Architecture Dissertation 2018

LOST IN TRANSLATION: DECIPHERING THE 21ST CENTURY CRISIS OF THE AFRICAN BUILT ENVIRONMENT The University of Edinburgh 2018 Edinburgh School of Architecture & Landscape Architecture MA (Hons) Architecture Dissertation (ARJA10002) Angela Cauri

LOST IN TRANSLATION DECIPHERING THE 21ST CENTURY CRISIS OF THE AFRICAN BUILT ENVIRONMENT

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to take this opportunity to thank my supervisor, Giorgio Ponzo, for his continued support throughout this research, and his insight that offered much substance to my understanding of the subject and delivery of research. His keen interest in a subject of my choice, along with the enthusiasim and encouragement he offered until the very resolution, made the experience worthwhile - and for that, I will always apreciate.

CONTENTS

1 2-7 8 - 13

ABSTRACT A PROMISING PAST A PURFUNCTORY PRESENT

14 - 16

DECONSTRUCTION

16 - 17

NEO-COLONIALISM

17 - 29

ORKIDSTUDIO | KENYA - UK

30 - 35

THE AFRICAN DESIGN CENTRE | RWANDA

36 - 45

MASS DESIGN GROUP | RWANDA - USA

46 - 53

FRANCIS KERE

54 - 59

KUNLE ADEYEMI

60 - 69

DAVID ADJAYE

70 72 - 73 74 75 76 77 - 78

A FORGIVING FUTURE FUTURE CITIES OF AFRICA “AFRICA IS NOT RISING” IN CONCLUSION

IIMAGE REFERENCES A SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

The World Health Organisation (WHO) anticipates that by the year 2050, the African continent will bear the responsibility for the habitation of more than half of the global population increase. The continent, however, is currently in a paradoxical catastrophe; it is experiencing a developmental boom at unscaled heights, but with a majority of the population still living in deplorable conditions. An inevitable crisis thus exists in the scope of the African built environment, and it centres on the development of decent residential and commercial dwellings that will successfully accommodate the rising population demands; along with their subsequent implications. It therefore becomes a concern for the architectural discourse.

The synthesis of a personal interpretation, this writing is introduced with a retrospective assessment of the critical historical events that influenced the evolution of the architectural vernacular to what it is today. It then establishes the physical, social and economic parameters that contribute to the present-day crisis of the built environment, while highlighting significant figures and firms that are implementing impactful solutions in attempts to regulate this crisis. It finally resolves with an understanding that: although both the theoretic and visual scopes in the architecture, engineering and construction (AEC) industries are facing major modern advancement, the direct imitation of Western design means and standards in the continent of concern, often fall short of being appropriate in that context. Thus, deliberate solutions for the built environment are required to lay the foundations of a forgiving future.

This is neither a pretentious discussion about African infrastructure, nor is it a prompt for a particular design development. Instead, it is a proposal for the re-engagement of solutions for the future of the African built environment, with the present realities and possibilities that the state poses.

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ABSTRACT

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A PROMISING PAST This chapter discusses the historical context of architecture in Africa. It highlights the promising origins of globally significant structures of technological and aesthetic advancement that is native to the African demographic; and the continental events that subsequently influenced the narrative of the built environment that exists today.

It expresses how in a span of merely 20 years, the continent was heavily influenced

by European vernacular, and expounds on the reality that; if the goal of building Europe in Africa succeeded in bricks and mortar, it largely failed in hearts and minds; the effects of which are taking course now.

Africa is vast; habitat to some of the world’s most intriguing design innovations. Occupying a total area equivalent to that of Europe, India, China and the USA combined, and with over 800 different language speaking tribes, it becomes evident that the continent conceals an extensive history and rich cultural heritage.1 Its documented history dates back to the most notable ancient civilisation of Egypt (4th millennium BCE) in the North, and the remarkable structures that would eventually emerge in Ethiopia, Zimbabwe, Mali and Morocco- many of which remain as emblems of promising generations with the most authentic and ambitious African designers and builders to-date.2 In the Middle Ages, under their own devices, Africans subsisted through agriculture and significant levels of local trade; while traditional huts in clustered orientations were the realised forms of dwelling. This was until the 15thc.- when the continent was occupied by western imperialists who initiated international trade, as others plundered the wealth of the lands that offered no major resistance and significant economic value.3 It was at this point that the identity of the vernacular of the African built environment began to evolve; its native authenticity obscured.

While imperial powers abroad were evolving in their unique styles and advancements within the architectural scope, imitations of these very styles were being adopted within the African context.

As such, Northern Africa progressively evolved into imitations of Greece, Rome and Carthage; while the Eastern, Southern and Western regions translated into Britain, France and Italy- to name a few. With time, however, it became evident that imitation is not always the sincerest form of flattery; and this sets a first premise for discussion.

1 Rangarirai Alfred Musvoto, “Re-Presenting the Precolonial Past: Identity and History in Musaemura Zimunya’s Thought-Tracks,” African Identities 15, no. 3 (July 3, 2017): 295–309.

2 J. Cameron Monroe, “Power and Agency in Precolonial African States,” Annual Review of Anthropology 42, no. 1 (October 21, 2013): 17–35.

3 Daron Acemoglu and James A. Robinson, Why Nations Fail: The Origins of Power, Prosperity and Poverty (Profile Books, 2012).

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Figure 1 Ancient Egyptian Pyramids.

Figure 2 Traditional Huts of the Lundas, Congo

Liberty followed the African continent in the form of mid-20thc. independence, and with it came the parallel autonomy for Africans to regain the planning control of their built environment.4 With the withdrawal of significant amounts of intellectual property - at a time when advancement was on high demand- a void inevitably existed in the transitional interface when it came to the transference of systemic operations such as city planning. Therefore, a crisis of the built environment emerged. The continent was not spared of challenges foreign to them, such as the politically motivated ethnic war of the ‘1994 Rwandan Genocide’5, that demanded immediate intervention when it came to housing solutions.

Unfortunately, the design aesthetics inherited from their colonial masters would not always offer practical solutions to the contexts of the sudden crises. Instead, the aesthetics and advancement expressed by the structural developments erected in the last few decades have psychologically equipped a majority the local demographic with a false sense of security and more notably, pride.

It is rather inhumane, however, to ignore that these developments are proving superfluous in their context when considered from an ethical perspective.This is considering that in its present day, the continent still faces basic problems in daily life that require unique but simple solutions to be designed for them6.

Regardless, for developing countries to reinvent their narratives, they need to be aware of their own history and then renegotiate their relationships with global powers; setting another premise for this discussion, as the studies that follow probe the reader to envision African cities- not as slums, but as one of the most resilient and socially inclusive places on earth.

4 Musvoto, “Re-Presenting the Precolonial Past: Identity and History in Musaemura Zimunya’s Thought-Tracks.”

5 See figures alongside.

6 François G. Richard, Materializing Colonial Encounters: Archaeologies of African Experience (Springer, 2015).

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A PERFUNCTORY PRESENT Faced with the expedited growth of the demographic, it explores the visions of firms that live in solidarity with marginalised communities while working to achieve holistic system reforms.

Their endeavours are analysed in regard to the context of concern, and evaluations are used to discern the necessities and possibilities for the built envionment.

Encounters with global economies in the past have generally produced results that are catastrophic for Africa and disastrous for the world; but with these have also come a fair share of opportunities, especially for professional industries such as the built environment.7 In reference to the promising past that the African continent adopted, a deciphering of its present developmental stance is critical in reflecting on the resultant of preceding decisions, and subsequently, in the assessment of future endeavours.

It is no mystery that Africa is rising; making global headlines in the development sector in ways that have not been done before, albeit as the last economic frontier. Some critics argue that this narrative of the African continent is based on a very simplistic observation; an unfair comparison of the economic growth of some African countries over the last decade or so- averaging at 6-7%- to a sluggish West, after the most recent global financial crisis.8 A fairer comparison so to say, would exist between the African continent in its current capacity of approximately one billion people, and that of China about two decades ago when the population was at an equivalent one billion. Still, in the present day, China is growing at an average rate of 8%, and this has been referred to as a recession. It therefore makes you ponder upon why special attention is being generated towards the African demographic, when its Chinese counterpart was rising a 18% at its pinnacle.

Regardless, the unprecedented growth of the continent can not be ignored, and due its present driving force in the global economy, we as architects are inherently involved because architecture happens to be at the interface of these development initiatives. As a potential professional in the field, you start to ponder upon what this infers for your role in the industry.

7 Richard Reid, “PAST AND PRESENTISM: THE ‘PRECOLONIAL’ AND THE FORESHORTENING OF AFRICAN HISTORY,” Journal of African History 52, no. 2 (July 2011): 135– 55.

8 Eric Helleiner, “Understanding the 2007–2008 Global Financial Crisis: Lessons for Scholars of International Political Economy,” Annual Review of Political Science 14, no. 1 (June 15, 2011): 67–87.

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A narrative to the African built environment may exist to outsiders, but a pretentious way of outlining the crisis of the built environment is through the statistics that follow.

The continent hosts seven out of ten of the world’s fastest growing economies, and it is anticipated that the total population will increase from 1.2 billion to 2.5 billion in less than 35 years.

When it comes to dwelling, approximately 40% of this number currently resides in cities, yet this number is expected to rise by more than 15% in the same span of time.9 For these numbers to be accommodated; 700 million dwelling units, 300 thousand basic schools, and 85 thousand healthcare delivery centres will need to be constructed within continental borders by the year 2050. Yet, 75% of the demographic work in the informal sector, thus lacking critical privileges such as adequate health care and insurance.10 In addition to this, land is a commodity that is held in high value globally, but even with an abundance of uninhabited territory within the continent today, the built environment has translated into an infamous model of dense, disorganised and unsafe settlements; the microcosm of nearly everything that could go wrong with a developmental boom.

Such values imply that despite all the wealth harboured within the continent, the current rate of consumption exceeds the capacity of local production- leave alone the accommodation of the emerging numbers. As if it is not enough, energy security is a critical element required for the success of meaningful development. But with the realities that; a country such as France generates four-times the amount of energy than all 47 countries of sub-Saharan Africa combined11, and, it costs thirty-times more to transport cargo 9 Acemoglu, Daron, and James A. Robinson. Why Nations Fail: The Origins of Power, Prosperity and Poverty. Profile Books, 2012.

10 Christophe Benimana, Maria Small, and Stephen Rulisa, “Preventability of Maternal near Miss and Mortality in Rwanda: A Case Series from the University Teaching Hospital of Kigali (CHUK),� PloS One 13, no. 6 (June 26, 2018): e0195711.

11 Daron Acemoglu and James A. Robinson, Why Nations Fail: The Origins of Power, Prosperity

from Kenya to Tanzania than it does from the USA to Kenya12, it makes you question what is really meant by the term ‘development’.

With this, the paradoxical development catastrophe becomes more evident; indeed, the continent is not poor but poorly run.13 The chapters that follow highlight a significant sample of professionals who are taking advantage of social platforms to discuss the realised issues and opportunities posed by the continent’s growth, while advocating to the world that this moment be approached strategically and with a strategy that learns from the best practices.

It involves a group of pioneering architects- acquainted with the African demographic- on the edge of developing a powerful new style of architecture unique to the context of concern and it has come to be celebrated by many.

This style has been referred to by some as ‘LoFab (Local Fabrication)’, as it leverages the power of design to create positive change with maximum impact solutions, while embracing quality, dignity and local sourcing as catalysts for systemic change.14 These pioneering architects understand that although throughout history, the trade of commodities has influenced international dialogue and led to the current state of GDP growth, the same history does not recall African nations going out to market their commodities; it was the global powers that intervened. In many cases, these powers were faced by resistance of suspicious Africans who did not understand the value of what they were sitting on; and the same problem exists today.15 A majority of the continent has not bothered to understand exactly what is driving this rising interest in the continent, but have accepted the craze, portraying a big flaw in the narrative that needs to start being addressed.16

and Poverty (Profile Books, 2012).

12 Daron Acemoglu and James A. Robinson, Why Nations Fail: The Origins of Power, Prosperity and Poverty (Profile Books, 2012).

13 Acemoglu and Robinson, Why Nations Fail: The Origins of Power, Prosperity and Poverty.

14 Peter Allison, David Adjaye (Thames & Hudson Ltd, 2006).

15 Acemoglu and Robinson, Why Nations Fail: The Origins of Power, Prosperity and Poverty.

16 Stephanie Wynne-Jones and Jeffrey Fleisher, Theory in Africa, Africa in Theory: Locating Meaning in Archaeology (Routledge, 2015).

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They have taken upon challenges that engage the local demographic in the development that involves them, and emphasise that meeting numbers is not the major concern, but rather how it is done. Most importantly, they pose a counter-argument for the architectural profession within the continent, because the biggest challenge realised in the field is the notion of how architecture is not only used but understood.17 They therefore advocate for an ‘African architecture’ that holds the power of identity and does not strive to compete or achieve the successes of the West. Instead, it reaches out to advanced precedentssuch as Dubai and Singapore- but thinks beyond the immediate environment to retrieve qualities that enable African cities to be aspirational once merged with realities on the ground.18

17 David Adjaye, Nikolaus Hirsch, and Jorge Otero-Pailos, “On Architecture and Authorship: A Conversation,” Places Journal, no. 2011 (October 24, 2011), https://doi.org/10.22269/111024.

18 Andres Lepik and Ayça Beygo, Francis Kéré: Radically Simple (Hatje Cantz, 2016).

DECONSTRUCTION

It is unfortunate to say the least, that in this day and age, hundreds of people would occasionally face fatalities as a result of general structural failure; that mistakes from the past are not used to inform modern decisions and practices. I became familiarised with a crisis that exists in building quality- not only in the rural regions but, more critically, in the capital city of Nairobi, Kenya.

In the year 2016, articles stormed national headlines on a casual basis, posing frightening statistics for the construction industry.19 An emerging trend of buildings unsafe for habitation- leave alone construction- existed, gathering unwarranted attention to the professionals of the construction industry.

But the root of the problem became immediately apparent to the population of concern; as large-scale commercial developments were often hastily constructed and in controversial circumstances, then tragedy would later reveal loopholes in the initial stages of conception. Numerous structures were found to have overlooked building regulations in terms of their capacity, while others were built in riparian reserves leading them to succumb to severe climatic afflictions. That very year, the National Construction Authority(NCA) reported that 58% of buildings in Nairobi city were indeed unfit to suit the purpose they were intended, and the proposed solution- which is still being carried out today- was demolition.20 Deconstruction.

The problem with this is that almost nothing was done to overcome the legislative voids associated with the predicament.

Accountability would become obsolete from the commence of investigations, alluding to the public a portrait of the influence of a variety of powerhouses inadvertently involved in the foundations of the crisis. Investigations were indeed purely cosmetic, and evidence of past and present sins of commissions and omissions dot the city today.

19 See figures alongside.

20 See figures alongside.

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Figure 3 CNN News Headlines

Figure 4 Africa Live News Headlines

Figure 5 KTN NEWS (KENYA) NEWS HEADLINE

In addition to this, open spaces for public facilities were abruptly yet illegally transformed into informal settlements, and the essence of social security that defined the African culture was being dissolved. As a result of this, certain parts of the city has since translated into a model of poverty, politics and profit.21It can be described as a case of the tragic outcome of a tragic environment: what becomes when absolute power and privilege becomes the modus operandi, and unfortunately, this is modelled by a majority of the nations within the continent of concern.

Such issues become relevant to us- as potential architects in academic positions of privilege- because we possess the power and agency to address complex problems and model effective solutions that may infiltrate biased systemic structures as they invest in the design confidence of future innovators and leaders.22 ‘NEO- COLONIALISM’

The president of Rwanda, Paul Kagame, was addressed about his opinion on a critical security concern when he assumed the African Union(AU) chairmanship this year. It was a case of suspicious invasion of the Ethiopia-based AU headquarters, by the Chinese superpower, who had offered to construct it as a sign of unification. Kagame’s response was that he was not aware of the premise of this allegation, but in any case, there should be no

21 Garth Myers, African Cities: Alternative Visions of Urban Theory and Practice (Zed Books Ltd., 2011).

22 John Cary, “Introduction: The Dignifying Power of Design,” in Design for Good: A New Era of Architecture for Everyone, ed. John Cary (Washington, DC: Island Press/Center for Resource Economics, 2017), 14–27.

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reason for leaders to be alarmed by the security threat because “…spying is not the specialty of the Chinese.” His only concern was: “I would only have wished that in Africa we had got our act together earlier on. We should have been able to build our own building.”23

Interactions between Chinese infrastructure giants and rising African nations in the past decade have led to a variety of outcomes; many of which have resulted in coupled benefits for both nations.

They have cleared the path for more permanent international relations in the sectors of trade and development-between the two nations.24 In exchange for a redefinition of the identity of the African transport sector- and subsequently the built environmentthe Chinese developers were recompensed with land benefits, coupled with residential and trading rights. Yet this does not infer that the country did not exhaust millions of taxpayer’s coins in exchange for substandard quality infrastructure.

What followed was an unprecedented extension of this powerful and economically advantaged influence, in what has been referred to as Neo-Colonialism by social and political critics. The crisis with this is realised in that the exchange in this particular dialogue indicates traces of the replication of former errors in the underlying layers of governance, in the name of ‘keeping up with the times’.

Therefore, although local African governance may be fond of the success of a western architecture and want to reproduce it, current urbanisation efforts are superficial and must be controlled.

23 African Union. “President Paul Kagame, Elected as New Chairperson of the African Union for the Year 2018.” Vision and Mission. January 28, 2018. Accessed October 16, 2018. https:// au.int/en/pressreleases/20180128/president-paul-kagame-elected-new-chairperson-african-union-year-2018.

24 Robert I. Rotberg, China into Africa: Trade, Aid, and Influence (Brookings Institution Press, 2009).

JAMES MITCHELL

ORKIDSTUDIO

KENYA | UK

“In 2016 James was named in Impact Design Hub’s “40 under 40” recognising young leaders designing for social good, and in 2018 was selected as an Aspen Institute Spotlight Health Fellow.”

DESIGN. BUILD. Amongst them, the role that women play in the conception of the built environment, and the ongoing developmental crisis that whispers misfortune but screams incompetence in the present day theoretical application of architectural skills.

In a continent rooted and still highly governed by traditional cultural dynamics, it is not difficult to comprehend the existence of gender biases, covert or not, especially in professional practices such as the architecture, engineering and A personal fondness with this firm stemmed construction industries.25 from a work experience semester that I undertook during the course of my studies.

This chapter places its focus on the East I was privileged to experience first-hand, African region, where a design and the climate of a non-commercial non-profit construction social enterprise- based in firm, as the interest I had garnered within the capital city of Kenya, Nairobi- is on the scope of my studies had led me to a a mission to address some major issues profound appreciation of sustainable and realised in their field in the recent past.

25 M. M. Carter, “Architecture and Social Change in the Development Era,” 2011, http://www.academia.edu/download/37094908/carter_isd_essay.pdf.

BEHAVIOUR

METHOD

WHAT NEEDS TO HAPPEN IN ORDER FOR THE DESIRED IMPACT TO OCCUR ?

HOW DO WE GET THERE ?

IMPACT

WHAT MATRICES WILL EVALUATE THIS PROJECT ?

social architecture.

To Kenyans, it is common knowledge that more than half of the population lives below the poverty line of $3.10 a day, but in regard to the specifics of this chapter, this statistic constitutes half of the female population, and it is of no assistance that an equal measure of girls is unable to be educated beyond primary school level.26 Women are thus considerably disadvantaged not only economically but socially, despite the country being one of the most rapidly developing sectors within the continent- and globally. Indeed, the construction industry has over time proven to be a critical definer of such developmental rates, yet when it comes to the Kenyan on-site trades of the same, less than 1% of the workforce involved are women, accounting for a minute fraction of the 10% total global female workforce in the construction industry.

In addition to this, an alarming skills gap is also recognised in the nature of the current built environment, and this is attributed to not a lack of, but a general inadequacy in purpose-based educational foundations and trade-skills training. Such factors amongst others contributed to the mission of Orkidstudio, founded ten years ago by Scotland-born James Mitchell with Julissa Kiyenje from Uganda, who were inspired by a vision of a biosphere in which purposeful design and high quality construction would be accessible to every individual regardless of circumstantial or geographical biases.27 26 “World Population Projected to Reach 9.8 Billion in 2050, and 11.2 Billion in 2100 | UN DESA Department of Economic and Social Affairs.” United Nations. June 21, 2017. Accessed September 22, 2018. https://www.un.org/development/desa/en/news/population/world-population-prospects-2017.html.

27 ORKIDSTUDIO. “SOCIAL CHANGE THROUGH BUILDING.” Orkidstudio - Social Change

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IMPACT DESIGN METHODOLOGY

This model is based on the concept that every project is unique in its mission to the community or organisation that it serves, thus resulting in various means of impact.

It thus takes that mission and subsequent project impact into account by tailoring their assesment in accordance with anticipated outcomes.

It has proven prosperous in the assesment of numerous social benefits including but not limited to education, health, and human dignity.

ANGELA CAURI

MISSION

WHAT IS OUR END GOAL ?

‘WOMEN IN CONSTRUCTION’

It is not to be taken for granted that there are plenty of existing solutions to provide girls with tangible skills that can enable them to earn an income. Based on the economic stance of Africa, these opportunities are particularly in the agricultural and beauty industries, and has become a generational norm such that if you were to tell a girl it is possible for her to prosper in these sectors, it is believable as she would have observed this in her surroundings amongst the generations that precede her. Yet, if you were to tell her she can construct the very household that she runs, it would be barely fathomable- the resultant of their preconceived schemas.

Therefore, in regard to the practicalities of gender balances within the construction industry, Orkidstudio was and still is on a mission to tap technical skills across the demographic so as to disrupt the conspicuously male-dominated field, by educating girls and women in design and construction.28 They opted to endure this task through the development of a model that was conceived to transform the lifestyles and prospects of disadvantaged locals through a self-sustainable concept that embodies employment, production and training within the holistic construction industry, so that the very people who make the cities, may benefit from its fruits and contribute to the historic development boom being experienced in this era.

Their sample population centred around women between the ages of 18-35, often with high number of dependants and little to no tangible skills for employment beyond domestic duties. The firm strive to ensure that their workforce consists of a balance of men and women employees, performing equal paying jobs of equal labour intensity.29 But what is critical is that all employees are trained beyond contracted fieldwork in carpentry, metalwork and brick-laying, eventually earning themselves certification that without doubt increases their prospects for increased income, if Through Building. Accessed October 16, 2018. https://orkidstudio.org/.

28 Angeli Sachs, Social Design (Lars Muller Publishers, 2018).

29 ORKIDSTUDIO. “WOMEN IN CONSTRUCTION.” Orkidstudio - Social Change Through Building. Accessed October 15, 2018. https://orkidstudio.org/projects/women/.

“We feel happy when we’re working with men, as we are paid equally and thus feel we are equal. Never in my life would I have imagined this. I am used to tilling soil and washing people’s clothes to earn a living.”

Hellen, aged 31

“The biggest impact this project has created is that all the men here now look at us differently. They respect us.”

Judith, aged 27

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not permanent employment.

The ethical results culminated by the endeavours of Orkidstudio, however, are what appeal to the essence of this research as the testimonies from the alumni30, about the impactful program, project a promotion of key leadership skills, social equality, respect and life-skills. All these are transferable to other income generating ventures and fields, while promoting confidence in local intellectual sourcing. Today, the women involved are not only learning but infiltrating different sectors of the economics of daily life and this is empowering to both their role in society, and to the general economy and advancement of the nation.

Since conception, 60% of those employed are under 35 years old. This is important because according to global population measures; while the average worker in the USA and Europe is 50 years of age, in Asia 40 years and Latin America 30 years, the average worker in Africa is approximately 20 years old- implying infinite applied pressure on the younger generation to uphold the economic dynamics, regardless of their circumstances.31 However, it also poses possibilities within itself to both Africa and the world in regards to the measures that can be applied with sustainable practices; explaining why Orkidstudio’s influence is strategic in its approach. In addition to that, 52% of the overall workforce employed are women, accounting for 1,500 unskilled locals who have been trained in diverse technical skills and this is a historic change within the region.32

30 See Quotes.

31 OECD. “Demography - Working Age Population - OECD Data.” Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. Accessed November 12, 2018. https://data.oecd.org/pop/working-age-population.htm.

32 M. M. Carter, “Architecture and Social Change in the Development Era,” 2011, http://www. academia.edu/download/37094908/carter_isd_essay.pdf.

But the founders do not credit themselves for the endeavours of their ‘women in construction’ program- if not a movement. Its extended realisation was attributed to an unexpected probe in a Kenyan town named Nakuru, where an ongoing children’s home project was being built in 2012- during the early conception of the firm.33 A lady’s keen interest in improving her lifestyle lead her to offer as a volunteer in the ongoing construction, so as to gain the skills being endowed to her male counterparts and benefit from future employment. James Mitchell was humbled by her passion and grasped at the opportunity to offer better by paying her for her efforts, if only she would contribute an equal measure of work to the team. By the end of that week, twelve other women from the locality had joined the workforce, and they emerged as highly revered members not only of their team but their town, by the conclusion of the project.

33 ORKIDSTUDIO. “SOCIAL CHANGE THROUGH BUILDING.” Orkidstudio - Social Change Through Building. Accessed October 16, 2018. https://orkidstudio.org/.

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Figure 6 WOMEN IN CONSTRUCTION USING EARTH BAGS

The thirteen women later proceeded to utilise their skills to design and construct a house for Hellen34, funded by a loan from Orkidstudio, of which the interest was repaid in full within the next four years. Indeed, this was an ode to her further earnings from the skills garnered. Today, Hellen earns five times more than she did prior to joining the construction industry, and is able to benefit from full-time employment which is not as heavily governed by seasonal transitions as in other careers like agriculture. To place this into a more relatable wholesome perspective; it is enough to independently support her children through the remainder of their education.35 This notable success set an unintended precedent within the country that has the potential to overcome major social and developmental concerns currently being faced by the African demographic, and the prospects of the propagation of such a prototype throughout the continent is promising. It is testament of an appropriate direction being adopted in the establishment of a vernacular for the built environment of the continent, for the continent; an African Architecture.

34 See figures on previous page.

35 ORKIDSTUDIO. “Hellen’s House.� Orkidstudio - Social Change Through Building. Accessed November 16, 2018. https://orkidstudio.org/projects/hellens-house/13/.

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Figure 6 WOMEN IN CONSTRUCTION USING EARTH BAGS

PROJECT SELECTION MATRIX

Throughout the practice period, a major strategy that stood out to me in regard to the workings of the firm, was their selection means for contractual projects.36 Being a social enterprise, they were keen on carrying out purpose-driven projects to communities that are mostly disadvantaged and lack technical skills in addition to intellectual property; as opposed to purely commercial endeavours.

However, this does not negate the reality that philanthropy is often not the most promising mode of general business.

To maintain this balance, they would use a model that constituted a bottom-up approach- which involved the voicing of the opinion of employees, through discussions that would later be negotiated by directors. Such a structure would later allow designs that have been realised on paper be actualised more successfully from a social perspective, allowing the firm to prosper from the combined interests and evaluation of each individual. This project selection matrix captures the very essence of the hybrid approach that the firm takes, promoting social priority over commercial endeavours so as to maintain the integrity of achieving maximum impact dignified design.37 Such a firm, unique in its mission, is setting a unique precedent that upcoming professionals can ponder upon; addressing social issues that are beyond their immediate duties.

36 See spread on next page; Figure 7.

37 John Cary, “Shelter for the Soul,” in Design for Good: A New Era of Architecture for Everyone, ed. John Cary (Washington, DC: Island Press/Center for Resource Economics, 2017), 100–145.

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DESIG Y

Y PROJECT SERVES SOCIETY ?

Y

N

Y

CLIENT SERVES SOCIAL DUTY ?

CLIENT SERVES SOCIAL DUTY ?

CLIENT SERVES SOCIAL DUTY ?

Y

N

PROFITABLE?

Y

PROJEC SOCI

N

PROFITABLE?

Y N

Y

N

Y

N

PROFITABLE?

PROFITABLE?

PROFITABLE?

PROFITABLE?

Y

N

Y N Y

N

Y

N

GN ?

N

“BUILD ONLY”

CLIENT DESIGN IS GOOD ?

Y

N PROJECT SERVES SOCIETY ?

CT SERVES IETY ?

N

Y

CLIENT SERVES SOCIAL DUTY ?

CLIENT SERVES SOCIAL DUTY ?

N

Y PROFITABLE?

Y

N

Y

PROFITABLE?

N Y

CLIENT SERVES SOCIAL DUTY ?

N

Y

PROFITABLE?

N

N

Y

PROFITABLE?

Y

N

N

PROFITABLE?

PROFITABLE?

N

Y N

Y

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Project Selection Matrix

by Orkidstudio - Sketch by Author

ANGELA CAURI

Figure 7

CHRISTIAN BENIMANA Rwanda-born Christian Benimana is another force attempting to introduce a simple architecture which attempts to provide for all contingencies that may arise as a result of the pressures of development.

His prime focus is centred on the academic endeavours in regard to a native architecture within the continent, and he was motivated by a combination of; his childhood interests and an underprivileged background, coupled with the lack of design schools in his home country, which led him to pursue a scholarship to study architecture in Shanghai, China.38 There between the years 2002 and 2008, 38 Benimana, Christian. “The next Generation of African Architects and Designers.” TedTalks. August 2017. Accessed November 2, 2018. https://www.ted.com/talks/christian_benimana_the_next_generation_of_african_architects_and_designers.

AFRICAN DESIGN CENTRE

RWANDA | CHINA

he found himself at the centre of the global giant’s economic boom in which the built environment was rapidly evolving to accommodate the massive development being registered at the time. Indeed, it was an incredible era to witness for any aspiring architect, and it subsequently broadened his perspective towards the built environment in a unique way.

Still, he was critical in observations of the effectiveness of the mega-city’s design aspirations, as three major issues were ascending to unprecedented heights in Shanghai; yet, were extremely relevant to his native context of Kigali.

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The first was the massive population of the country, leading to rising demands for dwelling within extreme constraints of time.

The second was adapting the notion of advanced design with long-term and environmental considerations at the forefront. The third was in regard to local intellectual and material sourcing, with the idea of maintaining a cultural authenticity within the built environment amidst global influences.39 By the conclusion of his studies, the African continent was undergoing China’s equivalent of global interests and Benimana pondered upon how he could manifest his earned knowledge and experiences into contributions towards the current development of his own nation.40 Benimana is easy to admit that it would be deceptive to affirm that he had anticipated the scope of challenges he faced within the context of his return. The African continent was in the early 21stc. still recovering from the events of the postcolonial era; attempting to attain socio-political balance and healing.41 As if not tragic enough, Rwanda was specifically in the process of overcoming the tragic events of the 1994 Genocide, which slashed its population by millions.42 Benimana recognised that architecture was still in a rather chaotic space, and what made it worse was that, indeed, the continent had become a driving force of developmental interest.

Architecture was not only misunderstood by locals, but was malpracticed, and his concern was fuelled by the striking lack in local capacity along with the passing on of knowledge of skills.43 As a result of architecture finding itself at the intersection of this development, it became apparent to him that it was his duty as 39 Felix M. Edoho, “Globalization and Marginalization of Africa: Contextualization of China–– Africa Relations,” Africa Today 58, no. 1 (2011): 103–24.

40 Robinson et al., “A Case Study: Applying Quality Improvement Methods to Reduce Pre-Operative Length of Stay in a Resource-Constrained Setting in Rwanda,” International Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Administration 5, no. 1 (November 5, 2015): 41.

41 Juhani Koponen, Development for Exploitation: German Colonial Policies in Mainland Tanzania, 1884-1914 (distributor, Tiedekirja, 1995).

42 Gérard Prunier, The Rwanda Crisis: History of a Genocide (Columbia University Press, 1997).

43 Benimana, Christian. “The next Generation of African Architects and Designers.” TedTalks.

August 2017. Accessed November 2, 2018. https://www.ted.com/talks/christian_benimana_the_ next_generation_of_african_architects_and_designers.

Figure 8 First Alumni of the ADC Fellowship, Graduated 2017

Figure 9 Completed school designed and “built” by the first Alumni of the ADC Fellowship

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an industry professional to contribute to the solutions of the built environment; and he made it his mission to do so. Therefore, based in Kigali, Rwanda, the African Design Centre (ADC) became the conception of Benimana’s interpretation of a crucial solution that would assist in meeting the dwelling demands of the development era.

The ADC is a global research hub and an institute for continued education, where the potential for diversity in culture is exhibited and accommodated. This is made possible by inviting youthful members of the construction industry discipline to collaborate their primarily gathered intellectual and experiential skills into an intensive twenty-month program that engages research, design and advocacy.44 Through research, the future design ambassadors are able to identify with the local demographic and contemplate the underlying issues that arise at the interface between the developmental status and the built environment. With this information at hand, conscious implementation of sustainable design solutions can then be informed by workshop seminars and studio practice, where the capacity to understand the project process from early idealisation to completion is delivered. The advocacy remains the most critical aspect however, as it is through the genuine narrative of the projects to the demographic, that the pioneers can attest to dignified solutions being achievable.

44 ADC. “The African Design Centre.� African Design Centre. Accessed November 17, 2018. https://www.africandesigncentre.org/.

The mission of the ADC is to aspire for higher level knowledge of a decentralised nature. The founders recognise that the average African worker is aged twenty years old, and that the entire continent- at 3%- has the lowest level of graduates per capita as compared to regions like South Korea (67%) and Finland (70%)45 thus posing a striking challenge for the younger generation who must be equipped for contingencies often foreign to most.

of socialism48, by the year 2015 Rwanda held the record of the fastest growing country in the continent, and today is highly revered for its environmental and infrastructure achievements that are gradually overshadowing its developing counterparts. This success has been alluded to the propagation of long-term purpose-based solutions, regulations and innovations within the country’s legislative systems, which prioritise the welfare of future generations over momentary Focused educational programs have over endeavours. the years proven to be an effective means to attain consistency within a field of practice.46 Today, Binamana is a director at both Therefore, the inference at the heart of the MASS Design Group49 and the ADC, where program was that; a combination of the he continues to advocate for a deliberate opportunities that emerge and chances architecture unique to the African context. taken by designers, would form the ethos When asked what his favourite African of the endeavours, while the academic country is in regard to its potential, he program would regulate the approach.47 alludes that the response is hypothetical; a country that is yet to exist, but is in the This very program- although launched in making. And when probed about what the year 2016- has already inspired the motivates his endeavours amidst the likes of an upcoming fellowship program discouraging realities, he acknowledges at Orkidstudio in Kenya; a testament to the that his reflections upon the African amplification of its impact and the potential built environment offer excitement in its for its future scope. possibilities.50 Regardless of the effects of shared Such ethical aspirations of how good life historic events which rebuked the culture can be in that context- under the influence of professionals who are concerned about the social and environmental welfare- is 45 OECD. “Demography - Working Age Population - OECD Data.” Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Developencouraging. ment. Accessed November 12, 2018. https://data.oecd.org/pop/ working-age-population.htm.

46 Kerstin Mahlberg and K. Sjoblom, Solution Focused Education (London: Solutions Books, 2005).

47 Benimana, Christian. “The next Generation of African Architects and Designers.” TedTalks. August 2017. Accessed November 2, 2018. https://www.ted.com/talks/christian_benimana_the_next_generation_of_african_architects_and_designers.

48 Richard, Materializing Colonial Encounters: Archaeologies of African Experience.

49 See next chapter.

50 Benimana, Christian. “The next Generation of African Architects and Designers.” TedTalks. August 2017. Accessed November 2, 2018. https://www.ted.com/talks/christian_benimana_the_next_generation_of_african_architects_and_designers.

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Figure 10 Exterior and interior of the ompleted school designed and “built” by the first Alumni of the ADC Fellowship

MASS DESIGN GROUP

RWANDA | USA

MASS Design Group (MASS)51 is a resultant of possibilities that are achievable when intellectuals with similar personal and professional aspirations collude their knowledge and means into opportunities to create positive impact and disrupt traditional trends with modern understandings.

to the commercial.52 Its founders were on a mission to create a Model for Architecture that Serves Society, and thus, its name was derived. They were easily familiarised with the local dynamic of the problematic African region in particular, and- with the intellectual property they possessed- they were keen about manufacturing solutions to local problems locally as opposed to The firm was first realised in 2008, by a importing them.53 team of six friends including Michael Murphy and Alan Ricks, and initially Although self-explanatory in its agenda, based in both Boston, USA and Kigali, the ethos of this firm is probably best Rwanda. A non-profit organisation- funded defined by what they allude as their first mostly by grants- it prioritises its project 52 Robinson et al., “A Case Study: Applying Quality Improveselection based on social needs as opposed ment Methods to Reduce Pre-Operative Length of Stay in a 51 MASS. “Mission.” MASS Design Group. Accessed November 7, 2018. https://massdesigngroup.org/about.

Resource-Constrained Setting in Rwanda.”

53 Mass Design Group, “Hospital in Rwanda,” in Building Simply Two, ed. Christian Schittich (München: DE GRUYTER, 2012).

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M MODEL

OF

A

S

S

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SERVING

SOCIETY

major success in measure of impact, and, the most impactful project to-date.

Butaro is a rural town to the north-west of the capital city, Kigali.

It is a landlocked region with uneven terrains and- according to Western standards- offers little to the community it serves in regard to decent lifestyles and basic amenities. Precisely, a lack of sufficient health care facilities within this vicinity, coupled with an increasing population, meant that a devastating reality existed; mortality rates were high, and little was being done about it.54In addition to this, a fatal anomaly was observed in the spread of airborne diseases within the very facility where locals would visit for unrelated health reasons, and the tragedy was that it was found to be easily avoidable with the influence of better spatial planning and basic sanitation improvements.

54“Home.� Partners In Health. Accessed December 1, 2018. https://www.pih.org/.

With an ethos for design that promotes justice and human dignity, MASS therefore bid for a contract of the Rwandan Ministry of Health in collaboration with Partners In Health55 to design a new local hospital that would facilitate the demands of the health sector within the region. The Butaro Hospital56 thus became an opportunity not only to design, but to critically assess and address healthcare delivery issues within the locality and conceive a sustainable solution that would benefit the growing population.

An amalgamation of global aspirations and local ideals guided the design conception, yet, what made the experience quantify as the firm’s greatest success, was the eye-opening experience of how modest architecture can be deployed to impact lasting positive social change. They thus shaped their practice around this philosophy of process, and have since been endeavouring to scale it geographically beyond their base.57 The firm was keen about changing the manner in which we build to have an impact along the way such that not only the building services may facilitate healthcare, but the process too can equally improve a community’s social health.58 Therefore, their first task for the design was to carry out critical research into the qualities that influence recovery and the communication of airborne diseases.59 The team was led to discoveries that the face-toface orientation of the beds in the wards would psychologically discourage patients, and that unobscured views of the outdoors would have more positive psychological implications on the same.

55 MASS Design Group, Empowering Architecture: The Butaro Hospital, Rwanda (MASS Design Group, 2011).

56 Mass Design Group, “Hospital in Rwanda,” in Building Simply Two, ed. Christian Schittich (München: DE GRUYTER, 2012).

57 MASS. “Design.” MASS Design Group. Accessed December 1, 2018. https://massdesigngroup. org/design.

58 Christa M. Beranek, “Beyond Consumption: Social Relationships, Material Culture, and Identity,” in The Materiality of Individuality: Archaeological Studies of Individual Lives, ed. Carolyn White (New York, NY: Springer US, 2009), 163–83.

59 Benimana, Small, and Rulisa, “Preventability of Maternal near Miss and Mortality in Rwanda: A Case Series from the University Teaching Hospital of Kigali (CHUK).”

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Figure 11 Interior and exterior of completed Butaro District Hospital, Rwanda.

In addition to this, the inadequate precautions taken in the movement patterns of the existing complex was attributed as the cause of the unwarranted spread of illness, and simple reconfigurations in the floor plans- with strategic integrations of indoor and outdoor use- could alleviate the facility of the crisis.60 They then took advantage of the temperate tropical highland climate native to Burkina Faso along with the terrain inherited, to create a safe passive system that minimises the risk of infection influenced by design. Finally, with social intervention and communal collaborations, they were able to actualise their designs frugally and by the conclusion of this project, not only were the health standards of the hospital subsequently improved, but minimum standards for healthcare design were reconsidered at legislative levels.61MASS aspires to create architecture that heals, and this case study portrays a paradigm of the exact manner in which it is able to do so.

Based on the model of success employed in the Butaro Hospital, the firm proceeded to undertake further projects with similar levels of impact, a critical one being the Malawi Health Centre for Expectant Women62, which has been found to improve infant mortality rates within its locality since its conception. Their mission has since been recognised with nearly two dozen awards in sustainability, innovation, humanitarianism, health and social efforts; including the Architectural League, Emerging Voices; which recognises excellence in architecture that ‘stimulates critical thinking and debate about the design and building issues of our time’63, and the Curry Stone Prize, recognising ‘innovative excellence in humanitarian design64’.

60 Hans Dieleman, “Organizational Learning for Resilient Cities, through Realizing Eco-Cultural Innovations,” Journal of Cleaner Production 50 (July 1, 2013): 171–80.

61 Mass Design Group, “Hospital in Rwanda.”

62 See Figure 11.

63 Archleague. “Interview: MASS Design Group.” The Architectural League of New York. Accessed December 1, 2018. https://archleague.org/article/mass-design-group/.

64 CSF. “Home.” Curry Stone Foundation. Accessed December 1, 2018. https://currystonefoundation.org/.

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Figure 11 Interior and exterior of completed Butaro District Hospital, Rwanda.

Today, the firm summarises its premise with four ‘E’s’ and has since been able to acquire a distinctive design-style represented in the spread that concludes this chapter.

E

E

E

E

ECONOMY

ENVIRONMENT

EDUCATION

EMOTION

Economy – To ensure the capital funding invested into projects remain within the communities they influence for maximum impact Environment – The use of local resources to deploy sustainable solutions Education – The combination of global aspirations and local ideals to inform design; coupled with their hand in the academic branch, the African Design Centre.

Emotion – The notion that when locals are involved and identify with projects designed for them, they value them more and thus have more impact.

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Figure 12 MASS DESIGN GROUP PROJECT INDEX

Photograph: Erik-Jan Ouwerkerk

DIEBEDO FRANCIS KERE Diebedo Francis Kéré has been an advocate for African vernacular architecture for decades, and has inspired most of the other designers acknowledged in this writing.

This design influence was initiated in the late 20thc.- when he realised an opportunity to implement innovative development systems that promise value change in his native land of Burkina Faso.

Initially a carpenter, he was offered the opportunity of an apprenticeship as a supervisor in developmental aid in Germany65, after which he proceeded to pursue his passion for the built environment.

His global influence has earned him a reputation that speaks volumes about the 65 Carter, “Architecture and Social Change in the Development Era.”

KERE ARCHITECTURE

BURKINA FASSO | GERMANY

possibilities posed by simple, effective design.66 When pondering upon the premise of what architecture means to him, he attributes his influences and inspirations to the land that raised him; Gando Village- a region 125 miles south-east of the capital of Ouagadougou. This was a locality where infrastructure was non-existent, although needed; and the community lacked in numerous ways ranging from a lack of basic resources to illiteracy. It is therefore only by chance that he narrates a promising transformative tale of this land in retrospect.

66 Lepik and Beygo, Francis Kéré: Radically Simple.

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Figure 13 Gando Village, Burkina Faso: before and after Kéré’s interventions

In regions such as Gando, which thrive from social structures, the power of communal interaction in daily life can be compared to the power that air possesses in any living organism: it is extremely crucial to its very existence. Therefore, if developmental success is to be achieved, it becomes imperative for influencers to first understand the communal needs, abilities and customs before making any major systemic changes to the natives’ way of life.67 While contemplating the built environment of Burkina Faso, Kéré and his team were native to the concept that structures had historically been erected in clay, yet material and design innovation had never been witnessed.68Clay is a widely locally sourced material that is used in its raw form, rendering it economically viable. It also conceals great potential within its tectonics as it can be modified to create well working structures that project comfortable indoor conditions in sub-Saharan climate zones.

67 Alan Ford and The Images Publishing Group, Designing the Sustainable School (Images Publishing, 2007).

68 D. F. Kéré, “Architectural Trends in Africa,” Architecture+ Design, 2011, http://search. proquest.com/openview/daca293ec5bce45c66140289a0c5da95/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=586301.

In regions as economically disadvantaged as Gando, any form of sustainable practice- such as an avoidance of artificial climatisation- is holistically beneficial for both the environment and the clients’ best interests.

However, an irony was observed when it came to the introduction of contemporary design to the built environment. Locals posed rejection to traditional clay, due to social standards that render it a material of low hierarchy or class.69Nonetheless, Kéré was willing to use his skills to aid them in identifying with it. He was determined to convert the attitude of the locals- towards both the built environment and ancient material use- through a new form of architecture that is more appealing; more acceptable by social standards. The approach thus revolved around a modern articulation of locally abundant clay and wood materials.70 The first of his interventions in his village was his final-year architecture project proposal, which centred upon the development of the local Gando Primary School that was desperately required within the vicinity. The prime intent lay in a design that would be functional and additionally bear no conflict with the existing environment.71The team initiated the use of compressive clay blocks for the structure; and although this may seem primitive in design evolution, it evoked an innovative response in the context that it was freshly exposed to it.

It was not long, however, before a setback was realised in the striking proportion of underqualified labourers, coupled with insufficient intellectual property amongst the local workforce.72Interestingly enough, such challenges would be recognised as unprecedented opportunities to educate and train the local workforce on technical principles and the use of simple machinery.

69 Ford and The Images Publishing Group, Designing the Sustainable School.

70 Kéré, “Architectural Trends in Africa.”

71 Ford and The Images Publishing Group, Designing the Sustainable School.

72 Lepik and Beygo, Francis Kéré: Radically Simple.

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Figure 14 Kere’s onstruction philosophy captured in its essence- GANDO SCHOOL LIBRARY

Figure 15 Gando Primary School and Extension...

With such a strategy, not only would the construction process be fundamental in the short-term endeavours of the project, but subsequently, in future maintenance and replications of the same.73 Warranted as a community intervention, the actual construction process engaged the labour of the very members of the villagethe clients- and this became imperative in interventions that followed.74 Kéré’s interventions were received as a wake-up call by the locals.

They formed a basis for inclusive design, which set a precedent for future design and social aspirations of the country. Success was therefore inherent in the positive assimilation of the psyche 73 K. Feireiss, “Architecture of Change: Sustainability and Humanity in the Built Environment,” 2008.

74 See Figure 14*

of the clients who would benefit from the use of the new spaces, and this was achieved by means of accessing their pride, selfefficacy and resourcefulness to add value to the building through a sense of importance.75 Given a chance to renegotiate previous design interventions, Kéré admits that even with more means, he would not opt for the replacement of the ancient material choice in this demographic; based on the simple merit of its potential in accordance to the economic and social stance of the region.76 In his discernment, clay is as promising for the future innovations as it has been for the past foundations of the continental built environment.

75 D. F. Kere, “High School Extension in Dano, Burkina Faso,” Spaceflight, 2009.

76 Lepik and Beygo, Francis Kéré: Radically Simple.

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...showing how it was purposefully designed using a careful balance of modern and traditional construction styles and materials

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Figure 15

The primary school- completed in 2001earned Kéré Architecture77 the Aga Khan Award for Architecture 200478, then the Global Award for Sustainable Architecture 200979 and has since grown to include a secondary school, library, and teachers’ housing, which were all non-existent prior to his intervention.80 Based in Berlin, Kéré now utilises his firm’s commissions to subsidise construction work in Burkina Faso; at times fortunate enough to be rendered pro-bono. He has been able to extend his ethos to numerous regions including Kenya- where he built an educational campus with librariesand healthcare centres in Mali, Yemen and India.81 The Serpentine Pavillion in Kengsinton Garden, London, 2017 was his most recent project, in which elements of a traditional African hut structure are abstracted, while the Opera Village in his home country is is most ambitious project yet.

77 “Kéré Architecture,” accessed December 18, 2018, http:// www.kere-architecture.com/projects/school-extension-gando/.

78 “2004 Aga Khan Award for Architecture Recipients | Aga Khan Development Network.” AGA KHAN AWARD FOR ARCHITECTURE. November 29, 2018. Accessed November 18, 2018.

79 “Global Award for Sustainable Architecture.” Cité De L’architecture & Du Patrimoine. Accessed November 18, 2018. https:// www.citedelarchitecture.fr/en/article/global-award-sustainable-architecture#.

80 See Figure 13.

81 “Kéré Architecture.”

Additionally, he has seen success in finding a medium which can transgress regional dynamics with his proposal for an architecture unique to the African context, and set an example of various means through which this can be done.

Not only has Kéré managed to be a source of inspiration to the other upcoming forces accounted for in the previous chapters, but he has discovered an effective way to improve international relations during this era of rapid development changes, while translating the stigma of receiving aid into a long term endeavour that is tenfold.82 He once remarked that a major goal he had in life was to leave a legacy; not one of his work, but of his skills; such that other underprivileged, underexposed individuals- especially from regions similar to his native land- may be enabled to take over the apprenticeship long after his demise to enlighten those they precede.

Yet, he has been fortunate enough to have lived to witness this happening in his time.83

82 Carter, “Architecture and Social Change in the Development Era.” 83 Domus. “Milano Arch Week 2018 Examines Themes regarding the Future of Cities.” Milano Arch Week 2018. Accessed November 11, 2018.

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Figure 16 The 2017 Serpentine Pavillion, now disassembled.

Figure 17 Render of Kere’s Opera Village, Burkina Faso ongoing project.

KUNLE ADEYEMI Kunlé Adeyemi is neither foreign to the adage of charity commencing at home. This notion- coupled with a firm architectural foundation with formal opportunities in the Netherlands- he was equipped to return to his home town of Lagos, Nigeria with his own version of solutions for the current crisis of the built environment.

One of his greatest concerns was that architecture within the continent was a private-sector oriented profession, only serving a small sample of the population adequately. He also recognised that a variety of cultures exist, and numerous localities still thrive on social structures.

With this era that holds opportunities to experiment and explore ideas- which

NLE ARCHITECTS

NIGERIA | NETHERLANDS

might not always immediately respond to all the basic issues- his modus operandi was thus defined by the harnessing of available opportunities and resources to elevate the struggling narrative of the built environment.84 The reality that Lagos city’s heart is a body of water is what rendered Adeyemi’s interventions notary. To be more precise, 30% of its geographical area is wetlandthe levels of which can get compromising during sudden seasonal influxes.85Within this heart, an aquatic community named Makoko exists, relying on fishing and 84 Kunle Adeyemi, Kunle Adeyemi: Subject to Change (Kunle Adeyemi Studios, 1999).

85 Kunlé Adeyemi, “African Water Cities,” Architectural Design 82, no. 5 (September 13, 2012): 98–101.

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Figure 18 Makoko village/slum dwellings, Lagos, Nigeria.

sewing trades for sustenance.

Living at sea level is only one of the many hardships faced by this slum-like dwelling. It has been in existence for centuries, and thus, its environment not just a condition, but has translated into a way of life.86Indeed, such coastal communities had already conceived their own innovative adaptive means to accommodate resourceful living; albeit informalities. But with the modern era contingencies of climatic influxes and the prevailing population growth rate, there was an intrinsic health and safety concern associated with this particular settlement.87 86 Beranek, “Beyond Consumption: Social Relationships, Material Culture, and Identity.”

87 Adeyemi, “African Water Cities.”

Kunlé’s solution was therefore projected in the manner of not only a design, but a research project titled the African Water Cities Project, particularly addressing the intersection points of issues climate change and rapid urbanisation in African cities. This model of practice encourages form to follow function; a quality of purposeful design.88 In collaboration with the German-based Heinrich Böll Foundation89, the team of designers was thus equipped to address a variety issues of urbanisation being faced within the Makoko village. They were intent on providing local infrastructure that is- at its minimum- tolerant to the environment, and healthy to accommodate those that reside within.

Kunlé borrowed from the technical logic of existing ‘floating’ structures invented locally, and simply adjusted them to modernday standards; an evident alteration being the adaptation of a triangular shape which offers more stability, while another being the use of recycled “floaters” that allow mobility in cases of flood conditions or future relocation.90The prototype structure was intended to provide a school that can additionally integrate various public events for the community, while being easily adaptable in its physical assemblage.

The early success of this prototype came in the actualisation of the Makoko Floating School, which addressed both immediate needs of a social and developmental intervention within the region.91After a few months of operation, however, the structure succumbed to failure, but not without leaving the team informed and enlightened of its inadequacies.92 88 “NLÉ - African Water Cities Projects.” NLÉ. Accessed November 1, 2018. http://www.nleworks.com/case/african-water-cities-project/.

89 “Heinrich-Böll-Stiftung.” Heinrich Böll Foundation, www.boell.de/en.

90 See figure 19.

91 Adeyemi, “African Water Cities.”

92 Leardi, Lindsey. “A Deep Dive Into the Sad Story of the Makoko Floating School.” ArchDaily.

March 26, 2018. Accessed December 1, 2018. https://www.archdaily.com/890330/a-deep-dive-into-the-sad-story-of-the-makoko-floating-school.

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Figure 19 Design Methodology of the Floating Structure

Today, this very prototype has been highly improved and propagated to various regions across the world- namely, Venice (2016), Bruges (2018) and Chengdu (2018) in Italy, Belgium and China respectively93: an ode to to its potential as a precedent.

Adeyemi’s team admits that despite the fact that the original conception and site for the prototype was in Africa, international articulations of the same are critical in defining a more extensive scope for its potential; which can then be translated back to the African demographic with a more acute level of success.94 An ongoing research has also since been carried out to-date which aspires for a more informed context of the regions that can benefit from the dynamics of this particular innovation, and ways in which it can be evolved further.

The Makoko Floating School advocates for the exhaustion and innovation of locally available resources, before seeking Westernised solutions that were not designed for the dynamics of nations worlds away. It is the vision and desire for a coherent existence between man and nature that marks NLÉ Architects as a firm proving to be crucial to the current development of the African built environment.

Today, KunlĂŠ has been able to define his architectural style in a manner that is unique to his intentions which are focused upon socialism, urbanism and contrastingly: tradition. His actualisations speak of an African narrative that is indeed being written in preempt, and this is portrayed in the visual spread that concludes this chapter.

93 See Figures 21, 22, 23.

94 Adeyemi, Kunle Adeyemi: Subject to Change.

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Figure 20 MFS Lagos, Nigeria (2012)

Figure 21 MFSII Venice, Italy (2016)

Figure 22 MFSIIIBruges, Belgium (2018)

Figure 23 MFSIIIX3 Chengdu, China (2018)

DAVID ADJAYE Sir David Adjaye is the last but not least of the powerful influencers researched, and his works respond to nearly all of the premises addressed throughout this discussion. A British-born Ghanaian architect, unlike a majority of the other pioneers discussed, he was not motivated by primary experiential predicaments within the African environment but rather by the covert duty concealed within the exploration of his ancestral roots.95 This chapter gives an account of his modern day explorations of the continent, offeringin certain cases- arguments and counterarguments in regard to the discussions already posed.

95 Allison, David Adjaye.

ADJAYE ASSOCIATES

GHANA | UK

An afro-fused design style unique to his design discernment is what places him amongst the headlines of global architectural dialogue that centres on explorations of deliberate, conscious architecture.

Adjaye’s research into the African narrative was affirmed by a documented venture to the continent- captured in his various publications- with intentions to explore its lost architectural heritage. He was eager to try make sense of the turbulent history that the continent knows, so as to discover exactly how Africa was built, and was keen on the reflection of how architecture has transcended various generations and global influences since pre-colonisation to-date.96 96 D. Adjaye and K. Eshun, “Learning from Lagos: A Dia-

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However, besides the well-known structural wonders discussed in the historical context of this writing,97 Adjaye was akin to the conviction that the continent was an architectural wasteland; a continent almost entirely void of the great building styles that are a mark of architectural civilisations. Nonetheless, he ensured an unbiased cross-cultural approach in his explorations of diverse geo-political climates, which enabled him to encompass regions of strikingly varied architectural dialect.

One of his primary observations was that many regions hosted architectural masterpieces that were uniquely adapted to the landscape; buildings that have been inspired by nature, religion, and even the often traumatic encounters with imperial powers.98 From the eastern region of the African continent, he began logue on the Poetics of Informal Habitation,” 2006), David Adjaye: Making Public Buildings, 2006.

97 Refer to “A PROMISING PAST” chapter.

98 Adjaye, Hirsch, and Otero-Pailos, “On Architecture and Authorship: A Conversation.”

by paying homage to the Rock Hewn Churches of Lalibela, Ethiopia99; an engineering feat that has in many cases been referred to as the eighth wonder of the world.100Ethiopia was one of two countries that were not invaded heavily by imperialist powers, and the cities therefore only conceal subtle foreign references. Yet, it was difficult to fathom that the neighbouring Eritrea- which had only previously freed itself from the territory of its Ethiopian counterpart- embraced a bewildering range of contrasting architectural styles that have rendered it a UNESCO World Heritage Site in the present day.101 The capital city of Eritrea, Asmara, was once reputed as the most modern city in Africa.102 Its Old Town Square was introduced to a host of neo-classical, baroque and modernist styles by the then fascist leader, Benito Mussolini, and the fascist aesthetic became the blueprint for his model city and his rendition of futurism.103 The problem is that, although such cities may seem satisfactory to the ordinary eye, local critics of design such as architect Dr Naigzy Gebremedhin declare it a confusing mismatch.104Although this influence was the leader’s preferred style- often attributed to a cure for home-sickness in the foreign land- it becomes apparent from its present day resultant, that the buildings were not necessarily designed for the local demographic. With further exploration, it was concluded that this is a dilemma faced by many countries across the continent in the present day, but what is striking is that 99 See Figures 24, 25 100 D. Adjaye, “Adjaye, Africa, Architecture: A Photographic Survey of Metropolitan Architecture,” 2016.

101 UNESCO World Heritage Centre, “UNESCO World Heritage Centre - Document - Asmara: A Modernist City of Africa (Eritrea),” UNESCO World Heritage Centre, accessed December 18, 2018, https://whc.unesco.org/en/documents/159059.

102 John Asafu Adjaye, Environmental Economics for Non-Economists (WORLD SCIENTIFIC, 2000).

103 Palma, Silvana. “Modern Architecture and Its Representation in Colonial Eritrea. An In-Visible Colony, 1890–1941, Written by Sean Anderson in: Annali Sezione Orientale Volume 76 Issue 1-2 Year 2016.” The 1982 Law of the Sea Convention at 30: Successes, Challenges and New Agendas, Brill Nijhoff, 4 Oct. 2018, brill.com/abstract/journals/aioo/76/1-2/article-p287_17. xml.

104 Adjaye, “Adjaye, Africa, Architecture: A Photographic Survey of Metropolitan Architecture.”

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Figure 24 Asmara Old Town Square, Eritrea: These images capture a striking contrast between the vernacular of tthe built environment present in two neighbouring countries (previously united) at the same point in history.

Figure 25 A Rock Hewn Church of Laliblea, Ethiopia.

no other city has been known to preserve their inherited imperial expressions in such concentrations.

Adjaye thus became eager to tread the southern ruins of the royal Great Zimbabwe, a 12thc. civilisation of the Shona people, east of the Kalahari dessert.105 This territory historically occupied 1800 acres of land, and its scale testifies to the intense ambition and technical skills of builders of the once magnificent built environment. Adjaye recognised how the social structuresshadowed by the ruins of the built environment- portrayed a willingness to embrace different cultures.106What makes this a remarkable feature in this region is that this very willingness has not always been a characteristic associated with the ‘Southerners’ in recent pasts, and therefore reveals a significant turning point in social structures that subsequently influenced the evolution of the built environment to what it is today.107 During the prosperity of this southern kingdom, a parallel kingdom was simultaneously marking its presence in the west, along the southern fringes of the Sahara desert. Mali is home to another of the continent’s oldest civilisations, which existed over 900 years ago, yet it still retains a majority of customary construction elements in present day building regulations.108Indeed, this arises as a result of preserving social practices and structures in many of its localities to-date; but is additionally complemented by the deplorable economic reality of the country in its current developmental stance.

105Adjaye, Hirsch, and Otero-Pailos, “On Architecture and Authorship: A Conversation.”

106 Joshua Hammer, “Visiting the Remote Tribal Lands of the Dogon in Central Mali,” The New York Times, March 2, 2010, https://www.nytimes.com/2010/03/07/travel/07personal.html.

107 See Figure 26 108 “Great Mosque of Djenné,” Khan Academy, accessed December 18, 2018, https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/art-africa/west-africa/mali1/a/great-mosque-of-djenne.

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Figure 26 Ruins of The Great Zimbabwe Kingdom; testimony to their massive monolithic ‘pretentions’.

There, Adjaye took the opportunity to engage with communities that dwell in the simple constructs of mud huts arranged in communal clusters. The natives thrive off subsistence farming, and being at the heart of the sub-Saharan climatic sphere, have engineered their dwellings to not only be breathable and cool, but elevated from the influence of earthly pestilence. As such, they have been able to prosper under conditions that would be considered endangering at its best- according to western standards.

He also engaged with those who still utilise cave structures in daily life, contrary to the archetypical tourist attractions.

However, it was the surreal geometries of the Great Mosque of Djenné in Mali109 that served as the summit of this particular exploration. This is because, it is in the repair and maintenance of this emblematic structure- along with the interventions of its immediate environment- that traditional building regulations are mostly emphasised in regards to their context.110 This Islamicstyle structure enclosed by sixty-centimetre-thick walls, hosts a series of protruding palm beams that serve the dual function of reinforcement and permanent scaffolding, but what renders it most highly revered is the use of pure mud and brick in its tectonic structure, and its survival to this day- as a critical feature of the native African built environment In a reflection on Rwanda, Adjaye’s explorations offer a critical counter-argument to the narrative told by Christian Binamana111 who paints a portrait of a nation that has abandoned major Western influences in its infrastructure approach. Adjaye suggests that the city of Kigali hosts a range of festive-styled architecture that festered long after the imperial powers had left, just as its neighbouring counterparts and their respective influences.

109 J. Cameron Monroe and Akinwumi Ogundiran, Power and Landscape in Atlantic West Africa: Archaeological Perspectives (Cambridge University Press, 2012).

110 “Great Mosque of Djenné,” Khan Academy, accessed December 18, 2018, https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/art-africa/west-africa/mali1/a/great-mosque-of-djenne.

111 See Chapter on “Christian Binamana”.

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Figure 27 The Dogon earthen architecture : Cave structures and granaries of the Bandiagara people of Mali.

Figure 28 The Great Mosque of Djenne (1907), Mali capturing an architecturalauthenticity unique to that particular region of the continent

He argues nonetheless, that the country is still under massive pressure to conform to extravagant Westernised developments; especially in the form of commercial public centres such as shopping malls.112 The problem with this lies in the context that a majority of rural dwellers- who account for nearly 90% of the population- do not fit within the country’s ambitious economic pretentions, and in many cases, are forcefully migrated or rehoused to make room for commercial endeavours.

It therefore goes without saying that inconspicuous crises reveal themselves in Adjaye’s explorations; and they become a concern for architects because the built environment happens to be at the intersection of development and developers.

The premise of Adjaye’s ventures was accomplished with a visit to his Ghanaian native land. Ghana was the first African nation to attain independence and free itself from active colonial pressures; in the year 1957.113A coastal country on one edge of the continent, Ghana’s legacy as “The Gold Coast” was however unfamed by the realities of its past, especially as a major slave coast. With time, the taste of neo-classical Greece and Rome was left behind by imperial masters, which “stubbornly refused to go away”.114Columns, arches and pitched roofs dominate the city centres; though not everyone, admittedly, buys into the classical ideal.

With the transference of power and economic resources to the first president- Kwame Nkrumah- came a complete take-over of governance; including the development of the nation. What followed was an amalgamation of both local and imperial styles with a greater influence of the latter- attaining a firm presence in 112 Adjaye, Hirsch, and Otero-Pailos, “On Architecture and Authorship: A Conversation.”

113 J. Cameron Monroe and Akinwumi Ogundiran, Power and Landscape in Atlantic West Africa: Archaeological Perspectives (Cambridge University Press, 2012).

114 Adjaye, Hirsch, and Otero-Pailos, “On Architecture and Authorship: A Conversation.”

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the subsequent evolution of the built environment.115This became the resultant of a variety of capital cities within the continent, and when the developmental endeavours that followed the post-colonisation era arrives at a point of concern for the built environment, it makes you ponder upon whether the continent would have benefited from prolonged authority- economically and politically speaking, of course- from their imperial masters...

With this freshly gathered understanding of the context of concern, Adjaye is able to borrow purposeful notions and concepts from African culture and embody them in his global designs. He marries a sense of place-making within both the design and product, with indigenous African crafts. More significantly, he takes advantage of his platform to advocate for a style that he- along with his enlightened counterparts- has come to celebrate; an architecture unique to Africa even in the midst of global unification.

Adjaye places emphasis on how professionals within the vicinity must learn from historic inadequacies of previous planners in order to overcome them. They should find ways to absorb the cross-cultural influence, but reproduce it with new meaning that is not foreign to their way of life. In this way, the miserable narrative of one side of the continent’s history may contrast with the beams of opportunity that define its future prospects.116 115 Adjaye and Eshun, “Learning from Lagos: A Dialogue on the Poetics of Informal Habitation.”

116 Dieleman, “Organizational Learning for Resilient Cities, through Realizing Eco-Cultural

Figure 29 David Adjaye’s Museum of African American history; portraying an embodiment of vernacularAfrican connotations.

A FORGIVING FUTURE Here, a resolution to the discussions is arrived at, and the 21st century crisis of the African built environment is summarised. It probes the reader to reflect on the preluding chapters- with a different point of view of the advocates, critics and apprentices of design.

FUTURE CITIES OF AFRICA

The 21STc. crisis of the African built environment recognises an existing void between the conceptualisation of effective building solutions- at the unprecedented rate of the developing continentand its tragic yet promising economic stance. As such, various local governments have taken it upon themselves to proclaim development targets for their respective nations, by which their capital cities would have achieved their crowning pillars of success to join other global powers.

To name a few; Kigali’s ‘Vision 2020’, Nairobi’s ‘Vision 2030’ and Africa’s ‘Vision 2050’117, all paint a picture of a continent that might be united in its cause, but with a division in efforts regarding matters economics, politics and socialism, it is difficult to predict the holistic scope of success for the continent. These visions may appear too pretentious; too eager to please. Yet, only time will tell.

There is an African adage that I have grown to realise communicates a notion that resonates with the state of its built environment today.

It asserts that ‘even the colours of a chameleon are for survival, not beauty’, suggesting that; the enigma that entices humans in the nature of this highly specialized clade, is a mechanism inherited to aid it in the defence of its very existence- while the aesthetic it projects is a subsequent quality narrated by beings.

Africa will be witnessing a lot of developmental changes in the near future. Will it follow a different trajectory that is relevant to it? It is critical that the hype is neither mistaken for reality, nor the hope for achievement. Therefore, superficial motivations for design decisions should be avoided.

Innovations.”

117 “AFRICAN UNION: Future Challenges: Continental Alignments,” Africa

Research Bulletin: Political, Social and Cultural Series 48, no. 3 (April 18, 2011): 18756A – 18756C.

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Figure 30 Visions for future African cities; conceived by ambitious local governments who are yet to release a structural render of the product.

This is neither a take-away from the design liberty desired by architects, nor is it a proposal for an aesthetically-lacking dystopian future for the continent. Rather, it is a probe for the reciprocation of priorities at a more sophisticated level, demanding an overall reform in structural strategies, in lieu of the context of concern. If the professionals responsible for the planning and development of upcoming African cities may ponder upon such criticism, it may only offer an advantage in the future progression and direction of the built environment.

“AFRICA IS NOT RISING”

The ‘Africa is rising’ narrative has been extensively addressed throughout this discussion; but some critics familiar with the dynamics of the continent counter that there are profound flaws that exist in this narrative.118 One of the shortcomings is that it is not coined by Africans themselves, but rather by outsiders, who compare the state of the continent to the more advanced world.134 The Africans have however faulted in that they have embraced that narrative without questioning- leave alone understandingwhat it really means.119 The preluding chapters, however, hold testament to a new reality in which the population is becoming inquisitive. Should this standard be accepted? And if so, then to what extent?

The architects and start-ups discussed in this writing have provoked the conversation of the more profound role that architecture plays within the African continent, especially in regard to this historic developmental boom. They have articulated well enough that the success of design should not be capped or measured by cost, but rather by the overall level impact it poses to the current crisis of the built environment. The architecture that they advocate for speaks about life, participation, dialogue- but most importantly, democracy.

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118 Mufuruki, Ali. “Is Africa Really “rising” | TEDxEuston.” TedEd. December 30, 2014. Accessed November 15, 2018. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OjgJ2KpyJ5w&t=189s.

119 Walla, Kah. “Daring to Invent the Future of Africa | TEDxWarwick.” TedEd. April 16, 2014.

Accessed November 15, 2018. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_GFrlnmkfXk.

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IN CONCLUSION

The scope of discussion inevitably digresses into the fields of politics and legislature, albeit its intentions being founded not upon these, but on the reforms that are needed to exalt the narrative of the African built environment and revert its reputation to more successful graces within this window of opportunity. Our profession should not be a commodity produced for only those who can afford it, and we must therefore not limit our interventions to what is learnt in school, leaving the rest to politicians, economists and sociologists. Likewise, such discussions should not be limited to the context of concern, but should instead instigate further conversation about strategies that can be amplified and applied in various branches of the architecture, engineering and construction industries.

It is how we- as academics - claim to help the developing nations use the knowledge we possess in a sustainable manner. If we remain responsible and accountable in decision making- learning from the mistakes of the past and focusing on long-term solutions for African development, the possibilities are endless. This requires not only determined, but committed enthusiasts, who can master the art of understanding knowledge and applying as opposed to replicating it. More importantly, as architects, we must comprehend our more orchestrated role in society, so that when our conceptions finally manifest into a permanent presence, they make contextual sense and serve the functions that were intended.

And this must be imperative; applicable at all times.

Africa’s possibility is indeed the world’s opportunity, and the continent can not afford to get the global encounter wrong this time round. This era calls for us as academics and potential professionals, to be global advocates for social change instead of agents of self-destruction; and this is achievable by reinforcing the right use of knowledge and articulating design values- especially during this window of opportunity- so that the framework that this development is founded upon may not end up collapsing under its own weight.

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Cover Art: By Author A painting of a subject- reflecting back on his homeland- before his last departure to a foreign land he is unaware of. It is bittersweet. The city skyline is of Nairobi, Kenya. It holds identity... as do all elements of the built environment.