.

Some companies that rely primarily on nontraditional employment to meet service and product demands are competing in the gig economy. Examples of companies that rely on the gig economy include transportation services Uber and Lyft and food-delivery services such as Caviar.

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A key training issue that nontraditional employment presents is providing training is specific, on demand, delivered in small chunks, and specifically focused on their job.

High-Performance Models of Work Systems One of the most popular methods for increasing employee responsibility and control is work teams. Work teams involve employees with various skills who interact to assemble a product or provide a service. Work teams may assume many of the activities reserved for managers, such as hiring new employees and coordinating work activities.

Cross-training refers to training employees in a wide range of skills so they can fill any of the roles needed to be performed on the team.

Virtual teams are teams with members that are separated by time, geographic distance, culture, and/or organizational boundaries that rely almost exclusively on technology to interact and complete their projects. The success of virtual teams requires a clear mission, good communications skills, trust between members that they will meet deadlines and complete assignments, and an understanding of cultural differences (if the teams have global members).

Snapshot of Training Practices Training Facts and Figures o After rising from 83 billion in 2019, total training expenditures slightly declined to $82.5 billion in 2020. o Average training expenditures per employee have gradually risen over the last several years. o The average number of learning hours per employee in 2020 increased over the previous three years. o There is an increased demand for specialized learning that includes manager, professional, and industry-specific content. o The use of technology-based learning delivery has increased from 43 percent in 2017 to 56 percent in 2020. o Self-paced online learning is the most frequently used type of technology-based learning. o Traditional, instructor-led classroom training continues to be the most popular method. However, its use continues to decline (54 percent in 2017 versus 40 percent in 2020).

The survey used for the 2020 Training Industry Report included several questions about the influence of the COVID-19 pandemic on training practices. The results show that not all companies stopped training.

Sixteen percent of companies put 75 percent or more of their training on hold while 20 percent temporarily stopped slightly more than 25 to 50 percent of their training. Fourteen percent of companies did not temporarily stop any training. The biggest challenges that companies reported during the pandemic included having the technology to deliver remote training, lacking resources, converting training content to a digital format, and getting employees engaged in remote learning.

Training Investment Leaders Higher investment in training by companies in the United States is related to use of innovative training practices and high-performance work practices such as teams, employee stock ownership plans, incentive compensation systems, individual development plans, and employee involvement in business decisions.

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Such spending has been shown to be related to improved profitability, customer and employee satisfaction, and the ability to retain employees.

The Association for Talent Development (ATD) BEST Award winners are companies that aligned training with business strategy, valued learning in their company culture, offered a variety of learning activities for all employees, measured the effectiveness of training, and provided non-training solutions, as needed.

Specifically, the BEST companies are characterized as: o Alignment of business strategy with training and development o Learning is valued as part of the culture and supported by executive leaders and top managers o Effectiveness and efficiency of learning is measured o Investment in training and development o Different learning opportunities are provided and all employees have access to them o Measurement of effectiveness and efficiency of training and development activities o Non-training solutions for performance improvement used, including organization development and process improvement Roles, Competencies and Positions of Training Professionals Trainees can typically hold many jobs, such as instructional designer, technical training, or needs analysis.

The ATD competency model describes what it takes for an individual to be successful in the training and development field. o Learning strategist: determines how workplace learning can be used to help meet the company’s business strategy o Business partner: uses business and industry knowledge to create training that improves performance o Project manager: plans, obtains, and monitors the delivery of learning and performance solutions to support the business o Professional specialist: designs, develops, delivers, and evaluates learning and performance systems Although training professionals spend most of their time designing learning, delivering training, managing learning programs, identifying, selecting, and using learning technologies, and coaching, they do spend time in other areas as well. Namely, training professionals engage in performance improvement, talent management, and knowledge management.

Who Provides Training?

In most companies, training is provided by trainers, managers, in-house consultants, and employee experts. Training may also be outsourced. Outsourcing means that training activities are provided by individuals outside the company.

Who Is in Charge of Training?

Training and development can be the responsibility of professionals in human resources, human resource development, or organizational development. Companies may also have entire functions or departments (e.g., human resources, human resource development, talent management or development, or organizational development) that provide training and development. In small companies, training is the responsibility of the founder and all the employees.

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Human resource development refers to the integrated use of training and development, organizational development, and career development to improve individual, group, and organizational effectiveness.

Preparing to Work in Training Being a successful training professional requires staying up-to-date on current research and training practices. The primary professional organizations for persons interested in training and development include: o Association for Talent Development (ATD) o Academy of Human Resource Development (AHRD) o Society for Human Resource Management (SHRM) o Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology (SIOP) o Academy of Management (AOM) o International Society for Performance Improvement (ISPI)

Discussion Questions 1.

Describe the forces affecting the work place and learning. How can training help companies deal with these forces?

A number of forces are impacting the workplace and learning, including: economic cycles, globalization, customer service and quality emphasis, talent management, new technology, increased value placed on human capital, focus on business strategy, changing demographics and diversity, and high-performance work systems.

Training can improve professional conduct, improve job performance by teaching new techniques and skills, and increase a company’s productivity and customer satisfaction.

2.

Discuss the relationship between formal training and development, informal learning, and knowledge management. How are they related to learning and creating a learning organization?

Formal training and development refers to training and development programs, courses, and events that are developed and organized by the company. Typically, employees are required to attend or complete these programs, which can include face-to-face training programs (such as instructor-led courses) as well as online programs.

Informal learning is also important for facilitating the development of human capital. Informal learning refers to learning that is learner initiated, involves action and doing, is motivated by an intent to develop, and does not occur in a formal learning setting. Informal learning occurs without a trainer or instructor, and its breadth, depth, and timing is controlled by the employee.

Knowledge management refers to the process of enhancing company performance by designing and implementing tools, processes, systems, structures, and cultures to improve the creation, sharing, and use of knowledge. Knowledge management contributes to informal learning and human capital development.

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3.

What steps are included in the training design model? What step do you think is the most important?

Why? Step 1 is to conduct a needs assessment, which is necessary to identify if training is needed.

Step 2 is to ensure that employees have the motivational and basic skills necessary to master the training content.

Step 3 is to create a learning environment that has features necessary for learning to occur.

Step 4 is to ensure that there is the necessary support in the work environment for trainees to apply training content to their jobs.

Step 5 is to develop an evaluation plan. Developing an evaluation plan is important to determine if training worked, how it can be improved, and how training affects the “bottom line.”

Step 6 is to choose the training method based on the learning objectives and learning environment and to deliver training.

Step 7 is to evaluate the program and make changes in it or revisit any of the earlier steps in the process.

All of the steps in the model are important. Students’ answers regarding which step is most important will vary based on their individual perspectives.

4.

What are intangible assets? How do they relate to training and development?

Intangible assets consist of human capital, customer capital, social capital, and intellectual capital.

Intangible assets have been shown to be responsible for a company’s competitive advantage. Training can help a company’s competitiveness by directly increasing the company’s value through contributing to intangible assets. Intangible assets are equally as valuable as financial and physical assets, but they are not something that can be easily imitated or duplicated.

5.

How are companies using training and development to benefit them in today’s economy?

A wide variety of examples were presented in the chapter discussing how training and development has helped organizations succeed in today’s economy. Companies are using training and development to help them combat a host of challenges associated with the global pandemic, develop new products and services, retain employees, help individuals utilize new technologies, and to promote workforce diversity, equity, and inclusion. These concerns have affected companies in several different business sectors, and training and development has helped them succeed.

Students should provide examples from some of the companies detailed in the chapter, as numerous examples were provided throughout.

6.

What is agile learning design? What advantages does it have over traditional instructional design?

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To overcome the limitations of the ISD model, companies are starting to use agile learning design.

Agile learning or agile instructional design refers to any approach to training development that focuses on speed, flexibility, collaboration, repeated review, and reuse of existing content, if appropriate. Course development occurs in what are known as “short bursts” or “sprints.” There are likely several of these sprints involved for each part of a course. Each “sprint” includes planning, designing, developing, testing, deploying, reviewing, and launching. The process starts again for each element of the course and ends when the entire course is complete. Agile learning design is advantageous due to its relative speed and flexibility.

7.

Explain digital learning. How can it benefit companies? Employees? What are some of its potential limitations?

Digital learning refers to learning that can occur daily in the work setting using devices such as smartphones, tablets, and computers. Digital learning can be enabled by the company when it provides access to specific learning activities such as courses, videos, or discussion boards. Digital learning can also occur spontaneously when employees search the Internet, search for videos on YouTube, or interact with others on social media.

Companies are embracing digital learning because it allows them to create a workplace where employees can engage in continuous learning focused on upskilling and reskilling. It can help employees solve problems and communicate and collaborate with peers, and it gives employees control over learning. A limitation of digital learning is that it may put too much control in the hands of employees, which may be problematic if they are not highly motivated to learn.

8.

Which of the training professionals’ roles do you believe is the most difficult to learn? Which is easiest?

Student answers would vary. o The learning strategist determines how workplace learning can be best used to help meet the company’s business strategy. o The business partner uses business and industry knowledge to create training that improves performance. o The project manager plans, obtains, and monitors the effective delivery of learning and performance solutions to support the business. o The professional specialist designs, develops, delivers, and evaluates learning and solutions.

These roles are included in jobs such as organizational change agent, career counselor, instructional designer, and classroom trainer.

9.

What is the relationship between diversity, inclusion, and equity? o o

o

Diversity can be considered any dimension that differentiates one person from another.

Equity refers to fair treatment, access, equality of opportunity, and advancement for all employees, while at the same time striving to identify and eliminate barriers that have prevented the full participation of some groups.

Inclusion refers to creating an environment in which employees share a sense of belonging, mutual respect, and a commitment to others so they can perform their best work.

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10. Describe the training courses that you have taken. How have they helped you? Provide recommendations for improving the courses.

As answers will vary from student to student, try to identify similarities and differences in their responses. Emphasize that training courses can be improved by following the ISD model.

11. How does training differ between companies that are considered BEST Award winners and those that are not? o o o o o o o

Alignment of business strategy with training Visible support from top management Efficiency in training through process improvement, technology, and outsourcing Providing all employees with access to training on an as-needed basis A variety of learning opportunities provided Measurement of training effectiveness Use of non-training solutions where appropriate

12. How has the pandemic influenced current and future training practices?

The pandemic has influenced training is a variety of ways. For example: o Many companies have retooled their operations to provide new products and services, requiring new training o New training in health and safety protocols has become paramount o Individuals who were unemployed will need to become re-socialized into the workforce o Unemployed individuals may be reentering the workforce in new jobs, requiring training to acquire new knowledge and skills o Employees need to be trained in how to work virtually and to maintain appropriate work-life balance o More and more training will be conducted digitally 13. Explain how training relates to attracting new employees, employee retention, and motivation.

Training is an effective means to attract talented employees who seek to advance their careers.

Extensive training may also draw individuals to organizations when individuals lack certain skills or are seeking a career change. When employees are properly trained, they possess the knowledge, skills, and abilities to successfully perform their job responsibilities. In this regard, employees may be more apt to remain with an organization. Finally, when employees see ongoing training opportunities, they may be more likely to remain with an organization because such training may lead to long-term employment prospects.

14. What is the relationship between talent management and employee engagement? What role can training and development practices play in keeping employee engagement high? Explain.

Talent management can serve to enhance employee engagement. Talent management gives employees an opportunity for personal growth within the company and allows them to perform their current jobs well. Training is one key part of the talent management process. It should be noted that

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training opportunities need to be well designed and job relevant. If not, employees may be disengaged and perceive training as a waste of time.

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Chapter 2

Strategic Training

This chapter provides an in-depth treatment of how training should be aligned with the strategic goals of an organization to help it achieve a competitive advantage. The chapter begins by discussing how training can be strategic along with a discussion of the evolution of the training function. It proceeds to discuss learning as a strategic focus, the strategic training and development process, and organizational characteristics that influence training, and training needs in different strategies. The chapter concludes by addressing different models of organizing the training department, how to create a training brand, and the advantages and limitations of outsourcing training. For training to help a company gain a competitive advantage, it must be aligned with its strategic focus. If training is not tied to business strategy, then its existence may be tenuous and perhaps unjustified.

Objectives 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

Discuss how business strategy influences the type and amount of training in a company.

Describe the strategic training and development process.

Discuss how a company’s staffing and human resource planning strategies influence training.

Explain the training needs created by concentration, internal growth, external growth, and disinvestment business strategies.

Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of centralizing the training function.

Explain a corporate university and its benefits.

Discuss the strengths of a business-embedded learning function.

Discuss how to create a learning or training brand and why it is important.

Develop a marketing campaign for a training course or program.

Introduction Why is the emphasis on strategic training important? Companies are in business to make money, and every business function is under pressure to show how it contributes to business success. To contribute to a company’s success, training activities should help the company achieve its business strategy.

A business strategy is a plan that integrates the company’s goals, policies, and actions. The goals are what the company hopes to achieve in the future. There are both direct and indirect links between training and business strategy and goals. Business strategy has a major impact on the type and amount of training that occurs and whether resources are devoted to training.

Strategy has a particularly strong impact on determining: o the amount of training devoted to current or future job skills Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.

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o o o o

the extent to which training is customized whether training is restricted to specific groups of employees or open to all individuals whether training is planned and systematic versus developed spontaneously and haphazardly the importance of training relative to other HRM functions, such as selection and compensation

The Evolution of Training: From an Event to Learning As more companies recognize the strategic importance of learning, the role of training is changing.

Training has evolved from a focus on a single learning program or event to a broader set of integrated learning activities that may continue in the future.

That said, the role of training as a program or event will continue into the future because employees will always need to be taught specific knowledge and skills. This approach assumes that business conditions are predictable, they can be controlled by the company, and the company can control and anticipate the knowledge and skills that employees need in the future. These assumptions are true for certain skills, such as communication and conflict resolution. However, these training programs will need to be more closely tied to performance improvement and business needs to receive support from top management.

Learning as a Strategic Focus The Learning Organization A learning organization is a company that has an enhanced capacity to learn, adapt, and change. In learning organizations, where employees seek, share, and apply new knowledge and skills to improve both their personal and organizational performance. Learning is part of the organizational values. In a learning organization, training is one part of a system designed to create human capital. High performing companies are five times more likely than low performing companies to have a strong learning culture.

The following are characteristics of a learning organization.

Supportive Learning Environment o Employees feel safe expressing their thoughts about work, asking questions, disagreeing with managers, and admitting mistakes. o Different functional and cultural perspectives are appreciated. o Employees are encouraged to take risks, innovate, and explore the untested and unknown. o Thoughtful review of the company’s processes is encouraged.

Learning Processes and Practices o Knowledge creation, dissemination, sharing, and application are practiced. o Systems are developed for creating, capturing, and sharing knowledge. o Every employee has a development plan and they are accountable for completing the learning included in those plans.

Managers Reinforce Learning o Managers actively question and listen to employees, encouraging dialogue and debate. o Managers are willing to consider alternative points of view. o Time is devoted to problem identification, learning processes and practices, and postperformance audits.

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o

Learning is rewarded, promoted, and supported.

Implications of Learning for Human Capital Development The emphasis on learning has several implications. o Learning has to be related to helping employees' performance improve and helping the company achieve its business goals. o Unpredictability in the business environment will continue to be the norm. o Companies need to support informal learning because tacit knowledge is difficult to acquire in training programs. o Learning has to be supported not only with physical and technical resources but also psychologically. o Managers need to understand employees' interests and career goals to help them find suitable development activities.

The following capabilities are critical for strategic training and development: o Alignment of learning goals to business goals o Measurement of the overall business impact of the learning function o Movement of learning outside the company to include customers, vendors, and suppliers o A focus on developing competencies for the most critical jobs o Integration of learning with other human resource functions, such as knowledge management, performance support, and talent management o Delivery approaches that include classroom training as well as e-learning o Design and delivery of leadership development courses

The Strategic Training and Development Process

o o o o

The strategic training and development process involves four steps: Identifying the organization’s business strategy Determining strategic training initiatives that align with this strategy Translating initiatives into concrete learning activities Identify metrics to determine whether training has contributed to goals related to the business strategy

Business Strategy Formulation and Identification Strategic training begins with the knowledge of an organization’s business strategy. Formulating a business strategy involves several interrelated steps. o Determining the company’s mission—the company’s reason for existing o Establishing company goals—what the company hopes to achieve o Conducting an external and internal analysis, which is known as a SWOT. A SWOT analysis consists of an internal analysis of strengths and weaknesses and an external analysis of opportunities and threats that currently exist or are anticipated. o Determining strategic choice based on the company’s mission, goals, strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats.

Identify Training Initiatives that Support the Strategy Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.

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Strategic training initiatives are based on the business environment, an understanding of the company's goals and resources, and insight regarding potential training options. They provide the company with a road map to guide specific training and development activities. They also show how the training function will help the company reach its goals.

Common strategic initiatives include: o Diversify the learning portfolio—provide more training than traditional programs o Expand who is trained—provide more training to more groups of employees o Accelerate the pace of learning—provide more just-in-time training o Improve customer service—training should place a greater emphasis on service competencies o Provide development opportunities and communicate with employees—ensure employees recognize they have opportunities to learn and grow o Capture and share knowledge—capture and share knowledge to ensure it is not lost if key employees leave o Align training with the company’s direction—link training to strategy o Ensure that the work environment supports learning and transfer of training—ensure there exists a positive learning climate for training Questions to ask in developing strategic training initiatives include: o What is the vision and mission? o What capabilities and competencies are critical for success? o What types of training will best attract, develop, and retain employees? o Does the company have a plan for making sure the link between training and business strategy is communicated to key constituents? o Does senior management support training? o Does the company provide training for individuals and teams?

Provide Training and Development Activities Linked to Strategic Training and Development Initiatives After a company chooses its strategic training and development initiatives related to its business strategy, it then identifies specific training and development activities that will enable these initiatives to be achieved.

These activities include developing initiatives related to the use of new technology in training, increasing access to training programs for certain groups of employees, reducing development time, and developing new or expanded course offerings. Such activities will vary based on the initiatives that were developed.

Identify and Collect Metrics to Show Training Success The final step of the strategic training process is to determine if training investments were successful in helping an organization achieve its goals and objectives. Strategic training evaluation is not intended to evaluate the effectiveness of an isolated training program, but rather the value of a set of training activities.

The business-related outcomes examined should be directly linked to the business strategy and goals. Metrics could evaluate customer service, employee satisfaction or engagement, employee turnover, number of product defects, time spent in product development, number of patents, or time spent filling management positions.

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Some companies use the balanced scorecard as a process to evaluate all aspects of the business.

The balanced scorecard is a means of performance measurement that provides managers with a chance to look at the overall company performance or the performance of departments from the perspective of internal and external customers, employees, and shareholders. The balanced scorecard considers four different perspectives: o Customer (time, quality, performance, service, and cost) o Internal business processes (processes that influence customer satisfaction) o Innovation and learning (operating efficiency, employee satisfaction, and continuous improvement) o Financial (profitability, growth, and shareholder value)

Organizational Characteristics that Influence Training Company Size Most training in small firms is usually informal and on-the-job. Company owners, managers, or more experienced employees take responsibility for training. Employees are trained to do their jobs in the way that the owner prefers. Training tends to focus on the knowledge and skills that employees need for their current job not on developing skills needed for future positions. If any type of formal training and development is conducted, it is done through trade associations, short courses, and courses provided by the company’s owners and managers.

As firms grow in size there is a greater need to provide more formalized training and development to prepare current employees for internal promotion opportunities and retain them.

Roles of Employees and Managers Traditionally, employees’ roles were to perform their jobs according to the managers’ directions. However, with the emphasis on the creation of intellectual capital and the movement toward high-performance work systems using teams, employees today are performing many roles that were reserved for management, such as hiring, scheduling work, and interaction with customers and suppliers. As such, employees require greater expertise.

Given the greater prevalence of teamwork, employees may require more cross training and training in interpersonal skills.

Managers’ jobs are highly complex, requiring training and a high level of skill. For example, they must: o manage employee performance o develop employees and encourage continuous learning o plan and allocate resources o coordinate activities and interdependent teams o manage team performance o facilitate individual and team decision-making processes o create and maintain trust o represent one’s work group to others Top Management Support Top management plays a key role in determining the importance placed on training and learning. Top management may assume any of the following roles: Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.

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o o o o o o

setting a clear direction for learning providing encouragement and resources taking an active role in governing learning developing or teaching new programs serving as a role model by demonstrating a willingness to learn promoting learning through various communication channels

Integration of Business Units The degree of integration of business units affects the approach to training. In a highly integrated business, employees need to understand all parts of the company, and training must address those needs.

Global Presence The development of global product and service markets is an important challenge for U.S. companies. For companies with global operations, training is used to prepare employees for temporary or long-term overseas assignments. Because employees are geographically dispersed outside the U.S., companies need to determine whether training will be conducted and coordinated from a central U.S. facility or will be the responsibility of satellite installations located near overseas facilities. A key challenge is ensuring learning is effective for all employees regardless of the language they speak or their cultural background.

Business Conditions When unemployment is low and/or businesses are growing at a high rate and need more employees, companies often find it difficult to attract new employees, find employees with necessary skills, and retain talent.

For companies in an unstable or recessionary business environment—one characterized by mergers, acquisitions, or disinvestment of businesses—training may be abandoned, left to the discretion of managers, or become more short-term (such as offering training courses only to correct skill deficiencies rather than to prepare staff for new assignments).

For employees in companies experiencing growth—that is, an increased demand for their products and services—there may be many new opportunities for lateral job moves and promotions resulting from the expansion of sales, marketing, and manufacturing operations or from the start-up of new business units.

During periods when companies are trying to revitalize and redirect their business, earnings are often flat.

As a result, fewer incentives for participation in training—such as promotions and salary increases—may be available. In many cases, companies downsize their workforces as a way of cutting costs. Training activities under these conditions focus on ensuring that employees are available to fill the positions vacated by retirement or turnover.

Other HRM Practices Companies that adopt state-of-the-art HRM practices that link to business strategy tend to demonstrate higher level of performance than firms that do not. Training, along with selection, performance management, and compensation influence attraction, motivation, and retention of human capital.

Staffing strategy refers to a company’s philosophy regarding where to find employees, how to select them, and the desired mix of employee skills and statuses (temporary, fulltime, etc.). Companies vary on such issues as the extent to which they rely on the internal labor market (i.e., current employees) versus Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.

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the external labor market (i.e., job applicants from outside the company). Companies also vary to which they make promotion and job assignment decisions based on individual performance versus group or unit performance. These two dimensions can be crossed, resulting in four distinct companies. o Fortress (external, group focus)—companies with limited resources for training that tend to recruit from the outside o Baseball team (external, individual focus)—companies that require innovation and creativity; recruit from other companies or new graduates with specialized skills o Club (internal, group focus)—companies in highly regulated industries that rely on developing their own talent o Academy (internal, individual focus)—companies that require specialized skill and focus on developing their individual employees Strategic Value of Jobs and Employee Uniqueness Uniqueness refers to the extent to which employees are rare, specialized, and not highly available in the labor market. Strategic value refers to employee potential to improve company effectiveness and efficiency. These dimensions can be crossed to characterize four types of employees: o Knowledge-based workers (high value and uniqueness)—require heavy training o Job-based employees (high value and low uniqueness)—require less training than knowledge workers o Contract employees (low value and low uniqueness)—require limited training o Alliance/partnerships (high uniqueness and low value)—training would focus on sharing expertise and team training Human resource planning allows the company to anticipate the movement of human resources in the company because of turnover, transfers, retirements, or promotions. Such planning can help identify where employees with certain types of skills are needed in the company. Training can be used to prepare employees for increased responsibilities in their current job, promotions, lateral moves, transfers, and downward moves or demotions that are predicted by the human resource plan.

Extent of Unionization Unions’ interest in training has resulted in joint union-management programs designed to help employees prepare for new jobs. When companies begin retraining and productivity-improvement efforts without involving unions, the efforts are likely to fail. The unions may see the programs as just another attempt to make employees work harder without sharing the productivity gains. Joint union-management programs ensure that all parties (unions, management, and employees) understand the development goals and are committed to making the changes necessary for the company to make profits and for employees to both keep their jobs and share in any increased profits.

Staff Involvement in Training and Development Managers need to be involved so that training stays related to business needs and training transfer can be supported. Managers become more involved in the training process if they are rewarded for participating.

An emerging trend is to have employees initiate the training process, bearing the responsibility for planning their own development, with the company supporting their initiatives.

Training Needs in Different Strategies

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It is important to recognize that there are different training needs for different business strategies.

A concentration strategy focuses on increasing market share, reducing costs, or creating and maintaining a market niche for products and services. Key human capital issues include: skill currency and the development of the existing workforce.

An internal growth strategy focuses on new market and product development, innovation, joint ventures, mergers, and globalization. Key human capital issues include: creation of new jobs and tasks, innovation, and talent management.

An external growth strategy focuses on acquiring vendors and suppliers or buying businesses to enable the company to expand into new markets. Key human capital issues include: integration, redundancy, and restructuring.

A disinvestment strategy focuses on retrenchment, turnaround, divestiture, and liquidation of businesses.

A key human capital issue is efficiency.

Models of Organizing the Training Department Centralized Training One of the important decisions that companies have to consider in choosing how to organize the training department (or learning function) is the extent to which training and learning is centralized. Centralized training means that training and development programs, resources, and professionals are primarily housed in one location and decisions about training investment, programs, and delivery methods are made from that department.

There are several advantages of centralization. o It helps drive stronger alignment with business strategy. o It allows development of a common set of metrics or scorecards to measure and report rates of quality and delivery. o It helps to streamline processes, and gives the company a cost advantage in purchasing training from vendors and consultants because of the number of trainees who will be involved. o It helps companies better integrate programs for developing leaders and managing talent with training during times of change.

The Corporate University Model (Corporate Training Universities)

A corporate university includes employees, managers and stakeholders outside the company, including community colleges, universities, and high schools. Corporate universities can provide significant advantages for a company’s learning efforts by helping to overcome many of the historical problems that have plagued training departments (e.g., excessive costs, poor focus, and inconsistent use of training practices).

The corporate university model provides many training advantages: o Dissemination of best practices o Alignment of training with business needs

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o o o o o

Integration of training initiatives Effective use of new technology and methods Clear vision and mission Evaluation of learning focused on employee and business results Partnership with academia

The following are the steps involved in creating a corporate university: o A governing body is formed by senior managers o A vision statement is developed o Funding sources are determined o The degree to which all training will be centralized is assessed o The needs of the university customers are identified o Products and services are developed. o Learning partners are selected o Technologies to train employees more effectively are developed o Learning is linked to performance improvement o The value of the corporate university is communicated to potential customers

Business-Embedded (BE) Learning Function A BE helps to ensure that the learning function is centralized to some extent so that companies can better control their training costs and ensure that training is aligned with the business strategy, but at the same time respond quickly to client needs and provide high-quality services A BE learning function is characterized by five competencies: strategic direction, product design, structural versatility, product delivery, and accountability for results. It views trainees, managers, and senior-level decision makers as customers of training.

The most noticeable feature of a BE learning function is its structure. In BE learning functions all persons who are involved in the training process communicate and share resources. Trainers—who are responsible for developing training materials, delivering instruction, and supporting trainees—work together to ensure that learning occurs. Trainers not only have specialized competencies, but also can serve as internal consultants by providing a range of services, such as needs assessment, content improvement, and the like.

There is an increasing trend for the training function to be organized by a blend of the BE with centralized training that often includes a corporate university. This approach allows the company to gain the benefits of centralized training, but at the same time ensures that training can provide programs, content, and delivery methods that meet the needs of specific businesses.

Learning, Training, and Development from a Change Model Perspective Change is a constant in organizations. There are many reasons why companies are forced to change, including the introduction of new technology, the need to better take advantage of employee skills and capitalize on a diverse workforce, and the desire to enter global markets. The process of change is based on the interaction among four components of the organization: task, employees, formal organizational arrangements, and informal organization.

Four conditions are necessary for change to occur: Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.

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o o o o

Employees must understand the reasons for change and agree with those reasons.

Employees must have the skills needed to implement the change.

Employees must see that managers and other employees in powerful positions support the change.

Organizational structures, such as compensation and performance management systems, must support the change.

Four change-related problems need to be addressed before the implementation of any new training practice, which include: resistance to change, loss of control, power imbalance, and task redefinition. o Resistance to change refers to employees’ unwillingness to change. o Control relates to employees’ ability to obtain and distribute valuable resources. Changes can o o

cause employees to have less control over resources.

Power refers to the ability to influence others. Managers may lose the ability to influence employees as employees gain access to databases and other information.

Task redefinition relates to changes in roles and job responsibilities. Employees may not only be asked to participate in training, but also take on new responsibilities.

Marketing Training and Creating A Brand Despite its value, some individuals may not necessarily value training. As such, training often needs to be marketed so that key constituents value learning. Internal marketing involves making employees and managers excited about training and learning. It is especially important for trainers who act as internal consultants to business units. A variety of internal marketing tactics, include: o Involving the target audience in developing the training or learning effort. o Demonstrating how a training and development program can be used to solve specific business needs. o Showing an example of how training has been successfully used to solve specific business needs in the past. o Identifying a “champion” who actively supports training. o Listening and acting on feedback received from clients, managers, and employees. o Advertising on e-mail, on company websites, and in employee break areas. o Designating someone in the training function as an account representative who will interact between the training designer and the “customer.” o Determining what financial metrics top-level executives are concerned with and showing how training will help improve these. o Speaking in terms that employees understand—avoid technical jargon. o Winning a local or national training industry award or recognition. o Publicizing learner or manager success stories or feature those who have earned certifications or degrees using newsletters or websites. o Sending workforce segments (e.g., managers, employees, business units) customized communications emphasizing the value of training emphasizing “what’s in it for me.”

It is also important to develop and communicate the training brand. A brand includes the look and feeling of the training function that is used to create expectations for its customers. The brand is used to acquire and retain customers. The following are strategies to build a training brand:

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o o o o o o o

Ask current “customers” of training, including managers who purchase or ask for training and employees who participate in training, what their perceptions are of the brand.

Define how you want to be perceived by current and future customers.

Identify factors that influence your customers’ perceptions of the training function.

Review each of the factors to determine if they are supporting and communicating the brand to your customers in the way that you intended.

Make changes so that each factor is supporting the brand.

Get customers’ feedback at each step of this process (define the brand, identify factors, suggest changes, etc.).

When interacting with customers, create an experience that supports and identifies the brand.

Outsourcing Training Business process outsourcing refers to the outsourcing of any business process, such as production, call center operations, and HRM functions. Outsourcing of training refers to the use of an outside company that takes complete responsibility for and control of training activities, including administration, design, delivery, and development. Companies may outsource training for a variety of reasons: o Cost savings o Time savings that allow a company to focus on business strategy o Improvements in compliance with training mandated to comply with federal, state, or local rules o The lack of capability within the company to meet learning demands o The desire to access best training practices However, companies may not outsource training due to an inability of outsourcing providers to meet company needs and the desire to maintain control. Any decision to outsource training is complex.

Training functions that do not add any value to the company are likely candidates for outsourcing. Many companies have training functions that do add value to the business, but still may not be capable of meeting all training needs. Thus, certain aspects of training may be outsourced. Even when training is outsourced, it must be strategically aligned with the business goals and objectives.

Discussion Questions

1. How would you expect the training activities of a company that is dominant in its product market to differ from those of a company that emphasizes research and development?

A company that is dominant in the product market may likely adopt an “academy” model that involves developing current employees to fill new positions and managerial roles. However, a company that is more focused on research and development may likely adopt a “baseball team” model by luring employees away from competitors or by hiring graduating students with specialized skills. These companies are more apt to “buy skills” as opposed to “making them.” Furthermore, companies with a dominant market share likely focus on efficiencies; whereas research and development companies focus on innovation and creativity.

2. What do you think is the most important organizational characteristic that influences training?

Why? Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.

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Student answers will vary. However, while numerous organizational factors may impact the training function, top management likely plays the most significant role because top management provides the overall architecture and support for the training function. Top management may assume a variety of roles in support of training, including: o setting a clear direction for learning o providing encouragement and resources o taking an active role in governing learning o developing or teaching new programs o serving as a role model by demonstrating a willingness to learn o promoting learning through various communication channels

3. Why could the business-embedded learning function be considered the best way to organize training?

In the BE model, all persons who are involved in the training process communicate and share resources, offer a menu of learning options, and deliver training at the work site. An important characteristic of the BE model is its customer focus which gives it an edge over other models. The number of trainers in BE training functions varies according to the demand for products and services.

The trainers not only have specialized competencies, but can also serve as internal consultants, providing a wide range of services (e.g., needs assessment, content improvement, customization of programs, results measurement).

4. Schering-Plough HealthCare Products decided several years ago to expand its product lines by developing pocket-size sticks and sprays of Coppertone sun blocks, previously only available as a lotion packaged in squeeze bottles. The company placed a strategic emphasis on developing markets for this product. The company knew from market research studies that its Coppertone customers were already using the product in its original squeeze container to prevent sun burn. Due to increased awareness of the dangers of excessive skin exposure, customers who had not previously used sunblock except when at the beach, were looking for a daily sunblock product. Company managers reasoned that their market could be expanded significantly if the product were repackaged to fit conveniently in consumers’ pockets, purses, and gym bags. Identify the business strategy. What training needs result from this strategy? What are the training implications of this decision for (1) manufacturing and (2) the sales force?

The business strategy adopted is internal growth strategy. Companies focusing on internal growth strategy focus on modifying existing products and creating new or different products. High-quality communication of product value and conflict negotiation skills can be implemented for the sales force. According to the text, the key issues and training implications for this strategy include the following: Key issues o Creation of new jobs and tasks o Innovation o Talent management Training implications Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.

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o o o o

High-quality communication of product value Development of organizational culture that values creative thinking and analysis Technical competence in jobs Specialized programs

In this particular context, innovation and creativity would be particularly important.

5. Which strategic training and development initiatives do you think all companies should support regardless of economic conditions? Why? Common strategic initiatives include: o Diversify the learning portfolio—provide more training than traditional programs o Expand who is trained—provide more training to more groups of employees o Accelerate the pace of learning—provide more just-in-time training o Improve customer service—training should place a greater emphasis on service competencies o Provide development opportunities and communicate with employees—ensure employees recognize they have opportunities to learn and grow o Capture and share knowledge—capture and share knowledge to ensure it is not lost if key employees leave o Align training with the company’s direction—link training to strategy o Ensure that the work environment supports learning and transfer of training—ensure there exists a positive learning climate for training Students answer will vary. It is important to flesh out “why” they believe specific initiatives are more important than others. Students could also consider which initiatives are more important in different industries and for different groups of employees.

6. Are any of the strategic training and development initiatives more important for small business?

Explain.

Students’ answers will vary. In one respect, small businesses may need to “diversify the learning portfolio” by providing more personalized learning opportunities and encouraging more informal learning. They may also need to “expand who is trained” by providing more learning opportunities for non-managerial employees. Furthermore, they may need to “capture and share knowledge” because key knowledge may be held by only a few individuals. Knowledge may be captured and shared in the event that key employees leave the organization.

7. How can a training function support a business strategy?

There are both direct and indirect links between training and business strategy and goals. Training that helps employees develop the skills needed to perform their jobs directly affects the business.

Certain competencies may be particularly important in organizations (innovation, creativity, and service quality), and training may be central to enhancing them. Furthermore, giving employees opportunities to learn and develop creates a positive work environment, which supports the business strategy by attracting, motivation, and retaining key talent.

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8. How does the strategic value of jobs and their uniqueness influences how training and learning resources are invested?

Uniqueness refers to the extent to which employees are rare, specialized, and not highly available in the labor market. Strategic value refers to employee potential to improve company effectiveness and efficiency. These dimensions can be crossed to characterize four types of employees: Highly valued and unique employees are known as knowledge-based employees. Because knowledge-based employees possess valuable and unique skills, the company is expected to invest heavily in training and developing them, especially in developing skills specific to the company’s needs Highly valued employees who are not unique are known as job-based employees. Job-based employees are likely to receive less training than knowledge-based employees because although they create value for the firm, they are not unique. If they receive training, it would tend to focus on skills that they need to perform their jobs. Their development opportunities will be limited unless they have been identified as outstanding performers.

Employees with low value and uniqueness are known as contract employees. The training for contract workers likely would be limited to ensuring that they comply with company policies and legal or industry-based licensure and certification requirements.

Unique employees with low value are known as alliance/partnership employees. Because they are not full-time employees of the company but provide valued services, training for alliance/partnership employees tends to focus on encouraging them to share their knowledge and using team training and experiential exercises designed to develop their trust and relationships with job-based and knowledge-based employees.

9. What is human capital? How is human capital influencing the changing role of training from skill and knowledge acquisition to creating and sharing knowledge?

Human capital includes cognitive knowledge (know what), advanced skills (know how), system understanding and creativity (know why), and self-motivated creativity (care why).

Human capital may be developed through both explicit and tacit knowledge. Explicit knowledge refers to knowledge that is well documented, easily articulated, and easily transferred from person-toperson. Examples of explicit knowledge include processes, checklists, flowcharts, formulas, and definitions. Tacit knowledge refers to personal knowledge based on individual experiences that is difficult to codify. Both types of knowledge are important, but tactic knowledge is commonly thought to be of greater strategic importance.

Explicit knowledge can be taught through formal training programs, but tacit knowledge largely requires informal learning by sharing experiences with others. Informal learning requires that individuals interact with one another to share experiences, coach one another, and provide feedback.

To help facilitate informal learning, companies have to provide the physical space and technology to encourage employee collaboration and knowledge sharing.

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10. How could SWOT analysis be used to align training activities with business strategies and goals?

SWOT analysis involves an analysis of the company’s operating environment to identify opportunities and threats as well as an internal analysis of the company’s strengths and weaknesses including people, technology, and financial resources. Armed with the information from the SWOT, training could help to improve any performance deficiencies and facilitate the development of additional strategic competencies.

11. What are the training implications of the increased use of teams to manufacture products or provide services?

If companies are using teams to manufacture goods and provide services, team members need training in interpersonal problem solving and team skills, such as how to resolve conflict and give feedback.

Team members may also receive training in skills needed for all positions on the team (cross training), not just for the specific job they are doing. To encourage cross training, companies may adopt skillbased pay systems, which base pay rates on the number of skills they are competent in rather than what skills they are using for their current jobs.

12. How would you design a corporate university? Explain each step you would take.

The following are the steps involved in creating a corporate university: o A governing body is formed by senior managers o A vision statement is developed o Funding sources are determined o The degree to which all training will be centralized is assessed o The needs of the university customers are identified o Products and services are developed. o Learning partners are selected o Technologies to train employees more effectively are developed o Learning is linked to performance improvement o The value of the corporate university is communicated to potential customers

13. What are the advantages and disadvantages of a centralized training function?

Advantages – (1) ownership of training to one organization; (2) elimination of course and program variation and duplication; (3) stronger alignment with business strategy; (4) development of a common set of metrics or scorecards to measure and report rates of quality and delivery; (5) streamlined processes; (6) cost advantage in purchasing training from vendors and consultants because of the number of trainees who will be involved; and (7) integration of programs for developing leaders and managing talent with training during times of change.

The most significant disadvantage is that the training function may not be in touch with the unique needs of different constituents.

14. How does a rapidly changing business environment influence training outsourcing? Explain.

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In a rapidly changing business environment, companies may seek to outsource more of their training.

Because knowledge and skill demands may change quickly in a dynamic business environment, external vendors may potentially be better able to offer needed training because companies may not have the time and expertise to develop content in-house. However, in rapidly changing business environments, it also possible that vendors do not have the needed training content developed. In this regard, companies may need to create and deliver training themselves.

15. What is a training “brand”? Why is it important? How does it relate to marketing the training or learning function in an organization?

A brand includes the “look and feeling” of the training function that is used to ensure that training is valued by managers and employees. Marketing the training function is important to help create this “look and feel.” A number of strategies discussed in the text include: o o o o o o o o o o o o

Involving the target audience in developing the training or learning effort.

Demonstrating how a training and development program can be used to solve specific business needs.

Showing an example of how training has been successfully used to solve specific business needs in the past.

Identifying a "champion" who actively supports training.

Listening and acting on feedback received from clients, managers, and employees.

Advertising on e-mail, on company websites, and in employee break areas.

Designating someone in the training function as an account representative who will interact between the training designer and the "customer."

Determining what financial metrics top-level executives are concerned with and showing how training will help improve these.

Speaking in terms that employees understand-avoid technical jargon.

Winning a local or national training industry award or recognition.

Publicizing learner or manager success stories or feature those who have earned certifications or degrees using newsletters or websites.

Sending workforce segments (e.g., managers, employees, business units) customized communications emphasizing the value of training emphasizing "what's in it for me."

16. What does “change” have to do with training and learning? What four change related problems need to be addressed for a new training program to be accepted by employees?

Change has relevance for training because it may help employees develop competencies relating to the forces of change. There are many reasons why companies are forced to change, including the introduction of new technology, the need to better take advantage of employee skills and capitalize on a diverse workforce, or the desire to enter global markets. In addition, training may be necessary to help overcome employee resistance to change. Employees may resist change, and training may help shape more favorable employee attitudes, when designed properly.

The four key change-related problems include.

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o o o o

Resistance to change refers to employees’ unwillingness to change.

Control relates to employees’ ability to obtain and distribute valuable resources. Changes can cause employees to have less control over resources.

Power refers to the ability to influence others. Managers may lose the ability to influence employees as employees gain access to databases and other information.

Task redefinition relates to changes in roles and job responsibilities. Employees may not only be asked to participate in training, but also take on new responsibilities.

Chapter 3

Needs Assessment

This chapter provides a thorough treatment of the needs assessment process, which is a critical first step in designing and revising training courses and other learning activities. Without a proper needs assessment, training may not target the appropriate content, and the right individuals may not be identified for training. To help ensure that training is appropriately focused, it is important that a thorough needs assessment be conducted. Toward this end, this chapter addresses the needs assessment process from multiple perspectives and describes a variety of methods that can be utilized to conduct a needs assessment. This chapter highlights that assessing training needs is more complex than might be typically assumed and addresses the most important factors to consider in this fundamental step of the training design process.

Objectives 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

Discuss the role of organization analysis, person analysis, and task analysis in needs assessment.

Identify different methods used in needs assessment and identify the advantages and disadvantages of each method.

Discuss the concerns of upper-level and mid-level managers and trainers in needs assessment.

Explain how person characteristics, input, output, consequences, and feedback influence performance and learning.

Create conditions to ensure that employees are receptive to training.

Discuss the steps involved in conducting a task analysis.

Analyze task analysis data to determine the tasks in which people need to be trained.

Explain competency models and the process used to develop them.

Introduction Needs assessment refers to the process of determining learning needs and opportunities and determining whether training is necessary. Needs assessment involves organizational analysis, person analysis, and task analysis. This multi-level perspective helps to guarantee that different perspectives are taken into account during the assessment process. o Organization analysis involves determining the appropriateness of training for the organization overall, given its strategy, resources, and support for training.

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o

o

Person analysis involves determining whether performance deficiencies result from lack of ability or from a motivational or work-design problem. It also involves determining who needs training and employee readiness for training.

Task analysis identifies the important tasks, knowledge, skills, and behaviors that need to be addressed in training.

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Why Is Needs Assessment Necessary?

If needs assessment is not properly conducted, the following situations could occur. o Training may be incorrectly used as a solution to a performance problem. o Training programs may have the wrong content, objectives, or methods. o Trainees may be sent to training programs for which they do not have the basic skills, prerequisite skills, or confidence to learn. o Training will not deliver the expected learning, behavior change, or financial results. o Money will be spent on training programs that are unnecessary because they are unrelated to the company’s business strategy.

There are many pressure points that might suggest that training is necessary. Examples of such pressure points include: o legislation o lack of basic skills o poor performance o new technology o customer requests o customer dissatisfaction o new products and innovations o higher performance standards Pressure points do not automatically mean that training is the correct solution. Depending on the specific circumstances, employee selection, better on-the-job supervision, or job redesign might be a better solution.

It is important to consider the outcomes of needs assessment, which set the stage for the remaining steps of the training design process. Knowledge of outcomes will help ensure that the most appropriate data are collected during the needs assessment process. Examples of outcomes include: o what trainees need to learn o who receives training o type of training needed o frequency of training o buy versus build training decision o other HRM solutions

Who Should Participate in Needs Assessment?

Because the goal of needs assessment is to determine whether a training need exists, it is important that all relevant stakeholders be involved. Stakeholders include those who have an interest in training and whose support is important for determining its success.

Key stakeholders include company leaders, mid-level managers, trainers, and employees. o Company leaders want to anticipate training needs, align them with business strategy, and ensure that learning efforts are integrated in a way that adds value to the company.

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o

o

o

Mid-level managers are more concerned with how training might affect the attainment of financial goals for their particular units. They must determine how much of their budget will be devoted for training, the types of employees who should receive training, and what jobs should be the focus of training.

Trainers need to consider whether training is aligned with business strategy, whether training should be purchased or developed in-house, what content should be the focus of training, what training methods employees find preferable, and the degree of management support for training.

Employees should diagnose their own learning needs for their current job and future employment prospects. Employees should also consider their motivation to learn.

A learning council is a group of key stakeholders, typically including executives, company leaders, and other important stakeholders who are asked to provide insight and recommendations about the company’s training needs.

Subject matter experts (SMEs) should also be consulted in the needs assessment process. SMEs have expertise knowledge about the training issue at hand. SMEs could include a variety of individuals such as employees, managers, technical experts, suppliers, and academics who are knowledgeable. SMEs could lend their expertise regarding:  training issues, including the tasks to be performed  knowledge, skills, and abilities required to perform tasks effectively  the necessary equipment  conditions under which tasks will have to be performed

Methods Used in Needs Assessment Various methods may be used to collect information. No one method is necessarily superior to another.

There are strengths and limitations of each, and each may be more relevant in some contexts than others.

Observation Advantages: relevant data; minimizes interruption of work Disadvantages: requires skill in observation; employee behavior may be affected by being observed Survey Advantages: inexpensive; can collect data from a large number of individuals; data easily summarized Disadvantages: requires time; potentially low response rates; may lack detail; only provides information directly related to questions asked Interview Advantages: good at uncovering detail; can explore unexpected issues; questions can be modified Disadvantages: time-consuming; difficult to analyze; needs skilled interviewers; can be threatening to SMEs; difficult to schedule; SMEs provide only such information they think you want to hear Focus groups and crowdsourcing Advantages: useful for complex or controversial issues; can explore unexpected issues; reduces risk that training based on needs assessment will be rejected by stakeholders Disadvantages: time consuming to organize; group members provide only information they think you want to hear Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.

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Documentation Advantages: good source of information; objective; good source of task information for new jobs and jobs in the process of being created Disadvantages: may be difficult to understand; potentially obsolete Technology Advantages: objective; minimizes work interruption; limited human involvement Disadvantages: may threaten employees; managers may use data to punish versus train Historical Data Review Advantages: provides data related to performance and practices Disadvantages: data may be inaccurate, incomplete, or not fully reflective of performance Many companies are also using information about other companies’ training practices ( benchmarking) to help determine the appropriate type, level, and frequency of training.

The Needs Assessment Process Companies need to consider information from organizational, person, and task analyses before the decision is made to devote time, money, and resources to training.

Organizational Analysis Organizational analysis focuses on three factors to examine to determine if training is the appropriate solution: o the company’s strategic direction o support of managers, peers, and employees for training o training resources The company’s strategic direction influences what competencies are required to help the company achieve its goals and objectives and the role of training in helping to develop human capital.

Social support is important to ensure that individuals are motivated to attend training, engage in the learning process, and transfer knowledge and skills to the workplace upon completion of training. As such, it is important to assess whether support is present during the needs assessment process. Consider support of managers, peers, and employees for training.

Training resources—including money, time and expertise—need to be identified in the organizational analysis phase. One of the key questions that needs to be answered is whether the organization should develop training itself or whether it should buy training from an outside consultant or vendor. This is known as the “buy versus build” decision.

Person Analysis Person analysis focuses on identifying whether there is evidence that training is the solution, who needs training, and whether employees have the prerequisite skills, attitudes, and beliefs needed to ensure that they master the content of training programs. Because performance problems are one of the major

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reasons that companies consider training for employees, it is important to investigate how personal characteristics, input, output, consequences, and feedback relate to performance and learning.

A gap analysis includes determining what is responsible for the difference between employees’ current and expected performance. The need for training may result from the pressure points discussed beforehand.

Person analysis also helps determining employees’ readiness for training. Readiness for training refers to whether (1) employees have the personal characteristics necessary to learn program content and apply it on the job, and (2) the work environment will facilitate learning and not interfere with performance.

The Process for Person Analysis Person analysis involves obtaining information on person characteristics, inputs, outputs, consequences, and feedback.

Person Characteristics Person characteristics refer to employee knowledge skills, ability, and attitudes.

Basic skills are those necessary for employees to perform successfully on the job and learn the content of training programs. A literacy audit can be used to indicate employees’ basic skill levels.

Cognitive ability relates to intellectual capacity and general intelligence. Cognitive ability includes verbal comprehension, quantitative ability, and reasoning ability. A number of standardized tests are available to assess cognitive ability. Assessing cognitive ability is particularly important because it is one of the strongest determinants of training success.

Reading ability is important to consider because training materials should be properly aligned. As such, material used in training should be evaluated to ensure that its reading level does not exceed that required by the job and trainees’ abilities. If trainees’ reading ability is low, other training methods could be employed, employees could be reassigned to different positions, or remedial training could be provided.

Self-efficacy relates to employees’ beliefs that they can master training content and perform on the job.

Self-efficacy can be improved by: 1) letting employees know that the purpose of the training is to improve performance rather than reveal incompetence; 2) providing as much information as possible about the training program and its purpose prior to the training; 3) explaining to employees the training successes of their peers; and 4) emphasizing to employees that learning is under their control and that they have the ability to overcome obstacles.

Awareness of training needs, career interests, and goals helps employees be motivated to learn. The link between training and areas where employees need to improve should be emphasized.

Age and generation should be considered for a number of reasons. There is biological evidence that certain mental capacities decrease from age twenty to age seventy. At older ages, memory loss is much greater because mental resources are more depleted. However, with age comes experience, which can compensate.

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Regarding generational differences, each generation may have specific preferences for the arrangement of the learning environment, type of instruction, and learning activities. For example, traditionalists prefer a stable, orderly training environment and expect the instructor to provide expertise. However, Gen Xers prefer more of a self-directed training environment in which they can experiment and receive feedback.

Inputs Employees’ perceptions of two characteristics of the work environment—situational constraints and social support—are determinants of performance and motivation to learn. Situational constraints include lack of proper tools and equipment, materials and supplies, budgetary support, and time. Social support refers to managers’ and peers’ willingness to provide feedback and reinforcement. If employees have the knowledge, skills, attitudes, and behavior needed to perform but do not have the proper tools and equipment needed, their performance will be inadequate.

To ensure that the work environment supports trainees’ motivation to learn: o Provide materials, time, information, and work aids necessary for employees to use new skills before the training begins. o Speak positively about the company’s training initiatives to employees. o Reinforce employees using new skills, knowledge or behaviors. o Provide feedback to encourage employees to support each other in using new skills. o Provide the time and opportunities to practice and apply new skills and behaviors.

Outputs Outputs refer to a job’s performance outcomes. Therefore, it is important to assess employees’ perceptions of their performance expectations. Lack of awareness of performance standards may result in substandard performance. Understanding the need to perform up to standards is important for learning to occur. To ensure that trainees master training content at the appropriate level, trainees need to understand the level of proficiency that is expected.

Consequences Consequences refer to the type of rewards that employees receive for performing well. If employees do not believe rewards or incentives are adequate, they may not be motivated to perform. Furthermore, workgroup norms may encourage employees not to meet standards. Trainees’ motivation to learn can be enhanced by communicating to them the job, personal, and career benefits of learning.

Feedback Feedback refers to the information that employees received. Employees need specific, detailed feedback regarding performance. Feedback also needs to be frequent to influence performance.

Determining Whether Training Is the Best Solution A root cause analysis is often used to determining whether training is the best solution. A root cause analysis refers to the process of determining whether training is the best or most likely solution to a performance problem or gap. Managers need to ask themselves the following questions: o Is the performance problem important and potentially costly if not addressed? o Do employees know how to perform effectively? o Can employees demonstrate the correct knowledge or behavior? o Were performance expectations clear? o Were positive consequences offered for good performance?

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o o

Did employees receive appropriate feedback?

Were other solutions too expensive or unrealistic?

Task Analysis Task analysis results in a description of the tasks to be performed on the job and the knowledge, skills and abilities required to perform those tasks. A job is a specific work position involving the completion of a defined set of related tasks. A task is a specific work activity that is a component of a job. A task analysis should be undertaken only after the organization has determined that it will devote time and energy toward training.

To complete a task, employees must possess the necessary knowledge, skill, ability, and other requirements (KSAOs) o Knowledge includes facts, figures, and procedures. o Skill is the competency to perform a task. o Ability refers to the physical and mental capacities required to perform a task. o Other considerations include conditions under which tasks are performed, such as necessary equipment, time constraints, safety considerations, or performance standards.

There are four primary steps to a task analysis: o Select the job(s) to be analyzed. o Develop a preliminary list of tasks to be analyzed by interviewing others or through observation. o Validate the list of tasks with SMEs to determine how frequently the task is performed, how important it is, and its difficulty. o After the most important tasks have been identified, identify the most important KSAOs.

Competency Models Competencies are sets of skills, knowledge, abilities, and personal characteristics that enable employees to perform their jobs successfully. A competency model identifies the competencies necessary for a given job. Competency models provide descriptions of competencies that are common for an entire occupation, organization, job family, or specific job. Competency models can be used for performance management.

However, one of the strengths of competency models is that they are useful for a variety of human resource (HR) practices, including recruiting, selection, training, and development.

Competency models typically include the name of each competency, the behaviors that represent proficiency in the competency, and levels that include descriptions representing demonstrated levels of mastery or proficiency.

The process used in developing a competency model includes five steps: o Identify business strategy and goals. o Identify jobs, positions, or job families. o Conduct interviews and focus groups with top performers. o Develop competencies and the competency model. o Validate and review the model.

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Competency models are useful in several respects: o They identify behaviors needed for effective job performance. o They provide a tool for determining what skills are necessary to meet today’s needs and the company’s future skill needs. o They help to determine what skills are needed at different career points. o They provide a framework for ongoing coaching and feedback to develop employees for current and future roles. o They create a “road map” for identifying and developing employees who may be candidates for managerial positions (succession planning). o They provide a common set of criteria that are used for identifying appropriate training activities for employees, as well as for evaluating and rewarding them. This helps integrate and align the company’s HR systems and practices.

Scope of Needs Assessment Often managers and trainers may avoid conducting a needs assessment. They may provide a variety of excuses, citing that doing so would be too costly, time consuming, complex, and unnecessary. However, without conducting a proper needs assessment, training will not be well targeted, and training will fail to meet its desired objectives. This chapter highlights that a wide variety of information can be collected in conducting a needs assessment. A needs assessment in practice would not collect all such information, but should be tailored to the specific training and organizational context. Due to time constraints, sometimes a rapid needs assessment needs to be conducted. A rapid needs assessment refers to a needs assessment that is done quickly and accurately, but without sacrificing the quality of the process or the outcomes.

Discussion Questions 1.

Which of the factors that influence performance and learning do you think is most important? Which is least important?

Student answers would vary. Person characteristics, input, output, consequences, and feedback are the factors that influence performance and learning. These factors also influence motivation to learn.

It is important that students justify their responses.

2.

If you had to conduct a needs assessment for a new job at a new plant, describe the method you would use.

A number of methods could be used, and students should justify their choices. Below are the pros and cons of various methods to conduct a needs assessment. It is important that students not used all methods. They should be selective.

Observation Advantages: relevant data; minimizes interruption of work Disadvantages: requires skill in observation; employee behavior may be affected by being observed

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Survey Advantages: inexpensive; can collect data from a large number of individuals; data easily summarized Disadvantages: requires time; potentially low response rates; may lack detail; only provides information directly related to questions asked Interview Advantages: good at uncovering detail; can explore unexpected issues; questions can be modified Disadvantages: time-consuming; difficult to analyze; needs skilled interviewers; can be threatening to SMEs; difficult to schedule; SMEs provide only such information they think you want to hear Focus groups and crowdsourcing Advantages: useful for complex or controversial issues; can explore unexpected issues; reduces risk that training based on needs assessment will be rejected by stakeholders Disadvantages: time consuming to organize; group members provide only information they think you want to hear Documentation Advantages: good source of information; objective; good source of task information for new jobs and jobs in the process of being created Disadvantages: may be difficult to understand; potentially obsolete Technology Advantages: objective; minimizes work interruption; limited human involvement Disadvantages: may threaten employees; managers may use data to punish versus train Historical Data Review Advantages: provides data related to performance and practices Disadvantages: data may be inaccurate, incomplete, or not fully reflective of performance 3.

If you were going to use technology to identify training needs for customer service representatives for an e-commerce clothing company, what steps would you take to ensure that the technology was not threatening to employees?

Efforts should be made to communicate to the employees that the information will be used to train and not to punish them. Furthermore, if employees are completing an online survey to communicate their perceived training needs, ensure that survey responses are anonymous or confidential. In addition, highlight that general trends across all employees will be identified and that no one will be singled out personally.

4.

Needs assessment involves organization, person, and task analysis. Which one of these analyses do you believe is most important? Which is least important? Why? Student answers would vary, and they should explain their choices. Arguably, all levels are equally important. However, individuals may place different emphases on the levels based on their experience or preference. Students with a more macro focus may select organizational analysis as most important and those with a more micro focus may select task analysis as most important.

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Organization analysis involves determining the appropriateness of training, given its strategy, resources, and support for training.

Person analysis involves determining whether performance deficiencies result from lack of ability or from a motivational or work-design problem. It also involves determining who needs training and employee readiness for training.

Task analysis identifies the important tasks, knowledge, skills, and behaviors that need to be addressed in training.

5.

Why should upper level managers be included in the needs assessment process?

Upper-level managers need to help determine if training is related to the company’s business strategy and what type of training may be required. Upper level managers are involved to identify the role of training in relation to other HRM practices and determine if the necessary support exists within the organization to support training. They should also determine what strategic competencies are necessary for organizational success and determine employees that would benefit most from training.

It is necessary to include top management because they are central to creating the overall architecture and support for a learning organization.

6.

Explain how you would determine if employees had the reading level necessary to succeed in a training program. How would you determine if employees had the necessary computer skills needed to use a web-based training program?

A literacy audit can be used to determine employees’ basic skill levels. Employees without the necessary reading level could be identified through reading tests and reassigned to other positions more congruent with their skill levels. Remedial training can also be provided to them. The training content could also be modified.

To determine if employees have the necessary computer skills needed to use a web-based training program, the company could survey employees about their computer literacy, conduct interviews with a group of employees, or create a work sample test. If employees lack the requisite skills, the training could also address how to use information technology.

7. What conditions would suggest that a company should buy a training program from an outside vendor? Which would suggest that the firm should develop the program itself?

A company should buy a training program from an outside vendor if it lacks the time and the expertise to do it itself. The firm would also need the financial resources to buy the training. A firm would develop the program itself if it has the experts in-house who can help develop the program content and if it seeks to have greater control over the process.

8. Assume you have to prepare older employees with little computer experience to attend a training course on how to use the Internet. How will you ensure that they have high levels of readiness for training? How will you determine their readiness for training?

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To ensure that the employees have high levels of readiness, their motivation level and willingness to learn should be increased. Special care should be taken to see that the work environment facilitates learning and does not interfere with employee performance. Explaining the benefits of computer literacy may also be helpful. Furthermore, one might consider assessing trainees’ self-efficacy regarding computer literacy and the degree of social support in the work environment to facilitate transfer. Such information could be collected either via a survey or interviews.

9.

Explain the process you would use to conduct a root cause analysis of a performance problem.

Training not may always be the best solution, and managers should consider a variety of issues when determining the root of performance issues. Examples of questions that should be asked include: o Do employees know how to perform effectively? o Can employees demonstrate the correct knowledge or behavior? o Were performance expectations clear? o Were positive consequences offered for good performance? o Did employees receive appropriate feedback? o Are there obstacles preventing effective performance? Do employees have the appropriate resources? o Are the right employees in the job? Do they possess the personal characteristics necessary to succeed in training?

If the root of the problem is lack of knowledge, skill, or ability, then training may be the solution. If not, managers should consider other aspects of the work environment. Furthermore, the issue may be a selection problem and not one that could be solved by training.

10. Review the accompanying sample tasks and task ratings for the electronic technician’s job. What tasks do you believe should be emphasized in the training program? Why? Task 1. Replaces components 2. Repairs equipment 3. Interprets instrument readings 4. Uses small tools

Importance 1 2

Frequency 2 5

Learning Difficulty 1 5

1

4

5

2

5

1

Repairs equipment should be emphasized in the training program followed by uses small tools, as these two tasks have greater importance and are performed frequently. Furthermore, repairs equipment is one of the most difficult tasks that would require training. Interpretation of instrument reading also should be better emphasized as it is performed more often and has higher difficulty level relative to the task of replacing components.

11. Why would we consider age and generational differences as part of needs assessment? Is this important? Explain. Discuss the types of evidence that you would look for to determine whether a needs analysis has been conducted improperly.

There is biological evidence that certain mental capacities decrease from age twenty to age seventy.

Short-term memory and the speed at which people process information decline as we age. With older Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.

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workers, you may need to simplify training content, break training into smaller sessions, or have additional practice opportunities.

Generational difference may also be important because each generation may have specific preferences for the arrangement of the learning environment, type of instruction, and learning activities. For example, older employees may prefer traditional learning methods (e.g., lecture), while younger employees may be more comfortable with information technology, games, and activities.

In this particular context, you could determine if a needs assessment was conducted properly by surveying employees upon completion of training to determine if they found the design and delivery of training to be effective. You could also examine whether the training resulted in performance improvements.

12. Discuss the types of evidence that you would look for to determine whether a needs analysis has been conducted improperly.

On one hand, one could look at the impact of training. If there were favorable reactions, learning, transfer, and results, there is evidence that appropriate material was being trained to the right people in the right jobs. If there are unfavorable outcomes, one could conclude that a needs analysis has not been conducted properly. In terms of the process of needs analysis, data should be collected at the person, job/task, and organizational levels.

13. How is competency modeling similar to traditional needs assessment? How does it differ?

Both competency modeling and traditional needs assessment play a vital role in training and development. Both advocate a systematic approach to assessing human capital needs by focusing on the needs of the organization and specific jobs. These approaches are probably more alike than different. However, the competencies generated by competency modeling are more general and believed to have greater application to a wider variety of purposes, including selection, training, employee development, and performance management.

14. What is a rapid needs assessment? How would you conduct a rapid needs assessment so that it is valuable and accurately identifies training needs?

A rapid needs assessment refers to a needs assessment that is done quickly and accurately, but without sacrificing the quality of the process or the outcomes. o The scope of needs assessment depends on the size of the potential pressure point. If the pressure point seems to be local and has a potentially small impact on the business, then the information-gathering part of needs assessment could consist of only a few interviews with managers or job incumbents. If the pressure point will have a large impact on the business, then more information gathering should be conducted. o Consider using already available data collected for other purposes. For example, error data, sales data, customer complaints, and exit interviews might provide valuable clues as to the source of performance problems. o If a person conducting the analysis is attuned to issues facing the organization, he or she will be able to anticipate training needs.

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Chapter 4

Learning & Transfer of Training

This chapter discusses theories of learning and transfer of training. Learning refers to a relatively permanent change in human capabilities, and transfer of training refers to trainees applying what they have learned on the job. A fundamental premise of this chapter is that learning is a complex process and that a variety of factors may help or hinder the successful application of trained skills. A number of theories and frameworks of learning and transfer are presented along with their implications for practice.

With an understanding of the principles discussed in this chapter, those responsible for training will be better able to design, deliver, and support learning efforts to help ensure their benefits are realized.

Objectives 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

Discuss the five types of learner outcomes.

Explain the implications of learning theory for instructional design.

Incorporate adult learning theory into the design of a training program.

Describe how learners receive, process, store, retrieve, and act upon information.

Discuss the internal conditions (within the learner) and external conditions (learning environment) necessary for the trainee to learn each type of capability.

Discuss the implications of open and closed skills and near and far transfer for designing training programs.

Explain the features of instruction and the work environment that are necessary for learning and transfer of training.

Introduction Many companies are using innovative instructional methods to make training more interesting and accessible to help trainees learn and apply it to their work. Regardless of the training content, a number of conditions must be present for learning to occur and for employees to use what they learned on the job.

The following are particularly important: o providing opportunities for trainees to practice and receive feedback o offering meaningful training content o identifying any prerequisites that trainees need to complete the program successfully o allowing trainees to learn through observation and experience o ensuring that the work environment, including managers and peers, support learning and use of skills on the job In order for training to be effective, both learning and transfer are needed.

Learning refers to a relatively permanent change in human capabilities that can include knowledge, skills, attitudes, behaviors, and competencies.

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Transfer refers to trainees effectively and continually applying what they have learned in training to their jobs. There are two important goals for transfer—generalization and maintenance. Generalization refers to a trainee’s ability to apply what was learned to situations that are similar but not necessarily identical to those encountered during training. Maintenance refers to the process of trainees continuing to use what they learned over time.

Effective learning and transfer require that consideration be paid to trainee characteristics, training design, and characteristics of the work environment.

What Is Learning? What Is Learned?

Understanding learning outcomes is important because they influence characteristics of the learning environment that are necessary for learning to occur. Specific learning outcomes include: o verbal information: specialized knowledge, including names, labels, facts, and bodies of knowledge o intellectual skills: concepts and rules critical to solve problems, serve customers, and create products o motor skills: coordination of physical movements o attitudes: beliefs and feelings that predispose a person to behave in a certain way o cognitive strategies: strategies that regulate thinking and learning; they relate to decisions regarding what information to attend to, how to remember, and how to solve problems

Learning Theories Reinforcement Theory The basic premise of reinforcement theory is that individuals are motivated to perform or avoid behaviors because of past outcomes of behavior. In other words, behavior is controlled by its consequences.

Behavior modification is primarily based on reinforcement theory. o Positive reinforcement is adding a desirable outcome following desirable behavior o Negative reinforcement is removing an unpleasant outcome following desirable behavior o Punishment (positive punishment) is adding an unpleasant outcome following undesirable behavior o Extinction (negative punishment) is removing a desirable outcome following undesirable behavior Reinforcement theory suggests that trainers need to identify what outcomes learners find most positive and negative and then link these outcomes to learners acquiring new knowledge and skills.

Social Learning Theory Social learning theory emphasizes that individuals learn by observing models of behavior, emulating such behavior, and then receiving reinforcement and rewards. Learning new skills results from directly experiencing the consequences of using a skill, as well as observing others and seeing the consequences of their behavior.

Learning is also influenced by self-efficacy, which is an individual’s belief that he/she can successfully learn knowledge and skills. Self-efficacy can be increased several ways:

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verbal persuasion: offering words of encouragement to convince individuals they are capable of learning logical verification: creating a perceived relationship between a new task and a task already mastered modeling: showing individuals how to successfully perform a task past accomplishment: letting trainees build a history of successful accomplishments

Social learning theory specifies four processes involved in learning—attention, retention, motor reproduction, and motivational processes. o attention: learners must be aware of the important aspects of performance as demonstrated by the trainer o retention: learners must be able to code the desire behavior in memory o motor reproduction: learners must practice desired behavior o motivational processes: learners must receive positive reinforcement for desired behaviors to continue Goal Theories Goal setting theories suggest that behavior results from a person’s conscious goals and intentions. Goals influence behavior by directing energy and attention, sustaining effort over time, and motivating the person to develop strategies for goal attainment. In training, goal setting theory suggests that learning can be effectively facilitated by setting specific, challenging goals.

Goal orientation refers to the goals held by a trainee in a learning situation. Goal orientation can include learning orientation and performance orientation. o Learning orientation relates to trying to increase ability or competence in a task. People with a learning orientation believe that training success is defined as showing improvement and making progress, prefer trainers who are more interested in how trainees are learning than in how they are performing, and view errors and mistakes as part of the learning process. o Performance orientation refers to learners who focus on task performance and how they compare to others. Persons with a performance orientation define success as high performance relative to others, value high ability more than learning, and find that errors and mistakes cause anxiety and want to avoid them. o Learners with a high learning orientation will direct greater attention to the task and learn for the sake of learning, as opposed to learners with a performance orientation. Learners with a performance orientation will direct more attention to performing well and less effort to learning.

Trainers should strive to promote a learning orientation among trainees. Accordingly, they should set goals around learning and experimenting with new ways of having trainees perform trained tasks. They should also deemphasize competition among trainees, create a community of learning, and allow trainees to make errors. When trainees make mistakes, trainers should provide constructive feedback and avoid making trainees look incompetent.

Need Theories Need theories help explain the value that a person places on certain outcomes. A need is a deficiency that a person is experiencing at a given point in time. A need motivates a person to behave in a manner to satisfy the deficiency. Need theories help to explain the value that a person places on outcomes.

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Maslow’s model includes five needs—physiological, safety, social, esteem, and self-actualization.

According to this model, trainees must satisfy lower level basic needs before progressing on to meet higher level growth needs. o physiological needs: air, food, drink, shelter, warmth, sleep o safety needs: protection from elements, security, stability, freedom from fear o social needs: friendship, intimacy, affection, and love o esteem needs: achievement, mastery, independence, status, dominance, prestige, self-respect, respect from others o self-actualization needs: realizing personal potential, self-fulfillment Alderfer’s model includes three needs—existence, relatedness, growth. o existence: relates to a person's physical needs such as food, clothing, and shelter o relatedness: relates to a person's interpersonal needs within his personal as well as professional settings o growth: relates to a person's needs of personal development McClelland’s need theory focuses primarily on the needs for achievement, affiliation and power, all of which can be learned. o need for achievement: these people need to achieve challenging goals, need to prove something, and seek recognition o need for power: these people have a need to dominate, influence others, and have power over them o need for affiliation: these people need to be a part of something and highly desire social relationships Need theories suggest that to motivate learning, trainers should attempt to understand learners’ needs, explain how the training will help them meet their needs, and adapt training to meet their needs. Another implication is providing employees with a choice of training programs to attend. Giving employees a choice of which training course to attend can increase their motivation to learn because trainees are able to choose programs that best match their needs.

Expectancy Theory Expectancy theory suggests that behavior is based on three factors—expectancy, instrumentality, and valence. o Expectancy beliefs relate to whether an individual believes he or she can perform a specific behavior. These beliefs are related to self-efficacy. o Valence is the value that individuals placed on an outcome or reward. o Instrumentality relates to beliefs whether performing will result in a particular outcome. Will individuals receive something valued if they perform well?

Based on this model, trainers should: 1) ensure that trainees are confident in their ability to learn and perform (expectancy); 2) provide and communicate valued rewards (valence); and 3) ensure that valued rewards are receive if trainees successfully learn and transfer (instrumentality).

Adult Learning Theory Adult learning theory, also called andragogy, is a theory or model of how adults learn. The theory is based on the following assumptions:

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Adults have the need to know why they are learning something.

Adults have a need to be self-directed.

Adults bring more work-related experiences into the learning situation.

Adults enter into a learning experience with a problem-centered approach to learning.

Adults are motivated to learn by both extrinsic and intrinsic motivation.

There are several implications for training based on this theory. o Mutually plan and collaborate in instruction o Use learner experiences as a basis for examples and applications o Develop instruction based on learners’ interests and competencies o Provide opportunities for immediate application o Ensure training is problem centered v. subject centered Information Processing Theory Information processing theory places greater emphasis on the internal processes that occur when training content is learned and retained. The theory proposes that information taken in by the learner undergoes several transformations in the brain. A message is received by the senses, is registered, stored in shortterm memory, transformed to long-term memory, and a response to the message is organized. The final link in the model is feedback from the environment.

This model highlights how external events, such as the following, influence learning. o Changes in the intensity or frequency of the stimulus affect attention o Informing the learner of the objectives to establish an expectation o Enhancing perceptual features of the material (stimulus) draws the attention of the learner to certain features o Verbal instructions, pictures, diagrams, and maps suggest ways to code the training content so that it can be stored in memory o Meaningful learning context creates cues that facilitate coding o Demonstration or verbal instructions help organize the learner’s response and facilitate the selection of the correct response

Transfer of Training Theory Closed vs. Open Skills A distinction needs to be made between closed skills and open skills. Performing a closed skill involves responding to predictable situations with standardized responses. In contrast, performing an open skill involves responding to variable situations with adaptive, tailored responses. There is a one best way to perform closed skills; whereas there are multiple ways to perform open skills that are contingent upon the situation at hand. Examples of closed skills include preparing food in a fast food restaurant, cleaning a hotel room, filling out a report, and checking in an air-line passenger. Examples of open skills include facilitating discussions in a training session, performing a role in a stage play, motivating employees, and responding to difficult customers.

Means to promote transfer for closed skills involve providing detailed checklists to follow, providing highfidelity practice, shaping favorable attitudes toward compliance, and rewarding compliance.

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Means to promote transfer for open skills include teaching general principles, shaping favorable attitudes toward experimentation, allowing trainees to make mistakes without fear of punishment, and providing rewards for experimentation.

Theory of Identical Elements The theory of identical elements proposes that transfer is maximized when what is being learned is identical to what the trainee has to perform on the job. Transfer will be maximized when the tasks, materials, equipment, and other conditions in training are similar to those encountered in the work environment. Identical elements are particularly important for promoting near transfer. Near transfer refers to trainees’ ability to apply learned capabilities exactly to the work situation. Identical elements are particularly important for closed skills.

Stimulus Generalization Approach The stimulus generalization approach suggests that the best way to promote transfer is to emphasize the most important features, or general principles, during training. It is also important to identify the range of work situations in which these general principles can be applied. The stimulus generalization approach is particularly important to promote far transfer. Far transfer refers to a trainee’s ability to apply learned capabilities to the work environment when it is not identical to that of the training session. The stimulus generalization approach is appropriate for open skills.

Cognitive Theory of Transfer This theory is based on information processing theory discussed earlier. This theory proposes that the likelihood of transfer depends on a trainee’s ability to retrieve learned capabilities. The likelihood of transfer is increased by providing trainees with meaningful material that enhances the chances that they will link what they encounter in the work environment to the learned capability. It is also important to provide trainees with cognitive strategies for encoding learned capabilities in memory so they are readily retrieved.

The Learning Process Mental and Physical Processes Learning depends on the learner’s cognitive processes, organizing the content in a mental representation, and relating the content to existing knowledge from long-term memory.

From this perspective, learning is a function of eight processes: o expectancy: the mental state that the learner brings to the instructional process o perception: the ability to organize the message from the environment so it can be processed and acted upon o working storage: rehearsal and repetition so material can be coded for memory o semantic encoding: the actual coding process of incoming messages o long-term storage: learning content residing in long-term storage o retrieval: identifying learned material in long-term memory and using it to influence performance o generalizing: being able to adapt learning for use in similar situations o gratifying: feedback the learner receives as a result of using learning content Different learning strategies influence how training content is coded—rehearsal, organizing, and elaboration: Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.

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rehearsal: learning through repetition organizing: finding similarities and themes in the training material elaboration: relating the material to other more familiar knowledge

The Learning Cycle Several models of learning styles have been proposed. Some suggest that trainees will learn best if instruction matches how they like to learn (e.g., visual, through movement, hearing). Others suggest that learning involves stages or cycles.

Trainees tend to overemphasize one stage or another, and to become effective learners, they need to develop strengths in each of the stages. For example, one model suggests learning involves four stages: concrete experience (e.g., encountering a work problem), reflection (thinking about the problem), abstract conceptualization (generating ideas how to solve the problem), and active experimentation (implementing the ideas). Implementing the ideas provides feedback as to their effectiveness so the learner can see the results and start the learning process over again.

Conventional wisdom suggests that instruction needs to match the trainees' learning style or force them to engage in all stages. In fact, there is little to no evidence supporting that matching instruction to trainees' learning style enhances learning and transfer of training.

Implications of the Learning Process and Transfer of Training for Instruction Based on the theories presented throughout this chapter, there are several implications for instruction.

Instruction refers to the trainer’s manipulation of the environment in order to help trainees learn.

Employees need to know the objectives Objectives refer to the purpose and expected outcomes of the training activities. Individuals learn best when they understand the training objectives. An objective may have three components: o A statement of what the employee is expected to do (performance or outcome) o A statement of the quality or level of performance that is acceptable (criterion) o A statement of the conditions under which the trainee is expected to perform the desired outcome (conditions) Employees need meaningful training content Employees are more likely to learn when the training is linked to current job experiences and tasks that have meaning for them. To enhance meaningfulness, the following strategies might be useful: o Telling stories about others’ success in applying training content, especially former trainees o Relating training content to what trainees already know about their jobs o Showing how training relates to company goals and strategy o Showing how trainees can use training content ideas at work o Discussing examples or cases that remind trainees of the good and poor work they have seen o Repeating the application of ideas in different contexts o Presenting evidence that what they will learn during training is what high-performing employees use in their jobs o Showing how the conditions that trainees face in training are similar to those on the job o Providing practice or application activities that can be used on the job

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Providing hard copies or electronic access to well-organized materials so trainees can refer to them on the job or use them to teach others Allowing trainees to choose their practice strategy and how they want training content presented

Employees need opportunities to practice For practice to be effective, it needs to involve the trainee actively, include overlearning (repeated practice), take the appropriate amount of time, and include the appropriate unit of learning. It is best to provide a variety of examples and practice, rather than all practice.

Employees need a number of pre-practice conditions There are a number of steps trainers can take at the beginning of training to enhance trainees’ motivation to learn and facilitate retention of training content. o Provide information about the process or strategy that will result in the greatest learning o Encourage trainees to reflect on their own learning, which is known as meta-cognition o Provide advanced organizers—outlines, texts, diagrams, and graphs o Help trainees set challenging learning goals o Create realistic expectations for trainees o For training in teams, clarify roles and responsibilities for different members Employees need practice involving experience Learning will not occur if employees practice only by talking about what they are expected to do. They need direct practice and overlearning. Overlearning involves continuing to practice the new skill or behavior beyond the point at which the learner has demonstrated proficiency more than once. This maximizes the likelihood of transfer.

Errors are also useful for learning, and therefore, trainers should provide error management training. Error management training refers to giving trainees the opportunities to make errors during training and then focusing on why the errors occurred and how to overcome them in the future. It is important to note that allowing trainees simply to make errors does not help learning. For errors to have a positive influence on learning, trainees need to be taught to use errors as a chance to learn.

Massed vs. spaced practice Massed practice conditions are those in which individuals practice a task continuously without rest. In spaced practice conditions, individuals are given rest intervals within the practice session. Spaced practice is superior to massed practice in general. However, the difference in effectiveness of massed versus spaced practice varies by the characteristics of the task.

Whole vs. part practice One option with practice is focusing on all tasks at the same time (whole practice). Another option is practicing each component as soon as it is introduced in a training program (part practice). It is probably best to employ both whole and part practice.

Effective practice conditions For practice to be relevant to the training objectives, several conditions must be met. Practice must involve the actions emphasized in the training objectives, be completed under the conditions specified in the training objectives, help trainees perform to meet the criteria or standard that was set, provide some means to evaluate the extent to which trainees’ performance meets the standards, and allow trainees to correct their mistakes.

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Employees need to commit training content to memory There are several ways trainers can help employees commit training content to memory. o Help them understand how they learn o Emphasize important points and eliminate irrelevant content o Use a concept map to show relationships among ideas o Teach key words, provide a procedure, sequence, or visual image o Encourage trainees to take notes and engage in reflection o Have trainees engage in overlearning o Provide rest breaks during training o Use quizzes or boosters o Break courses into small chunks of learning using modules or microlearning o Have trainees complete pre-training work Another way to help employees commit to memory what they learned is through reflection. Reflection involves having trainees spend a short amount of time such as fifteen minutes, reviewing and writing about what they learned and how they performed.

To help ensure that trainees help retain the knowledge, skill, and behavior or other training content they need to engage in overlearning. o Overlearning refers to reviewing and practicing multiple times to help insure training content is o

stored in long-term memory.

Overlearning also helps automatization with a task. Automatization refers to making performance of a task, recall of knowledge, or demonstration of a skill so automatic that it requires little thought or attention.

Boosters refer to retrieval opportunities that can help the learner’s brain consider training information as important and help retain it. Boosters can include short multiple choice, short-answer quizzes, or other activities that require learners to retrieve what they have learned from long-term memory.

Research suggests that no more than four or five items can be attended to at one time. If a lengthy process or procedure is to be taught, instruction needs to be delivered in relatively small chunks or short sessions in order to not exceed memory limits.

Microlearning refers to training delivered in small pieces or chunks designed to engage trainees, motivate them to learn, and help facilitate retention. The chunks of learning are presented using videos or games that are typically five to eight minutes long. Microlearning is used to replace longer training courses with one or several short courses. It is also being used to reinforce or supplement formal training (send quizzes after training, share short pieces of training content before the program to generate excitement), and create just-in-time learning content.

Employees need feedback Employees need feedback about how well they are meeting training objectives. The feedback should be specific and should follow the behavior as closely as possible. Feedback can come from a variety of sources, such as through interpersonal interactions, video recordings, tests and quizzes, on-the-job observation, and performance data.

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Employees learn through observation, experience, and interaction Individuals learn through observation and imitating the actions of models. There are three ways employees can learn through interaction. o Learner-content interaction: learner interacts with training content, such as by reading content, listening to content, and practicing content o Learner-instructor interaction: learner interacts with the instructors; trainers can present, demonstrate; and reinforce material o Learner-learner interaction; learner interactions with other learners; such interactions include observing and sharing experiences Communities of practice are groups of employees who work together, learn from each other and have a common sense about how to get work accomplished. The idea behind communities of practice is that learning occurs as a result of social interactions.

Employees need the training program to be properly coordinated and arranged Training administration is the coordination of activities before, during, and after the training program.

Training administration involves activities such as: o Communicating courses and programs to employees o Enrolling employees in courses and programs o Preparing and processing pre-training instruction materials o Preparing materials that will be used in instruction o Arranging for the training facility and room o Testing equipment that will be used in instruction o Having backup equipment should equipment fail o Providing support during instruction o Distributing evaluation materials o Facilitating communications between trainer and trainees during and after training o Recording course completion in the trainees' training records or HR files Encourage trainee responsibility and self-management Trainees need to take responsibility for learning and transfer, which includes being involved and engaged during training and using content back on the job. Self-management training may help promote taking responsibility. Self-management refers to a person’s attempt to control certain aspects of decision making and behavior. Self-management training involves setting goals to use skills on the job, identifying obstacles that might hinder transfer and ways to overcome them, and self-administering rewards.

Ensure that the work environment supports learning and transfer A number of obstacles in the work environment can inhibit learning and transfer—obstacle work conditions, lack of peer support, and lack of management support. o obstacle work conditions: time pressures, inadequate equipment, few opportunities to use skills, inadequate budget o lack of peer support; peers discourage use of new knowledge and skills, are unwilling to provide feedback, and see training as a waste of time o lack of management support: management opposes the ideas presented in training, does not discuss training opportunities, is unwilling to provide practice and feedback

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One way to ensure that learning and transfer of training occur is to ensure that the climate for transfer is positive. Climate for transfer refers to trainees’ perceptions about a wide variety of characteristics of the work environment. Characteristics of a positive climate for transfer include: o Supervisors and coworkers encourage transfer o Task cues to use new skills o Feedback consequences o Lack of punishment for using new skills o Extrinsic reinforcement consequences o Intrinsic reinforcement consequences Incentives can help create a positive climate for learning and transfer, and some companies are awarding microcredentials or digital badges to employees who have completed courses, earned a certification, or mastered a skill. Microcredentials are a competency-based and skill-focused form of credential that demonstrates skills, knowledge, and experience in a given subject area or capability. Microcredentials and digital badges are not necessarily the same. Microcredentials verify a person’s knowledge or skills based on their successful completion of a course, activity, assignment, project, portfolio, or practical assessments. Digital badges refer to electronically displayed icons that symbolize a microcredential and may link to a description of what was earned. It should be highlighted that microcredentials vary in reputation.

Instructional Emphasis for Learning Outcomes It is important to understand the difference between internal and external learning conditions. Internal conditions are processes within the learner that are necessary for learning to occur. These processes include how information is processed, stored in memory, and recalled. External conditions are processes in the learning environment that are necessary for learning to occur. These conditions include the physical learning environment and opportunities for practice and feedback. The external conditions should directly influence forms of instruction, and they should be designed to facilitate the internal conditions for learning to occur. One size does not fit all. Different internal and external conditions are necessary to facilitate different learning outcomes.

Discussion Questions 1.

Compare and contrast any two of the following learning theories: expectancy theory, social learning theory, reinforcement theory, and/or information processing theory.

Student answers would vary depending upon their choice of theory opted for comparison. The focus of each theory is as follows: o Expectancy theory suggests that a person’s behavior is based on three factors: expectancy, instrumentality, and valence. Trainees need to believe they can perform what is being trained, there must be valued rewards, and trainees must believe they will receive the rewards if they perform well. o Social learning theory emphasizes that people learn by observing other persons whom they believe are credible and knowledgeable. Learners then practice the observed behavior and receive feedback. Self-efficacy is also an important aspect of social learning theory.

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2.

Reinforcement theory emphasizes that people are motivated to perform or avoid certain behaviors because of past outcomes that have resulted from those behaviors.

Information processing theories propose that information or messages taken in by the learner undergo several transformations in the human brain.

What learning condition do you think is most necessary for learning to occur? Which is least critical?

Why? A host of learning conditions were presented throughout the chapter, and certainly student answers will vary. It is important that students justify their choices and provide examples from their own learning experiences.

3.

Are learning and transfer of training related? Explain why or why not.

Learning refers to acquiring new knowledge and skills, while transfer refers to applying them. For training to be effective, both learning and transfer of training are needed. Learning is a necessary condition for effective transfer. Transfer, however, may facilitate greater learning, particularly for skills that were not fully developed during the training session and for more complex, open skills.

4.

How do instructional objectives help learning to occur?

Instructional objectives refer to the purpose and expected outcome of training activities. In one respect, objectives help trainers design training sessions because objectives provide focus. With greater focus, greater learning can occur. Communication of objectives can help trainees learn by signaling to them what is important and what they should pay attention to.

5.

Assume you are training an employee to diagnose and repair a loose wire in an electrical socket. After demonstrating the procedure to follow, you let the trainee show you how to do it. The trainee correctly demonstrates the process and repairs the connection on the first attempt. Has learning occurred? Justify your answer.

What is known is that the trainee performed the task correctly. If the trainee already knew how to perform the task, no learning has occurred. If this were not the case, a degree of learning has occurred. However, since the demonstration was immediately after the training, there is a possibility that the knowledge has only been stored in the trainee’s short term memory. To retain the learning, the knowledge has to move to long term memory. To help create long-term memory, training programs need to elaborate on details and provide practice opportunities to facilitate overlearning.

6.

Your boss says: “Why do I need to tell you what type of learning capability I’m interested in? I just want a training program to teach employees how to give good customer service. Explain to the boss how “good customer service” can be translated into different learning outcomes.

At the beginning of the chapter, several learning outcomes were discussed—verbal information, intellectual skills, motor skills, attitudes, and cognitive strategies. Delivering effective customer service is not necessarily straightforward, and training could focus on different learning outcomes. o Regarding verbal information, training could focus on information about the product or service being provided.

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Intellectual skills could include how to serve customers and resolve customer complaints.

Attitudes could focus on developing favorable attitudes toward customer service and the organization’s customer service philosophy.

Cognitive strategies could address how to solve customer problems and adapt service delivery based on customers’ unique needs and characteristics, similar to intellectual skills.

(Motor skills are likely not relevant in this context.)

7.

How does practice help learning? What could a trainer do in a training session to ensure that trainees engage in self-regulation?

Practice is central to the learning process because it provides opportunities for rehearsal, whereby individuals try out new skills and assess strengths and weaknesses. Effective practice makes perfect.

For practice to be effective, it needs to actively involve the trainee, include overlearning, take the appropriate amount of time, and include the appropriate unit of learning. Self-regulation is also key to effective practice.

Self-regulation can be encouraged by teaching trainees to engage in meta-cognitive activity. They should ask themselves a variety of questions while they practice, such as: o Am I concentrating on the training material? o Do I understand the key points? o Am I setting goals to help me remember the material after I finish the course? o What can I do better next time?

8.

Can allowing trainees to make errors in training be useful? Explain.

Making errors is central to the learning process. Trainees should be allowed to make errors so they do not fear practice. When learning a new skill, there is the risk of appearing foolish in front of others.

Trainers should thus strive to create a learning orientation among trainees, where trainees are more concerned with developing their skills and view mistakes as a natural part of the learning process.

Furthermore, errors themselves are important in training because they provide for learning opportunities. In particular, in error management training, trainees are instructed that errors can help learning, and they are encouraged to make errors and learn from them.

9.

What learning conditions are necessary for short- and long-term retention of training content to occur?

Conditions necessary for short-term retention of training content to occur include: o working storage: rehearsal and repetition of information occur, allowing material to be coded for memory o semantic encoding: the actual coding process of incoming messages Conditions necessary for long-term retention of training content to occur include: o retrieval: identifying learned material in long-term memory and using it to influence performance o making trainees aware of how they are creating, processing, and accessing memory o training programs must be explicit on content and elaborate on details

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o o

creating a concept map to show relationships among ideas using multiple forms of review including writing, drawings, and role plays to access memory through multiple methods teaching key words, a procedure, or a sequence, or providing a visual image gives trainees another way to retrieve information reminding trainees of knowledge, behavior, and skills that they already know that are relevant to the current training content creates a link to long-term memory that provides a framework for recalling the new training content delivering instruction in relatively small chunks if a lengthy process or procedure is to be taught going beyond one-trial learning making trainees review and practice over multiple days

10. What is microlearning? How does it help to enhance learning and transfer of training?

Microlearning refers to training delivered in small pieces or chunks designed to engage trainees, motivate them to learn, and help facilitate retention. The chunks of learning are presented using videos or games that are typically five to eight minutes long. Microlearning is used to replace longer training courses with one or several short courses. It is also being used to reinforce or supplement formal training.

11. What is near transfer? Far transfer? What are their implications for training design?

Near transfer refers to trainees’ ability to apply learned capabilities exactly to the work situation. Near transfer is more likely to occur when the trainee works on tasks during training that are very similar, if not identical, to the work environment. Thus, trainers should incorporate identical elements, where the training environment is as close as possible to the real work environment.

Far transfer refers to trainees applying what they’ve learned to a work environment that is not identical to the training situation. The stimulus generalization approach emphasizes far transfer. The stimulus generalization approach suggests that the best way to promote transfer is to teach general principles that are applicable to many work situations.

12. How can employees learn through interaction? Are some types of interaction best for learning in some situations but not others? Explain.

Employees learn best through interaction with training content, with other learners, and with the trainer or instructor. The chapter describes three ways that employees learn through interaction and when to use them.

Learner-content interaction means that the learner interacts with the training content. Learnercontent interaction includes reading text on the web or in books, listening to multimedia modules, performing activities that require the manipulation of tools or objects, completing case studies and worksheets, or creating new content based on learned information.

Learner-instructor interaction refers to interaction between the learner and the expert. Trainers can facilitate learning by presenting, demonstrating, and reinforcing content. Also, trainers provide Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.

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support, encouragement, and feedback. Learner-instructor discussions can be useful for helping learners understand content, enhance learners’ self-awareness and self-assessment, gain an appreciation for different opinions, and implement ideas on the job.

Learner-learner interaction refers to interaction between learners. Learner-learner interaction, including observing and sharing experience with peers, may be especially useful for training interpersonal skills, acquiring personal knowledge based on experience, context-specific knowledge, and learning to cope with new situations.

13. How can the work environment inhibit learning and transfer of training? Explain what work environment characteristics you believe have the largest influence on transfer of training? Justify your answer.

A number of obstacles in the work environment can inhibit learning and transfer—obstacle work conditions, lack of peer support, and lack of management support. o obstacle work conditions: time pressures, inadequate equipment, few opportunities to use skills, inadequate budget o lack of peer support; peers discourage use of new knowledge and skills, are unwilling to provide feedback, and see training as a waste of time o lack of management support: management opposes the ideas presented in training, does not discuss training opportunities, is unwilling to provide practice and feedback These obstacles inhibit transfer because they cause lapses. Lapses take place when the trainee uses previously learned, less effective capabilities instead of trying to apply the capability emphasized in the training program. Lapses into old behavior and skill patterns are common. Given the restructuring, downsizing, and cost cutting occurring in many companies, these obstacles are often a reality for trainees.

One way to ensure that learning and transfer of training occur is to ensure that the climate for transfer is positive. The work environment needs to signal that learning is important, have policies and proceeds to support training, offer social support, and design jobs so that individuals can experiment with using new knowledge and skills.

14. You have a one-day classroom experience in which you need to help a group of engineers and software programmers learn to become project managers. After training, they will have to manage some significant projects. Discuss the instructional characteristics and activities you will use to ensure that the engineers and software programmers learn project management.

This chapter discussed a host of strategies to facilitate learning and training, and certainly many of them could be appropriate in this particular context. Below are a few examples that could be appropriate in this context. o

Given that these individuals are adult learners with experience, you could incorporate the principles of andragogy by drawing on their previous experiences, ensuring that training is problem focused, and providing opportunities for immediate application.

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o

Project management skills are open skills, where there is not necessarily one best way to perform in all contexts. As such, you should teach general principles, shaping favorable attitudes toward experimentation, allowing trainees to make mistakes without fear of punishment, and provide rewards for experimentation.

o

In addition to focusing on project management skills, the training could address principles of selfmanagement. Self-management training might be appropriate because these employees will largely be responsible for managing their own behavior on the job after training. Selfmanagement training involves setting goals to use skills on the job, identifying obstacles that might hinder transfer and ways to overcome them, and self-administering rewards.

o

Encourage trainees for form communities of practice post training where the trainees can learn from one another and share best practices.

15. Companies are providing employees with digital badges and microcredentials after they complete a training course or series of courses. Explain how badges and microcredentials influence learning from the perspective of one of the following theories: expectancy theory, need theory, goal setting theory, or adult learning theory. o

In the context expectancy theory, digital badges and microcredentials would be motivating if individuals value them (valence), believe they can successfully learn the focal knowledge and skills (expectancy), and believe they would obtain the digital badges and microcredentials if they achieve the learning outcome (instrumentality).

o

With respect to need theory, if digital badges and microcredentials are believed to satisfy specific needs (e.g., esteem, growth, and achievement needs), they may motivate individuals to learn new knowledge and skills.

o

Regarding goal orientation, it is imperative that digital badges and microcredentials help promote a learning orientation (where individuals focus on growth, learning, and development) and not merely a performance orientation (where individuals seek to acquire these credentials solely to look good in the eyes of others).

o

In the context of adult learning theory, individuals should have choice in the digital badges and microcredentials they focus on, the content should be based on learners’ interests, as well as directly related to problems individuals may face in their work.

Chapter 5

Program Design

Program design is the heart of effective training because it directly influences knowledge and skill acquisition. Accordingly, it is imperative that training programs be carefully designed to ensure that maximum learning is achieved. A host of factors should be considered when designing training, and the goal of this chapter is to articulate these considerations. For example, this chapter reviews practical issues

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in training program design, such as preparing a training site, choosing a consultant or vendor, and creating a training environment that maximizes learning and transfer of training.

Objectives 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

Choose and prepare a training site based on how trainees will be involved and interact with the content and each other in the course.

Prepare for instruction using a curriculum road map, lesson plan, design document, and concept map.

Explain how trainees’ age, generational differences, and personality might influence how programs are designed.

Prepare a request for proposal (RFP) and a list of questions to evaluate training consultants and suppliers.

Explain the program design elements that should be included to ensure near and far transfer of training.

Develop a self-management module for a training program.

Design application assignments and action plans to enhance learning and transfer of training.

Make recommendations about what managers can do before, during, and after training to facilitate learning and transfer.

Identify different ways to manage knowledge and the conditions necessary for employees to share knowledge.

Introduction Program design refers to the organization and coordination of the training program. Program design is the heart of effective training because it directly influences knowledge and skill acquisition. Accordingly, it is imperative that training programs be carefully designed to ensure that maximum learning is achieved.

It is important to take a broad perspective when designing training, regardless of whether it is an online or a face-to-face training program, class, or course. Employees have to be motivated to attend training, use what they learned on their job, and share their knowledge and skills with others.

Program design should include not only what goes on during training, but also creating conditions before the training event to ensure that trainees are willing, ready, and motivated to learn knowledge and skills.

In addition, program design should include steps to ensure that the acquired knowledge and skills are used on the job and shared with other employees.

The three phases of the program design process include pre-training, the learning event, and posttraining. It is important to consider what happens before training, during training, and after training.

Training should not be considered an isolated event.

Phase 1—Pre-Training Involves preparing, motivating, energizing trainees to attend the learning event and ensuring that the work environment is supportive of learning and transfer Phase 2—The Learning Event

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Involves preparing instruction and the physical environment to facilitate learning Phase 3—Post-Training Refers to transfer of training, getting learners to apply what they have learned to their work

Considerations in Designing Effective Programs Selecting and Preparing the Training Site The training site refers to the room where training will be conducted. A good training site offers the following features: o comfortable and accessible o quiet, private, and free from interruptions o sufficient space and good visibility for trainees and trainers Training sites can be on-site at the company or off-site such as at a resort or conference center. There is no right answer as to whether training should be held on- or off-site. Each has advantages and potential limitations.

Details to be Considered in the Training Room Recognizing that learning can be facilitated through both physical and mental involvement, select a training venue that is conducive to learning. While trainers may not always have the luxury of a “perfect” training location, they should strive for a venue that helps facilitate learning. Important considerations include: o Noise. Check for noise from heating and air conditioning systems, adjacent rooms and corridors, and outside the building. o Colors. Pastel hues such as oranges, greens, blues, and yellows are warm colors are preferred.

Variations of white are cold and sterile. Blacks and brown shades will close the room in psychologically and become fatiguing. o Room structure. Use rooms that are somewhat square in shape. o Lighting. The main source of lighting should be fluorescent lights. Incandescent lighting should be spread throughout the room and used with dimmers when projection is required. o Wall and floor covering. Carpeting should be placed in the meeting area. Solid colors are preferable because they are not distracting. Only training-related materials should be on the walls. o Meeting room chairs. Chairs should have wheels, swivels, and backs that provide support for the lower lumbar region. o Glare. Check and eliminate glare from metal surfaces, monitors, and mirrors. o Ceiling. Ten-foot-high ceilings are preferable. o Electrical outlets. Outlets should be available every six feet around the room. Make sure that outlets are available for trainees to plug in their laptops. o Acoustics. Check the bounce or absorption of sound from the walls, ceiling, floor, and furniture. o Technology. Check that the room has appropriate technology.

Seating Arrangements Seating arrangements should be based on an understanding of the desired type of trainee interaction and trainee-trainer interaction. o fan-type seating—trainees can easily switch from listening to practicing in groups Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.

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o o o

classroom-type seating—appropriate when lecture and audiovisual presentations are the primary training methods conference-type seating—appropriate for total group discussions (with no small-group interaction) horseshoe type-seating—appropriate for both presentation and total-group instruction

Choosing Trainers Trainers, whether from inside or outside the company, should have expertise in the topic and experience in training. Trainers need to be both skilled in the subject matter at hand and in program facilitation.

How Trainers Can Make the Training Site and Instruction Conducive to Learning

Create a Learning Setting When choosing a training room, determine the extent to which trainees decide when, where, and how they will learn, and whether learning will occur by interaction with others.

Below are strategies for matching learning requirements with training rooms o For high collaboration and low self-direction, use classroom/lecture halls with breakout rooms o For high collaboration and high self-direction, use breakout, project, or conference rooms o For low collaboration and low self-direction, use classrooms, computer classrooms, or lecture halls o For low collaboration and high self-direction, use distance learning rooms, media labs, or computer labs

Preparation of Materials You need to know your content very well. Use mental and physical rehearsal to build your confidence and assess your strengths and areas for improvement. Observe master trainers to get new ideas. Design the training from the audience’s perspective—ask “So what?” about everything you do.

Know the Audience: Age, Generation, Personality, Culture, and Language One way to analyze the audience is to consider their persona. A persona is a description of the audience you are designing the program for or delivering the training to. Personas summarize the typical characteristics of the trainees including preferences, background, values, career aspirations, traditional demographic information, and training content and delivery preferences. Personas can be developed for job families, a specific job, experience, background, or other attributes. Some of the ways you can develop personas include interviewing or surveying individuals who are likely to attend the program or other trainers who have instructed the same trainees.

Popular press articles and survey results suggest that there may be generational preferences in how training programs are designed. o Generation Z employees expect that training can be accessed when they need it via their smartphone or notebook or tablet computer. o Baby boomers prefer classroom learning with lots of interaction. o Millennials desire a sense of purpose in their work and want training content that aligns with the business issues they are facing.

However, there is no research showing significant generational differences in training design or method preferences or that the effectiveness of learning and transfer of training for trainees of different generations varies according to the training method used.

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But, there is research showing age has an influence on performance in training. Learning new skills is often more difficult, takes longer, and results in lower skill levels for older workers compared to younger workers.

Self-paced training gives older trainees time to assume responsibility for their learning, to focus on what they are required to learn, and to understand the training and its importance. Training that occurs in small groups is advantageous for older trainees.

To help enhance the effectiveness of technology-based instruction for older employees, it needs to be highly structured, provide feedback and guidance, and have a user-friendly interface.

Instructors should consider personality styles when delivering training. Many companies use the MyersBriggs Type Indicator (MBTI), which focuses on how people gather information and make decisions.

Instructors can have trainees complete assessments such as this prior to training and then use this information to design training that users will find interesting and meaningful. Regarding the MBTI, we gather information with an emphasis on either facts and details (Sensing or S) or on abstract patterns and possibilities (Intuition or N). We make decisions based on logical analysis (Thinking or T) or on personal values (Feeling or F). Also, we differ in our orientation toward and how we deal with the environment.

Individuals with an Extroversion (E) gain energy from interpersonal interactions, while those with an Introversion (I) preference draw energy from within themselves. Individuals with a preference for Judging (J) desire structure and closure, while those with a Perceiving (P) preference prefer to have many decision options.

If your trainees in a U.S. training program include individuals from other countries for whom English is their second language or you are an instructor for a training course or program in another country you will need to customize your content and instruction. There are several ways to do so. o Training content should include language, familiar names, and examples that the audience can relate to. Be careful with the use of slang, idioms, and sports analogies. o Determine the trainees’ level of fluency in English. Do so during the needs assessment by talking to local company staff and other instructors who have taught in the country. o Consider cultural norms that might affect activities and interactions between trainees due to power and status differences as well as interpersonal styles.

Training should be accessible to all employees, including individuals who may be physically challenged as well as neurodiverse. Neurodiversity refers to natural and valuable variations in brain function and behavior, which affect how individuals process information and interact with others. Neurodiverse employees include those with autism spectrum disorder, Asperger’s syndrome, attention deficit and hyperactivity disorder, dyslexia, and other cognitive differences. The following are a number of the ways to make training accessible. o Audio descriptions of any videos shown in the webinar o Auditory directions that are the same directions as provided visually o Clear and descriptive verbal instructions o Closed-captioning of any videos shown in the webinar o Complete step-by-step written instructions o Content accessible via keystroke o Custom alternate text for photos and graphics that are contextually relevant to the content Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.

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o o o o o o o o o

Detailed verbal descriptions of any graphics presented Electronic copies of all printed materials Extra time for reading, worksheets, or exams Keystroke and mouse-enabled content to allow for multiple access channels Large print or materials in braille Live closed-captioning and transcriptions of instructors, videos, and course materials Options for interaction via chat box or on-screen interface Participation options for activities that require physical movement or mobility Visual directions that are the same directions as provided verbally

Pre-Training: Enhance Motivation to Learn through Communications, Pre-work, and Management Involvement To enhance trainee motivation to learn, it is important to communicate to trainees the purpose of the course, learning objectives, course prerequisites, and who else will be attending.

Pre-work, such as readings or application assignments, can motivate trainees and ensure trainees come to the program with a sense of purpose and focus. The training program can be more efficient when trainees complete pre-work because “the basics” have already been covered.

Managers can enhance motivation by encouraging employees to attend training and setting expectations for learning.

Provide an Overview of the Course When beginning a program, it is important to give learners an idea of the big picture, including the objectives, timeline, activities, and assignments.

A concept map can be used for organizing and presenting knowledge. A concept map includes concepts shown in boxes, with the relationships between the concepts indicated by connecting lines.

Help Trainees Retain and Recall Training Content Consider if you can chunk learning topics into short sessions of no longer than 20 minutes. After 20 minutes, you either need to take a break or use different learning techniques, such as small group discussion. Doing so helps to maintain attention and help commit learning to memory.

Mnemonics and metaphors can be useful for recalling important ideas. They help relate concepts, behaviors, and knowledge to concepts that the learner already knows. Mnemonics are acronyms in which the first letter of the word represents a step in the process. ADDIE, in the context of trainer, refers to analysis, design, delivery, implementation, and evaluation.

Novelty, or something unfamiliar or unusual, can also help trainees commit learning to memory. Novelty can be introduced in training through the use of pictures, stories, surprise speakers, or fun or unique training activities or presentations (for example, teaching teamwork through having trainees make music through drumming). It is important that you don’t overdo the amount of fun and novel activities in a training course because you risk trainees focusing too much attention on the activity itself rather than the training content

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Another way to help trainees recall what they have learned is to have them consider how they can use what they are learning. Application assignments increase the likelihood that trainees will recall the training content and apply it to their work setting when they encounter the appropriate cues in the environment.

A future letter is a potentially useful way to help trainees recall what they have learned. Specifically, trainees are asked to write to themselves that explains how they will use the training on the job. The letter should include their name and email address. Trainers can email the letters back to the trainees several weeks after training and ask them to respond back with what they actually did.

Furthermore, to help trainees retain and recall training content you might want to create a new course or design a new one using the principles of microlearning. Designing a course based on the principles of microlearning involves more than just taking a current training course and dividing it into chunks that need to be completed in a sequence. The best way to design microlearning is to first identify the terminal objectives (or what you want trainees to be able to do after completing the course or module) and break it down into the specific skills or “chunks” that trainees need (known as the enabling objectives). The following are characteristics of effective microlearning: o Engages trainees by including activities that get the trainee involved such as games and reflection o Uses videos, checklists, diagrams, or visuals to provide trainees with new and meaningful content o Trainees practice using scenarios or other activities o Trainees can access and reference the content back on the job o Trainees can choose when and what to learn o Quizzes are used to measure what trainees have learned

Classroom Management Monitor the room for extra chairs, overflowing trash cans, and piles of materials left over from previous training sessions.

Interacting with Trainees Consider beginning a training session with an icebreaker, an activity designed to welcome trainees and encourage conversation among them. You need to think about whether you need to introduce participants to each other, or if they already know each other you may want to focus instead on introducing the topic. Icebreakers should be relevant, fun, and quick.

A trainer must communicate the topics that will be covered, the learning approach that will be used, and their expectations for trainees. Trainers also need to be dramatic and enthusiastic to draw attention to important points.

Trainers should recognize that their expectations of trainees can result in trainees confirming those expectations, resulting in a self-fulfilling prophecy. If trainers believe trainees will be successful, trainees are more apt to learn. If trainers believe trainees will fail, they likely will. Trainers’ mindsets impact how they interact with trainees. The quality of this interaction, in turn, impacts the learning of others.

How trainers engage trainees is based on the size of the room and the number of trainees. The larger the room, the larger gestures need to be. To create intimacy, trainers need to move toward trainees. One of the best ways to get trainees’ attention is to facilitate discussions from different parts of the training room.

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Examples of how to get trainees involved: o Prepare and distribute content-related, open-ended questions to be discussed in breakout groups o Use creative activities or games that relate to the training content o Use assessments or measures that allow the trainees to learn about themselves and each other o Incorporate role playing o Conclude the training session by asking trainees, either individually or in teams from the same company or work group, to consider the following questions: “As a result of this session, what do you plan to start, stop, or continue doing? On what topic would you like to have more information?” o Use polling and quiz questions o Ask questions related to the learning objectives o Use case studies that feature industry-specific or universal organizational issues or problems o Ask trainees to work individually or in teams to answer questions about the case and share their solutions with the larger training group

Leading a Discussion Discussions can be an effective means to engage trainees. They should be based on clearly defined goals and rules for participation—discussion should be planned. Discussions can be used to brainstorm ideas and solutions, debrief activities, apply knowledge, and evaluate experiences. Open ended questions should be used as opposed to questions that elicit no more than “yes” or “no” responses. It is also important to have different opening questions, follow-up questions, and discussion prompts.

The following are suggestions when using questions during discussions: o Ask trainees if you sufficiently answered their question o If you do not know the answer to a question, do not make up an answer o Rather, tell them you will try to find an answer and get back to them later, or ask the other trainees for their thoughts on the question o Repeat your question if the trainees did not hear or understand it o Ask questions that require more than a yes or no response o Pay attention to trainees’ body language o If a question relates only to one or a few trainees’ problems, issues, or circumstances, ask if you can answer the question during a break or after the session

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Dealing with Disruptive Trainees For trainees who disrupt, sleep through, or constantly interrupt the training session, consider using activities that get them moving, engaged, and energized. Ask disruptive trainees to leave only as a last resort when all other options discussed here have failed.

Managing Group Dynamics To ensure an even distribution of knowledge or expertise in groups, ask trainees to indicate whether they consider themselves novice, experienced, or expert in terms of knowledge about a topic. Arrange groups so they contain individuals of different expertise. Group dynamics can be altered by changing learners’ positions in the room. Pay attention to group dynamics by wandering through the room.

Curriculum, Course, and Lesson Design A curriculum refers to an organized program of study designed to meet a complex learning objective, such as preparing a learner to become a salesperson, certified computer network technician, licensed nurse, or manager. In comparison to a curriculum, a course or program usually covers more specific learning objectives and addresses a more limited number of competencies.

It is helpful when creating a curriculum, course or program, or lesson to begin designing by considering the objectives. Terminal learning objectives refer to the trainees' expected level of performance, skills, competencies, or knowledge that they can apply on the job. Enabling learning objectives identify parts of the terminal learning objective that trainees must learn during training. Enabling learning objectives identify specific measurable outcomes that trainees have to master in order to meet the terminal learning objective.

Program design should be considered a special case of project management. In this case, project management refers to the skills needed to manage a team of people and resources to create a learning solution. SPADES includes project management concepts that incorporate principles of instructional systems design (ISD). o Start—involves understanding the stakeholders for the learning situation and conducting a needs assessment o Plan—involves identifying what you need to do and any resources that may be needed; identifying tasks, how long it will take to complete them, and any expertise that is needed o Administer—involves overseeing tasks and communicating with the project team, stakeholders, and SMEs; includes ensuring that tasks are completed and deadlines and budgets met o Development—involves identifying training objectives, methods, materials, and how the program will be evaluated o Engage—involves implementing training and subsequent evaluation o Stop—involves finishing the project, paying vendors and suppliers, and meeting with stakeholders Curriculum Road Map A curriculum road map refers to a figure showing all of the courses in a curriculum, the paths that learners can take through it, and the sequences in which courses have to be completed.

A design document can be used to guide the development of training and explain the training to managers, SMEs, reviewers, or other trainers.

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A detailed lesson plan translates the content and sequence of training activities into a guide that is used to help deliver the training. Lesson plans include the sequence of activities that will be conducted in the training session and identify the administrative details. The lesson plan overview matches major activities of the training program and specific times or time intervals.

A storyboard is useful for course and lesson design and determining sequencing. A storyboard is a group of pictures that tell a story. You can story board using pencil-and-paper or markers on notebooks, erasable marker boards, flip charts, or using slides. A storyboard is useful for showing the correct process or procedure as well as the order of activities or presentation of ideas in a training module, course, or program.

It is also important to consider the target audience. Any information about their training and experience, their motivation for taking the course, and their interests, learning styles, and background (e.g., education and work experience) will be useful for choosing meaningful examples, determining program content, deciding on support materials, and building the credibility of the training.

Converting In-Person to Online Learning Although the COVID-19 pandemic forced trainers to develop virtual online training programs, many companies had already started moving to technology-based training delivery methods. To facilitate learning and transfer of training in online learning, it is especially important to consider several design elements. To avoid boredom and keep attention, online training should incorporate multiple rather than one long training session, as well as different activities and instructional modes. Also, personal interactions with trainers, facilitators, and other trainees are important. This can be accomplished using discussion boards, virtual breakout rooms, or projects. Trainers and facilitators should stay connected with trainees to review projects or assignments and answer questions. The personal interaction helps keep trainees focused on learning and application and enhances their motivation to learn.

Program Design Implications of Transfer of Training

Determine if Focus Is on Near or Far Transfer One key consideration is whether the focus of training is on near or far transfer. Near transfer means the need to apply learned capabilities exactly in a work situation. Far transfer refers to a trainee’s ability to apply learned capabilities to the work environment when it is not identical to that of the training session.

Near transfer is appropriate for closed skills, while far transfer is appropriate for open skills. Performing a closed skill involves responding to predictable situations with standardized responses. In contrast, performing an open skill involves responding to variable situations with adaptive, tailored responses.

There is a one best way to perform closed skills; whereas there are multiple ways to perform open skills that are contingent upon the situation at hand.

Programs that emphasizes near transfer should include the following: o using standardized procedures, processes, and checklists o providing explanations as to any differences between training and work tasks o encouraging trainees to focus only on important differences between training tasks and work tasks vs. unimportant ones

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o o

providing an explanation why the procedure should be performed to help trainees understand underlying concepts focusing on behaviors and skills that contribute to effective performance

Programs that emphasize far transfer should include the following: o teaching general concepts, broad principles, or key behaviors o focusing on general principles that might apply to a greater set of contexts beyond those presented in the training session o providing a list of prompts or questions to help trigger thoughts and questions from trainees

Encourage Self-Management One way to prepare trainees to deal with the obstacles that they may face in work environments is to provide instruction in self-management techniques at the end of the training program. Self-management training includes discussing relapses, setting transfer and performance goals, identifying obstacles that might inhibit transfer, generating strategies to overcome obstacles and resources, and administering rewards for successful transfer.

Encourage Manager Support for Training Manager support is the degree to which trainees’ managers emphasize the importance of attending training programs and stress the application of what is learned back on the job.

Increasing levels of manager support, from low to high, include: o acceptance of training o encouragement of training o participating in training o reinforcement—discussing progress with trainees o practice—allowing trainees to practice their skills o teaching—serving as a trainer Manager support can involve developing an action plan with trainees. An action plan is a written document that details steps that the trainee and his/her manager will take to ensure transfer of the training content to the job. It includes: o a goal identifying what training content will be used and how it will be used o strategies for reaching the goal and for receiving feedback o expected results Given the importance of manager support, efforts are needed to garner their commitment to training.

Manager support can be gained by: o briefing managers on the purpose of the training and its relationship to the business strategy o encouraging trainees to bring work related problems to the training o sharing information regarding the benefits collected from past participants o asking trainees to complete action plans with their managers o using managers as trainers, if possible and when appropriate o rewarding managers for their support—linking support to performance appraisal and compensation systems

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Peer Support Transfer of training can be enhanced by a support network among trainees. A support network is a group of two or more trainees who meet and discuss their progress in using new capabilities back on the job, whether it is via face-to-face or through online communication. Peers can share successful experiences, discuss how they coped with challenges and obtained any resources, and provide encouragement and feedback.

Opportunity to Use Learned Capabilities The opportunity to use learned capabilities is the extent to which the trainee is provided with, or seeks out, experiences to use new knowledge, skills, or behaviors. The opportunity to use learned capabilities is central to successful transfer.

Opportunity to perform is influenced by the work environment and trainee motivation to actively pursue assignments that will utilize their new capabilities. Breadth of opportunity refers to the number of trained tasks that are performed on the job. Activity level refers to the frequency with which these tasks are performed. Task type is the difficulty or criticality of the trained tasks performed on the job.

Opportunity to perform can be measured by asking former trainees to indicate: o whether they perform a task o how many times they perform the task o the extent to which they perform difficult and challenging tasks Low levels of opportunity may indicate that refresher training is needed, the work environment is unsupportive, or the training content is not relevant.

Technological Support A performance support system is a computer application that can provide skills training, information access, and expert advice. A performance support system can be used to enhance transfer by acting as an as-needed reference for trainees attempting to apply new knowledge, skills, and behaviors on the job.

Trainers can monitor trainees’ use of these systems, which provides the trainer with valuable information about the transfer of training problems that trainees are encountering.

Content Curation: Keeping Training Content Up-to-Date, Organized, & Accessible In a training context, content curation refers to the process of identifying relevant training content and organizing it in a way that makes it easy for trainees to access it. For example, at Mariner Financial existing training content is reviewed four times per year to insure it is relevant. Relevance is based on employee feedback after they complete training and discussions with managers. Trends in quizzes completed by trainees in online courses, such as questions that are consistently answered wrong, are used to update and change the emphasis of courses.

How to Choose a Vendor or Consultant for Training Services If a company decides to purchase training, it is important to choose a high-quality provider. Many companies identify potential vendors by using requests for proposals. A request for proposal (RFP) is a

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document that outlines for potential vendors and consultants the type of service the company is seeking, the type and number of references needed, the number of employees who need to be trained, funding for the project, the follow-up process used to determine level of satisfaction and service, and the expected date of completion of the project.

Using Knowledge Management for Learning and Transfer of Training Knowledge management refers to the process of enhancing company performance by designing and implementing tools, processes, systems, structures, and cultures to improve the creation, sharing, and use of knowledge.

Ways to create, share, and use knowledge include: o Use technology, e-mail, and social networking sites to allow people to store and share information. o Publish directories of what employees do, how they can be contacted, and what knowledge they have. o Develop informational maps that identify where specific knowledge is stored in the company. o Create top management positions for cataloging and facilitating the exchange of information in the company. o Require employees to give presentations to other employees about what they have learned from training programs. o Allow employees to take time off from work to acquire knowledge, study problems, attend training, and use technology. o Create an online library of learning resources. o Design office space to facilitate interaction between employees. o Create communities of practice using face-to-face meetings, wikis, or blogs for employees who share a common interest in a subject. o Use “after-action reviews” at the end of each project to review what happened and what can be learned from it.

Keys for effective knowledge management: Training and IT collaboration. The training department and the IT department must collaborate. Training can help develop the culture, content, and learning strategies. IT can develop the systems for accessing, sharing, and storing knowledge and delivering training.

Creating knowledge management leadership positions. Chief learning, or knowledge, officers (CLOs) are leaders of a company’s knowledge management efforts. Their job is to: o develop, implement, and link a knowledge/learning culture with the company’s technology infrastructure o locate knowledge and find ways to create, capture, and distribute it o ensure that trainers, information technologists, and business units support and contribute to the development of knowledge management practices o provide management direction and support for learning and knowledge management

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Easy-to-use technology. Building the correct technology infrastructure and making it easy for the employees to access and share information are necessary for successful knowledge management efforts.

Employee trust and willingness to share. Trust and a willingness to share information are key factors that relate to knowledge sharing. To encourage knowledge sharing, companies must recognize and promote employees to learn, teach, and share.

Discussion Questions

1. What is a design document? What is included in a design document? How is it useful for training?

A design document can be used to guide the development of training and to explain the training to managers, SMEs, reviewers, or other trainers. Information for the design document is based on the information obtained from the needs assessment. The level of detail in the design document can vary. o Scope of project includes the goals, outcomes, or achievement expectations for trainees; a description of the trainees; a description of how long it will take to develop the course and the checkpoints or tasks that need to be completed as the course is developed; and the length of the course. o Delivery includes what the course will cover, how it will be delivered, an estimate of the training time, and the identification of any special conditions or issues that may affect the course. o Objectives refer to the course or program objectives. Those are broader summary statements of the purpose of the program. o Resources refer to the materials that need to be purchased or developed for the course. o Who is involved includes trainers, program designers, and individuals who will be involved in the design, delivery, and evaluation. o The topical outline includes a brief outline of the topics that will be covered in the program. o Administration and evaluation refers to who will be in charge of course scheduling, how trainees will enroll, how the course will be evaluated, and who will review and update the course. o Links to other programs refer to any other needs, such as a train-the-trainer program or manager introduction or kickoff for the program.

2. How might course design differ for Baby Boomers compared to Millennials?

Baby Boomers prefer classroom learning. Baby Boomers respond well to interactive training activities—they like group activities and well-organized training materials that provide an overview of the information and an easy way to access more detailed information. Compared to the other groups, they are especially motivated to learn if they believe that training content will benefit them personally.

Baby Boomers need to work on translating the knowledge they have into skills.

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Millennials want access to learning on demand, prefer short learning modules, and they want learning to be engaging. They also value learning that occurs through collaborating with their peers and having a mentor or coach. They prefer a blended learning approach that involves self-paced online learning for acquiring basic concepts, ideas, and knowledge, followed by group activities and handson practice. They are motivated to learn skills and acquire knowledge that will help make their working lives less stressful and increase their employability. They place a high value on money so linking training to monetary incentives may facilitate learning.

3. How does a concept map help learners?

A concept map can be used for organizing and presenting knowledge. Such a map includes concepts shown in boxes, with the relationships between the concepts indicated by connecting lines. A concept map helps to frame key concepts and organize content into memory.

4. Explain the three phases of the instructional process, which phase do you think is most important?

Why? The three phases of the instructional process include pre-training, the learning event, and posttraining. Pre-training involves preparing, motivating, and energizing trainees to attend the learning event. The learning event involves preparing and providing instruction. Post-training refers to transfer of training.

Student answers would vary as to which phase is most important. Typically, most effort, attention, and financial resources tend to be devoted to designing and choosing the learning event itself. However, what happens before and after the learning event may be equally, if not more, important in determining if learners are motivated to learn and transfer.

5. What could be done to increase the likelihood of transfer of training if the work environment conditions are unfavorable and cannot be changed?

One way to prepare trainees to deal with the obstacles that they may face in work environments is to provide instruction in self-management techniques at the end of the training program. Selfmanagement training includes discussing relapses, setting transfer and performance goals, identifying obstacles that might inhibit transfer, generating strategies to overcome obstacles and resources, and administering rewards for successful transfer.

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6. Customer service training involves far transfer. What design features would you include in a customer service training program to ensure that transfer of training occurred? What is a curriculum road map?

Why is it important?

Programs that emphasize far transfer should include the following: o teaching general concepts, broad principles, or key behaviors o focusing on general principles that might apply to a greater set of contexts beyond those presented in the training session o providing a list of prompts or questions to help trigger thoughts and questions from trainees

A curriculum road map refers to a figure showing all of the courses in a curriculum, the paths that learners can take through it, and the sequences in which courses have to be completed (e.g., identify prerequisite courses). It is important because for each course, information can be used to help develop, design, and evaluate the program.

7. What is an application assignment? Why should it be considered in designing a training program or course?

Application assignments refer to assignments in which trainees are asked to identify work problems or situations and to apply training content to solve them. The use of application assignments in training helps trainees understand the link between the learned capabilities and real-world application, which makes it easier to recall the capability when needed. Application assignments increase the likelihood that trainees will recall the training content and apply it to their work setting when they encounter the appropriate cues (problems and work situations) in the environment.

8. How might you motivate managers to play a more active role in ensuring transfer of training?

Manager support can be gained by: o briefing managers on the purpose of the training and its relationship to the business strategy o encouraging trainees to bring work related problems to the training o sharing information regarding the benefits collected from past participants o asking trainees to complete action plans with their managers o using managers as trainers, if possible and when appropriate o rewarding managers for their support—linking support to performance appraisal and compensation systems

9. If you were asked to implement a knowledge management system, what would you recommend to ensure that employees shared and accessed knowledge? Explain your recommendations.

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There are several strategies to help ensure employees share and access knowledge: o o o o o o o o

use technology, e-mail, and social networking sites to allow people to store and share information publish directories of what employees do, how they can be contacted, and what knowledge they have develop informational maps that identify where specific knowledge is stored in the company allow employees to take time off from work for knowledge management create an online library of learning resources design office space to facilitate interaction among employees create communities of practice where employees can collaborate and share ideas, solutions, and innovations ensure technology is user friendly

10. What type of seating arrangements would you choose for a training course that involved small-group case discussions? For a lecture including PowerPoint and use of YouTube videos? Explain your choices.

For small-group case discussions, a fan-type arrangement may be most effective because trainees can easily switch from listening to groups. For a lecture including PowerPoint and use of YouTube videos, classroom seating would be most appropriate because trainees can easily view these support materials and because training is more passive.

11. List the steps in project management. Discuss how each step helps in effective design.

Project management refers to the skills needed to manage a team of people and resources to create a learning solution. SPADES includes project management concepts that incorporate principles of instructional systems design (ISD). o Start—involves understanding the stakeholders for the learning situation and conducting a needs assessment o Plan—involves identifying what you need to do and any resources that may be needed; identifying tasks, how long it will take to complete them, and any expertise that is needed o Administer—involves overseeing tasks and communicating with the project team, stakeholders, and SMEs; includes ensuring that tasks are completed and deadlines and budgets met o Development—involves identifying training objectives, methods, materials, and how the program will be evaluated o Engage—involves implementing training and subsequent evaluation o Stop—involves finishing the project, paying vendors and suppliers, and meeting with stakeholders

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12. If you were going to conduct a training program what would you want to know about your potential trainees that could help you design a training session that is enjoyable for the trainees and helps them learn? How would you conduct your audience analysis?

Different information would be valuable, such as trainees’ personality, their learning style preferences, and what they hope to learn. One might also want to consider generational differences, language proficiency, and other basic skills. One could talk to other trainers or managers who have experience with a particular group to gather this information. One could also conduct a survey before or at the beginning of training and/or talk with trainees themselves.

13. What are some of the things a trainer should do to adapt their training content and instruction for trainees who are from another country?

Consider the following strategies: o o o

Training content should include language, familiar names, and examples that the audience can relate to. Be careful with the use of slang, idioms, and sports analogies.

Determine the trainees’ level of fluency in English. Do so during the needs assessment by talking to local company staff and other instructors who have taught in the country.

Consider cultural norms that might affect activities and interactions between trainees due to power and status differences as well as interpersonal styles. For example, in some countries providing feedback in public or challenging could be seen as violating cultural norms.

14. What is content curation and why is it important for training?

Content curation refers to the process of identifying relevant training content and organizing it in a way that makes it easy for trainees to access it. For example, at Mariner Financial existing training content is reviewed four times per year to ensure it is relevant. Relevance is based on employee feedback after they complete training and discussions with managers. Trends in quizzes completed by trainees in online courses, such as questions that are consistently answered wrong, are used to update and change the emphasis of courses.

15. What features are necessary to make microlearning effective? Identify the feature and explain how it facilitates learning.

The following are characteristics of effective micro learning: o

engages trainees by including activities that get the trainee involved such as games and reflection (promotes active learning)

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o o o o o

uses videos, checklists, diagrams, or visuals to provide trainees with new and meaningful content (trains and reinforces content through different means) trainees practice using scenarios or other activities (trains and reinforces content through different means) trainees can access and reference the content back on the job ( helps promote transfer) trainees can choose when and what to learn ( makes sure that training is aligned with trainees’ personal needs and provides for flexibility) quizzes are used to measure what trainees have learned (reinforces content)

Chapter 6

Training Evaluation

This chapter provides an overview of how to evaluate training programs, including the types of outcomes that need to be measured and the types of evaluation designs available. The chapter highlights the importance of evaluating whether the training has accomplished its objectives and, particularly, whether job performance and organizational results have improved as a result. Formative and summative evaluation are discussed and compared, and the process of evaluating training is outlined and outcomes used to evaluate training are described in detail. In an environment of accountability, expertise in assessing the effective of training from multiple perspectives is invaluable.

Objectives 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

Explain why evaluation is important.

Identify and choose outcomes to evaluate a training program.

Discuss the process used to plan and implement a good training evaluation.

Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of different evaluation designs.

Choose the appropriate evaluation design based on the characteristics of the company and the importance and purpose of the training.

Conduct a cost-benefit analysis for a training program.

Explain the role of big data workforce analytics and dashboards in determining the value of training practices.

Introduction Training effectiveness refers to the benefits that the company and trainees experience as a result of training. Benefits for the trainees include learning new knowledge, skills, and behaviors. Potential benefits for the company include increased sales, improved quality, and more satisfied customers.

Training evaluation refers to the process of collecting data regarding outcomes needed to determine whether training is effective.

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Training outcomes, or criteria, refer to measures that the trainer and the company use to evaluate training programs.

Evaluation design refers to the collection of information that will be used to determine the effectiveness of the training program.

Any organization that evaluates training has to be confident that training—rather than same other factor—is responsible for changes in the outcomes of interest (e.g., turnover and productivity). The degree of confidence that any changes in the outcomes of interest is due to training depends on the type of evaluation design that is used.

Reasons for Evaluating Training Companies have made large dollar investments in training and education and view training as a strategy to be successful. Training evaluation provides a way to understand the investments that training produces and provides information needed to improve training. If a company received an inadequate return on investment, the company will likely reduce its investment or look for training providers outside the company who can provide training that yields the desired results.

Formative Evaluation Formative evaluation refers to the evaluation of training that takes place during program design.

Formative evaluation helps to ensure that the training program is well organized and runs smoothly and that trainees learn and are satisfied. Formative evaluation provides information about how to make a program better.

Formative evaluations ask employees, managers, and SMEs about their opinions about training content, methods, and the like. Training content may be changed to be more accurate, easier to understand, or more appealing, and training methods can be adjusted to improve learning.

Formative evaluation involves pilot testing. Pilot testing is the process of previewing a training program with potential trainees and their managers. The pilot testing group is then asked to provide feedback about the content and the methods of delivery. This feedback enables the trainer to make any needed improvements.

Summative Evaluation Summative evaluation refers to evaluation conducted to determine the extent to which trainees have changed as a result of training. That is, summative evaluation examines whether trainees have improved or acquired knowledge, skills, attitudes, behaviors, or other outcomes. Summative evaluation may also include examining the business impact of training.

There are multiple reasons to evaluate training effectiveness: o To identify the program’s strengths and weaknesses, including whether the program is meeting the learning objectives, the quality of the learning environment, and if transfer is occurring. o To assess whether the various features of the training context and content contribute to learning and transfer. o To identify which trainees benefited most or least from the program and why.

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o o o o

To gather information, such as testimonials, to use for marketing training.

To determine financial benefits and costs of the program.

To compare the costs and benefits of training versus other HRM investments.

To compare the costs and benefits of various training programs in order to choose the most effective programs.

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Overview of the Evaluation Process The evaluation process involves five key components.

Needs assessment The evaluation process should begin with determining training needs. Needs assessment helps identify what knowledge, skills, behavior, or other learned capabilities are needed.

Develop measurable learning objectives and analyze transfer of training Identify specific, measurable training objectives to guide the program. Besides considering the learning program objectives, it is important to consider the expectations of those individuals who support the program and have an interest in it. Analysis of the work environment can be useful for determining how well content will be transferred.

Development outcome measures Based on the preceding steps, outcome measures are designed to assess the extent to which learning and transfer have occurred.

Impact mapping is often used to identify and develop outcome measures. This refers to the process of using a small group of individuals who are stakeholders in training (SMEs, instructional designers, managers of trainees) to identify and agree on training program outcomes. The stakeholders can answer questions such as “What knowledge, skills, and behaviors will result from participating in the training program?”, “If, and how, will the program affect job performance?”, and “How will the company benefit?”.

Choose an evaluation strategy Once the outcomes have been identified, determine an evaluation strategy. Factors such as expertise, how quickly the information is needed, change potential, and the organizational culture should be considered.

Plan and execute the evaluation Planning and executing the evaluation involves previewing the program, as well as collecting training outcomes according to the evaluation design. The results of the evaluation are used to modify, market, or gain additional support for the program.

Outcomes Used in the Evaluation of Training Programs There are a number of outcomes that can be used to evaluate training effectiveness.

Kirkpatrick’s model is the classic model of training evaluation, which includes five levels: o Reactions (level 1)—What were the trainees’ reactions to the training? o Learning (level 2)—Did the trainees acquire new knowledge, skills, or attitudes? o Behavior (level 3)—Are trainees applying the content on the job post training? o Results (level 4)—Did the training result in better organizational performance? o ROI (level 5)—Was there a return on investment?

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Current thought in training evaluation has extended Kirkpatrick’s work to focus on six levels: o Reaction outcomes—Learner satisfaction o Learning or cognitive outcomes—Principles, facts, techniques, procedures, or processes that the learners have acquired o Behavior and skill-based outcomes—Interpersonal technical or motor skills or behaviors acquired by learners o Affective outcomes—Learner attitudes and motivation o Results—Payoffs for the company o Return on investment—Identification and comparison of learning benefits with costs Reaction Outcomes Reaction outcomes refer to the trainees’ perceptions of the training experience relating to the content, facilities, trainer, and methods of delivery. An accurate evaluation should include all the factors related to a successful learning environment. Reactions are often referred to as a measure of “creature comfort.” Key questions to consider include: o Did the trainees like the program? o Did the training environment help learning? o Was material meaningful and useful? o Was the program rigorous? o Was the program well organized? o Was the program engaging?

This information is typically collected at the program’s conclusion via a questionnaire. Reactions are often assessed by asking trainees to respond to a series of strongly agree-strongly disagree statements about the learning experience. Reaction measures can also include open-ended questions about the experience, such as “What did you learn that you are most likely to try on the job?” and “What topics covered in this program seem confusing?”

It is often believed that reactions are related to learning and transfer. Research suggests that reactions have the strongest relationship with affective outcomes. Reactions are also significantly related to changes in declarative and procedural knowledge.

Net Promoter Score Some companies are evaluating learners’ satisfaction using a Net Promoter Score (NPS). A Net Promotor Score (NPS) refers to a score designed to measure employees’ satisfaction with a course offering by asking them to rate the likelihood of recommending it to a peer by using a 0-10 point scale. The number on the scale that an employee chooses is then classified into one of three categories: “Detractors,” (0-6 on the scale) “Passives” (7-8 on the scale), or “Promoters” (9-10 on the scale)” Then, using a formula ((Number of Promoters — Number of Detractors) / (Number of Respondents) x 100), the NPS is computed.

For example, consider one hundred employees who completed the same online course and provided ratings. The ratings were in the following categories: 5 ratings in the “Detractors” category, 25 ratings in the “Passives” category, and 70 ratings in the “Promotors” category. The NPS is computed by using the formula (70 Promotors – 5 Detractors)/ (100 Respondents) X 100 = 65. The NPS is 65. NPS scores can range from -100 to 100.

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The NPS has several advantages over traditional reaction measures. One advantage is that it is simple for learners to complete. Another is that it gives a better idea of learners’ overall reaction to a program than an average score on a typical reaction measure. Also, it allows you to identify learners who liked the course (Promotors) and those who did not (Detractors) so you can follow-up with them to better understand the reasons for their ratings. A further advantage of the NPS is that it is commonly used to measure customer satisfaction in other aspects of the business.

A disadvantage of the NPS is that because it is based on one question it doesn’t provide a detailed assessment of important aspects of the training such as the facilities, the instructor or the content. To gain the benefits of both traditional reaction outcomes and NPS you might want to consider collecting both.

Learning or Cognitive Outcomes Cognitive outcomes are used to determine the degree to which trainees are familiar with the principles, facts, techniques, procedures, and processes emphasized in the training program. Cognitive outcomes measure what knowledge trainees learned in the program.

Typically, pencil-and-paper tests or self-assessments are used to assess cognitive outcomes. Selfassessments refer to learners’ estimates of how much they know or have learned from training. Tests and quizzes rather than self-assessments are the preferred measures of learning because self-assessments are only moderately related to learning and influenced by how much learners liked the course or were motivated to learn rather than what they actually learned.

Behavior and Skill-Based Outcomes Behavior and skill-based outcomes relate to proficiency with technical or motor skills and behavior. These outcomes include both the learning of skills and their transfer. Skill learning is often assessed by observing performance in work samples. Skill transfer is typically assessed by observing trainees on the job or via managerial and peer ratings.

Affective Outcomes Affective outcomes include attitudes and motivation. Affective outcomes that might be collected include self-efficacy, employee engagement, motivation to learn, tolerance for diversity, safety attitudes, and customer service orientation. The attitude of interest depends on training objectives. Affective outcomes can be measured using surveys.

Results Results are those outcomes used to determine the benefits of the training program to the company.

Examples include reduced costs, increased employee retention, increased sales, accidents, increased production, and improved quality or customer service.

Return on Investment Return on Investment involves comparing the training program’s benefits in monetary terms to the program’s costs. o Benefits are the value the company receives from the training. o Direct costs include salaries and benefits of trainees, trainers, consultants, and any others involved in the training; program materials and supplies; equipment and facilities; and travel costs. o Indirect costs include office supplies, facilities, equipment and related expenses not directly related to the training program; travel and expenses not billed to one particular program; and training department management and staff support salaries.

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Determining Whether Outcomes are Appropriate An important issue in choosing outcomes is to determine whether they are appropriate.

Relevance Criteria relevance refers to the extent to which training outcomes are related to the learned capabilities emphasized in the program. One way to ensure the relevance is to choose outcomes based on the learning objectives for the program. There are two ways outcomes may lack relevance—criterion contamination and criterion deficiency. o Criterion contamination refers to the inclusion of inappropriate or irrelevant outcomes. o Criterion deficiency refers to the omission of important information.

Reliability Reliability is whether outcomes can be measured consistently over time. Predominantly, we are concerned with consistency over time, such that a reliable test contains items that do not change in meaning or interpretation over time.

Discrimination Discrimination refers to whether performance on the outcome reflects true differences in performance.

For example, we want tests that can discriminate between high and low performance. A test that may not discriminate is one that is too easy. In this instance, both high and low performers would do well on the test. Both groups would appear “good” even though they are not.

Practicality Practicality is the ease with which the outcome measures can be collected. One reason companies give for not including learning, performance, and behavior outcomes is that collecting them is too burdensome.

Evaluation Practices Below are percentage estimates of organizations examining different training outcomes. o Reactions 83% o Learning 80% o Behavior 54% o Results 38% o ROI 16% o None 5% Reactions and cognitive outcomes are the most frequently used outcomes in training evaluation. Despite the less frequent use of cognitive, behavioral, and results outcomes, research suggests that training can have a positive effect on these outcomes.

There are a number of reasons why companies fail to evaluate training. Learning professionals report that access to data and tools needed to obtain them are significant barriers.

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Which Training Outcomes Should Be Collected?

It is not always necessary to collect data on all of the training outcomes. While collecting data on all outcomes is ideal, doing so may not always be necessary depending on the scope of the training, its strategic value, and practical considerations. To ensure adequate training evaluation, companies should collect outcome measures related to both learning and transfer.

The various training outcomes measures are largely independent of each other. It cannot be assumed that positive reactions lead to greater transfer. Research suggests that the relationships among the outcomes are small.

One way to help determine which training outcomes should be collected is to use the logic model. The logic model refers to the process used to identify the relationship between training resources, training activities, and program outcomes. There are several steps involved in using the logic model. o Identify the strategic goal and training program goal. o Identify the training resources used to design training activities and the training activities used to accomplish the program goals. o Identify short-term outcomes resulting from the activities (reaction and learning outcomes) and more intermediate and longer-term outcomes (behavior and results) There are three types of transfer: o Positive transfer is demonstrated when learning occurs with positive changes in on-the-job behavior. o No transfer is demonstrated when learning occurs without changes in on-the-job behavior, o Negative transfer is evident when learning occurs, but on-the-job behavior is lower than pretraining levels.

When should they be measured?

In most cases, reactions are usually measured immediately after training. Learning, behavior, and results should be measured after sufficient time has elapsed to determine whether training has had an influence on these outcomes.

Evaluation Designs The design of the training evaluation determines the confidence that can be placed in the results. No training evaluator can be absolutely certain that the results of the evaluation are completely true. The evaluator should strive for the most rigorous design possible.

Threats to Validity: Alternative Explanations for Evaluation Results Threats to validity refer to factors that will lead an evaluator to question either the believability of the study results or the extent to which the evaluation results are generalizable to other groups of trainees and situations.

Internal validity is the believability of the study. An evaluation needs internal validity to provide confidence that the findings are due to training and not another factor.

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External validity refers to the generalizability of the evaluation results to other groups and other situations.

Methods to control for threats to validity: o Use pre-tests and post-tests to determine the extent to which trainees have changed from pretraining to post-training measures. The pre-training measure essentially establishes a baseline. o Use a comparison group (a group that participates in the evaluation study, but does not receive the training) to rule out factors other than training as the cause of changes in the trainees. o Random assignment of employees to comparison and training groups. Randomization helps to ensure that members of the control group and training group are of similar makeup prior to the training.

The Hawthorne effect refers to employees in an evaluation study performing at a high level simply because of the attention they are receiving. Use of a comparison group helps show that any effects observed are due specifically to the training rather than the attention the trainees are receiving.

Types of Evaluation Designs

Posttest only The post-test only design involves collecting only post-training outcome measures. This design would be strengthened by the use of a control group to rule out alternative explanations. This design is appropriate when trainees can be expected to have similar levels of knowledge, behavior, etc. prior to training.

Pretest/Posttest This design involves collecting both pre-training and post-training outcome measures to determine whether a change has occurred after training.

Pretest/Posttest with Comparison Group This design includes pre-training and post-training outcome measurements and a control group. If the post-training improvement is greater for the group that receives training, there is evidence that training was responsible for the change.

Time Series The time series design involves collecting outcome measurements at periodic intervals pre- and posttraining. A comparison group may also be used. The strength of this design can be improved by using reversal, which refers to a time period when participants no longer receive training. This design allows for an analysis of the stability of training outcomes over time.

Solomon Four-Group The Solomon Four-Group design combines the pretest/posttest comparison group design and the posttest-only control group design. It involves the use of four groups: o Pre-test, treatment, post-test o Pre-test, no treatment, post-test o No pre-test, treatment, post-test o No pre-test, no treatment, post-test This design provides the most controls for internal and external validity.

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Considerations in Choosing an Evaluation Design There are several reasons why no evaluation or a less rigorous design may be appropriate: o Managers and trainers may be unwilling to devote the time o Managers and trainees may lack the expertise to evaluate o The company may view training as an investment from which it expects little or no return A more rigorous evaluation design should be considered when: o the evaluation results can be used to change the program o the training is ongoing and has the potential to affect many employees o the training program involves multiple classes and a large number of trainees o cost justification for training is based on numerical indicators o trainers or others in the company have the expertise to evaluate o the cost of training creates a need to show that it works o there is sufficient time for conducting an evaluation o there is interest in measuring change from pre-training levels or in comparing two or more different programs Evaluation designs without pretesting or comparison groups are most appropriate when you are interested only in whether a specific level of performance has been achieved, and not how much change has occurred.

Sometimes naturally occurring comparison groups are available. This can occur because of the realities of scheduling employees to attend training, when not all employees can attend. When this occurs, for example, a pre-test/post-test design could be employed with a control group.

Determining Return on Investment ROI is an important training outcome. ROI can be assessed by conducting a cost-benefit analysis. A costbenefit analysis determines the net economic benefits of training using accounting methods. There is an increased interest in measuring the ROI of training because of the need to show results. However because ROI analysis can be costly, it should be limited only to training programs where there was a significant investment.

Training cost information is important for several reasons: o to understand total expenditures for training, including direct and indirect costs o to compare the costs of alternative training programs o to evaluate the proportion of the training budget spent on the development of training, administrative costs, and evaluation as well as how much is spent on various types of employees o to control costs The process of determining ROI includes: o understanding the objectives of the training program o isolating the effects of training from other factors that might influence the data o converting data to a monetary value and calculating ROI

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Determining Costs One method to determine costs is the resource requirements model. The resource requirements model compares equipment, facilities, personnel, and materials costs across different stages of the training process. This model can help determine overall differences in costs among training programs. Cost incurred at different stages of the training process can be compared across groups.

Accounting can also be used to calculate costs. There are seven categories of cost sources: o program development or purchase o instructional materials o equipment and hardware o facilities o travel and lodging o salary of the trainer and support staff o cost of either lost productivity or replacement workers while trainees are away from their jobs Determining Benefits To identify benefits, one must review the original reasons training was conducted. A number of methods may be helpful to identify training benefits, including: o technical, practitioner and academic literature that summarizes benefits of training programs o pilot training programs that assess the benefits from a small group of trainees before a company commits more resources o observing successful job performers to determine what successful job performers do differently from unsuccessful ones o asking trainees and managers to provide estimates of benefits Calculating ROI To calculate return on investment, follow these steps: o identify outcomes o place a monetary value on the outcomes o determine the annual change in outcomes o obtain an annual amount of benefits by multiplying the change in outcomes by the monetary value o determine training costs o calculate net benefit by subtracting the training costs from benefits o calculate ROI by dividing net benefits by costs—the ROI gives an estimate of the dollar return expected from each dollar invested in training Other Methods of Cost-Benefit Analysis Utility analysis assesses the dollar value of training based on estimates of the difference in job performance between trained and untrained employees, the number of employees trained, the length of time the program is expected to influence performance, and the variability in job performance in the untrained group of employees. Utility analysis employs a highly sophisticated formula that requires the use of pretest and posttest with a comparison group.

Other types of economic analyses evaluate training as it benefits the firm or government using direct and indirect costs, incentives paid by the government for training, wage increases received by trainees as a result of the training, tax rates, and discount rates.

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Practical Considerations in Determining Return on Investment Training programs best suited for ROI analysis have clearly identified outcomes, are not one-time events, are highly visible in the company, are strategically focused, and have effects that can be isolated.

Success Cases and Return on Expectations Success cases refer to concrete examples of the impact of training that show how learning has led to results that the company finds worthwhile and the managers find credible. Success cases do not attempt to isolate the influence of training, but rather to provide evidence that training was useful.

Return on expectations (ROE) demonstrates to key business stakeholders, such as top-level managers, that their expectations about training have been satisfied. ROE depends on establishing a business partnership with key stakeholders from the start of a training program through its evaluation.

Measuring Human Capital and Training Activity It is important to remember that evaluation can involve determining the extent to which training contributes to business strategy and helps achieve business goals.

Metrics are valuable for benchmarking purposes, for understanding the current amount of training activity in a company, and for tracking historical trends in training activity. The following are examples of such metrics: o Expenditure per employee o Learning hours received per employee o Expenditure as a percentage of payroll o Expenditure as a percentage of revenue o Cost per learning hour received o Percentage of expenditures for external services o Learning hours received per training and development staff member o Average percentage of learning activities outsourced o Average percentage of learning content by content area (e.g., basic skills, customer service, executive development) o Average percentage of learning hours provided via different delivery methods (instructor-led, technology-based, etc.) o Hours spent in training related to reskilling or upskilling o Expenditure on reskilling or upskilling per employee

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Human capital metrics, including those related to training, development, and learning, are increasingly being recognized as important indicators of company effectiveness. The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) published the first-ever “Human Capital Reporting Standards.” These standards recommend that all organizations need to publicly report 10 human capital measures including the percentage of employees who have completed training on compliance and ethics and development and training costs.

Big Data and Workforce Analytics Big data refer to complex datasets developed by compiling data across different organizational systems, including marketing and sales, HR, finance, accounting, customer service, and operations. Three dimensions characterize big data: volume, variety, and velocity. o Volume refers to the amount of available data. o Variety includes the large number of sources and types of data. o Velocity refers to the huge amount of data that is being generated and the speed with which it must be evaluated, captured, and made useful.

In the present context, big data allow for the making of decisions about human capital based on data, rather than on intuition and conventional wisdom. In a training context, big data can be used to: o evaluate the effectiveness of programs o determine their impact on business results o develop predictive models for forecasting training needs, course enrollments, and outcomes Workforce analytics refers to the practice of using quantitative and scientific methods to analyze data from HR databases, corporate financial statements, employee surveys, and other data sources.

Some companies are using dashboards to help measure the effectiveness, financial benefits, and relationship of learning activities to business strategy and goals. A dashboard refers to a computer interface designed to receive and analyze the data from departments within the company to provide information to managers and other decision-makers. Dashboards can draw their data from different sources, such as the company’s human resource information system or learning management or course enrollment system.

Discussion Questions 1.

What can be done to motivate companies to evaluate training programs?

Management should be made aware of the multiple reasons to evaluate training effectiveness: o To identify the program’s strengths and weaknesses, including whether the program is meeting the learning objectives, the quality of the learning environment, and if transfer of training back to the job is occurring. o To assess whether the various features of the training context and content contribute to learning and the transfer of learning back to the job. o To identify which trainees benefited most or least from the program and why. o To gather information, such as trainees’ testimonials, to use for marketing training programs. o To determine financial benefits and costs of the program.

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o o

To compare the costs and benefits of training versus other human resource investments.

To compare the costs and benefits of various training programs in order to choose the most effective programs.

Many companies may not evaluate training due to a lack of expertise, time, and resources. Companies may incorrectly assume that training automatically results in value, which may not always be the case.

Efforts should be made to overcome these obstacles. In doing so, companies may be more motivated evaluate training.

2.

What do threats to validity have to do with training evaluation? Identify internal and external threats to validity. Are internal and external threats similar? Explain.

If threats to validity exist, the evaluator may question whether a training program was really effective or if possible benefits were the result of other factors. Internal validity is the believability of the study.

An evaluation needs internal validity to provide confidence that the findings are due to training and not another factor. External validity refers to the generalizability of the evaluation results to other groups and other situations. Characteristics of the company, the outcome measures, and the persons in the evaluation study are the internal threats to validity. Reaction to pretest, reaction to evaluation, interaction of selection and training, and interaction of methods are the external threats to validity.

Internal and external threats are not similar. Threats to external validity relate to how study participants react to being included in the study and the effects of multiple types of training, whereas internal validity provides confidence that the results of the evaluation are due to the training program and not to another factor.

3.

What are the strengths and weaknesses of each of the following designs: posttest-only, pretest/posttest with comparison group, and pretest/posttest only?

A post-test-only design requires less time and effort than the others, but fails to recognize initial differences in trainees or the possibility that the outcomes are due to another business.

Pretest/post-test only acknowledges the performance of the trained group before the training, but ignores other business factors that may be occurring between the two evaluations.

Pretest/post-test with comparison group is the most thorough, but involves the most time and effort to collect data.

4.

What is a net promoter score? Explain its usefulness in training evaluation.

Some companies are evaluating learners’ satisfaction using a Net Promoter Score (NPS). A Net Promotor Score (NPS) refers to a score designed to measure employees’ satisfaction with a course offering by asking them to rate the likelihood of recommending it to a peer by using a 0-10 point scale. The number on the scale that an employee chooses is then classified into one of three categories: “Detractors,” (0-6 on the scale) “Passives” (7-8 on the scale), or “Promoters” (9-10 on the scale)” Then, using a formula ((Number of Promoters — Number of Detractors) / (Number of Respondents) x 100), the NPS is computed.

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The NPS has several advantages over traditional reaction measures. One advantage is that it is simple for learners to complete. Another is that it gives a better idea of learners overall reaction to a program than an average score on a typical reaction measure. Also, it allows you to identify learners who liked the course (Promotors) and those who did not (Detractors), so you can follow-up with them to better understand the reasons for their ratings. Further, it is commonly used to measure customer satisfaction in other aspects of the business.

5.

What are results outcomes? Why do you think that most organizations don’t use results outcomes for evaluating their training programs?

Results outcomes are level 4 criteria in Kirkpatrick’s framework. They are the benefits of the training program for the company, such as lower employee turnover, increased sales, better customer service, and the like. These data may be difficult to collect, and companies may not have expertise to statistically link training to these outcomes.

6.

This chapter discussed several factors that influence the choice of evaluation design. Which of these factors would have the greatest influence on your choice of and evaluation design? Which would have the least influence? Explain your choices.

Student answers would vary. The factors that influence the choice of evaluation design include: o change potential—which determines whether the program can be modified o importance—which determines whether ineffective training affects customer service, product development, or relationships among employees o scale—which determines the number of trainees involved o purpose of training—which determines whether training is conducted for learning, results, or both o organization culture—which determines whether demonstrating results is a part of company norms and expectations o expertise—which determines the possibility of analyzing a complex study o cost—which determines whether the evaluation is expensive o time frame—which determines when the information is needed

7.

How might you estimate the benefits of a training program designed to teach employees how to use the Internet to monitor stock prices?

A test could be performed to see if the employees are capable of monitoring the stock prices. Surveys could be used to see how frequently they monitor stock in a given day to determine how well they have integrated that knowledge into their behavior. Then employees could estimate how much behavior benefits the company. To determine the economic benefits of the training program, ROI can be calculated through a cost benefit analysis. Also, the following methods may help to identify the benefits of the training program: o Technical, academic, and practitioner literature that summarizes the benefits that have been shown to relate to the specific training program. o Observance of successful job performers helps a company determine what successful job performers do differently than unsuccessful job performers. o Trainees and their managers provide estimates of training benefits.

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8.

A group of managers (N = 25) participated in the problem-solving module of a leadership development program two weeks ago. The module consisted of two days in which the group focused on the correct process to use in problem solving. Each manager supervises fifteen to twenty employees. The company is willing to change the program, and there is an increasing emphasis in the company to show that training expenses are justifiable. You are asked to evaluate this program. Your boss would like the results of the evaluation no later than six weeks from now. Discuss the outcomes you would collect and the design you would use. How might your answer change if the managers have not yet attended the program?

If the evaluation is done after the program is completed, a posttest only design could be used, comparing the group of managers to a control group.

You could assess trainees’ reactions at this point, to have them reflect on their perceived valued of the program. More importantly, you could have the managers provide self-assessments of their performance and motivation to transfer. Specifically, you could examine various decisions made by the managers over several weeks and determine their effectiveness in solving various problems.

Further, the managers’ employees could provide data on the managers’ ability to successfully transfer.

If the managers had not yet attended the program, they can be used as a comparison group or pretest skills and productivity can be recorded for later comparison. Hence, a pretest/post-test with comparison group method could be applied.

9.

What practical considerations need to be taken into account when calculating a training program’s ROI? Training programs best suited for ROI analysis have clearly identified outcomes, are not one-time events, are highly visible in the company, are strategically focused, and have effects that can be isolated.

10. What is return on expectations (ROE)? How can it be used to show the costs and benefits of training without collecting statistics and conducting analyses? Explain its strengths and weaknesses compared to a cost-benefit analysis.

Return on expectations (ROE) refers to the process through which evaluation demonstrates to key business stakeholders, such as top-level managers, that their expectations about training have been satisfied. ROE depends on establishing a business partnership with business stakeholders from the start of a training program through its evaluation. The ROE is used as an estimate in an ROI analysis.

11. What are the characteristics of big data? Explain how big data could be used to show that learning influences business outcomes.

Big data refers to complex datasets developed by compiling data across different organizational systems, including marketing and sales, HR, finance, accounting, accounting customer service, and operations. Three dimensions characterize big data: volume, variety, and velocity. o Volume refers to the amount of available data. o Variety includes the large number of sources and types of data.

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o

Velocity refers to the huge amount of data that is being generated and the speed with which it must be evaluated, captured, and made useful.

Data can be used from different sources to demonstrate relationships between learning and business outcomes, such as data from employee records, learning and performance management, systems and customer relationship management systems. The goal is the merge the data from these sources to show that employees who attended training had positive influence of different metrics.

Application Question th

Answer to Question 7, Chapter 6, ETD 9 edition a. What is the total cost of training? The total cost of turnover?

100 employees 23% turnover rate means that 23 employee leave each year (.23 X 100) Recruiting and training cost to replace an employee = $56,625 Total cost of turnover per year = 23 employees X $56,625 replacement cost = $1,302,375 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------80 hours per year per employee Average employee wage = $35 per hour Instructor classroom and other costs = $170,000 Total cost of training = $280,000 + $170,000 = $450,000 Compensation costs = 100 employees X $35 per hour X 80 hours of training per year= $280,000 Instructor classroom, and other costs = $170,000 b. If the turnover rate dropped 8 percent (from 23% to 15%) what would be the financial benefit of the training program?

Cost of 23% turnover rate (100 employees, 23 leave each year) Replacement cost per employee = $56, 625 $56,625 X 23 = $1,302,375 (cost of 23% turnover rate) Cost if turnover rate drops to 15% $56,625 X 15 = $849,375 (cost of 15% turnover rate) Savings of turnover decrease from 23% to 15% (8% decrease) $1,302,375 - $849,375 = $453,000 The training program costs $450,000

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Financial benefit = turnover savings – training program costs $453,000 - $450,000 = $3000 ----------------------------------------------c. What is the ROI of the skills training program?

ROI = Return/Investment = Benefits-Costs/Costs Benefits = $453,000 (savings in turnover costs) Costs = $450,000 (cost of the training program) 453,000 – 450,000/450,000 =.006 At an 8% reduction in the turnover rate the training program is not providing a positive return.

Given the training program costs a larger reduction in the turnover rate is necessary to realize a positive ROI. --------------------------------------------------------------d. How much would the turnover rate have to be reduced (from 23 percent) for the training program to show a benefit?

The turnover rate would have to be reduced at least 16% (from 23% to 7%) for a positive ROI ROI at 16% reduction of turnover is 1:1.01 Replacement cost per employee = $56, 625 $56,625 X 23 = $1,302,375 (cost of 23% turnover rate) Cost if turnover rate drops to 7% (reduction of 16% of turnover rate) $56,625 X 7 = $396,375 (cost of 7% turnover rate) Savings of turnover if decrease from 23% to 7% (16% decrease) $1,302,375 (cost of 23% turnover) - $396,375 (cost of 7% turnover) = $906,000 (benefit or savings realized from reducing turnover 16%) The training program costs $450,000 ROI = Benefit-cost/cost $906,000 – $450,000/$450,000 = 1.01 ROI is 1:1.01

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Chapter 7

Traditional Training Methods

This chapter reviews traditional methods that can be used in training delivery. The traditional training methods addressed in this chapter are organized into three broad categories: presentation methods, hands-on methods, and group building methods. While new technologies have changed training delivery in many respects, traditional methods are still used in virtually all organizations, often in conjunction with new innovations. Different methods are described, along with their advantages and limitations. The chapter concludes by comparing methods on several characteristics, including learning outcomes, transfer enhancement, cost, and overall effectiveness. Fundamentally the goal of this chapter is to educate the reader on how best to employ different training methods to maximize learning, transfer, and other effectiveness criteria.

Objectives 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of presentational, hands-on, and group building training methods.

Provide recommendations for effective on-the-job training (OJT).

Develop a case study.

Develop a self-directed learning module.

Discuss the key components of behavior modeling training.

Explain the conditions necessary for adventure learning to be effective.

Discuss what team training should focus on to improve team performance.

Introduction Several studies have demonstrated that most workplace learning occurs informally on the job and through interactions with others. The 70-20-10 model is a commonly used formula in the training profession to describe the optimal sources of learning. It holds that individuals obtain 70 percent of their knowledge from job-related experiences, 20 percent from interactions with others, and 10 percent from formal educational events. Notwithstanding the importance of informal learning, traditional training methods still have their place.

Figure 7.1 shows a learning system with four quadrants. The framework crosses two dimensions. The first dimension is competency vs. context based learning. Competency based learning occurs when the company has defined a set of broad competencies for positions or for the whole company. Context based learning is unique to employees specific needs. The second dimension relates to whether learning is guided (created and guided by the company) vs. social (created and guided by user).  Guided competency learning—well defined competencies trained via lecture and online methods  Social competency learning—well defined competencies learned via mentoring, job experiences, and coaching

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 

Guided contextual learning: context dependent knowledge and skills trained via simulation, onthe-job training, behavior modeling, and experiential learning Social contextual learning: context dependent knowledge and skills learned via social media and informal interactions through others

More and more companies are using training methods from all four quadrants. This allows employees to have more choice in how and when they learn. It also recognizes the need for both dedicated training time using traditional methods (such as instructor-led courses) as well as just-in-time learning that can occur through accessing relevant content (such as a video) or interacting with peers and experts (such as through social media).

Presentation Methods Presentation methods are methods in which trainees are passive recipients of information, such as facts, processes, and problem-solving methods.

Lecture A lecture is the method of training delivery involving a trainer verbally communicating material.

Communication is primarily one-way. Instructor-led classroom instruction remains a popular training method despite new technologies.

There are different variations of the lecture: o Standard lecture: trainer talks while trainees listen o Team teaching: two or more trainers present different topics or alternative views of information o Guest speakers: speakers visit a session for a predetermined time o Panel: two or more speakers present information and ask questions o Student presentations: groups of trainees present topics to the class Advantages Lecture is relatively inexpensive, and it is an efficient way to cover a large amount of information to a large group. Lecture is also useful when the instructor is the main knowledge holder. A lecture can also demonstrate a subject matter expert’s enthusiasm for a topic.

Disadvantages Disadvantages of lectures include the lack of trainee involvement, lack of feedback, and the potentially weak connection to the work environment. It is also difficult to judge learners’ levels of understanding.

Thus, lecture is often supplemented with more participative methods.

Audiovisual Techniques Audiovisual instruction includes overheads, slides, and video. Video is one of the most popular training methods, but is rarely used alone. Video can be highly effective for illustrating communication skills, interviewing skills, customer-service skills, and step-by-step procedures. Video is also useful for giving real-life examples of material covered via lecture or other methods.

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Advantages Video can demonstrate content that cannot be easily demonstrated live, provides consistency in training from session to session, and serves as a useful complement to other training methods.

Disadvantages Most problems with video result from the creative approach used. Disadvantages include too much content for trainees to absorb, poor dialogue or poor acting, and overuse of music and humor. Videos may also become obsolete, limiting their credibility. Given that video is passive, it should be used in conjunction with more active learning methods.

Hands-On Methods Hands-on methods are those that require the trainee to be actively involved in the learning process.

On-the-job Training On-the-job training (OJT) involves new or inexperienced employees learning by observing their peers or managers at work and trying to emulate their behaviors. OJT is considered informal because it does not necessarily occur as part of a training program and because managers, peers, or mentors serve as trainers.

OJT can be useful for training newly hired or promoted employees, upgrading experienced employees’ skills when new technology is introduced, and cross-training employees.

Advantages OJT requires less time and cost. It can be customized to the specific needs of an employee, and training is immediately applicable because OJT occurs on the job using actual tools and equipment. OJT can be offered at any time, and trainers are readily available because they are peers or managers. Because OJT focuses on actual job content, transfer is maximized.

Disadvantages

OJT is typically unstructured and may be inconsistent. Bad habits may be passed on. Therefore, OJT should be structured to be most effective.

There are a number of principles to structure and enhance OJT. Some of these principles include: o Effectively prepare for instruction by breaking tasks down into important steps o Prepare the necessary resources and support prior to training o Show trainees how to perform the task and explain key points o Have the trainee practice small parts and then the entire task o Provide praise and constructive feedback o Have the trainee practice until accurate reproduction is achieved o Provide support materials to facilitate transfer o Evaluate the OJT An effective OJT program includes: o A policy statement describing the purpose of OJT, emphasizing the company’s support o A clear specification of who is accountable for conducting OJT. If managers conduct OJT, this is mentioned in their job descriptions and is part of their performance evaluations. o A thorough review of OJT at similar companies.

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o o o

Training of managers and peers in the principles of structured OJT. Availability of lesson plans, checklists, manuals, learning contracts, and progress report forms Evaluation of employees’ levels of basic skills (reading, computation, writing) before OJT.

Apprenticeship An apprenticeship is work-study type training involving both on-the-job and classroom training.

Apprenticeships are typically sponsored either by a company or by a trade union. The typical length of an apprenticeship is four years, but they can range from two to six years. Apprenticeships are most common for positions in the skilled trades, such as for an electrician, carpenter, and plumber.

To qualify as a registered apprenticeship under state or federal guidelines, the apprenticeship must involve at least 144 hours of classroom instruction and a certain number of hours, which depend on the state. Once training is complete, apprentices are called journey workers, and they earn certification from the U.S. Department of Labor or a state apprenticeship agency.

Advantages Apprenticeships have benefits for both the learner and the company. Learners earn pay while they learn and their wages increase automatically as their skills improve. Learners often receive a job offer and good wages from the company that sponsors their training. Apprentices gain a wide range of skills and knowledge based on their classroom and on-the-job experience. Apprenticeship programs benefit employers by providing them with the skills they need but are difficult to find in the labor market.

Employers benefit from high employee retention and loyalty rates among apprentices, improved morale and emphasis on continuous learning, a talent pool, improved safety, and training customized to their needs.

Disadvantages The disadvantages of apprenticeships include the development costs and the time commitment that management and learners have to make. There is a somewhat narrow skill focus in current apprenticeships (i.e., one craft or trade), which may be somewhat limiting. From a diversity perspective, these programs have historically restricted access to women and minorities.

Simulations A simulation is a training method that represents a real-life situation, with trainees’ decisions resulting in outcomes that mirror what would happen if they were on the job. Simulations can be used as a standalone training method or incorporated into a course or program. Short simulations can be 5 to 12 minutes long, focusing on a single subject area. Short simulations do get learners to interact with the content, helping to facilitate and reinforce learning and transfer of training at a lower cost and time commitment than is involved with complex simulations. However, short simulations do not provide the immersive experience of a longer more complex simulation, which mimics a complex situation or type of equipment (such as a flight simulator for pilots).

Advantages Simulations allow for highly realistic hands-on practice, and they allow trainees to make mistakes and learn from them without fear of negative repercussions.

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Disadvantages Simulations can be expensive to develop. Further, it may be difficult to fully incorporate identical elements.

Case Studies A case study is a description about how employees or an organization dealt with a difficult situation.

Trainees are required to analyze and critique the actions taken, indicate the appropriate actions, and suggest what might have been done differently. This approach assumes that individuals learn through a process of discovery. Cases are usually appropriate for developing higher-order intellectual skills such as analysis, synthesis and evaluation, which are needed by managers, physicians and many other professionals.

Four types of case studies are common in training contexts: 1. Illustrative case studies include one or two instances of an event or a concept to provide trainees with information and clarity 2. Explanatory case studies are those that describe events or phenomena where the results are known and not open to interpretation 3. Intrinsic case studies focus on a person such as a leader, manager, or patient 4. Critical instance case studies are those that examine one or more situations to emphasize a point or test an assumption The following are key steps for developing cases: o Identify a story o Gather information o Prepare a story outline o Decide on administrative issues o Prepare case materials Advantages Cases are useful for developing intellectual skills, as noted above, and they are good for engaging learners.

Disadvantages

Learners must be highly motivated and have a degree of expertise. Thus, cases may be not appropriate for all learners. Existing cases have the advantage of being already prepared, but may not actually relate to the specific company or work situation. Trainees’ recommendations are merely hypothetical; it is unknown how they would actually transfer skills.

Business Games Business games require trainees to actively gather information, analyze, and make decisions, typically for the purpose of developing managerial skills. Games are primarily used for management skill development.

Games stimulate learning because participants are actively involved and because games mimic the competitive nature of business. Games are also used for developing job-specific skills, such as patient triage and aircraft repair.

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Typical games share several characteristics: o The game involves a contest either among trainees, among teams of trainees, or against an established criterion such as time or quantity. o The game is designed to demonstrate an understanding and application of a knowledge, skill, or behavior. o Several alternative courses of action are available to trainees, and trainees can estimate the consequences of each alternative, but only with some uncertainty. o Trainees do not know for certain what the consequences of their actions will be because the consequences are partially based on the decisions of other participants. o Rules limit participant behavior.

To ensure learning and transfer of training, games used in training should be simple enough that trainees can play them in a short period of time. The best games generate excitement among the participants and interest in the game. Meaningfulness of the game is enhanced if it is realistic and if content is relevant to the job. Debriefing from a trainer can help trainees understand the game experience and facilitate learning and transfer.

The questions below are useful for debriefing business games: o How did the score of the game affect your behavior and the behavior of the team? o What did you learn from the game? o What aspects of the game remind you of situations at work? o How does the game relate to your work? o What did you learn from the game that you plan to use at work?

Advantages Games are similar to simulations. They can be used for training that would otherwise involve risk of accident or would be too costly. Games actively involve learners.

Disadvantages Games can be difficult to develop, and they may not always to be realistic. Trainees must be highly motivated.

Role Plays Role plays are a training method that requires the trainees take on a role such as a manager, client, or disgruntled employee, and explore what is involved in the role. Role plays are usually included in training programs focused on the development of interpersonal skills. Role-plays can be completed in small groups of two to three persons in which all trainees complete the role-play, or several trainees can volunteer to role-play while the remaining trainees observe them.

Advantages Role plays allow trainees to practice skills and be engaged.

Disadvantages Trainees may not always take role playing seriously. Role playing scenarios may not always be realistic.

Role plays need to be structured to be most effective. o Provide background on the context and purpose of the role play.

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o o o o

Provide a script with sufficient detail for the trainees to follow.

Arrange the room so other trainees can see the role players.

Provide observation sheets and checklists that highlight the key issues of the role play.

Provide sufficient time to debrief and provide feedback.

Behavior Modeling Behavior modeling is a hands-on method that involves presenting to trainees a model, highlighting the key behaviors and aspects of the model, allowing trainees to practice, and then providing feedback.

Behavior modeling is based on social learning theory. Social learning theory emphasizes that individuals learn by observing models of behavior, emulating such behavior, and then receiving reinforcement and rewards. Learning new skills results from directly experiencing the consequences of using a skill, as well as observing others and seeing the consequences of their behavior. Behavior modeling is appropriate for learning skills and behaviors and is very effective for teaching interpersonal skills.

Developing behavior modeling training involves determining what tasks need to be addressed and what key behaviors are necessary to complete the task. A key behavior is one of a set of behaviors that is needed to perform a task. Key behaviors for interpersonal skills are not exact behaviors, but rather general behaviors that are useful across situations.

Effective modeling displays include: o clear presentation of the key behaviors o a model that is credible to trainees o an overview of the key behaviors o repetition of each key behavior o a review of the key behaviors o models using the key behaviors both correctly and incorrectly The most effective practice sessions allow trainees to practice key behaviors multiple times risk-free with other trainees who understand the company and the job. The trainer and peers should provide feedback.

Practice sessions may also be videotaped to allow trainees to observe themselves.

Behavior modeling helps ensure that transfer of training occurs by using application planning. Application planning is the process for preparing trainees to transfer the key behaviors back to the job. It involves the trainee preparing a written document specifying situations in which they should use the key behaviors.

Advantages Behavior modeling involves hands-on practice and is highly effective in promoting transfer.

Disadvantages Behavioral modeling is potentially time-consuming to implement.

Group Building Methods Group building methods are those designed to improve work team or group effectiveness. These methods involve trainees sharing ideas and experiences, building group identity, generating an

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understanding of interpersonal dynamics, and getting to know the strengths and weaknesses of themselves and their teammates.

Group building methods often involve experiential learning. Experiential learning training programs have four stages: o gaining conceptual knowledge and theory o taking part in a behavioral simulation o analyzing the activity o connecting theory and the activity with on-the-job or real-life situations Adventure Learning Adventure learning is a training delivery method aimed at developing teamwork, leadership skills, selfawareness, problem solving, and conflict management skills. The activities range from highly strenuous and challenging ones, such as dog sledding or mountain climbing, to less physically challenging ones, such as rope courses, trust falls, and simulated high-level activities.

To be successful, adventure learning exercises must be related to a specific learning objective. After exercises, the facilitator should lead a discussion about what was learned, how events in the exercise relate to the job situation, and how to apply what was learned on the job.

Advantages Adventure learning provides an opportunity for trainees to interact and build relationships with coworkers in a more informal situation. The exercises can serve as “metaphors” for organizational events and individual behavior. The exercises can be self-enlightening, invigorating, and self-esteem enhancing.

Disadvantages Because adventure learning may be physically demanding and risky, the company may open itself up to negligence claims due to personal injury or emotional distress. These activities are often costly, and not all trainees may be motivated to participate. Adventure learning may not result in high levels of transfer.

Team Training Team training refers to training that is designed to improve team effectiveness. There are three key aspects of team performance—behavior, knowledge, and attitudes—that are the focus of team training. o behavior—teams must perform actions that allow them to communicate, coordinate, adapt, and complete complex tasks o knowledge—teams must have “mental models” or memory structures that allow them to function effectively o attitudes—effective teams require that members have favorable attitudes toward each other

There are five primary strategies for team training: o cross-training—developing understanding among team members of each other’s tasks and skills so that each member could perform the work of others o coordination training—involves training the team how to share information and make decisions o team leader training—training for the team manager or facilitator, which may involve how to resolve conflict and how to help the team coordinate activities and resources o scenario-based training—training that places team members in a realistic context while learning

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o

guided team self-correction—training that emphasizes continuous learning and knowledge sharing

Advantages When properly designed, team training generally results in more effective teams.

Disadvantages Effective team training is potentially costly and time-consuming.

Action Learning Action learning gives teams an actual problem, has them work on solving it, commit to an action plan, and holds them accountable. Companies use action learning to solve important problems, develop leaders, build high performance work teams, and transform organizational culture. Several types of problems are typically addressed, including how to change the business, better use technology, enhance customer service, and develop global leaders. Action learning typically involves teams of six to thirty employees.

Six Sigma and Kaizen training programs involve principles of action learning. Six Sigma is a data-driven approach and methodology for eliminating defects in any process, from manufacturing to transactional and from product to service. Kaizen, the Japanese word for improvement, is one of the underlying principles of lean manufacturing and total quality management. Kaizen refers to practices participated in by employees from all levels of the company that focus on continuous improvement. Learners attend training over a period of many weeks, complete application assignments, and apply what they’ve learned on the job. Trainees focus on specific work-related projects. Once trained, employees can train other employees and give advice and recommendations to management.

Advantages Action learning is highly interactive and potentially very engaging. It is also highly effective in developing the target skills and promoting transfer.

Disadvantages Action learning requires trainees with a high level of skill and ability. This is not necessarily a bad thing, but requires careful attention being paid to those who are involved.

Choosing a Training Method Selecting the most appropriate training methods is not necessarily straightforward. A variety of considerations should be taken into account. Such considerations include: o The learning outcome, which is the most important consideration o The learning environment o Transfer of training considerations o Cost o Overall effectiveness The following trends can be noted from the matrix for choosing training methods: o There is considerable overlap between learning outcomes across the various training methods.

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o o

Most of the hands-on methods provide a better environment for learning and transfer than the presentation methods, which are more passive.

The presentation methods are less expensive than hands-on methods.

If possible, trainers should use several different methods within a single training program to capitalize on the different strengths of each method for facilitating learning and transfer.

Discussion Questions 1.

What are the implications of the 70-20-10 model for choosing a training method?

Increased recognition of the 70-20-10 model has resulted in training emphasizing a more active role for the learner. The 70-20-10 model is a commonly used formula within the training profession to describe the optimal sources of learning. It holds that individuals obtain 70 percent of their knowledge from job-related experiences, 20 percent from interactions with others, and 10 percent from formal educational events.

2.

What are the differences between social contextual learning and guided competency development?

Are both types of learning (and associated training methods) necessary? Explain.

Social contextual learning is informal, peer-to-peer, and occurs spontaneously on an as-needed basis.

It usually involves employees sharing knowledge on issues, problems, and topics that are unique and context-dependent. Such learning may also occur via social media.

Guided competency development focuses on broad competencies that are applicable for positions or the entire company. Such development is “guided” in that it is structured by the company, typically using methods such as lectures and online learning.

Both are needed and do occur in organizations. They focus on different skill sets and employ different methods. Whether one is more important depends on the context.

3.

What are the strengths and weaknesses of the lecture, the case study, and behavior modeling?

Lecture Lecture is relatively inexpensive, and it is an efficient way to give a large amount of information to a large group. Lecture is also useful when the instructor is the main knowledge holder. A lecture can also demonstrate a subject matter expert’s enthusiasm for a topic. Disadvantages of lectures include the lack of trainee involvement, lack of feedback, and the potentially weak connection to the work environment. It also is difficult to judge learners’ levels of understanding. Thus, lecture is often supplemented with more participative methods.

Cases Cases are useful for developing intellectual skills, as noted above, and they are good for engaging learners. Learners must be highly motivated and have a degree of expertise. Thus, cases may be not appropriate for all learners. Existing cases have the advantage of being already prepared, but may not

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actually relate to the specific company or work situation. Trainees’ recommendations are merely hypothetical; it is unknown how they would actually transfer skills.

Behavior Modeling Behavior modeling involves hands on practice and is highly effective in promoting transfer. However, behavior modeling is potentially time-consuming to implement.

4.

If you had to choose between adventure learning and action learning for developing an effective team, which would you choose? Defend your choice.

Adventure learning focuses on the development of teamwork and leadership skills through structured activities. It includes wilderness training, outdoor training, drum circles, and even cooking classes.

Adventure learning appears to be best suited for developing skills related to group effectiveness such as self-awareness, problem solving, conflict management, and risk taking.

Action learning gives teams or work groups an actual problem, has them work on solving it, commit to an action plan, and holds them accountable for carrying out the plan. This type of learning teaches the trainees how to work as a team by researching a problem and finding a solution.

Adventure learning appears more appropriate when focusing on affective learning objectives; while action learning appears more appropriate when focusing on skill-based ones.

5.

Discuss the process of behavior modeling training.

Behavior modeling is a hands-on method that involves presenting to trainees a model, highlighting the key behaviors and aspects of the model, allowing trainees to practice, and then providing feedback. Behavior modeling is based on social learning theory. Social learning theory emphasizes that individuals learn by observing models of behavior, emulating such behavior, and then receiving reinforcement and rewards. Learning new skills results from directly experiencing the consequences of using a skill, as well as observing others and seeing the consequences of their behavior. Behavior modeling is appropriate for learning skills and behaviors and is very effective for teaching interpersonal and computer skills.

Effective modeling displays include: o clear presentation of the key behaviors o a model that is credible to trainees o an overview of the key behaviors o repetition of each key behavior o a review of the key behaviors o models using the key behaviors both correctly and incorrectly

6.

How can the characteristics of the trainee affect self-directed learning?

Trainees must be willing and comfortable learning on their own. Trainees must be motivated to learn.

These characteristics are important because the learning process is controlled by the trainee. Trainees master predetermined training content at their own pace without an instructor.

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7.

What are the components of effective team performance? How might training strengthen these components?

Team training refers to training that is designed to improve team effectiveness. There are three key aspects of team performance—behavior, knowledge, and attitudes—that are the focus of team training. o behavior—teams must perform actions that allow them to communicate, coordinate, adapt, and complete complex tasks o knowledge—teams must have “mental models” or memory structures that allow them to function effectively o attitudes—effective teams require that members have favorable attitudes toward each other

There are five primary strategies for team training: o cross-training—developing understanding among team members of each other’s tasks and skills so that each member could perform the work of others o coordination training—involves training the team how to share information and make decisions o team leader training—training for the team manager or facilitator, which may involve how to resolve conflict and how to help the team coordinate activities and resources o scenario-based training—training that places team members in a realistic context while learning o guided team self-correction—training that emphasizes continuous learning and knowledge sharing 8.

Table 7.11 compares training methods on a number of characteristics. Explain why simulation and behavior modeling receive high ratings for transfer of training.

These methods receive “high transfer ratings” because they involve hands-on practice and typically are high in “identical elements.”

9.

What are some reasons why on-the-job training (OJT) can prove ineffective? What can be done to ensure its effectiveness?

OJT may be ineffective because it may be too informal and haphazard, and there may not be consistent standards from employee to employee. Managers and peers may not understand that demonstration, practice, and feedback are important conditions for effective on-the-job training.

Furthermore, bad habits may be passed on.

There are a number of principles to structure and enhance OJT. o Effectively prepare for instruction by breaking tasks down into important steps o Prepare the necessary resources and support prior to training o Show trainees how to perform the task and explain key points o Have the trainee practice small parts and then the entire task o Provide praise and constructive feedback o Have the trainee practice until accurate reproduction is achieved o Provide support materials to facilitate transfer o Evaluate the OJT Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.

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An effective OJT program includes: o A policy statement describing the purpose of OJT, emphasizing the company’s support o A clear specification of who is accountable for conducting OJT. If managers conduct OJT, this is mentioned in their job descriptions and is part of their performance evaluations. o A thorough review of OJT at similar companies. o Training of managers and peers in the principles of structured OJT. o Availability of lesson plans, checklists, manuals, learning contracts, and progress report forms o Evaluation of employees’ levels of basic skills (reading, computation, writing) before OJT.

10. Why are apprenticeship programs attractive to employees? Why are they attractive to companies?

There are benefits for the learner and the company. Learners earn pay while they learn, and their wages increase as their skills improve. Learners often receive a competitive job offer from the company upon completion of the apprenticeship. From the company’s perspective, apprenticeships meet specific business training needs and help attract talented employees. The trainees tend to be highly skilled and exhibit high levels of motivation and loyalty.

11. Discuss the steps of an action learning program. Which aspect of action learning do you think is most beneficial for learning? Which is most beneficial for transfer of training? Explain why. Defend your choices.

Steps in action learning: o Identification of the sponsors of action learning, including CEOs and top managers o Identification of the problem or issue o Selection of the group to address the issue o Identification of coaches o Group discussions that address defining what the problem is and how to solve it o Data gathering and analysis to solve the problem o Group presentation on how to solve the problem o Self-reflection and debriefing Student answers will vary regarding which aspects are most and least important.

Chapter 8

Technology-Based Training Methods

Information technology has significantly changed how individuals are trained in organizations. There are a number of technological innovations available to trainers today, and it is important to know how to best utilize these new methods. The chapter begins by broadly addressing how new technologies are influencing training delivery, support, and administration. It then proceeds to present a variety of different methods, addressing how each is used, its strengths, and limitations. Not all technology is equal, and the chapter addresses how to determine which methods are most appropriate in different contexts.

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Objectives 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

Explain how new technologies are influencing training.

Evaluate a web-based training site.

Explain how learning and transfer of training are enhanced by using new training technologies.

Explain the strengths and limitations of e-learning, mobile technology training methods (such as iPads), and simulations.

Explain the different types of social media and the conditions conducive to their use for training.

Describe to a manager the various types of distance learning.

Recommend what should be included in an electronic performance support system.

Compare and contrast the strengths and weaknesses of traditional training methods versus those of technology-based training methods.

Identify and explain the benefits of learning management systems.

Introduction While instructor-led classroom training is still the most popular training method, the use of technology for training delivery and instruction is increasing and anticipated to grow in the future. The use of training technologies is expected to increase dramatically in the next decade as technology improves, the cost of technology decreases, companies recognize the potential cost savings, and the need for customized training increases.

New training technologies are unlikely to totally replace face-to-face instruction. Rather, face-to-face instruction will be combined with new training technologies (i.e., blended learning) to maximize learning.

Snapshot statistics of the use of technology in training: o 23% of learning hours used were delivered in virtual classrooms and 29% are delivered online. o 47% of companies report that employees regularly used tablets and 41% reported that employees frequently used smartphones to access online learning. o Technology-based methods accounted for 56% of learning hours used in 2019. o Games are used by 29% of companies. 37% plan to begin using them. o 84% of companies use Learning Management Systems. o 17% of large companies currently are using virtual reality and artificial intelligence and 6% are using augmented reality. 10% or less of small- and midsize companies are using virtual reality and 5% or less are using artificial intelligence and augmented reality.

Technology’s Influence on Training and Learning New technologies have made it possible to reduce the costs associated with delivering training to employees, to increase the effectiveness of the learning environment, and to help training contribute to business goals.

New technology has improved training in many ways: o Employees have greater control over when and where they receive training.

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o o o o o o

Employees have greater access to knowledge and expert systems.

The use of avatars, virtual reality, and simulations enable the learning environment to look, feel, and sound more like the work environment.

Employees can choose the type of media that they want.

The administration of training can be conducted electronically.

Employee training accomplishments can be more easily monitored.

Training can be delivered to trainees, rather than trainees coming to a centralized training location.

Three of the most important ways that technology has influenced training and learning is that it has provided for greater collaboration, learner control, and a more dynamic learning environment.

New technologies for training come in many shapes and forms: o

E-learning, Online Learning, Computer-Based Training (CBT), Web-Based Training (WBT) Training delivered using a computer or the web

o

Webcasts/Webinars Live web-based delivery of instruction to trainees in dispersed locations

o

Podcasts Web-based delivery of audio and video files

o

Mobile Learning Delivery of training through handheld mobile devices such as smartphones or tablet computers

o

Blended Learning Training is delivered using a combined technology and face-to-face instructional delivery approach

o

Wikis Websites that allow many users to create, edit, and update content and share knowledge

o

Distance Learning Training delivered to trainees in other locations online or through webcasts or virtual classrooms

o

Social Media Online and mobile technology used to create interactive communications

o

Shared Workspaces A space hosted on a web server where people can share information and documents

o

RSS Feeds Updated content sent to subscribers automatically

o

Blogs (Example: WorldPress) A webpage where an author posts entries and readers can comment

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o

Chat Rooms and Discussion Boards An electronic room or message board on which learners communicate

o

Microblogs or Microsharing Software tools that enable communications in short bursts of text, links, and multimedia

o

Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs) Online courses that are designed to enroll large number of learners that are free and accessible to anyone with an internet connection

o

Adaptive Training Training that customizes content presented to the trainee based on individual needs

o

Machine Learning Technology that applies algorithms to data to identify user trends and patterns that inform future suggestions and data searches

o

Augmented reality (AR) Devices that allow trainees to see the physical world around them but their view includes virtual media

o

Artificial Intelligence (AI) A system that thinks intelligently like humans

Technology Facilitates Collaboration Digital collaboration refers to the use of technology to enhance employees’ abilities to work together regardless of geographic proximity. Digital collaboration can be either synchronous or asynchronous. o Synchronous communication refers to trainers, experts, and learners interacting with each other live and in real time akin to face-to-face classroom instruction. o Asynchronous communication refers to non-real time interactions. Learners can access information resources when they desire them.

Technology Creates a Dynamic Learning Environment Technology has made learning environments more interactive and dynamic. In particular, technology has allowed for: o greater interaction between learners and training content o greater interaction between learners and trainers o trainers serving more as resources and coaches o more learning occurring through exchanges with other learners o experts and resources becoming a part of the learning environment o more training via social media o more training via games and exercises Technology Gives Learners Control Learner control refers to giving trainees the option to learn through self-pacing exercises, exploring links to other material, and conversations with trainees and experts. It includes the ability to select how content is presented (e.g., text, pictures, videos), to pause, skip, and review content, and to link to additional resources.

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Online learning allows activities to be incorporated into training without trainees having to be physically present in a training room. Recent technologies enable training to be delivered and accessed by trainees anytime and anywhere. Training content can be delivered in a consistent manner to trainees, who can decide when and where to participate.

Computer-Based Training, Online Learning, Web-Based Training, and E-Learning

Online learning, computer-based training (CBT), e-learning, web-based training refer to instruction and delivery of training by computer through the internet or the web. Trainees can still interact with the training content, answer questions, and choose responses regarding how they would behave in certain situations, but they cannot collaborate with other learners.

Potential Features of Online Learning The possible features that can be embedded in online learning include: content, collaboration and sharing, links to resources, learner control, delivery, and administration. o Content—content may include text, video, graphics, and sound o Collaboration and sharing—collaboration and sharing can occur to help reinforce content o Links to resources—access to other training methods, other web-based training, and electronic performance support o Learner control—leaners can control what they learn, the speed at which they progress, how much they practice, whether to interact with others, and when they learn o Delivery—modes of delivery may include internet, intranet, distance learning, and CD-ROM o Administration—online administration of enrollment, monitoring, and trainee progress Not all of these features are included in most online training programs. As technology continues to improve, more of these features will likely be present in more online training.

Advantages of Online Learning There are numerous potential advantages of online learning: o It can support a company’s business strategy. o It is accessible at any time and any place. o The audience can include employees, managers, vendors, customers, and clients. o Training can be delivered to geographically dispersed employees. o Training can be delivered faster and to more employees in a shorter period of time. o Updating is easy. o Practice, feedback, and assessment can be built into the program. o Learning is enhanced through multimedia. o Paperwork related to administration is eliminated. o It can link learners to other content, experts, and peers.

Effectiveness of Online Learning A number of general conclusions can be made about online learning. o

Online instruction is more effective than face-to-face classroom instruction for teaching declarative knowledge.

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o o o

o o o

Online instruction and classroom instruction are equally effective in teaching procedural knowledge.

Learners are equally satisfied with web-based and classroom instruction.

Online instruction appears to be more effective than classroom instruction for long courses, when learners are provided with control over content, sequence, and pace, and when learners are able to practice the content and receive feedback.

Online instruction and classroom instruction are equally effective when similar instructional methods are used.

Employees who get the most from online learning are those who complete more of the available practice opportunities and take more time to complete the training.

Online instruction is not effective for all learners, especially those with low computer self-efficacy.

LinkedIn Learning is a website offering thousands of video-based courses in several languages. The topics include technical skills such as marketing with social media and using various kinds of software, as well as soft skills such as communication and time management. Data gathered from its users shape recommendations provided on courses on skills relevant to their careers.

Despite the potential benefits of online learning, development time and cost can be high. Moreover, employees may be resistant to online learning.

Perhaps more significantly, online learning may be insufficient for teaching complex analytical, conceptual, and interpersonal skills. This may be because online learning lacks communication richness; some online learners may be reluctant to interact with other learners; and, although online learning increases accessibility to training, employees with busy work schedules have a greater opportunity to more easily delay, fail to complete, or poorly perform learning activities.

Developing Effective Online Learning The ADDIE model should be used in designing online learning. However, the emphasis at each stage may be different. In particular, greater emphasis should be paid to needs assessment, creating a positive online learning experience, learner control, and providing time and space for learning.

Needs Assessment Beyond determining the focal skills to be trained, the needs assessment process should determine if the organization has the technological infrastructure to deliver training, provide learning resources, and offer technical support. This should include a technical analysis focused on identifying minimum computing requirements (e.g., bandwidth, memory, storage space, software, and processing speed. Bandwidth refers to the number of bytes and bits (information) that can travel between computers per second.

The needs assessment should also identify the purpose of the online learning. This helps to identify the type of online learning experience that is necessary. o If the purpose is to increase awareness of a topic or communicate knowledge with limited resources, a solution involving providing trainees information though text, images, video, or audio, with simple assessment questions should be considered. o Features such as drag-and-drop, sorting, matching questions, links to external resources should be included in online learning if more participant interactivity is necessary to learn. o If trainees need to have more dynamic experiences to meet the learning goals requiring content

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discovery, demonstration of concepts, or see the results of their decisions, then online learning should consider including branching pathways, gamification, and interactive exercises and multimedia.

Create a Positive Online Learning Experience The characteristics of a positive learning experience (e.g., practice, feedback, and interaction) should be included to create a meaningful learning experience. However, translating these elements to an online experience may be challenging.

Rapid prototyping could be used for designing an online program. Rapid prototyping refers to an iterative process in which initial design ideas are proposed and provided in rough form in an online working prototype. This prototype is then reviewed and refined by design team members.

Trainers should avoid repurposing. Repurposing refers to directly translating an instructor-led face-to-face program to an online format. Repurposing will likely result in ineffective training.

The best online learning experiences combine the advantages of the internet with the principles of a good learning environment. Principles for creating a positive learning experience include: o Including visuals and words with instruction o Aligning text with visuals o Explaining complex visuals with audio or text, rather than by both o Omitting extraneous visuals, words, and sounds o Socially engaging learners through conversational language agents o Explaining key concepts prior to full instruction o Providing prompts that encourage self-regulation o Providing content in short sequences over which learners have control o Connecting modules in a way that engages learners o Providing activities and exercises that parallel the work environment o Distributing exercises within and among modules o Providing explanations to responses on quizzes and exercises Learner Control One of the great benefits of online learning is greater learner control. Learner control refers to giving trainees the option to learn though self-pacing, exercises, exploring links to other material, and conversations with other trainees and experts. Trainees should have access to instructions on how to use learner control tools, or else difficulty using them will take away from time and attention that they can devote to learning. Companies must communicate the importance and meaningfulness of the training content for employees’ jobs and must hold employees accountable for completing the training.

Research provides several recommendations for maximizing the benefits of learner control: o Programs should not allow trainees to control the amount of feedback they receive. Trainees may rely too much on feedback, which may reduce long-term retention. o Programs should offer practice on each topic repeatedly throughout the program to ensure retention. o Programs should provide practice using different high fidelity examples to help transfer. o Trainees should be allowed to control the sequence in which they receive instruction but not be able to skip practice.

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o

Programs should prompt self-regulation, prompting trainees to recall key points, reflect, and set goals.

Provide Time and Space for Online Learning Companies need to ensure that employees are given time and space for online learning. Managers need to give employees time in their schedules for training, and employees need to schedule “training time” away from distractions. Employees should not be required to fit online learning into already busy schedules. Otherwise, they will likely rush through the material merely to complete it.

Using formative evaluation data from prototypes can be helpful in identifying the length and time of modules. Armed with this information, training can be appropriately scheduled. End users (managers, potential trainees) should be involved in a formative evaluation to ensure that music, graphics, icons, animation, video, and other features facilitate rather than interfere with learning. Also, end users need to test the content, the navigator, and the site map to guarantee that they can easily move through the learning module and access resources and links to other websites as needed.

Online learning blurs the distinction between training and work. Expectations that trainees will be motivated and able to complete web-based training during breaks in their normal workday or on their personal time are unrealistic Technology for Collaboration and Linking Given that interaction and sharing among individuals helps facilitate learning, online training modules should provide means for such activity. Effective online learning connects trainees and facilitates interaction though chat rooms, discussion boards, and social media. Hyperlinks allow a trainee to access other websites that include printed materials and communications links to experts, trainers, and other learners.

Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs) Massive open online courses (MOOCs) are courses designed to enroll a large number of learners that are free and accessible to anyone with internet access. Companies are starting to work with MOOC providers to design custom courses to meet their specific needs.

MOOCs offer several advantages: o They are low cost, accessible, and cover a wide range of topics. o They provide training content unavailable from local vendors or consultants. o They can give employees access to highly specialized courses or courses that are not part of their current job responsibilities. o Learning happens through engaging short lectures combined with interaction with the course material, other students, and the instructor. o They emphasize applying knowledge and skills using role plays, cases, and projects. o Learning is semi-synchronous, where learners receive the same assignments, video lectures, readings, quizzes, and discussions, but can complete the coursework on their own time. o Many MOOCs offer college credit or certificates of completion.

Despite claims that MOOCs will revolutionize training, they have significant disadvantages.

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o o o

Learning interaction with the course tends to drop off after the first two weeks of the course.

Completion rates are low, and most students who do complete courses do not take the credential exam.

MOOCs may be inappropriate for courses where synchronous or real-time collaboration is needed.

Social Media: Wikis, Blogs, Microblogs, and Social Networks Many companies are using social media tools to help employees learn informally, share knowledge on an as-needed basis, and as complements to formal training.

Social media can be useful to: o provide links to resources such as webinars, videos, and articles related to new learning content o help determine future training needs and issues by using tagging capabilities o reinforce and sustain learning o use as a coaching and mentoring tool o link learners before, during, and after a formal training event o engage Gen Xers and Millennials o provide content before a face-to-face learning event o link learners and build communities of learning before, during, and after training o share and create videos o allow multiple learners to edit documents at the same time o help learners identify who has the expertise they need and gain access to subject matter experts A blog refers to a webpage where an author posts entries and readers comment. Blogs can be useful for trainees to analyze and synthesize information, reflect on course content, and share ideas. Instructors must provide guidelines regarding how entries will be evaluated and how blogs will be evaluated. Blogs may be useful for courses involving group work, where individuals can share comments and insights.

A wiki refers to a website that allows many users to create, edit, and update content and share knowledge.

A microblog refers to software tools such as Twitter that enable communication in short bursts of text, links, and multimedia either through stand-alone applications or through online communities.

Shared media refers to audio or video such as YouTube that can be accessed and shared with others.

Blended Learning Blended learning combines online learning, face-to-face instruction, and other instructional methods.

Blended learning courses provide learners with the positive features of both face-to-face instruction and technology-based delivery, while minimizing the negative features of each.

In comparison to pure classroom learning, blended learning: o provides increased learner control o allows for self-directedness

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o o

requires learners to take more responsibility for their learning is better for teaching declarative knowledge or information about ideas or topics

In comparison to pure technology-based learning, blended learning: o provides more face-to-face social interaction o ensures that instruction is presented in a dedicated learning environment o provides live feedback, which is preferable to feedback received online Interestingly, trainees prefer classroom instruction to blended learning, perhaps because blended courses may be more demanding.

One popular application of blended learning is the flipped classroom. The flipped classroom reverses the traditional learning arrangement by delivering instructional content online outside of the classroom and moves activities, including those that may have traditionally been considered homework, into the classroom. The flipped classroom recognizes that face-to-face instruction using lecture can be effective when it is delivered to individual learners rather than to group of learners in the classroom.

Simulations and Games Simulations and games can be excellent ways to immerse trainees in an artificial yet realistic learning environment.

There are four general types of games and simulations: o Branching story—trainees are presented with a story and asked to make decisions; trainees progress though the simulation based on their decisions o Interactive spreadsheet—trainees are given a set of business tools and asked to make decisions that will impact the business o Game-based—trainees play a video game on a computer o Virtual—trainees interact with a computerized representation of the job Gamification means that game-based strategies are applied to online programs. Serious games refer to those where there is a clear business objective. Games can be used for several business-related purposes including safety training, product training, team building, and new employee orientation. The key is to use the fun and motivational aspects of games to help employees acquire knowledge and skills.

Games enhance learning by providing a fun way to learn, use leaderboards to increase learners’ motivation by capitalizing on their competitiveness, and incorporate levels which require learners to demonstrate they are competent on prerequisite knowledge and skills (by achieving certain scores) before learning more challenging knowledge and skills.

Some simulations take place in virtual worlds, where trainees experience a three-dimensional learning experience. Virtual reality is a computer-based technology that provides trainees with a three-dimensional learning experience. This allows simulations to become even more realistic. Using specialized equipment or viewing the immersive model on the computer screen, trainees move through the simulated environment and interact with its components.

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Simulations allow the trainees to experience presence, which refers to perceptions of actually being in a particular environment. Presence is influenced by the amount of sensory information available to the trainee, control over the environment, and the ability to modify the environment.

There are many advantages of simulations, which include: o Learners are emotionally engaged (even fun!) o A consistent message of what needs to be learned is provided o Learners receive feedback o Learners can work at their own pace o A variety of situations or problems can be presented to learners o Simulation accurately portrays reality, enhancing its meaningfulness o Learner put in situations that would be too dangerous in the real world o Employees can learn, make errors, and practice tasks without real-life implications (e.g., broken equipment, angry customers or employees) o Shorter training time and increased return-on-investment result However: o There are high development costs. o There is an absence of human contact. o They may be difficult for first-time users. o Learners may not always take simulations seriously.

Augmented Reality Augmented reality (AR) allows trainees to see the physical world around them, but their view includes virtual media. That is, AR brings digital elements into the physical world to enhance the information and context that people experience. A good example of how AR works is to consider Pokemon Go. When playing PokemonGo with a smartphone, cartoon characters pop into the view of the real landscape waiting to be captured. AR is being used in different industries including manufacturing, construction, oil and gas, and medicine.

AR shares some similarities yet has significant differences from virtual reality. Both VR and AR require the user to wear a headset or glasses. However, In VR the trainee sees an entire separate world. VR uses computers to simulate an environment in which trainees are totally immersed. If trainees are wearing AR glasses or headsets, they will see the real physical surroundings but images and messages are projected into their line of site. The major difference between AR and virtual reality is that the physical reality is always present in AR. AR provides information that supplements the real world the employee is working in while virtual reality creates an entirely artificial environment that the employee trains in.

AR has several advantages: o Employees can interact with experts and specialists, view live feeds, access real-time data, instructions, diagrams, manuals, and videos all while working. o AR is especially useful for showing employees what they should do rather than just telling them. o AR can support other face-to-face and technology-aided training methods. Employees can complete a formal online or face-to-face class or simulation, and AR can be used to support them on the job.

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o

Because training for some roles can become quickly obsolete, AR allows employees to stay updated by accessing most recent knowledge and procedures without having to interrupt their work.

There are significant barriers to the widespread adoption of AR. o Companies need to invest between one and three thousand dollars for headsets or pairs of glasses. o All forms of AR need a bright display, potentially limiting its application for outdoor work. o Battery life can be a concern because AR uses a lot of power. o Nausea and dizziness can be a problem. o Employees may be reluctant to use AR because they are resistant to change or believe it could eliminate their jobs.

Mobile Technology and Learning Mobile learning refers to training that provides trainees with anytime and anywhere access to instructional resources such as videos, pdfs, games, or courses. The instructional resources are accessible through a mobile device such as a smartphone, notebook computer, iPad, or wearables such as Google glasses.

Mobile learning shares all of the potential features of online learning.

However, mobile learning is different from online learning because trainees can use a greater variety of devices to access instructional resources and offers the opportunity to customize the learning delivered based on the features of the trainees’ environment such as when they are with a client or repairing a machine compared to when they are trying to learn a new skill during their free time.

Mobile learning can involve both formal and informal learning. Formal learning might include e-learning courses, podcasts, or videos on the mobile device. Informal learning includes engaging in communication and messaging with other employees or experts via Twitter, blogs, or Facebook.

There are several advantages of mobile learning: o It is an easy way to get up-to-date information to employees. o It can be useful for enhancing transfer of training through providing follow-up. o It brings training to employees who are constantly traveling, are out of the office visiting customers or clients, or don’t have the time to attend a face-to-face course or program. o Learners can complete training on their own time and pace. o It allows employees to generate content by creating video, taking photos, or recording an interview and sharing it with others. o Using mobile devices for learning appeals to Millennials and Gen Zs. It is important to recognize the potential disadvantages of mobile learning. o Developers have to consider the device and operating systems that trainees have in order to make mobile learning accessible Trainees may be distracted by texts, phone calls, and alerts on their devices. o Trainees may be reluctant to use mobile learning if they feel they lack the skills to do so. o Text and video may be difficult to see via smartphones.

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Podcasts are audio or video program content distributed in episodes using software such as RSS. The best use of podcasts is for narrative-based content that inspires imagination using music and sound effects.

Many companies are providing apps that employees can use to access training. Apps are being used as the primary training method, to supplement training, manage the path or sequence of training, and to help employees maintain training records. For example, Home Depot is introducing a mobile app to employees in the gardening department that provides them with product information and access to learning opportunities while they are out on the store floor.

Adaptive Training Adaptive training refers to training that customizes the content presented to trainees based on their learning style, ability, personality, and/or performance. These adaptations include the variety, difficulty, and sequencing of content and practice problems. Instruction changes based on trainees’ scores on tests or quizzes completed either before training or at various times as they experience training.

The major challenge in developing adaptive training is ensuring that the different content customizations match the learner needs and help them attain the learning objectives.

LearnSmart is an interactive and adaptive study tool that is used in some college courses. Based on their performance on quizzes throughout the course, students are directed to practice exercises and sections of online textbooks they need to read. LearnSmart is designed to help students better use their study time, as well as improve their retention, recall of the material, and their grades.

Distance Learning Distance learning is used by geographically dispersed companies to provide information about new products, policies, or procedures, as well as deliver skills training and expert lectures to field locations.

Distance learning features two-way communications between people through the use of webconferencing software such as Zoom or Microsoft Teams. Web conferencing involves instruction that is provided online through live broadcasts. Trainees attend training programs in training facilities in which they can communicate face-to-face with trainers (who are at another location) and other trainees using the personal computer.

A virtual classroom refers to using a computer and the Internet to distribute instructor-led training to geographically dispersed employees.

Guidelines for developing a virtual classroom include: o Design short modules and follow up with an assignment that applies the learning to the job. o Make learning interactive and interesting, such as modeling the program after a phone-in radio show. o Include media such as video and audio. o Limit classroom size to no more than 25 learners. o Create a guide providing questions, key points, and activities for facilitators at each site.

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o o

Offer learners multiple ways of interacting with each other and the instructor, including webinars, polls, e-mail, discussion rooms, chat tools, message boards, and blogs.

Test the technology before the first class to ensure it is ready and you know how to use it.

An advantage of distance learning is that the company can save on travel costs. It also allows employees in geographically dispersed sites to receive training from experts who would not otherwise be available to visit each location.

The major disadvantages of distance learning are the potential lack of interaction between the trainer and the audience, technology failures, and unprepared trainers.

To engage trainees, the following strategies might be useful: o useful to limit online sessions to 60 to 90 minutes in length o maintain a good instructional pace o avoid presenting unnecessary text o use relevant and engaging visuals o allow trainees to participate using polling devices and small-group breakout rooms for discussion and projects o assign a group spokesperson can to summarize and communicate the group’s ideas Given the potential for technical problems to arise, have backup plans for dealing with technical issues.

Technologies for Training Support: Artificial Intelligence, Expert Systems, & Performance Support Technologies such as artificial intelligence, expert systems, and electronic performance support systems are being used to support training efforts. Both expert systems and electronic performance support systems are not new. However, recent developments in the field of artificial intelligence have revolutionized the types and power of available training support and will likely continue to do so in the future. Training support means that these technologies are helping to capture training content so that it is available to employees who may not have attended training. Training support also means that these technologies provide information and decision rules to employees on an as-needed basis.

Technologies for training support are most needed when: o performance of the task is infrequent o the task is time-consuming, difficult, and information intensive o the consequences of error are severe o effective performance relies on information and procedures that frequently change o employee turnover is high o there is little time and few resources available for training o employees are responsible for learning and performing tasks Artificial Intelligence (AI) Artificial Intelligence (AI) refers to the development of a system such as a computer, a computercontrolled robot, or software that thinks intelligently like humans. AI includes mimicking how we reason, make decisions, ask questions, and determine value. AI is developed by studying how we think, learn, decide, and work while trying to solve a problem, and then using this information to build intelligent

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software and systems.

Below are examples of how AI is being used in training: o Personalization—Identify employee’s knowledge and skill gaps and recommend courses or support tools o Evaluation—Determine how training is affecting business goals o Coaching & Smart Assistants—Promote content related to employee strengths and personality; provide employees with feedback and guidance o Translation—Real-time translation of training content into any language o Authoring—Write and create training content.

Machine learning refers to AI systems that learn. The systems learn by applying algorithms to data to identify user trends and patterns that inform future suggestions and data searches. Software can monitor what trainees do and how they engage with online training content and then “learn” what types of other training courses it should suggest, when to provide training content, and provide training in the format (audio, video) that trainees prefer. Machine learning can be used to create a more personalized and customized learning experience for trainees similar to how Netflix works in determining user preferences.

Chatbots refer to AI systems that create an automated personalized conversation with human users.

Chatbots are being used to help facilitate transfer of training. In training, chatbots can be used to provide trainees with messages reminding them of concepts they learned in training, send reminders about learning goals and ask about progress toward meeting those goals, ask learners about successes and difficulties in applying learning on the job, provide additional learning resources, and quiz learners on course content.

Expert Systems Expert systems organize and apply the knowledge of experts to specific problems. Expert systems are used as a support tool that employees refer to when they have problems or decisions that they feel exceed their current knowledge and skills. They can also be used to help employees make sense of different conditions and problems and keep track of tasks that need to be completed. Expert systems can be used to train employees in the decision rules of the experts.

Expert systems have three elements: o a knowledge base that includes facts, figures, and rules about the specific subject o a decision-making capability that, like an expert’s reasoning ability, draws conclusions from those facts and figures to solve problems o a user interface that gathers and gives information to the individual using the system Electronic Performance Support Systems (EPSSs) An electronic performance support system (EPSS) is an electronic infrastructure that captures, stores, and distributes individual and corporate knowledge throughout an organization. These systems enable individuals to achieve required levels of performance in the fastest possible time and with minimal support from other people. An EPSS includes all the software needed to support the work of individuals, not just one or two specific software applications. An EPSS can be used to help transfer of training and provide just-in-time support as a substitute for training.

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Learning Management Systems (LMSS): Systems for Training Delivery, Support, and Administration A learning management system (LMS) is a technology platform that can be used to automate the administration, development, and delivery of all of a company’s training programs. Companies adopt LMSs to centralize management of learning activities, track regulatory compliance, measure training usage, assess employee performance, and determine training needs.

Common features of LMSs include: o Trainee management and reporting o Training event and resource management o Online course delivery infrastructure o Authoring tools o Skills assessment o Professional development management o Knowledge bases o Personalization o Link to human capital management systems There are a number of reasons LMSs are becoming more popular. o They help reduce travel and other costs related to training. o They reduce time for program completion. o They increase employee accessibility to training. o They provide administrative capabilities to track program completion and course enrollments.

Choosing New Technology Training Methods Technology-based training methods require considerable investment in development. Although development costs are high, administration costs are low. Cost savings can be realized due to training being accessible to employees anywhere, the reduced number of trainers needed, and less travel to training locations.

Below are some key points regarding when different methods are appropriate. o Simulations and games and adaptive training are best suited for teaching complex processes related to operating machinery, tools, and equipment. o Research shows that VR programs are better than other types of training programs for developing social skills o Online training and MOOCs are best suited for teaching facts, figures, cognitive strategies (e.g., how to hold an effective meeting), and interpersonal skills (e.g., closing a sale). o Both online training and simulations can be useful for training interpersonal skills if the content and interactions are realistic. o Augmented reality and artificial intelligence are best used after learners have attended training, as part of a blended learning approach, or for performance support. o Mobile learning is probably best suited for teaching facts due to the limited personal interaction and interaction with the content using many mobile devices. o Social media are also good tools for knowledge management because they facilitate collaboration on documents, reports (wikis), and personal interaction (blogs, Twitter, and Facebook).

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Technology-based training methods should be used under the following conditions: o There is an adequate budget and resources to develop and use new technology. o Trainees are geographically dispersed and travel costs would be high. o Trainees are comfortable using new technology. o Use of new technology fits into the organizational culture or business strategy. o Employees would have a difficult time attending traditional training.

Companies must recognize the strengths and weaknesses of traditional and technology-based training methods. Technology-based methods can provide consistent delivery to employees who are geographically dispersed and need to work at their own pace. Face-to-face instruction is appropriate when the focus of training is on the application of content, discussion, and interaction among trainees. It is important to highlight that only a few research studies have examined the effectiveness of technologybased training methods. As such, additional research is necessary to provide firmer guidance for practice.

Discussion Questions 1.

Explain how technology has changed the learning environment.

Technology has changed the learning environment in numerous and significant ways. Most significantly, a large portion of learning has shifted from face-to-fact interactions to individual interaction with computer technology. This technology has made it possible for employees to gain control over when and where they receive training, and it has allowed access to knowledge and expert systems on an as-needed basis. New technology has also broadened the types of media available in training programs.

2.

What types of learning outcomes are best suited for mobile learning? Explain.

Mobile learning is best suited for teaching facts and verbal information, given the limited personal interaction. Mobile may also be helpful in facilitating transfer, as mobile technology can easily provide access to reference materials.

3.

What are the differences between expert systems and electronic performance tools?

Expert systems refer to technology that organizes and applies the knowledge of experts to specific problems. Expert systems are used as a support tool that employees refer to when they have problems or decisions that they feel exceed their current skill sets.

An electronic performance support system (EPSS) is an electronic infrastructure that captures, stores, and distributes individual and corporate knowledge throughout an organization to enable individuals to achieve required levels of performance in the fastest possible time and with minimal support from other people.

Although both systems can be used as a teaching tool and to provide expert advice, EPSSs integrate knowledge assets into the interface of software tools, rather than separating them into add-on components. An EPSS can also be used to automate some tasks and lighten workloads.

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4.

Why are MOOCS a promising way to deliver learning? What are their limitations?

MOOCs offer several potential benefits: o They are low cost, accessible, and cover a wide range of topics. o Learning happens through engaging short lectures combined with interaction with the course material, other students, and the instructor. o They emphasize applying knowledge and skills using role plays, cases, and projects. o Learning is semi-synchronous, where learners receive the same assignments, video lectures, readings, quizzes, and discussions, but can complete the coursework on their own time. o Many MOOCs offer college credit or certificates of completion.

Despite claims that MOOCs will revolutionize training, they have significant disadvantages. o Learning interaction with the course tends to drop off after the first two weeks of the course. o Completion rates are low, and most students who do complete courses do not take the credential exam. o MOOCs may be inappropriate for courses where synchronous or real-time collaboration is needed.

5.

Discuss how new technologies make it easier to learn. How do they facilitate transfer of training? o o o

o o o

Trainees can work at the own pace, when they want, and where they want.

Many new technologies are often interactive, allowing for potentially high levels of trainee engagement.

New technologies often include content developed by experts, which could be better than content developed by less qualified individuals. In this respect, trainees are learning better material.

Trainees can review material as needed, which can help reinforce content to promote transfer.

Trainees can access resources and material easily after training via new technologies, which will support transfer.

On the flip side, live interpersonal interaction is missing from technology, which may inhibit learning in some contexts. Further, learning via technology requires a high degree of trainee motivation. If such motivation is absent, trainees will not immerse themselves fully in the learning experience.

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6.

Is all internet training the same? Explain.

All online training is not equal. Online training, as with any type of training, is extremely varied. The quality of any online program is dependent on the quality of the content and the quality of delivery.

Some key best practices include: o Conducting an effective technology assessment and an assessment of the skills that users need o Incorporating audio, video, text, and graphics to hold learners’ attention o Ensuring trainees can actively learn, explore links to other material, and engage in conversations with other trainees and experts o Incorporating practice opportunities to help trainees transfer new knowledge and skills

7.

What are some potential problems with using games and gamification for training?

Despite the advantages of games and gamification, there are some challenges. o Games may be expensive to develop. o Trainees may not always take games seriously. o There may not be a clear link from the game to real-world application. As such, games must have a clear learning objective and be relevant to the work context.

8.

What are social media? Explain how they can be used for training.

Social is are online and mobile technology used to create interactive communications (e.g., Facebook, LinkedIn, and Twitter). In particular, social media can be useful for: o providing links to resources such as webinars, videos, and articles o determining training needs by using tagging capabilities o reinforcing and sustaining learning o coaching and mentoring o linking learners before, during, and after formal training o engaging younger generation employees o providing content before a face-to-face learning event

9.

Explain learner control, sharing, and linking. How do they contribute to the effectiveness of elearning?

Learner control refers to the ability for trainees to learn actively by controlling the pace of learning, exploring links to other material, and communicating with other trainees and experts. Learner control allows for a more personalized and effective learning experience.

Sharing, or interaction between trainees, allows the exchange of ideas and experiences to help trainees learn from each other.

Linking to other websites gives trainees access to resources such as printed materials, experts, trainers, and other learners.

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10. What is repurposing? How does it affect the use of new technologies in training?

Repurposing refers to directly translating an instructor-led face-to-face training program to an online format. Online learning that involves merely repurposing an ineffective training program will still result in ineffective training.

11. Distance learning can be used to deliver a lecture to geographically dispersed trainees. How might distance learning be designed and used to avoid some of the learning and transfer of training problems of the traditional lecture method?

Strategies for the effective design of distance learning include: o test technology before the first class to insure it runs smoothly o design short modules and assignments that apply the learning to the job o make learning interactive and interesting o include media such as video and audio o limit classroom size to no more than twenty-five learners o offer learners multiple ways of interacting with each other and the instructor (e.g., blogs, message boards) 12. Why would a company use a combination of face-to-face instruction and web-based training?

Despite the many advantages of online learning, many companies are moving to a blended learning approach. They are doing so because of the limitations of technology, employee preferences for faceto-face interaction, and employees’ inability to find unscheduled time to devote to learning online learning. Blended learning provides increased learner control, allows for self-directedness, and requires learners to take more responsibility for their learning. Blended learning allows for the best of both worlds.

13. What is artificial intelligence (AI)? Provide an example of how AI can be used in training.

Artificial Intelligence (AI) refers to the development of a system such as a computer, a computercontrolled robot, or software that thinks intelligently like humans. AI includes mimicking how we reason, make decisions, ask questions, and determine value. AI is developed by studying how we think, learn, decide, and work while trying to solve a problem, and then using this information to build intelligent software and systems. Expert systems, machine learning and chatbots are three ways that AI is being used to provide cognitive insight and cognitive engagement in training.

14. How does augmented reality (AR) differ from virtual reality?

AR shares some similarities yet has significant differences from virtual reality. Both VR and AR require the user to wear a headset or glasses. However, In VR the trainee sees an entire separate world. Virtual reality uses computers to simulate an environment in which trainees are totally immersed. If trainees are wearing AR glasses or headsets, they will see the real physical surroundings but images and messages are projected into their line of site. The major difference between AR and virtual reality is that the physical reality is always present in AR. AR provides information that supplements the real

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world the employee is working in, while virtual reality creates an entirely artificial environment that the employee trains in.

15. Is AR most useful as a way to deliver training or as a way to support training? Explain your position.

Certainly AR could be used in both respects. On one front, it could be argued that AR may be best used to supplement other training methods, given the benefits of blended learning and using multiple training methods to learn new knowledge and skills. However, AR could be used as a standalone training method for specific skills, particularly if trainees are self-directed and open to learning via technology.

16. What conditions are best for the use of social media tools as part of a learning solution?

To determine if social media would be an effective learning tool, the questions to ask include: o Are social networks already being used in the company? o Does social networking fit into the company’s learning strategy? o Are employees geographically dispersed? o Does the learning strategy support on-the-job learning? o Is there is a need to foster collaboration? o Are a significant number of employees from younger generations? o Are employees comfortable using social networks? o Does the business require substantial teamwork? o Does knowledge need to be shared quickly? o Does the company value innovation? o Does the culture support decentralized decision making?

The more “yes” answers to these questions, the more likely that social media will be an effective learning solution.

17. What is the most important way adaptive training differs from other training methods?

Adaptive training refers to training that customizes the content presented to trainees based on their learning style, ability, personality, and/or performance. These adaptations include the variety, difficulty, and sequencing of content and practice problems. Instruction changes based on trainees’ scores on tests or quizzes completed either before training or at various times as they experience training.

Chapter 9

Employee Development & Career Management

This chapter provides an overview of employee development and career management. Whereas training typically focusses on learning to prepare individuals for their current jobs, development is more future oriented. Employee development is central to promoting employee retention and helping employees advance their careers within the organization. A wide variety of development activities exist, and it is Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.

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important to know when different activities are most appropriate. This chapter details development planning and the different types of development activities, including assessment, formal courses and programs, experiences, mentoring, and coaching.

Objectives 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

Discuss the steps in the development planning process.

Explain employee and company responsibilities in planning development.

Discuss current trends in using formal education for development.

Relate how assessment of personality type, work behavior, and job performance can be used for employee development.

Explain how job experiences can be used for development and suggest a job experience to match an employee’s development goal or need.

Identify the characteristics of an effective mentoring program.

Describe the succession planning process and how the nine-box grid is used.

Design an effective on-boarding process.

Introduction Employee development is a necessary component of a company’s talent management efforts and can help enhance a company’s competitive advantage. Talented employees expect support for development; otherwise they will look for opportunities with other companies.

Moreover, development can help increase employee engagement by (1) showing employees that the company is interested in their skill development and (2) developing managers who can create a positive work environment that makes employees want to come to work and contribute to company goals.

The Relationship Among Development, Training, and Careers Development and Training Development refers to learning activities and experiences that help employees grow and prepare for the future. Development often involves voluntary learning that is not tied directly to the employee’s current job. Training, on the other hand, is related to the current job and is typically required. Development prepares employees for other positions and increases their ability to move into jobs that may not yet exist. Development is especially important for senior managers and employees with leadership potential.

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Development and Careers Traditionally, careers have been described in a variety of ways: o as a sequence of positions held within an occupation o in the context of mobility within an organization o as a characteristic of the employee—an employee’s career consists of different jobs, positions, and experiences Today’s careers are often characterized as protean careers. A protean career is based on self-direction, whereby the employee’s career is driven by the person rather than the organization. A key goal in protean careers is to achieve psychological success, the feeling of pride and accomplishment that comes from achieving life goals.

Employees need to develop new skills rather than rely on a static knowledge base to be successful. The emphasis on continuous learning has altered the direction and frequency of movement within careers.

Traditionally, employees progressed through a linear hierarchy in the organization. Today, it is becoming more common to see career patterns across specializations.

The most appropriate view of today’s careers is that they are boundaryless. Boundaryless means that individuals identify more with a job or profession than with their employer. Most employees are unlikely to stay at one company for their entire careers or even for a significant portion. A career can also be considered boundaryless in the sense that career plans or goals are influenced by personal demands and values.

Different Approaches to Career Management One study suggests that companies are choosing to use one of four different career management approaches that reflect contemporary career patterns and different types of employment relationships (e.g., full-time employees, contract employees, and gig employment).

1.

The structured approach prepares workers for moving through clearly defined career paths.

Companies using this approach want to have a depth of talented employees and a stable plan for leadership succession.

2.

A flexible approach helps build breadth in employees’ skills through encouraging lateral moves, job rotation, and job experiences yet still have well-defined career paths. Doing helps insure that employees get the skills they need but gives them the opportunity to explore multiple career options.

3.

In an open approach, employees can choose to work on projects or assignments based on their career interests and skills they want to develop. This approach is the most flexible because employees can create personalized career paths.

4.

In the transitory approach, companies focus on finding the best talent from outside of the organization such as contract employees. Career management is entirely employee-driven. The company only provides compliance and company-specific training. The employee takes the responsibility for determining the skills that will make them attractive hires and to develop those skills.

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Development Planning Systems A development planning system refers to a system to retain and motivate employees by helping to meet their development needs. Development planning systems vary in their level of sophistication and the emphasis placed on different components of the process.

The development planning process involves four primary steps: o Self-assessment—identifying opportunities and areas for improvement o Reality check—identifying what needs are most realistic to develop o Goal setting—identifying development objectives o Action planning—creating a plan to determine how goals will be achieved Self-Assessment Self-assessment refers to the use of information by employees to determine their career interests, values, aptitudes, and behavioral tendencies. It often involves psychological tests such as the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI), the Strong-Campbell Interest Inventory, and the Self-Directed Search. Through this process, a development need can be identified. Employees can identify capabilities they are lacking and gain specific information about what they can do to develop skills through development experiences.

Reality Check Reality check refers to the information employees receive about how the company evaluates their skills and where they fit into the company’s future plans. Employees may receive feedback from their manager through the formal personal appraisal process or via 360-degree feedback.

Goal Setting The next step of the development process is for employees to establish goals to focus their development efforts. Such goals may be short-term or long-term. These goals usually relate to securing a new position, moving to a new work setting, the acquisition of new skills, and the application of skills to meet a business need. Development plans usually include descriptions of strengths and weaknesses, career goals, and development activities for reaching a career goal.

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Action Planning An action plan is a written strategy that employees use to determine and articulate how they will achieve their development goals.

Approaches to Employee Development Four approaches are used to develop employees: formal education, assessment, job experiences, and interpersonal relationships. Many companies use a combination of these approaches.

The following are estimates of the frequency of use of employee development practices: Classroom Courses Coaching Mentoring Job Rotation Leadership Forums High-visibility Assignments Matching with “Stretch” Opportunities

80% 79% 68% 30% 56% 42% 35%

Formal Education Formal education programs include off-site and on-site programs designed specifically for the company’s employees, short courses offered by consultants or universities, executive MBA programs, and university programs in which participants actually live at the university while taking classes. These programs may involve lectures by business experts, business games and simulations, adventure learning, and meetings with customers.

Formal Education Programs Employee development programs include short courses offered by consultants or universities, executive MBA programs, and university programs. Many companies rely primarily on in-house development programs offered by training and development centers or corporate universities, rather than sending employees to programs offered by universities. Companies rely on in-house programs because they can be tied directly to business needs, can be easily evaluated using company metrics, and can get seniorlevel management involved.

Executive Education A number of academic institutions in the U.S. and abroad provide executive education. Executive education includes executive MBA programs, as well as specialized curricula on topics such as leadership, entrepreneurship, change, innovation, and global business.

Executive education programs typically involve a blended learning approach. For example, managers visit campus for face-to-face instruction, and then between sessions they work online and independently on assignments such as team projects, cases, or reading assignments.

In addition to blended learning, business schools or other educational institutions have begun offering companies in-house, customized programs to help managers gain real-world skills and study problems in real-world environments—without requiring the managers to disrupt their work by requiring them to

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travel to campus. These programs supplement formal courses from consultants or university faculty with other types of development activities.

Tuition Reimbursement Enrollment in executive education programs may be limited to managers and employees identified as having management potential. As a result, many companies provide tuition reimbursement as a benefit for all employees to encourage them to develop on their own. Companies have found that these programs increase employee retention, readiness for promotion, and job performance.

One estimate is that 51 percent of employers offer a tuition benefit for undergraduate courses. Typically, the courses or program of study has to relate to the employee’s job, employees have to stay with the company for a certain time period after completing the course or risk having to repay all or some of the reimbursed tuition, and the percentage of reimbursed tuition is based on the grade the employee receives.

The Internal Revenue Service (IRS) has established a $5,250 tax-free maximum annual reimbursement limit that most companies use.

Assessment Assessment involves collecting information and providing feedback to employees about their behavior, communication style, and skills. Data may come from a variety of sources, including employees, their peers, managers, and customers.

Assessment is useful on several fronts. o Assessment helps to identify managerial potential and measure current managers’ strengths and weaknesses. o Assessment can be used to identify managers with potential to move to executive positions. o Assessment can be used with work teams to identify the strengths and weaknesses of individual team members. o Assessment can help employees understand their tendencies, values, and preferences. o Assessment helps employees decide what type of development goals might be most appropriate for them.

Personality Tests and Inventories Personality tests and inventories are used to help employees gain self-awareness of how they respond to conflict, what motivates them, how they solve problems, how they react to stress, and other behavioral tendencies. o The NEO Personality Inventory measures the Big Five personality dimensions, which include emotional stability (relaxed, non-worrier), extraversion (sociable, outgoing), openness (willing to try new things), agreeableness (friendly, polite), and conscientiousness (hardworking, detail oriented) o The DISC measures personality and behavioral style, including dominance (directness, forcefulness), influence (sociability, persuasiveness), steadiness (cooperativeness, dependability) and conscientiousness (accuracy, competency). o The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) determines different personality types. The sixteen unique personality types are based on preferences for introversion (I) or extraversion (E), sensing

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(S) or intuition (N), thinking (T) or feeling (F), and judging (J) or perceiving (P). Each personality type has implications for work habits and interpersonal relationships.

Assessment Center At an assessment center, multiple raters assess employees’ performance on a number of exercises. An assessment center is usually an off-site location such as a conference center. Assessment centers are primarily used to identify if employees have the personality characteristics, administrative skills, and interpersonal skills for managerial jobs. They are increasingly being used to determine if employees have the skills to work in teams.

Common exercises include leaderless group discussions, interviews, in-basket exercises, and role plays. o In a leaderless group discussion, teams are assigned a problem to solve within a certain time period. o In interviews, employees answer questions about their work and personal experiences, strengths, weaknesses, and career plans. o An in-basket exercise is a simulation focused on administrative tasks that managers face. These exercises include a variety of documents that may appear in an in-basket, e-mail account, or on a manager’s desk. Participants prioritize which tasks they will focus on. o In role plays, participants act out interpersonal interactions taking on the role of a manager or other employee.

Managers are usually used as assessors. The managers are trained to look for employee behaviors that are related to the skills that will be assessed. Typically, each assessor observes and records one or two employees’ behaviors in each exercise. The assessors review their notes and rate each employee’s level of skills. After all employees have completed the exercises, the assessors discuss their observations of each employee. They compare their ratings and try to agree on each employee’s rating for each of the skills.

Performance Appraisals and 360-Degree Feedback Systems Performance appraisal information can be useful for employee development under certain conditions. The appraisal system must tell employees specifically about their performance problems and how they can improve their performance. This includes providing a clear understanding of the differences between current performance and expected performance, identifying causes of the performance discrepancy, and developing action plans. It is important that managers be trained in providing effective performance feedback.

Upward feedback and 360-degree feedback are popular tools for development. Upward feedback refers to collecting performance feedback from subordinates. In 360-degree feedback systems, feedback is obtained from subordinates, peers, customers, managers, and employees themselves. Raters complete questionnaires asking them to rate the employee on a number of different dimensions.

There are many benefits of upward and 360-degree feedback. o Feedback is obtained from multiple perspectives, which allows employees to compare their perceptions to those of others. o Employees gain a better perspective of their strengths and areas for improvement. o These systems help to formalize the feedback process.

Potential limitations include:

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o o o o

The time demands placed on raters.

Employees may retaliate against raters.

Facilitators may be required to interpret results.

Companies may fail to provide opportunities for employees to act on the feedback.

Effective 360-degree feedback systems include several factors. The system must provide reliable or consistent ratings and competencies, raters’ confidentiality is maintained, the behaviors or skills assessed are job-related, the system is easy to use, and employees receive and act on the feedback Job Experiences Most development occurs through job experiences, which include the demands, responsibilities, problems, and relationships that employees deal with in their jobs. A major assumption is that development is most likely to occur when employees are given stretch assignments. Stretch assignments refer to those where there is a mismatch between the employee’s skills and the skills required for future success. To succeed in their jobs, employees must stretch their skills—that is, they are forced to learn new skills, apply their skills and knowledge in a new way, and master new experiences.

One issue is whether job experiences are viewed as positive or negative stressors. Job experiences that are perceived as positive stressors challenge employees to stimulate learning. Those viewed as negative stressors create high levels of harmful stress. Research suggests that all job demands, with the exception of obstacles, are related to learning.

Enlarging the Current Job Job enlargement involves adding challenges and new responsibilities to an employee’s current job. These development experiences could include special project assignments, switching roles within a work team, or researching new ways to serve clients and customers. Some companies enlarge jobs by giving two managers the same job title and responsibilities and then allow them to divide the work. This is known as “two-in-a-box.”

Job Rotation and Lateral Moves Job rotation and lateral moves give employees a series of job assignments in various functional areas of the company or navigate among jobs in a single functional area or department.

Job rotation helps employees gain an overall appreciation of the company’s goals, increases their understanding of different company functions, and helps develop a network of contacts. Despite the advantages, there are some limitations. The rotation may create a short-term orientation, and employees may not be given enough time in a position to receive challenging assignments. Productivity losses and workload increases may be incurred both by the department gaining the rotating employee and the department losing the employee.

Lateral moves help companies retain talented employees who want new job experiences. They also help identify employee strengths and weaknesses, and allow employees to learn about new areas of the business. Employees are afforded the opportunity to work on new projects and problems and apply their skills in a new way.

Characteristics of effective job rotation systems include: o They are linked to specific developmental needs.

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o o o o o

They are used to provide employees experiences needed for managerial positions.

Employees understand specific skills that will be developed by the rotation.

They are used for all levels and types of employees.

The timing of rotations is managed to minimize workload costs.

All employees are given equal opportunity for job rotation assignments without regard for their demographic status.

Many employees, especially Millennials, may feel that lateral moves are harmful to their career because they don’t involve a promotion or don’t provide opportunities to learn new skills or have different work experiences. Thus, talented employees may leave and seek challenging work elsewhere. However, lateral moves likely enhance and accelerate career advancement because they improve employees’ current skills, add new ones, and expose them to different aspects of the business.

Transfers, Promotions, and Downward Moves A transfer refers to reassigning an employee to a different job in a different area of the company, most likely a lateral move. Job responsibilities and compensation are not necessarily increased. Transfers may involve relocating, which can be very stressful to employees, and transfers are not always well received.

The employees most willing to transfer are those with high career ambitions, a belief that their future with the company is promising, and a belief that accepting the transfer is necessary to advance in the company.

A downward move involves giving an employee a position with less responsibility and authority. A downward move may involve a move to another position at the same level (a lateral demotion), a temporary cross-functional move, or a demotion because of poor performance. Temporary crossfunctional moves to lower-level positions, which give employees work experience in different functional areas, are most frequently used for development.

A promotion involves advancing an employee into a position of greater challenge, responsibility and authority. Promotions usually involve an increase in compensation. Obviously, employees are more willing to accept promotions than they are to accept lateral moves or downward moves.

To ensure employees approach these moves as developmental experiences, particularly when relocation is involved, companies should: o Provide information about the content, challenges, and potential benefits o Involve employees in the decision by sending them to preview the new location or job o Assign a host at the new location to help with the adjustment o Inform the employee how the new job will affect their income, taxes, and expenses o Assist the employee in selling a home and securing new housing o Assist family members in the relocation (e.g., identifying schools and childcare) o Help spouses find new employment o Provide an orientation program o Provide clear performance objectives and early performance feedback

Temporary Assignments, Projects, Volunteer Work, and Sabbaticals Temporary assignments refer to job tryouts, project work, employee exchanges, sabbaticals, and voluntary assignments. All temporary assignments have a predetermined ending date after which the employee returns to his or her permanent position.

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o o

o

Temporary assignments with other organizations may emerge from two companies agreeing to exchange employees in order for the companies to better understand each other.

Volunteer assignments refer to employees serving their local community and its members.

Volunteer assignments may give employees opportunities to manage change, teach, and have a high level of responsibility. Some companies encourage their employees to donate their expertise without losing pay or vacation time.

A sabbatical involves a leave of absence from the company to renew or develop skills. Employees on sabbatical often receive full pay and benefits. Sabbaticals reduce stress and burnout and help employees acquire new skills and perspectives.

Interpersonal Relationships Employees can also develop skills and increase their knowledge about the company by interacting with more experienced organization members. Mentoring and coaching are two types of interpersonal relationships that are often used for employee development.

Mentoring Mentoring involves an experienced, productive senior employee (the mentor) helping develop a less experienced employee (the protégé). Most mentoring relationships develop informally based on shared interests, values, or work assignments. Mentoring relationships may also develop through formal company mentoring programs. Mentoring programs help socialize new employees, develop managers, and provide opportunities to employees without regard to race and gender. Mentoring programs can help encourage women and minorities, who tend to be underrepresented in leadership positions, to develop management skills and move into management positions In group or peer mentoring programs, the mentor is paired with a group of four to six protégés. Protégés are not only able to learn from the mentor, but from each other.

Reverse mentoring involves younger employees mentoring older employees.

Benefits of mentoring to protégés include: o career support—coaching, protection, sponsorship, and providing challenging assignments, exposure, and visibility o psychosocial support—serving as a friend and role model, providing positive regard and acceptance, and creating an outlet for communication o skill development o higher rates of promotion and higher salaries o greater organizational influence Benefits of mentoring to mentors include: o developing interpersonal skills o increased self-esteem and sense of worth to the company o access to new knowledge in their field One challenge of formal mentoring programs is that the relationship may not “stick” if it has been “artificially” created. To enhance formal mentoring programs, companies should: o Make participation voluntary for mentors and protégés o Ensure the matching process does not hinder the formation of informal relationships

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o o o o o o o

Chose mentors who have a good record developing employees and have the willingness to serve Match based on how the mentor’s skills can help meet the protégé’s needs Clarify roles and expectations for both mentors and protégés Specify a minimum amount of contact time between mentors and protégés Provide a formal time period for the program, but encourage continued relationships Evaluate the program Reward employee development

Coaching A coach is a peer or manager who works directly with an employee to help develop skills, motivate, and provide feedback. The best coaches are empathetic, supportive, practical, and confident. The coach can play three roles: o Developing high-potential managers o Helping the employee learn for him/herself o Providing resources to which the employee might not otherwise have access Managers may be reluctant to coach, and four issues may need to be addressed. o Managers may be reluctant to discuss performance problems to avoid confrontation o Managers may be better able to identify performance issues than solve them o Managers may fear that employees will perceive coaching as criticism o Managers may feel they don’t have time to coach Succession Planning Succession planning refers to the process of identifying, developing, and tracking high potential employees who are capable of moving into different positions in the company. Succession planning helps to easily place individuals in planned or unplanned job openings due to turnover, promotions, or business growth. Succession planning often focuses on high-potential employees. High-potential employees are those people that the company believes are capable of being successful in higher-level managerial positions.

Succession planning helps organizations in several different ways. o It identifies and prepares future company leaders. o It helps ensure that the company runs smoothly when key employees and managers leave. o It helps to enhance “bench strength,” having a pool of talented employees who are ready when needed. o It helps to plan development experiences for movement into higher-level positions. o It helps to attract and retain employees.

Bench strength refers to having a pool of talented employees who are ready when needed.

Many companies use the nine-box grid for conducting the succession planning review. The nine-box grid is a matrix used to compare employees within a department, function, division, or the entire company.

One axis of the matrix is job performance. The other axes are typically labeled “potential” or “promotability.”

The nine boxes include: 1. poor employee

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2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

inconsistent employee potential may be misplaced strong contributor core employee rising star technical/subject expert agile non-performer star

High-potential employees with high performance are found in the top-right corner of the matrix (stars).

These are employees who should be developed for leadership positions.

The primary advantage of the nine-box grid is that it provides a systematic means to categorize employees to determine their potential development needs.

One issue is whether to make succession planning public. One advantage of doing so is that employees may stay because they have an understanding of promotion prospects. Another advantage is that highpotential employees who are not interested in other positions can communicate their intentions. The company can then avoid investing resources and have a more accurate picture of its potential future talent. On the flip side, those not on the list may become discouraged and leave the company.

Furthermore, employees might not believe they have had a fair chance to compete for leadership positions if they already know that a list of potential candidates has been established.

Succession planning is especially important (and difficult) in family-owned businesses that face the need to identify a new leader when a parent, often the company founder, retires or dies. One estimate is that less than one-third of family-owned businesses survive into the second generation of family members.

One contributing reason is that many family businesses neglect identifying and grooming one family member as a successor or taking steps to develop a pool of talent of family members from which a successor can be chosen.

Developing Managers with Dysfunctional Behaviors

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A number of studies have identified managerial behaviors that can cause a competent manager to be a “toxic” manager. Examples of such behaviors include insensitivity and aggression toward others, inability to be a team player, arrogance, poor conflict-management skills, and the inability to adapt. Typically, a combination of assessment, training, and counseling is used to help change dysfunctional behavior.

Onboarding Onboarding, also known as socialization, refers to helping new hires adjust to the social and performance aspects of their new jobs and places of employment. Onboarding helps promote early retention, job satisfaction, and performance. There is wide variation in the types of onboarding programs, but onboarding typically covers four primary areas. See below:

Effective onboarding programs share the following characteristics: o Employees are encouraged to ask questions. o The program focuses on both technical and social aspects. o Employees learn about company culture, history, language, products, services, and customers. o The program involves participation and active involvement. o The program involves formal and informal interactions with new hires and more seasoned employees. o Managers take on some onboarding responsibility. o Embarrassing new employees is avoided. o There is follow up at different points during the first year of employment.

Effective onboarding is a process that takes several days, weeks, or even months.

Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, companies have had to rely on virtual onboarding to help new employees make personal connections with colleagues and managers who they have not met in person.

Also, despite being hired before or during the pandemic, new employees still needed to learn what they Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.

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need to know to start working. To enhance virtual onboarding, some companies use projects, quizzes, and small-group discussions to enhance the virtual experience.

Discussion Questions 1.

How could assessment be used to create a productive work team?

Assessment can be used with work teams to identify the strengths and weaknesses of individual team members and the decision processes or communication styles that inhibit the team’s productivity.

Two useful assessments would be the DISC and the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI). o The DISC measures personality and behavioral style, including dominance, influence, steadiness, and conscientiousness. o MBTI determines different personality types. The sixteen unique personality types are based on preferences for introversion (I) or extraversion (E), sensing (S) or intuition (N), thinking (T) or feeling (F), and judging (J) or perceiving (P). Each personality type has implications for work habits and interpersonal relationships.

2.

List and explain the characteristics of effective 360-degree feedback systems. o o o o o

3.

The systems should provide reliable and consistent ratings of behaviors or skills Rater confidentiality is maintained The behaviors and skills that are assessed are job-related The system is easy to use Employees are held accountable to act on the feedback

Why do companies develop formal mentoring programs? What are the potential benefits for the mentor? For the protégé?

Because mentoring has many benefits, companies develop formal mentoring programs to provide greater access to mentoring programs for a greater number of employees. Formal programs also help ensure fair access to mentors regardless of gender, race, or ethnicity.

Benefits of mentoring to protégés include: o career support—coaching, protection, sponsorship, and providing challenging assignments, exposure, and visibility o psychosocial support—serving as a friend and role model, providing positive regard and acceptance, and creating an outlet for communication o skill development o higher rates of promotion and higher salaries o greater organizational influence Benefits of mentoring to mentors include: o developing interpersonal skills o increased self-esteem and sense of worth to the company o access to new knowledge in their field

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4.

What is reverse mentoring? How does it benefit the mentor? The protégé?

Reverse mentoring involves younger employees mentoring older employees. Reverse mentoring helps the older mentor learn about the motivations of younger employees and learn new technologies, for example, that the older mentor may not be skilled in. Reverse mentoring can be beneficial for the younger protégé because the relationship becomes more collaborative. The protégé can develop a stronger sense of confidence and can begin to develop skill in coaching others.

5.

Your boss is interested in hiring a consultant to help identify potential managers among current employees of a fast-food restaurant. The manager’s job is to help wait on customers and prepare food during busy times, oversee all aspects of restaurant operations (including scheduling, maintenance, on-the-job training, and food purchase), and motivate employees to provide highquality service. The manager is also responsible for resolving disputes between employees. The position involves working under stress and coordinating several activities at one time. She asks you to outline the type of assessment program that you believe would do the best job of identifying employees who will be successful managers. What will you tell her?

The ideal management assessment program for this type of position would rely heavily on role-plays and leaderless group discussions to assess the potential managers’ ability to motivate employees and skill in handling customer complaints. The assessment program should also have in-basket and scheduling exercises to gauge their ability to handle administrative tasks. Furthermore, personality assessments such as the DISC and MBTI could be utilized to assess work styles and behavioral preferences.

6.

Many employees are unwilling to relocate geographically because they like their current community and their spouses and children prefer not to move. Yet employees need to develop new skills, strengthen skill weaknesses, and be exposed to new aspects of the business to prepare for management positions. How could an employee’s current job be changed to develop management skills without having to relocate the employee?

Job rotation could be a viable strategy. Job rotation gives employees a series of assignments in various functional areas of the company. Job rotation helps employees gain an overall appreciation of the company’s goals, increases their understanding of different functions, develops their network, and improves problem-solving skills.

Job enlargement could also be employed by adding challenging and new responsibilities to employees’ work. The “two-in-a-box” strategy could be useful whereby two managers are given the same job title and responsibilities and then are allowed to divide the work. The “two-in-a-box” approach helps someone learn from a more experienced employee.

7.

What is coaching? Is there only one type of coaching? Explain.

Coaching is working with employees to motivate them. There are many ways to coach, involving a combination of providing one-on-one feedback, putting employees in touch with experts, teaching them how to get feedback from others, and putting them in touch with needed resources.

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8.

Why should companies be interested in helping employees plan their development? What benefits can companies gain? What are the risks?

Employee development is a necessary component of a company’s talent management efforts and can help enhance a company’s competitive advantage. o Development helps high-potential managers understand their strengths, weaknesses, and interests. o Development shows managers how new jobs and expanded job responsibilities help meet their personal growth needs. o Development helps retain valuable managers who might otherwise turnover. o Development is key to ensuring that employees have the competencies necessary to serve customers and create new products. o Development can help increase employee engagement by showing employees that the company is interested in their skill development and developing managers who can create a positive work environment.

The risk of investing in employee development is that the employee may leave the organization.

In this respect, the organization may not realize a significant return on its investment. Effective HRM practices, however, should help minimize this risk.

9.

What types of career management approaches do companies use? Explain the approaches and how they differ.

The structured approach prepares workers for moving through clearly defined career paths.

Companies using this approach want to have a depth of talented employees and a stable plan for leadership succession.

A flexible approach helps build breadth in employees’ skills through encouraging lateral moves, job rotation, and job experiences yet still have well-defined career paths. Doing so helps insure that employees get the skills they need but gives them the opportunity to explore multiple career options.

In an open approach, employees can choose to work on projects or assignments based on their career interests and skills they want to develop. This approach is the most flexible because employees can create personalized career paths.

In the transitory approach, companies focus on finding the best talent from outside of the organization such as contract employees. Career management is entirely employee-driven. The company only provides compliance and company-specific training. The employee takes the responsibility for determining the skills that will make them attractive hires and to develop those skills.

10. What are the manager’s roles in a development system? Which role do you think is most difficult for the typical manager? Which is the easiest role? List the reasons why managers might resist involvement in career management.

The role of the manager includes: o Helping with assessment to identify strengths, weaknesses, interests, and values.

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o o o o

Communicating performance evaluation feedback; discussing where the employee fits in the company’s long-range plans.

Ensuring that development goals are SMART (specific, measurable, attainable, relevant, and timely).

Identifying and helping to secure resources that employees need to reach their development goals.

Providing ongoing coaching for employees.

The most difficult for the typical manager may be identifying skill weaknesses. The easiest may be helping the employee to establish development goals.

Management has resisted involvement in career management for a number of reasons. o They may believe that it is the responsibility of employees to take ownership of their own careers (and not theirs). o They may feel they don’t have the time. o They may not feel comfortable discussing difficult performance issues with employees. o They may believe they don’t have the expertise.

11. What should be included in a development plan? What do you think is the most important part of the plan for ensuring that employees develop? Explain your choice.

Development plans usually include descriptions of strengths and weaknesses, career goals, and development activities for reaching career goals. An effective development plan focuses on development needs that are most relevant to the organization’s strategic objectives and the employees’ professional goals.

12. Should a company identify and formally acknowledge its high-potential managers or should it be kept secret? Should managers know they are considered high-potential managers? Explain your positions.

One advantage of formally and openly communicating succession plans is that employees may remain with the organization because they have an understanding of promotion prospects. Another advantage is that high-potential employees who are not interested in other positions can communicate their intentions. The company can then avoid investing resources and have a more accurate picture of its potential future talent. On the flip side, those not on the list may become discouraged and leave the company. Furthermore, employees might not believe they have had a fair chance to compete for leadership positions if they already know that a list of potential candidates has been established.

13. Nationwide Financial, a 5,000-employee life insurance company based in Columbus, Ohio, uses the nine-box grid for its succession review. What type of development plans and activities would you recommend for solid but not outstanding performers with moderate leadership potential? How would these plans differ from employees with high potential and high performance (stars)? Explain.

Development plans for solid but not outstanding performers could include a mix of activities designed to help ensure that their solid performance continues. Furthermore, these plans could include experiences that can help individuals grow their skills and determine their interest and ability Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.

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to perform in positions requiring different skills or more responsibility. Regarding stars, there should be extensive development activities and opportunities to prepare them for leadership positions.

14. What are the potential advantages and disadvantages of using the nine-box grid for talent reviews?

The primary advantage of the nine-box grid is that it provides a systematic means to categorize employees to determine their potential development needs. The nine-box grid is used for analysis and discussion of talent, to help formulate effective development plans and activities, and to identify talented employees who can be groomed for top-level management positions in the company. The value of the grid is that it is based on multiple and shared perspectives of talent, it helps managers provide development plans and experiences that best fit employees based on their performance and potential (such as mentorships, job rotations, training opportunities), and it provides a snapshot of the company’s talent.

Despite its benefits, the nine-box grid may pigeon-hole employees too much, and it may be difficult for an employee to move to a different box. Moreover, it could be demoralizing for an employee who lands in an undesirable box. Such limitations can be overcome by providing opportunities for employees to change and improve their performance.

15. Explain the four steps in on-boarding. What should new hires learn at each step? How might social media or the Internet aid the on-boarding process?

The four steps of onboarding include: o Compliance—understanding basic legal and policy-related rules and regulations o Clarification—understanding job and performance expectations o Culture—understanding company history, traditions, values, and norms o Connection—understanding and developing formal and informal relationships Social media and the internet might help the onboarding process because new hires could communicate with other employees online. In addition, aspects of new hire training could be conducted online, particularly those components related to compliance. Reference materials could also be put online for employees to access at a later point. While social media and the internet could be utilized, organizations should rely more heavily on “live” social interactions to effectively onboard individuals.

16. What is bench strength? Is it important for companies to have bench strength? Why? How does succession planning influence companies’ bench strength?

One goal of succession planning is to enhance “bench strength,” having a pool of talented employees who are ready when needed. It is important to have bench strength because it allows companies to more easily fill upper-level positions internally. Given that succession planning refers to the process of identifying, developing, and tracking high potential employees, it is an effective means to help ensure appropriate bench strength.

17. What are some of the challenges of succession planning for family businesses?

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The primary challenge of succession planning in family businesses is identifying and grooming one family member as a successor or taking steps to develop a pool of talent of family members from which a successor can be chosen. They do so because family business owners tend to pay most of their attention to running the current business, rather than focusing on and planning for the future.

The typical non-family owned business has three sets of stakeholders (staff, owners, and staff owners).

However, in a family-owned business it becomes more complicated because four more sets of stakeholders are added including staff-family, family-owners, family, and staff-family-owners. Some experts recommend families begin to work our succession seven years before the company founder plans to retire.

18. What are the characteristics of effective onboarding programs? How can virtual onboarding still include those characteristics?

The following are a number of characteristics of effective onboarding programs: o Employees are encouraged to ask questions. o The program includes information on both technical and social aspects of the job. o The employee’s manager has some onboarding responsibility. o Debasing or embarrassing new employees is avoided. o Employees learn about the company’s culture, history, language, products, services, and customers. o Follow-up of employee progress occurs at different points up to one year after joining the company. o The program involves participation, active involvement, and formal and informal interaction between new hires and current employees. o Relocation assistance is provided (such as house hunting or information sessions on the community for employees and their significant others).

In the context of virtual onboarding, the content would likely be the same, and one should include employees, managers, and other members of the organization in socialization efforts.

Given the challenges of engagement in a virtual environment, designers of virtual onboarding programs should include projects, quizzes, and small-group discussions to enhance the virtual experience.

Chapter 10

Social Responsibility: Legal Issues, Managing Diversity, & Career Challenges

Many organizations are concerned with addressing broader social and societal issues in addition to achieving their primary business goals. The training and development function can contribute toward an organization’s social responsibility efforts, and the goal of this chapter is to highlight a number of avenues through which this may be done. For example, this chapter discusses training partnerships with outside organizations, legal issues and workplace diversity, cross-cultural preparation for expatriates, and career Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.

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challenges. This chapter highlights that training can have a broader impact on individuals, organizations, and society beyond what might be typically recognized and appreciated.

Objectives 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

Discuss the role of training partnerships in developing skills and contributing to local communities.

Discuss the potential legal issues that relate to training.

Develop a program for effectively managing diversity.

Design a program for preparing for cross-cultural assignments.

Discuss the importance of career paths and dual career paths for employees and companies.

Develop policies to help employees achieve work-life balance.

Describe how companies are helping veterans develop skills and get employment.

Explain the value of phased retirement programs for older employees.

Introduction Many organizations are concerned with addressing broader social and societal issues in addition to achieving their primary business goals relating to profit and growth. For example, some companies are committed to social responsibility to help improve their communities by protecting the environment, supporting cultural activities, and helping to reduce poverty and unemployment.

Companies also have a social responsibility to comply with laws and regulations, and more importantly, take actions and create conditions to help all employees grow and develop, regardless of their background and the career issues they may be facing.

The training and development function can contribute toward an organization’s social responsibility efforts, and the goal of this chapter is to highlight a number of avenues through which this may be done.

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Training Partnerships Sector partnerships refer to government agencies and industry trade groups that help identify skills that local employers require and work with community colleges, universities, and other educational institutions to provide qualified employees. Sector partnerships often focus on jobs that require more than a high school diploma but less than a four-year college degree. Some partnerships may also focus on skills for professional employees such as engineers. Through these partnerships, needs for workforce skills can be met faster than if individual employers worked alone.

Job Corps is a career and technical training program funded by Congress and administered by the U.S. Department of Labor. Job Corps trains young people between the ages of 16 and 24 in academic, information technology, and vocational skills needed in jobs such as masonry, carpentry, and nursing.

Some programs are specifically directed at helping the hard-to-employ, such as low-income or homeless people, individuals with a criminal record, or persons with disabilities to escape the poverty cycle through learning marketable skills and helping them get a job.

Utility companies are also collaborating with colleges and labor unions to develop and promote on-line education and other types of training to insure the utility industry has a skilled workforce.

The School-to-Work Opportunities Act is designed to assist the states in building school-to-work systems that prepare students for high-skill, high-wage jobs or future education. The act encourages partnerships between educational institutions, employers, and labor unions. The act requires that every school-to-work system include work-based learning, school-based learning, and connecting activities to match students with employers and bridge workplaces and classrooms.

The Workforce Innovation and Opportunity Act (WIOA) of 2014 is designed to help job seekers access employment, education, training, and support services and match employers with skilled workers. WIOA is an amendment and reauthorization of the Workforce Investment Act of 1998. The cornerstone of the system is “one-stop” service delivery, which unifies numerous training, education, employment programs into a single system in each community. WIAO streamlines workforce development systems by eliminating existing programs, establishes a common set of metrics for evaluating programs, and provides states with the flexibility to direct funds to develop needed skills. Furthermore, WIAO helps those with disabilities develop skills for employment and improves outreach to out-of-school youth and high school dropouts.

Joint Union-Management Programs Historically, joint union-management programs were designed to help displaced employees find new jobs by providing training and outplacement assistance. Today, these programs provide a wider range of services to help employees learn skills that are directly related to their jobs and valuable to employers in other companies or industries. Both employers and unions finance these programs and oversee their operation.

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Legal Issues and Managing a Diverse Workforce at Home and Abroad Legal Issues Trainers must ensure they are in compliance with the law and avoid a variety of legal traps.

Failing to provide required training or providing inadequate training.

To comply with a range of laws and regulations, companies are required to show that employees have completed training and are transferring new knowledge and skills.

Most companies provide training to reduce the potential for a hostile work environment for employees protected by Title VII of the Civil Rights Act (covering race, color, gender, religion, and national origin), the Age Discrimination in Employment Act, or the Americans with Disabilities Act. Federal laws also require a certain number of training hours and types of training for employees in certain industries. For example, initial training for flight attendants must include how to handle passengers, use galley equipment, evacuate the airplane, and use the public address system.

Companies in health care are required to comply with the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA); companies in finance are required to comply with the Bank Secrecy Act; and companies in the gaming industry (such as casinos) are required to train employees on how to handle money and report suspicious activity.

Incurring injuries to employees during a training activity.

Workers’ compensation laws in many states make employers responsible for paying employees their salary or providing a financial settlement for injuries incurred in training. Managers should ensure that employees are warned of potential dangers from incorrectly using equipment and that safety equipment is used.

Incurring injuries to employees or others outside a training session The company may be liable for injuries or damages resulting from actions of poorly trained employees. This may hold even when training is conducted by an external vendor. Training content and methods should be thoroughly documented.

Incurring breach of confidentiality or defamation.

Information placed in employee files regarding training should be accurate. Before managers discuss employee training performance with others or use training performance data for other HRM decisions, employees should be informed.

Reproducing and using copyrighted material without permission.

The use of videos, manuals, handouts or any copyrighted material in training without the owner’s permission is illegal. Republishing or repackaging under your own name material that you took from the Internet can be a violation of copyright law.

Many websites and published materials are governed by the fair use doctrine, which means that you can use small amounts of copyrighted material without asking permission or paying a fee so long as the use meets four standards. The standards relate to: (1) the purpose for which the copyrighted

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materials are being used, (2) what the copyrighted work is, (3) the proportion of the copyrighted material you are using, and (4) how much money the copyright owner can lose as a result of the use.

Excluding women, minorities, and older employees from training.

Women, minorities, and older employees have been denied access to training, which limits opportunities for promotion, career growth, and job security. Title VII of the Civil Rights Act (1964) makes it illegal to make employment decisions on the basis of race, color, religion, gender or national origin. The Age Discrimination in Employment Act (ADEA) prohibits discrimination against individuals over the age of 40.

Although these two pieces of legislation have existed for several years, a study by the U.S. Department of Labor found that training experiences necessary for promotion are not as available or accessible to women and minorities as they are to white males.

Failing to ensure equal treatment of all employees during training.

Conditions of the learning environment, such as practice and feedback, should be available to all trainees regardless of their background. Trainees should also avoid jokes, stories, and examples that might be perceived as discriminatory.

Requiring employees to attend program that might be offensive.

Individuals should not be required to attend potentially offensive training. All State Insurance has been subject to religious discrimination lawsuits by its employees. It was argued by the plaintiffs that training content was on Scientology, which was offensive and counter to their religious beliefs.

Revealing discriminatory information during training.

During a diversity training program at a supermarket chain, supervisors were asked to express their stereotypes, which were viewed as discriminatory by some. Practices such as these should be avoided.

Not making accommodations for trainees’ religious beliefs or disabilities.

Based on Title VII, companies are required to reasonably accommodate an employee’s religious beliefs unless it would pose an undue hardship. Companies must accommodate an employee’s religious beliefs, for example, by providing a schedule change, when it would cause no undue hardship The Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) of 1990 prohibits discrimination on the basis of disability in employment practices. The ADA requires employers to make reasonable accommodation to help individuals perform effectively, unless doing so would create undue hardship. In the context of training, reasonable accommodation refers to making training facilities readily accessible to and usable by individuals with disabilities. Reasonable accommodation may also include modifying instructional media, adjusting training policies, and providing trainees with readers or interpreters.

The ADA has implications for most training methods, including adventure learning and e-learning.

Some adventure learning experiences demand a high level of physical fitness. Employees who have a disability cannot be required to attend adventure learning training programs. It is important to make sure that e-learning is accessible to trainees with visual, hearing, mobility, and cognitive disabilities.

Incorrectly reporting training as an expense, failing to report training reimbursement as income, or failing to pay employees for attending training.

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Companies can often deduct the cost of training provided to employees as a business expense, up to certain limits. Reimbursement for training expenses that an employee incurs may be considered part of the employee’s annual income.

The Fair Labor Standards Act requires employees to receive compensation for all hours worked.

However, there is some ambiguity regarding training. It is unclear whether the time employees spend at training programs whether they use online or face-to-face methods is considered as hours worked.

The time that employees spend in training should be considered working time, which means they should be paid unless four conditions are met. If the following four conditions hold, then training does not need to be paid: o training is outside of regular working hours o training is voluntary o training is not directly related to the employee’s job o the employee does not perform any productive work during training Given that the above conditions are difficult to meet, the majority of training hours should be paid.

Managing Workforce Diversity and Ensuring Equity and Inclusion

Companies are using training and management practices to foster and capitalize on diversity, equity, and inclusion. Recall our discussion of diversity, equity, and inclusion. Managing diversity, equity, and inclusion involves creating an environment that allows all employees to contribute to organizational goals and experience personal growth. This environment includes access to jobs, as well as fair and positive treatment of all employees.

Diversity training refers to learning efforts designed to change employee attitudes about diversity and develop skills needed to work with a diverse workforce. The goals of diversity training are two-fold: o to eliminate values, stereotypes, and managerial practices that inhibit employees’ personal development o to allow employees to contribute to organizational goals regardless of their race, sexual orientation, gender, family status, religious orientation, or cultural background Research shows that diversity training has the largest effect on understanding and awareness of diversity, and significant but smaller effects on behavior change and attitudes. The positive effects of diversity training were greater when it was part of a larger managing diversity effort, focused on both awareness and skill development, and sufficient time was devoted to it. Furthermore, greater benefits have been found when the training program was sufficient length for trainees to learn (four hours or more), managers were used as trainers, and trainees interacted face to face with the instructor, the content, and other learners using cases and exercises.

Unconscious bias training has become a popular approach to diversity education. Unconscious bias is one specific type of bias that companies are addressing through training. Unconscious bias is a judgment outside of our consciousness that affects decisions based on background, culture, and personal experience. These training programs are designed to make employees aware of unconscious bias and reduce its impact by slowing down decision-making and carefully considering the reasoning and language used in judgements.

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To help further ensure that company culture supports diversity, equity, and inclusion, some companies are engaging in ally training. Ally training refers to training that encourages employees to have conversations about difficult topics and perspectives without fear of blame or shame. Some ally training programs encourage white employees (or those who are in the majority) to support minority employees in the workplace by offering them support and speaking up for them when they experience unfair treatment.

A company will see the success of its diversity efforts only if it makes a long-term commitment to managing diversity and has a zero tolerance policy toward discrimination. Successful diversity requires that it be viewed as an opportunity for all employees to: o learn from each other how to better accomplish their work o be provided with a supportive and cooperative organizational culture o be taught leadership and process skills that can facilitate effective team functioning Melting the Glass Ceiling A major issue facing companies is placing women and minorities in upper-level management positions.

The glass ceiling refers to a barrier to advancement that adversely affects women and minorities. The glass ceiling is likely caused by lack of access to training programs, appropriate developmental job experiences, and developmental relationships.

Women and minorities continue to be underrepresented in executive positions. Black executives only hold 3 percent of the positions that influence company success and are on the career path to the CEO position.

Even when Black employees do become executives, they are often given positions with less advancement potential. Only 25 percent of total C-suite positions in the Fortune 100 are held by women. Only 7 companies have a female CEO. Women hold only 13 percent of positions with high potential for CEO promotion and board recruitment.

One of the dilemmas is that companies may be reluctant to treat women and minorities any differently than men from a leadership development perspective, despite acknowledging that they lack executive sponsors or mentors, have insufficient experience, and need better work-life balance. This barrier may be due to stereotypes or company systems that adversely affect the development of women or minorities.

The following are recommendations for melting the glass ceiling: o Make sure senior management supports and is involved in the program o Make a business case for change o Make the change public o Gather data on problems that cause the glass ceiling using task forces, focus groups, and questionnaires o Create awareness of how gender attitudes affect the work environment o Force accountability through reviews of promotion rates and assignment decisions through stretch assignments, mentoring, and networking o Promote development for all employees o Support work-life balance and continue to offer employees development opportunities after they return from sabbaticals and parental leave

Cross-Cultural Preparation

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Because of increased global operations, employees may work outside their country of origin or work with individuals from other countries. An expatriate is someone who works in a country other than his or her country of origin. Cross-cultural preparation educates expatriates and their families for their lives abroad.

To successfully conduct business in the global marketplace, employees must understand international business practices and cross-cultural norms.

Steps in Cross-Cultural Preparation To succeed overseas, expatriates need to be: o competent in their area of expertise o able to communicate effectively both verbally and nonverbally in the host country o flexible, tolerant of ambiguity, and sensitive to cultural differences o motivated for success, able to enjoy the challenges of a different culture, and willing to learn about the host country’s culture, language and customs o supported by their families for an international assignment Cross-cultural preparation involves three phases—pre-departure, on-site, and repatriation. The key to a successful foreign assignment is a combination of training and career management for employees and their families.

Pre-departure The pre-departure phase is the preparatory period before the expatriate leaves the home country. As noted above, it is critical that expatriates and their families receive training in the host country’s language, culture, and norms. Information regarding housing, schools, recreation, shopping, and healthcare also needs to be provided. Furthermore, expatriates must discuss with their managers how the foreign assignment fits into their future career plans.

Cross-cultural training methods may include lectures, e-learning, experiential exercises, and immersion experiences.

The rigor needed in cross-cultural training depends on three factors: o cultural novelty—the degree of similarity between the home and host country’s culture o interaction—the amount of interaction between expatriates and host country nationals o job novelty—the expatriate’s familiarity with job tasks and work environment in the host country

On-Site Phase The on-site phase, in the host country, should involve continued orientation through formal training and mentoring. Expatriates and their families may be paired with an employee from the host country to help them navigate the new terrain. Expatriates should be encouraged to develop social relationships both inside and outside of the workplace.

A major reason that employees refuse expatriate assignments is that they cannot afford to lose their spouse’s income or are concerned that their spouse’s career could be derailed by being out of the workforce for a few years. To combat some of the challenges, some companies are introducing more flexible expatriate assignments. Some strategies include reducing the amount of time on the assignment, commuting between the parent country and host country assignment, and rotational assignments in which employees alternate between working at home and living back home. Further, to help reduce the

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stress expatriate assignments can place on spouses and families who are living apart, companies are supporting more frequent family visits.

Repatriation Phase The repatriation phase relates to returning to the parent company and home country upon completion of the foreign assignment. Expatriates are likely to experience a high level of stress and anxiety when they return home because of various changes that likely occur. To help them with their return home, expatriates should be brought up to date on national issues, politics, and news stories. Furthermore, expatriates should keep up-to-date on current events at their parent company while on their assignment abroad. Aside from reentry shock, many expatriates decide to leave the company because the assignments they are given upon returning to the U.S. have less responsibility, challenge, and status than their foreign assignments.

Career Challenges Facing a Multigenerational Workforce Employees’ careers typically involve four stages—exploration, establishment, maintenance, and decline. o Exploration—individuals attempt to identify the type of work that interests and engages them.

They consider their preferences and begin pursuing the type of education and training they need. o Establishment—individuals find employment, make an independent contribution, achieve more responsibility and financial success, and establish a suitable lifestyle. o Maintenance—individuals are concerned with keeping their skills up to date and being perceived as someone who is still contributing to the company. o Decline—individuals begin to phase out of work and enter retirement.

Although individuals can progress through these stages in a linear fashion, many individuals do not because of today’s boundaryless careers and more frequent career changes. To attract, motivate, and retain a talented workforce, companies need to understand and manage career challenges and help employees deal with career issues.

Work-Life Balance Maintaining a healthy work-life balance is important for employees of all ages. However, it is often difficult to maintain work-life balance due to long hours, unfavorable shifts, and electronic technology.

Specifically, work-life balance refers to helping employees deal with the stresses, strains, and conflicts related to balancing work and non-work demands.

Work-life conflict has been found to be related to increased health risks, decreased productivity, tardiness, turnover, and poor mental health. Work-life conflict occurs due to competing time demands, the stress of work and life roles, and when employees’ behavior in their work roles is not appropriate for their behavior in non-work roles.

The Family and Medical Leave Act (FLMA) is a key piece of legislation designed to promote work-life balance. The FMLA allows employees to take up to twelve weeks of unpaid leave in a one-year period to take care of an ill family member, take care of themselves, or for the birth or adoption of a child.

The FMLA doesn’t apply to all employers or workers. Many part-time workers are not eligible and small businesses with fewer than fifty employees are not covered. The U.S. is the only developed nation in the

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world that does not provide for paid parental leave. If they have short-term disability benefits from their employer, parents can use these benefits to take time off and some, but not all of their covered wages during their leave.

The COVID-19 pandemic had a major impact on work-life balance and employees’ mental and physical health. For example, the pandemic resulted in many employees scrambling to find a space and technology that would allow them to work from home and some employees’ hours were reduced or they were furloughed.

Many companies are providing benefits required by the Families First Coronavirus Response Act (FFCRA) even though they are not required to do so. The FFCRA had two major provisions. One of the provisions required private employers with fewer than 500 employees and some public employers to pay sick leave of up to 80 hours, or roughly 10 days, to employees who need to take leave for coronavirus-related reasons. Under another provision, employees were eligible for an additional 10 weeks of family leave paid at two-thirds of their regular wages to care for a child whose school or place of care was closed or whose child care provider was unavailable because of COVID-19.

Many companies have gone beyond the FMLA by offering telecommuting, compressed workweeks, flextime, and job sharing. o Telecommuting refers to a work arrangement that gives employees flexibility in both work location and hours. o Compressed workweek refers to a work schedule that allows employees to work fewer days but with longer hours. o Flextime refers to giving employees the option of choosing when to work during the workday, workweek, or work year. o Job sharing refers to having two employees divide the hours, the responsibilities, and the benefits of a full-time job.

Additional practices to help employees balance work and family life are work-family programs. Such programs include paid/unpaid elder care leave, flexible spending accounts for dependent care, elder care resources and referrals, flexible spending accounts for elder care, and on-site child care.

To help employees better balance work-life needs and stay mentally and physically healthy, numerous companies have made time off mandatory and provided extended holiday vacations.

To boost employees' engagement, managers at many companies have been encouraged to personally contact employees using web conferencing tools such as Zoom to ensure their workload is not too burdensome and check-in on their well-being.

Career Paths and Dual Career Paths A career path is a sequence of job positions involving similar types of work and skills that employees pursue. Career paths help companies chart future employment prospects for their employees and help employees determine appropriate training and development needs. Career paths maximize employees’ value to the company and signal to employees that they do not have to leave the company to advance to new positions.

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One survey showed that less than 50 percent of employees believe their organization provides useful career planning tools and opportunities to advance their careers.

Dual Career Path For companies with professional employees such as engineers and scientists, an important issue is how to ensure that they feel valued. Many companies structure career paths so that individuals advance through the company by moving into management positions. However, not all individuals desire to move into management, but still seek to advance within the organization. For this reason, some organizations have developed dual career path systems, which enable individuals to remain on either an individual contributor path or on a management career path.

Effective dual-career paths have several characteristics: o Salary, status, and incentives for individual contributors compare favorably with those of managers. o While individual contributor base salaries may be lower than managers, they are given opportunities to increase their total compensation through bonuses. o The individual contributor career path is not used to satisfy poor performers who have no managerial potential. This path is for employees with outstanding technical skills. o Individual contributors are given the opportunity to choose their career path.

Career Recycling Career recycling involves changing one’s major work activity after being established in a specific field.

Recycling is accompanied by a re-exploration of values, skills, interests, and potential employment opportunities.

Recycling is not limited to older employees who are nearing retirement. Many companies that face a serious shortage of qualified employees are developing retraining programs to fill labor shortages with employees from other fields. Companies are using these training programs to help recycle employees into new jobs and careers.

It is not uncommon for employees who are considering recycling to conduct informational interviews with managers or employees in different fields to gather information about these jobs and potential fit.

Job Hopping Job hopping refers to employees changing jobs, usually between companies, every two to three years. Job hopping is prevalent today, especially among the younger generations, as more employees view themselves as “free agents” who must actively manage their own careers. Employees increasingly recognize that they have protean careers, where they must be responsible for their own careers because companies often make them expendable.

For employers, job hopping results in a loss of talent, productivity, and higher costs related to turnover, recruitment, and retraining. Furthermore, job hopping makes it difficult to create and sustain a culture that supports relationships between employees and continuity in employee-customer relationships.

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On the positive side for employers, job hopping does provide companies with the opportunity to hire employees who have a variety of experiences in different companies, which can allow the company to understand best practices. Hiring employees who job hop may increase a company’s flexibility and adaptability because these employees may be capable of quickly learning different jobs. Also, employees who job hop likely have lower expectations for job security, making it easier to downsize if necessary.

From an employee perspective, in addition to better pay and growth opportunities, job hopping can provide opportunities to work in a variety of industries, in different-sized companies, and to gain new skills, experiences, and personal contacts. However, individuals may not be staying in any one job long enough to complete important projects, develop personal networks, or gain relevant experience.

Companies are unlikely to eliminate job hopping. However, they can reduce job hopping by creating conditions for employee engagement, providing employees with growth opportunities, and offering incentives and rewards for good performance.

Coping with Career Breaks Both men and women face major problems returning to work after taking several months or years off.

These challenges are particularly prevalent for those in the armed services who return to civilian jobs.

Returning troops may face a number of challenges finding employment or returning to their previous jobs. These challenges stem from. o lack of experiences in the workplace o incomplete skill sets and educational credentials o difficultly working in less structured situations o psychological and physical challenges Veterans are known to possess many positive characteristics that make them desirable to employers, such as attention to detail, self-discipline, problem solving, decision making in stressful situations, and teamwork. The Uniformed Services Employment and Reemployment Act covers deployed employees’ rights, such as guaranteeing jobs when they return, except under certain circumstances. As such, employers must accommodate the rights of service personnel.

Coping with Job Loss Coping with job loss is a major career issue because of the increased use of downsizing to deal with excess staff resulting from corporate restructurings, mergers, acquisitions, and takeovers. Research suggests that layoffs do not result in improved profitability, have mixed effects on productivity, and have adverse effects on morale and commitment among “survivors.” As such, companies should first seek alternative ways to reduce head count and lower labor costs. These alternatives may include asking employees to work fewer hours, offering early retirement plans, delaying wage increases, and deciding not to fill openings created by turnover and retirements.

The economic effects of the pandemic caused many businesses to close and workers to lose their jobs.

But recognizing the value of human capital and the investment they have made in recruiting, training, and developing employees, many companies have tried to furlough rather than layoff employees or

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permanently reduce the workforce. A furlough means employees are given a mandatory temporary leave during which they do not receive pay but they still receive benefits. Furloughed employees receive benefits, can receive unemployment for the lost time, and have the possibility of being called back to work. Companies can quickly decide to furlough employees and if they rehire the employees later, they avoid recruiting and training costs.

Sometimes layoffs are inevitable, and efforts should be taken to reduce their potential negative effects. In particular, companies should provide outplacement services, which should include: o Advance warning and an explanation for the layoff o Psychological, financial, and career counseling o Assessment of skills and interests o Job seeking services, such as resume writing and interviewing training o Job banks where job leads are posted o Electronic delivery of job openings, self-directed career management guides, and interest inventories

Meeting the Needs of Older Workers Due to concerns and lost income due to the pandemic and recent political instability, a survey conducted by a retirement planning website found that nearly one-third of people in their 50s and 20 percent in their 60s now plan to postpone retirement. It also found that 59 percent of Americans in their 50s plan to work in retirement, 42 percent plan to work part-time, and 17 percent plan to work full time.

To meet the needs of older workers and to avoid skill shortages, companies are offering alternative work schedules and arrangements, including part-time work, rehiring of retirees, and phased retirement programs in which employees gradually reduce their work hours.

Older employees are a significant portion of the labor force. That said, what technically is an older worker? o The ADEA provides protection for individuals once they reach the age of 40 o Mandatory retirement ages exist in certain occupations (air traffic controllers = 56, pilots = 65, federal law enforcement = 57) o Professional football players are considered old at 30 o Retirees today can receive full social security benefits at 65 (or reduced benefits beginning at 62) Older employees do not have higher absenteeism rates, nor are they likely to put in less effort. Older employees are as productive as younger employees, and they have valuable experience. However, they do require more training in technology and prefer hands-on learning.

Companies can take several steps to meet the needs of older employees. o Provide flexibility in scheduling to allow older employees to take care of sick spouses, travel, or work fewer hours. o Ensure older employees receive training to avoid obsolescence and learn new technology. o Provide resources and referrals to aid in health care. o Offer assessments and counseling to help older employees recycle their careers or move to different positions.

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o o

Recognize that as older employees’ physical and mental abilities decline, they can rely on experience and motivation.

Ensure younger employees do not hold inappropriate stereotypes about older employees.

Preretirement Socialization Preretirement socialization is the process of helping employees prepare to exit from work. These efforts typically include: o Psychological aspects of retirement, such as developing personal interests and activities o Housing, including a consideration of transportation, living costs, and proximity to medical care o Maintaining a healthy lifestyle during retirement, including nutrition and exercise o Healthcare plans o Financial planning, insurance, and investments o Estate planning o The collection of benefits from company retirement plans and social security Many companies are also using phased retirement and alternative work arrangements to help employees make the transition into retirement while at the same time continuing to use their talents. Phased retirement involves employees transitioning from full-time employment to full-time retirement by working part time. Phased retirement can benefit both companies and their employees. It can help companies cope with the shortages of skilled employees in the labor market. It provides a source of income for employees who have seen the value of their retirement funds decrease during the economic recession.

There are several different passed retirement plans. An employee can retire and return as an independent contractor, consultant, or part-time worker.

Retirement Retirement involves leaving a job and making the transition to life without work. For some employees, retirement involves seeking full-time or part-time employment elsewhere or recycling into another career.

Employees tend to be retiring at later ages today. Recent changes in the social security system have led to no mandatory retirement ages for most jobs, and financial need had led to more individuals working longer.

The aging workforce and the use of early retirement programs to shrink companies’ workforces have three implications: o Companies must meet the needs of older employees. o Companies must take steps to prepare employees for retirement. o Companies must be careful that early retirement programs do not unfairly discriminate against older employees.

Early Retirement Programs Early retirement programs offer employees financial benefits to leave the company. These programs are usually part of the company’s strategy to reduce labor costs without having to lay off employees.

To avoid costly litigation, companies need to make sure that their early retirement programs contain the following features. o The program is part of the employee benefit plan. o The company can justify age-related distinctions for eligibility for early retirement.

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o

Employees are allowed to choose early retirement voluntarily.

Training plays an important role in early retirement programs. Companies teach employees to understand the financial implications of early retirement. Training programs are also used to help employees understand when and in what forms health benefits and retirement savings can be received.

Discussion Questions 1.

What is a sector partnership? Why is it important? Provide an example of a sector partnership.

Sector partnerships refer to government agencies and industry trade groups that help identify skills that local employers require and work with community colleges, universities, and other educational institutions to provide qualified employees. Sector partnerships often focus on jobs that require more than a high school diploma but less than a four-year college degree. Some partnerships may also focus on skills for professional employees such as engineers. Through these partnerships, needs for workforce skills can be met faster than if individual employers worked alone. (A number of examples are presented in the text.)

2.

Assume you were asked to investigate whether a police officer training adequately covered the use of force. What would you review? Would you look at any data?

It is important that such training addresses the adequate use of force, as using too much force may result in injury or legal action against a police department. To determine whether training adequately covered the use of force, one could examine existing training materials and needs assessment data to determine what levels of force are appropriate. These standards could be benchmarked relative to other similar training programs. When assessing the program itself, one could examine whether there was sufficient coverage of the standards, relevant exercises (including role plays), and exams or quizzes on the material. Finally, one could examine the number of complaints regarding force to help determine whether a problem currently exists.

3.

Explain the relationship between “managing diversity, equity, and inclusion” and “diversity training.”

Which is most effective? Why?

Diversity training refers to learning efforts that are designed to change employee attitudes about diversity and/or develop skills needed to work with a diverse workforce.

Managing diversity, equity, and inclusion is more comprehensive than diversity training. As such, one could argue that managing diversity, equity, and inclusion is more effective. Diversity training is important and can be subsumed under the broader umbrella of managing diversity, equity, and inclusion.

4.

What is the purpose of unconscious bias training? Provide an example of how unconscious bias training can affect who gets to attend training or is asked to participate in development activities.

Unconscious bias training has become a popular approach to diversity education. Such training is designed to help individuals become aware of their unconscious biases, provide tools to adjust

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automatic patterns of thinking, and ultimately help eliminate discriminatory behaviors in the workplace. Unconscious bias training often begins with demonstrations of how the mind operates in ways that are outside of conscious awareness and control. These demonstrations show that people make judgments based on ethnicity or gender, for example, without any conscious intention. There is increasing evidence that unconscious bias training is one of the more effective diversity training strategies. When individuals attend such training, they may gain greater insights about themselves which might otherwise not been known. As a result, they may be more cognizant of how their biases impact their interactions with others.

5.

What are the implications of reasonable accommodation when training employees with disabilities?

Employees with religious beliefs?

Based on Title VII, companies are required to reasonably accommodate an employee’s religious beliefs unless it would pose an undue hardship. Companies must accommodate an employee’s religious beliefs, for example, by providing a schedule change, when it would cause no undue hardship The Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) of 1990 prohibits discrimination on the basis of disability in employment practices. The ADA requires employers to make reasonable accommodation to help individuals perform effectively, unless doing so would create undue hardship. In the context of training, reasonable accommodation refers to making training facilities readily accessible to and usable by individuals with disabilities. Reasonable accommodation may also include modifying instructional media, adjusting training policies, and providing trainees with readers or interpreters.

The ADA has implications for most training methods, including adventure learning and e-learning.

Some adventure learning experiences demand a high level of physical fitness. Employees who have a disability cannot be required to attend adventure learning training programs. It is important to make sure that e-learning is accessible to trainees with visual, hearing, mobility, and cognitive disabilities.

6.

Explain ally training. How can ally training contribute to companies' efforts toward diversity, equity, and inclusion?

To help further ensure that company culture supports diversity, equity, and inclusion, some companies are engaging in ally training. Ally training refers to training that encourages employees to have conversations about difficult topics and perspectives without fear of blame or shame. Some ally training programs encourage white employees (or those who are in the majority) to support minority employees in the workplace by offering them support and speaking up for them when they experience unfair treatment.

7.

Do employee resource groups such as those for women, Hispanics, veterans, and other groups helps or hinders efforts to improve diversity and inclusion in the workplace? Explain why.

In one respect, disbanding such groups may help inclusion because diversity groups can be isolating.

However, individuals may need a degree of support that a group can provide. As opposed to disbanding such groups, a viable strategy is to include a mix of employees from different backgrounds and points of view.

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8.

How would you prepare a team of three managers to go to Warsaw, Poland, to oversee the operations of a recently acquired financial services firm? They will be leaving in one month, and the assignment lasts two years.

To prepare the managers for the assignment, training could focus on cultural differences between the home country and Poland, basic language skills, and information on living abroad (e.g., information about housing, schools, recreation, shopping, and health care facilities. The managers would also need some training in the work customs and habits of the host company. The managers should discuss with their superiors how the foreign assignment fits into their career plans and what types of positions they can expect upon their return.

9.

What should companies do to develop talented women to take top management positions? Provide support for your recommendations. o Garner top management support for promoting and developing talented women. o Provide access to training to help women advance their careers. o Pair talented women with key mentors. o Provide challenging development assignments so women can enhance their skill sets. o Provide training to help eliminate gender stereotypes.

10. How are career paths useful for employees? How can they contribute to company effectiveness?

A career path is a sequence of job positions involving similar types of work and skills that employees move through in the company. Career paths help companies offer career options to their employees that help them make job choices that best fit their life situations. Furthermore, career paths help companies build employee skills throughout a series of jobs or roles. Career paths maximize employees’ value to the company and show that employees do not have to leave the company to move to new positions.

11. What is job hopping? Which career challenges might a company focus on to reduce job hopping?

Job hopping refers to employees changing jobs, usually between companies, every two to three years.

Job hopping is prevalent today, especially among the younger generations, as more employees view themselves as “free agents” who must actively manage their own careers.

Companies are unlikely to eliminate job hopping. However, companies can reduce job hopping and attract and retain talented employees by creating conditions for employee engagement, providing employees with growth opportunities, and offering incentives and rewards for good performance.

12. What advantages and disadvantages might a company gain by using phased retirement?

Phased retirement can benefit both companies and their employees. It can help companies cope with the shortages of skilled employees in the labor market. It provides a source of income for employees who have seen the value of their retirement funds decrease during the economic recession.

On the flip side, the use of phased retirement plans is complicated by regulations regarding taxation of retirement benefits and concerns about continued health care coverage (e.g., there is no legal

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definition of phased retirement, and the tax code has few regulations for how to offer phased retirement within a defined retirement benefits plan).

13. What are work-life programs? How are they related to work-family programs? What are some of the challenges in developing and using work-life programs?

Work-life programs aim to promote work-life balance via reduced working hours, job sharing, telecommuting, compressed work, and personal time. Work-family programs include practices such as paid/unpaid elder care leave, flexible spending accounts for dependent care, and elder care resources.

Work-family programs can be subsumed under work-life balance programs; they are just more narrowly focused on specific family issues.

There are several challenges with the use of work-life balance policies. The first challenge is using them to help employees achieve work-life balance without hurting business needs such as customer service and productivity. Second, managers need to understand and accept the idea that employees should not be punished for use of work-life balance policies. Third, it is important to ensure that work-life balance practices are accessible to everyone and meet the needs of all employees, not just those with families.

14. How could you help the survivors of a downsizing remain motivated and productive? Which of your recommendations is most important? Explain why.

Survivors are more likely to view layoffs as fair if employees are asked to cut costs to avoid layoffs, if the factors used to decide whom to lay off are applied equally to individual contributors and management employees, advance notice is provided, and clear and adequate explanations are given.

Survivors need to be trained to deal with increased workloads and job responsibilities due to the consolidation and loss of jobs. The company also needs to provide survivors with realistic information about their future with the company. Providing an explanation for the layoffs and treating laid off employees fairly, may also reduce “survivor guilt.”

Chapter 11

The Future of Training & Development

This chapter discusses how the training and development function will evolve in the future. It is critical to have an understanding of future trends in this area, for they will have a great effect on training design, delivery, and evaluation. The trends discussed in this chapter include the automation of work, use of new technologies for training, breakthroughs in neuroscience about learning, faster training design involving key stakeholders, and increased use of just-in-time learning and performance support, among others. As the final chapter in the text, it provides the student with a forward-looking view of the training and development function.

Objectives

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1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

Explain the digital skills needed for employability and why they are important.

Discuss how artificial intelligence (AI) and the internet-of-things (IoT), and the learning experience platform will influence training and development.

Discuss how rapid instructional design and agile design differs from traditional training design.

Discuss how big data can be used to show how training supports business outcomes.

Discuss the impact of increased automation on jobs and training.

Explain how companies are trying to close the skills gap.

Introduction This chapter takes a look at what the future of training and development might look like and highlights numerous innovations in the field. Key trends include: o Automation of work o Greater need for digital literacy and closing the skills gap o Use of new technologies for training delivery and instruction o Breakthroughs in neuroscience about learning o Faster training design involving key stakeholders o Increased use of just-in-time learning and performance support o Increased emphasis on big data to show how learning helps the business

Automation of Work The use of automation to perform work previously done by employees is expected to increase quickly in the next decade. One survey found that robots and AI are currently doing 12% of work, but respondents report that their use will increase to 22% in the next several years.

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The Potential Impact of Automation on Work o o

o o

Six out of ten current occupations have more than 30% of work activities that can be automated using technology.

By 2030 15% of the global workforce representing over 400 million workers could be potentially displaced by the adoption of automation. Three percent (75 million) of workers will need to change their occupation.

By 2030, up to one-third of the workforce in the United States and Germany and nearly 50 percent of the workforce in Japan may need to learn new skills and find jobs in new occupations.

Worldwide 400 million jobs could be automated by 2030. But projected productivity gains and consumer demand would result in creating 890 million new jobs.

Jobs involving physical activities in predictable environments such as operating equipment and machinery and preparing food are likely to be automated. In addition, work activities that involve collecting and processing data that occur in banking, finance, accounting, and legal work can be done more efficiently and effectively through automation.

There are several activities where automation cannot replace human performance including jobs where work activities are unpredictable, involve managing other people, exercising creativity, applying expertise, and social interactions such as in jobs like plumbers, childcare workers, artists and performers, builders, and engineers, and scientists.

Robots are also changing jobs rather than replacing workers. Truck driving jobs will not disappear, but they will change. Self-driving trucks relying on AI will still need drivers. The drivers will be located in a remote control center to help trucks navigate into and out of city or neighborhood streets and to get to highways where they can operate completely autonomously.

Finally, for some jobs, robots may be useful replacements for their human counterparts who are hard to find. For example, bricklaying contractors are unable to find enough bricklayers, but a semi-automated mason (SAM) can help perform some, though not all, of the human mason’s tasks.

From a training and development perspective, increases in automation mean that employees will need to be provided with job retraining at the national and company level to help them gain new skills and change careers if necessary.

Greater Need for Digital Literacy and Closing the Skills Gap A skills gap presents challenges for companies in the United States and around the world. The current education-to-employment system is not adequately preparing students and adults for the 21st century economy.

As the future workplace becomes increasingly digitized, employees will need digital literacy skills. Digital literacy refers to the skills needed to interpret, create, and strategically use digital information. Digital literacy will be required of most jobs, even those not considered as technology jobs.

Below are minimal levesl of digital skills a worker is likely to need to be eligible for employment. o Problem solving using technology (Interpretation and use of digital information)

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o o o o o o

Interaction with computers and mobile devices (Basic skills to interact with computers and mobile devices) Basic tools (Skill in common productivity and software tools) Data security and safety (Awareness of threats to computers and data and ways to protect them) Data ethics (How to behave legally and ethically in a digital context) Occupation-specific tools (Use of tools to complete tasks for a specific occupation) Analytics and data manipulation (Understand how to interact with and manipulate data)

Other skills are also forecast to be in demand including social and emotional skills (leadership and managing others, taking initiative, negotiations, adaptability, empathy) and higher-level cognitive skills (creativity, critical thinking and decision making, and interpreting and processing complex information). A recent survey shows that 9 out of 10 executives and managers say their organizations either face skill gaps already or expect gaps to develop within the next five years.

Some companies are already working alone or in partnership with training providers, community organizations, and two or four year colleges and universities to help develop digital literacy and close the skills gap.

Increased Use of New Technologies for Training Delivery and Instruction The use of social media, smartphones, and other new technologies will likely increase in the future for several reasons.

1. The cost of these technologies will decrease.

2. Companies can use technology to better prepare employees to serve customers and generate new business.

3. Technology can substantially reduce the training costs related to bringing geographically dispersed employees to one central training location.

4. Technology allows trainers to build into training many of the desirable features of a learning environment.

5. As companies engage in more non-traditional employment relationships and offer more alternative work arrangements, technology will allow training to be delivered to any place and at any time.

6. New technologies will make it easier for training and performance support to be accessible to learners anytime and anyplace.

A number of new technological advances that will influence training o Wearables (smartwatches, bands, smart eyewear) o Artificial Intelligence (AI) o Internet of Things (IoT) o Telepresence o Tin Can API (or Experience API) o Learning Records Store (LRS) o Learning Experience Platform (LXP) Wearables

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Wearables are just beginning to be used for training and performance support solutions. Wearable intelligences provide smart eyewear technology and camera technology that give employees hands-free, voice-activated access to procedures and checklists; live access to experts using tablet computers that allow data and live video sharing; the opportunity to review best-practice videos before or during the performance of complex procedures and operations; and real-time notifications and alerts. Wearable technologies can also potentially be used to provide useful needs assessment data by tracking what tasks employees perform the most. The technology is currently being used in energy and health care.

Artificial Intelligence AI will become even more humanlike and accessible at a lower cost. There are several ways AI may influence learning in the future. One way is through providing every employee with a learning bot. A learning bot could help employees by identifying and recommending the most important knowledge to get work done. Another way is that training managers will be able to analyze matches (or mismatches) between role and tasks to identify learning needs.

Sonic Automotive is studying the use of AI for training, potentially creating a Siri or Alexa-like application that associates will be able to ask a job-related question and get an answer without having to attend an online or instructor-led training course.

AI will also increasingly be used for coaching and mentoring. For example, the coaching app Rocky is designed to help employees develop their leadership skills. Rocky is a conversational AI bot that helps employees identify and work toward skill development goals. It also provides guidance and advice on how to reach the goal.

Ethical issues associated with AI will likely become more debated. One ethical issue is whether AI is accessible and understandable to all employees regardless of disability, race, gender, orientation, or cultural background. Algorithms used in AI need to be developed with the input of a diverse group of employees to ensure they are not biased and everyone can benefit. Data security and transparency are also important. Employees’ data should be only accessible by authorized users and secure from cyberattacks. Employees should also have permission to review, update, and edit personal training data that the company holds.

Internet of Things (IoT) Internet of things (IoT) devices will become increasingly part of the workplace. Iot devices refer to “smart devices”—physical objects embedded with sensors and Internet connections. For example, apps on wearable devices can be used to track employees’ locations and connect employees to seminars, courses, or available subject matter experts who are in close geographic proximity to them. Iot helps make learning a continuous ongoing personalized experience that employees can engage in when it is needed.

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Telepresence Telepresence refers to a technology that allows a person to interact with a different place as if they were there. This includes controlling robots remotely or holding virtual meetings. Telepresence can help enhance the realism of digital learning and allows learning to occur remotely while the instructor or facilitator and the learner can interact synchronously in the same space.

Tin Can API (or Experience API) The Tin Can API (or Experience API) is a specification for learning technology that makes it possible to collect data about an employee or a team’s online and face-to-face learning experiences. The Tin Can API allows the collection of data based in the reality that learning occurs everywhere using different methods (e.g., simulations, virtual worlds, serious games, and social collaboration), through real world experiences, and through formal training.

Learning Records Store (LRS) The Learning Records Store (LRS) collects and stores all of the learning experiences in the form of statements that can be organized and presented in a meaningful way. LRSs can communicate with each other, allowing data about learning activities to be easily shared across organizations. LRSs can be accessed by learning management systems and reporting tools. Employees can have their own “personal lockers,” in which their personal learning history is stored.

Learning Experience Platform (LXP) A learning experience platform (LXP) refers to software that helps employees find training content and learning resources that are personalized to their needs. The use of LXP will help enhance digital learning, support continuous learning, and make self-directed learning easier. LXPs can do so in several ways. o Provide employees with a learning path o Guide learning based on an evaluation of their skills o Provide learning recommendations based on use by other learners o Provide learning recommendations and offer text, video, and audio content identified based on a web search o Identify relevant learning content by asking employees questions to learn about their job and skills o Embed mandatory training into employees’ work schedules and tasks. Effective LXPs are aligned with the company’s business strategy

Breakthroughs in Neuroscience about Learning Advances in neuroscience are increasing researchers’ ability to study the brain and its functioning. These advances are leading to a better understanding of how we learn, which can be used to design more effective training. For example, researchers have shown that whether an idea can be easily recalled is linked to the strength of activating the hippocampus, located in the lower section of the brain, during a learning task. The stronger the hippocampus is stimulated during learning, the greater the recall of the idea. Research on the hippocampus has identified the conditions that are necessary for learning to occur, which include attention, generation, emotion and spacing.

From a training perspective, learners have to eliminate distractions, they need to make their own connections to new ideas, and they need some but not overwhelming emotional stimulation. Long-term recall is better when we learn information over several different time periods rather than all at once.

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There are many other areas of ongoing neuroscience research that can potentially influence training and development program design. For example, research is helping us understand the conditions that are necessary for learners to make creative insights between learning content and its application to work issues and problems. Other research is investigating the biological markers of cognitive processes that are known to accelerate learning (e.g., self-explanation or other meaning-based processing methods), which can help us understand how feedback can be provided to learners to help them consistently use the most effective cognitive processes for learning.

Increased Emphasis on Speed in Design, Focus on Content, and Use of Multiple Delivery Methods The traditional training design model has been criticized for its linear approach and the time needed to design and deliver programs. Rapid instructional design (RID) is a group of techniques that allows training to be built more quickly. It modifies the traditional training design model that consists of needs analysis, design, development, implementation, and evaluation.

There are two important principles in RID: o The instructional content and process can be developed independently of each other. o Resources that are devoted to design and delivery of instruction can be reallocated. Design includes everything that happens before the training experience; delivery is what happens during the training experience.

Some common examples of RID strategies include: o Focus on accomplishment and performance. o Develop a learning system instead of an instructional system. o Use shortcuts (e.g., use existing records for needs assessment; conduct focus groups). o Combine different steps of the instructional design process. o Implement training and continuously improve it. o Skip steps in the instructional design process. o Use existing course materials that can be customized with examples, exercises, and assignments. o Develop instruction around job aids and performance support. o Use recording equipment, the Internet, and e-mail to collect data and exchange information with SMEs. Agile development is another way to develop training more quickly in a way that addresses the needs of the user. Originally used as a tool for software development, agile design includes the use of small teams who are constantly discussing their progress, validating their ideas, and collaborating with the learning customer to insure what they are developing meets their needs. Agile development emphasizes repeated small steps, rather than moving through the linear step-by-step process (analysis through evaluation) of developing learning traditionally emphasized in instructional design.

There are specific training design processes that emphasize agile instructional design. o One is design thinking, which was developed to come up with creative solutions for problems.

Design thinking refers to a training design process that includes empathize (understand your stakeholders and their needs), define, ideate, prototype, and test.

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o

Another is designing learning based on lean management principles. Lean management principles or lean thinking involves providing customers with what they need using less effort, space, and time; existing resources; and reducing, and even eliminating, nonvalue activities.

Increased Use of Just-in-Time Learning and True Performance Support Companies are moving away from courseware and classes as a performance improvement method.

Instead they are focusing on true performance support that is available during work.

Just-in-time learning (or embedded learning) refers to learning that occurs on the job as needed.

Embedded learning may become increasingly prevalent in the future because companies can no longer have employees attend classroom instruction or spend hours on online learning that is not directly relevant to their current job demands. Formal training programs and courses will not disappear but will focus more on the development of competencies that can benefit the employee and the company over the long term, whereas embedded learning will focus on providing the learning that the employee needs to complete key job tasks.

Embedded-learning products include task-specific, real-time content and simulations that are accessible during work, as well as real-time collaboration in virtual workspaces.

More digital learning will be used. As a result, instead of having to complete specific training classes, learning functions will focus on setting standards required to achieve accreditation, creating systems to allow employees to meet accreditation standards, and tracking completion of standards. Achieving accreditation may involve taking courses, but also having specific job experiences, observing an expertlevel employee, contributing content for helping peers and less experienced employees learn, and passing a test.

There is a new type of learner emerging, the “social cyborg,” who integrates social networks into the way he or she thinks, learns, and solves problems. Such employees expect companies to accommodate their need to access the latest tools and technologies at work. Employees will increasingly expect training and development to include simulations, games, and virtual reality, which will become more realistic than they are today.

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Increased Emphasis on Using Big Data to Show How Learning Helps the Business Because of an increasing focus on contributing to the company’s competitive advantage, training departments will have to ensure that they are seen as both helping the business functions meet their needs and contributing to overall business goals and the bottom line. Thus, you need to understand the business enough to ask the right questions to develop an appropriate learning solution.

Learning professionals have to be aligned with the business and take responsibility for the relationship and the business outcomes from learning solutions, have an agreed-upon business outcome that is included in the learning function and business performance plan, attend business staff meetings and network with internal customers, and identify as a partner with the business with the joint goal of improving performance.

Cloud computing refers to a computing system that provides information technology infrastructure over a network in a self-service, modifiable, and on-demand context. Cloud computing allows groups to work together in new ways, enhances productivity by allowing employees to more easily access information, and provides greater access to large company databases. Workforce analytics tools, training and development programs, and social media resources will be more easily accessible and available for use.

Furthermore, cloud computing can make it easier for employees to access training programs from a variety of sources allowing for just-in-time training delivery. Finally, cloud data can be used to store learning data in a “warehouse” that can be easily accessed to analyze trends and for use in demonstrating the business impact of training.

The emerging interest in big data related to training will continue to grow. Big data involves collecting data about users’ activities, analyzing or mining the data to identify patterns and trends, and understanding how these patterns and trends link to business goals and outcomes. Big data can be useful for understanding what training methods best deliver what needs to be taught and identifying how employees learn, who the experts and leaders are in social networks, and what type of instruction will lead to positive reactions from learners and results.

Implications of Future Trends for Trainers’ Skills and Competencies The following are key skills and competencies needed for trainers now and in the future. o Matching training content and methods to the local culture of the workforce o Designing learning spaces, as well as content in technology-driven learning environments o Using multimedia tools, including audio, video, webcasts, and live action o Delivering and packaging training in different formats for beginners and experts o Developing search-and-identify techniques so employees can find information and training when they need it o Being a change agent: Facilitating learning and staying in touch with employees, managers, and business units to identify what they need and making suggestions regarding tools, processes, or procedures that could help them work more effectively o Developing and delivering learning that is integrated with the job o Providing and curating learning content; encouraging employees to discuss and share it o Identifying the root cause of job and business problems

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o o o o o o o

Creating memorable learning experiences to motivate and engage learners Understanding career development, coaching, job rotation, and mentorship Using data analysis and data visualization techniques Communicating business information to multiple audiences Understanding and using social networking Capturing user-generated content Selecting, designing, and evaluating organizational research methods

Discussion Questions 1.

Do you think employers will continue to invest in education and training programs for their employees? Explain your position.

Given that organizations will always need qualified and skilled employees, employers will most likely continue to invest in training for employees. The content of training may certainly evolve, different methods may be employed, and employees may be required to take more responsibility for their learning. New knowledge and skill sets will always be required in organizations. By extension, training and learning will always be needed.

2.

What can companies do to ensure employees have digital literacy and close other skills gaps?

As discussed in the text, some companies are already working alone or in partnership with training providers, community organizations, and two- or four-year colleges and universities to help develop digital literacy and close the skills gap.

Training could focus on a number of areas, including: o Problem solving using technology (Interpretation and use of digital information) o Interaction with computers and mobile devices (Basic skills to interact with computers and mobile devices) o Basic tools (Skill in common productivity and software tools) o Data security and safety (Awareness of threats to computers and data and ways to protect them) o Data ethics (How to behave legally and ethically in a digital context) o Occupation-specific tools (Use of tools to complete tasks for a specific occupation) Analytics and data manipulation (Understand how to interact with and manipulate data)

3. How will the increased automation of work influence jobs and the skills employees need to perform those jobs?

Increases in automation will change the nature of many of jobs and/or make some jobs obsolete.

From a training and development perspective, increases in automation mean that employees will need to be provided with job retraining to help them gain new skills to perform new job responsibilities. Automation may most likely be used to alleviate straightforward tasks; thus, employees will need to learn higher level skills.

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4. Are robots going to displace all workers? Explain your answer.

Robots will most likely not displace all workers. Individuals needs to be employed; thus complete automation of jobs is likely not going to happen. Moreover, at present, automation is not feasible for more complex jobs. There are several activities where automation cannot replace human performance, including jobs where work activities are unpredictable, involve managing other people, exercising creativity, applying expertise and social interactions such as in jobs like plumbers, childcare workers, artists and performers, builders, and engineers, and scientists.

5.

What new skills will trainers need to be successful in the future?

Trainers will need to develop a variety of new skills in order to be successful in the future: o Matching training content and methods to the local culture of the workforce o Designing learning spaces, as well as content in technology-driven learning environments o Using multimedia tools, including audio, video, webcasts, and live action o Delivering and packaging training in different formats for beginners and experts o Developing search-and-identify techniques so employees can find information and training o

o o o o o o o o o o 6.

when they need it Being a change agent: Facilitating learning and staying in touch with employees, managers, and business units to identify what they need and making suggestions regarding tools, processes, or procedures that could help them work more effectively Developing and delivering learning that is integrated with the job Providing and curating learning content; encouraging employees to discuss and share it Identifying the root cause of job and business problems Creating memorable learning experiences to motivate and engage learners Understanding career development, coaching, job rotation, and mentorship Using data analysis and data visualization techniques Communicating business information to multiple audiences Understanding and using social networking Capturing user-generated content Selecting, designing, and evaluating organizational research methods

What is rapid instructional design? How does it differ from the traditional training design model discussed in Chapter 1? (See Figure 1.1.)

Rapid instructional design (RID) refers to a group of techniques that allows training to be developed more quickly. RID modifies the training design model that traditionally focuses on needs analysis, design, development, implementation, and evaluation. RID strategies are built around two important principles. One principle is that instructional content and process can be developed independently of each other. The second principle is that resources for design and delivery of instruction can be reallocated as appropriate. Design includes everything that happens before the training experience.

Delivery is what happens during the training experience. For example, if a company has limited access for training delivery, extra time could be allocated to the design process.

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7.

8.

Explain how you could use lean thinking for developing online training. o

One could develop a number of online training programs similar to the process that UnitedHealth Group followed. They developed a large number of training modules within a short period of time (92 training modules in 10 weeks).

o

To shorten the development time, the design team used a Scrum approach and a Kanban board.

A scrum approach involves cross-functional design teams working in 2-week sprints completing small pieces of a project that are then shared with project stakeholders for approval (such as business SMEs).

o

A Kanban board is a visual representation of the project schedule and activities that need to be completed.

o

Short meetings were held within each team to discuss what they have done, what needs to be accomplished, and identify any barriers they were facing.

o

After two sprints, the teams met to identify best practices and their processes that needed improvement.

o

Except for the short meetings, the team members collaborated via web-conferences and instant messaging.

How does the use of a learning experience platform (LXP) better link training to business strategy and goals?

A learning experience platform (LXP) refers to software that helps employees find training content and learning resources that are personalized to their needs. The use of LXP will help enhance digital learning, support continuous learning, and make self-directed learning easier. LXPs can do so in several ways. o Provide employees with a learning path o Guide learning based on an evaluation of their skills o Provide learning recommendations based on use by other learners o Provide learning recommendations and offer text, video, and audio content identified based on a web search o Identify relevant learning content by asking employees questions to learn about their job and skills o Embed mandatory training into employees’ work schedules and tasks. Effective LXPs are aligned with the company’s business strategy Given the cost savings, utility in needs assessment, speed, and flexibility, the use of a learning experience platform (LXP) can link training to business strategy and goals in a number of ways.

9.

What is cloud computing? How does it enable just-in-time training delivery?

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Cloud computing refers to a computing system that provides information technology infrastructure over a network in a self-service, modifiable, and on-demand context. Cloud computing allows groups to work together in new ways, enhances productivity by allowing employees to more easily access information, and provides greater access to large company databases. Workforce analytics tools, training and development programs, and social media resources will be more easily accessible and available for use. Furthermore, cloud computing can make it easier for employees to access training programs from a variety of sources allowing for just-in-time training delivery. Finally, cloud data can be used to store learning data in a “warehouse” that can be easily accessed to analyze trends and for use in demonstrating the business impact of training.

10. Explain the excitement about using big data related to learning, training, and development. What’s the usefulness of big data?

Big data involves collecting data about users’ activities, analyzing or mining the data to identify patterns and trends, and understanding how these patterns and trends link to business goals. Big data can be useful for identifying how employees learn, who the experts and leaders are in social networks, and what type of instruction leads to positive reactions from learners and results.

11. How is program design being influenced by neuroscience research?

Advances in neuroscience are increasing researchers’ ability to study the brain and its functioning.

These advances are leading to a better understanding of how we learn, which can be used to design more effective training. For example, researchers have shown that whether an idea can be easily recalled is linked to the strength of activating the hippocampus, located in the lower section of the brain, during a learning task. The stronger the hippocampus is stimulated during learning, the greater the recall of the idea. Research on the hippocampus has identified the conditions that are necessary for learning to occur, which include attention, generation, emotion and spacing.

From a training perspective, learners have to eliminate distractions, they need to make their own connections to new ideas, and they need some but not overwhelming emotional stimulation. Longterm recall is better when we learn information over several different time periods rather than all at once.

12. What is digital literacy? Why is it necessary?

Digital literacy refers to the skills needed to interpret, create, and strategically use digital information.

Digital literacy will be required of most jobs, even those not considered as technology jobs. As the future workplace becomes increasingly digitized, employees will need digital literacy skills. For this reason, digital literacy is very important.

Below are minimal level of digital skills a worker is likely to need to be eligible for employment. o Problem solving using technology (Interpretation and use of digital information) o Interaction with computers and mobile devices (Basic skills to interact with computers and mobile devices) o Basic tools (Skill in common productivity and software tools)

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o o o

Data security and safety (Awareness of threats to computers and data and ways to protect them) Data ethics (How to behave legally and ethically in a digital context) Occupation-specific tools (Use of tools to complete tasks for a specific occupation) Analytics and data manipulation (Understand how to interact with and manipulate data)

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