Solution Manual for Criminology Today An Integrative Introduction, 11th edition by Frank Schmalleger

Criminology Today An Integrative Introduction Eleventh Edition

Frank Schmalleger Distinguished Professor Emeritus, The University of North Carolina at Pembroke

Instructor’s Manual and Test Bank TABLE OF CONTENTS

To the Instructor

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Syllabi

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Chapter 1: What Is Criminology? Understanding Crimes and the People Who Commit Them

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Chapter 2: Where Do Theories Come From? From Idea to Evidence

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Chapter 3: Early Theories of Crime: Historical Perspectives

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Chapter 4: Biosocial Theories, Body Chemistry, and Neurocriminology: Interaction is Key

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Chapter 5: Psychological and Psychiatric Foundations of Criminal Behavior: It‘s How We Think

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Chapter 6: Social Structure Theories: It‘s Where and How We Live

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Chapter 7: Theories of Social Process and Social Development: It‘s What We Learn

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Chapter 8: Social Conflict Theories: It‘s How We Relate

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Chapter 9: Criminal Victimization: It‘s Personal

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Chapter 10: Crimes against Persons: It‘s What We Fear

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Chapter 11: Crimes against Property: It‘s What We Lose

107

Chapter 12: White-Collar and Organized Crime: Crime as a Job

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Chapter 13: Drug and Sex Crimes: Recreational Offenses

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Chapter 14: Technology and Crime: It‘s a Double-Edged Sword

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Chapter 15: Globalization and Terrorism: Our Small World

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Chapter 1 What Is Criminology?

Understanding Crimes and the People Who Commit Them SUGGESTED ANSWERS TO END-OF-CHAPTER ASSIGNMENTS Questions for Review 1.

What is crime? What is the definition of crime that the author of this text chooses to use? How might the notion of crime change over time? What impact does the changing nature of crime, and its understanding, have on criminology?

There are four definitional perspectives in contemporary criminology that may be used to define crime: legal, political, sociological, and psychological. The text employs a legalistic approach and defines crime as human conduct in violation of the criminal laws of a state, the federal government, or a local jurisdiction that has the power to make such laws.

Laws are social products, so crime is socially relative in the sense that it is created by legislative activity and determined by society. Laws may be modified as social norms change over time. As a result, criminologists must manage their work under constantly changing conditions mandated by ongoing changes and revisions of both the law and social policy.

Legalistic and definitional changes are frequently arbitrary and often unpredictable, making it more difficult to study crime.

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2.

What is deviance? How are crime and deviance similar? How do they differ?

Deviance is defined as human activity that violates social norms. While the concepts of crime and deviance overlap, they are not identical; some forms of deviance are not violations of the criminal law, while some crimes are not considered deviant behaviors. Deviance is a broad area whose boundaries include many (but not all) types of crime as well as many noncriminal behaviors.

The concept of crime changes over time as society‘s interpretation of behaviors changes. A behavior that was in the past considered unacceptable and which was against the law may over time come to be seen as acceptable behavior, and the laws may be changed to reflect this. Similarly, a formerly acceptable behavior may become seen as deviant and eventually the laws may be changed to criminalize the behavior.

3.

Who decides what should be criminal? How are such decisions made?

The decision of what behaviors should be criminal is difficult, because while there is much general agreement in society that some forms of behavior (such as murder, rape, and theft) should be illegal, there is much less agreement about behaviors such as drug use, abortion, gambling, and so on.

According to the consensus perspective, behaviors should be criminalized when members of society generally agree that such laws are necessary. However, a shared consensus is often difficult to achieve, particularly in a multicultural and diverse society like the U.S. The pluralist perspective says that behaviors should be criminalized through a political process only after debate over the appropriate course of action.

4.

What is criminology? What are its many roots?

There are many definitions of criminology. This text defines criminology as ―an interdisciplinary profession built around the scientific study of crime and criminal behavior, including their forms, causes, legal aspects, and control.‖ This definition was chosen because it includes many of the elements in the definitions provided by earlier writers as well as recognizing the increasingly professional status of the criminological enterprise.

Criminology is an interdisciplinary field and is rooted in a wide variety of other disciplines.

These include anthropology, biology, sociology, political science, psychology, psychiatry, economics, ethology, medicine, law, philosophy, ethics, and many others.

5.

What do criminologists do? How does the work of a criminologist differ from that of a criminalist?

A criminologist is someone who studies crime, criminals, and criminal behavior. The term is generally reserved for academics, researchers, and policy analysts who have advanced degrees and who are involved in studying crime and crime trends, and in the analysis of social reactions to crime. Academic and research criminologists generally hold doctoral degrees in criminology, criminal justice, or a related field, and most teach criminology or related subjects in institutions of higher learning and are involved in research and/or writing projects by which they strive to advance criminological knowledge. Some are strictly researchers and work for federal agencies or private research organizations.

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In contrast, a criminalist is someone who specializes in collecting and examining the physical evidence of a crime. Criminalists include crime-scene investigators, crime-scene photographers, crime laboratory technicians, fingerprint experts, ballistics experts, among others.

6.

What is evidence-based criminology? How does it complement theoretical criminology?

Evidence-based criminology involves the use of rigorous social scientific techniques, especially randomized controlled experiments, and the systematic review of research results, to develop criminological knowledge. It results in a body of scientific evidence that is applicable to the problems and realities of today‘s world.

Evidence-based criminology and theoretical criminology are linked by the need to use social scientific research methods to develop and test criminological theories. The more evidence that exists to support a theory‘s explanation of criminal behavior, the more applicable the theory is to the development of social policies.

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How does criminology, and especially criminological research, influence social policy?

What is translational criminology?

Criminology and criminological research can influence social policy by providing scientific evidence for the likely success of a given policy. Criminologists are aware of the need to link social policy to the objective findings of well-conducted criminological research, and many criminologists are working to help policy makers effectively use research results.

Translational criminology is the work of translating the results of criminological research into workable social policy.

What is the theme of this text? On what two contrasting viewpoints does it build?

This book builds on a social policy theme and contrasts two perspectives on crime causation.

The social problems perspective sees crime as a manifestation of underlying social problems such as poverty, discrimination, inequality of opportunity, etc. This is a macro approach because it views crime as resulting from widespread contributory social conditions that enmesh unwitting individuals in a causal nexus of uncontrollable social forces.

The individual responsibility perspective holds that people are fundamentally responsible for their own behavior and that they choose crime over other, more law-abiding courses of action. This is a micro approach because it focuses on individual offenders and their unique biology, psychology, background, and immediate life experiences.

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What is the social context of crime? What are crime’s consequences?

Crime is not an isolated individual activity but a social event. This text sees crime as having a unique set of causes, consequences, and participants – it does not occur in a vacuum. It impacts direct participants (offenders, victims, witnesses, the police, etc.) as well as society as a whole. Reactions to crime may affect the course of future criminal events.

Crime may have immediate consequences as well as lasting effects. Immediate consequences tend to be relatively obvious for those directly involved, particularly the offender and the victim. However, crime also indirectly affects society and the justice system over a longer term. However, the impact of the crime is mediated by perceptual filters, resulting in interpretations – cognitive, emotional, and behavioral reactions to the criminal event.

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10. What social science has traditionally provided a central theoretical basis for criminology? Why? Criminology is interdisciplinary and numerous disciplines have contributed to the study of crime and crime causation. However, the primary perspective from which many criminologists today operate is a sociological one. Of all the disciplines, sociology has contributed the most to criminology and many modern theoretical explanations of criminal behavior are routinely couched in the language of social science and fall within the framework of sociological theory.

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Chapter 2 Where Do Theories Come From?

From Idea to Evidence CHAPTER OVERVIEW Criminological theory cannot be fully appreciated unless one understands its fundamental assumptions. This chapter examines how contemporary social scientific research methods are used in the development of evidence-based criminological theories, policies, and practices.

Evidence-based criminology is founded upon the experimental method; evidence refers to scientific findings rather than the kind of evidence gathered by the police or used in criminal trials. One of the primary techniques used in evidence-based criminology is randomized experiments.

John Laub identified three eras that characterized criminology over the past century and indicated that the current (or fourth) era, 21st-century criminology, contains ―all possible offspring‖ of what came before. Present-day criminology has moved away from the armchair criminology of the past and is much more scientific, with an emphasis on determining causality.

The goal of criminology research is the construction of theories or models that allow for better understanding of criminal behavior and permit the development of strategies intended to address the problem of crime. A theory is a series of interrelated propositions which attempt to describe, explain, predict, and ultimately control some class of events, such as criminal behavior.

Theories serve a variety of purposes, including giving meaning to observations.

Theories are tested against the real world using various research strategies. Research is the use of standardized, systematic procedures in the search for knowledge. Applied research is carried out with a practical application in mind, while pure research is undertaken for the sake of advancing scientific knowledge. Primary research is characterized by original investigation, while secondary research involves new evaluations of existing information collected by other researchers. Research is conducted in four stages: problem solving, research design development, the selection of data-gathering techniques, and a review of the findings.

Problem identification involves choosing a problem or issue to be studied. Most criminological research is intended to explore causality issues, especially the claims made by theories which purport to explain criminal behavior. Much contemporary criminological research involves hypothesis testing. Research designs structure the research process. One basic design is the one-group pretest–posttest. However, this type of design does not eliminate the possibility of confounding effects, or rival explanations, which may affect both the internal and external validity of the research. There are many factors that may threaten the internal or external validity of a research design. The use of an experimental or a quasi-experimental research design may increase the validity of the results by eliminating some rival explanations. These designs require the use of randomization when assigning research subjects to experimental and control groups.

There are five main data-gathering strategies commonly used in criminology: survey research, case studies, participant observation, self-reporting, and secondary analysis. The strategy selected must produce information in a form usable to the researcher and thus depends on the questions to be answered. Data collection involves scientific observation, which must meet the criteria of intersubjectivity and replicability. Even so, some observations may lead to unwarranted conclusions. Once the data have been collected, they are usually analyzed in some 6 Copyright © 2025 Pearson Education, Inc.

way, generally using statistical techniques. Descriptive statistics, such as the mean, median, mode, and standard deviation, describe, summarize, and highlight the relationships within the data. Inferential statistics, including tests of significance, attempt to generalize findings by specifying how likely they are to be true for other populations or locations.

Research methods can be quantitative or qualitative. Both are useful and provide important information. Some criminologists believe that qualitative data-gathering strategies represent the future of criminological research.

Research is not conducted in a vacuum and cannot be free of biases and preconceptions. The best way to control biases is to be aware of them at the start of the research. Ethical issues are also extremely important; although they may not affect the validity of the results, they may have a significant impact upon the lives of researchers and subjects. Key ethical issues include protection of subjects from harm, privacy, disclosure, and data confidentiality. One way to overcome many of these ethical issues is through the use of informed consent. Criminological research may also have an impact on social policy, although many publicly elected officials may prefer to create politically expedient policies rather than consider current research.

After a research study has been conducted, the results usually are presented in the form of a research report or paper. There is a standard format which is generally followed. Most criminologists seek to publish their research results. The primary medium for such publication is refereed professional journals, which use peer reviewers to determine the quality of submitted manuscripts.

LEARNING OUTCOMES After reading this chapter, you should be able to answer the following questions: 2.1. What is the role of social scientific research methods in the development of criminological theories? How does the meaning of the word evidence in evidence-based criminology differ from the evidence found at a crime scene or the evidence used in criminal trials?

2.2. What is a theory? What purposes do theories serve? What role do research and experimentation play in theory building in criminology?

2.3. What is the role of criminological research in theory building? What is internal validity?

External validity? How can threats to internal and external validity be addressed?

2.4. What are the differences between quantitative and qualitative methods in the social sciences?

What are the advantages and disadvantages of each method?

2.5 What are some of the ethical considerations involved in conducting criminological research?

2.6 How do criminological research and experimental criminology impact social policy?

2.7. What sections might a typical research report contain?

CHAPTER OUTLINE I.

Introduction  Ask students to discuss the various ways they use scientific information or knowledge in their everyday lives.  Present the statement by Lawrence W. Sherman at the end of the introduction. Ask students to discuss why this may be true and to propose ways in which this problem could be addressed.

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II. Today’s Evidence-Based Criminology  Ask students to explain the difference between the kind of evidence gathered by law enforcement authorities in seeking to prosecute criminal offenders and the kind of evidence used in evidence-based criminology.  Discuss some of the major randomized experiments conducted in criminology and how they have affected public policy. Consider including both classic experiments (e.g., the Kansas City Preventive Patrol Experiment; the Minneapolis Domestic Violence Experiment) as well as more recent experiments (see the Journal of Experimental Criminology for information on new experimental research).  Watch the video, ―What is Evidence-Based Policing?‖ on YouTube.

A. The Evolving Science of Criminology  Explain that the scientific method provides one means of understanding aspects of our society, including crime. Although it is not the only such means, it is the one that guides criminology as a discipline.  Ask students to discuss the commonly-used statement, ―Facts speak for themselves.‖ Do they agree with this statement? Why or why not?  Ask students to consider the difference between using scientific knowledge versus personal experience to understand and explain patterns of crime III. Theory Building  Ask students to consider Inspector Parr‘s conclusions regarding the relationship between lunar phases and criminal behavior. Have them discuss whether these conclusions are scientifically grounded or if the relationship may be spurious. (When leading the discussion, you could point out, for example, that Parr compared lunar phases and violent crime over only one year. It is possible that during that year, the full moon disproportionately occurred on weekends, when crime is known to increase anyway).  Stress that a theory is merely an attempted explanation, and that theories come and go over the years. Not all theories are equally valid. For example, consider mentioning how early theories of crime supposedly caused by demonic possession are no longer generally accepted.

IV. The Role of Research and Experimentation  Ask students to discuss whether they think pure research or applied research would better inform public policy on crime.  Provide examples of primary and secondary research and discuss the advantages and disadvantages of each. Have students discuss whether they think primary or secondary research is more valuable.

A. Problem Identification  Provide students with information on a variety of criminological research studies and have them identify the variables in each study. Have them identify each as independent or dependent.  Discuss the politicized nature of problem identification in criminological research.

B. Development of a Research Design  Provide students with sample research studies and have them identify possible confounding effects.

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 Ask students to discuss why the basic one-group pretest-posttest design is not a good research structure. Consider explaining other possible designs.  Provide students with sample research studies and have them identify possible threats to internal and external validity.  Ask students to discuss the ways in which quasi-experimental research designs differ from ―pure‖ experimental designs.  Have students consider the possible benefits of conducting experiments in natural settings. Ask them to consider whether these benefits might be outweighed by other factors.  Have the class consider the research discussed in the text (the prison-based study of diets with and without refined white sugar). Ask them how this study might be conducted as a quasi-experiment if a true experiment was not possible.

C. Choice of Data-Gathering Techniques 

Ask students to discuss the ways in which the results of survey research affect their daily lives.

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Ask students to consider what limits should be imposed upon participant observers engaged in criminological research, and why.

D. Problems in Data Collection 

Break students into groups. Give each group the same research question, and ask them to modify it as needed to develop a way to address it with each of the techniques of data collection that are described in the text.

E. Review of Findings 

Explain that tests of significance do not ensure that researchers can be absolutely certain that their conclusions are accurate.

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Stress that correlation does not imply a causal relationship between variables.

V. Quantitative versus Qualitative Methods  Ask students to discuss why so many social scientists suffer from the mystique of quantity.  There are many useful videos on YouTube explaining qualitative and quantitative research.  Stress that quantitative and qualitative research methods are used to address different kinds of research questions. Neither is innately superior to the other; the main issue is which method is better suited for the research problem under consideration.

VI. Values and Ethics in the Conduct of Research  Ask students whether they believe members of vulnerable populations, such as persons who receive public assistance or persons who are incarcerated, can truly give informed consent.  Have students discuss ways in which the need for informed consent might affect the results of research.  Lead a class discussion on the question of what participant observers should do if the research participation appears to require them to violate the law. Point out that failure to comply may not only affect the research but put a researcher‘s life at risk.  Watch the video, ―Research Ethics; Ethics in Research‖ on YouTube.

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VII. The Impact of Criminological Research on Social Policy  Ask students to discuss ways that researchers might reduce potential pressures to produce findings that support the current political stance on crime policy.  Have students view the ethical codes of the American Society of Criminology (ASC) and the Academy of Criminal Justice Sciences (ACJS) and compare the two. What differences can they identify? Consider having them attempt to create an ―ideal‖ code for criminology and criminal justice researchers.  Ask students to discuss why the author of the textbook states that research results ideally should have practical implications and should affect the decisions of public policy makers.

VIII. The Research Report  Consider discussing your own publication experiences, or your recent research and/or writing, if applicable.

A. Writing for Publication  Discuss the similarities and differences between writing for publication and the types of writing students do for their coursework.

LIST OF CHANGES/TRANSITION GUIDE 

The term ―science-based‖ has been changed to ―evidence-based‖ for consistency throughout this chapter and the text.

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Two new key terms, ―decolonize‖ and ―Eurocentric,‖ have been added along with a new Theory versus Reality box titled ―Decolonizing Criminology.‖

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The Theory versus Reality box describing the Stockholm Prize in Criminology has been revised, and now recognizes the Prize‘s latest recipient, Beatriz Magaloni, of Stanford University.

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A new Criminal Profiles box has been added that describes the Buffalo grocery store mass shooter Payton Gendron.

ADDITIONAL ASSIGNMENTS AND CLASS ACTIVITIES Additional Lecture Topics The Impact of Criminological Research on Social Policy. Discuss specific ways in which criminological research has affected social policy. One example is the impact of the Minneapolis Domestic Violence Experiment and the replications on police policy and state law: 

Many states changed their laws regarding the requirements for misdemeanor arrest in cases of domestic assault

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Many police departments moved to a policy emphasizing arrest in domestic cases; some developed a policy of mandatory arrest

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Most states mandate a minimum number of hours of pre-service and in-service training on domestic violence for police officers

Criminological Research Methods. Consider discussing specific types of research methods in more detail. Possible topics include: 10 Copyright © 2025 Pearson Education, Inc.

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A discussion of cohort research, including both longitudinal and retrospective cohort studies

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A discussion of time-series analysis

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A discussion of some classic criminology experiments (e.g., the Kansas City Preventive Patrol Experiment, the Newark Foot Patrol Experiment, the Minneapolis Domestic Violence Experiment, and the five follow-up experiments)

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A discussion of random and nonrandom sampling techniques, and how the method used to select the sample can affect external validity

Student Activities Activity #1: Social Science Codes of Ethics. Many social science organizations have adopted official codes of ethics. This exercise deals with the similarities and differences found in the ethical codes of various fields. The Codes of Ethics for the American Society of Criminology (ASC) and the Academy of Criminal Justice Sciences (ACJS) are available on the societies‘ websites.

1.

Access the code of ethics of the American Society of Criminology (ASC). What (if anything) does the ASC code of ethics have to say about each of the following issues?  Informed consent  Confidentiality  Reporting of research  Protection of subjects from harm

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 Plagiarism Access the code of ethics of the Academy of Criminal Justice Sciences (ACJS). What (if anything) does the ACJS code of ethics have to say about the above issues?

Which of the two codes you examined do you prefer, and why?

Activity #2: Designing a Research Study. Your instructor will place you into groups. Aprilville, a small town outside Bigcity, plans to implement a Neighborhood Watch program. The town mayor has asked you to find out if the program, once implemented, will have any effect on the town‘s crime rate. Your group is to design a research study to answer this question. You will need to: 1.

2.

3.

Formulate one or more hypotheses and operationalize the concepts.

Choose a research design from those discussed in the chapter and explain why you selected this design.

Select a data-gathering strategy and explain why you chose this technique

SUGGESTED ANSWERS TO END-OF-CHAPTER ASSIGNMENTS Questions for Review 1.

What is the role of social scientific research methods in the development of criminological theories? What does it mean to say that criminology is evidence based??

How does the meaning of the word evidence in evidence-based criminology differ from the evidence found at a crime scene or the evidence used in criminal trials?

Social science research methods are used in conducting research that tests and evaluates criminological theories. Contemporary criminology is considered to be ―evidence based‖ 11 Copyright © 2025 Pearson Education, Inc.

because it is built because it is built on scientific findings, particularly the results of controlled randomized experiments.

The word evidence refers to scientific findings, not to the kind of evidence that is gathered by the police at a crime scene or used in criminal trials.

2.

What is a theory? What purposes do theories serve? What role do research and experimentation play in theory building in criminology?

A theory is a set of interrelated propositions that describe reality and provide a relatively complete form of understanding a problem, by relating observations to things that are already understood. A theory not only describes a behavior but also explains its occurrence and attempts to predict future occurrences. By providing an explanation for the occurrence of a behavior, a theory provides a framework for designing a strategy to prevent or control that behavior.

3.

What is the role of criminological research in theory building? What is internal validity? External validity? How can threats to internal and external validity be addressed?

The goal of criminological research is the construction or development of theories that help increase our understanding of criminal behavior. Research allows criminologists to test theories against the real world, and to revise the theories based on the results of the research.

There are two types of validity. Internal validity asks whether something other than the treatment could have produced the behavioral change. Most researchers consider internal validity the most vital component of any planned research. Threats to internal validity include history, maturation, testing, instrumentation, statistical regression, differential selection, and experimental mortality. External validity is the ability of researchers to generalize research results to other settings. Threats to external validity include the reactive effects of testing, self-selection, the reactive effects of experimental arrangements, and multiple-treatment interference. One of the best ways to control these threats is through the use of an experimental design.

4.

5.

What are the differences between quantitative and qualitative methods in the social sciences? What are the advantages and disadvantages of each method?

Quantitative methods are techniques that produce measurable results that can be analyzed statistically. Surveys and self-report studies are examples of quantitative methods.

Quantitative methods allow complex forms of behavior and interaction to be expressed numerically. However, numerical expression primarily is the result of how the researchers structure their approach. The ―mystique of quantity‖ is the delusion that everything can and must be quantified.

Qualitative methods are techniques that produce subjective results, or results that are difficult to quantify. Life histories, case studies, and participant observation are examples of qualitative methods. These techniques are important because they provide insight into the subjective workings of the criminal mind and the processes by which human experiences are assigned meaning. Qualitative methods are subjective and may be affected by the views of the researcher.

What are some ethical considerations involved in conducting criminological research?

How can researchers make sure that such considerations are met?

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Some of the key ethical considerations involved in criminological research include protecting human subjects from harm, privacy, the need to disclose research methods, and data confidentiality. One way to ensure that these considerations are met is through the use of informed consent, which means that subjects are informed as to the nature of the research to be conducted, their anticipated role in the research, and the uses that will be made of the data they provide. Many institutions have institutional review boards, which examine research proposals to determine whether expectations of ethical conduct have been met before the proposals are submitted to funding organizations.

6.

How do criminological research and experimental criminology impact social policy?

Criminological research and experimental criminology may impact social policy when research results have practical implications that are used to guide policy development and daily practice in relevant areas. In reality, publicly elected officials often are ignorant of current research, or do not take the advice of professional criminologists. Research findings may be ignored because they conflict with public sentiment, are not politically expedient, or do not serve the dominant ideology. Generally, policy makers rarely consult criminologists when debating crime legislation or considering the effectiveness of past policy.

7.

What sections might a typical research report contain? Where are research findings in criminology published?

Most research reports follow a traditional format with a series of key components: the title page, acknowledgments, table of contents, preface (if desired), abstract, introduction, literature review, description of the situation, statement of the hypothesis, description of the research plan, disclaimers and limitations, findings or results, analysis and discussion, summary and conclusion, appendixes, references, and endnotes. Not all of these components are included in every research report. The primary medium for publication of research findings are refereed journals, which use peer reviewers to gauge the quality of submitted manuscripts.

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Chapter 3 Early Theories of Crime Historical Perspectives CHAPTER OVERVIEW The first half of this chapter examines the belief that at least some illegal behavior is the result of rational choices made by individuals seeking illicit rewards. It introduces the Classical School of Criminology. The second half of this chapter focuses on early biological theories of crime and examines some of the earliest attempts in criminology to apply science to the question of what might lead someone to violate the criminal law.

The Classical School grew out of concepts and ideas developed by Enlightenment thinkers in the late seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries. The Enlightenment was a social movement that saw humans as rational beings possessing freedom of choice. The Classical School of criminological thought viewed crime and deviance as products of the exercise of free will.

Cesare Beccaria, a key Enlightenment philosopher, published his Essay on Crimes and Punishments in 1764, setting forth his philosophy of punishment. Beccaria emphasized punishment based on the degree injury caused, felt that the purpose of punishment should be deterrence (rather than retribution), and saw punishment as a tool to an end (crime prevention), rather than an end in itself. He emphasized the need for adjudication and punishment to be swift and for punishment, once decreed, to be certain. He also felt that punishment should only be severe enough to outweigh the personal benefits to be derived from crime.

Jeremy Bentham, another founder of the Classical School, developed an approach known as utilitarianism, or hedonistic calculus. Bentham believed that humans are rational and weigh the consequences of their behavior, considering pleasure versus pain. Therefore, he emphasized that to prevent crime, the pain of punishment must outweigh the pleasure derived from the crime. Like Beccaria, Bentham considered punishment to be a deterrent for those considering criminal activity.

By the end of the 1800s, classical criminology was being replaced by positivism, which rejected the notion of free will and emphasized the concept of hard determinism: the belief that crime results from forces beyond the individual‘s control. However, by the 1970s, studies suggesting the failure of rehabilitation, combined with an increasing fear of crime, led to a resurgence of classical ideals known as neoclassical criminology, which offered a middle ground between total free will and hard determinism.

Rational choice theory (RCT) was developed out of the neoclassical school of criminology and is based on the belief that criminals make a conscious, rational, and at least partially informed choice to commit crime after weighing the costs and benefits of available alternatives. Situational choice theory, an extension of RCT, suggests that the probability of criminal activity can be reduced by changing the features of the environment. Jack Katz‘s book, The Seductions of Crime, argues that crime is pleasurable for those committing it; he stresses the sensual dynamics of criminality. Situational crime-control policy builds on the work of rational and situational choice theorists. The basic approach is situational crime prevention, which looks to develop greater understanding and more effective crime prevention strategies through concern with the physical, organizational, and social environments that make crime possible. Rational and situational choice theories have been criticized for overemphasizing the importance of individual choice, 14 Copyright © 2025 Pearson Education, Inc.

disregarding the role of social factors (poverty, poor home environment, inadequate socialization, etc.) on crime causation, and assuming that everyone is equally capable of making rational decisions. Their emphasis on situational crime prevention strategies may also result in displacement rather than true prevention.

Both classical and neoclassical thought emphasize punishment. However, the Classical School sees deterrence as the purpose of punishment, while the neoclassical view also incorporates retribution: if an individual chooses to violate the law, s/he deserves punishment and must be punished. Just deserts is the sentencing model that refers to the notion that offenders deserve the punishment they receive at the hands of the law. Deterrence is a hallmark of modern neoclassical thought and today‘s neoclassical thinkers distinguish between specific and general deterrence. For punishment to be an effective deterrent, it must be swift, certain, and severe enough to outweigh the rewards of the crime. However, these requirements are rarely met by the modern criminal justice system, which may explain the extremely high rates of recidivism in the United States.

There are a number of policy implications to come out of the Classical School, including the concepts of determinate sentencing, truth-in-sentencing laws, and incapacitation. One criticism of classical and neoclassical thought is that it represents more a philosophy of justice than a theory of crime causation. Classical theory does not explain how a choice for or against criminal activity is made.

Unlike classical and neoclassical thought, biological theories focus on how internal sources affect crime. Early biological theorists focused primarily on physical features and heredity, while contemporary biological theorists take a more in-depth look at human biology, examining a variety of influences on behavior. Newer biological theories also see the interaction between the organism and its environment as the crucial determining factor in almost all behavior.

Early biological theories built on the scientific tradition of positivism. The Positivist School of criminology was based on two key principles: an acceptance of social determinism and the application of scientific techniques to the study of crime and criminology. Some of the earliest studies used biological and anthropological data to identify physical abnormalities that early criminologists thought could be used to distinguish criminals from others. One of the best-known early biological theorists was Cesare Lombroso, who developed the theory of atavism, suggesting that most offenders are ―born criminals.‖ His work led to the development of crminal anthropology. While mainstream criminology no longer focuses on the link between physical abnormalities and crime, some contemporary researchers are examining the link between criminality and minor physical abnormalities.

Constitutional theories explain crime by reference to offenders‘ body types, genetics, or external observable physical characteristics. In his work on somatotyping, William H. Sheldon identified four basic body types, linked them to personality, and concluded that the mesomorphic body type was most likely to be associated with delinquency. Early research into heredity focused on studying criminal families, such as the studies of the Juke and the Kallikak families. This led to the development of eugenic criminology, which accepted the idea of genetic determinism.

Social policies calling for the sterilization of women with intellectual disabilities were endorsed by the U.S. Supreme Court in the 1927 case of Buck v. Bell. The eugenics movement was largely discredited by public condemnation of Nazi policies and practices. The discovery of ―supermales,‖ or male individuals displaying the XYY chromosome structure, led a number of offenders to attempt to offer a chromosome-based defense. However, there is little evidence to suggest that people with XYY chromosomes commit crimes of greater violence, although they may commit more crimes overall. Another way to examine the role of heredity in crime causation is to study fraternal and identical twins.

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Sociobiology, which was popularlized by Edward O. Wilson, examines the biological basis of social behavior in humans and non-human animals, looking at the interplay between genetic and environmental factors in shaping social interactions. The field has generated debate and controversy, particularly concerning the application of principles of sociobiology to human behavior.

Early biological theories tended to reject the idea of free will, emphasizing human behavior as determined and suggesting that efforts at reformation will have little positive effect on future behavior. Other concerns stem from linking the concept of crime, a social construction that varies over cultures, and place, with biological variables.

LEARNING OUTCOMES After reading this chapter, you should be able to answer the following questions: 3.1. What are the major principles of the Classical School of criminology?

3.2. What is neoclassical criminology, and how does it differ from the classical perspective? How does it build on it?

3.3. What are the policy implications of the Classical School and of neoclassical thought?

3.4. What are the criticisms of classical and neoclassical perspectives on crime?

3.5. What are the basic principles of biological theories of crime?

3.6. How does the Positivist School explain criminality?

3.7. What are some critiques of early biological theories of criminal behavior?

CHAPTER OUTLINE I.

Introduction

II. The Classical School  Use Figure 3-1 to discuss the major principles of classical and neoclassical criminology.

Explain how assumptions associated with the Classical School of criminology are still a major part of criminological thought today. Ask students to write down whether they agree or disagree with each assumption, and ask them to tell why in one or two sentences. Return the students‘ responses at various points throughout the semester, and ask them whether they want to revise any of their original statements.  Point out that a number of social scientific disciplines, including sociology, trace much of their early development to the Enlightenment thinkers.

A. Cesare Beccaria 

Ask students to identify what three elements Cesare Beccaria considers to be most important for effective punishment.



Have students examine the U.S. Constitution and the Bill of Rights and identify specific places where they see the influence of Beccaria‘s ideas.



Explain that although classical thinkers in the field of criminology claimed that rational decision-making plays a big role in crime causation, rationality is different than motivation. Ask students to discuss what classical thinkers likely saw as motivating factors behind criminal behavior.

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

Watch the video, ―Beccaria on Crimes and Punishments Crash Course‖ on YouTube.

B. Jeremy Bentham  III.

Identify the similarities and differences between the work of Beccaria and Bentham.

Neoclassical Criminology  Compare positivism and classical criminology. Explain that positivism can be reconciled with notions of free will if one accepts soft determinism.  Discuss the factors that led to the decline of positivism in the 1970s.  Explain why Robert Martinson‘s research had such an impact on criminal justice policy.  Explain that classical and neoclassical criminology appear to assume that human actors have free will – they can make choices and impose those choices though their behavior on the world around them. Have students discuss the role that free will plays in crime commission and ask them whether some crimes might result from something other than the exercise of free will.

A. Rational Choice Theory (RCT) 

Review Figure 3-3 and explain how the different steps lead an individual to choose property crime or conventional behavior. Discuss how this model would change if applied to drug offenders.



Explain how rational choice theory moved the focus of crime prevention from broad social programs to factors such as environmental design and target hardening.

B. The Excitement of Crime 

Ask students how crime may be rewarding for those who commit it? Have them discuss ways in which rewards might be reduced.

C. Situational Crime-Control Policy 

Discuss the benefits of focusing crime-prevention efforts on places rather than on people.



Break students into groups, and ask them to come up with several examples of how crime prevention has become a routine part of everyday life.



Give examples of access control and target hardening by focusing on the increased popularity of devices that individuals in our society use to protect their homes and themselves.

D. Critique of Rational Choice Theory 

Ask students to identify situations when they might be unable to make a rational decision.



Explain how situational crime prevention strategies like target hardening can lead to displacement of crime and ask students what the implications of displacement might be for crime-control policy.

E. Punishment and Neoclassical Thought 

Ask students to compare and contrast the general perspectives on punishment held by the classical and neoclassical thinkers and identify similarities and differences between them.

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

Explain that the just deserts model is concerned with punishment that is proportional to the offense committed. Ask students how consensus on proportionality is achieved in society.



Explore with students why the just deserts approach appears to be such a popular approach to punishment.



Distinguish between specific and general deterrence by focusing on which one has the greater potential to reduce crime.



Explain that recidivism can be defined simply as a return to crime, but precise measures of this concept vary across research studies.



Use Figure 3-4 to illustrate the due process safeguards of our criminal justice system and the priority attached to democratic principles.



Given that early release may negatively affect deterrence, ask students what effect eliminating the possibility of early release (e.g., parole) might have on corrections.



Watch the NIJ video, ―Key Principles to Reducing Recidivism‖ with Edward Latessa on YouTube.

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Watch the TED talk, ―Reducing Recidivism‖ on YouTube.

IV. Policy Implications of Classical and Neoclassical Thought  Ask students how the social problems and individual responsibility perspectives would view determinate sentencing and truth-in-sentencing practices.  Point out that the work of Marvin Wolfgang involving chronic offenders has had enormous implications for the direction of criminal justice research and policy.  Explain how Wolfgang‘s research demonstrated the benefits of longitudinal research and supported the claim that the propensity for offending is not spread equally across the population of offenders.  Discuss the pros and cons of selective vs collective incapacitation. Ask students to consider the financial implications of each strategy.

V. A Critique of Classical and Neoclassical Theories  Point out that U.S. prison populations have grown considerably over the past 40 years and many prisons in America are overcrowded. At the same time, crime rates are down significantly. Ask students why they think America‘s prisons so full and whether it might have anything to do with the influence of neoclassical thinking. Ask students if full prisons equate to lower crime rates.

VI. Early Biological Theories of Crime  Students may be skeptical of the usefulness of biologically based theories of crime. Make it clear to them that the scientific methodology that guides current research on biology and criminality is sound and rigorous and is not characterized by the same racist motivations that characterized some past efforts.  Point out that if we are serious about addressing explanations for crime in an interdisciplinary manner, we should explore all possible avenues of explanation. Given that, ask students for their reaction to biological theories of crime.  Using Figure 3-6, review the basic assumptions of early biological theories of crime causation. Ask students to consider each of these assumptions and discuss whether they agree or disagree with each, and why.

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VII. The Positivist School and Biology  Review the key principles of early positivism and discuss how it differed from classical criminology.  Explain how the scientific method and positivism greatly influenced sociology and criminology.  Use the Theory in Perspective box to briefly outline the main categories of early biological theories and the key concepts in each.  Explain that although phrenology may seem somewhat absurd today, it was an important step forward in theoretical development because it was based on scientific measurement rather than philosophical reasoning.

B. The Italian School 

Discuss Lombroso‘s notion of a ―born criminal‖ and review the other categories of criminals he identified.



Lombroso argued that women who committed crime were particularly vile because their essential nature was opposed to criminality, so women involved in crime were ―enormously wicked.‖ Ask students to discuss the biases that factored into Lombroso‘s ―scientific research.‖



Discuss the basic methodological flaws in the research of the early criminal anthropologists. For example, their control groups of ―non-criminals‖ may have included offenders, and some of the features identified as characteristic of offenders were clearly not inherited (e.g., tattoos) or could have been caused by environmental causes such as poor nutrition or a lack of adequate health care.



Ask students to consider ways in which criminal anthropology, particularly the association of unattractiveness or disfigurement with evil, is reflected in the media.

For example, have them consider whether certain actors always play ―bad guys‖ on television or in the movies because they ―look criminal.‖



Consider discussing more contemporary research that links minor physical abnormalities to crime. Stress to students that the researchers recognize that the abnormalities may be linked to neurological defects or other factors that may affect development or socialization.



Watch the video ―Cesare Lombroso, Left Handedness, and the Criminal Mind‖ on YouTube.



Watch the video, ―Cesare Lombroso: Theory of Crime, Criminal Man and Atavism‖ on YouTube.

C. Constitutional Theories 

Explain that studies of delinquent youth conducted in the 1950s by Sheldon and Eleanor Glueck provided support for Sheldon‘s theory linking mesomorphs and delinquent or criminal behavior.



Watch the video, ―William Sheldon Talks Somatotypes,‖ featuring William Sheldon, on YouTube.

D. Criminal Families 

Inform students that archival research suggests that Estabrook appears to have deliberately misrepresented the data by withholding information on those members of the Juke family who were positive members of society (lawyers, real estate 19 Copyright © 2025 Pearson Education, Inc.

brokers, etc.). Estabrook appears to have been trying to ensure that the research results supported the eugenics movement. 

Explain that Buck v. Bell has never been overturned. Ask students why they think the Supreme Court has not overturned their ruling in this case.



In February 2001, a resolution to express profound regret by the state for the eugenics movement was passed by the House of Delegates and the Senate in Virginia, making Virginia the first state to denounce this history. Point out that such efforts to discredit past practices serve to further current biological initiatives that are based on sound scientific methods.



Ask students whether there are any situations in which forced sterilization of an individual might be considered appropriate today.



Watch the video ―Exposing the Dark American History of Eugenics‖ on YouTube.

E. The XYY Supermale 

Explore the extent to which the belief in the XYY ―supermale‖ is still part of the public consciousness.



Discuss the recent research into the cognitive and behavioral development of children with a third sex chromosome conducted by the Attention, Brain, and Cognitive Development program in the Department of Experimental Psychology at the University of Oxford.



Watch the video ―The Myth of the ‗Supermale‘ and the Extra Y Chromosome‖ on YouTube.



―The XYY Man‖ series of novels by Kenneth Royce focused on a man who, due to his extra Y chromosome, committed crimes and was genetically unable to ―go straight.‖ The books were made into a television series, also titled ―The XYY Man.‖ Episodes may be available on YouTube.

F. Twin Studies and Heredity 

Point out that one problem with these early studies of heredity and crime is that they do not separate genetics (nature) from environment (nurture).



Ask students why we would expect the behavior of monozygotic twins to be more similar than the behavior of dizygotic twins if behavior is at least in part due to heredity.



Ask students if we can assume that all twins share a common environment.



Discuss some of the methodological weaknesses of the early twin research. For example, prior to the advent of genetic testing, it was possible to misidentify twins as MZ instead of DZ.



Explain that most of the research linking biology to criminal behavior is based on correlational research studies—studies that are quite weak in demonstrating a causal role of biology with crime. Consider linking this information back to the discussion of correlation vs. causation in Chapter 2.



Watch the Khan Academy video ―Twin Studies and Adoption Studies‖ on YouTube.

G. Sociobiology 

Discuss the impact of Wilson‘s work on the field of criminology.

VIII. Critique of Early Biological Theories of Criminal Behavior 20 Copyright © 2025 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Review the key problems found in the research linking biological factors to crime. Ask students if they think these factors invalidate the importance of examining biology as an explanatory source of crime.  Ask students to discuss if and how their views of the relationship of biology to crime have changed after reading this chapter.

LIST OF CHANGES/TRANSITION GUIDE 

What had previously been Chapters 3 and 4 have been combined, and all historical perspectives are now described in a single chapter (Chapter 4).

ADDITIONAL ASSIGNMENTS AND CLASS ACTIVITIES Additional Lecture Topics Shaming as Deterrence. Consider discussing the issue of shaming as a form of deterrence, including both stigmatic and reintegrative shaming. Topics to discuss could include: 

The use of stigmatic shaming or degradation throughout U.S. history (e.g., branding, stocks, public punishments)



The recent revival of stigmatic shaming (e.g., publishing the names of offenders in newspapers, posting them on billboards, televising criminal trials)



John Braithwaite‘s concept of reintegrative shaming

The Influence of the Classical School. Discuss various specific ways in which the Classical School has affected the criminal justice system. Topics for discussion include: 

The reform of criminal codes to eliminate torture, develop more consistent and certain punishments, and reduce the use of capital and corporal punishment



The increased use of incarceration as a punishment as well as for short-term detention of those awaiting trial, execution, or corporal punishment



The reform of law enforcement, including the development of the modern full-time police force with the goal of deterring and preventing crime

Positivism. Consider expanding on the discussion of positivism in the text. Outline the main propositions of early positivism: 

A rejection of the fundamental principles of classical criminology: positivists saw themselves as scientists rather than philosophers, emphasized a naturalistic rather than a legalistic definition of crime, and saw human behavior as determined by biological or genetic forces rather than individual free will



An emphasis on the scientific study of crime: positivists demanded empirical investigation before drawing conclusions about the nature of crime



A belief that criminals are fundamentally different from noncriminals either anatomically or physiologically (or both)



An emphasis on the use of typologies to classify and identify offenders (e.g., the classification systems developed by Lombroso, Ferri, Sheldon, etc.)

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Adoption Studies. In addition to the topic of twin studies, discuss the results of adoption research, which also lends support for the influence of genetics as well as social environment on criminality. For example, an early study by Hutchings and Mednick in Denmark matched criminal adoptees with a control group of noncriminal adoptees and found that the criminality of the biological father significantly predicted the criminality of the child.

Methodological Flaws in Early Biological Research. Consider discussing some of the problems with early biological research, particularly criminal anthropology. For example, research by Lombroso, Goring, and Hooton: 

Assumed that all subjects identified as criminals were actually offenders and all non-criminal subjects were not criminals (whereas his ―control group‖ could have included offenders who were never identified as such)



Identified as characteristic of criminals features that could be due to other causes (poor nutrition, diet, lack of health care, etc.)



Identified features that were not inherited (tattoos, broken nose, etc.)

Eugenics Movement. Expand upon the discussion of eugenics, including the eugenics laws adopted in the U.S. in the 1920s and 1930s. Explain the case of Buck v. Bell in more detail. Link U.S. eugenics laws to Nazi Germany—Nazi leaders consulted the leaders of the California eugenics program for advice when developing their sterilization program. Consider discussing the forced sterilization of almost 150 incarcerated women in California between 2006 and 2010 (information on this may be found on most major news websites, such as CNN).

Lessons Learned. As the text moves into the modern biosocial perspective, it may be important to discuss the lessons learned from the past theoretical developments. Class discussions could include: 

Can you identify any current crime control policies align with biological theories on crime?



What sorts of new policies could be put into place that are inspired by biological theories on crime, yet do not violate our modern notion of human rights (e.g., those that were violated during World War II by Nazi Germany)?



Is chemical castration a violation of human rights?

Influence of Instinctual Behavior. Discuss the ways in which how instinctual behavior still predicts some of our own aggressive acts. Possible topics to consider with students include: 

Thinking about your own dating experiences, can you think of a time that you acted aggressively or a time when your potential love interest acted aggressively? Did that aggressive act help or hinder your chances of pursuing a relationship?



When you think about the old adages, ―nice guys finish last,‖ or ―women fall for bad boys,‖ do you think that there is an instinctual component that attracts ―good girls‖ to ―bad boys‖?

Student Activities Activity #1: The Influence of the Classical School on the U.S. Constitution. Your instructor will place you into groups. Your group is to read the U.S. Constitution (including the Bill of 22 Copyright © 2025 Pearson Education, Inc.

Rights) and prepare a short report on how this document was influenced by the principles of the classical school of criminology, including specific examples.

Activity #2: Physical Attributes in Media Images Today. 

Watch several episodes of a reality-based criminal justice television show. Observe the suspects in each crime/event and record as much information as possible about their physical characteristics. Do you notice any common physical characteristics among the suspects?

Does there appear to be a ―criminal type‖?



In addition, watch several episodes of a non-reality-based criminal justice television show and record information about the physical characteristics of the actors playing the criminal offenders. Do fictional television shows cast actors of a certain physical type to play offenders? What characteristics (if any) are common to fictional offenders?

Activity #3: Undesirable Americans. Research the American eugenics movement and identify the main groups that were at one time or another considered ―unfit‖ or ―undesirable‖ and were therefore possible candidates for sterilization. Do you know anyone who fits any of these characteristics? Bring this information to class for discussion.

SUGGESTED ANSWERS TO END-OF-CHAPTER ASSIGNMENTS Questions for Review 1.

What are the major principles of the Classical School of criminology?

Human beings are fundamentally rational, and most human behavior is the result of free will coupled with rational choice.

Pain and pleasure are the two central determinants of human behavior.

Punishment, a necessary evil, is sometimes required to deter law violators and to serve as an example to others who would also violate the law.

Root principles of right and wrong are inherent in the nature of things and cannot be denied.

Society exists to provide benefits to individuals that they would not receive in isolation.

When men and women band together for the protection offered by society, they forfeit some of the benefits that accrue from living in isolation.

Certain key rights of individuals are inherent in the nature of things, and governments that contravene those rights should be disbanded.

Crime disparages the quality of the bond that exists between individuals and society and is therefore an immoral form of behavior.

2.

What is neoclassical criminology, and how does it differ from the classical perspective?

How does it build on the classical perspective?

Neoclassical criminology provided a kind of middle ground between the total free will of the classical perspective and the hard determinism of positivism. It differs from the classical 23 Copyright © 2025 Pearson Education, Inc.

perspective in that it focuses focused on the importance of character and the dynamics of character development, but also incorporates classical concepts by considering the rational choices people make when faced with opportunities for crime. Essentially, it is a modern-day application of classical principles to current problems of crime and crime control in contemporary society.

3.

What are the policy implications of the Classical School, and what kinds of punishment might work best to prevent crime?

A number of punishment practices have been developed based on classical principles.

Determinate sentencing requires a specified fixed amount of time to be served for every offense category. This is based upon two key elements of classical thought: that the pleasure of a crime can be assessed and that the amount of punishment necessary for deterrence can be determined. Truth in sentencing requires judges to determine and make public the actual time an offender is likely to serve (as opposed to the length of time to which the offender is sentenced). Many statutes now require offenders to serve a certain portion of their sentence (usually 80%) before they become eligible for release. Incapacitation focuses on using incarceration and other techniques to reduce the likelihood that an offender will be capable of committing future crimes (based on the assumption that while an offender is in prison, s/he is not free to commit crimes against the general public).

4.

What are the criticisms of the Classical School? Of neoclassical thinking about crime and crime control?

Classical and neoclassical thought represents more a philosophy of justice than a theory of crime causation. While supporters of neoclassical approaches argue that much of the credit for the recent decline in crime is due to the implementation of ―get tough on crime‖ policies based on neoclassical thinking, critics point out that crime also declined in areas where these policies were not implemented. They also note that the extent of the decline in crime may not be as substantial as many people think. Critics also argue that classical and neoclassical thought fails to comprehensively explain criminal motivation. While the perspective suggests that crime is the result of free will and individual choice, it does not explain how such a choice (for or against criminal activity) is made.

5.

What are the basic principles of biological theories of crime causation?

The brain is the organ of the mind and the locus of personality.

The basic determinants of human behavior, including criminal tendencies, are, to a considerable degree, constitutionally or genetically based.

Observed gender and racial differences in rates and types of criminality may be at least partially the result of biological differences between the sexes and between racially distinct groups.

The basic determinants of human behavior, including criminality, may be passed on from generation to generation—a tendency toward crime may be inherited.

Much of human conduct is fundamentally rooted in instinctive behavioral responses characteristic of biological organisms everywhere.

The biological roots of human conduct have become increasingly disguised because modern forms of indirect expressive behavior have replaced more primitive and direct ones.

At least some human behavior is the result of biological propensities inherited from more primitive developmental stages in the evolutionary process.

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The interplay among heredity, biology, and the social environment provides the nexus for any realistic consideration of crime causation.

6.

What was the role of free choice in the Positivist School, and how did it explain crime?

Unlike the Classical School, positivism is based on social determinism, the belief that human behavior is determined by factors behind an individual‘s control, not by the exercise of free will. Early biological theories, such as those discussed in this chapter, explain crime by the belief that people may be predisposed to behaviors such as aggression and risk-taking, which increase the likelihood of involvement in crime. These theories argue that these predispositions are constitutionally or physiologically influenced and inherited.

7.

What are some critiques of early biological theories of crime?

A central concern with all early biological theories relates to the fact that they tend to largely reject the role of free will in human behavior. If behavior is largely determined by inherent factors, then an individual may be condemned to a life of crime and efforts at reformation can be expected to have little positive effect on future behavior.

Other concerns stem from aligning the concept of crime with biological variables because crime is a social construction and its meaning varies over time and place. Because the legality of a specific behavior may change, it is difficult to link specific biological features with potential criminality. It also appears unlikely that any biological feature or combination of features could explain the wide variety of criminal offending today.

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Chapter 4 Biosocial Theories, Body Chemistry, and Neurocriminology Interaction Is Key CHAPTER OVERVIEW Genetic characteristics and variations in human chromosomes may play an important role in aggression and crime causation. Genetic researchers focus on a model of gene-environment interaction. There is also a focus on the concept of heritability as a way to explain behaviors that involve law violation. Researchers have found that genes not only shape humans but that they can also be influenced by the environment, creating a feedback loop. It is important to recognize, however, that researchers do not believe that there is one identifiable ―criminal gene‖ that causes crime. While researchers have found links between specific genes and deviant, violent, and addictive behaviors, this does not mean that these genes inevitably produce antisocial behavior.

Instead, they may simply influence the way in which people respond to their surroundings. Genes are both the cause and consequence of our actions – they enable rather than determine human action.

Researchers are also exploring the relationship between brain dysfunction and criminality.

The frontal brain hypothesis references physical changes in certain parts of the brain to explain criminality. Other brain mechanisms that may be involved in aggression include allergic reactions to common foods that may produce swelling in the brain and brain stem. Physical injuries, emotional trauma, and long-term exposure to stress can also produce changes in the brain. The concept of neuroplasticity, which suggests that the brain can alter its structure and function in response to new experiences, has been advanced as a way to explain why some people experience significant personality changes while undergoing new experiences. Researchers recently found that the majority of criminal justice-involved people in Colorado had a history of serious brain injury, significantly more than found in the general population.

Researchers have also linked violent or disruptive behavior to body chemistry. Criminal behavior has been linked to factors such as sugar or coffee consumption, food additives, vitamin deficiencies, and other nutrients. Environmental pollution (lead, manganese, and other toxic metals) also has been linked to violent crime. Prenatal exposure to substances such as tobacco smoke, alcohol, and marijuana have been found to be related to various behavioral factors, including delinquency. Psychobiotics examines the effects of bacteria on emotions and behavior, with a particular focus on gut bacteria. Hormones such as testosterone, serotonin, and cortisol have been shown to be associated with aggression. However, instead of affecting behavior directly, hormones may interact with social factors to produce criminal behavior. Low resting heart rate appears to be associated with antisocial behavior and there also appears to be a link between heightened galvanic skin response and negative and antisocial qualities. Some researchers have suggested a relationship between the digit ratio (comparative length of index and ring fingers) and stereotypical masculine characteristics, including aggression and criminal behavior. Infection with certain parasites can contribute to behavior changes that may lead to an increased risk of involvement in crime. Temperature has been found to have an influence on both violent and property crime, although it is moderated by temporal factors such as the time of day and day of the week.

A recent synthesis of biological and environmental factors was presented by James Q. Wilson and Richard Herrnstein in their book Crime and Human Nature. They identified a number of constitutional factors, such as gender, age, body type, intelligence, and personality, as 26 Copyright © 2025 Pearson Education, Inc.

contributing to crime. More recently, biosocial criminologists have emphasized the importance of the interaction between biology and the environment in the formation of behavioral responses to given situations and stress that biosocial perspectives are theories of criminality, not crime.

The gender ratio problem refers to the need to explain why the number of crimes committed by men far exceeds the number committed by women in almost all categories. Gender differences in criminal behavior have remained extremely regular over time, refuting claims of early gender gap researchers who suggested that cultural changes producing increased opportunity for women to commit crime would lead to an increase in crimes by women. Biosocial criminologists suggest that gender itself may be responsible for the observed differences. However, genetically based behavioral differences between the two genders appear to be moderated by various aspects of the social environment.

An evolutionary perspective is one that tries to explain behavior with reference to human evolutionary history and also recognizes the influence genes have over human traits. Evolutionary neuroandrogenic theory suggests that the propensity for crime commission evolved as part of the male reproductive strategy and that a particular neurochemistry, which is characteristic of male individuals, increases the probability of male criminality relative to female individuals.

Neurocriminology incorporates neuroscience insights into criminology, focusing on how the brain‘s structure and function relate to criminal behavior. Neuroimaging studies of individuals with psychopathy have found specific deficits in areas of the brain associated with empathy, morality, and decision-making. There are a number of ethnical issues that must be taken into consideration when using neuroscientific evidence in legal settings. One specific topic that neurocriminology has been studying is chronic traumatic encephalopathy, a degenerative brain disorder primarily caused by repeated head trauma.

The standard social science model assumes humans are born ―blank slates‖ and acquire values, behavioral patterns, and modes of thought through socialization. Recently, this model has largely given way to broader perspectives incorporating the role of biology and genetic influences on human behavior. While there are almost certainly no genes for something as complex as criminal behavior, many genes may affect brain functioning in ways that increase or reduce the chances of individuals learning various complex behavior patterns, including those that may lead to criminal sanctioning.

Biological, biosocial, and neurocriminological approaches have generated considerable controversy. Contemporary criminologists have provided focused critiques of these perspectives, raising methodological and other concerns. It does appear that various biological factors are correlated with various measures of criminal behavior, although the influence of social factors has overshadowed the relationship.

LEARNING OUTCOMES After reading this chapter, you should be able to answer the following questions: 4.1. What role do genetics and heritability play in contemporary explanations for crime?

4.2. How does brain dysfunction relate to criminality?

4.3. How do body chemistry theories – including those involving diet, blood sugar levels, environmental contaminants, and hormones – explain crime?

4.4. What are biosocial theories, and what role does the gender ratio problem play in contemporary criminology?

4.5 What is neurocriminology? What can it tell us about human behavior, aggression, and criminality?

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4.6. What are the policy implications of modern biological, biosocial, and neurocriminological theories of crime?

4.7. What are some criticisms of biological, biosocial, and neurocriminological theories?

CHAPTER OUTLINE I.

Introduction  Use the Theory in Perspective box (found later in the chapter) to briefly introduce the main modern biological theories and the key concepts relevant to each.  Ask students to discuss ways in which information from the Human Genome Project might affect public policy relating to crime prevention and offender treatment.  Point out that there are a wide variety of crime shows on television today that stress the use of new technologies such as DNA testing. Have students discuss the possible impact of these shows on social views of criminal justice and offenders.

II. Genetics and Crime  Describe neurotransmitters and explain how the presence or absence of neurotransmitters such as serotonin and noradrenaline may affect behavior.  Ask students to identify types of aggressive and thrill-seeking behaviors that might provide individuals with a dopamine-like experience without violating the law.  Discuss the concept of a ―biosocial‖ interaction, as has been demonstrated between the enzyme MAO-A and early child abuse.  Watch the documentary, ―Born to Rage: Inside the Warrior Gene‖ in class, or have students watch it at home (the documentary is available online). Put students in groups and have them discuss the implications of this research for criminal justice. They may want to read about the case of Bradley Waldroup, who was convicted of voluntary manslaughter, rather than first-degree murder, at least in part due to the introduction of genetic evidence. This could also be assigned as a topic for a written assignment.  Discuss how an understanding of the biological basis underlying the risk of drug and alcohol addiction could impact policy makers.  Ask students to consider the ways in which the research into genetic memory might affect criminal justice.  Watch the BBC video, ―Can Your Genes Make You Violent?‖ on YouTube.  Go to the website of the Australian Broadcasting Corporation and listen to the podcast, ―The Crime Gene,‖ which discusses the first court case in the world to acknowledge genetics as a factor in criminal behavior.

A. Future Directions in the Study of Genes and Crime 

Ask students what the textbook author means by saying that genes ―do not so much determine human action as enable it.‖

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An extreme conclusion to reach from exploring the genetic basis for crime is that society plays no role in the production of crime. Discuss the implications of this conclusion with students by applying the social problems and individual responsibility perspectives that characterize this text.

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Discuss the 2008 Gender Nondiscrimination Act, which prohibits discrimination on the basis of information obtained from genetic testing. The text of the act may be found online.

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III. The Dysfunctional Brain  Ask students why there might be brain differences between individuals who are prone to impulsive violence and those who preplan violent crimes.  Discuss possible links between schizophrenia and crime.  Explain the concept of neuroplasticity and how it relates to the study of criminal behavior.  Ask students to discuss the possible ethical implications of examining the prefrontal cortexes of the brains of very young children to identify signs indicating the potential for future problem behavior.  Ask students to discuss the implications of the findings in Colorado regarding the higher prevalence of brain injury among justice-involved people compared to the general population.

IV. Body Chemistry and Criminality A. Ingested Substances and Nutrition 

Break students into groups and have them design a research study to determine the effect of sugar consumption on crime. This activity provides a link to the material covered in Chapter 2. Each group could be assigned a different data collection method on which to base their research design.



Discuss the ways in which types of food and food additives can affect behavior.

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Divide the class into groups and lead a debate on the following issue: If diet can contribute to criminal behavior, should parents who do not provide children with a healthy diet, or who provide an excess of food items that have been implicated in the production of criminal violence, be liable for their children‘s involvement in crime and delinquency?

B. Environmental Pollution 

Discuss the different ways in which exposure to toxic metals may affect individuals and review the ways in which exposure to lead has been linked to crime.

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If the presence of pollution is a key factor in crime causation, ask the class what should be the responsibility of the organizations and industries that caused the pollution and what responsibility should the government and the community have in dealing with these types of pollution.

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Divide the class into groups and lead a debate on the following issue: Given that prenatal substance exposure has been shown to affect child development, should women who expose their children to these substances during pregnancy be sanctioned?

C. Psychobiotics  Ask students what they think about the concept of a chemical gut-brain axis? Do students believe that bacteria can affect feelings, emotions and behavior? 

Watch the video of the TED Talk, ―Do Gut Microbes Control your Personality?‖ on YouTube.

D. Hormones and Criminality 

Explain the function of testosterone in the body. Discuss the reasons why female individuals produce testosterone and why they produce it at lower levels than male individuals.

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Ask students whether the research studies that link testosterone to aggression are claiming that there is a link between testosterone and crime.

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Have students research studies linking testosterone levels and crime commission.

Then ask them if the researchers they identified would have focused on the role of testosterone as a possible explanation for crime if they did not already know from other sources, such as arrest rates, that male individuals have greater involvement in crime than female individuals. Discuss what this might say about the direction of science and explanations for crime.

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Explain Daigle‘s assertion that hormonal changes do not, on their own, account for aggressive behavior but that they may affect a third (unidentified) variable, leading to aggression.

E. Low Resting Heart Rate and Crime 

Point out that while the relationship between low resting heart rate and various forms of antisocial behavior is well established, researchers have not explained this relationship. Discuss the difference between identifying a relationship and explaining it, and link this to theory development.

F. Galvanic Skin Reponses G. Digit Ratio 

Stress that researchers are not claiming that finger length affects the likelihood of crime, but that they are using the digit ratio as a proxy measure for other factors, such as prenatal exposure to androgens.

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Discuss the problems with using the digit ratio as an indicator of criminality.

H. Parasites and Criminality I. Climate, Weather, and Crime 

Have students research daily crime rates in their community and compare them with temperatures. Do they observe any relationship between changes in temperature and changes in reported crime?

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Ask students to consider what other natural or environmental factors might influence crime.

V. Biosocial Criminology  Explain the basic concept of biosocial theory, as opposed to biological or sociological theories of criminality.  Review the constitutional factors that James Q. Wilson and Richard Herrnstein cited for their contributions to crime.  Discuss the reasons why Wilson and Herrnstein‘s book, Crime and Human Nature, was so influential.  Explain the difference between crime and criminality.

A. Gender Differences in Criminality 

Ask students to propose explanations for the gender gap in criminal involvement.

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Discuss ways in which gender affects involvement in crime.

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Explain the concept of sexual selection and its importance in understanding gender differences in criminality.

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Break students into groups, and ask them to consider what evidence supports the belief that disproportionate involvement of men in crime is more culturally than biologically based. Are they persuaded by these points? Ask them to explain.

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Watch the video, ―Gender and Crime‖ on YouTube.

B. Evolutionary Neuroandrogenic Theory 

Discuss the application of an evolutionary perspective on behavior to criminology.

VI. Neurocriminology  Review some of the neurological research results discussed in this section.  Discuss the Brain Activity Map project. More details about this project may be found online.

A. People to Know in Neurocriminology B. Legal and Ethical Considerations in Neurocriminology 

Break students into groups and have them discuss whether genetic information, such as a genetic propensity toward some type of behavior, should be admissible at trial, whether it should be considered at sentencing (and if yes, would it be a mitigating or aggravating factor), and whether it should be used as a factor in bail decisions.

C. Chronic Traumatic Encephalopathy 

Watch the video, ―Demystifying Chronic Traumatic Encephalopathy‖ on YouTube.

VI. Policy Implications of Biological, Biosocial, and Neurocriminological Theories  Discuss how the SSSM may have affected the development of criminological theories in the 20th century.  Lee Ellis and Anthony Walsh contend that criminal behavior is too complex to be accounted for by a gene and that biological links to criminal behavior are indirect. Ask the class to discuss whether they believe that studying these indirect biological links to crime is worthwhile.  Lead a discussion as to the particular types of crimes that might be best addressed through biologically based crime theories.

VII. Critiques of Biological, Biosocial, and Neurocriminological Theories  Review the critiques of the various theories discussed in this chapter. Lead a discussion as to whether the criticisms negate the usefulness of these types of theories.

LIST OF CHANGES/TRANSITION GUIDE  A new chapter-opening story begins the chapter.  A new section on neurocriminology has been added to the chapter and to the Theory in Perspective box within the chapter.  Two new key terms, ―weather‖ and ―climate‖ have been added, and both are discussed in terms of their effect on criminality.  A new Theory versus Reality box on climate change and crime has been added.  A discussion of toxoplasmosis and its influence on behavior has been added.  Chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE) is now discussed, using the example of onetime football star, Aaron Josef Hernandez. Hernandez is featured in a Criminal Profiles box at the end of the chapter.

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ADDITIONAL ASSIGNMENTS AND CLASS ACTIVITIES Additional Lecture Topics Brain Research. Explain that the HGP is only one of many projects trying to increase our understanding of the makeup of the human body. Consider discussing the Brain Research Through Advancing Innovative Neurotechnologies (BRAIN) Initiative. Information on the BRAIN Initiative is available on the website of the National Institutes of Health.

Policy Implications of Biological, Biosocial, and Neurocriminological Research for Criminology. Discuss how knowledge of biological and genetic factors could impact criminal justice. For example, in late 2013, a jury charged with deciding the sentence to be imposed upon John McCluskey, an offender who was convicted of carjacking and two murders committed after his escape from an Arizona prison, was unable to come to a unanimous decision on the death penalty. As a result, McCluskey received a sentence of life without parole. The evidence presented to the sentencing jury included brain scans used by the defense to show that McCluskey had structural brain abnormalities that, combined with other factors, contributed to his crimes.

The defense argued that these abnormalities, along with other early childhood experiences, should be considered mitigating circumstances.

Student Activities Activity #1: Nature vs. Nurture in the Criminal Justice System. Your instructor will place you into groups. Each group is to visit the website of the Human Genome Project (www.genome.gov) and locate the exercise ―Nature vs. Nurture in the Criminal Justice System‖. Complete this exercise and bring your responses to class. Discuss each groups responses and the reasoning behind their decisions.

Activity #2: Access by Law Enforcement. Your instructor will place you into groups. Each group is to visit the website of the Human Genome Project (www.genome.gov) and locate the exercise ―Access by Law Enforcement‖ in the Online Education Kit. Complete this exercise and bring your responses to class. Discuss each group‘s responses and the reasoning behind their decisions.

SUGGESTED ANSWERS TO END-OF-CHAPTER ASSIGNMENTS Questions for Review 1.

What role do genetics and heritability play in contemporary explanations for crime?

Genetic characteristics and chromosomal variations appear to be important factors in aggression and crime. Researchers do not believe that there is a specific ―crime gene‖ that causes people to be involved in crime. Instead, there are likely to be many hundreds of genes that may increase someone‘s risk of involvement in crime. Defective versions of genes such as the one responsible for the production of MAO-A or the one that controls dopamine flow have been linked to criminal and deviant behavior. Contemporary researchers have proposed a gene-environment interaction model and suggest that people who are genetically predisposed to certain types of behavior of behavior may be more likely to become aggressive or criminal when they interact with the surrounding social and physical environments. Basically, because they enable rather than determine human action, genes appear to be both the cause and the consequence of behavior.

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2.

How does brain dysfunction relate to criminality?

Research has shown that various types of brain dysfunctions may be related to antisocial and criminal behavior. This includes structural and functional damage to or differential functioning of certain areas of the brain, such as the amygdala, prefrontal cortex, orbital cortex, and anterior cingulate cortex (ACC).

For example, one study of murderers and attempted murderers found that they exhibited lower levels of glucose uptake in the prefrontal cortex than control subjects. Prefrontal cortex dysfunction may be related to violence as it is associated with impulsivity, loss of selfcontrol, immaturity, poor social judgment, and other factors. Similarly, psychopaths have been found to exhibit reduction in the volume of the prefrontal cortex and amygdala, compared to non-psychopaths. It appears that violent psychopathology in youth is associated with structural and functional damage to the orbital cortex of the brain. Offenders with lower levels of activity in the ACC are significantly more likely to reoffend compared to those with higher levels of activity in that region of the brain.

3.

How do body chemistry theories explain crime?

Body chemistry theories explain crime by linking violent or otherwise disruptive behavior to factors such as poor nutrition and vitamin deficiencies, environmental contaminants, prenatal substance exposure, and varying hormone levels. For example, some food additives have been linked to criminal violence and research suggests that deficiencies in some vitamins and other nutrients can increase aggressiveness and agitation. Toxic pollutants, particularly lead and manganese, also have been linked to aggressive behavior and a loss of control over impulsive behavior. Prenatal exposure to substances such as tobacco, marijuana, and alcohol appear to be linked to problems both in childhood and later in life. Fluctuations in levels of hormones such as testosterone and serotonin have been linked to aggression and impulsivity as well.

4.

What is biosocial criminology? How is criminality explained from a biosocial perspective?

Biosocial criminology is a theoretical perspective that perspective sees the interaction between biology and the physical and social environments as key to understanding human behavior, including criminality.

From a biosocial perspective, criminality is seen as a property of individuals – the willingness to violate individual rights and social norms, regardless of whether or not such behavior is against the law. Biosocial explanations of criminality tend to focus on issues such as a propensity for violence, aggression, deceit, recklessness, fearlessness, etc., and there is an emphasis on the belief that features of the surrounding environment determine how such propensities will be expressed.

5.

What is neurocriminology? What can it tell us about human behavior, aggression, and criminality?

Neurocriminology is a subfield of brain science that focuses on how the structure and function of the brain relate to criminal behaviors. The ultimate goal is to improve our understanding of criminality and contribute to the development of effective and workable interventions. The use of neuroimaging techniques has allowed researchers to associate various brain abnormalities with criminal behavior. For example, in-depth neuroimaging 33 Copyright © 2025 Pearson Education, Inc.

studies of individuals with psychopathy have found deficits in areas of the brain associated with empathy, morality, and decision-making. Abnormalities in these areas have been linked to increased proneness to criminal conduct and to violent behavior. Understanding these neural underpinnings can provide valuable insights into why certain individuals engage in criminal behavior and may inform more effective interventions aimed at reducing recidivism rates.

6.

What are the social policy implications of biological and biosocial theories of crime?

What modern-day social policies reflect the biological and biosocial approaches to crime causation?

Biological theories of crime suggest the possibility of social policies that are biologically based. However, it will not be until the impact of biology on human behavior is fully recognized that effective social policies aimed at controlling crime can be developed.

Answers may vary.

7.

What are the shortcomings of biological theories of criminal behavior? Why have biological approaches to crime causation encountered stiff criticism?

Many biological and biosocial theories have been criticized because they fail to predict criminality while purporting to understand its causes.

Biosocial theories can be criticized in a number of ways. These include:  Methodological problems, such as the use of small and unrepresentative samples  Difficulty in generalizing findings to other settings  Difficulty in drawing definitive conclusions from small samples studied under unique conditions  The failure of theories to explain regional and temporal variations in crime rates  The inability of theories to explain why certain kinds of crime are more likely to occur in certain parts of the country, in particular types of communities, and among members of specific subcultures rather than in others Some biosocial criminologists have been accused of racial and class bias for failing to explain why a disproportionate number of certain kinds of crime are committed by people with low income and members of historically marginalized groups.

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Chapter 5 Psychological and Psychiatric Foundations of Criminal Behavior It’s How We Think CHAPTER OVERVIEW This chapter introduces psychological and psychiatric theories of human behavior, which focus on individual characteristics or propensities when explaining crime. Most early psychological theories emphasized personality theory, which built on the area of cognitive science, and behaviorism, which examined social learning and emphasized behavioral conditioning.

Early 20th century psychologists adapted the disease model. One of the most serious mental diseases is psychopathy, a personality disorder characterized by antisocial behavior and a lack of sympathy, empathy, and embarrassment. Hervey Cleckley described a psychopath as a ―moral idiot,‖ with poverty of affect as the central defining characteristic. Today, the terms ―psychopath‖ and ―sociopath‖ have been replaced by the concept of antisocial personality. Individuals with antisocial personality disorder are generally unsocialized and likely to engage in behaviors that will at some point bring them into conflict with society. The disorder is much more prevalent among incarcerated men than the general population.

Trait theory empahsizes fundamental personality characteristics, or traits, which are believed to be inherited. The original three-trait model focused on three personality supertraits or dimensions (psychoticism, extroversion, and neuroticism) and suggested that psychotics are the most likely to be criminal. Modern trait theories now emphasize five basic traits (openness to experience, extraversion, conscientiousness, neuroticism, and agreeableness). These form the basics of the Five Factor Model of psychology. Many psychologists consider these traits to be strongly genetically influenced. Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and Acute Stress Disorder (ASD) may be linked to depression, substance abuse, and feelings of alienation from friends and family. While PTSD may involve aggressive or violent behavior, few people with PTSD ever become violent and those who do may have already had a propensity towards antisocial behavior before being diagnosed with PTSD. Post-partum depression (PPD) has occasionally be used as a defense in court. Postpartum psychosis is a much rarer disorder.

Cognitive theories are learning theories that examine thought processes and try to explain how people learn to solve problems and how they perceive and interpret the social environment.

There are several branches of cognitive theory. Moral development theory holds that individuals become criminal when they have not successfully completed their intellectual development from childhood to adulthood. Cognitive information-processing theory involves the study of human perceptions, information processing, and decision making. Branches of this theory include cognitive dissonance theory and script theory. The third branch focuses on the criminal mind-set and is based on the idea that criminals have a different mindset and make different assumptions about living and behaving than noncriminals. Psychological inventories are used to evaluate criminal thinking styles and identify risk factors for antisocial behavior.

Psychiatric criminology envisions a complex set of motives and drives operating from hidden recesses deep within the personality to determine behavior. Psychoanalytic theory, based on the work of Sigmund Freud, suggests that criminal behavior is maladaptive, the result of inadequacies inherent in the offender‘s personality. This perspective suggests that one possible cause of crime may be a poorly developed superego, which leaves the individual operating without a moral guide. Mental disorders such as neurosis and psychosis may contribute to 35 Copyright © 2025 Pearson Education, Inc.

criminal behavior, including violent crime. Freud‘s frustration–aggression link was more fully developed by researchers such as J. Dollard, who suggested that everyone suffers frustration and thus aggression is a natural part of life; it may be manifested in socially acceptable or unacceptable ways. Other theorists suggest that crime is adaptive behavior that fulfills some purpose, such as the need to be punished or the need to reduce stress. Andrews and Bonta identified a number of major risk factors or criminogenic needs associated with criminal conduct, although later researchers view them not as needs in themselves but as psychopathological symptoms or indicators of maladaptive functioning. Other researchers have found that certain parenting styles may contribute to delinquency and criminality. Attachment theory suggests that the lack of a secure attachment between a child and their primary caregiver may lead to delinquent and criminal behavior later in life.

Behavior theory, the second main thrust of early psychological theorizing, built upon the concept of conditioned behavior, particularly Pavlov‘s concept of classical conditioning. B.F. Skinner further developed the theory by introducing the concept of operant conditioning, which involves the use of rewards and punishments to control a person‘s responses. Albert Bandura‘s social cognition theory of aggression suggests that people learn to act by observing others; observation of aggressive behavior teaches one how to behave aggressively.

Correctional psychology focuses on the diagnosis and classification of people who commit crimes, the treatment of people in prison, and the rehabilitation of people in prison and others who break the law. Many psychological and psychiatric treatments for criminal offenders have been developed based on these theories. The most successful appear to be behavior therapy for sex offenders, cognitive behavioral interventions, psychodrama, and humor therapy to treat depression. The concept of selective incapacitation is based on the notion of career criminals and relies on the use of psychological techniques to identify likely future offenders and those likely to reoffend. A number of risk-assessment models have been developed. Assessing dangerousness is a central issue in psychological approaches to criminality. Critics of psychological and psychiatric theories of criminality argue that the focus on the individual results in theories that do not sufficiently consider social or environmental conditions that produce crime. Individual theories also have been criticized on various levels. Psychological or criminal profiling is used to help police better understand people wanted for serious crimes. Critics say it is still more art than science and question its value. A psychological autopsy involves investigating a person‘s death by reconstructing what the person thought, felt, and did prior to death, with a particular focus on identifying patterns consistent with personality disorders or mental illnesses.

Insanity is a legal rather than a clinical concept and refers to a type of defense allowed in criminal courts. Several tests for insanity are used in the United States. A verdict of guilty but mentally ill (GBMI) means that a person is held responsible for a crime despite the presence of some degree of mental incompetence. Insanity defenses are rarely used in the real world and are rarely successful. Some critics question whether mental illness should be seen as a cause, an explanation, or an excuse for criminal behavior.

LEARNING OUTCOMES After reading this chapter, you should be able to answer the following questions: 5.1. What are the major principles of psychological and psychiatric perspectives of criminal behavior?

5.2. What two major ideas characterized early psychological theories, and what was the difference between them?

5.3. How do personality disturbances explain criminality?

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5.4. What are cognitive theories, and what two types of cognitive theories does this chapter discuss?

5.5. What insights into criminal behavior does the psychoanalytic perspective offer?

5.6. How does behavior theory explain the role of rewards and punishments in shaping behavior?

5.7. What are the policy and treatment implications of psychological understandings of criminality?

5.8. How can psychological and psychiatric theories of crime be critiqued?

5.9. What are some assumptions underlying the practice of criminal psychological profiling?

5.10.How does the legal concept of insanity differ from behavioral understandings of the same concept?

CHAPTER OUTLINE I.

Introduction  Watch the video, ―What‘s the Relation Between Psychology & Criminology‖ with Laurence Miller on YouTube.

II. Principles of Psychological Theories  Use the Theory in Perspective box to briefly outline the main categories of psychological theories and the key concepts in each.  Using Figure 5-1, review the general assumptions that underlie psychological and psychiatric theories and ask students if any of these assumptions might be shared with other perspectives on crime causation.  Discuss the differences between forensic (or criminal) psychology and forensic psychiatry.  Ask students to consider what distinguishes psychological explanations of crime from other explanations.  Point out that some of the theories that students will encounter in later chapters have a psychological component. Travis Hirschi‘s social control theory, for example, includes a key component that he labels ―attachment,‖ which is essentially the development of a conscience.  The film Pulp Fiction investigates several interrelated stories of criminals who exhibit both good and evil tendencies. However, the extreme depictions of violence in this film were upsetting to many viewers.

III. History of Psychological Theories  Explain the two major ideas that characterized early psychological theories.

IV. Personality Disturbances  Clarify the difference between the terms ―psychopathy‖ and ―psychopathology.‖ A. The Psychopath 

Explain the concept of a psychopath and discuss why psychopaths are often difficult to identify.

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Review the main characteristics of the psychopathic personality.

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Explain the difference between a primary psychopath and a secondary psychopath, and discuss the other types of psychopathy that have been identified.

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Present students with examples of offenders who have been diagnosed as psychopathic, or have them conduct research online to identify such offenders. Have them classify these offenders based on the types of psychopaths described in the text.

This activity could also be done with fictional offenders presented in movies.



Divide the class into groups and present them with moral questions such as those used in the Moral Sense Test (available online). Have the students discuss their answers and how and when they believe their moral viewpoints were developed.

Have them compare and contrast their answers based on student demographics (gender, race, ethnicity, etc.)

B. Antisocial Personality Disorder 

Ask students to explain why individuals who are diagnosed as having antisocial personalities are at an increased risk of involvement in criminal behavior.

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Explain that changes in terminology that appear in publications like the American Psychiatric Association‘s DSM-IV reflect ongoing scientific research relevant to psychological classification. Mention, as an example, that in 1974 the APA voted to remove homosexuality from its list of diseases.

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Have students research antisocial personality and bring back information on treatment approaches. Tell them to be prepared to discuss whether they think that these approaches might prevent or inhibit the link with criminal behavior.

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Explain that the effect of antisocial personality on criminal behavior is not always direct; that is, antisocial personality might contribute to criminality, but it is not necessarily the cause of crime commission.

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Discuss the fact that most research on the link between antisocial personality and criminal behavior has involved primarily subjects who are men and ask students if this is a significant problem with the research.

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Watch the video ―Psychopath in the Family‖ on YouTube. This video was produced by the Australian Broadcasting Corporation.

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Watch the ABC News Nightline video, ―Tommy Lee Sells: The Mind of a Psychopath‖ on YouTube. Note that this video does include some disturbing content.

C. Trait Theory 

Have students identify examples personality traits which are stable across the life course. What are examples of patterns that may change over the life course?

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Explain Eysenck‘s three supertraits and provide examples of personality traits characteristic of each.

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Ask the class why Eysenck suggests that the findings from twin studies support his view of a genetic basis of personality.

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Explain why Eysenck believes psychotics have the greatest probability of engaging in criminal behavior.

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Explain the Five Factor Model in greater detail and provide examples of each of the five personality dimensions in the model. Discuss the empirical evidence that supports the model.

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Have students take ―The Big Five Personality Test‖ (available online) and invite them to discuss the results.

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Have the class discuss whether trait theories like the theory developed by Hans Eysenck should be considered psychological theories or biopsychological theories.

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Watch the video, ―The Big Five Personality Traits Model Explained‖ on YouTube.

D. Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) 

Watch the video, ―Trauma and crime: The hidden epidemic‖ on YouTube. This video is a report from Fox9 News (Minneapolis-St. Paul, Minnesota).

E. Post-Partum Depression (PPD) 

Watch the documentary, ―Postpartum Psychosis Tragedy: When the Health System Fails Mothers‖ on YouTube.

V. Cognitive Theories  Inform students that they will encounter social learning theories in later chapters.

Sutherland‘s differential association theory, for example, includes not only the concept of learning techniques of crime commission but also learning motives, drives, and attitudes toward criminality.

A. Moral Development Theory 

Review Piaget‘s four stages of human intellectual development and discuss how his perspective applies to the issue of criminal behavior.

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Explain Kohlberg‘s levels and stages of moral reasoning development. Explain how an individual‘s stage of development may influence their decision whether or not to commit crimes.

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Ask students to watch the Sprouts video, ―Kohlberg‘s 6 Stages of Moral Development‖ on YouTube. Lead a discussion regarding the Heinz Dilemma presented in this video.

B. Cognitive Information-Processing Theory 

Discuss the implications of cognitive information-processing theory for criminal justice policy makers. For example, if offenders engage in violent behavior because, due to incorrect information processing they believe they are actually defending themselves, should these individuals be considered criminals?

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Discuss how script theory might provide an explanation for the link between growing up in an abusive environment and engaging in child abuse or intimate personal violence as an adult.

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Ask students to discuss whether script theory might provide an explanation for the proposed link between observing violent behavior in the media (television, movies, violent video games, etc.) and the commission of violent or aggressive acts?

C. The Criminal Mind-Set 

Ask the class if they agree with Samenow‘s argument that crime resides in the person and is not affected by the environment.

D. Criminal Thinking Styles and Psychological Inventories VI. The Psychoanalytic Perspective – Criminal Behavior as Maladaptation  Discuss how criminal behavior is viewed from the perspective of psychoanalytic theory.  Discuss Freud‘s work on personality, and review the concepts of id, ego, and superego.

Explain how Freud‘s three components of personality relate to criminal behavior.

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 Stress that Freud‘s concept of the ―ego‖ has no connection to the concept of an ―egotistical person‖ or the idea of an ―inflated ego.‖  Explain that Freud had many interests but did not directly address crime or systematically study criminals.  Discuss repression and how it relates to criminality.

A. The Psychotic Offender 

Review the main characteristics of people with psychotic disorders and explain why these individuals are described as being ―out of touch with reality.‖ Discuss how psychosis relates to criminality.



Explain that some forms of schizophrenia may be controlled through diet and nutrition. Link this back to the material from Chapter 4 on the role of biology in human behavior.



Point out that not all individuals with psychotic disorders commit crimes.

B. Frustration-Aggression Theory 

Discuss the link between frustration and aggression.



Place students into groups and ask them to come up with examples to support Dollard‘s assertion that ―aggression is a natural consequence of living.‖ Have the students present healthy ways in which they experience this on a daily basis.

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Explain that the psychoanalytical term displacement may refer to a type of violence that is vented on something or someone who is not the source of the original frustration. Discuss the relationship between displacement and crime.

C. Crime as Adaptation 

Ask the class to consider the ways in which crime can be understood as adaptive or as maladaptive behavior.

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Explain alloplastic and autoplastic adaptation, and provide examples of each.

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Provide examples to illustrate how behaviors other than crime may serve the same adaptive needs as crime. Illustrate how choices may vary due to factors such as environment and opportunity.

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Discuss ways in which stress may lead to self-aggression as well as aggressive behavior towards others.

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Ask students to consider possible policy implications of linking stress and aggression.

D. Criminogenic Needs 

Discuss the main risk factors or criminogenic needs that are associated with recidivism.

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Ask the class to consider how the concept of risk factors and criminogenic needs might be translated into public policy.

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Ask students to consider the various parenting styles they may have experienced and whether those have led to the outcomes suggested in Table 5-1. In this discussion, students should be free to present personal experiences or equally should be free to refuse to do so.

E. Attachment Theory 

Discuss the various forms that attachment can take.

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

According to John Bowlby‘s work on attachment theory, attachment can take both healthy forms and unhealthy forms. Ask students how delinquency fits into this schema.

VII. Behavior Theory  Discuss the relationship of crime to behavior theory. Ask how rewards might reinforce criminal behavior.  Explain the concept of classical conditioning  Watch the TED-Ed lesson, ―The Difference Between Classical and Operant Conditioning – Peggy Andover‖ on YouTube.

A. Behavioral Conditioning 

Review the basic ideas behind the stimulus–response approach to human behavior and discuss how reward and punishment can explain crime.



Have students discuss how rewards and punishments might apply to some of their roles and daily activities. Ask whether they feel their behavior has been influenced by the rewards and punishments that they‘ve personally experienced.



Discuss how behavior theory addresses both the origins of criminal behavior and the changes in already existing behavior. Ask students to consider ways that the principles of behavior theory might be used to reform offenders?

B. Social Cognition and the Role of Modeling 

Review the three laws of intimidation and suggestion that characterize Gabriel Tarde‘s theory of human behavior. Ask students to provide some examples for the law of insertion that are not included in the text.



Explain that according to modeling theory, aggressive behavior may be learned through the modeling process. Ask whether this process is as powerful in the case of impersonal entities (e.g., television, movies, and video games) that might provide behavioral models as it is with personal entities (e.g. other individuals). Does this distinction present a problem for modeling theory?



Ask students if they play video games that involve violent or aggressive behavior (including reality-based games like the Call of Duty series or fantasy-based games such as Quake or Baldur’s Gate 3). Break them into groups where at least part of the group consists of players. Ask them to discuss how video games and TV may influence their worldview.

VIII. Policy and Treatment Implications of Psychological and Psychiatric Approaches  Explain correctional psychology and how it relates to criminology.  Discuss how cognitive behavioral intervention (CBI) is used to modify the thinking and behavior of various types of offenders A. Assessing Dangerousness 

Ask students to explain how the concept of career criminals falls into the strategy of selective incapacitation.



Ask students how much faith they have in the ability of selective incapacitation as an effective strategy to reduce and control crime, given the difficulty of identifying potentially violent offenders.



Ask students to discuss the ethical implications of selective incapacitation, given the difficulty of accurately identifying which offenders are ―chronic offenders.‖ Have 41 Copyright © 2025 Pearson Education, Inc.

them discuss what might happen if an offender was misidentified as a chronic offender.

B. Predicting Criminality 

Ask students whether an individual who scores high on a test to assess dangerousness should be required to undergo treatment or be involuntarily committed to a mental hospital even if the individual has no known criminal behavior. Lead a discussion on how we can balance individual rights with the protection of society.



Ask students to consider the importance of the environmental context in understanding criminal behavior, if aggressiveness is stable over time.

IX. Critique of Psychological and Psychiatric Theories of Crime  Discuss some of the key problems found in the research linking psychological and psychiatric factors to crime. Ask students to discuss how these problems affect their views of theories that use these factors to explain crime.

X. Criminal Psychological Profiling  Explain psychological profiling, and discuss how effective is it as a tool for the apprehension of criminal suspects.  Ask students to visit the FBI Web site and to compare the information they find there on criminal profiling with their own ideas about criminal profiling taken from their everyday knowledge or exposure to the media.  Distinguish between the ―reality‖ and the ―myth‖ of criminal profiling.  The film The Silence of the Lambs deals with the connection between a cannibalistic serial killer, Dr. Hannibal Lecter, and an FBI profiler who seeks his help on another serial killer‘s case. This film started the public fascination with profiling. The TV series Hannibal is based on characters in the books on which the movie was based and also focuses on profiling.  Copycat deals with a psychiatrist who has been housebound ever since she was almost killed by a serial killer whom she testified against in court. Two homicide detectives working another serial killer‘s case bring her in to assist with finding the killer.

A. The Psychological Autopsy 

Explain the purpose of a psychological autopsy.

XI. Insanity and the Law  Stress to the class that insanity is a legal rather than a medical concept and explain the difference.  Link the use of the insanity defense to the discussion of classical and neoclassical criminology in Chapter 3 and explain that the traditional classical school‘s emphasis on free will rejected insanity as a defense, but that neoclassical criminology‘s acceptance of soft determinism allowed for the idea of insanity creating a lack of free will in some situations.  Ask students to consider why insanity is used as a defense in cases of criminal prosecution. Discuss how legal notions of insanity differ from psychiatric ones.  Ask students to discuss whether they believe all states should use the same standard for judging legal insanity, rather than having a variety of different rules and tests.

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 The textbook only discusses two standards for judging insanity (M‘Naughten and irresistible-impulse). Consider reviewing some of the other tests for insanity that have been used in the United States. Discuss which is used in your state.

A. Guilty but Mentally Ill (GBMI) 

Ask students to research how the justice system in their state handles offenders found ―guilty but mentally ill.‖

B. Problems with the Insanity Defense 

Point out that the insanity defense is rarely used, and that when it is used, it is rarely successful.



Ask students how they would evaluate the verdict of ―not guilty by reason of insanity‖ from both the social problems and individual responsibility perspectives.

LIST OF CHANGES/TRANSITION GUIDE 

A discussion of a commonly used assessment tool, the Psychological Inventory of Criminal Thinking Styles (PICTS), has been added.



A new section on ―Child Maltreatment and its Relationship to Adult Criminality‖ has been added, along with three new key terms: ―child maltreatment,‖ ―parenting style,‖ and ―parental burnout.‖



A new metanalysis of parental attachment and delinquency is explored.



A new Criminal Profiles box about Lori Vallow Daybell, the Idaho mother convicted in 2023 of first-degree murder in the killing of two her three children, has been added.

ADDITIONAL ASSIGNMENTS AND CLASS ACTIVITIES Additional Lecture Topics Intelligence. One topic that is related to the issue of mental disorder is that of intelligence.

Consider discussing the argument that low intelligence is related to, contributes to, or even causes, crime. Research that could be referenced includes: 

Travis Hirschi and Michael Hindelang‘s 1977 research linking IQ and crime, suggesting that criminals and noncriminals exhibit significant differences in IQ, even after controlling for socio-economic status and race.



James Q. Wilson and Richard Herrnstein‘s book Crime and Human Nature, which is also discussed in Chapter 5 and which suggested that there is an indirect link between IQ and crime: low intelligence contributes to poor performance in school, which increases the likelihood of criminal involvement.



Richard Herrnstein and Charles Murray‘s book The Bell Curve argued that intelligence is linked to a variety of factors, including crime. Individuals with a low IQ are more likely to commit crimes, more likely to be caught, and more likely to receive a sentence of incarceration. Herrnstein and Murray feel that intelligence is inherited, and therefore the link between intelligence and crime cannot be affected by the social environment.

While discussing this topic, it might be interesting to point out that researchers are operationalizing ―intelligence‖ through the use of IQ. Consider the definition of ―intelligence‖ and debate whether or not IQ is really a good measure of intelligence.

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Student Activities Activity #1: The Insanity Defense. Your instructor will assign you a state. Go to the website of the Cornell University Law School‘s Legal Information Institute, locate the statutes for this state, and find the definition of the insanity defense. Answer the following questions: 1.

2.

3.

4.

What test or tests are used to determine legal insanity?

Is the defendant presumed to be sane until proven otherwise?

Does the burden of proof for the defense of insanity lie with the defense or the prosecution?

If legal insanity is proved, what verdict is used, NGRI or GBI?

Activity #2: Rewards and Punishments. Your instructor will place you in groups. Within your group, discuss different ways that you were taught right from wrong as a child. Using behavior theory, classify these techniques as positive rewards, negative rewards, positive punishments, or negative punishments. Which of the four types of rewards and punishments seemed to be most effective?

SUGGESTED ANSWERS TO END-OF-CHAPTER ASSIGNMENTS Questions for Review 1.

What are the major principles of psychological perspectives of criminal behavior?  The individual is the primary unit of analysis.  Personality is the major motivational element because it is the seat of drives and the source of motives.  Crimes result from abnormal, dysfunctional, or inappropriate mental processes within the personality.  Criminal behavior may be purposeful for the individual insofar as it addresses certain felt needs. Behavior can be judged ―inappropriate‖ only when measured against external criteria purporting to establish normality.  Normality is generally defined by social consensus (what the majority of people in any social group agree is ―real,‖ appropriate, or typical).  Defective, or abnormal, mental processes may have a variety of causes, including a diseased mind, inappropriate learning or improper conditioning, the emulation of inappropriate role models, and adjustment to inner conflicts.

2.

What two major ideas characterized early psychological theories, and what was the difference between them?

There were two major ideas that characterized early psychological theories: Personality and behaviorism. Personality theory built on the growing area of cognitive science and included personality disturbances, moral development, and diseases of the mind. Behaviorism examined social learning with an emphasis on behavioral conditioning.

3.

How does personality explain criminality?

Some researchers suggest that crime is the result of personality characteristics. According to trait theory, personality is defined by the traits that comprise it and remains stable over time.

Trait theory links personality and associated traits to behavior, and holds that an individual‘s 44 Copyright © 2025 Pearson Education, Inc.

personality, combined with the individual‘s intelligence and natural abilities, that determines behavior in given situation.

Modern trait theories have identified five basic traits: openness to experience, extraversion, conscientiousness, neuroticism, and agreeableness. The combination and degree of traits define an individual‘s personality. These traits form the basis of the Five Factor Model of psychology.

4.

What are cognitive theories, and what three types of cognitive theories does this chapter discuss?

Cognitive theories are learning theories that examine thought processes and try to explain how people learn to solve problems and how they perceive and interpret the social environment.

This chapter discusses three types of cognitive theories. Moral development theory suggests that individuals who become criminal have not successfully complete their intellectual development from childhood to adulthood. Cognitive information-processing theory includes the study of human perceptions, information processing, and decision-making – it suggests that people who are violent may be using information incorrectly when making decisions.

Researchers examining the criminal mind-set suggest that criminals share an identifiable mindset and as a result make different assumptions about living and behaving than noncriminals do.

5.

What insights into criminal behavior does the psychoanalytic perspective offer?

The psychoanalytic perspective sees criminal behavior as maladaptive, or the product of inadequacies in the offender‘s personality. Significant inadequacies may result in full-blown mental illness, which can be a direct cause of crime.

According to the psychoanalytic perspective, one way in which a person might be led into crime is as the result of a poorly developed superego. The mind is left to fall back on the ego‘s reality-testing ability and without a moral guide, the ego may select a more expedient path of action that violates the law. Without a fully-functioning superego, offenders come to be characterized by id-dominated personalities, and the id‘s need for instant gratification determines their behavior. These individuals are unlikely to give thought to the long-term consequences of the choices they make.

The behavior of violent criminals is seen by some psychoanalysts as being dominated by the id, so they are unable to control the id-based impulsive drives. Possibly due to negative life experiences at an early age, violence-prone individuals may suffer from damaged egos that are too weak to deal with the urges emanating from the id.

6.

According to some psychologists, some criminals have an unconscious need to be punished, arising from a sense of guilt. This may be a motivating factor in criminal behavior, although even the offender may be unaware of this need. Essentially, from the psychiatric point of view, many drives, motives, and wishes are unconscious or even repressed by people who harbor them.

How does behavior theory explain the role of rewards and punishments in shaping behavior?

They key assumption underlying behavior theory is the idea that behavior is determined by environmental consequences which it produces for the individual concerned. The 45 Copyright © 2025 Pearson Education, Inc.

individual‘s responses to feedback are known as operant behavior, behavior that affects the environment in such a way as to produce response or further behavioral cues.

Rewards and punishment shape behavior through this type of conditioning. If an individual is rewarded for a behavior, the frequency of the behavior may increase. If the individual is punished for engaging in a behavior, the frequency of the occurrence of that behavior is likely to decrease 7.

What are the policy and treatment implications of psychological understandings of criminality?

There are a number of key policy implications of psychological understandings of criminality. Various types of offender treatment and rehabilitation programs have been developed based on psychological and psychiatric theories, including behavior modification, cognitive behavioral intervention, and peer programs. The focus on assessing dangerousness as part of a policy of selective incapacitation designed to prevent future criminality has contributed to attempts to develop empirically-based risk assessment and classification tools.

8.

How can psychological and psychiatric theories of criminality be critiqued?

Critics of psychological and psychiatric theories say that because they focus on the individual, they fail to sufficiently take into account social or environmental conditions that produce crime. Another concern is that these theories place the locus of control within the individual‘s sense of moral reasoning, even though physical and social barriers to crime may be more effective at preventing crime than an individual‘s sense of right and wrong.

There are also criticisms of specific theories. Freudian theory, for example, has been criticized for its lack of scientific support. Psychiatric theories are seen by some criminologists as being appropriate only for explanations of abnormal cognition; critics claim that they do not apply well to normal people who turn to crime. Behavior theory has been criticized for ignoring the role cognition plays in human behavior. Finally, modeling theory has been criticized for lacking comprehensive explanatory power.

9.

What are some assumptions underlying the practice of criminal psychological profiling?

Criminal psychological profiling is built on the idea that behavioral clues left at a crime scene may reflect the offender‘s personality. It is based on the assumption that any form of conscious behavior, including behavior the offender engaged in during the crime, is symptomatic of a person‘s personality. An offender‘s specific activities can help clarify the offender‘s motivations, personal characteristics, and likely future behavior.

10. How does the legal concept of insanity differ from behavioral understandings of the same concept?

For the purposes of the criminal law, insanity is a legal determination that refers to a type of defense allowed by the criminal courts. While the legal concept of insanity is based on claims of mental illness, it is not the same as psychiatric understandings of mental impairment.

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Chapter 6 Social Structure Theories It’s Where and How We Live CHAPTER OVERVIEW This chapter begins with an introduction to the general assumptions and types of sociological theories before focusing specifically on social structure theories. These theories consider formal and informal economic and social arrangements of society as root causes of crime and deviance.

Social structure theories highlight arrangements within society that contribute to the low socioeconomic status of identifiable groups as significant causes of crime. The three main types of social structure theories are social disorganization theory, strain theory, and culture conflict theory.

Social disorganization theory sees social change, social conflict, and lack of social consensus as the root causes of crime and deviance. It is associated with social ecology and the Chicago School of criminology. Robert Park and Ernest Burgess viewed cities in terms of concentric zones, with Zone II, surrounding the city center, identified as the zone of transition. Clifford Shaw and Henry McKay examined crime in the concentric zones and found that rates of offending remained fairly constant within the zone of transition despite the arrival of various new immigrant groups. The most important contribution of the ecological school to criminology is its claim that the community has a major influence on human behavior. Recently the emergence of the criminology of place (or environmental criminology) has revived ecological approaches. The broken windows thesis holds that physical deterioration in an area leads to increased concerns for personal safety among area residents and to higher crime rates in that area. The concept of defensible space is used by the criminology of place as a mechanism for reducing the risk of crime. The criminology of place holds that location can be as predictive of criminal activity as lifestyles of victimized individuals or social features of victimized households. The idea of collective efficacy argues that while order maintenance policies may have limited efficiency in reducing crime, empowering residents to exert positive social control in their own communities may be a workable strategy.

Strain theories see delinquency as adaptive behavior committed in response to problems involving frustrating and undesirable social environments. Classic strain theory was developed by Robert K. Merton, who used the concept of anomie to refer to a disjunction between socially approved means to success and legitimate goals. He outlined five modes of adaptation, or combinations of goals and means, and suggested that innovation was the mode most likely to be associated with crime. Stephen Messner and Richard Rosenfeld developed a contemporary version of Merton‘s theory, based on the concept of relative deprivation, the economic and social gap between rich and poor living in close proximity to one another. According to distributive justice, which refers to people‘s perceptions of their rightful place in society‘s reward structure, even wealthy and socially privileged individuals may be slighted if they feel they are inadequately rewarded for their behavior or accomplishments. General strain theory, developed

by Robert Agnew, reformulated strain theory and suggested that delinquency is a coping mechanism that helps adolescents deal with socio-emotional problems generated by negative social reactions. Recently, Agnew incorporated certain biological factors into GST to explain why some individuals are more likely than others to react to strain with delinquency.

Culture conflict theory suggests that crime results from a clash of values between differently 47 Copyright © 2025 Pearson Education, Inc.

socialized groups over what is acceptable or proper behavior. Thorsten Sellin suggested that the root cause of crime could be found in different values for what is acceptable/proper behavior. He argued that that conduct norms are acquired early in life through childhood socialization and identified two main types of conflict (primary and secondary). Subcultural theory emphasizes the contribution to crime made by variously socialized cultural groups within a primary culture.

Walter Miller identified focal concerns or key values of delinquent subcultures which encourage delinquent behavior. Gresham Sykes and David Matza suggest that offenders use techniques of neutralization to negate the norms and values of the larger society and overcome feelings of guilt at committing criminal acts. Franco Ferracuti and Marvin Wolfgang postulated the existence of violent subcultures, which are built around values that support and encourage violence.

Differential opportunity theory, developed by Richard Cloward and Lloyd Ohlin, combines elements of subcultural and strain theories to suggest that delinquency may result from the availability of illegitimate opportunities for success combined with the effective replacement of the norms of the primary culture with expedient subcultural rules. Albert Cohen also combined elements of strain theory and the subcultural perspective in his theory of reaction formation, which states that juveniles who are held accountable to middle-class norms and who cannot achieve these norms may reject middle-class goals and turn to delinquency instead.

Social strucutre theories are particularly applicable to street gangs, which have been a serious concern in the U.S. since the mid-to-late 1800s. Criminal street gangs tend to be locally-run and loosely structured, with transient leadership and membership. There are distinct differences between street and prison gangs. Today‘s gangs are significantly different from those of the early twentieth century. The gangs studied by early researchers were involved primarily in petty theft, vandalism, and turf battles; modern gangs are involved in more serious and violent crimes and in drug dealing. Gang activity tends to be localized in nature and to follow a cyclical pattern. The gang problem in the U.S. has changed over time, as seen by the increased number of gangs, greater availability of firearms, and the persistent, long-standing gang presence in major cities.

Criminal street gangs can rival other organized crime groups in terms of scope, violence, and money-making tactics. Elijah Anderson outlined aspects of street code, social mores operating in some American inner cities that stress a hyperinflated notion of manhood based on the idea of respect. Recent researchers draw a distinction between juvenile delinquency and gang-related violence, suggesting that they are ecologically distinct community problems. The issue of cooffending, the fact that youthful offenders tend to commit crimes in the company of their peers, is especially prevalent among gang members and may increase the likelihood that offenders will commit violent crimes.

Social structure theories have influenced social policy, through programs such as the Chicago Area Project, Mobilization for Youth, and the War on Poverty. The social structural perspective is closely associated with the social problems approach and negates the claims of the individual responsibility perspective. Social structure theories are open to criticisms. While these approaches assume that social inequality, racisim, and poverty are the root causes of crime, some scholars argue that the relationship is reversed, so that these social issues are produced by crime. If this inverse relationship is true, then addressing social ills such as poverty and social inequality as the root causes of crime is both an ineffective crime-prevention strategy and an unnecessarily costly one.

LEARNING OUTCOMES After reading this chapter, you should be able to answer the following questions: 6.1. What is the nature of sociological theorizing, and what are the assumptions upon which sociological perspectives on crime causation rest?

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6.2. What do sociologists mean by the term social structure, and how might the organization and structure of a society contribute to criminality?

6.3. What are the three types of social structure theories of crime that are discussed in this chapter, and what are the characteristics of each?

6.4. What are the activities of today‘s criminal street gangs?

6.5. What are the policy implications of the theories discussed in this chapter?

6.6. What are the shortcomings of the social structure approaches to understanding and preventing crime?

CHAPTER OUTLINE I. Introduction II. Major Principles of Sociological Theories  Explain social structure to students by using simple examples to show that the institutional arrangements that constitute social structure are diverse and varied, ranging from the simple to the complex. Link this to the distinction between micro and macro levels of social life.  Review the three key sociological explanations for crime.  Discuss the general assumptions that underlie sociological theories of crime.

III. Social Structure Theories  Discuss the one factor that all social structure theories of crime causation have in common and ask students what the problem with this may be (one obvious response is that these theories focus primarily on lower-class crime).  TV series such as Law and Order explore the background factors involved in serious criminal cases that come to the attention of the police and prosecutors.

IV. Types of Social Structure Theories  Use the Theory in Perspective box to briefly outline the main categories of social structure theories and the key concepts in each.  As you go through the different social structure theories, give examples of the types of societal changes that were going on during the development of particular theories (e.g., social disorganization theory focused on increased urbanization and immigration).

A. Social Disorganization Theory 

Explain human ecology.



Emile Durkheim noted that even a society of saints would find it necessary to define certain acts as deviant. Use this to explain what Durkheim meant by the statement that ―crime is normal.‖



Explain the development of the ecological school of criminology and discuss how the concept of social pathology fits into this model.



Mention to the students that the University of Chicago emerged as the most influential department of sociology during the middle of the twentieth century. Link this to Jane Addams‘s work at Hull House.



Explain to students the important role that social research played in the work of criminologists and sociologists at the University of Chicago during the 1930s.

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

Have students examine maps of the distribution of crime in their home city (or assign students a specific city to study) and determine how well the concentric zone model fits this distribution.



Explain the concept of cultural transmission and discuss why it is important to criminology.



Explain that the concept of community was an essential part of the crime perspective of the Chicago School.



Discuss Shaw and McKay‘s explanation of why delinquency exhibits remarkably stable rates over time in the same locales.



Explain the two main sources of information used by ecological theorists. Refer back to the material in Chapter 2 on data collection techniques.



Describe Sherman‘s ―hot spots‖ research and explain policy implications of the results.



Ask students to discuss the ways in which particular locations may have characteristics that are conducive to crime.



Explain pattern theory as the idea that not only are certain areas more crime-prone but also certain types of crime are associated with specific areas.



Review Stark‘s theory of deviant neighborhoods.



Discuss the broken windows perspective.



Explain the concept of defensible space and how it can be used to reduce crime



Use the example of your own campus to discuss the concept of environmental criminology.



Break the class into groups, and have them identify ways in which their everyday activities are consistent with concepts of defensible space (e.g., factors that make it hard to break into dorm rooms or physically access protected computers).



Discuss the CPTED belief that offenders evaluate an area‘s physical features before deciding whether to commit a crime and link this to rational choice theory.

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Ask students to visit the National Institute of Justice Crime Mapping Web site and research how crime mapping is being used to both prevent and solve crimes.

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Explain the concept of collective efficacy and the importance of social cohesion.



Discuss the contradictory research relating to collective efficacy and crime.



Point out that collective efficacy grew out of social disorganization theory and stress that older theories are still relevant today.

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Watch the video, ―Social Disorganization Theory‖ by Danielle MacCartney on YouTube.

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Watch the video, ―History Brief: WEB DuBois‖ on YouTube.

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Watch the video, ―Broken Windows Theory‖ by Social Smarts on YouTube.

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Watch the TEDx talk, ―Focus on Places, Not People, to Prevent Crime‖ on YouTube.



Watch the video, ―collective efficacy‖ on YouTube.

B. Strain Theory 

Explain the concept of anomie and how it is linked to deviance and crime.

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

Robert Merton stated that the best solution to the crime problem was to raise the opportunity structure of society. Relate this to both the social problems and individual responsibility perspectives.



Explain to the class that Merton‘s theory was developed to explain deviance in general, not just crime. Point out that the academic community‘s faith in grand theories has shifted since Merton‘s time.



Explain to students that while the factors producing strain in Merton‘s model are sociological, strain itself is essentially a psychological concept.



Explain to students that Merton conceptualized financial success as the goal prescribed for all. Tell them that this has always been problematic and ask the class whether they believe it is really the main goal for all members of such a diverse society as ours.



Explain the concept of relative deprivation and how it relates to distributive justice.



Ask students to identify situations in which they may have felt relatively deprived.

Ask them to consider how this feeling may have influenced their behaviors at that time.



Explain the difference between absolute deprivation (lacking basic necessities required for survival) and relative deprivation (a comparative lack of resources).



Point out that Robert Agnew‘s general strain theory is designed to explain various types of deviant and delinquent behavior, in addition to crime.



Explain how Robert Agnew‘s general strain theory builds upon Merton‘s concept of strain theory and review the six central propositions of Agnew‘s theory.



Discuss the concept of negative affect and how negative affective states may affect the likelihood of criminal behavior.



Ask students to search out research on Agnew‘s general strain theory and discuss the research support for the theory.



Review Austin and Squires‘ research linking interest rates to crime rates.



Watch the video, ―Overview of Strain Theories with a Focus on White Collar Crime‖ on YouTube.

C. Culture Conflict Theory 

Break the class into groups, making them as diverse as possible. Have them discuss the conduct norms with which they were brought up, identify differences, and try to determine why those differences exist.



Discuss the two types of culture conflict described by Thorsten Sellin. Provide examples of primary and secondary culture conflict that exist in society today.



Ask students how adherence to the everyday routines of one culture might present problems for an individual when they enter another culture.



If any students in the class are from another culture (e.g., from out of state or from another country), invite them to discuss how their culture differs and if they have encountered any culture conflicts. As always, make sure they realize they are free to decline to participate.



Explain the difference between culture and subculture and discuss how subcultures may be related to crime.

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

Provide students with examples of how subcultures characterize all types of social life, such as NASCAR fans or fans of rap music.



Remind students that although a subculture‘s values may differ from those of the larger culture, this does not always mean that the subculture‘s values encourage crime (e.g., the Amish).



Explain the concept of focal concerns and how they contribute to delinquent subcultures.



Explain why the fact that Miller‘s research was conducted specifically on Black inner-city delinquent youth in the Boston area in the 1950s affects its generalizability to other places and other times. Relate this back to the discussion of external validity in Chapter 2.



Ask students to consider whether Miller‘s focal concerns still apply to lower-class subcultures today.



Provide examples of how offenders use techniques of neutralization to reduce feelings of guilt or responsibility when committing crimes. Examples include elder abuse and illegal downloading.



Explain that neutralization theory has been applied to a wide variety of behaviors, not just crime. For example, after the murder of JonBenet Ramsey, researchers applied techniques of neutralization to pageant mothers who involved their children in beauty pageants.



Explain the concept of drift, and how it contributes to delinquency.



Explain the concept of a violent subculture. Present evidence for and against Ferracuti and Wolfgang‘s concept of a violent subculture.



Point out that violent crime rates are generally higher in the southern part of the United States and ask students to consider whether this represents a violent subculture.



Explain that while Merton‘s structural strain theory focused only on the absence of legitimate opportunity structure, Cloward and Ohlin introduced the concept of the availability of illegitimate opportunity structures. Note that this addresses one problem in Merton‘s analysis—why some individuals who are strained choose one adaptation to anomie over another



Explain that Cloward and Ohlin were involved in public-policy efforts to change the opportunity structure of society in a way that few academics ever do. Discuss with students the problematic nature of such involvement (e.g., sociologists realize that real social change takes time, whereas politicians are driven by wanting results in a short interval of time).



Explain how reaction formation influences the formation and content of delinquent subcultures.



Mention that Merton‘s original article detailing his theory lay dormant for many years until Albert Cohen commented on the article. Note that Cohen‘s ideas concerning reaction formation are built on an acceptance of Merton‘s basic premise.

V. Criminal Street Gangs  Discuss how the gang image has become part of popular culture.  Explain how criminal street gangs differ from prison gangs and organized crime.

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A. History of Gangs in America 

Discuss how social concerns over juvenile gangs in the late 19th and early 20th centuries led many criminologists to focus on juvenile crime when developing sociological theories.

B. Criminal Street Gangs Today 

Explain the National Youth Gang Survey and discuss what the latest findings reveal about gangs.



Assign students specific gang-related topics and have them visit the website of the National Gang Center and bring back information to the class. Topics could include statistics on gangs; gangs in schools; gangs and drugs; gangs and guns; victims of gang-related crime; issues involved in leaving gangs; and the involvement of girls in gangs.

C. Gang Crime 

Discuss the effect of firearm availability on juvenile gang crime.



Review the various types of crimes in which criminal street gangs are involved.



Compare the criminal activity of inner-city gangs with those of gangs in small towns and rural areas.



Have students research the problem of gang crime and compare it to the problem of crime in the U.S. overall.

D. Gang Affiliation 

Explain Elijah Anderson‘s research into the contemporary street code and compare ―decent‖ and ―street‖ families.



Discuss ways in which characteristics of the ―street family‖ may encourage gang affiliation.



Ask students to consider how an understanding of the long-term consequences of gang membership could affect the development of social policy.



Watch the video ―Street Codes – Code of the Street, Elijah Anderson‖ on YouTube.

E. Working with Criminal Street Gangs 

Explain the main strategies of OJJDP‘s Comprehensive Gang Model. More information on the program may be found on the website of the National Gang Center.



Ask students to discuss the policy implications of the research into co-offending.

VI. Policy Implications of Social Structure Theories  Find current examples of activities such as the Chicago Area Project and discuss how these may be grounded in social structure theories.  Stress that social structure theories have significant policy implications and point out that even Presidents Kennedy and Johnson based key federal policies on these theories.

VII. Critique of Social Structure Theories  Tell the class that the title of the 1960s report issued by the President‘s Commission on Law Enforcement and Administration of Justice was, The Challenge of Crime in a Free Society. Discuss how well that title captured the issue of policing deviance within a democratic society.

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 Discuss the question of relationship direction – do poverty and social inequities cause crime or are they caused by crime? How could this relationship affect the effectiveness of crime prevention programs?  Discuss the critiques of the ecological school that are described in the text.  Explain that a problem with Merton‘s strain theory is an overreliance on wealth as the goal driving American society. Ask students if there might be other goals that are equally valued or is everyone socialized to strive for wealth.  Ask students whether they believe the subcultural approach is racist.  Explain why some criminologists feel subcultural approaches lack explanatory power.  Ask students whether they believe social structure theories can only be used to argue from a social problems perspective. How could these theories form the basis of an individual responsibility perspective?

LIST OF CHANGES/TRANSITION GUIDE 

This chapter now contains a new section that includes the early twentieth century work of noted Black criminologist W.E.B. Du Bois.



The term ―marginalized community‖ has been added as a key term.



Critiques of the broken windows theory have been added.



―Techniques of neutralization‖ is now a key term.

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A new figure has been added to provide a visual overview of Walter Miller‘s focal concerns of delinquent subcultures.

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The Criminal Profiles box on Sanyika Shakur has been updated.

ADDITIONAL ASSIGNMENTS AND CLASS ACTIVITIES Additional Lecture Topics Cohen’s Theory of Delinquent Subcultures. Expand upon the text‘s discussion of Albert Cohen‘s theory of delinquent subcultures. For example, consider reviewing the three existing subcultures that he suggests most lower-class boys who fail to meet middle-class standards usually join: the corner boy, the college boy, and the delinquent boy.

Emile Durkheim. While covering the topic of strain theory, consider reviewing in more detail the work of Emile Durkheim, his version of the concept of anomie, and how it contributed to the development of strain theory.

Strain Theory-Based Programs. Consider discussing in some detail some of the various crimeprevention strategies that have been based on strain theory, such as Operation Head Start, Job Corps, and the Perry Preschool Project.

Application of Techniques of Neutralization to Specific Types of Crime. Neutralization theory has been used to explain specific types of crime. S.K. Tomita applied it to elder abuse, suggesting abusers use these techniques to rationalize their abusive acts. There is also evidence that neutralization techniques are used to rationalize digital piracy. The theory is also being applied to 54 Copyright © 2025 Pearson Education, Inc.

behaviors considered deviant but not illegal; one study examined the behavior of mothers who subjected their daughters to beauty pageant careers.

Student Activities Activity #1: The Spatial Distribution of Crime. Your instructor will assign you a large city.

Obtain crime data from the Uniform Crime Reports on crime in various neighborhoods in this city. Plot the crime data on a county map. Do you see a pattern? Bring this information to class to discuss whether concentric zone theory fits the crime distribution in the various cities assigned.

Activity #2: Subcultures. Your instructor will place you into groups. Discuss the subcultures to which various members of the group belong. What norms and values of each subculture might conflict with the norms and values of the larger culture? Might any of these clashes lead to crime, delinquency, or deviance? How? Activity #3: Defensible Space. Your instructor will place you in groups. Identify ways in which your everyday activities are consistent with concepts of defensible space. For example, activities/factors that make it difficult for offenders to physically access protected technology (computers, cell phones, etc.) or make it difficult for offenders to break into a dorm or into individual dorm rooms.

SUGGESTED ANSWERS TO END-OF-CHAPTER ASSIGNMENTS Questions for Review 1.

What is the nature of sociological theorizing? What are the assumptions on which sociological perspectives on crime causation rest?

Sociological theories examine institutional arrangements within society and the interaction between and among social institutions, individuals, and groups as they affect socialization and have an impact on social behavior. Sociological theories focus on the nature of existing power relationships between social groups and in the influences that various social phenomena bring to bear on the types of behaviors that tend to characterize groups of people.

Sociological theorizing uses a macro perspective, focusing on behaviors likely to be exhibited by group members, rather than trying to predict the behavior of specific individuals.

Sociological perspectives on crime causation rest on four assumptions:  Social groups, social institutions, the arrangements of society, and social roles all provide the proper focus for criminological study.  Group dynamics, group organization, and subgroup relationships form the causal nexus out of which crime develops.  The structure of society and its relative degree of organization or disorganization are important factors contributing to the prevalence of criminal behavior.  Although it may be impossible to predict the specific behavior of a given individual, statistical estimates of group characteristics are possible. Hence, the probability that a member of a given group will engage in a specific type of crime can be estimated.

2.

What do sociologists mean by the term social structure? How might the organization and structure of a society contribute to criminality?

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Social structure refers to the pattern of social organization and the interrelationships among institutions characteristic of a society. Social structure theories explain crime by reference to the economic and social arrangements, or structure, of society. They suggest that the negative aspects of social structures, such as family disorganization, poverty or income inequality, disadvantages resulting from a lack of education success, etc., produce crime. Essentially, crime is seen as the end result of social injustice, racism, and feelings of disenfranchisement that rise from existing social arrangements. Insofar as social structure is unfair and relatively unchangeable, it is believed to perpetuate the fundamental conditions that cause crime.

3.

What are the three types of social structure theories that this chapter describes? What are the major differences among them?

This chapter describes three types of social structure theories: social disorganization theory, strain theory, and culture conflict theory. Social disorganization theory sees society as an organism and crime as a disease or social pathology. Strain theory emphasizes the lack of fit between socially approved goals for success and the availability of socially approved means to achieve those goals; individuals who are unable to succeed through legitimate means may turn to other means to achieve economic and social success. Culture conflict theory statues that the root causes of crime are found in the clash of values between differently socialized groups concerning what is proper or acceptable behavior.

4.

What are the policy implications of the theories discussed in this chapter? What kinds of changes in society and in government policy might be based on the theories discussed here? Would they be likely to bring about a reduction in crime?

Social structure theories emphasize social structure as the root cause of crime. Therefore, they suggest policies that emphasize social action would be the best approach to ameliorating the crime problem. Social changes and governmental policy initiatives based on these theories would focus on alleviating the social conditions believed to produce crime, such as income inequality, educational deprivation, racism, social injustice, and other economic and social inequities. These programs would focus on increasing the availability of socially approved opportunities for success and increasing the availability of meaningful employment. Some programs of this type have been shown to be effective in reducing rates of delinquency and crime.

5.

Describe the activities of criminal street gangs.

Today‘s youth gangs are much more likely than in the past to use firearms and to be involved in a variety of serious and violent crimes, such as prostitution, human trafficking, money laundering, protection rackets, and drug dealing. Gang killings, including drive-by shootings, have become increasingly commonplace, particularly in inner cities. Gangs today are becoming involved in a wide variety of serious and violent crimes. The criminal activities of street gangs include burglary, robbery, extortion, vandalism, protection rackets, money laundering, human trafficking, blackmail, kidnapping, human smuggling, sex work, and the use of social networking sites and other Internet sites to coordinate criminal activity. Some street gangs are also affiliated with domestic extremist groups. Many inner-city gangs make millions of dollars through drug dealing, leading them to become more organized and more prone to violence and aggressive tactics. Some larger criminal street gangs rival other organized criminal groups in terms of their scope, violence, and money-making tactics.

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6.

What are the shortcomings of the social structure approach to understanding and preventing crime? Can these shortcomings be overcome?

The social structure approach suffers from several problems. One is that empirical studies regularly find weak or nonexistent correlations between socioeconomic status and selfreported delinquency. In addition, the approach emphasizes environments as the powerful causes of criminality and essentially ignores the role of other possible causative factors (e.g., biological or psychological). Finally, social structure theories are unable to predict which individuals, or even what proportion of a given population, will turn to criminal behavior.

Many of these shortcomings may be able to be overcome if researchers are willing to move past preconceived biases and merge the social structural approach with positivistic trait theories that consider other causes of crime and place more emphasis on predictions of individual risk.

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Chapter 7 Theories of Social Process and Social Development It’s What We Learn CHAPTER OVERVIEW Social process theories assume that everyone has the potential to violate the law, so that criminality is not an innate human characteristic. They suggest that crime is learned in interaction with others, generally through a process of socialization. The main social process theories include social learning theories, social control theories, labeling theory, reintegrative shaming, and the dramaturgical perspective.

Social learning theories hold that crime, like all other behavior, is learned. Edwin Sutherland‘s differential association theory suggests that criminality is learned through a process of differential association with others who communicate criminal values and advocate the commission of crimes. A number of later theories build upon differential association. Differential association-reinforcement theory integrated the concept of operant conditioning with sociological notions of differential association. Social structure-social learning (SSSL) theory further develops this concept. Differential identification theory suggests that the process of differential association leads to an intimate personal identification with offenders, resulting in criminal acts.

Social control theories ask why people obey laws instead of breaking them. Walter C. Containment theory suggests that individuals have control mechanisms, or containments, which protect them from crime; if these fail, people become vulnerable to criminal behavior. The selfderogation theory of delinquency argues that low self-esteem may promote delinquency, which may then enhance self-esteem. Social bond theory suggests that when the bond between an individual and a social group is weakened or broken, deviance and crime may result. The general theory of crime emphasizes the lack of self-control as the key factor in explaining all types of crime. Situational action theory proposes that an individual‘s ability to exercise self-control is an outcome of the interaction between personal traits and a situation in which an individual takes part. Control-balance theory blends social bond and containment theory and includes the concept of a control ratio.

Labeling theory focuses on society‘s reaction to deviance. The term tagging explains how offenders become identified as unredeemable after being processed through the criminal justice system. Primary and secondary deviance describe the development of a criminal career as a result of being tagged with the status of criminal. The labeling perspective argues that no act is intrinsically deviant, but must be so defined by society. Reintegrative shaming describes processes by which a deviant person is labeled and sanctioned by society, but is then brought back into a community of conformity. The dramaturgical perspective suggests that individuals play a variety of nearly simultaneous social roles which must be sustained in interaction with others. If discrediting information, or information that a person wants to hide, is revealed, the interaction is disrupted, and the nature of the performance may be changed substantially.

Social process theories suggest that crime prevention programs should enhance self-control and build prosocial bonds. Programs such as the Juvenile Mentoring Program, Preparing for the Drug-Free Years, and the Montreal Preventive Treatment Program are based on these concepts.

Critiques of social process theories are many and varied. Critics of differential association theory argue that it does not apply at the individual level, is untestable, and is not a sufficient explanation for crime. Critics of labeling theory state that it does not explain the origin of crime 58 Copyright © 2025 Pearson Education, Inc.

and deviance. Dramaturgical theory may take the theater analogy too far.

Social development theories offer an integrated perspective, suggesting that development occurs primarily within a social context and seeing socialization as only one feature of that context. Researchers generally employ longitudinal measurements of delinquency and offending and pay special attention to transitions that people face as they move through the life cycle.

The life course perspective focuses on the dimensions of criminal offending and the development of criminal careers as the result of criminogenic influences affecting individuals over the entire life course. Glen Elder‘s key principles provide a concise summary of life course theory. The age-graded theory of informal social control stresses the importance of social capital and emphasizes key turning points that appear to reduce the frequency of offending in later life.

The dual taxonomic theory includes two pathways and helps explain the observation that most antisocial children do not become adults who commit crime. Delinquent development theory focuses on desistance and persistance over the life course. Evolutionary ecology emphasizes developmental pathways encountered early in life in an attempt to explain how people acquire criminality. Interactional theory suggersts that weakened bonds to conventional society are the primary cause of delinquency. A number of studies are focusing on developmental pathways leading to criminality, including the Program of Research on the Causes and Correlates of Delinquency, the Pathways to Desistance study, and the Project on Human Development in Chicago Neighborhoods.

Social development theories have influenced social policy, particularly juvenile justice. They are the foundation for the OJJDP‘s Comprehensive Strategy Program and for the Boys and Girls Clubs of America‘s Targeted Outreach program. Social development theories have been criticized for definitional issues.

LEARNING OUTCOMES After reading this chapter, you should be able to answer the following questions: 7.1. How does the perspective of social interaction contribute to understandings of criminal behavior?

7.2. What are the various social process approaches discussed in this chapter?

7.3. What kinds of social policy initiatives might be based on social process theories of crime causation?

7.4. What are the shortcomings of the social process perspective?

7.5. What are the various social development perspectives discussed in this chapter?

7.6. What are the central concepts of social development theories?

7.7. What kinds of social policy initiatives might be suggested by social development theories?

7.8. What are the shortcomings of social development perspectives on criminality?

CHAPTER OUTLINE I. Introduction II. The Perspective of Social Interaction  Explain the differences between the social structure perspective discussed in Chapter 6 and the social process perspective contained in this chapter.  Discuss the main principles of social process and social development theories of crime, as outlined in Figure 7-1.

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 The movie, Boyz ‘n the Hood involves both a father trying to teach his son right from wrong and a group of friends living in a neighborhood characterized by unemployment, poverty, and violence. All of the friends are using different means to leave their SouthCentral Los Angeles Neighborhood.

III. Types of Social Process Approaches  Use the Theory in Perspective box to briefly outline the main categories of social process theories and the key concepts in each.

A. Social Learning Theory 

Ask students their initial response to the idea that criminal behavior is learned.

Consider asking them again at the end of the chapter.

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Review the nine principles of Sutherland‘s differential association theory? Explain to students that the sixth and seventh of Sutherland‘s proposition are considered to be the most essential in terms of the theory‘s contributions.

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Hold a discussion of how Sutherland‘s theory might explain events such as the school shootings in Ulvalde (Texas), Parkland (Florida), Newtown (Connecticut), Virginia Tech, or Columbine (Colorado). Other mass shootings could be discussed instead of school shootings.



Break the students into groups and have them list ways in which they have been exposed to definitions both favorable to violating the law and unfavorable to violating the law. Link this to Edwin Sutherland‘s sixth proposition to explain how it is not simply exposure to criminal peers that leads to involvement in crime.

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Ask students how Burgess and Akers‘ theory of differential reinforcement expands upon the original insights of Sutherland‘s theory of differential association.

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Compare the seven principles of Akers‘ SSSL model to the nine principles of Sutherland‘s differential association theory.

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Explain the importance of psychological variables in Burgess and Akers‘ work.

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Ask students how Glaser‘s differential identification theory extends the ideas expressed in Sutherland‘s differential association theory.

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Point out that Glaser places less emphasis than Sutherland on the intensity of association. Ask students to consider what Glaser offers instead.

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Watch the video, ―Differential Association Theory: The Psychology of Criminal Behavior‖ on YouTube.

B. Social Control Theories 

Discuss the ways in which understanding why people obey the rules instead of breaking them may help expand our understanding of criminal behavior.

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Emphasize the influence of psychology on crime causation theory by pointing to Walter Reckless‘s notion of internal containment.

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Discuss the basic premise that underlies Reckless‘s containment theory and clarify the difference between internal and external containment.

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Have students discuss the various factors that have been identified in both this chapter and previous chapters as ―pushes toward crime‖ and ―pulls toward crime.‖

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Ask students whether they agree with Reckless‘s belief that inner containments are more effective than external containments in the prevention of crime.

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Explain Kaplan‘s self-derogation theory.

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Consider connecting Howard Kaplan‘s theory to recent mass shootings.

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Discuss how findings regarding self-derogation theory may be contradictory.

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Review Hirschi‘s concept of a social bond. Discuss the four elements of the social bond and how they relate to involvement in crime. Point out that Hirschi‘s notion of ―attachment‖ is similar to a conscience.

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Place students into groups and ask them to rank the four major components of the social bond in order of importance. Compare the rankings chosen by different groups and discuss the differences.

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Explain that a significant problem in Hirschi‘s social control theory is the role of delinquent peer groups. Hirschi contends that the role of peer groups in producing delinquency is basically the idea that ―birds of a feather flock together.‖ Research supports a stronger role for peer groups than this and also suggests strongly that peer groups can disrupt already strong bonds.

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Tell students that Hirschi‘s theory of choice focuses on variation in the process of socialization (e.g., some people are not as well bonded to society as others), whereas Sutherland‘s differential association theory focuses on variation in the content of socialization (e.g., learning more definitions favorable to violating the law than definitions unfavorable).

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Explain that Hirschi‘s social control theory has more empirical support than any other theory of crime or delinquency.

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Explain that Hirschi adopts the view of human nature that was articulated by Thomas Hobbes. Consequently, he asks the question ―Why don‘t people violate the rules more often than they do?‖ rather than ―Why do people violate the rules?‖

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Explain to students that many theories of crimes that are primarily sociological in nature contain psychological elements. This is true of Michael Gottfredson and Travis Hirschi‘s general theory of crime and other theories such as Merton‘s strain theory.

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Ask students whether the concept of low self-control as a primary factor in explaining criminal involvement can be reconciled with the importance of social structure in explaining criminal involvement.

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Ask students to define the concept of self-control. Could there be different types of self-control?

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Tell the class that Gottfredson and Hirschi‘s assumptions about human nature can be traced to Hobbes‘s ideas. Explain to students that the central question from this position is ―Why don‘t people engage in crime?‖ rather than ―Why do they engage in crime?‖ Ask why this distinction is important.

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Ask students if they agree with Wikström‘s situational action theory when he states that there is no fundamental difference between people who break moral rules and those who break laws.

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Discuss the connection of rational choice theory to the general theory of crime.

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Explain how control surpluses and control deficits are linked to specific types of criminal behavior.

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Link Tittle‘s control–balance theory to theories in Chapter 3 that focus on opportunity.

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Watch the video ―Self-Control Theory‖ by Danielle MacCartney on YouTube.

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Watch the TED talk video, ―Self-Control: Dan Ariely at TEDxDuke‖ on YouTube.

C. Labeling Theory 

This chapter provides several examples of moral enterprise such as the WCTU, a group devoted to the prohibition of alcohol that was active from 1881 to 1919 and NORML, a marijuana legalization group that is still active. Ask students to identify examples of current actions and programs associated with moral entrepreneurs.

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Ask students if they believe society should continue to react negatively to offenders after they have ―paid their dues.‖

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Have students research the ―Ban the Box‖ movement. Lead a discussion on whether Ban the Box should apply to students at universities and whether there are any situations where the box should not be banned.

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Discuss the relationship between primary and secondary deviance.

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Discuss what Howard Becker means by moral enterprise and what role this plays in his approach to labeling theory.

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Tell the class that rather than being a theory of crime causation, the focus of societal reaction is the development of a criminal career, the adoption of a deviant identity.

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Explain that the process of labeling by the justice system may lead individuals into crime but also may actually ―shock‖ someone into stopping their offending.

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Watch the video ―Labeling Theory‖ by desoriente0 on YouTube.

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Watch the video, ―What are the effects of labeling? Crime and Deviance Sociology‖ on YouTube.

D. Reintegrative Shaming 

Compare and contrast stigmatic and reintegrative shaming.

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Ask students to consider how Braithwaite‘s theory of reintegrative shaming differs from traditional labeling theory.

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Conduct a discussion regarding whether the process of shaming is reasonable in today‘s society.

E. Dramaturgical Perspective 

Break students into groups and have them discuss the different social roles they each play.

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Discuss the ways in which Goffman uses ―discreditable disclosure‖ to apply a dramaturgical perspective to deviance.

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Discuss Goffman‘s concept of stigma and relate it to deviance.

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Explain that Goffman‘s work on total institutions was extremely influential in the development of subcultural research in prisons.

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Have students analyze a particular social interaction from a dramaturgical perspective, paying special attention to what went on in the back and front regions.

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Watch the BBC Radio 4 video, ―Erving Goffman and the Performed Self‖ on YouTube.

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Watch the video, ―Dramaturgy (Dramaturgical Analysis)‖ on YouTube.

IV. Policy Implications of Social Process Theories 62 Copyright © 2025 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Discuss the programs discussed in this section and the social process theories on which they are based.  Have students research crime prevention programs based on social process theories and bring additional information back for class discussion.

V. Critique of Social Process Theories  Review the various criticisms of differential association theory.  Explain why differential association theory may not be applicable at the individual level and ask students whether they prefer theories that work better at the group or the individual level.  Discuss criticisms of labeling theory.  Explain to students that labeling theory does not consider the possibility that contact with the criminal justice system may interrupt the process of deviance escalation.  Review the criticisms of Goffman‘s dramaturgical perspective.

VI. The Social Development Perspective  Use the Theory in Perspective box found earlier in the chapter to briefly outline the main categories of social development theories and the key concepts in each.

VII. Concepts in Social Development Theories  Explain that some classic research studies in criminology (e.g., Wolfgang‘s study of delinquency in a birth cohort) were concerned with factors consistent with a social development perspective.  Review the seven developmental tasks that life course theorists suggest confront adolescents within our society and ask students to discuss why developmental changes may be important for understanding involvement in crime and delinquency.

A. The Life Course Perspective 

Explain the concept of a criminal career, and review the four dimensions of criminal careers discussed in the text.

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Explain trajectories and transitions by asking students to identify such items in their own progression from adolescence to adulthood.

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Review the three sets of dynamic concepts that are important to the life course perspective.

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Discuss Glen Elder‘s five key life course principles.

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Have students discuss how Glen Elder‘s principles apply to their own lives. For example, many students today grew up in the shadow of the events of 9/11; what impact has that event had on their life trajectories? How might the recent pandemic have influenced their life trajectories?

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Explain how the Gluecks‘ research affected the development of the modern life course perspective.

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Watch the video, ―Glen Elder on ‗Linking Lives‘‖ on YouTube.

B. Laub and Sampson’s Age-Graded Theory 

Discuss the two events in the life course that Sampson and Laub find to be especially important in reducing the likelihood of criminal offending in adulthood.



Discuss the concept of social capital. Ask where the term came from.

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Explain that Robert Sampson and John Laub‘s use of the concept of social capital builds strongly on the work of William Julius Wilson, a leading sociologist and scholar on urban poverty. Students can find Wilson‘s work on the Internet.

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On the National Institute of Justice website, locate the web page, ―Stockholm Prize: Conversation with John Laub and Rob Sampson.‖ Watch the interview segment, ―Sheldon and Eleanor Glueck.‖

C. Moffitt’s Dual Taxonomic Theory 

Explain the basic premise of Terrie Moffitt‘s two-path theory of criminality and discuss the differences between adolescence-limited and life course–persistent offenders.

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Review the results of research into the factors that support positive development pathways.

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Ask students if they think two paths are enough or if there might be more possible pathways. In other words, should this be a dual taxonomic theory or more?

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Watch the video, ―Juvenile Delinquency: Two Types of Criminology Careers‖ on YouTube.

D. Farrington’s Delinquent Development Theory 

Explain the concepts of persistence and desistance and how they relate to each other.

Discuss how these concepts factor into David Farrington‘s delinquent development theory.

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Explain the basic idea of a longitudinal study and link it back to the discussion of research methods in Chapter 2. Stress that this study is still ongoing, including the grandchildren of the original participants. Point out that as the participants age, so do the researchers, requiring younger scholars to join the project as time passes.

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Discuss the basic findings from the Cambridge Study in Delinquent Development.

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Review the four components of desistance identified by Loeber and LeBlanc.

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Watch the video, ―Explanations of Crime – Developmental Approaches – the Cambridge Study‖ on YouTube.

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Watch the video, ―Stockholm Prize in Criminology: Desistance from Crime, John H. Laub and Rob Sampson‖ on YouTube.

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Visit the website of the National Institute of Justice and listen to the podcast, ―Desistance: It‘s a Process, Not an Event‖

E. Evolutionary Ecology 

Explain the use of cohort analysis in criminological research, and review Wolfgang‘s study.

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Consider discussing some of the problems with cohort research.

F. Thornberry’s Interactional Theory 

Discuss the importance of reciprocity in the development of Thornberry‘s interactional theory.

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Explain the links between Thornberry‘s interactional theory and Hirschi‘s social control theory.

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Discuss the goal of the Program of Research on the Causes and Correlates of Delinquency.

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Review the three separate developmental pathways found in the Causes and Correlates study and explain how they can converge.

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Have students visit the web page for the Causes and Correlates Study, found on the OJJDP Web site, and report back on the latest findings from the three studies.

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Have students research the lives of well-known criminals who began their involving in crime as children and try to identify which pathway or pathways they took.

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Watch the video, ―Dr. Mulvey on New Findings for Youth in Serious Trouble with the Law‖ on YouTube.

H. Project on Human Development in Chicago Neighborhoods (PHDCN) 

Have students visit the PHDCN Web site and report back on some of the project‘s latest happenings.

I. Childhood Trauma and Involvement in the Justice System 

Discuss how research data collected for one study (in this case the Pathways to Desistance study) may be used by other researchers. Link this back to the discussion of secondary analysis in Chapter 2.



Watch the video, ―Responding to Trauma in the Juvenile Justice System‖

VIII. Policy Implications of Social Development Theories  Discuss the results of the OJJDP‘s evaluation of the Comprehensive Strategy Program.  Ask students what types of existing programs reflect the perspective of social development theories.  Watch the video, ―Stockholm Prize in Criminology: Modern-Day Adolescents, John H. Laub and Rob Sampson‖ on YouTube.

IX. Critique of Social Development Theories  Explain how definitional issues can become a problem for researchers focusing on theory testing.  Explain that tests of social development theories frequently use longitudinal research designs, but that one problem with this approach is that data are not immediately available. Discuss the implications of this for the application of research to policy development.  Review the various problems with social development that have been identified and have students consider ways in which research designs might address these problems.

LIST OF CHANGES/TRANSITION GUIDE 

The chapter opening story about Joran van der Sloot has been substantially updated to include his extradition to the United States and its consequences.



The line art ―Principles of Social Process and Social Development Theories‖ has now been divided into two figures: ―Principles of Social Process‖ and ―Principles of Social Development Theories‖ in order to better clarify both perspectives.



The social development perspective has been more fully explained.



Some aspects of critical criminology are explored in greater detail.

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ADDITIONAL ASSIGNMENTS AND CLASS ACTIVITIES Additional Lecture Topics The Saints and the Roughnecks. Consider expanding on the discussion of labeling theory with the example of William Chambliss‘s study of the Saints and the Roughnecks. The Saints were a group of eight upper-middle-class white boys, who while earning good grades and participating in school activities were also involved in delinquent activities, such as vandalism, petty theft, and underage drinking. The Roughnecks were a group of six lower-class white boys who did not do well in school and engaged in similar delinquent activities. However, while the Saints were seen as ―good boys‖ and did not have any serious encounters with teachers and the police, the Roughnecks were labeled ―bad boys‖ and were frequently in trouble with the police and with school officials.

Sources of Learning. Discuss some of the sources from which individuals may learn the motives and the techniques for committing crimes. These include: 

The individual‘s peer group



The community in which the person lives, particularly if local adult offenders are present to serve as role models and instructors



The values of the culture in which the person is brought up

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The influence of sports and professional athletes who are involved in criminal activities

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The visual media, including violent television programs and movies

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The print media, including publishers who print ―how to‖ books such as The Anarchist Cookbook, The Ultimate Sniper, and Hit Man.

Exiting a Criminal Career. When reviewing the life course perspective, consider discussing how one exits or disengages successfully from a criminal career. Neil Shover‘s model of the exiting process suggests that increased ties to another person (e.g., a positive relationship with a member of the opposite sex or with a family member) and increased ties to a line of activity (e.g., finding a good job that reinforces a non-criminal identity) lead an offender to a ―modified calculus‖ which results in a reduction in both the frequency and visibility of criminal activity or in a complete cessation of involvement in criminal behavior.

Student Activities Activity #1: Developing a Theoretically-Based Crime Prevention Policy. Your instructor will place you into groups and assign you one of the theories discussed in this chapter. Develop a crime reduction and/or prevention policy that is based on this theory. Explain how the theory justifies the policy and why you expect the policy to reduce or prevent crime.

Activity #2: Social Bond Theory in Action. According to Hirschi‘s social bond theory, four elements of a social bond work together to promote law-abiding behavior and prevent involvement in crime and delinquency: attachment, commitment, involvement, and belief. Write an essay explaining how youth organizations such as the Boy Scouts, Girl Scouts, and 4-H Clubs (or similar groups) work to strengthen these four elements of the social bond and encourage members to engage in normative behaviors.

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Activity #3: Violent Video Games and Juvenile Delinquency. Currently there is considerable debate over the belief that violent video games may lead to delinquent behavior among juveniles.

Write an essay explaining how this belief could be supported by the theories discussed in this chapter.

Activity #4: Life Course Theory and Trajectories. Your instructor will place you into groups.

Each group member should identify trajectories in their own progression from adolescence to adulthood. Compare the similarities and differences in the life courses of the members of your group.

Activity #5: Differential Association Theory and Mass Shootings. Your instructor will place you into groups. Discuss how Sutherland‘s theory of differential association might explain recent mass shootings in the United States.

Activity #6: Exposure to Definitions. Your instructor will place you into groups. Each group member should list ways in which they have been exposed to definitions both favorable to violating the law and unfavorable to violating the law. Compare similarities and differences among group members.

Activity #7: Pushes and Pulls Towards Crime. Your instructor will place you into groups and assign each group one of the chapters that has already been covered in class. Identify the various factors that have been identified in your assigned chapter as linked to crime and classify each factor as a ―push towards crime‖ or a ―pull towards crime.‖

SUGGESTED ANSWERS TO END-OF-CHAPTER ASSIGNMENTS Questions for Review 1.

How does the process of social interaction contribute to criminal behavior?

Social process theories suggest that criminal behavior is learned through social interaction.

The socialization process resulting from group membership is the primary way through which such learning occurs. The most important social groups that contribute to the socialization process are family, peers, work groups, and reference groups.

2.

What are the various social process theories discussed in this chapter? Describe each.  Social learning theories emphasize the role of communication and socialization in acquiring learned patters of criminal behavior and the values supporting such behavior.  Social control theories focus on the strength of the bond that people share with institutions and individuals, and how those relationships shape behavior.  Labeling theory emphasizes the significance of society‘s response to the criminal, and points to the process through which a person is defined as a criminal as a significant contributory factor in determining future criminality.  Reintegrative shaming is a contemporary offshoot of labeling theory and emphasizes possible positive outcomes of the labeling process.

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 The dramaturgical perspective focuses on how people can manage the impressions they make on others more effectively.

3.

What kinds of social policy initiatives might be based on social process theories of crime causation?

Policy initiatives that are based on social process theories would work on enhancing selfcontrol and building prosocial bonds. Examples of initiatives based on social process theories are the Juvenile Mentoring Program, Preparing for the Drug Free Years, and the Montreal Preventive Treatment Program.

4.

What are the shortcomings of the social process perspective?

Differential association theory has been criticized for not being applicable at the individual level, for being untestable, for not sufficiently explaining crime, and for failing to account for the emergence of criminal values.

Labeling theory has been criticized for failing to explain the origin of crime and deviance; for lacking empirical support for the concept of secondary deviance, the claim that offenders have a criminal self-image, and the claim that contact with the justice system negatively affects offenders‘ lives; and for failing to discuss secret deviants.

The dramaturgical perspective has been criticized for providing a set of linked concepts rather than a consistent theoretical frame, for failing to make suggestions for institutional change or for treatment modalities based on its assumptions, and for taking the theater analogy too far.

5.

What are the various social development perspectives discussed in this chapter?

Describe each.  The life course perspective focuses on studying the dimensions of criminal offending over the entire life course and recognizes that criminal careers may develop as the result of various criminogenic influences affecting individuals over the course of their lives.  Laub and Sampson‘s age-graded theory suggests that delinquency is more likely to occur when an individual‘s social bonds are weak or broken, and that social ties embedded in adult transitions explain variations in crime that is not accounted for by childhood deviance.  Moffitt‘s dual taxonomic theory helps to explain why most antisocial children do not become adult criminals, but identifies two separate criminal pathways for teenagers.  Farrington‘s delinquent development theory focuses on the desistance phenomenon, and tries to explain why some offenders persist in crime while others desist.  Evolutionary ecology draws attention to the way people develop over the course of their lives, attempting to explain how people acquire criminality, when and why they express it as crime, how individuals and groups respond to those crimes, and how these phenomena interact as a dynamic self-reinforcing system that evolves over time.  Thornberry‘s interactional theory bends social control and social learning perspectives, suggesting that the fundamental cause of delinquency is a weakening of a person‘s bond to conventional society combined with the presence of an environment in which

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delinquency can be learned and in which rule-violating behavior can be positively rewarded.  A variety of studies have examined the links between childhood trauma and/or exposure to violence during childhood and involvement in the justice system.

6.

What are the central concepts of social development theories? Explain each.  Social development theories focus on individual (rather than group) rates of offending and try to understand increases and decreases in rates of offending. This means that they are looking at why an individual‘s involvement in crime changes, rather than looking at changes in crime rates for a group.  Social development theories generally use longitudinal techniques to measure delinquency and offending. This allows an examination of an individual‘s participation in crime over a long period of time, rather than just a snapshot of criminal involvement at a specific instance.  Social development theories focus on transitions that people face as they move through the life course. Individuals experience a variety of transitions, or changes, in life patterns and these may affect the likelihood of their involvement in crime.

7.

What kinds of social policy initiatives might be suggested by social development perspectives?

Policy initiatives suggested by social development perspectives would focus on early intervention to prevent delinquency and on the development of positive social capital.

Examples of initiatives based on social development perspectives include OJJDP‘s Comprehensive Strategy Program and The Boys and Girls Clubs of America‘s Targeted Outreach program.

8.

What are the shortcomings of social development perspectives on criminality?

Social development theories have been criticized for definitional issues, focusing on the need for precise definitions of key terms if hypotheses derived from these theories are to be tested.

In addition, these theories have been criticized for the problems associated with developing risk/needs assessment devices and using these in both fundamental and applied research.

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Chapter 8 Social Conflict and Emergent Theories It’s How We Relate CHAPTER OVERVIEW This chapter begins with a discussion of three analytical perspectives: consensus, pluralist, and conflict. The consensus perspective is based on the premise that most members of society agree on what is right and wrong and that the criminal law reflects the collective will of the people and serves everyone equally. The pluralistic perspective assumes that each social group has its own values and beliefs, with the law used a peace-keeping tool to resolve conflict. The conflict perspective holds that there is no consensus on what is right and wrong, that conflict is a fundamental aspect of social life, and that the law is a tool of the powerful that is used to maintain their power.

The conflict perspective is based on the writings of Karl Marx, who believed that conflict was inevitable in any capitalist society. Other early conflict theorists include George Vold, who described crime as the result of political conflict between groups, Ralf Dahrendorf, who considered conflict to be a normal part of any society, and Austin Turk, who considered crime a natural consequence of intergroup conflict.

Radical criminology suggests that the root causes of crime are found in social conditions empowering the wealthy and politically well-organized and disenfranchising those less fortunate.

Today‘s radical criminologies can be divided into two schools. Structural Marxism sees capitalism as a self-maintaining system in which the law and the criminal justice system work to perpetuate the existing system of power relationships. Instrumental Marxism sees the law and the criminal justice system as tools used by the powerful to control people in the lower classes and keep them disenfranchised.

A distinction is made between critical criminology, which is a way of critiquing social relationships that lead to crime, and radical criminology, which is a proactive call for radical change in the social conditions leading to crime. However, that distinction is increasingly blurred.

Critical race theory and racial threat theory are outgrowths of Marxist thought and the school of critical criminology.

Recently, conflict criminology has focused on midrange approaches to cirme reduction, rather than calling for a major change in existing political arrangements within the U.S. Radical-critical criminology has been criticized for its nearly exclusive emphasis on social change at the expense of well-developed theory. Critics also claim that it does not appreciate the multiplicity of problems contributing to the problem of crime.

Conflict criminology has contributed to the formation of a variety of new emergent approaches, eight of which are presented. Left-realist criminology focuses on street crime, fear of crime, and everyday victimization, and empahsizes the need for translating radical ideas into realistic social policies. Feminist criminology attempts to incorporate gender awareness into crimnological thinking, arguing that sexism and gender-based power inequities inherent in our patriarchial society affect both crime and how criminologists understand it. Postmodern criminology is deconstructionist, challenging existing criminological perspectives and working toward replacing them with perspectives more relevant to the postmodern era. Peacemaking criminology argues that the problem of crime control is not how to stop crime but rather how to 70 Copyright © 2025 Pearson Education, Inc.

make peace, and suggests citizens and social control agencies need to work together to alleviate social problems and reduce crime.

David Black‘s book Moral Time uses the concept of social time to refer to specific events that alter relationships within social space, and argues that the fundamental cause of conflict is the movement of social time, which includes social events and the personal experiences derived from them. Convict criminology is a body of writings on criminology by people convicted of felonies and formerly incarcerated individuals who have acquired academic credentials or who are associated with credentialed others. Cultural criminology, which shares similarities with postmodernism, emphasizes ways in which the structure of language informs our understanding of daily life, and argues that common expressions, often communicated by social and mass media, define our understanding of crime and deviance. Narrative criminology focuses on the personal narratives offenders tell about themselves to gain insights into criminal motivation, criminal behavior, and offender thought processes.

Conflict criminology offers three levels of policy implications. Macro-level policy implications call for systemic reforms to reduce social inequalities. Meso-level policy implications emphasize community engagement and empowerment, and resotrative justice.

Micro-level policy changes include education and awareness, as well as targeted interventions.

LEARNING OUTCOMES After reading this chapter, you should be able to answer the following questions: 8.1. What three analytical perspectives on law and social order are described in this chapter?

8.2. What are the central tenants of radical criminology?

8.3. What eight emerging conflict theories discussed in this chapter purport to explain crime and criminality?

8.4. What are the crime-control implications of social and emergent conflict theories?

CHAPTER OUTLINE I. Introduction II. Law and Social Order Perspectives A. The Consensus Perspective 

Review the four principles that characterize the consensus perspective.



Explain that the consensus perspective underlies many of the theories already discussed in this textbook.



Ask students whether they believe Roscoe Pound‘s postulates apply to modern American society.

B. The Pluralist Perspective 

Review the five basic principles of the pluralist perspective.



Ask students to consider how conflict is resolved according to the pluralist perspective, compared to the consensus perspective.

C. The Conflict Perspective 

Use Figure 8-1 to review the major principles of the social conflict perspective.



Use the Theory in Perspective box to briefly outline the main categories of social conflict theories and the key concepts in each.

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

Explain Marx‘s concept of the proletariat and bourgeoisie and discuss how the differentiation between them was important for Marx‘s theory.



Explain the idea of social class and why it is so important to the conflict perspective.

Point out that Karl Marx‘s notion of social class was basically economic as it was defined by relationship to means of production.



Ask the class to discuss whether the concept of social class is still relevant to criminology today.



Discuss the role that conflict plays in contributing to crime, according to Vold.



Ask the class why Ralf Dahrendorf considered the absence, rather than the presence, of conflict to be abnormal.



Break students into three groups and assign each group one of the three perspectives on social organization (consensus, pluralist, conflict). Organize a debate in which each group defends its assigned perspective.



Ask students to discuss the ways in which each of the three perspectives on social organization (consensus, pluralist, conflict) are compatible with the social problems and individual responsibility perspectives.



Watch the video, ―Karl Marx & Conflict Theory: Crash Course Sociology #6‖ on YouTube.

III. Radical Criminology  Review the three historical circumstances that contributed to the development of radical criminology.  Review Chambliss and Seidman‘s four propositions and compare them to the key elements of conflict theory.  Discuss the ways in which Chambliss‘s work developed toward a more Marxist approach to criminology.  Review the six Marxist principles that Richard Quinney considered important for understanding crime.  Lead a class discussion comparing Chambliss and Seidman‘s four propositions to Quinney‘s six Marxist propositions.  Explain that while not advocating the end of capitalism, the logic of Robert Merton‘s strain theory purported that the way to attack crime was by altering the opportunity structure of society. Use this to illustrate that elements of radical theory exist in other theories.  Explain instrumental and structural Marxism and provide examples of events that support each school.  Explore the extent to which students believe that money buys justice. Use examples such as the O. J. Simpson trial, the murder trial of music producer Phil Spector, and Paris Hilton‘s ordered jail time to discuss whether a quality legal defense is available to individuals regardless of social class.

A. Critical Criminology 

Clarify the distinction between radical and critical criminology. Point out that not all criminologists make this distinction.



Review the mechanisms that Currie suggests operate in a market society to create crime.

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B. Critical Race Theory 

Differentiate between critical race theory and racial threat theory



Dive the class into two groups and assign one of these theories to each group. Lead a debate in which each group defends its assigned theory.



Watch the Washington Post video, ―Critical race theory: Experts break down what it actual means‖ on YouTube.

B. Radical–Critical Criminology and Policy Issues 

Ask students whether radical criminology is more consistent with a social problems or an individual responsibility perspective.



Discuss some of the mid-level approaches to crime reduction that are based on radical-critical criminology.

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Have students propose crime-control policy initiatives that would likely flow from radical theory.

C. Critique of Radical–Critical Criminology 

Review the various criticisms that have been levied against radical criminology



Discuss various reasons why critical race theory and racial threat theory have become so politicized and why there is so much public opposition to the teaching of these theories, particularly critical race theory.

IV. Emergent Theories  Explain that the conflict perspective has led to the development of a number of new conflict-based approaches to criminology.

A. Left-Realist Criminology 

Review the various criticisms that left-realist criminologists have levied against radical criminology.



Discuss the ways in which researchers such as Walter DeKeseredy have redirected leftist theories concerning the issues of crime.



Discuss some of the recommendations made by left realists in their attempts to translate radical ideas into realistic policies.

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Ask students to explain the ways that the left realist perspective contains ideas consistent with both a social problems and an individual responsibility perspective.



Review various criticisms that have been raised regarding left-realist criminology.

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Watch the video, ―What are Left Realist Theories of Crime and Deviance? Sociology of Crime and Deviance – Left Realist‖ on YouTube.

B. Feminist Criminology 

Emphasize that as an explanatory variable, gender is a strong predictor of many aspects of criminal behavior, especially offending.



Ask students to identify ways in which American society today is still patriarchal.

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Explain that the development of feminist perspectives within criminology was furthered by the failure of radical theory to give attention to the role of gender in the production of crime and the response of the state to crime.



Discuss the five strands of feminist thought and explain how they all contribute to feminist criminology today.

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

Lead a discussion as to whether men can be feminists.



Break students into groups and ask them to identify ways in which gender significantly organizes elements of social life. Ask them to link these to the likelihood of criminal behavior.



Divide students into groups and assign each group a form of feminist thought. Have each group defend their assigned form of feminism and explain why it is the most important version.



Explain that, contrary to the views of Adler and Simon, a careful review of the data has not supported a convergence in offending patterns of men and women over time.

Note that their arguments were based on the assumption that biology was not a sound basis to argue for gender variations in crime.



Explain to students that many of the classic theories of crime causation (e.g., reaction formation and social control theory) were formulated with only men in mind and were only tested with samples who were men.



Review Hagan‘s power-control theory. Ask students to consider whether they were brought up in more patriarchal families or families that exhibited greater gender equality, and how that may have influenced their behavior.



Expand upon the idea of women‘s ―ways of knowing‖ by discussing how gender structures almost every facet of our everyday lives.

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Ask students to consider what types of policies might derive from feminist criminology.



Review the criticisms that have been levied against feminist criminology.

C. Postmodern Criminology 

Explain that there are a broad variety of perspectives included in the postmodern criminology approach but that they all share a common belief that the ideas that guided thinking about modernity (especially the reliance on science) became increasingly problematic for understanding the nature of the social world after World War II.



Explain what postmodern criminology sees as the key failing of past criminological approaches.

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Explain the concept of deconstructionism and discuss how postmodern criminological theory is often deconstructionist.

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Illustrate how the application of semiotics inherent in constitutive criminology has implications for understanding from a social problems perspective.

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Refer back to the discussion of the insanity defense in Chapter 5 to illustrate the application of semiotics to the study of law. Remind students that insanity as a legal defense does not have a corresponding medical equivalent.

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Explain that some critics suggest that postmodern criminology primarily critiques other approaches but fails to offer anything new that is either relevant or practical.

Point out that since as academic criminology increasingly focuses on applied research and partnerships with practitioners, many of the insights of postmodern criminology seem too vague and obtuse to be of use.

D. Peacemaking Criminology

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

Point out that peacemaking criminology and restorative justice have their roots in a humanist approach to sociology and other disciplines.



Ask students how peacemaking criminology connects to elements of radical criminology discussed in this chapter.



Compare traditional punishment to the peacemaking process.

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Discuss some of the key issues on which peacemaking criminology focuses.

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Lead a class discussion, asking students whether they would be more interested in peacemaking or revenge if they were the victim of a crime.

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Ask students if they believe a peace model of crime control is realistic in today‘s society.

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Ask students whether they believe criminal justice programs based on participatory justice can still ensure suspects and offenders are provided their constitutional rights.

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Using Table 8-1, discuss the differences between traditional retributive justice and restorative justice. Ask students how a restorative justice model might be incorporated into a traditional criminal justice system.

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Ask students to what extent the system would have to change if restorative justice ideals guided more programs, practices, and policies within the criminal justice system.

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Break students into groups and have them discuss whether restorative justice ideals can support both a social problems and an individual responsibility perspective.

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Watch the video, ―Making Peace – Using Peacemaking and Restorative Justice Circles as an Alternative to Incarceration‖ on YouTube.



Watch the video, ―Episode 20. Learning about Restorative Justice‖ on YouTube.

E. Moral Time 

Compare Black‘s concept of a general theory of conflict to the other emerging conflict theories discussed in this chapter and discuss how Black‘s approach to conflict is different.



Lead a discussion as to whether individuals charged with crimes that were committed many years ago should be held to modern standards or should their crimes be viewed through the lens of the standards that existed when the crime was committed.

F. Convict Criminology 

Ask students why they think convict criminologists use a different language than academic criminologists. Link this to the discussion of semiotics in the section on postmodernism.



Point out that the text says that convict criminology is not so much a school of thought as it is a body of writings and musings on criminology by convicted felons and ex-inmates who have acquired academic credentials or who are associated with credentialed others. Ask students if they believe that these individuals might have any special insight into the causes of crime or in how to prevent crime and how such insight could be useful in the study of criminology.



Watch the video, ―Convict Criminology – How can ex-convicts contribute to humanity with a postgraduate degree?‖ on YouTube.

G. Cultural Criminology 75 Copyright © 2025 Pearson Education, Inc.



Explain how cultural criminology is similar to postmodernism.



Discuss the special terminology of cultural criminology and link this to the discussion of semiotics in the section on postmodernism.

H. Narrative Criminology 

Ask students what commonalities might be seen between convict criminology and narrative criminology.

I. Policy Implications of Conflict Criminology 

Explain the three levels of policy implications that result from conflict theory in criminology.



Ask students what they think would happen if laws were made by the socially disenfranchised. Ask them to consider what kinds of laws we would have and whether we would have a better society.

LIST OF CHANGES/TRANSITION GUIDE 

A new chapter opening story and photo begin the chapter.



Critical race theory (CRT) and racial threat theory (RTT) are now discussed in the ―Radical Criminology‖ section.



Critiques of CRT and RTT have been added.



A new Who‘s to Blame box titled ―Are Cars to Blame When They Get Stolen?‖ is now part of the chapter.



The key term ―gendering criminology‖ has been added.



Gendering criminology is now the focus of a new Theory versus Reality box.



―Patriarchy‖ is now a key term.



The concept of ―reparations‖ is discussed under the policy implications section of conflict criminology.



The chapter ends with a new Criminal Profiles box describing Jacob Chansley, aka ―the QAnon Shaman,‖ who went to prison for the January 6, 2021 assault on the Capitol.

ADDITIONAL ASSIGNMENTS AND CLASS ACTIVITIES Additional Lecture Topics Integrated Structural-Marxist Theory. One topic for discussion is to review Mark Colvin and John Pauly‘s integrated structural-Marxist theory, which is primarily a macro-level theory focusing on juvenile delinquency. Colvin and Pauly state that capitalism and the workplace structure create competition and produce differential attitudes toward authority. The key variables in their theory appear to be the social class of the parents and the level of coerciveness found in workplace social control. Parents experiencing coercive social control in the workplace bring those negative experiences home and employ them in the family structure, creating strain and alienation in their children. The conflict created in juveniles may be exacerbated by factors such as a coercive school environment and may lead them to choose to associate with peers who are similarly alienated, reinforcing the feelings of strain and alienation. If these peer groups emphasize deviant or violent behavior, the juvenile will be more likely to be drawn into delinquency. This theory includes not only a Marxist component, but also elements of social 76 Copyright © 2025 Pearson Education, Inc.

learning and opportunity theories. Note that Chambliss, in his critique of this theory, claims that Colvin and Pauly are assuming that juvenile delinquency is primarily a lower-class phenomenon.

Corporate and White-Collar Crime. Consider briefly discussing how current enforcement of laws against corporate and white-collar crimes (illegal restraint of trade, price fixing, false advertising, environmental pollution, insider trading, etc.) reflect the views of Marxist criminologists. Offenders frequently receive much more lenient punishments than those who commit street-level property crimes (e.g., theft, burglary).

Student Activities Activity #1: Developing a Theoretically-Based Crime Prevention Policy. Your instructor will place you into groups and assign you one of the radical–critical theories discussed in this chapter.

Develop a crime reduction and/or prevention policy that is based on this theory. Explain how the theory justifies the policy and why you expect the policy to reduce or prevent crime.

Activity #2: Restorative Justice in Action. Locate a program in your community that emphasizes restorative justice (e.g., an alternative dispute resolution program). Describe the program and how it works to reintegrate offenders back into the community after they have been punished by the criminal justice system. Discuss the success/failure rate of the program.

Activity #3: Theoretical Perspectives and Crime Policy. Your instructor will place you into groups and assign you two of the theoretical perspectives discussed in this chapter. Compare and contrast how applications of the key principles of your two assigned theories might have different implications for crime policy.

SUGGESTED ANSWERS TO END-OF-CHAPTER ASSIGNMENTS Questions for Review 1.

What three analytical perspectives on law and social order are described in this chapter?  The consensus perspective, which holds that most members of society agree on what is right and wrong and that the various elements of society work together in unison toward a common vision of the greater good  The pluralist perspective, which holds that a multiplicity of values and beliefs exists in any complex society but that most social actors agree on the usefulness of law as a formal means of dispute resolution  The conflict perspective, which holds that conflict is a fundamental aspect of social life itself and can never be fully resolved

2.

What are the central tenants of radical criminology? What are its shortcomings?

The central tenants of radical criminology, as put forth by Chambliss and Seidman, include:  The conditions of one‘s life affect one‘s values and norms  Complex societies are therefore composed of highly disparate and conflicting sets of norms  The probability of a given group having its particular normative system embodied in law is not equally distributed but is related to the group‘s political and economic position

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 The higher the group‘s political or economic position, the greater the probability that its views will be reflected in laws Radical-critical criminology has been criticized for its nearly exclusive emphasis on methods of social change at the expense of well-developed theory. It also has been criticized for failing to recognize what appears to be at least a fair degree of consensus about the nature of crime. In addition, Marxist thinkers appear to confuse issues of personal politics with social reality. Another criticism revolves around the view that it falls short in appreciating the multiplicity of problems contributing to the problem of crime. Finally, Marxist criminology has been criticized for its inability to explain low crime rates in some capitalist countries or social problems in communist countries.

3.

What eight emerging conflict perspectives discussed in this chapter purport to explain crime and criminality?

Left-realist criminology Feminist criminology Postmodern criminology Peacemaking criminology Moral time Convict criminology Cultural criminology Narrative criminology

4.

What are the crime-control implications of social conflict theories?

Social conflict theories suggest that if we can bring about social change and redistribute the wealth in society, crime rates will fall. Macro-level policies focus on systemic reforms addressing the underlying socioeconomic inequalities that often lead to crime. Meso-level policies emphasize community engagement and empowerment, as well as restorative justice.

Micro-level policies include education and awareness, along with targeted interventions.

Successful policies often operate on all three levels.

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Chapter 9 Criminal Victimization It’s Personal CHAPTER OVERVIEW This chapter introduces students to the field of victimology and the topic of criminal victimization. There are various types or categories of victims. The direct victim personally experiences victimization while secondary victims are not directly involved in the crime but may still be affected by it. Special types of secondary victims include vicarious victims and homicide survivors.

Official statistics on crime and victimization in the United States are available from two main sources: The first is the Uniform Crime Reporting (UCR) program, which is run by the FBI and includes data from the National Incident-Based Reporting System (UCR/NIBRS). The UCR/NIBRS program is a reporting program that only includes information on crimes known to the police. It has been criticized for serious underestimating the true incidence of criminal activity in the U.S. The second is the National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS), which is a surveybased self-reporting program conducted by the Bureau of Justice Statistics. Because it obtains victimization information from a nationally representative sample of person living in U.S. households, it includes data on unreported as well as reported crime. The NCVS has been criticized for possible overreporting and underreporting of crime. The UCR/NIBRS and the NCVS programs share many similarities but are not identical. They have different purposes and provide different types of information on crime.

Many crimes are not reported to the police or even discovered by victims. The dark figure of crime represents the relatively large number of unreported crimes that never come to the attention of the criminal justice system. Victimization and self-report surveys help uncover some information about the dark figure of crime.

There have been three major shifts in victimization patterns since official crime statistics were first gathered. Recent evidence seems to indicate that the current decline in U.S. crime is ending and that we may be starting a new cycle of increased crime activity.

Demographics describe the statistical qualities of a given population; demographic characteristics are significantly correlated with victimization risk. However, demographic characteristics do not help us understand why victimization occurs. Victims and offenders share many demographic characteristics, suggesting an overlap between the two groups. Victimization is often a good predictor of future risk of repeat victimization, at least for some types of crimes.

Tpes of repeat victimization include revictimization, multiple victimization, recurring victimization, and polyvictimization.

Victimization and society‘s response to it result in significant tangible and intangible costs to victims, including physical, economic, and social-psychological effects. Secondary victimization refers to additional trauma the victim experiences because of the response of social institutions and individuals to the victim. This should not be confused with secondary victims. Victimization also may be a risk factor for future criminal involvement.

Early victimology theories focused on victim-offender relationships, classifying victims according to the degree to which they contributed to their own victimization. In the late 1970s, new victimology theories began to focus on the choices people make that increase their 79 Copyright © 2025 Pearson Education, Inc.

availability to offenders and make them easier targets for crime. These included lifestyle theory, routine activities theory, and cyberlifestyle-routine activities theory (which merges the two theories to explain cybercrimes).

The treatment of victims in the U.S. has changed greatly since the mid-1900s. The 1965 President‘s Crime Commission led to the development of the NCVS and of victim compensation programs. The 1982 President‘s Task Force on the Victims of Crime led to the expansion of victims‘ assistance programs. More than 30 states have amended their constitutions to add victims‘ rights amendments and new federal laws offer protections and rights to crime victims.

Much of the philosophical basis of today‘s victims‘ movement is found in the restorative justice model, which emphasizes both offender accountability and victim reparation. An important aspect of restorative justice is restoring the victim financially, which may involve victim restitution and victim compensation. Social movements may develop as a result of continued victimization of target groups and focus on changing the conditions that lead to such continued victimization.

LEARNING OUTCOMES After reading this chapter, you should be able to answer the following questions: 9.1. What is victimology, and what are the various types of victims?

9.2. What are the two major government-run programs that provide insight into crimes committed and criminal victimizations?

9.3. Explain demographics. What kind of demographic features correlate with criminal victimization?

9.4. What are the personal impacts of criminal victimization?

9.5. What theories of victimization does this chapter discuss?

9.6. How did victims‘ rights develop in the United States? Explain how such rights are enforced and recognized.

9.7. What is restorative justice, and what does it mean to ―make a victim whole again‖? What is victim compensation? What is victim restitution?

CHAPTER OUTLINE I. Introduction II. Types of Victims  Define victimology and explain what victimologists do. Link this back to the discussion of criminologists in Chapter 1.  Define a ―victim‖ and point out that someone can be a victim even if they are only threatened and do not suffer actual harm.  Discuss the different types of victims. Explain that anyone may be a vicarious victim, even if they never personally experience victimization or know a victim personally.

III. Victimization by the Numbers  Ask the class why crime statistics are important to our understanding of victims and victimization.  Explain how crime statistics may be important to policy makers and how they may be used to test the theories that are being discussed throughout the course.

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 Introduce the two main sources of U.S. crime statistics, the UCR/NIBRS program and the NCVS, and explain that the main difference between them is that the UCR/NIBRS program provides data on crimes known to the police while the NCVS provides survey data.

A. The Uniform Crime Reporting Program (UCR/NIBRS) 

Explain the circumstances leading to the development of the UCR, discuss the sources of UCR data, and identify the eight Part I crimes. Explain that arrest data was collected for additional categories of crime as well.



Explain why the UCR needed to be redesigned and discuss the features of NIBRS that provide additional benefits, over and above the traditional UCR.



Have students research the eight elements in NIBRS listed in the chapter and explain how each one benefits victim service providers.



Ask students why they think so many agencies have failed to participate in NIBRS. Discuss how this affects the reliability of the crime data reported by the FBI.



Have students visit the FBI Web site and use the Crime Data Explorer to examine crime statistics. Ask them to research statistics for their home states (and/or counties or cities) for the past few years. Have them compare crime rates for each geographic area and discuss possible reasons for variations.



Watch the FBI video, ―NIBRS 101‖ on YouTube.

B. The National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS) 

Describe how the NCVS collects statistics on crime, what crimes are covered by the victim survey, and what information is collected. Explain that it was developed as a way to obtain a more complete picture of crime by collecting data on both reported and unreported crimes (unlike the UCR/NIBRS program).



Have students use the online NCVS Survey Data Dashboard (N-DASH) to explore NCVS data.



Ask the class why there is there a risk of crime being overreported in the NCVS and if there is also a possibility of underreporting. Have them discuss how both might be done deliberately and/or accidentally.



Discuss what effect the failure of the NCVS to include certain subgroups (such as people without shelter, people living in institutions, and children under age 12) may have on the accuracy of the data. Lead a discussion as to whether any of these subgroups should be included.



Watch the BJS video, ―Learn More about the NCVS (Adult Participants, English)‖ on YouTube (this video is also available in Spanish).

C. Comparing the UCR/NIBRS and the NCVS 

Select several crimes that are covered by both the UCR/NIBRS program and the NCVS and compare the definitions. Also present the definitions found in the state statutes. Highlight the differences and explain how this not only makes it more difficult to compare information from the UCR/NIBRS program and NCVS, but also increases the risk of errors in data collection.



Ask students to compare data obtained from the UCR/NIBRS program with NCVS data on the same crime categories. What information can only be obtained from the UCR/NIBRS program? What information is only available from the NCVS? Which source do they think is more useful for studying crime victims? Why? 81 Copyright © 2025 Pearson Education, Inc.



Explain how data from the UCR/NIBRS program, which includes crimes reported to the police, may provide a very different picture of crime in America than information obtained from a random survey of self-reporters such as the NCVS.



Review the various problems with the UCR/NIBRS program and discuss which problems are also found in the NCVS.



Have students identify the main objectives of the UCR/NIBRS program and the NCVS and examine how the difference in their basic purpose may affect the structure of each program.

D. Hidden Victims 

Refer back to the discussion of the dark figure of crime in Chapter 1 when discussing victims that do not come to the attention of the police.



Explain the difference between unreported and undiscovered crime. Ask students how crimes can be undiscovered even by the victim.



Define the dark figure of crime and point out that a large percentage of crime never comes to the attention of the police. Explain that self-report surveys of victims and offenders help uncover some of this unreported crime. Explain why the issue of the dark figure of crime is important to those using crime statistics.



Watch the video, ―Crime Statistics: The Dark Figure‖ on YouTube.

E. Changing Offense Patterns 

Explain that there have been three major shifts in crime rates since official crime statistics were first gathered. Ask students to discuss what factors have affected crime patterns in the U.S. and what factors may affect crime patterns in the near future.

IV. Demographic Correlates of Victimization  Describe the ―typical victim‖ of violent crime. Point out the similarities between the characteristics of the typical victim and those of the typical violent offender and explain the concept of victim-offender overlap.

A. Victim-Offender Overlap B. Repeat and Recurring Victimization 

Explain the differences between the various types of repeat victimization. Discuss the impact of each and point out that polyvictimization appears to cause more serious and long-lasting harm to victims than revictimization.

C. The Developmental Victimization Survey (DVS) and Polyvictimization 

Review the four distinct pathways for children that culminate in polyvictimization.

V. The Costs of Criminal Victimization  Use Figure 9-5 to explain the various tangible and intangible costs of victimization.

A. The Physical Impact of Victimization 

Ask students to identify what other types of physical reactions may occur as a result of criminal victimization, in addition to direct physical injury.



Explain that not all injuries are immediately obvious. Also discuss the wide variation in possible physical injuries and explain that some injuries may be minor, but others may affect the victim for the rest of their life, such as an injury that results in a permanent disfigurement or long-term disability.

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B. The Economic Impact of Victimization 

Discuss the various types of economic losses that may result from a crime. Point out that many of these are not a direct result of the crime but may be due to participation in the criminal justice system or because of long-term reactions to the crime. Also point out that many of these affect secondary as well as direct victims.

C. The Socio-Emotional Impact of Victimization 

Discuss the various psychological effects of victimization. Explain that stress may also manifest physical symptoms as well. Point out the link between experiencing psychological problems and reporting the victimization to the police.



Define post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).

D. Secondary Victimization 

Ask the class to identify ways in which the criminal justice system might cause harm to victims of crime and to suggest ways in which the police and the courts could work to minimize injury to victims.



Stress that ―secondary victimization‖ and ―secondary victim‖ are two completely different concepts. Make sure students understand both terms clearly.



Watch the video, ―Secondary victimisation by the criminal justice system‖ on YouTube.

E. Victimization as a Risk Factor for Crime 

Discuss the ways in which victimization leads to involvement in crime.

VI. Theories of Victimization  Using the material in the Theory in Perspective box, give a brief overview of the various types and categories of victimization theories. Explain how theories of victimization differ from the theories of criminal behavior discussed in earlier chapters.

A. Blaming the Victim: Early Theories of Victim Precipitation 

Describe the victim typologies created by Mendelsohn, Von Hentig, and Schafer.

Explain the similarities and differences among them.



Discuss the concept of victimogenesis and explain that a victim‘s background or behavior may increase their vulnerability to victimization.



Explain victim precipitation and review the three ways in which victims contribute to their own victimization.



Stress that the concept of victim precipitation is not attempting to blame the victim for their victimization, but rather to understand factors that may have contributed to the occurrence of the crime or even initiated it.



Have students examine news reports of crimes and identify examples of victim blaming. Point out that these may be subtle rather than overt.

B. Victimization and Lifestyle 

Lifestyle theories suggest that an individual‘s everyday activities contribute significantly to the likelihood of their criminal victimization. Ask students to identify potentially high-risk activities.



Discuss ways in which a person‘s lifestyle may help determine their vulnerability to victimization and review the relationship between lifestyle and opportunity for victimization.

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

Point out that being victimized as a result of living a high-risk lifestyle does not automatically mean the victim should be blamed for the victimization. Discuss situations in which individuals might not be able to change their lifestyle to reduce risk (for example, an individual who works at night in a high-crime area may not be able to find a daytime job in a safer community).



Explain the demographic variables that appear to affect victim risk through their effect on lifestyle.



Explain that some special populations, such as children, older individuals, people with physical disabilities, and people with intellectual disabilities, may be at greater risk of victimization because of their status. Discuss what factors increase the risk of victimization for these populations.



Use a hypothetical crime incident to illustrate the basic logic and key elements of routine activities theory.



Have students consider their own routine activities and identify which activities increase their vulnerability to victimization and which may reduce their risk. Have them consider which types of crimes they may be most vulnerable to.



Discuss the implications of routine activities theory for crime prevention and control.

Point out that routine activities theory focuses on criminal opportunity and suggests that environments may be manipulated to reduce the likelihood that the three key elements will converge, thus reducing the risk of victimization and crime.



Watch the video, ―Routine Activities Theory: Definition of the Routine Activity Approach to Crime‖ on YouTube.



Watch the video, ―Rational Choice Theory in Sociology and Criminology Explained‖ on YouTube.

VII. Victims’ Rights  Review the Vision 21 report and explain the main issues on which it focused. Discuss the major findings of the report and the types of changes recommended by the Office for Victims of Crime.

A. A History of the Victim 

Explain the victim‘s primary role in the justice process 50 years ago and discuss how victims were treated by the criminal justice system. Discuss ways in which this has changed and review the various services that victims‘ assistance programs provide to victims today.



Discuss the history of the victims‘ rights movement and the attempts to amend the U.S. Constitution to include a victims‘ rights amendment (VRA). Explain that while attempts have so far failed, the majority of states have passed VRAs.



Ask students why they think it has been so difficult to create a federal victims‘ rights amendment.



Lead a debate regarding the passage of a federal constitutional amendment that sets forth the rights of victims in criminal proceedings. Ask students what provisions such an amendment should contain if it were passed.

B. Victims’ Rights Legislation 

Point out that although there is no federal VRA, there are a large number of federal laws that provide protections and rights to crime victims. Discuss some of these federal laws and their provisions.

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

Review the rights that are guaranteed to victims of federal crimes through the Crime Victims‘ Rights Act. Ask students if there are any additional rights that should be included or any that should be removed.

VIII. Restorative Justice: Making the Victim Whole Again  Review the concept of restorative justice and point out that it includes a focus on the offender‘s obligations to the victim and the need to return the victim to a previctimization state.

A. Victim Restitution and Victim Compensation 

Discuss the concept of victim restitution, in which offenders may be ordered by the court to pay restitution to victims to reimburse them for medical expenses, lost wages, and other expenses.



Ask students in what situations might an offender be ordered to perform service restitution and whether victims have the right to give input into the type of restitution ordered.



Explain the concept of victim compensation and compare it to victim restitution. Be sure students understand how the two programs differ.



Describe your state‘s victim compensation program, including the eligibility criteria, types of crimes that are covered and types of expenses that are eligible for compensation, and maximum compensation limits. Remind students that compensation programs are programs of ―last resort‖ and only cover expenses that are not covered by other sources, such as insurance or offender restitution.



Assign each student a state and have them research the victim compensation program of that state. In class, compare the different programs and identify ways in which the treatment of victims differs by state.



Divide the class into groups and lead a debate on whether states should provide compensation to victims of crime.



Watch the video, ―What is the Victim Compensation Program? – CountyOffice.org‖ on YouTube.

B. Social Movements and Victims’ Rights 

Explain how social movements may develop when specific target groups are repeatedly victimized, with the goal of changing the conditions that contribute to this victimization.



Discuss the social movement organized after the school shooting in Parkland, Florida. Ask students to discuss the effectiveness of movements like this one.

LIST OF CHANGES/TRANSITION GUIDE 

Ongoing issues with the UCR are highlighted and discussed.



The now-outdated ―hierarchy rule‖ has been removed from the chapter.



Victimization data and statistics have been updated throughout, including those in charts and graphs.



The discussion of victims‘ rights has been slightly expanded.



The Criminal Profiles box, formerly highlighting Bill Cosby, has been replaced with one featuring Bernie Madoff.

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ADDITIONAL ASSIGNMENTS AND CLASS ACTIVITIES Additional Lecture Topics The Scope of Victimology. Consider discussing what the field of victimology as a whole should include. While this text focuses on criminal victimology, Benjamin Mendelsohn originally argued for the concept of ―general victimology‖ and outlined five types of victims he believed victimologists should study: 

Victims of criminals



Victims of the self (suicide, self-harm, etc.)



Victims of the social environment (oppression, war, racial discrimination, etc.)



Victims of technology (victimization resulting from scientific developments, such as a nuclear accident or industrial pollution)



Victims of the natural environment (victims of natural disasters)

Consider asking students which of these categories they believe should be part of the field of victimology Victim Blaming: The typologies discussed in the text all include categories of victims who in some way precipitated their own victimization. This is only a short step away from blaming victims for their own victimization – suggesting that they should have ―done something‖ to prevent being victimized. The problem with this is that by holding victims at least partially responsible for their own victimization minimizes the offender culpability and views the offender as less responsible for their criminal behavior. The justice system, the media, and the victim‘s family and friends may all engage in some form of victim blaming.

This is especially a concern in rape cases. Link the text discussion of Menachim Amir‘s research on victim precipitation in rape to the fear of feminists and victims‘ advocates that people would blame rape victims and suggest that they ―asked for it.‖ Amir argued that the victim behaviors he identified could lead the offender on until he believed the victim actually desired the sexual encounter or deserves it because of her ―bad‖ behavior.

Emphasize the fear that if society blamed the victim for the rape, the responsibility for the crime is not placed on the offender who actually committed the rape – the offender might be seen as ―less guilty‖ and therefore less deserving of punishment.

Student Activities Activity #1: How Does the Media Portray Victims? Watch a number of reality-based television shows and focus on the way the victims are portrayed. Pay specific attention to instances of victim blaming in the show by any character (whether a member of the justice system or not).

Language that suggests victim blaming includes phrases like, ―You should have known better,‖ ―You should have done something to stop it,‖ or ―How could you be so stupid?‖

Questions to consider: 1.

2.

Did the victim precipitate the crime in any way? How? Do the police appear sympathetic towards the victim? Does the language used by the police towards the victim suggest that they believe the victim contributed to the crime? Could the victim interpret this as being blamed for the crime?

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3.

4.

5.

6.

How do the victim‘s family and friends treat the victim? Do they appear to blame the victim for the crime? How this this affect the victim?

If applicable, do the media in the show (e.g., reporters) appear to blame the victim? Does this affect the victim in any way?

How is the victim portrayed in the show? Is the show slanted in any way towards blaming the victim? Explain why you have drawn this conclusion.

If examples of victim blaming exist in the show, how does the victim react?

Activity #2: Personal Risk of Victimization. Using routine activities and lifestyle theories, as discussed in the chapter, evaluate your personal risk of becoming a crime victim. How do your lifestyle, routine activities, and behaviors affect your risk of victimization? What measures do you take to reduce your risk? Are there other measures you could take but do not, and if so, why do you not take these measures? Is it appropriate to ask victims to change their lifestyle and behaviors to reduce their risk of victimization? Why or why not?

Activity #3: Victim Characteristics and Criminal Justice System Processing. Your instructor will place you in groups and assign each group a specific victim characteristic (gender, race/ethnicity, age, sexual orientation, social class, etc.). Locate research articles that examine the relationship between that characteristic and case processing outcomes (such as the likelihood of arrest, prosecution, conviction, and sentence length). After each group presents its findings to the class, conduct a discussion addressing the question of whether the evidence suggests that the criminal justice system is fair or biased with regard to victim characteristics

SUGGESTED ANSWERS TO END-OF-CHAPTER ASSIGNMENTS Questions for Review 1.

What is victimology, and what are the various types of victims?

Victimology is the scientific study of crime victims and the victimization process. It is a field of study that grew out of criminology. The direct victim of a crime is an individual who personally experiences criminal victimization. Direct victims may suffer direct or threatened harm (physical, psychological, or financial) as the result of the commission or attempted commission of a crime or delinquent act. Indirect or secondary victims are not directly involved in a crime and are not targeted as victims, but may still experience the effects of the crime. They may include the direct victim‘s family, friends, coworkers, classmates, neighbors, etc. Service providers who are frequently exposed to crime and violence may also be indirect victims. There are several special categories of indirect victims. Homicide survivors are the family and friends of a homicide victim. Vicarious victims may have no personal relationship with the direct victim but may become aware of the crime, often due to media coverage, and experience fear.

2.

What are the two major government-run programs that provide insight into crimes committed and criminal victimization?

The first program, which is run by the FBI, is the UCR/NIBRS program, which includes data from the National Incident-Based Reporting System (NIBRS). The second program, which is an annual survey-based self-reporting program run by the Bureau of Justice Statistics, is the National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS).

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3.

Explain demographics. What kind of demographic features correlate with criminal victimization?

Demographics are the characteristics or qualities of a population, usually expressed statistically. Demographic features that correlate with victimization include gender, race, age, and ethnicity. Other factors include socioeconomic status and the region of the country and type of location (rural/urban) where the individual lives.

4.

What are the personal impacts of criminal victimization?

Victims experience a variety of effects due to victimization and society‘s response to victimization. Physical impacts may include injuries ranging from minor to deadly.

Victimization may also result in long-term disability or permanent disfigurement. Economic impacts include property loss or damage. Victims may also incur medical and mental health care costs, increased insurance premiums, and various costs resulting from participation in the justice system. In the case of homicide, funeral and burial expenses must be borne by the victim‘s family. Crime may also have emotional effects on victims and many crime victims experience symptoms of stress and PTSD. Victims may also experience secondary victimization, which refers to injuries resulting from the response of social institutions and individuals to the victim. Victimization also may be a risk factor for future criminal involvement.

5.

What theories of victimization does this chapter discuss?

This chapter discusses several types of victimization theories. They all focus on the victim, shifting the focus away from the criminal.  Victim precipitation theories focus on the relationship between victims and offenders and the likelihood that the victim may in some way have contributed to their own victimization.  Lifestyle or lifestyle exposure theory suggest that certain lifestyles favor victimization by offering more opportunities for it.  Routine activities theory examines the interaction of motivated offenders, capable guardians, and suitable targets as an explanation or crime and suggests that an individual‘s everyday activities contribute significantly to the likelihood of their victimization.  Cyberlifestyle-routine activities theory combines elements of lifestyle and routine activities theory to explain cybercrimes, or victimizations that occur in cyberspace.

6.

How did victims’ rights in the United States develop, and how are such rights recognized?

The treatment of victims in the U.S. has changed greatly since the mid-1900s. In the past, the victim‘s role in the justice process was limited to testifying at trial and the system routinely downplayed their experiences and largely disregarded the problems resulting from victimization and from involvement in criminal proceedings. The 1982 President‘s Task Force on the Victims of Crime argued for the expansion of victims‘ assistance programs.

Since then, over 30 states have amended their constitutions to include a victims‘ rights amendment, and although attempts to add an amendment to the U.S. Constitution have so far been unsuccessful, a number of federal laws now offer many protections and rights to crime victims.

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7.

What is restorative justice, and what does it mean to “make the victim whole again”?

What is the difference between victim compensation and victim restitution?

Restorative justice is a philosophy of justice that emphasizes offender accountability and reparation to the victim. The community safety dimension of the restorative justice philosophy recognizes that the justice system has a responsibility to protect the public from crime and offenders but also recognizes that the community can participate in ensuring its own safety. The offender accountability element of restorative justice sees criminal conduct in terms of obligations the offender incurs towards the victim and the community. The competency development element holds that offenders should leave the justice system better able to participate successfully in society than when they entered.

The offender accountability element relates to the concept of ―making the victim whole again.‖ For example, restitution programs involve the offender making financial restitution to the victim to reimburse them for expenses resulting from the victimization.

Victim restitution is a sentence imposed upon an offender by the court. It requires offenders to make court-ordered payments to victims of crime, to reimburse victims for damages and losses resulting from the crime. Restitution can only cover financial losses; it does not cover pain and suffering or emotional distress. Victim compensation involves payments to victims by a government agency, to reimburse victims for certain out-of-pocket expenses due to the victimization. Unlike restitution, which requires the involvement of the offender, compensation is paid by the government. Therefore, the offender does not even have to be identified, much less convicted, for the victim to receive compensation.

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Chapter 10 Crimes Against Persons It’s What We Fear CHAPTER OVERVIEW This chapter deals with the topic of violent crime. Homicide is the willful killing of one human being by another; murder or criminal homicide is an unlawful homicide. Jurisdictions generally distinguish among various types or degrees of murder. Offending is patterned in terms of sociodemographics, with members of some groups disproportionately represented as offenders.

The subculture of violence thesis is the primary theoretical perspective used to explain the similarity between homicide victims and offenders. Serial and mass murders are also discussed, and several typologies are presented.

The FBI defines rape as, ―The penetration, no matter how slight, of the vagina or anus with any body part or object, or oral penetration by a sex organ of another person, without the consent of the victim.‖ Theoretical perspectives surrounding rape include various feminist perspectives, the psychopathological perspective, Baron and Straus‘ integrated theory of rape, and evolutionary/biological perspectives. Various typologies of rapists have been developed, often based on offender motivation. The majority of rapes are acquaintance rapes, where the victim and offender have some prior relationship (not necessarily intimate or familial). Spousal rape today is illegal in every state, although it is often not treated as seriously as other types of rape. Prison rape is becoming an issue of concern; in 2003, Congress passed the Prison Rape Elimination Act, which mandates the collection of statistics on prison rape. The sexual victimization of men has been largely ignored but recent research suggests it is common and has significant stigmatizing effects on victims. However, prosecutions are still rare.

Child sexual abuse includes a variety of criminal and civil offenses in which an adult engages in sexual activity with a minor, exploits a minor for purposes of sexual gratification, or exploits a minor sexually for purposes of profit. Sexual crimes against juveniles are underreported. Several typologies have been developed to classify child sex offenders, although other than gender (almost all pedophiles are men), there appear to be few similarities among child sexual abusers.

Some adults involved in the sexual abuse of children have a profit motive rather than desiring sexual gratification, as in cases of commercial sexual exploitation of children. The Internet has created special problems in attempting to enforce laws designed to control pedophiles and child pornographers.

Robbery involves the taking of or attempting to take anything of value from the care, custody, or control of someone by using force or threat of force or violence or by putting the victim in fear.

Because the threat or use of force is involved, it is considered a violent crime. Highway robberies occur on the street or highway, personal robberies take place in residences and institutional robberies occur in commercial settings. Strong-arm robberies do not involve deadly weapons.

There is a high potential for injury and even death for robbery victims. Most robbery offenders are generalists, who commit other types of crimes as well; few offenders specialize in robbery alone. Many robbers are motivated by direct financial need. Offenders specializing in street robbery frequently target other criminals, especially lower-level drug dealers, both because of the opportunity to obtain not only money but also drugs, and because these victims would be less likely to report their victimization to the police. With the exception of rape, robbery may be the most gender-differentiated serious crime in the U.S., as the vast majority of offenders are men.

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Offenders of different genders differ significantly in how they carry out street robberies, although the primary motivation for both is economic.

Assaults may be simple or aggravated. The typical offender profiles for homicide and assault are extremely similar. Demographic factors (gender, age, marital status, etc.) affect individual risk of stranger assault victimization. Assaults involving non-strangers often involve victims and offenders who are in a familial or intimate relationship. Research into familial violence has been hindered by the belief that the family is a private institution. Intimate partner violence involves assaultive behavior between individuals involved in an intimate relationship. The majority of victims are women, although men may also be victims.

Other forms of interpersonal violence include bullying, workplace violence, hate crimes, and stalking. Bullying definitions tend to focus on adolescents, although adults can also be bullied.

Bullying victims may also bully others. Threats of punishment from parents and schools appear to be a more effective deterrent than threats of punishment from the police. Cyberbullying involves using electronic communication devices to harass and threaten others. There is no federal antibullying law and bullying itself is not illegal. Workplace violence, which includes a variety of violent crimes committed against persons who are at work or on duty, is a significant problem in America today. Various job-related factors increase the risk of workplace violence. Hate crimes are crimes motivated by hatred, bias, or prejudice based on the actual or perceived race, color, religion, national origin, ethnicity, gender, or sexual orientation of another individual or group of individuals. The vast majority of reported hate crimes are carried out by individuals, not by organized hate groups and their members. Stalking involves ongoing patterns of behavior that cause victims to fear for their personal safety. All states, and the federal government, currently have anti-stalking laws. The majority of victims are women and the majority of stalkers are men.

Women are more likely to be stalked by an intimate partner, while men are more likely to be stalked by strangers or acquaintances. Cyberstalking involves using electronic communication such as e-mail or the Internet to harass individuals.

LEARNING OUTCOMES After reading this chapter, you should be able to answer the following questions: 10.1.

10.2.

10.3.

10.4.

10.5.

10.6.

What is criminal homicide, and what are the key issues involved in explaining patterns of homicide?

How is the crime of rape defined, and what are the key issues involved in explaining the crime of rape?

What does the term child sexual abuse encompass? What are the various types of child sexual abusers?

How is the crime of robbery defined, and what are the different kinds of robbery?

How is the crime of assault defined, and what are the various kinds of assault?

What additional forms of interpersonal violence does this chapter discuss?

CHAPTER OUTLINE I.

Introduction  Explain that the four violent crimes listed in Figure 10-1 were the Index or Part I crimes used by the UCR. Point out that NIBRS collects data on a wider range of violent crimes.

II. Homicide

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 Explain the difference between homicide and murder (criminal homicide). Consider including a discussion of the various types of noncriminal homicide (justifiable homicide and excusable homicide).  Explain the various types of murder, including a review of felony murder.  Using the information in Figure 10-3, discuss some of the general features of criminal homicide in the United States today.  Present recent homicide statistics from the UCR/ NIBRS for your state or city (if available) and compare them to national statistics for the same time period.  Ask students what kinds of distinctions are made between types of homicides and what additional distinctions might be made. Are there are certain kinds of homicides that are not enumerated but should be?  Ask students whether they agree that in a case of felony murder the offender should be charged with first-degree murder.  Watch the video, ―Murder or Manslaughter?‖ on YouTube.

A. The Subculture of Violence Theory 

Discuss the historically high homicide rates in the South, and ask students why they think rates have been so high in that part of the United States. Refer back to the discussion of subcultural theory in Chapter 7 and ask how that material is relevant here.



Ask students what the subculture of violence thesis suggests is the primary motivation underlying homicide.

B. Homicide: A Closer Look 

Explain the difference between primary and nonprimary homicides, using the concepts of expressive and instrumental crimes.



Ask students to consider why it might be important to distinguish homicides by type, such as primary and nonprimary (e.g., to better understand the factors that cause these crimes).



Link the issue of victim precipitation back to the material on victims and victimization in Chapter 9. Ask students to consider how this might lead to victim blaming.



Discuss the concept of a sibling offense and explain why instigating incidents are important to the study of homicide.



Explain the difference between the issues of instrumentality and availability, and point out that gun availability seems to be a stronger factor than gun instrumentality in explaining lethal violence.

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Explain to students that understanding the role of weapons in homicides requires the simultaneous consideration of other factors such as intent and community medical resources.

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Lead a discussion on gun control, asking students if gun control would likely lead to fewer homicides in this country.

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Ask students to consider reasons why alcohol is so closely connected to violent crime.

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Ask students to consider the various typologies of serial killers and discuss their usefulness for understanding these types of offenders and offenses.



Discuss the ways in which serial killers who are women differ from those who are men.



Ask students why they think it is so rare for serial killers to be women, when compared to men. Link this back to the discussion in Chapter 8 of the gender gap and gender differences in crime rates.



Ask students why it may be so difficult to apprehend serial killers.

D. Mass Murder 

Explain how mass murder differs from serial killing.



Review the main types of mass murderers.



Discuss the three types of factors that Levin and Fox identify as contributing to mass murder. Consider how these factors may have played a part in recent mass murders.



Consider leading a discussion linking the material in this section to recent school shootings, such as the one in Parkland, Florida.



In the movie, Collateral, Tom Cruise is a contract killer who recruits a cab driver named Max to drive him through Los Angeles one night. During the course of his cab ride, Cruise‘s character will execute five people in a ten-hour spree.

III. Rape  Discuss the FBI‘s gender-neutral definition of rape and ask students why they think the change was necessary. Ask the class to discuss the impact that the change in how rape is defined may have had on crime statistics.  Present the statutory definition of rape in your state and compare it to the definition used by the FBI. Alternatively, have students research the statutory definition of rape in various states and discuss how the definition of the crime varies by state. Link this to the definition used by the FBI and discuss how the definitional variations may affect the accuracy of the information reported to the FBI.  Watch the video, ―FSRN FBI Updates Rape Definitions to Include Male Victims and Date Rape‖ on YouTube.  Watch the video, ―Why many rape victims don‘t report to police‖ on YouTube.  The TV series, Law and Order: Special Victims Unit, follows the investigation of sexually based crimes by a squad in New York.  In the movie, The Accused, Jodie Foster plays a woman who, while out on the town one night, is gang-raped by a group of men in a bar. The efforts of the prosecutor to bring this case to trial and the difficulty of finding witnesses who will come forward are explored.

A. Theoretical Perspectives on Rape 

Discuss the feminist view of rape as a crime of power in which sex is a tool used to subordinate the victim.



Ask the class what they think feminists mean by the term ―rape culture‖ and how such a culture might contribute to the presence and prevalence of rape in our society.

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Ask the class to consider what Messerschmidt meant when he criticized feminist perspectives for a ―one-dimensional view of masculinity.‖ 93 Copyright © 2025 Pearson Education, Inc.



Focus on the assumptions underlying the psychopathological perspective on rape.

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Have students consider how the integrated theory of rape differs from other perspectives on rape.

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Discuss how rape is explained from an evolutionary/biological perspective. Link this to the discussions of sociobiology in Chapter 3 and genetics in Chapter 4.



Discuss the similarities between the evolutionary/biological and feminist perspectives.



Watch the video ―Inside the Mind of a Sadistic Serial Rapist and Criminal‖ on YouTube.

B. Typologies of Rapists 

Discuss the various typologies of rape presented in this section.



Ask students whether Dennis Stevens‘ research into the role of lust in the motivations of rapists is inconsistent with a feminist perspective on rape.

C. Rape: A Closer Look 

Ask students why they think acquaintance rape is sometimes referred to as a ―hidden crime.‖



Have students research the ways in which their university deals with issues of campus rape, including acquaintance or date rape, and what programs and services are provided.



Explain the ―marital exemption‖ in rape statutes and discussed the movement towards criminalizing spousal rape. Point out that even today, marital rape is not treated the same as stranger rape in all states.



Have students research rape statutes in different states to identify differences in how marital and stranger rape are treated.



Lead a class discussion or debate on whether spousal rape is more or less serious than stranger rape.



Review Diana E. H. Russell‘s typology of men who rape their wives.



Point out that the discussion of spousal rape in this chapter focuses primarily on men who rape their wives. Ask students if they think this should be the main focus of research and legislation or should the rape of a husband by a wife and same-sex spousal rape be given equal consideration.



Explain that many people in the U.S. do not consider rape within prison to be as serious an issue as other forms of rape. Lead a discussion as to why this may be the case.



Discuss the findings of the National Inmate Survey.



Ask students to discuss whether they believe that the justice system should place a higher priority on addressing the issue of rape within prisons.



Discuss the effect that the stereotype that rape involves an offender who is a man and a victim who is a woman may have on men who are victims of sexual violence and on the way the crime is handled by the justice system.



Watch the Fort Worth Star-Telegram video ―Acquaintance Rape,‖ with Deborah Caddy of The Women‘s Center on YouTube.



Watch the video ―Long-Ignored Problem: Prison Rape‖ on YouTube.

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

Watch the Marshall Project videos, ―New York State Prisons: How to Avoid Rape in Prison – Women‘s Orientation‖ and ―New York State Prisons: How to Avoid Rape in Prison – Men‘s Orientation‖ on YouTube.

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Watch the video, ―5 Sobering Facts about Male Rape‖ on YouTube.



Watch the video, ―Male Rape is Real – Men are Victims, Too‖ on YouTube.

IV. Child Sexual Abuse  Ask students why sexual offenses involving children are more likely than other types of criminal conduct to elude the attention of the justice system.  Point out that estimates suggest as many as one in five girls and one in ten boys have been sexually abused by the age of 14. Discuss the long-term effects of sexual abuse on children.  Watch the video, ―Understanding the Basic Facts of Child Sexual Abuse‖ on YouTube.

A. Types of Child Sex Abusers. 

Discuss the link between being a victim of child sexual abuse and being an adult child molester.



Lead a discussion on whether society should try to police the Internet to reduce the sale and purchase of child pornography. Ask students if it is possible to reconcile placing limitations on the Internet with our First Amendment rights.

V. Robbery  Refer to the discussion of the criminology of place in Chapter 6 to illustrate how personal and institutional robbery can be explained in different ways.  Review the various types of robberies, based on location. Point out that ―highway robbery‖ does not actually have to occur on a highway  Ask students whether the distinctions between highway, personal, and institutional robbery are important.  The movie, Heat, follows the core members of a crew who specialize in large-scale robberies. The members are about to pull one last score before they all retire, but it does not go as simply as planned.  The movie, Set It Off, follows a group of young African American women in Los Angeles who are trying to turn their lives around and achieve their dreams. A series of events places them in a situation where they decide to start robbing banks to solve their problems.

A. The Lethal Potential of Robbery 

Refer back to the material on patterns of homicide earlier in this chapter (particularly the discussion of primary and nonprimary homicides) and explain that some homicide victims are also victims of robbery.

B. Criminal Careers of Robbers 

Explain that most robbers are generalists, rather than specialists. Ask students if there might be some specialists who not only specialize in robbery but specialize in just one kind of robbery.

C. Robbery and Public Transportation 

Link target-hardening strategies discussed in Chapter 3 with the material on robbery and public transportation discussed here.

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D. The Motivation of Robbers 

Discuss the extent to which robbers are rational actors. Link this back to the discussion of rational choice in Chapter 3.



Explain that while many robbers are motivated by economics, this does not mean they need money specifically for the necessities of living.

E. Drug Robberies 

Remind students of the concept of subcultures, discussed in Chapter 6, which gives substantial context to the lives of drug robbers.



Ask students to consider why drug dealers are attractive targets for robbery. What other types of criminal offenders might also be suitable targets for motivated robbers?

F. The Gendered Nature of Robbery 

Discuss the ways in which street robberies are gendered.



Ask students why robbery is typically understood as a ―men‘s‖ crime and have them consider why there aren‘t more robbers who are women.

VI. Aggravated Assault  Explain the difference between simple and aggravated assault.  Discuss the similarities between aggravated assault and homicide, and the individuals who commit these crimes.

A. Stranger Assault 

Ask students to discuss ways in which random violence and stranger violence are linked to the everyday view of crime that most people have.



Discuss how various demographic factors influence individual risk of stranger assault victimization. Link this back to the general discussion of victimization risk in Chapter 9.

B. Assault within Families 

Discuss the importance of victim–offender relationships in any examination of assault.

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Discuss the various reasons why criminal justice practitioners and academic criminologists were often reluctant to focus on family violence.



Ask students why the family context in which many assaults occur is so important from a public-policy perspective on crime.

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Ask students to consider why simplistic responses to the problem of intimate-partner violence, such as ―If your partner hits you, just leave,‖ are inappropriate.



Ask students to consider different reasons why victims of intimate partner violence often do not or cannot leave.



Focus on the concept of separation assault, including its nature and its consequences.

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Point out that while the vast majority of victims of intimate partner violence are women, men can also be victims of this type of violence. Consider discussing the stigma that victims who are men often face if they report this type of victimization.

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Watch the video, ―Male Versus Female Perpetration of Domestic or Intimate Partner Violence‖ on YouTube.

96 Copyright © 2025 Pearson Education, Inc.

VII. Other Forms of Interpersonal Violence A. Bullying 

Stress that while the chapter (and society in general) focuses primarily on adolescent bullying, adults can also be victims and perpetrators of bullying.



Ask students how bullying differs from other types of violent behavior.



Review the types of participants in the bullying circle.

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Ask the class to discuss whether they think that society is focusing too much on bullying and why there is a disconnect between young people‘s experiences of bullying and what adults see.



Review the basic core elements of cyberbullying and explain how they are similar to those of traditional bullying.

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Discuss the effects of bullying and cyberbullying on youth. Ask students why they think cyberbullying has such serious negative effects on victims.

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Lead a discussion as to which behavior is more serious: traditional bullying or cyberbullying.

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Divide the class into groups and lead a debate as to whether bullying should be illegal.

B. Workplace Violence 

Explain that not all workplaces have the same likelihood of experiencing violence and ask why.



Review the four main types of workplace violence and explain that one workplace may be vulnerable to more than one type.

C. Hate Crimes 

Explain the concept of hate or bias crime and present the definition used by the BJS. Ask students if they can think of any additional groups that should be included in the definition.



Have students research hate crime laws in different states to identify groups that are protected in some states but not others.

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Discuss the impact hate crimes may have on victims and the community, and explain why the effects of a crime may be more serious if it is motivated by hate or bias.

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Ask students why they think society considers a crime to be more serious if it is motivated by hate or bias.

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Point out that national or international events may affect rates of hate crimes targeting specific groups.

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Ask students why it is so difficult to develop hate-crime laws that satisfy everyone.

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Ask students why it is so difficult to identify and measure hate crimes. Have them discuss how we might know for certain that a hate crime has taken place.

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Watch the Scripps New video, ―The Long-Term Impacts of Hate Crimes‖ on YouTube.

D. Stalking 

Explain that both stalking and bullying involve repeated behaviors (in other words, one act generally is not enough to be considered either stalking or bullying).

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

Discuss reasons why it is difficult to develop a clear definition of stalking.

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Focus on the responses of women to stalking, and discuss how this may be a lifechanging event.

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Discuss the association between stalking and ending an intimate relationship. Link this back to the material on intimate partner assault.



Review the various types of stalkers.



Review the concept of cyberstalking and ask students to consider the aspects of cyberstalking that make it difficult to control effectively.

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Watch the video, ―The Inside Story: One Woman‘s Terrifying Experience with Online Stalking‖ on YouTube.

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Watch the CyberNews video, ―Cyber Stalking: The Dark Side of the Internet‖ on YouTube.

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Watch the SBS Insight video, ―What goes on in the mind of a stalker?‖ on YouTube.

Point out to students that although this is an Australian news program and the laws and police responses to the crime may vary, the viewpoints and the impact of the crime on stalking victims transcend geographic boundaries. Also, students may wish to read about the program on the Australian SBS website for additional information related to the program.

LIST OF CHANGES/TRANSITION GUIDE 

All of the data have been updated, along with line art, charts, and graphs.



The artwork associated with the National Sex Offender Public Website has been updated.



―Carjacking,‖ ―strong arm robbery,‖ and ―simple assault‖ have been added as new key terms.



A discussion of carjacking has been added.



The ―Lethal Potential of Robbery‖ section has been rewritten.

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The section on ―Stranger Assault‖ has been considerably revised.

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The ―Hate Crimes‖ section has been updated to include a new section-opening story and photograph.



A new piece of line art on the motivation of hate crime offenders has been added.

ADDITIONAL ASSIGNMENTS AND CLASS ACTIVITIES Additional Lecture Topics Statutory Rape. When discussing the topic of rape, consider including a brief discussion of statutory rape, which involves consensual sexual relations between an adult and a minor. Review the laws relating to statutory rape, including the statutory age of consent. Some states limit the crime to underage female minors engaged in sex with a male adult. Most states consider it irrelevant whether the adult offender was aware of the victim‘s true age or if the adult offender was misled by the victim. One case that could be discussed is that of Mary Kay LeTourneau, a teacher who had an affair with one of her sixth-grade students, a 12-year-old.

Same-Sex Intimate-Partner Assault. When discussing the topic of spouse abuse, consider discussing the issue of abuse within same-sex couples. The homosexual community initially was reluctant to admit the existence of partner abuse in same-sex relationships, for fear that it would 98 Copyright © 2025 Pearson Education, Inc.

increase the incidence of homophobia. Partner abuse among same-sex couples appears to occur about as often as among heterosexual partners. However, victims of same-sex partner abuse have fewer legal rights, and fewer sources of help. Many turn to programs designed for victims of hate crimes but these are not designed to help victims of partner abuse.

The Cycle of Violence. Another topic for discussion when covering spouse abuse is the ―cycle of violence,‖ which is a pattern followed by most batterers. It is a three-phase cycle, including the tension-building phase, the battering event, and the reconciliation or honeymoon phase. The reconciliation phase tends to become shorter and the violence more severe as the cycle is repeated.

Workplace Bullying. When discussing the topic of workplace violence, consider introducing the concept of workplace bullying as a form of workplace aggression. It can involve threats to the victim‘s professional status, threats to the victim‘s personal standing in the workplace, social isolation of the victim, overwork, or destabilization. More information may be found at the website of the Workplace Bullying Institute.

Student Activities Activity #1: Crime on Campus. Recent legislation requires that universities publish statistics on crime on campus. Obtain information about violent crime occurring at your university campus.

Compare the rates of serious violent crimes on campus to the rates in neighboring jurisdictions.

How safe does your university appear to be?

Activity #2: Campus Resources for Victims of Domestic Violence or Stalking. Locate programs and other resources that are available on your university campus for victims of domestic violence and/or stalking. Bring these materials into class for discussion.

Activity #3: Theoretical Explanations of Violent Crime. Select three theories that you have discussed in previous chapters and discuss how each of these might explain the crimes of assault and robbery.

Activity #4: UCR/NIBRS vs. State Definitions of Violent Crimes: This activity involves comparing the definitions used by the FBI with those used by state criminal codes.

1.

2.

3.

Obtain the definitions used by the FBI for homicide, rape, robbery, and aggravated assault.

This information is available on the FBI‘s web site.

Obtain the definitions of the same four crimes for your state. One way to locate state statutes on the Web is to access the Cornell University School of Law‘s Legal Information Institute Web site. (Note: Your instructor may choose to assign you a different state.)

Compare and contrast the definitions used by the FBI with those of your state. What differences do you see?

Note to instructor: Rather than assigning all students in the class the same state, you may consider assigning each student a different state and then comparing the results in class.

Activity #5: Comparing Rates of Violent Crime. Your instructor will assign you two large cities in the United States and one Part I violent crime (for example, robbery). Visit the website of the FBI and access the most recent UCR data for these two cities. Use that information to answer the following questions (substituting the assigned crime for robbery): 1.

2.

3.

Print out the number of robberies known to the police for each of the two cities.

Which city had more reported robberies?

What were the robbery rates for each of the two cities?

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4.

5.

Did the robbery rates change over time in either city?

What factors might explain the differences in the robbery rates?

Activity #6: Serial Killers. Research a noted serial killer and present your findings to the class.

Include in your presentation information on the offender‘s background (childhood experiences, physical/mental disabilities, criminal record, etc.), offense information, and applicable serial killer typology.

Note to instructor: To avoid duplication, you may wish to assign each student a specific serial killer to research (rather than allowing them to choose on their own). Provide information on presentation length and format that will accommodate class size and time constraints.

SUGGESTED ANSWERS TO END-OF-CHAPTER ASSIGNMENTS Questions for Review 1.

What is criminal homicide, and what are the key issues involved in in explaining patterns of homicide?

Criminal homicide, or murder, is the unlawful killing of one human being by another.

Jurisdictions generally distinguish among different types of murder: first-degree or premeditated murder, second-degree murder, and third-degree murder or negligent homicide.

The key issues to be considered when explaining patterns of homicide are the individual (victim-offender relationship) and situational (context) factors that may have contributed to and initiated the crime.

2.

How is the crime of rape defined, and what are the key issues involved in explaining the crime of rape?

The gender-neutral definition of rape approved by the FBI reads, ―The penetration, no matter how slight, of the vagina or anus with any body part or object, or oral penetration by a sex organ of another person, without the consent of the victim.‖ The key issues to be considered in explaining rape include the changing definitions of rape, our social understanding of the crime, variations in the way theoretical explanations have evolved, rapist typologies, and a greater understanding of social situations that are characterized by a higher prevalence of rape and by a difference in the offender‘s motivation.

3.

What does the term child sexual abuse encompass, and what are the various types of child sexual abusers that this chapter identifies?

The term child sexual abuse (CSA) encompasses a variety of criminal and civil offenses in which an adult engages in sexual activity with a minor, exploits a minor for purposes of sexual gratification, or exploits a minor sexually for purposes of profit. The term includes a variety of activities and motivations, including child molestation, child sexual exploitation (CSE), and the commercial sexual exploitation of children (CSEC).

This chapter identifies a variety of types of child sexual abusers. Groth and colleagues identified two main types of pedophiles. Regressed offenders are sexually attracted mainly to members of their own age groups but are passively aroused by minors. They may act on this interest when the use of inhibition-lower substances is combined with opportunity. Fixated offenders are adult pedophiles who engage in planned sexual acts with children; their 100 Copyright © 2025 Pearson Education, Inc.

behavior is not necessarily influenced by drugs or alcohol. Lanning‘s typology of child predators classifies offenders along a continuum. At one end of the continuum are preferential child molesters, who have a strong proclivity for sexual involvement with children. On the other end are situational child molesters, who do not have compulsive sexual preferences for children but may engage in sex with children when the opportunity presents.

4.

How is the crime of robbery defined, and what are the different kinds of robbery?

Robbery is both a violent and property crime. It involves the threat or use of force and its express purpose is to take something of value from of another person. Highway robberies occur on the highway or street, personal robberies occur in residences, and institutional robberies occur in commercial settings, such as convenience stores, gas stations, and banks.

5.

How is the crime of assault defined, and what are the various kinds of assault?

The FBI defines an aggravated assault as the unlawful attack by one person upon another wherein the offender uses a weapon or displays it in a threatening manner, or the victim suffers obvious or severe bodily injury. Simple assault is a crime that involves an unlawful threat or attempt to harm another person. Stranger assaults are those in which the victim and offender do not know each other, while acquaintance assaults involve victims and offenders who are known to each other, often in a familial or intimate relationship. Intimate partner violence refers to physically assaultive behavior taking place between individuals involved in an intimate relationship.

6.

What additional forms of interpersonal violence does this chapter discuss?

This chapter discusses four additional forms of interpersonal violence: bullying, workplace violence, hate crimes, and stalking.

Bullying is any unwanted aggressive behavior by another youth or group of youths who are not siblings or current dating partners of the victim that involves an observed or perceived power imbalance and that is repeated multiple times or is highly likely to be repeated.

Research into the prevention of bullying has found that the threat of punishment by parents or schools is more effective at deterring bullying than the threat of punishment by the police.

Workplace violence includes violent crimes (specifically murder, rape, robbery, and assault) committed against persons who are at work or on duty. It is a significant problem in the U.S. today and much more common than generally believed.

Hate crimes are motivated by hatred, bias, or prejudice based on the actual or perceived race, color, religion, national origin, ethnicity, gender, or sexual orientation of another individual or group of individuals. It is also known as bias crime. While hate groups have long been associated with acts of violence, the majority of reported hate crimes are not committed by organized hate groups and their members but by teenagers.

Stalking involves a course of conduct directed at a specific person that involves repeated visual or physical proximity, nonconsensual communications, and/or threats that would cause a reasonable person fear.

101 Copyright © 2025 Pearson Education, Inc.

Chapter 11 Crimes Against Property It’s What We Lose CHAPTER OVERVIEW This chapter discusses four main types of property crime: burglary, larceny/theft, motor vehicle theft, and arson. Burglary is the unlawful entry of a structure to commit a felony or theft. Despite the lack of direct confrontation between victims and perpetrators, burglary generates a high level of fear because it invades the privacy of the home and threatening the viability of businesses.

Lifestyle theory and routine activities theory have had a major impact on explaining how the nature and level of property crime have changed in response to changes in the structures and routine activities of daily living. Nighttime residential and daytime commercial burglary are considered the most serious as they present the greatest risk of confrontation between offenders and others. The most common motivation for residential burglary is the need for fast cash Commercial targets are selected based on their suitability, with retail establishments being the most common choice. Residential burglars rarely target homes of family or friends but may target homes of people otherwise known to them. Other key elements in target selection include a reluctance to target occupied dwellings or residences with complex security devices or dogs. The vast majority of burglaries involve some type of economic loss. The 1980s increase in robbery and decrease in burglary may be linked to the increased demand for crack cocaine. Some burglaries have sexual motivations, such as voyeuristic or fetish burglaries.

Larceny/theft, which does not involve the use of force or illegal entry, is the most frequently occurring property crime. Retail theft is often committed by store employees, particularly shortterm workers. Shoplifting is a crime that crosses class lines and is not committed primarily by women; juveniles are overrepresented in current statistics on offending. Research suggests that shoplifting may be a gateway offense leading to more serious and chronic types of offending.

Organized retail theft involves the coordinated theft of retail merchandise in substantial quantities for the purpose of illegal resale rather than personal use. The impact on business can be significant. Identity theft is a form of larceny that involves the misuse of another individual‘s personal information to commit fraud. There are two main types: existing account fraud and new account fraud. Identity theft creates both direct and indirect costs to businesses and individual victims.

Motor vehicle theft is the theft or attempted theft of a motor vehicle; automobiles are the vehicle most commonly stolen. Most motor vehicle thefts are reported to the police. The majority of recovered stolen vehicles are stripped of at least some parts. Joyriding involves opportunistic car theft committed by groups of teenagers for fun or thrills. Professional car theft represents the most costly and serious form of auto theft.

Arson involves willful or malicious burning or attempted burning. The FBI records an incident as arson only after it has been investigated and officially classified as arson by the proper investigative authorities; fires of suspicious or unknown origin are not recorded. Arson for profit is fairly rare. The majority of those involved in arson are juveniles.

Professional thieves commit crime with some skill, make a living from crime, and spend relatively little time incarcerated. Persistent thieves continue in property crimes despite an ordinary level of success. Most property offenders do not specialize in one type of crime.

Criminal careers of property offenders consist of three phases: ―break-in,‖ ―stable,‖ and 102 Copyright © 2025 Pearson Education, Inc.

―burnout‖ periods. The issue of property crimes as rational choice is also discussed.

Receiving stolen property involves three key elements: buying and selling, stolen property, and knowing the property to be stolen. The use of a fence is the most common method used by professional burglars for disposing of stolen goods but the least common method for the majority of thieves. The various types of criminal receivers include professional receivers, avocational receivers, and amateur receivers.

LEARNING OUTCOMES After reading this chapter, you should be able to answer the following questions: 11.1. What are the major forms of property crime discussed in this chapter?

11.2. What constitutes the crime of burglary? What are some of its characteristics?

11.3. What constitutes the crime of larceny-theft? What forms does it take?

11.4. What is motor vehicle theft? How prevalent is it?

11.5. What constitutes the crime of arson?

11.6. What are some characteristics of persistent and professional thieves?

11.7. What are the typical activities of receivers of stolen property, and how are stolen goods distributed?

CHAPTER OUTLINE I. Introduction II. Types of Property Crime  Explain that the four violent crimes listed in Figure 11-1 were the Index or Part I crimes used by the UCR. Point out that NIBRS collects data on a wider range of violent crimes.  Discuss social views of property crimes as compared to views of violent crimes. Have students consider why punishments for violent crimes are generally more severe.

III. Burglary  Compare the definition of burglary in your state (and others) to the definition used by the FBI. Explain that some definitions require ―breaking‖ while others require only ―unlawful entry‖ and discuss the differences. Explain how the common law is often used to expand upon the statutory definitions of crime such as burglary.  Ask students why they think the statistics from the UCR/ NIBRS produce such a different picture of burglary than the NCVS data.  Discuss reasons why residential burglary produces such a high level of fear among victims.  As a thriller, Panic Room presents the ultimate example of urban fear of crime. A mother and daughter‘s first evening in their new home is shattered by the intrusion of burglars who don‘t just want something from the house but want something in the panic room.

A. The Social Ecology of Burglary 

Given what we know about the social ecology of burglary, ask the class how we might use this knowledge to reduce burglary.

B. A Typology of Burglars 

Review the various typologies of burglars.

103 Copyright © 2025 Pearson Education, Inc.



Ask students if they can think of any motivations other than those listed in the fourparty typology of burglar motivations presented in the chapter.

C. The Locales and Times of Burglary 

Ask students whether it could be argued that burglary is exclusively an offense in which the victim and offender are strangers.



Link the information on burglary locales to the criminology of place discussed in Chapter 6.

D. The Motivation of Burglars 

Link the motivation for fast cash expressed by the burglars interviewed by Richard Wright and Scott Decker to subcultural identification. Explore the utility of addressing concepts such as motivation and rationality by reference to their cultural context.



Ask students whether burglary is a crime that is committed because the offender ―needs‖ something or ―wants‖ something.



Ask students to apply the logic of routine activities theory and consider how offender motivation may be independent of changing crime patterns.



Have students consider to what extent the pursuit of status and a street lifestyle are associated with burglary offending. Link this to social structure theories, such as Elijah Anderson‘s research into the code of the street discussed in Chapter 6.

E. Target Selection for Burglary 

Discuss the ways in which commercial burglars differ from residential burglars in their methods of target selection.



Link the desire of burglars to target locations where they can avoid victims with the issue of rational choice.



Have students discuss how the knowledge that burglary is a ―victim-avoiding crime‖ could be used when developing methods of preventing burglary.



Explore the extent to which target-hardening strategies may function as effective deterrents for burglaries.

F. The Costs of Burglary 

When discussing the costs of crime, emphasize to students that while a conventional understanding of cost translates into money, there are other ways to assess costs.

Explain that fear is often identified as one of the most detrimental costs of crime.



Link this material to the discussion of the costs of criminal victimization in Chapter 9.

G. The Burglary–Drug Connection 

Discuss the extent to which the association of burglary with drug use is a consequence of the War on Drugs.

H. The Sexualized Context of Burglary 

Discuss how burglary may be viewed as a unique context of sexual offending.

IV. Larceny-Theft  Compare the definition of larceny-theft in your state (and others) to the definition used by the FBI. Explain that some states call the crime ―larceny‖ whereas others use the term ―theft.‖ 104 Copyright © 2025 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Ask students why they think larceny-theft is the most frequently occurring property crime?  Lead a discussion as to the reasons why people tend to be less frightened of larceny-theft than of many other types of criminal victimization.

A. Shoplifting and Employee Theft 

Explain that employee theft is a big problem in small businesses where such behavior can dramatically affect the financial stability of the businesses.



Have students consider ways in which a store‘s attempts to prevent shoplifting could negatively affect sales.



Explain that while shoplifting used to be considered a crime committed primarily by women, that view is changing.



Discuss the various factors that distinguish the typical shoplifter from shoplifters like Caroline Giuliani, Winona Ryder, or Lindsay Lohan.



This chapter provides examples of shoplifters who had the money to buy what they stole and were clearly not economically motivated. Ask students to use their understanding of criminology theory to explain why these types of individuals engage in shoplifting.



Watch the ASIS International video, ―By the Numbers: Retail Employee Theft‖ on YouTube.

B. Organized Retail Theft (ORT) 

Discuss how technology such as cell phones, texting, and YouTube has sped up the formation of flash mobs.



Ask students if they believe that flash mobs themselves should be criminalized



Watch the video ―How the Shadowy World of Organized Retail Crime Works‖ on YouTube.

C. Identity Theft 

Ask students whether they agree with the statement that identity theft is just another form of larceny.



Review the two main types of identity theft and discuss the reasons why new account fraud is considered to be more serious.



Discuss the various direct and indirect costs of identity theft. Explain that the indirect costs to businesses and credit card companies are passed on to consumers.



Discuss the identity theft laws in your state.



Review the main behaviors that characterize identity theft.



Discuss the impact of identity theft on victims. Link this material back to the discussion of the costs of criminal victimization in Chapter 9.



Discuss the characteristics of identity thieves.

V. Motor Vehicle Theft  Explain that motor vehicle theft is really a special type of larceny-theft and discuss why the UCR/NIBRS and NCVS collect separate statistics on motor vehicle theft.  Focus on how individuals often see their cars an extension of their self-image and how the theft of a car may be experienced as a personal violation.

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 Discuss how cars and motor vehicle technology have changed in response to vehicle theft.  In the movie, Gone in 60 Seconds, the lead character is a former jockey who must steal 50 designated cars in a 24-hour period to save his brother from death by unscrupulous characters.

A. Theft of Car Parts 

Point out that a vehicle does not actually need to be stolen for parts to be stolen from it.

B. Joyriders: Car Theft for Fun 

Lead a class discussion as to whether joyriders cause harm.



Incorporate material on life cycle theories into the discussion of offenses that are strongly associated with adolescence (including joyriding, shoplifting, and arson).

Ask the class what turning points or trajectories could halt the participation of youths in such offenses.



Discuss other motivations for motor vehicle theft, such as short-term transportation or the use of the vehicle in the commission of another crime.



Watch the FOX5 Las Vegas video, ―Some thieves only want cars for joyriding, Las Vegas police say‖ on YouTube.

C. Professional Car Theft 

Have students research the types of cars that are most commonly targeted by professional car thieves.



Watch the National Geographic video, ―Professional Car Thief‖ on YouTube.

VI. Arson  Discuss the definition of arson used in your state. Explain that in some states, arson is divided into degrees (first, second, etc.), with those types of arson that produce greater risk to life being considered more serious.  Discuss why arson is a problematic crime for the criminal justice system to investigate.  Discuss various motives for arson, including arson as a terrorist tactic.  The movie Backdraft, which portrays the story of two brothers who are firefighters, also involves a veteran fire inspector who is tracking a series of arsons and who interacts with an incarcerated pyromaniac.

A. Fire Setters 

Review the main types of juvenile arsonists.



Discuss the reasons why information on juvenile involvement in arson is crucial to understanding this crime.



Ask students why they think juvenile arson is not given greater coverage by the media.



Watch the Henrico County Government video, ―Juvenile Firesetter Intervention Program‖ on YouTube.

VII. Understanding Property Crimes A. Persistent and Professional Thieves 

Discuss the differences between persistent and professional thieves.

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

Describe offense specialization and ask whether persistent or professional thieves are more likely to engage in such specialization.



Discuss what Malcolm Klein means by ―cafeteria-style offending.‖ Relate this to John Hepburn‘s concept of ―occasional offenders.‖



Relate the material on the sporadic nature of most property offending back to the lack of rigid specialization also found among robbery offenders.



Ask students to analyze the decision-making context of a recent life event (e.g., coming to college, breaking up with a girlfriend or boyfriend). Have them diagram the key turning points in a flow chart, giving particular attention to the temporal sequence of events. Discuss these in class and identify where bounded rationality is at work in most decisions we make.



The movie, The Thief portrays a jewel thief who has spent most of his life in and out of prisons, where he was apprenticed to a master thief.



The movie, The Italian Job, centers on a group of big-time thieves who are going for the largest score of their lives. Betrayal by one of the members and the path to revenge take up most of the film‘s time.



In the movie, The Score, Robert De Niro plays a professional thief who is lured into carrying out one last job by an old associate.



The movie, Entrapment features a master thief thought to be long retired and who is being chased by a hotshot insurance investigator assigned to his case.



The movie, The Thomas Crown Affair portrays a sophisticated thief who steals art.

B. The Criminal Careers of Property Offenders 

Ask students to write down their first impression when they hear the term, ―career criminal.‖ Compare the views among the class, and to the definition in the textbook.



Discuss the phases of a criminal career, according to Alfred Blumstein.



Have students review the material on life course theories and ask them if the concepts apply to persistent and professional thieves.

C. Property Offenders and Rational Choice 

Discuss how rationality enters into the decision making of most property offenders.

VIII. Receivers of Stolen Property  Note that case studies are often used in research on rare populations, such as the professional fence. Link this back to the discussion of case studies in Chapter 2.

A. The Role of Criminal Receivers 

Describe the different types of fences.



Ask students whether it would be possible to move stolen property without the cooperation of ―honest‖ citizens.

LIST OF CHANGES/TRANSITION GUIDE 

A new chapter-opening story describes the criminal activity of Sam Bankman-Fried.



A new key term, ―organized retail theft (ORT)‖ has been added, and a discussion and photo of ORT are now included.



The Criminal Profile box at the end of the chapter explores the story of Sam Bankman-Fried.

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

The ―discrete spatial choice‖ approach to identifying burglary targets is now discussed.



The ―Costs of Burglary‖ section has been updated.

ADDITIONAL ASSIGNMENTS AND CLASS ACTIVITIES Additional Lecture Topics Motor Vehicle Theft. When discussing the topic of auto theft, consider reviewing some of the many types of antitheft devices that have been developed. These include car alarms; steering column locks such as ―The Club;‖ fuel cutoff switches; ignition kill switches; chip-encoded ignition keys; and electronic tracking systems such as ―Lo-Jack.‖ Discuss the impact of these devices as a deterrent to various types of car thieves and as a way of preventing car theft.

Fraud and Theft. Consider reviewing some specific additional types of fraud and theft, such as confidence games, counterfeiting, embezzlement, insurance fraud, and credit card fraud. In addition, various types of forgery could be discussed, including check forgery (e.g., present Lemert‘s two-part typology of check forgers, forgery of medical prescriptions, and passport forgery).

Female Burglars. Currently less than 15% of all burglars apprehended are women. Consider discussing burglars who are women and why there may be gender-based differences in burglars today.

Student Activities Activity #1: Property Crime on Campus. Recent legislation requires that universities publish statistics on crime on campus. Obtain information about property crime occurring at your university campus. Compare the rates of property crime on campus to the rates in neighboring jurisdictions. How safe does your university appear to be?

Activity #2: Preventing Property Crime on Campus. Your instructor will place you in groups and assign each group to a building on campus (e.g., the university library, the student union, a dormitory). Examine this building and its occupants for vulnerability to property crime (burglary, theft, etc.). Develop at least three workable techniques for reducing the likelihood of property crime victimization for the occupants of this building.

Activity #3: Theoretical Explanations of Property Offending. Select three theories that you have discussed in previous chapters and discuss how each of these might explain the actions of property offenders.

Activity #4: UCR vs. State Definitions of Property Crimes. This activity involves comparing the definitions used by the FBI with those used by state criminal codes.

1.

2.

3.

Obtain the definitions used by the FBI for the four Part I property offenses. This information is available on the World Wide Web at the FBI‘s web site (https://ucr.fbi.gov/).

Obtain the definitions of the same four crimes for your state. One way to locate state statutes on the Web is to access the Cornell University School of Law‘s Legal Information Institute Web site. (Note: Your instructor may choose to assign you a different state.)

Compare and contrast the definitions used by the FBI with those of your state. What differences do you see?

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Note to instructor: Rather than assigning all students in the class the same state, you may consider assigning each student a different state and then comparing the results in class.

Activity #5: Comparing Rates of Property Crime. Your instructor will assign you two large cities in the United States and one property crime (for example, burglary). Visit the website of the FBI and access the most recent UCR/NIBRS data for these two cities. Use that information to answer the following questions (substituting the assigned crime for burglary): 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Print out the number of burglaries known to the police for each of the two cities.

Which city had more reported burglaries?

What were the burglary rates for each of the two cities?

Did the burglary rates change over time in either city?

What factors might explain the differences in the burglary rates?

SUGGESTED ANSWERS TO END-OF-CHAPTER ASSIGNMENTS Questions for Review 1.

What are the major forms of property crime discussed in this chapter?

The main forms of property crime discussed in this chapter are:  Larceny-theft  Burglary  Motor vehicle theft (a form of larceny-theft)  Arson  Receivers of stolen property (fences)

2.

What constitutes the crime of burglary?

Burglary involves illegally entering a structure to commit a felony or theft. The structure may be a business, a residence, or some other type of building. Force is not a necessary element of burglary. Burglary is a very common crime.

3.

What constitutes the crime of larceny-theft? What forms does it take?

According to the FBI, larceny-theft involves ―the unlawful taking, carrying, leading, or riding away of property from the possession or constructive possession of another.‖ Some of the forms of larceny discussed in this chapter include employee theft, shoplifting, flash mobs, identity theft, motor vehicle theft, and the theft of car parts.

Other types of larceny-theft identified by the UCR include:  Pocket-picking  Theft from coin-operated machines  Purse-snatching  Theft of bicycles  Theft from buildings

4.

What is a motor vehicle theft? How prevalent is it?

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The FBI defines motor vehicle theft as ―the theft or attempted theft of a motor vehicle,‖ which includes automobiles, buses, motorcycles, and snowmobiles. Automobiles are the vehicle most commonly stolen.

In 2020, approximately 810,400 vehicles were reported stolen, with an estimated total value of over $7.4 billion (an average of $9,166 per stolen vehicle). About 75% of motor vehicles thefts are reported to the police and about 62% of stolen cars are recovered, although not necessarily in their pre-theft condition.

5.

What constitutes the crime of arson?

Arson is defined by the FBI as ―any willful or malicious burning or attempt to burn, with or without intent to defraud, a dwelling house, public building, motor vehicle or aircraft, personal property of another, etc.‖

6.

What are some characteristics of persistent and professional thieves?

Professional thieves commit crimes with some degree of skill, earn reasonably well from their crimes, and despite stealing over long periods of time, spend rather little time incarcerated. They make a regular business of stealing and have technical skills and methods.

Persistent thieves continue in common-law property crimes despite an at best ordinary level of success. They generally do not specialize but alternate between a variety of crimes such as burglary, robbery, car theft, and confidence games.

7.

What are the typical activities of receivers of stolen property, and how are stolen goods distributed?

Receivers of stolen property are involved in the buying and reselling of stolen goods. Stolen goods may get resold through a business that the fence uses as a cover or front for criminal activity (e.g., auto parts stores, antique shops, pawnshops, etc.). They may also be sold directly to individuals, who are offered a ―good deal‖ on certain items.

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Chapter 12 White-Collar and Organized Crime Crime as a Job CHAPTER OVERVIEW This chapter reviews two specific categories of crime: white-collar crime and organized crime.

White-collar crime has a long history in the United States, ranging back to financial scandals such as Teapot Dome in 1929. High-profile financial crimes in the 1980s included Ivan Boesky‘s insider trading scam, Michael Milken‘s conviction for securities fraud, and the nationwide savings and loan disaster. Prosecutions for white-collar crime in the 21st century include those involving executives from Enron Corporation and WorldCom, ImClone founder Dr. Sam Waksal, and Theranos founder Elizabeth Holmes.

Edwin Sutherland‘s original 1939 definition of white-collar crime focused on the social standing of the offender; today, the focus has shifted to the type of offense committed. Currently, one commonly used term is occupational crime, which includes any criminal act committed through opportunities created in the course of a legal occupation. Today, the chief criterion for a crime to be ―white-collar‖ is that it occurs as part of or as a deviation from the violator‘s occupational role. The focus has shifted to the nature of the crime instead of the persons or occupation involved. Corporate crime, another form of white-collar crime, is committed for the benefit of the corporation rather than the individual employee.

Most white-collar crimes are financial crimes, committed for monetary profit by businesses and those who run them. Financial crimes include corporate fraud, securities and commodities fraud, health-care fraud, mortgage fraud, theft of intellectual property, public assistance fraud, insurance fraud, mass-marketing fraud, and money laundering. A relatively new area of corporate and white-collar criminality is environmental crime, or crimes that damage some protected or otherwise significant aspect of the natural environment. Government collusion and political corruption may also fall into the category of white-collar crime. Some political behavior may be seen as corrupt by many people but may not actually violate the law because it is undertaken by people who make the law or who are influential in having laws made or changed. Terrorist activity frequently involves some form of white-collar crime.

There have been a number of attempts to explain the causes of white-collar crime. Sutherland applied elements of differential association theory to white-collar crime. Travis Hirschi and Michael Gottfredson stated that people who commit white-collar crimes are motivated by the same forces that drive other offenders and suggest that a general theory of crime can explain white-collar crime and other forms of crime as well. John Braithwaite suggests that white-collar criminals are motivated by a disparity between corporate goals and legitimate means and suggests that business subcultures encourage illegal behavior.

White-collar and corporate crimes are often difficult to investigate and prosecute. The recent Sarbanes-Oxley Act, which sets stiff penalties for corporate offenders, was the latest in a long line of federal legislation relating to the conduct of American business that extends back to the 1800s.

Organized crime involves the unlawful activities of a highly organized group engaged in supplying illegal goods and services. Criminal societies such as La Cosa Nostra and the Mafia began in Italy several centuries ago and migrated to the United States during a period of Italian 111 Copyright © 2025 Pearson Education, Inc.

immigration during the late 1800s. Ethnic succession has long been a reality in organized crime as well as in other aspects of life in the U.S. Prohibition established the wealth and power of modern organized crime syndicates and effectively institutionalized official corruption.

A criminal enterprise is a group of individuals with an identified hierarchy and extensive supporting network, engaged insignificant criminal activity. The hallmark of true criminal organizations is that they can function independently of any members and have continuity over time as personnel change. Transnational organized crime, which involves unlawful activity undertaken and supported by organized criminal groups operating across national boundaries, is one of the most pressing challenges today. The globalization of crime has required the enhanced coordination of law enforcement efforts in different parts of the world and the expansion of American law enforcement activities beyond national borders.

The most important piece of federal legislation ever passed to target organized crime activities is the Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations (RICO) Act, which includes a provision for asset forfeiture, making it possible for federal officials to seize all proceeds of persons involved in racketeering. Organized crime is difficult to control. Current policies have been criticized for focusing almost exclusively on criminal aspects of organized crime rather than on the organized aspects. Howard Abadinsky recommended four approaches to the control of organized crime, each of which requires changes at the policy-making level.

LEARNING OUTCOMES After reading this chapter, you should be able to answer the following questions: 12.1.

12.2.

12.3.

What is the history of white-collar crime in this country?

What is white-collar crime? What are the various kinds of white-collar crimes?

What is corporate crime? Political corruption? How do they differ from more traditional forms of white-collar crime?

12.4. What are the causes of white-collar crime? How do the motivations of people who commit white-collar crimes differ from those of other criminals?

12.5. How can white-collar and corporate crime be controlled?

12.6. What is organized crime and how does it differ from white-collar crime?

12.7. What is a criminal enterprise?

12.8. What is transnational organized crime?

12.9. What is the RICO statute and how does it enable the use of asset forfeiture as an enforcement technique?

12.10. How can organized crime be controlled?

CHAPTER OUTLINE I. Introduction II. A Brief History of White-Collar Crime  Discuss various reasons why the public has become increasingly outraged at corporate wrongdoing.  Explain that although white-collar crime is generally seen as an economic crime, some white-collar crimes can cause physical as well as economic harm.

III. Understanding White-Collar Crime  Review Sutherland‘s definition of white-collar crime.

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 Discuss the link between social status and white-collar crime.

A. Definitional Evolution of White-Collar Crime 

Ask students to discuss whether blue-collar crime and white-collar crime should be considered separately.



Explain how the definition of white-collar crime has changed over time.

B. White-Collar Crime Today 

Ask students why they think attention to white-collar offending initially focused more on the offender than the offense.



Relate white-collar crime to society‘s value system.



Watch the video, ―What is White Collar Crime? [No. 86]‖ on YouTube.



Watch the video, ―White Collar Crimes Explained! (Step by Step)‖ on YouTube.

IV. Corporate and Political Crime  Reivew the definition of white-collar crime that is used by this textbook.

A. Corporate Crime 

Have students consider how corporate crime is a distinct form of white-collar crime.



Ask students why they think the United States is one of only a few countries that hold corporations criminally accountable.



A great deal of corporate misconduct is covered by civil rather than criminal law.

Explain the implications of this for addressing harm issues.

B. Financial Crime 

Review the various types of offenses that fall under the label of financial crime.



Explain the different types of corporate fraud.



Discuss some recent examples of securities and commodities fraud.



Ask students if they believe medical professionals are becoming increasingly willing to risk patient harm when committing health care fraud.



Have students discuss their experiences with mass-marketing fraud. For example, most students (and faculty) have probably received many e-mails that involve variations on Nigerian letter fraud.



Bring in examples of letters and/or e-mails that involve attempts to commit massmarketing fraud and explain why victims continue to fall for these types of schemes.



Explain how public assistance fraud costs the United States enormous amounts of money each year.



Discuss the possible links between money laundering and terrorism.



Watch the TED-Ed video, ‗How does money laundering work? – Delena D. Spann‖ on YouTube.

C. Environmental Crimes and Green Criminology 

Discuss recent environmental crimes and have students consider who commits these types of crimes.



Ask students why they think green criminology and ecocriminology are becoming such important areas for criminologists.

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

Watch the ShortCuts TV video, ―Sociology ShortCuts: Green Criminology‖ on YouTube.



Watch the ShortCuts TV video, ―Sociology ShortCuts: Green Crime and Criminology‖ on YouTube.



Watch the video, ―How is Green Crime a Global Crime? Sociology of Crime and Deviance‖ on YouTube.

D. Scandals, Government Collusion, and Political Corruption 

The textbook states that some political behavior may be viewed as corrupt but may not violate the law because it is committed by people who make the law or may influence lawmaking. Link this to the discussion of conflict and radical criminology in Chapter 8.



Discuss the effects that political corruption may have on public trust in the government and the political system.

E. Terrorism and White-Collar Crime 

Explain that white-collar crime itself may not be a form of terrorism but it may be used to fund terrorist activity.

V. Causes of White-Collar Crime  Discuss Hirschi and Gottfredson‘s explanation of white-collar crime and review why they believe white-collar criminality is less common than street crime. Link this to the discussion of the general theory of crime in Chapter 7  Explain how corporate culture is a factor in John Braithwaite‘s theoretical perspective on white-collar crime. Link this to the discussion of culture conflict and subcultural theory in Chapter 6  Direct students back to Edwin Sutherland‘s differential association theory (discussed in Chapter 7) and emphasize how the key elements of that theory would be strengthened by a focus on white-collar crime.  Ask students to discuss whether the social problems or individual responsibility perspective might better explain white-collar crime.

VI. Curtailing White-Collar and Corporate Crime  Ask students to visit the Web site of the FBI and bring back information on the difficulties involved in investigating white-collar offenses.  Discuss various reasons why white-collar crimes are difficult to prosecute.  Explain how crime-control efforts targeting street crime differ from those directed toward white-collar crime.  Discuss the effectiveness of federal legislation in curtailing white-collar and corporate crime.  Explain why the control of white-collar crime is problematic from a policy perspective.

VII. Organized Crime  Define organized crime and explain how organized crime developed in the United States.  Explain how the concept of ethnic succession relates to the development of organized crime.

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 Point out that the concept of ethnic succession can be found in other areas, such as sports.

For example, if you look at the history of boxing, the ethnic background of boxing champions follows the assimilation process of various immigrant groups.  Ask students to discuss the usefulness of understanding the cultural context of organized crime. Have them relate this to ethnographic research as discussed in earlier chapters.  Discuss the effect of the passage of the Eighteenth Amendment on the development of organized crime in the United States.  Explain to students that Prohibition illustrates the difficulty of trying to criminalize behavior that has widespread social acceptance, especially behavior that was at one time legal. Aside from the issue of debates over marijuana as a gateway offense to more serious drug use, opponents of legalizing marijuana are aware that it is difficult to change course once a behavior has been legalized.  Remind students that Prohibition also created opportunities for widespread corruption of local government and law enforcement.  Emphasize that the association of Prohibition with the rise of organized crime is not an isolated case. Quite often, resistance to changes in the norm (i.e., laws in this case) produces resistance in the form of deviance.  Watch the CrimeOdyssey video, ―The Origin of Organized Crime‖ on YouTube.  Watch the WatchMojo video, ―The Story of Organized Crime‖ on YouTube.  Watch the video, ―Changing the Shape of American Organized Crime Al Capone and Prohibition‖ on YouTube.  Discuss the various activities that may qualify as organized crime.  The three Godfather films follow the rise and fall of a fictional organized-crime family, the Corleones.  Growing Up Gotti was a reality series that followed the daily life of Victoria Gotti, the daughter of crime boss John Gotti, and her three sons. An anniversary special, Growing Up Gotti: Ten Years Later, aired in 2014.  The television series, The Sopranos detailed the daily family and business life of a modern-day crime family.

VIII. Criminal Enterprises  Explain the characteristics of a true criminal organization.  Ask students why they think state laws defining criminal enterprises tend to be more inclusive than federal statutes.

IX. Transnational Organized Crime  Explain transnational organized crime and provide examples.  Ask students why Russian transnational organized crime is such an important issue today.  Focus on the link between American activities and the Russian Mafiya.  Ask students to visit the FBI web site and collect information on transnational organized crime and how the FBI is attempting to address this issue.  Watch the GCTF video, ―Good Practices: Nexus between Transnational Organized Crime and Terrorism‖ on YouTube.

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 Watch the UNODC video, ―UNODC explains about the UN Convention against Transnational Organized Crime,‖ on YouTube.

X. Organized Crime and the Law  Discuss RICO. Explain asset forfeiture and discuss why it is so useful in the fight against organized crime.  Watch the video, ―The History of the RICO Act, Explained‖ on YouTube.  Watch the video, ―Federal RICO Statute Explained by Attorney Glenn Obedin‖ on YouTube.

XI. Policy Issues: The Control of Organized Crime  Ask students which of the theories on crime causation that have been offered in this text might best explain organized crime.  Ask students to explain why Gary Potter argues that to understand and deal with organized crime, it is necessary to study the social context in which it occurs.  Review the approaches to the control of organized crime recommended by Howard Abadinsky.

LIST OF CHANGES/TRANSITION GUIDE 

The chapter now opens with a story about Sam Bankman-Fried, co-founder of the FTX cryptocurrency company. It also includes his photo and ends with a new Criminal Profiles box that features Bankman-Fried.



The case of Elizabeth Holmes, the founder of the blood-testing laboratory, Theranos, is now included.



The key terms ―ecocide,‖ ―environmental justice,‖ and ―ecocriminology‖ are introduced, along with a discussion of ecological crimes.



A new table on arguments against the criminalization of sex work has been added to provide a counter-perspective to the existing table on harms caused by street sex work.



A new ―Crime in the News‖ box on COVID fraud focusing largely on the Paycheck Protection Program (PPP) and associated criminal activities has been added.

ADDITIONAL ASSIGNMENTS AND CLASS ACTIVITIES

Additional Lecture Topics Corporate Crime Cases. Consider discussing in more detail some of the best-known cases of corporate crime. These might include: 

The conspiracy case involving a number of electrical companies, such as General Electric and Westinghouse. Relate back to neutralization theory while reviewing how the defendants used various techniques of neutralization when explaining their involvement in the conspiracy.



The Ford Pinto case, in which Ford executives ignored a fuel rupture problem with Ford Pintos after determining that it would be unprofitable to fix the problem, despite their knowledge that failure to correct the problem with the gas tank would result in death and serious injury to drivers.

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Federal Statutes on Environmental Crimes. Review some of the federal statutes that have been passed to help control environmental crimes. These include, but are not limited to: 

The Clean Air Act, which requires companies to comply with air quality standards established by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)



The Clean Water Act, which provides sanctions to companies that knowingly or negligently discharge pollutants into navigable waters



The Toxic Substance Control Act, which regulates the manufacture, processing, and distribution of chemicals and toxic substances



The Superfund (Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act), which requires companies to clean up hazardous waste at contaminated dumping sites

Federal Statutes on Organized Crime. The text discusses RICO, but there were a number of other federal statutes passed in the 1970s and 1980s to help the criminal justice system fight organized crime. Title III of the Omnibus Crime Control and Safe Streets Act (1968) allows federal law enforcement officers to use electronic surveillance devices to listen to conversations among suspected organized criminals (after obtaining a warrant) and to submit into evidence in federal court information obtained through electronic surveillance. The Organized Crime Control Act (1970) has a number of important provisions in addition to RICO. These include the establishment of the witness protection program, witness immunity, and special grand juries to investigate multistate organized crime activities.

Student Activities Activity #1: Famous White-Collar Crimes. Your instructor will divide you into groups. Discuss your reactions to celebrated white-collar crime cases of recent years, such as those involving Enron, WorldCom, Inc., ImClone and Martha Stewart, and Volkswagen. Compare your reactions to these cases with your views on street crimes.

Activity #2: Enforcing Laws on White-Collar Crime. Visit the web site of the FBI and locate the section on white-collar crime. After reviewing the material on the site, write a short paper explaining why it is difficult to enforce laws prohibiting white-collar offenses.

Activity #3: Organizational Structures of Legitimate Corporations and Organized Crime Families. Obtain a chart showing the organizational structure of a modern legitimate corporation and one showing the structure of a typical organized crime family. Have students identify similarities and differences.

SUGGESTED ANSWERS TO END-OF-CHAPTER ASSIGNMENTS Questions for Review 1.

What are some examples of white-collar crime in American history?

Some examples of white-collar crime in the history of the United States include:  The 1929 Teapot Dome scandal  The insider-trading scam of stock market tycoon Ivan Boesky  The securities fraud conviction of junk-bond king Michael Milken  The nationwide savings and loan disaster of the 1980s  Sham banking operations in the mid-1990s 117 Copyright © 2025 Pearson Education, Inc.

     2.

Enron Corporation WorldCom, Inc. ImClone founder‘s insider trading activities Martha Stewart‘s involvement in insider trading Elizabeth Holmes involvement in wire fraud

What is white-collar crime? How did the idea of white-collar crime develop in the criminological literature?

White-collar crime was defined by Edwin Sutherland as violations of the criminal law ―committed by a person of respectability and high social status in the course of his occupation.‖ This early focus was on the offender, rather than on the offense, when determining whether a crime was classified as ―white-collar.‖ The 1967 President‘s Crime Commission accepted this view when discussing white-collar crime in its report, The Challenge of Crime in a Free Society.

However, in recent years, the focus has shifted away from the offender, their occupation, and their social standing, and onto the nature or type of crime committed. Criminologists have developed the term blue-collar crime to identify law-violating behavior of individuals who are members in less prestigious occupational groups (automobile repair, yard maintenance, house cleaning, etc.). More recently, the term occupational crime has also been developed, including ―any act punishable by law that is committed through opportunity created in the course of an occupation which is legal.‖ This includes crimes by both white-collar and bluecollar workers.

3.

What is corporate crime? How does corporate crime differ from white-collar crime, if at all?

Corporate crime is essentially corporate malfeasance and comes in many forms. It is defined as a violation of a criminal statute either by a corporate entity or by its executives, employees, or agents acting on behalf of and for the benefit of the corporation, partnership, or other form of business entity.

Corporate crime is a specific form of white-collar crime, rather than a separate category.

4. What are some of the causes of white-collar crime? How do people who commit whitecollar crime differ from other offenders?

There are many different theories that attempt to explain the causes of white-collar crime.

Edwin Sutherland applied elements of differential association theory to white-collar crime, arguing that white-collar criminality is learned. Travis Hirschi and Michael Gottfredson applied their general theory of crime to white-collar crime, stating that white-collar criminals are motivated by the same forces that drive other offenders and suggesting that a general theory of crime can explain white-collar crime and other forms of crime as well. John Braithwaite suggested that white-collar criminals are motivated by a disparity between corporate goals and legitimate means and suggested that business subcultures encourage illegal behavior. He emphasized the need for an integrated theory of organizational crime including elements from strain, subcultural, labeling, and control theories.

One of the main differences between white-collar criminals and other offenders is that whitecollar criminals tend to be better educated and more affluent than other offenders. They do 118 Copyright © 2025 Pearson Education, Inc.

not tend to plan their crimes or rationally consider the consequences, and many do not feel that their actions were really wrong.

5. How can white-collar and corporate crime be controlled?

Efforts to control white-collar and corporate crime include the passage of key federal legislation, such as the Sarbanes-Oxley Act, the creation of various task forces, such as President Obama‘s interagency Financial Fraud Enforcement Task Force, and the creation of various federal enforcement initiatives, such as those announced by President Obama in 2012.

Individual occupational crimes may be reduced by concerted enforcement and protective efforts. Consumer information services can help eliminate fraudulent business practices, and increases in both victim awareness and reporting can help target businesses and individuals responsible for various forms of white-collar or occupational crime.

6. What is organized crime? How does it differ from white-collar crime?

Organized crime refers to the unlawful activities of the members of a highly organized, disciplined association engaged in supplying illegal goods and services, including gambling, sex work, loan-sharking, narcotics, and labor racketeering.

Organized crime differs from white-collar crime primarily in that individuals commit whitecollar crime in the course of a legal occupation that supplies legal goods and services.

However, individuals committing organized crime are engaged in an illegal occupation, supplying illegal goods and services.

7. What are criminal enterprises? What kinds of activities do they engage in?

The FBI defines a criminal enterprise as ―a group of individuals with an identifiable hierarchy, and extensive supporting networks, engaged in significant criminal activity.‖ The hallmark of a true criminal organization is that it functions independently of any member and it has continuity over time as personnel within the organization change.

8. What transnational organized criminal groups does this chapter identify? How do their activities differ from those of traditional organized crime families?

This chapter focuses mainly on Russian organized crime. While Russian organized crime is involved in a variety of American-style organized criminal activities, such as narcotics, illicit sex work, racketeering, and illicit gambling, it is also heavily involved in human trafficking, product diversion and counterfeiting of popular Western goods, and illicit arms sales and smuggling.

9. Identify federal statutes and other initiatives that target organized crime.

The first federal legislation aimed specifically at stopping organized crime was the Hobbs Act, which includes a series of statutes passed beginning in 1946. The Hobbs Act essentially made it a violation of federal law to engage in any form of criminal behavior that interferes with interstate commerce. It also criminalized interstate or foreign travel in furtherance of criminal activity and made it a crime to use the highways, telephone, or mail in support of activities such as gambling, drug trafficking, loan-sharking, and other forms of racketeering.

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The Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations (RICO) Act is considered the single most important piece of federal legislation ever passed that specifically targets the activities of organized crime. It was part of the federal Organized Crime Control Act of 1970. The Rico part of the Act brought all the various activities of American organized crime under one piece of legislation and created new ways to punish them. It did not make racketeering itself illegal but instead focused on the ill-gotten gains derived from such activity, making it unlawful for anyone involved in a pattern of racketeering to derive any income or proceeds from that activity.

10. What strategies does this chapter discuss for combating the activities of organized crime?

The four main strategies or approaches to the control of organized crime discussed in this chapter all involve changes at the policy-making level:  Increase the risk of involvement in organized crime by increasing the resources available to law enforcement agencies that are useful in fighting organized crime  Increase law enforcement authority, which will increase the risks of involvement in organized crime  Reduce the economic lure of involvement in organized crime by making legitimate opportunities more readily available  Decrease organized criminal opportunity through decriminalization or legalization of activities from which organized crime draws income

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Chapter 13 Drug and Sex Crimes Recreational Offenses CHAPTER OVERVIEW Although drug and sex crimes, where the people involved participate voluntarily, have been called victimless crimes, they are not necessarily without victims. The widespread use and abuse of drugs dates back to the 1800s. Data on drug use in the U.S. are available from a number of sources, including several annual services that provide ongoing information on drug use and abuse among adults and children. The costs of drug abuse include not only the amount spent to purchase illegal drugs but also the social costs associated with drug abuse. However, some have argued that drugs and sex work may make a significant contribution to the economy. Controlled substances are grouped into seven categories: stimulants, depressants, cannabis, narcotics, hallucinogens, anabolic steroids, and inhalants. Federal law also allows for the control of other dangerous drugs, which refers to broad categories or classes of controlled substances other than cocaine, opiates, and cannabis products.

Addiction is a chronic, relapsing brain disease characterized by compulsive drug seeking and use, despite harmful consequences. The complexity of drug addiction is often underestimated; it is a disease that affects the brain, so stopping drug addiction is not just a matter of sufficient willpower. Whether a person becomes addicted to drugs is affected by a wide variety of factors.

Drug trafficking includes the manufacturing, distributing, dispensing, importing, and exporting of a controlled or counterfeit substance, or possession with intent to do the same. The term also refers to the sale of controlled substances. Federal law enforcement agencies focus largely on preventing smuggling and apprehending smugglers in their effort to reduce trafficking.

The pharmaceutical diversion and subsequent abuse of legitimately manufactured controlled substances are also a major source of drug-related addiction and dependence. Pharmaceutical diversion occurs through illegal prescribing by doctors and illegal dispensing by pharmacists.

Designer drugs, which are often manufactured in clandestine drug facilities, are new substances designed by slightly altering the chemical makeup of other illegal or tightly controlled drugs.

Drugs and crime are also linked in a variety of ways. Drug-defined crimes are violations of laws prohibiting or regulating the possession, use, or distribution of illegal drugs. Drug-related crimes are crimes in which drugs contribute to the offense. There is clear evidence of a strong relationship between drug use and crime. Narcoterrorism is the distribution of a controlled substance in order to provide something of pecuniary value to a person or group engaging in terrorist activity.

Prior to 1907, all drugs could be bought and sold in the United States without restriction. The 1906 federal Pure Food and Drug Act required manufacturers to list their ingredients and specifically targeted mood-altering chemicals. The 1914 Harrison Act, the first major piece of federal antidrug legislation, effectively outlawed street use of opium, morphine, heroin, cocaine, and their derivatives. The 18th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, ratified in 1919, prohibited the manufacture, sale, and transportation of alcoholic beverages; after support for Prohibition declined, it was repealed in 1933 with the ratification of the 21st Amendment. Other important federal drug control legislation includes the 1937 Marijuana Tax Act, the 1951 Boggs Act, the 1970 Controlled Substances Act, the 1994 Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act 121 Copyright © 2025 Pearson Education, Inc.

(which included a number of drug-related provisions), the 1996 Comprehensive Methamphetamine Control Act, and the 2016 21st Century Cures Act. Some states have legalized the personal recreational use of marijuana or allow the use of physical-prescribed marijuana for medical purposes.

Major policy initiatives in the fight against illicit drugs include antidrug legislation and strict enforcement, interdiction, crop control, forfeiture, and antidrug education and drug treatment.

Decriminalization and legalization are also policies that may be used to address the drug problem.

Sex work is defined as act of engaging in sexual activity for money. Laws against sex work relate to the issue of to what extent the law should legislate morality. The main typology of sex workers, which classifies them based on location, includes streetwalkers, bar/hotel prostitutes, online escorts/call girls/boys, club prostitutes, brothel prostitutes, and others who do not clearly fit any of these categories.

Sex trafficking is a form of human trafficking. The commercial sexual exploitation of children (CSEC) involves pimps luring children into the sex trade. It includes the production of child pornography, juvenile sex work, trafficking in children for sexual purposes, and child sex tourism. Factors contributing to CSEC include macro/contextual factors, micro/situational factors, and individual/internal factors. There is considerable federal legislation intended to combat CSEC. Researchers have also studied clients of sex workers and the changing nature of the commercial sex economy. Leaving the sex trade is a long, complex, and difficult process and current social service systems do not meet the needs of sex workers wanting to leave.

Some feminist thinkers argue that sex work exploits and demeans women, and subject them to the dangers of violence and disease. Others suggest that selling sex is not inherently exploitative and can be liberating because it fulfills a woman‘s rights to control her body and sexuality; this group sees sex work as legitimate sex work and is more likely to argue for legalization. Legalization of sex work would allow women above a specified age to offer paid sexual services with few restrictions. Decriminalization would reduce the penalties associated with sex work but would regulate the practice and may attempt to curtail it.

LEARNING OUTCOMES After reading this chapter, you should be able to answer the following questions: 13.1. What can be said about the history of drugs, drug abuse, and drug-control legislation in the United States?

13.2. What are the various categories of controlled substances described by federal law, and what is a dangerous drug?

13.3. How can drug addiction be understood, and how can it be treated?

13.4. What is drug trafficking, and what efforts are being made to curtail it?

13.5. What government strategies have been used to reduce the incidence of drug use in the United States?

13.6. What is sex work, and what are the various kinds of sex workers identified in this chapter?

CHAPTER OUTLINE I.

Introduction  Explain the concept of ―victimless crimes.‖ Stress that there may be indirect victims, including both other individuals and society as a whole. Ask the class if they can think of 122 Copyright © 2025 Pearson Education, Inc.

other crimes (in addition to drug and sex crimes) that might be considered ―victimless‖ and who might actually be victimized by these crimes.  Ask students whether the term ―victimless crime‖ is appropriate for the types of crimes covered in this chapter, or of any other type of crime.  Lead a discussion as to whether any crime is truly ―victimless.‖ II. History of Drug Abuse in the United States  Explain psychoactive substances and ask students if they can think of any psychoactive substances that are not illegal.  Use the Internet to find video on events from the 1960s. Show videos that highlight the role of drugs during the period.  Watch the Secular Talk video, ―The History of Drug Laws in America‖ on YouTube.

A. Extent of Drug Abuse 

Have students examine sources on drug abuse, such as the Monitoring the Future (MTF) study and the most recent National Survey on Drug Use and Health (NSDUH) data and identify relationships between drug use and sociodemographic variables (age, race, income, employment status, geographic location, etc.)



Explain that men appear to have higher rates of illicit drug use than women. Ask students to consider why that is the case.



Break students into groups and ask them to respond to the following question: ―If, according to some sources such as the NSDUH survey, drug abuse is significantly less of a problem today than in previous years, why do you think drugs continue to be at the forefront of crime control policy?‖



Refer students back to the discussion of research methods in Chapter 2 and ask them to consider ways in which the measures used in a survey might influence its findings.

B. Young People and Drugs 

Ask students if they participated in the Monitoring the Future study in high school. If any did, consider asking them what the experience was like and whether they told the truth on the survey. Obviously students should not be required to participate if they prefer not to discuss their experiences with the study.



Point out that the MTF survey has consistently found most high school seniors report marijuana was very accessible. Ask students if this was the case when they were seniors and discuss the implications of easy access to illegal drugs and what they think should be done about this problem.



Discuss the recent concerns regarding opioid abuse in the U.S.



Ask students why society has placed such emphasis on the problem of opioid abuse, compared to the abuse of other types of drugs.



Lead a discussion as to whether lawsuits against drug manufacturers and distributors will have an impact on the opioid problem.



Watch the NIDA/NIH video, ―Monitoring the Future Survey: Why we Study Teen Drug Use, a Message to Parents‖ on YouTube.

C. Costs of Drug Abuse 

Review some of the costs to society of illegal drug use.

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

Ask students to discuss the claim that drugs and sex work make a significant contribution to economic activity. Link this to the recent move to legalize certain types of drugs, particularly marijuana.

II. Types of Illegal Drugs  Explain the difference between a controlled substance and a dangerous drug. Ask students whether all controlled substances are dangerous drugs.  Discuss the various types of drugs in the Schedule of Controlled Substances and explain the effects of each type.  Ask students why they think inhalants merit special focus in the chapter.

III. Drug Addiction  Ask students whether understanding that drug addiction is a disease that impacts the brain affects how they view individuals who are addicted to drugs.  Have students discuss the appropriateness and potential effectiveness of harsh prison sentences for people who are addicted to drugs, given their understanding of drug addiction as a disease.

IV. Drug Trafficking  Explain the meaning of the term drug trafficking from a law enforcement perspective.  Have students select a drug that mostly comes from another country and identify the methods typically used to smuggle that drug into the United States?  Discuss the Heroin Signature Program (HSP), and how it influences the policing of drug trafficking.  Watch the TED Talk video, ―The Deadly Genius of Drug Cartels‖ on YouTube.  The movie, Traffic presents a fictional account of drug trafficking from several perspectives.  The movie Blow tells the true story of George Jung, who went into the cocaine business with Pablo Escobar.  Clockers is a 1995 crime drama directed by Spike Lee. It follows Strike, who is a ―clocker‖ (a drug dealer) in a New York housing project. As Strike works to leave his life of crime behind, the murder of a local restaurant owner places him at the center of the police investigation.

A. Pharmaceutical Diversion and Synthetic Drugs 

Discuss the problem of pharmaceutical diversion.



Explain how controlling precursor chemicals may help prevent the manufacture of synthetic drugs.



Watch the video, ―New report details seriousness of drug diversion‖ on YouTube.



Watch the Washington Post video, ―Understanding the shift from plant-based to synthetic drugs‖ on YouTube.

B. Drugs and Crime 

Distinguish between drug-defined crimes and drug related crimes, and explain why this distinction is important for crime-control policy initiatives.



Discuss the ways in which illegal drug use is related to violent and property crime.



Discuss the evidence regarding the link between drug use and crime.

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

Explain to students that surveys of drug use among those in jail or under arrest will be problematic for generalizing the study results back to the relationship between drug use and crime in the general population.

C. Narcoterrorism V. Social Policy and Drug Abuse  Explain that the Pure Food and Drug Act did not actually outlaw any drugs and discuss the impact of this Act.  Discuss the impact of the Harrison Act on the medical profession and on both treatment of and social attitudes toward individuals addicted to drugs.  Break students into groups and have them discuss their knowledge of the Rohypnol and similar drugs.

A. Recent Legislation 

Review the federal drug-control legislation that has been enacted over the past few decades.



Discuss the ways in which the Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act of 1994 addresses drug control.



Discuss the key provisions of the 21st Century Cures Act, including the funding of federal drug courts.



Ask students why they think state and local laws tend to be more progressive than federal statutes in the area of drug control.

B. Drug-Control Strategies 

Review the various policy initiatives focusing on drug control.



Compare interdiction and crop control.



Discuss the use of asset forfeiture in the effort to control illegal drugs. Refer back to the discussion of asset forfeiture under RICO in Chapter 12 and explain that the same strategy may be used to fight more than one type of crime. Emphasize that practices associated with asset forfeiture may raise questions about civil liberties.



Break students into groups, and have them discuss and critique the type of drugeducation programs that operated in their high schools. Have them attempt to access the effectiveness of this kind of education.



Invite a police officer who has been involved in D.A.R.E. programs to speak to the class.



Given the strong association of peer groups with adolescent activities, including drug use, explain that the most effective drug education needs to be peer directed.



Watch the Weed Reader video, ―The Quick Hit History of Medical Marijuana‖ on YouTube.



Watch the WFAA video, ―Marijuana vs Alcohol – What the CDC says about usage‖ on YouTube.

C. The Drug Legalization/Decriminalization Debate 

Explain the difference between legalization and decriminalization. Review the arguments for and against legalization of drugs.



Break the class into groups and organize a debate regarding the legalization of recreational marijuana. Alternatively, break students into two groups and have one 125 Copyright © 2025 Pearson Education, Inc.

group argue in favor of legalizing drugs (not just marijuana) while the other group argues against it. It might be interesting to break the groups down by gender or age and have them take turns offering arguments favoring both perspectives. 

Review the various types of drug treatment facilities.

VI. Sex Work  Define sex work and discuss the elements that differentiate it from other types of consensual sex between strangers or acquaintances.  Emphasize that the book focuses on sex work involving women servicing clients who are men. Explain that other forms of sex work also exist, including men who service clients who are women, as well as same-sex sex work.  Ask students their opinion of the terms ―prostitution‖ and ―sex work.‖ How does each term affect how the individual engaging in the act may be viewed by society? Ask students if the terms might affect their personal views of individuals engaging in the act.

A. Morals Legislation 

Review the statement by John Stuart Mill and ask students to discuss their views of legislating morality. Ask them whether they believe has an obligation to enforce moral decisions. If so, whose morality should be enforced?

B. A Typology of Sex Workers 

Identify the various types of sex workers the book discusses, and ask if there might be other types or if the book‘s typology might be further refined.



Discuss a typology of men who engage in sex work and explain that many men in sex work service clients of different sexes.



The television series, Secret Diary of a Call Girl, based on the blog and books of ―Belle de Jour‖ describes the secret life of Hannah Baxter, who under the name of Belle is a high-priced call girl in London.

C. Commercial Sexual Exploitation of Children (CSEC) 

Briefly explain human trafficking and explain that it will be covered in more detail in Chapter 15.



Ask the class if they believe child sex workers should always be considered victims or if there are any situations in which they should be viewed as offenders.



The text identifies three categories of factors contributing to CSEC. Ask students to consider which group they believe is the most influential. Given limited criminal justice resources, have students discuss which category should receive the most attention from policy makers.



Watch the Darkness to Light video, ―Commercial Sexual Exploitation of Children‖ on YouTube

D. Clients of Sex Workers 

Discuss the sociodemographic characteristics of men who solicit sex workers.



Watch the video, ―The Typical Man Who Buys Sex Isn‘t Who You Think‖ on YouTube.

E. Sex Work: A Changing Business 

Discuss the influence of the Internet on the underground commercial sex economy.

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

Discuss the various reasons why it is so difficult for sex workers to leave the sex trade once involved. Ask the class what types of assistance social service systems could provide to assist them in leaving.



Point out that sex workers are viewed as criminals and lead a discussion as to how this might this affect their willingness to reach out to social services systems for assistance in leaving the sex trade. Ask students what society should do to encourage sex workers to exit the sex trade.

G. Feminist Perspectives on Sex Work 

Review the opposing views of feminist thinkers regarding sex work.

H. Legalization and Decriminalization of Prostitution 

Break students into two groups and have one group argue in favor of legalizing sex work while the other group argues against it. It might be interesting to break the groups down along gender lines and have them take turns offering arguments favoring both perspectives.



Discuss possible consequences of the legalization of sex work from a social problems and an individual responsibility perspective



Watch the TED Talk video, ―The Laws that Sex Workers Really Want‖ on YouTube.



Watch the TED Talk video, ―Prostitution is Not a Victimless Crime‖ on YouTube.

LIST OF CHANGES/TRANSITION GUIDE 

Statistics and data have been updated throughout the chapter.



Mention of the drugs fentanyl and flakka have been added.



Discussion of Oregon‘s Drug Policy Action Measure 110, which essentially decriminalized the use of all drugs, including hallucinogens, throughout the state, is discussed.



The War on Drugs is now a key term. The chapter notes that the War on Drugs has produced profoundly unequal outcomes across racial groups in this country.



The chapter now contains an added section on drug treatment facilities in the United States.

ADDITIONAL ASSIGNMENTS AND CLASS ACTIVITIES Additional Lecture Topics Causes of Drug Abuse. Discuss possible causes of drug abuse. For example, consider whether genetics may play a role in substance abuse; adoption research has found a link between parents with alcohol use disorder and the development of alcohol problems among adoptees raised by adoptive parents who do not have alcohol use disorder. Other theories that may apply include rational choice theory, social learning theory, and subcultural theory.

Sex Trafficking. The topic of sex trafficking is mentioned briefly in the text; consider expanding on this topic and discussing international trafficking in sex work. Amnesty International‘s web site has a number of articles on the international sex trade (search ―sex trafficking‖).

Male Sex Workers. Although the text focuses primarily on women engaging in sex with customers who are men, men‘s sex work is also a considerable business. Sex workers who are

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men are generally engaged by customers who are men for various types of activity. Consider discussing this topic in more detail.

Student Activities Activity #1: Legalization of Drugs or Sex Work. Your instructor will place you into groups and assign you a topic (drugs or sex work) and a point of view (for or against legalization). Your group should create a short video, advertisement, PSA or other media arguing your assigned position.

Activity #2: Legalization of Drugs or Sex Work. Write a short paper discussing the advantages and disadvantages of legalizing marijuana or sex work in the United States. You should include their personal opinion on the question of legalization and explain why you feel this way.

SUGGESTED ANSWERS TO END-OF-CHAPTER ASSIGNMENTS Questions for Review 1.

What can be said about the history of drugs, drug abuse, and drug-control legislation in the United States?

The rampant, widespread use and abuse of mind- and mood-altering drugs in the U.S. is of relatively recent origin. Throughout the 1800s and early 1900s, the use of illegal drugs in America was mostly associated with artistic individuals and fringe groups. One exception was opium dens, which flourished in West Coast cities and eventually spread across the U.S. Psychoactive substances gained widespread acceptance during the hippie movement in the late 1960s and early 1970s. Drugs such as marijuana, LSD, hashish, psilocybin, and peyote became more popular.

There is a considerable amount of federal drug-control legislation in the U.S. The first major piece of anti-drug legislation was the Harrison Act, passed in 1914, which required anyone dealing in opium, morphine, heroin, and cocaine, or their derivatives, to register with the federal government and pay an annual tax of $1, and effectively outlawed street use of these drugs. Other early legislation included the 1937 Marijuana Tax Act, which effectively outlawed marijuana and the 1951 Boggs Act, which reinforced this and also mandated deletion of heroin from the list of medically useful substances and required its complete removal from all medicines. More recent legislation includes the 1996 Comprehensive Methamphetamine Control Act and the Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act of 1994, which contained a large number of drug-related provisions. Recently, some states have begun to move to legalize the personal use of marijuana or allow the use of marijuana for medical purposes. A 2013 U.S. Department of Justice memorandum to federal prosecutors took a ―hands-off‖ approach to enforcing the Controlled Substances Act in those jurisdictions. The federal 21st Century Cures Act was passed in 2016; the act focuses on mainstream health issues but does address drug addiction and provides funding for federal drug courts.

2.

What are the various categories of controlled substances described by federal law?

What is a dangerous drug?

Controlled substances are grouped into five schedules under the 1970 Controlled Substances Act:  Schedule I includes drugs with a high potential for abuse that have no currently accepted medical use in the United States, and for which there is a lack of accepted safety 128 Copyright © 2025 Pearson Education, Inc.

standards for use under medical supervision. Drugs in this schedule include marijuana, heroin, opioids, hallucinogenic substances, peyote, mescaline, gamma-hydroxybutyric acid (GHB), and others.  Schedule II includes drugs with a high potential for abuse that are currently accepted for medical use in the United States but for which use may lead to severe psychological or physical dependence. Drugs in this schedule include cocaine, opium, oxycodone, methadone, morphine, Seconal, methamphetamine, and other amphetamines.  Schedule III includes drugs with less potential for abuse than those in Schedules I and II that are currently accepted for medical use in the United States and for which use may lead to moderate or low physical dependence or high psychological dependence. Drugs in this schedule include anabolic steroids, ketamine, hydrocodone, and a number of barbiturates and sedatives.  Schedule IV includes drugs with less potential for abuse than those in Schedule III that are currently accepted for medical use and for which use may lead to limited physical or psychological dependence relative to the substances in Schedule III. Drugs in this schedule include some antidiarrheal drugs; some partial opioid analgesics; some sleeping pills such as Zolpidem; long-acting barbiturates; and benzodiazepines such as Xanax, Librium, and Valium.  Schedule V includes drugs with a low potential for abuse relative to those in Schedule IV that are currently accepted for medical use and for which use may lead to limited physical or psychological dependence relative to the substances in Schedule IV. Drugs in this schedule include some cough suppressants, anticonvulsants, and selected prescription pain pills.

Controlled substances are generally grouped into seven categories: stimulants, depressants, cannabis, narcotics, hallucinogens, anabolic steroids, and inhalants.

The DEA uses the term dangerous drugs to refer to ―broad categories or classes of controlled substances other than cocaine, opiates, and cannabis products.‖ Federal law also allows for the control of these drugs.

3.

4.

What is drug addiction? How does it affect the brain?

Drug addiction is defined by NIDA as ―a chronic, relapsing brain disease that is characterized by compulsive drug seeking and use, despite harmful consequences.‖ Its complexity is often underestimated; addition can lead to physical changes in the brain that result in changes to areas critical to judgment, decision-making, learning and memory, and behavior control. Addiction is a disease the impacts the brain, so stopping addiction is not just a matter of willpower.

What is drug trafficking? How do drugs like cocaine and heroin enter the United States?

Drug trafficking includes manufacturing, distributing, dispensing, importing and exporting a controlled or counterfeit substance. Transportation routes bringing drugs like cocaine and heroin into the United States include shipping drugs overland from South America through Central America and Mexico; concealing drugs in containers or packing them in with legitimate products and directly shipping them to U.S. ports; flying drugs into the U.S. via commercial airplanes or in private aircraft; airdropping drugs to vessels waiting offshore for smuggling into the U.S.

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5.

What government strategies have been used to reduce the incidence of drug use in the United States?

There are five main policy initiatives used in the battle against illicit drugs: 1. Antidrug legislation and strict enforcement emphasizes strict enforcement of antidrug abuse laws, focusing particularly on the arrest, prosecution, and incarceration of distributors of controlled substances, as well as on the seizure and destruction of illegal drugs and clandestine drug laboratories.

2. Interdiction is an international drug control policy focusing on stopping drugs from entering the country. Interdiction enforcement in the United States is difficult because of gaps in border coverage and instances of corruption in U.S. border agencies.

3. Crop control involves the eradication of both domestic and overseas drug crops such as marijuana and coca plants.

4. Asset forfeiture allows the criminal justice system to seize money and property that has been used in drug trafficking or manufacture or that was obtained as a result of drug trafficking.

5. Antidrug education and drug treatment strategies which reach targeted individuals through schools, corporations, and media campaigns, have become increasingly popular recently, although recent studies have questioned the effectiveness of many school-based programs, such as D.A.R.E.

6.

What is sex work? What are the various types of sex workers identified in this chapter?

Sex work is defined as the act engaging in sexual activity for money. Based on location, there are five main types of sex workers:  Streetwalkers are the lowest class of sex workers. They solicit customers in public and perform their services in customers‘ cars, in alleyways, in nearby hotels, darkened doorways, etc. Streetwalkers command the lowest prices, have little bargaining power over sexual practices and use of condoms, and face the highest risk of harm and of arrest.  Bar/hotel prostitutes work in bars, clubs, and hotels, and may have a standing relationship with managers, bartenders and security personnel. Services usually are provided in the establishment. Prices vary according to the prestige of the establishment and the sex worker‘s risk of harm and arrest are low to moderate.  Club prostitutes operate in much the same way as bar/hotel prostitutes but the settings in which they work are strip clubs (aka ―gentlemen‘s clubs‖) and the sex workers do double duty as on-stage performers and as sex workers.  Online escorts/call girls/call boys work for escort services on an ―outcall basis‖ and are not restricted to specific locales. The sex worker may negotiate on site with the customer for specific services, thus insulating the escort service from legal action as it claims it merely arranged for ―companionship.‖ Escorts have considerable bargaining power over types of sexual services provided and use of condoms and face the lowest risk of harm or arrest.  House/brothel prostitutes perform in legal environments but are limited to only a few venues in the U.S. where sex work is legalized. In the U.S., brothel sex work is legal in rural counties in Nevada.

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Chapter 14 Technology and Crime It’s a Double-Edged Sword CHAPTER OVERVIEW Technology and crime have always been closely linked. Technology, which facilitates new forms of criminal behavior as it advances, can be used both by those who commit crime and by those who enforce the law. Because of the increasing value of information, high-tech criminals take a variety of routes to obtain illegitimate access to computerized information. Cybercrime is any violation of a federal or state computer-crime statute. The Phillips classification framework includes six major categories of cybercrime. A recent report on the cost of cybercrime found that cybercrimes and their associated costs are on the rise; the most costly cybercrimes are those caused by malicious insiders; and business disruption represents the highest cost, followed by the costs associated with information loss.

Today, all states and the federal government have developed computer crime statutes specifically applicable to invasive activities aimed at illegally accessing stored information. The 1996 federal Computer Decency Act (CDA) focused on protecting minors from harmful material on the Internet but was challenged by the ACLU and the Supreme Court found that elements of the Act abridged the First Amendment‘s protection of freedom of speech. There are a number of significant federal statutes addressing cybercrimes and cybersecurity. Because some illegal activities involving computer equipment may be more appropriately prosecuted under traditional laws, some experts distinguish among several categories of crimes involving computers, including computer crime, computer-related crime, and computer abuse.

Some researchers suggest that computer hacking began with the creation of the interstate phone system and direct distance dialing implemented by AT&T in the late 1950s.

Cybercriminals come from a diverse background. Hackers and hacker identities are a product of cyberspace, which exists only within electronic networks. The text discusses a typology of hackers. Cybercrime and white-collar crime share a number of characteristics and similarities.

Technology helps both criminals and criminal justice personnel; law enforcement capabilities and criminally useful technologies usually leapfrog each other. DNA profiling has become an important tool for criminal justice; all states have passed legislation requiring convicted offenders to provide DNA samples and a growing number of jurisdictions are requiring DNA samples from arrestees as well. Computers connect people and things, providing access to crime data and security information. Expert systems that attempt to duplicate the decision-making processes used by skilled investigators may be used in offender profiling. The Internet of Things can provide real-time data on ongoing activities; this information can be used by law enforcement and criminal enterprises.

Information security software products, including those that provide data encryption, are increasingly used by private companies and government agencies. However, any effective program intended to secure an organization‘s operation against the threat of cybercrime must be built on a realistic threat analysis that identifies organizational perils so that strategies to deal with them can be introduced. One powerful tool is the audit trail. Currently, many police departments do not have personnel skilled in the investigation of computer crime and may intentional avoid computer-crime investigations because they are complex and demanding. This situation is changing due to federal intervention.

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Moving information safely and securely is a key issue today and much of that is done on the Internet, which is increasingly targeted by hackers and cybercriminals. The federal government is focusing on the need to protect the nation‘s information systems. Because information and property can be transmitted through data networks, cybercriminals are not affected by national boundaries, nor do they have to be close to the victim‘s location to commit crimes. However, law enforcement agencies are still affected by geographic boundaries and may still have to deal with the difficulties of international cooperation.

The development and expansion of telecommunications resources has led to concerns about security and data integrity, as well as a focus on issues relating to privacy, free speech, and personal freedoms. There are many unanswered questions. One key policy issue is whether the First Amendment‘s protection of free speech applies to electronic communications. Private groups such as the Electronic Frontier Foundation (EFF) have been formed to focus on the protection of constitutional principles as new communications technologies emerge.

LEARNING OUTCOMES After reading this chapter, you should be able to answer the following questions: 14.1.

14.2.

14.3.

14.4.

14.5.

14.6.

14.7.

14.8.

How does advancing technology produce new forms of crime?

How does high technology provide new criminal opportunities?

What is the extent of cybercrime today?

Name some of the federal laws targeting cybercriminals.

Describe the characteristics of cybercriminals.

What new technologies are being used in today‘s fight against crime?

What is being done today to combat cybercrime and to secure the Internet today?

What are some of the personal freedoms that are threatened by today‘s need for advanced security?

CHAPTER OUTLINE I. Introduction II. Technology and Crime  Emphasize the paradoxical relationship between technology and crime. Explain how technology has both been a tool for crime control and provided opportunities for new forms of crime to emerge.  Refer students back to the information on routine activities theory in Chapter 9 and ask them how technological developments would be taken into account by this theory.  Relate the fact that different motivations underlie cybercrime to Jack Katz‘s notion about the seductions of crime (discussed in Chapter 3). Ask students how cybercrime or mischief might be seductive.  Ask students to discuss which theories of crime causation discussed in this textbook best explains high-tech crime.  Discus recent technological crimes that threaten the security of individuals and the United States as a whole. For example, discuss recent large-scale data breaches and how these have affected online users.  Point out that technology facilitates new forms of behavior and social practices in a wide variety of ways. For example, technological developments can make manual labor easier, less hazardous, and also obsolete.

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 Watch the video, ―Cybercrime: Hacking Goes Way Beyond Simple Identity Theft‖ on YouTube.  Watch the Smithsonian Channel video, ―The Cyber Crimes You Never Hear About‖ on YouTube.

III. High Technology and Criminal Opportunity  Review the Phillips classification framework for cybercrime.  Break students into groups, and have them discuss whether regulating activity on the Internet should be left to individuals (e.g., parents, industry trade groups) or should be a realm for government control.  Point out that because of the rapid increase in Internet use among organizations, businesses, and individuals, it is not surprising that computer viruses or other forms of malware could become a weapon of terrorists.

IV. The Extent of Cybercrime  Point out that the most costly cybercrimes are committed by malicious insiders, not by hackers.  Explain phishing and invite students to discuss their personal experiences with phishing emails.  Discuss how computer viruses and other types of malware have affected the workplace.

Explain the increasing concerns about ransomware.  Ask students if there might be a ―thrill‖ factor to the creation of computer viruses.  Watch the video, ―Computer Viruses and Threats Explained by Common Craft‖ on the Common Craft website.  Watch the Kaspersky video, ―Malware: Difference Between Computer Viruses, Worms and Trojans‖ on YouTube.

V. Cybercrime and the Law  Explain how the dynamics of technology development drive the creation of new laws.  Review the various pieces of federal legislation directed at cybercrime.  Discuss the implications of having considerable variation in state statutes on cybercrime.  Using the Communications Decency Act (CDA) as an example, explain the difficulties of developing legislation to police the Internet.  Explain the difference between computer abuse and a computer-related crime?  Organize the class into groups and lead a debate about the Cybersecurity Information Sharing Act of 2015. Have students argue for and against increasing government access to information held by private companies.  Discuss the Cyberincident Reporting for Critical Infrastructure Act of 2022. Ask students to consider whether requiring businesses to report security incidents and ransomware payments violates their privacy. How might reporting these incidents affect their profitability?  Watch the video, ―How the FBI investigates cybercrimes‖ on YouTube.

A. The History and Nature of Hacking 

Ask students whether they believe phone phreaks are still a threat in today‘s world of voiceover IP (Internet phones).

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

Discuss various methods that are available for increasing the security of smartphones and other mobile devices and explain that many people do not take security precautions.



Have students discuss their use of mobile devices, the security measures they do (or do not) employ, and their views regarding their personal risk of being ―hacked.‖



Have students conduct a survey (of university students or of members of the public) focusing on what types of security measures people use for their mobile devices.



Ask students how they might apply concepts from Edwin Sutherland‘s differential association theory (discussed in Chapter 7) to cybercrime and to consider to what extent these concepts might be useful for understanding the reality of cybercrime today.



Watch the video, ―3 Cases of Hacked IoT Devices‖ on YouTube.



The movie, Hackers, starring Angelina Jolie, offers an interesting look at the hacker subculture.

VI. A Profile of Cybercriminals  Have students discuss the many ways in which cyberspace affects our lives today.  Describe a typical hacker.  Review the hacker typology and discuss whether hacking can be positive for society.  Watch the video, ―Types of Hackers (Hats) Explained‖ on YouTube.  Watch the video, ―Every Hackers Explained in 13 Minutes‖ on YouTube.

A. Cybercrime as a Form of White-Collar Crime 

Discuss whether cybercrime is really another form of white-collar crime. Link the material in this section back to the discussion of white-collar crime in Chapter 12.

VII. Technology in the Fight against Crime  Break the class into groups and ask them to identify ways in which various forms of technology have made the fight against crime easier.  Focus on the concept of technology as a double-edged sword.  Discuss the ways in which some innovative crime-fighting techniques may involve a loss of individual rights.  Have students search for crime-related databases and identify how they are used. Lead a discussion on the usefulness of these databases, and possible ethical implications.  Movies such as Judge Dredd and RoboCop offer interesting looks at possible—if improbable—ways that technology can be used in the fight against crime.

A. DNA Technology 

Discuss DNA evidence and ask the class if they feel that DNA evidence can be an effective tool in criminal trials involving personal crimes of violence.



Discuss ways in which the introduction of DNA evidence has made a difference to criminal justice.



Have students discuss the pros and cons of the federal DNA Identification Act of 1994.



Ask students if they think that we could effectively solve a larger number of crimes by requiring that DNA be submitted to a DNA bank at birth. Have them debate the 134 Copyright © 2025 Pearson Education, Inc.

ethical implications of maintaining such databases and mandating DNA submission at birth. 

Watch the video, ―DNA analysis from crime scenes‖ on YouTube.

B. Computers as Crime-Fighting Tools 

Discuss the ways in which expert systems assist law enforcement in combating cybercrime.



Explain the concept of the Internet of Things. Ask students what devices they own that might be part of the Internet of Things and how the data collected by these devices might be used by criminals and by law enforcement.



Provide information on computer forensics as a field of study and on employment opportunities in this field.



Watch the video, ―What is IoT (Internet of Things)? An Introduction‖ on YouTube.

VIII. Combating Cybercrime  Explain that data encryption programs are available for general use, not just for large companies or government agencies. Discuss the type of data that might be on home computers and might require encryption.  Ask students whether they use data encryption programs on their personal devices and why they have (or have not) chosen to do so.  Explain the types of scenarios in which threat analysis might be used.  Watch the video, ―What Is an Audit Trail and Why Is It Important?‖ on YouTube.

A. Police Investigation of Computer Crime 

Point out that small police departments are rarely able to dedicate significant resources to the enforcement of computer-related crimes. Ask students whether specialized law enforcement agencies should be created to investigate such crimes.



Discuss FBI involvement in cybercrime investigation.

B. Cybercrime and Internet Security 

Discuss the ways in which the shift in the occupational structure of our society may be related to the increased incidence of cybercrime.



Discuss the idea that information has always been a valuable resource but that with the special role that computer technology plays in a service-based economy, it has taken on an even more heightened significance.



Point out the centrality of the Internet to businesses and individual lives today. Ask students to consider whether we as a society can afford not to regulate it and discuss what forms such regulation might take.



Discuss the idea that modern telecommunications services might be as much a hindrance to the continued growth of democracy as a catalyst. For example, ask students whether they believe technological skills and access will increase the divide between social classes.



Ask students to consider how the development of the Internet has completely changed the geographical nature of crime.

IX. Policy Issues: Personal Freedoms in the Information Age

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 Explain that free speech is not absolutely protected by the First Amendment and that exceptions have long existed. Discuss what this might mean in terms of the future of the Internet.  Ask students whether they think that today‘s criminal law will be able to keep pace with changing technologies.

LIST OF CHANGES/TRANSITION GUIDE 

A new story and photo now open the chapter.



The definition of the key term ―cybercrime‖ has been updated. The update is based on the Council of Europe‘s Convention on Cybercrime.



A new classification of cybercrimes, widely approved by the U.S. Bureau of Justice Statistics, is introduced.



A table containing the new cyber security classification system is now included.



The data and line art showing the extent of cybercrimes has been updated.



Two new federal statutes (and associated key terms) are introduced: the ―Internet of Things (IoT) Cybersecurity Improvement Act (IoT CIA)‖ and the ―Cybersecurity and infrastructure Security Agency (CISA) Act.‖



The Cybersecurity and Infrastructure Security Agency (CISA) Act and its provisions are discussed.



The 2023 ransomware attack on MGM resorts, in which the company refused to pay the ransom, is discussed.



The Golden State Killer, Joseph Hames DeAngelo, and his arrest are used as an example of the creative use of DNA profiling.



The Criminal Profiles box on computer hacker, Kevin Mitnick, has been updated.

ADDITIONAL ASSIGNMENTS AND CLASS ACTIVITIES Additional Lecture Topics High-Tech vs. Street Crimes. Consider discussing some of the characteristics of high-tech crimes that distinguish them from ―street‖ crimes. These might include: 

Victim/offender contact: in high-tech crimes, victims and offenders generally do not come into direct contact with each other and may even be thousands of miles apart at the time of the crime.



The type of property targeted: most property crimes target tangible items, but computer crimes generally focus on intangible property such as information or data.



The international component: unlike street crimes, computer crimes may involve victims and offenders in different countries.



The amount of profit: although most street crimes do not involve large profits, high-tech crimes can allow offenders to steal huge amounts.



The complexity of the crime: computer crimes require offenders to have a much greater level of technical proficiency and skill than do street crimes.

Vulnerability of Computers to Crime. Discuss some of the aspects of computers and computer technology that make them vulnerable to criminal activity. These might include: 136 Copyright © 2025 Pearson Education, Inc.



The ease with which anyone with some knowledge of programming can create a program such as a virus or logic bomb and insinuate it into a target computer



The ease with which people with some knowledge of computers can erase any records of their illicit presence within a computer



The ease with which computer software may be copied by anyone with even a small amount of skill with computers

Software Piracy. Consider discussing the topic of software piracy, a very costly cybercrime.

There are a number of different types of software piracy, including: 

Softlifting



Software counterfeiting



Internet piracy



OEM unbundling



Hard disk loading



Renting

More information on this topic may be obtained online.

Hackathons. Consider introducing the concept of a hackathon, a collaborative event that brings people together to improve upon or build a new software program. Discuss how hacking can be socially positive. More information on hackathons may be found online.

Student Activities Activity #1: Theoretical Explanations of High-Tech Criminal Activity. Select three theories that you have discussed in previous chapters and discuss how each of these might explain the actions of high-tech offenders.

Activity #2: Policing Cybercrime. Visit a local, county, or state police department in your area and find out how they handle cases of cybercrime.

Note to Instructor: You may choose to assign students to visit specific agencies, to avoid duplication. You could then have them compare the methods used in different agencies.

Activity #3: Regulating the Internet. Your instructor will divide you into groups. Discuss whether regulating activity on the Internet should be left to individuals (e.g., parents, industry trade groups) or whether it should be a realm for government control.

SUGGESTED ANSWERS TO END-OF-CHAPTER ASSIGNMENTS Questions for Review 1.

How does advancing technology produce new forms of crime?

Advancing technology facilitates many new forms of behavior, including crime. Crimes that are common today were impossible in the past because the necessary technology did not

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exist. For example, the invention of the computer has made possible a variety of crimes that involve computers.

2.

How does high technology provide criminal opportunities?

One way in which high technology provides criminal opportunity is by providing criminals with illegitimate access to information, the primary commodity of the twenty-first century.

Offenders have many ways to obtain illegitimate access to computerized information and the databases that contain it, including direct access, computer trespass, and even using electromagnetic field decoders to scan radio frequency emanations generated by computers.

3.

What is the extent of cybercrime today?

Cybercrime is a serious issue. According to the FBI, between 2018 and 2022, there were 3.26 million cybercrime-related criminal complaints reported to the Internet Crime Complaint Center, resulting in about $27.6 billion in total losses. Phishing is also extremely pervasive; a typical scheme can reach up to 1 million e-mail in-boxes. In 2022, there were over 4.7 million phishing attacks. Ransomware can also be extremely costly; one ransomware attack on MGM Resorts cost the firm over $100 million.

4.

Name some of the federal laws targeting cybercriminals.  The 1996 Communications Decency Act (CDA) focused on protecting minors from harmful material on the Internet. The CDA was challenged by the ACLU and other groups and in the 1997 case Reno v. ACLU, the U.S. Supreme Court found some provisions to be unconstitutional because they contravened First Amendment free speech protections  The 1997 No Electronic Theft Act (NETA) criminalizes willful infringement of copyrighted works, including by electronic means  The Digital Theft Deterrence and Copyright Damages Improvement Act of 1999 increased the amount of damages that could be awarded in copyright infringement cases (such as software piracy)  The Cyber Security Enhancement Act of 2002 deals with the creation of sentencing guidelines for computer criminals  The Cybersecurity Enhancement Act (CSEA) of 2014 provides for an ongoing, voluntary public-private partnership to improve cybersecurity  The Cybersecurity Information Sharing Act (CISA) of 2015 facilitates the sharing of information about cybersecurity threats between the U.S. government and technology and manufacturing companies.  The 2018 Clarifying Lawful Overseas Use of Data (CLOUD) Act clarifies that all warrants, subpoenas, and court orders apply to all data within a provider‘s possession, custody, or control, regardless of whether the data is stored inside or outside the U.S.  The 2018 Cybersecurity and Infrastructure Security Agency (CISA II) Act established the Cybersecurity and Infrastructure Security Agency as the primary federal agency responsible for protecting critical infrastructure from cyber threats.  The 2020 Internet of Things Cybersecurity Improvement Act (IoT CIA) requires federal agencies to only procure and use IoT devices that meet specific security requirements established by the National Institute of Standards and Technology.

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 The 2022 Cyberincident Reporting for Critical Infrastructure Act (CIRCIA) requires businesses that own or manage critical infrastructure to report security incidents and ransomware payments to the Cybersecurity and Infrastructure Security Agency.

5.

Describe the characteristics of cybercriminals.

Cybercriminals come from diverse backgrounds. The average hacker is a young man between the ages of 16 and 25 who lives in the U.S., is a computer user but not a programmer, and hacks with software written by others. The motivation of the average hacker is to gain access to Web sites and computer networks, not to profit financially.

However, not all hackers are kids trying to beat technological challenges. Many are high-tech computer operators using computers to engage in unlawful conduct.

6.

What new technologies are being used in today’s fight against crime?

A wide variety of new technologies are being used in the fight against crime today. These include traffic radar, computer databases of known offenders, machine-based expert systems, cellular communications, video surveillance, electronic eavesdropping, DNA analysis, lesslethal weapons, and computer-aided dispatch systems.

7.

What is being done today to combat cybercrime and to secure the Internet today?

There are a number of ways in which individuals and organizations are attempting to combat cybercrime. Threat or risk analysis involves a complete and thorough assessment of the perils facing an organization including the threat of high-tech crime. Once such threats are identified, strategies to combat them may be introduced.

One such strategy is at the federal level: the creation of agencies designed to investigate violations of computer-crime laws. These include the FBI‘s National Computer Crime Squad and the DOJ‘s Computer Crime and Intellectual Property Section. In addition, the Cybersecurity and Infrastructure Security Agency is building the national capacity to defend against cyberattacks. Another strategy involves ―sniffers‖ designed for automated monitoring of network traffic. The development of sanctions that would be effective deterrents for hightech offenders includes confiscation of equipment, limiting the offender‘s use of computers, and restricting the offender‘s freedom to accept jobs involving computers. It is also clear that strategies to protect the Internet from treats from hackers and computer criminals are necessary.

8.

What are some personal freedoms that are threatened by today’s need for advanced security?

Concerns in this area include issues of privacy and freedom of speech, and whether rights protected by the Constitution and Bill of Rights apply to computer-based communications.

The main concern is possible threats to the First Amendment, as there are questions as to whether electronic communications qualify for protection under the First Amendment. One organization that is actively working to refine notions of privacy and legality as they apply to computer-based media is the Electronic Frontier Foundation.

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Chapter 15 Globalization and Terrorism Our Small World CHAPTER OVERVIEW Comparative criminology is the study of crime on a cross-national level. Comparing crime patterns in different countries allows locally accepted theories and policies to be reevaluated in light of world experience. Globalization is a process of social homogenization by which the experiences of everyday life, marked by the diffusion of commodities and ideas, can foster a standardization of cultural expressions around the world. Globalization of knowledge is beginning to impact theory formation and the development of crime control policies in the U.S. Ethnocentrism, or culture-centeredness, can interfere with the work of comparative criminologists in a variety of ways. There are a number of difficulties in comparing crime rates across countries, including definitional differences; diverse crime reporting practices; and political, social, economic, and other influences on the reporting of statistics to international agencies.

Globalization makes it impossible to ignore criminal activity in other parts of the world.

Transnational crime, which involves unlawful activities undertaken and supported by organized criminal groups operating across national boundaries, has emerged as one of the most pressing challenges of the early 21st century. Transnational crimes range from fraudulent email and phishing schemes to drug running, international trade in weapons of mass destruction, sex tourism, and illegal trafficking in human beings and human organs.

Human smuggling and human trafficking are two of the fastest growing areas of international criminal activity today. Human smuggling involves illegally and clandestinely crossing borders.

Trafficking in persons involves the exploitation of unwilling people through force, coercion, threat, or deception, and includes human rights abuses such as debt bondage, deprivation of liberty, or lack of control over freedom and labor. Trafficking is often undertaken for purposes of sexual exploitation or labor exploitation. Women and children make up the largest group of trafficking victims, and they are often physically and emotionally abused. While trafficking often involves crossing international borders, victims can be trafficked within their own country and community. The majority of perpetrators operate alone or with one to three others. Most rationalize or justify their activities by claiming that the victims were involved voluntarily or that they were helping people; those trafficking in children frequently claim to have been ignorant of their victims‘ age. The primary motivation for trafficking is money. A wide variety of federal immigration and trafficking legislation has been enacted in an effort to place controls on immigration. Victims of trafficking are sometimes treated as criminals, despite being coerced into illegal activities.

Terrorism is premeditated, politically motivated violence perpetrated against noncombatant targets by subnational groups or clandestine agents, usually intended to influence an audience.

Terrorist acts are distinguished from other violent crimes by the political motivation or social ideology of the offender, although not all terrorists share the same motivation. There are six main categories of terrorist organizations: nationalist, religious, state-sponsored, left-wing, right-wing, and anarchistic. The U.S. is faced with three major types of terrorism: domestic, international, and cyber.

Radicalized individuals who chose violence can be distinguished from those who do not by the presence or absence of certain social characteristics. The radicalization process of American 140 Copyright © 2025 Pearson Education, Inc.

homegrown terrorists involves four stages. Lone wolf terrorists differ from mass murderers; while mass murderers lack a motivating ideology and generally commit crimes because of personal feelings of having been wronged, lone wolf terrorists are ideologically motivated.

Strategies for combating terrorism include cutting off funding to radical organizations. The legal category of foreign terrorist organization was recognizes the transnationalism of many terrorist organizations. The State Department has the authority to designate foreign governments as state sponsors of international terrorism. Current U.S. policy focuses largely on terrorist organizations like al Qaeda and their affiliated networks and state supporters. Trends in modern terrorism include a trend toward loosely organized, self-financed international terrorist networks; a trend toward religiously or ideologically motivated terrorism; and the recent growth of crossnational links among different terrorist organizations.

Cross-jurisdictional crimes can be particularly difficult to combat. Three international agencies that focus on investigating and prosecuting international crime are INTERPOL, Europol, and the International Criminal Court.

LEARNING OUTCOMES After reading this chapter, you should be able to answer the following questions: 15.1.

15.2.

15.3.

15.4.

15.5.

15.6.

What is comparative criminology, and what role does globalization play in understanding criminal activities today?

What are the differences between human smuggling and human trafficking?

What is terrorism, and what are the various types of terrorism that this chapter discusses?

What is known about the radicalization process of homegrown American Al Qaedainspired terrorists?

What efforts are being made to counter the terrorist threat?

What international crime-fighting organizations does this chapter discuss?

CHAPTER OUTLINE I. Introduction II. Comparative Criminology  Define comparative criminology and discuss ways in which it can provide insights into the study of crime.  Explain globalization and why it is important to criminal justice and criminology today.

A. Ethnocentrism 

Explain that ethnocentrism is applicable to many areas of social life. Ask students to identify and describe these areas.



Have students research the definition of a crime in multiple countries and report back on the definitional variations they observe.



Point out the definitional differences in crime that exist among states in the U.S. and then ask students to consider how much greater these differences must be when looking at different countries.



Focus on the variations in measuring crime and the differences in reporting practices among countries.

B. Transnational Crimes 141 Copyright © 2025 Pearson Education, Inc.



Refer students back to the discussion of transnational organized crime in Chapter 12 and ask how the discussion in that chapter is relevant here.

III. Human Smuggling and Trafficking  Explain the difference between human trafficking (trafficking in persons) and human smuggling.  Ask students how human smuggling differs from illegal immigration.  Watch the video, ―Human Trafficking Basics‖ on YouTube.  Watch the ABC News video, ―Inside the business of human smuggling at the southern border‖ on YouTube.  Visit the website of the National Institute of Justice and listen to the podcast, ―Understanding, Preventing, and Responding to Human Trafficking.‖ A. Human Trafficking – The Numbers 

Have students visit the Web site of the International Labor Organization and bring information to class. Students can be asked to focus on a specific topic (e.g., child labor) or a specific region of the world.



Review the various types of human trafficking.



Ask students why they think women are more frequently trafficked then men, when this difference is not seen among children.



Watch the video, ―The Truth About $150 Billion Human Trafficking Industry‖ on YouTube.

B. Human Trafficking – The Perpetrators 

Discuss the findings of recent research into human traffickers.

C. Federal Immigration and Trafficking Legislation 

Consider introducing some information on human trafficking laws in other countries.

This could lead to a discussion of how different cultures have different views of this crime.



Lead a debate as to whether a victim of human trafficking should be deported if they were brought to the United States illegally.

D. The Treatment of Trafficked Persons 

Ask students why victims of human trafficking might be treated as criminals.

Discuss why this makes it more difficult for these victims to receive help or even attempt to escape their situation.

IV. Terrorism  Explain the differences between terrorist and criminal acts.  Mention that the idea of terrorism centers on the commission of crimes (usually acts of violence) for political or ideological ends. Ask students whether they think that definition should be expanded, and if so, how. Ask whether they believe that acts of terrorism will increase in frequency throughout the rest of the twenty-first century.  Place students into groups and assign each a type or category of terrorist organization (nationalist, religious, state-sponsored, etc.). Have students identify terrorist groups in the United States and internationally that fit the assigned category.  Review the three major types of terrorism that affect the United States today.

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 Watch the video, ―Good Practices: Nexus Between Transnational Organized Crime and Terrorism‖ on YouTube.

A. Domestic Terrorism 

Have students visit the Web site of the National Counterterrorism Center and bring back information on domestic terrorism and domestic terrorist groups.



Discuss the sovereign citizen movement. Ask students whether they agree with this movement and why or why not.

B. International Terrorism 

Ask students if they agree with the general belief that international terrorism is the greatest threat facing the United States.



Point out that nearly half of all terrorist attacks cause no fatalities and some cause no injuries. Ask students if they were aware that many terrorist attacks did not result in injuries or fatalities and discuss how this information might affect public views of terrorism.

C. Cyberterrorism 

When discussing this topic, refer back to the discussion of high-technology crime in Chapter 14.



Discuss the ways in which cyberterrorism differs from other forms of terrorism.



Explain why it is so important to protect a nation‘s infrastructure.



Discuss cyberspace and infrastructure security initiatives.



Watch the Computer Hackers video, ―What is Cyber Terrorism?‖ on YouTube.

D. Explaining Violent Political Extremism 

Explain the concept of radicalization as a ―dynamic, evolving process.‖

V. The Radicalization Process  Review the four stages of progression in the development of radicalization and ask students whether it might be possible to target individuals in early stages to prevent them from completing all four stages and becoming fully radicalized.  Ask students to discuss why the dynamic of homegrown radicalized militants has changed so that they are plotting to do things at home, rather than going abroad to fight.  Point out that the majority of homegrown radicalized terrorists had watched ISIS propaganda before becoming radicalized. Ask students to consider whether the government should censor this material.  Watch the PBS NewsHour video, ―How inoculating Americans against radicalization can fight domestic extremism‖ on YouTube.

VI. Countering the Terrorist Threat  Review the strategic goals of the National Strategy for Countering Domestic Terrorism and discuss ways in which the government plans to meet these goals.  Watch the MSNBC video, ―AG Garland Presents National Strategy to Combat Domestic Terrorism‖ on YouTube.

A. Foreign Terrorist Organizations 

Review the criterial for foreign terrorist organization (FTO) designation



Discuss the impact of being placed on one of the government ―watchlists.‖ 143 Copyright © 2025 Pearson Education, Inc.

B. The Future of Terrorism VII. International Crime-Fighting Organizations  Discuss various reasons why cross-jurisdictional crimes can be so difficult to combat.

Examine the problems involved in dealing with crimes that cross state boundaries and ask students to consider how much more difficult it might be when national boundaries are involved.

A. INTERPOL 

Ask students to consider possible reasons why INTERPOL does not have any field investigators or any powers of arrest or search and seizure in member countries.

Discuss wither having an actual international police force, that did have such powers, would be a good idea

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Have students visit INTERPOL‘s website and review the various types of crimes that have a transnational dimension and require a global response. Have them bring back information on these crimes and what INTERPOL is doing.

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Watch the video ―INTERPOL: Connecting Police for a Safer World‖ on YouTube.

B. Europol C. The International Criminal Court 

Have students visit the website of the ICC and bring back information on current cases and on situations under investigation. Consider whether there are any common themes to the current activities of the ICC.

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Watch the ICC video ―The ICC in 3 Minutes‖ on YouTube.



Watch the video, ―What is the ICC and is it fair‖? on YouTube.

LIST OF CHANGES/TRANSITION GUIDE 

All data and associated line art have been updated.

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The discussion regarding the difficulty of cross-national comparisons has been updated.

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The Theory versus Reality box on United Nations offense definitions has been updated to include the terms ―crime,‖ ―slavery,‖ and ―discrimination‖ (as a criminal offense in some jurisdictions).

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Photos in the chapter have been updated.

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A new second-level heading, ―The Treatment of Trafficked Persons,‖ has been added.

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A new key term, ―cyberterrorism,‖ has been added.

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A new Crime in the News box, about convicted terrorist Mirsad Kandic, has been added.

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The image showing the FBI‘s most wanted terrorists has been replaced and updated.

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The U.S. State Department‘s list, ―Designated Foreign Terrorist Organizations,‖ has been updated, but removed from the chapter and made available online.

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The discussion of the International Criminal Court has been updated to include arrest warrants issued by the Court for Vladimir Putin and Maria Lvova-Belova, charging them both with violations of the law stemming from the war in Ukraine.

ADDITIONAL ASSIGNMENTS AND CLASS ACTIVITIES Additional Lecture Topics 144 Copyright © 2025 Pearson Education, Inc.

The National Terrorism Advisory System. Consider discussing the National Terrorism Advisory System (NTAS), which replaces the color-coded Homeland Security Advisory System.

More information on the system may be obtained on the Department of Homeland Security website at http://www.dhs.gov/topic/ntas and http://www.dhs.gov/national-terrorism-advisorysystem Comparative Law. Expand on the topic of globalization by discussing definitional differences is how crimes are defined. For example, some countries record deaths from drunk driving as homicides, others do not. In the case of rape, some countries define it as a gender-neutral crime while others only include crimes involving victims who are women and offenders who are men; not all countries consider marital rape a crime; the age of consent (which affects statutory rape and child sexual abuse) varies by country and some countries have different ages for different-sex and same-sex activity.

Comparative Crime Statistics. Expand on the topic of globalization by discussing issues related to the reliability of official crime statistics. This could include variations in crime reporting by country, factors that affect reporting rates (such as whether the act is defined as a crime, the level of trust and confidence in the police, variations in crime-reporting mechanisms, and variations in levels of tolerance for criminal behavior), and variations in police recording practices Victimization Surveys around the World. Discuss the comparative findings of national victimization surveys conducted in various countries. For example, compare results of surveys conducted in the United States and in England and Wales, as reported by the Bureau of Justice Statistics in Report NCJ-173402. Other countries that have conducted national victimization surveys include Canada, Switzerland, the Netherlands, and West Germany.

Student Activities Activity #1: Terrorism Around the World. Your instructor will assign you a specific country.

Write a short paper profiling the terrorist problem in that country. Your paper should include (but is not limited to) a discussion of the various terrorist organizations active within the country, describe various terrorist attacks in that country, and review the anti-terrorism laws (if any) that are in force. The Terrorism Research Center‘s website may be a useful source of information for this activity.

Activity #2: Terrorist Groups. Your instructor will assign you a specific terrorist group. Write a short paper profiling that group. Include information on the group‘s formation and history; its ideology, mission, and goals; and the terrorist activities in which the group has engaged to further its objectives.

Activity #3: Crime Around the World. Your instructor will assign you a specific country, global area, or type of crime. Visit the Web site of the CIA and locate the World Factbook of Criminal Justice and bring information on your assigned topic back to class.

SUGGESTED ANSWERS TO END-OF-CHAPTER ASSIGNMENTS Questions for Review 1.

What is comparative criminology and what role does globalization play in understanding criminal activities today?

Comparative criminology is the cross-national study of crime. Comparing crime patters around the world allows theories and policies that are taken for granted in one location to be 145 Copyright © 2025 Pearson Education, Inc.

reevaluated in the light of world experience. Comparative criminologists focus on developing theories with increased specificity that can be applied across more than one culture or nationstate. Globalization is defined as a process of social homogenization by which the experiences of everyday life, marked by the diffusion of commodities and ideas, can foster a standardization of cultural expressions around the world. The globalization of knowledge, which describes the increase in understanding that comes from a sharing of information between cultures, is beginning to play a significant role in both the process of theory formation within criminology and the development of American crime control policies.

2.

What are the differences between human smuggling and human trafficking?

Human smuggling is a type of illegal immigration in which a criminal agent receives payment to help a person illegally and clandestinely cross a border. Smuggling may be conducted to obtain financial or other benefits for the smuggler, or to reunite families. It generally occurs with the consent of the person being smuggled, who frequently pays a smuggler for his services.

Human trafficking, or trafficking in persons (TIP) involves the exploitation of unwilling or unwitting people through force, coercion, threat, or deception, and includes human rights abuses such as debt bondage, deprivation of liberty, or lack of control over freedom and labor. Trafficking is often undertaken for purposes of sexual exploitation or labor exploitation. TIP often includes an element of human smuggling (the illegal crossing of a national border). Some trafficking victims may believe they are being smuggled when they are actually being trafficked. The key components that distinguish the two are the elements of fraud, force, and/or coercion. The underlying conditions that produce both are often similar: extreme poverty, lack of economic opportunity, civil unrest, and political uncertainty.

3.

What is terrorism? What types of terrorism does this chapter discuss?

Terrorism is defined by the U.S. Department of State as ―premeditated, politically motivated violence perpetrated against noncombatant targets by subnational groups or clandestine agents, usually intended to influence an audience.‖ Terrorist acts are inherently criminal because they violate the criminal law, involve criminal activity, and produce criminal results.

This chapter discusses two main typologies of terrorism. The first, which was developed by the Council on Foreign Relations, identifies six types of terrorism: nationalist, religious, state-sponsored, left-wing, right-wing, and anarchist. The second divides terrorism into three categories: domestic terrorism, international terrorism, and cyberterrorism.

4.

What is known about the radicalization process of homegrown American Al Qaedainspired terrorists?

Several recent federally-funded reports have provided information on the radicalization of homegrown terrorists. Individuals in the process of becoming dangerously radicalized show predictable overt and detectable behaviors, with four main stages of progression in the development of radicalization: Pre-radicalization, detachment, peer-immersion and training, and the planning and execution of violent action. Many American Al Qaeda-inspired terrorists were recruited through the Internet; prospective radicals could share ideas and learn extreme ideology through social networking. Until recently, radicalized homegrown American militants wanted to ―go abroad to fight‖ but starting in late 2014 and 2015, many radicalized individuals began plotting to ―do something‖ at home, rather than abroad. Preradicalization criminal activity and post-radicalization clique membership are strongly 146 Copyright © 2025 Pearson Education, Inc.

associated with violent outcomes among radicalized individuals. Lone wolf terrorists differ from mass murderers. While mass murderers lack a motivating ideology and generally commit crimes because of personal feelings of having been wronged, lone wolf terrorists are ideologically motivated. There are three categories of features that distinguish lone wolf from mass murderers: The degree to which they interact with co-conspirators; the behaviors they engage in before acting; and the degree to which they leak information prior to the attack.

5.

What efforts are being made to counter the terrorist threat?

There are a number of federal initiatives focusing on combating terrorism. The U.S. Department of State has made a number of policy recommendations for use in the fight against terrorism, one of which led to the imposition of very stiff penalties on anyone providing financial support to terrorists or their organizations. The 9/11 Commission‘s 2004 report proposed major changes within the U.S. intelligence community, including the creation of a national intelligence director (NID). The 2004 Intelligence Reform and Terrorist Prevention Act facilitated the creation of the National Counterterrorism Center (NCTC) under the newly-created position of NID. The NID would act as the principal advisor to the president, the National Security Council, and the Homeland Security Council for intelligence matters related to national security and the NCTC would serve as the primary organization for analyzing and integrating intelligence pertaining to terrorism and counterterrorism and for conducting strategic counterterrorism operational planning. The 2011 National Strategy for Counterterrorism maintained a focus on deterring Islamicinspired terrorism. In 2021, the Biden administration published the first National Strategy for Countering Domestic Terrorism.

Other efforts focus on foreign terrorist organizations (FTO), a legal category created by the 1996 federal Anti-Terrorism and Effective Death Penalty Act. The Act creates a number of legal consequences when an organization is designated an FTO that are designed to block financial support to the organization and to keep members out of the United States. The State Department also has the authority to designate selected foreign governments as state sponsors of international terrorism. The USA PATRIOT Act created the Terrorist Exclusion List. The federal government has the power to deport resident aliens who provide material assistance to organizations on the list and to refuse entry to the U.S. to anyone assisting these organizations. The Terrorist Identities Datamart Environment (TIDE) serves as a central repository of information on international terrorist identities and supports the federal government‘s terrorist screening systems and the U.S. intelligence community‘s counterterrorism efforts.

5.

What organizations exist today to assist in the fight against international crimes?

This chapter discusses three international crime-fighting organizations, INTERPOL, Europol, and the International Criminal Court.

INTERPOL, the International Criminal Police Organization, is headquartered in Lyons, France. It began operations in 1946 and currently has 190 member countries. The U.S. INTERPOL unit is the U.S. National Central Bureau (USNCB), which is a– separate agency within Department of Justice. INTERPOL‘s primary purpose is to act as a clearinghouse for information on offenses and suspects who are believed to operate across national boundaries.

INTERPOL facilitates, coordinates, and encourages police cooperation as a means of combating international crime. It does not have its own field investigators or any powers of 147 Copyright © 2025 Pearson Education, Inc.

arrest or search and seizure in member countries; it relies on willingness of police forces in member countries to support its activities. INTERPOL provides a range of policing expertise and capabilities that support three main crime programs: counter-terrorism, cybercrime, and organized and emerging crime.

Europol, the European Police Office, was established by the Maastricht Treaty of February 7, 1992, and is based in The Hague. Its mission is to improve the effectiveness and cooperation of law enforcement agencies within EU member states, with the ultimate goal of preventing and combating terrorism, illegal drug trafficking, illicit trafficking in radioactive and nuclear substances, illegal money laundering, trafficking in human beings, and other serious forms of international organized crime. In 2013, the European Cybercrime Center (EC3) was established at Europol; EC3 is a in 2013 – focal point in the EU‘s fight against cybercrime.

Europol works with INTERPOL to develop information on international terrorism, drug trafficking, and human trafficking.

The International Criminal Court (ICC) was created by the United Nations in 2000 and is headquartered in The Hague. It is intended to be a permanent criminal court for trying individuals who commit the most serious crimes of concern to the international community (genocide, war crimes, crimes against humanity). The ICC does not try countries, only individuals. Its goal is to be a global judicial institution with international jurisdiction complementing national legal systems around the world. The ICC currently has over 120 member countries.

148 Copyright © 2025 Pearson Education, Inc.