lOMoARcPSD|11448692
Experiments o o o
Laboratory experiment Field experiment Quasi experiment
Laboratory experiment - where the experimenter manipulates the IV in a controlled environment to see what effect this has on the DV Field experiment - where the experimenter manipulates the IV in the participant’s natural environment to see what effect this has on the DV Quasi experiment - where the IV cannot be directly manipulated because it already exists but experimenters look at the effects on the DV
Laboratory Experiment
Field Experiment Quasi Experiment
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Strengths Strict control Replicable Eliminates extraneous variables Standardised instructions Reliable High ecological validity No demand characteristics
Enables researcher to look at things not practical or ethical High ecological validity
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Weaknesses Low ecological validity Demand characteristics
Less control over extraneous variables No right to withdraw Deception No informed consent Hard to control extraneous variables Hard to replicate
Observations Structured - the study has clearly defined behaviours from pre-set categories Unstructured - observers record a non-specified wide range of behaviours Naturalistic - behaviours seen in natural environment and researchers are not involved. Controlled - behaviours recorded by researchers where there has been some manipulation Participant - researcher engages with the participant as part of the setting Non-Participant - researcher is not involved with the participant Overt - participant knows the role of the observer Covert - participants are unaware they are being watched
Behaviour Category - used for more structured observations, where the range of study is narrowed down into a smaller set of behaviours. Coding Frame - makes recording behaviour easier, as each behaviour is shown as abbreviations or codes
lOMoARcPSD|11448692
Structured Observation
Unstructured Observation
Naturalistic Observation
Controlled Observation
Participant Observation NonParticipant Observation Covert Observation Overt Observation
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Strengths Can be planned using pilot test Reliable Inter-rater reliability Can re-analyse using video data Not limited by pre-set categories Can record more information
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High ecological validity Not aware of being observed Are good for observations where interventions are unethical Data likely to be reliable Controlled extraneous variables High validity Can explore lots of behaviours Can see people’s real emotions Aware of observer
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Accurate and detailed records Observers remain objective
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Unaware of being observed Accurate and detailed records
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Ethical observations High reliability Not limited by categories
Weaknesses Simple definitions won’t be precise Low validity Limiting behaviour categories
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Could miss something All data collected may not be relevant Inconsistent Subjective recording Extraneous variables Low reliability Validity compromised if observers are identified or suspected Low ecological validity Aware they are in artificial situation Social situation is limited Not representative Observer would be subjective Ethical issues involved Know they are being observed Demand characteristics Ethical issues involved Low validity Change behaviour - aware observer Validity can be compromised Ethical issues involved Hard for observers to record data without being notices Aware of observer so may not give genuine reactions Time consuming
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Time Sampling - set for a period of time so observe for different but specific amounts of times Event Sampling - observers decide which behaviours to sample and record each time they occur using a tally chart
Types of time sampling: 1. Instantaneous scan sampling - only the action being performed at the start of each pre-set interval is recorded 2. Predominant activity sampling - the same time periods and behavioural categories can be used, but instead of recording only the single behaviour occurring at the moment the time interval ends 3. One zero sampling - the same time periods and behavioural categories can be used but here the researcher would record whether the behaviour occurred within the time period
Time Sampling
Strengths Can indicate the event order Shows time spent on each behaviour Reliable Records occurrence
Weaknesses Hard to record all different behaviours Demand characteristics Timings must be precise which could be hard
lOMoARcPSD|11448692
Event Sampling
Can record every occurrence Easy to obtain and analyse results
Self-Reports
No indication of time spent on each category No indication of order of behaviours
Self-reports are any method which involves asking a participant about their feelings, attitudes, beliefs and so on. There are two main forms of self-reports which are questionnaires and interviews. Questionnaire - is a written method of gathering data with people answering questions about themselves. It uses open questions, closed questions, rating scales, Likert scales and semantic differentials.
Questionnaires
Strengths Quick and easy Quantitative and qualitative data Cost-effective Results easy to compare Standardised Replicable Generalizable Representative High level of confidence
Weaknesses Lacks validity Participants could lie Could be rushed Questions could be misinterpreted Social desirability bias Cannot understand emotion No clue as to time spent on it Restricted answers Needs certain levels of maths/English Can’t guarantee responses
People could lie on the questionnaire because they may be embarrassed or there could be consequences if it is criminal. There could be social desirability bias as well. Pilot studies help to improve the study to check that people will understand the questionnaire. An interview uses questions spoken by an interviewer to a participant. The questions could be similar to those in a questionnaire.
Closed questions - individuals select their response from a choice of pre-determined options Open questions - individuals can respond in any way they like and have no pre-set answers Rating scales - gives individuals an item and asks them to select from a number of choices to agree Likert scales - measures attitudes using a statement that participants respond to Semantic differentials - participants rate their responses between an opposing pair of words
Examples: Closed - Do you like listening to music? Yes or No Open - Why do you like listening to music? Rating Scales - “Listening to music is the best way to do homework” 1 2 3 4 5 Likert Scales - “Music was better in 70’s than 80’s” S. agree, agree, neutral, disagree, S. disagree Semantic Differentials - I think that music is: Enjoyable _ _ _ _ _ Boring