COLONIAL DIASPORIC ARCHITECTURE AND A CITY

COL ONI AL DI ASPORI C ARCHI TECTURE ANDACI TY T heAr c hi t ec t ur a l S i gnic a nc eofCol oni a l Di a s por i cBus i nes sCommuni t i esi nt he Cont e x tofKol k a t a

Gui de: Ar .

Ami t aKanekar

GoaCol l egeofAr c hi t ec t ur e

Res ear c her : Andr eaD’ Si l va

COLONIAL DIASPORIC ARCHITECTURE AND A CITY The Architectural Significance of Colonial Diasporic Business Communities in the Context of Kolkata

A project report submitted to the Goa University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of

Bachelor of Architecture

Guide: Amita Kanekar

Researcher: Andrea D'Silva

Goa College of Architecture T. B. Cunha Complex, Altinho, Panaji, Goa October 28, 2018

Colonial Diasporic Architecture and a City

GOA COLLEGE OF ARCHITECTURE T.B. CUNHA EDUCATION COMPLEX ALTINHO, PANAJI-GOA CERTIFICATE The following Dissertation (Research Thesis) is hereby approved as a creditable work on the approved subject, carried out and presented in the manner sufficiently satisfactory to warrant its acceptance as a pre-requisite for the award of degree for which it has been submitted.

It is understood that by this approval the undersigned does not necessarily endorse or approve any statement made, opinion expressed or conclusion drawn therein, but approves the study only for the purpose for which it has been submitted and has satisfied himself/herself as to the requirements laid down by the college as part of the B.Arch. Programme under Goa University.

Name of the Student: Andrea D'Silva Dissertation Title: Colonial Diasporic Architecture and a City: The Architectural Significance of Colonial Diasporic Business Communities in the Context of Kolkata

Guide: Ar. Amita Kanekar

Principal: Dr. A. K. Rege

Dated: November, 2018 Place: Panaji, Goa

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UNDERTAKING I, Andrea D'Silva, the author of the dissertation titled: “Colonial Diasporic Architecture and a city: The Architectural Significance of Colonial Diasporic Business Communities in the context of Kolkata” Hereby declare that this is an independent work of mine, carried out towards partial fulfilment of the requirements for the Degree of Bachelor of Architecture at Goa College of Architecture, Goa University, Panaji, Goa. This work has not been submitted to any other institution for the award of any Degree/Diploma.

Name: Andrea D'Silva

Date: November, 2018 Place: Panaji, Goa

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would firstly like to give my sincere thanks to my dissertation guide Ar. Amita Kanekar, for her direction and valuable insight, that helped me complete, and improve the report.

I would also like to thank the Studio Faculty, Ar. Soumitro Ghosh (Chair Professor), Ar. Siddhi Tendulkar (Studio Coordinator), Ar. E. R. Godinho, Ar. Jacob Mullamangalam, Dr. Ketan Govekar, Ar. Vishal Signapurkar, for their assistance throughout the entire semester.

I sincerely thank Prof. A.G.K. Menon and Ar. Dinesh Sareen for their inputs that have helped me sharpen my ideas.

I am also grateful to the library staff of Goa College of Architecture, ASI Kolkata Circle, and Jadavpur University who have helped me collect the information required for the study.

A very special thanks to Jael Silliman, Armen Makarian and other community members for making time for me and giving their valuable inputs.

Lastly, I would also like to acknowledge my family and friends, especially my father, John D'Silva, for his undivided support, as well as Ms.Srilata Rajaram and her daughter Prema Rajaram, for their generous hospitality, which has helped me carry out the research in Kolkata.

I hope this study makes the contributions of these people worthwhile.

Andrea D'Silva

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TABLE OF CONTENTS Maps ....................................................................................................................................................... 3 Figures.................................................................................................................................................... 3 Images .................................................................................................................................................... 3 Tables ..................................................................................................................................................... 4 Inventories ............................................................................................................................................. 4 Sheets...................................................................................................................................................... 4 Chapter 1: Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 5 1.1 Background of the study .............................................................................................................. 5 1.2 Need and importance of the study................................................................................................ 6 1.3 Aim and Objectives of the study .................................................................................................. 7 1.4 Research Questions ...................................................................................................................... 7 1.5 Central Argument......................................................................................................................... 7 1.6 Scope and Limitations.................................................................................................................. 7 1.7 Operational Definitions ................................................................................................................ 8 1.8 Methodology ................................................................................................................................. 9 1.8.1 Stage 1: Formulation of the project ....................................................................................... 9 1.8.2 Stage 2: Data Collection........................................................................................................ 9 1.8.3 Stage 3: Process of Analysis ............................................................................................... 10 1.8.4 Stage 4: Conclusions ........................................................................................................... 11 1.9 Chapter Outline .......................................................................................................................... 12 Chapter 2: Review of Literature........................................................................................................ 13 2.1 The Historical Context of Calcutta ............................................................................................. 13 2.2 Diasporic minority communities in Calcutta .............................................................................. 14 2.2.1 Armenian community........................................................................................................... 14 2.2.2 Jewish Community .............................................................................................................. 17 2.3 Urban Context ............................................................................................................................. 19 2.4 Architectural Style ...................................................................................................................... 20 2.4.1 The Architectural Character of Calcutta .............................................................................. 20 2.4.2 Prominent architectural styles observed in Calcutta ............................................................ 21 2.5 Current Issues of Built Heritage.................................................................................................. 23 2.6 The Concept of Architectural Identity ....................................................................................... 24 2.7 Analytical Framework ................................................................................................................ 25 2.7.1 Inventory Format ................................................................................................................. 26 2.7.2 Analysis Format ................................................................................................................... 27

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Chapter 3: Architecture of the Diasporic Communities in the City............................................... 28 3.1 Survey of the diasporic communities .......................................................................................... 28 3.2 Architectural contributions of the communities .......................................................................... 29 Chapter 4: Bara Bazar / Burra Bazar ............................................................................................... 31 4.1 Background ................................................................................................................................. 31 4.2 Urban Study of Bara Bazar ......................................................................................................... 32 4.3 Architectural Case Studies .......................................................................................................... 34 4.3.1 Case study 1: The Church of Holy Nazareth ........................................................................ 35 4.3.2 Case study 2: Beth-El Synagogue ........................................................................................ 38 Chapter 5: Park Street (now Mother Teresa Sarani) ...................................................................... 41 5. 1 Background ............................................................................................................................... 41 5.2 Urban Study of Park Street ......................................................................................................... 42 5.3 Architectural Case Studies .......................................................................................................... 44 5.3.1 Case study 3: Queens Mansion (Galstaun Mansions) .......................................................... 45 5.3.2 Case study 4: Chowringhee Mansions ................................................................................. 47 Chapter 6: The Built Heritage of the Diasporic Communities Today ........................................... 49 6.1 Issues and Challenges ................................................................................................................. 49 6.2 Inferences .................................................................................................................................... 51 Chapter 7: Discussion and Conclusions ............................................................................................ 52 7.1 Origin and Evolution of the Armenian and Jews of Calcutta ..................................................... 52 7.2 Architectural Contributions of the Communities ........................................................................ 52 7.2.1 Urban Context ...................................................................................................................... 53 7.2.2 Chronology ........................................................................................................................... 54 7.2.3 Stylistic Issues ...................................................................................................................... 54 7.3 Detailed Studies of Selected Examples ....................................................................................... 54 7.3.1 Urban Context ...................................................................................................................... 54 7.3.2 Architectural Style................................................................................................................ 57 7.4 Architectural Identity .................................................................................................................. 61 7.5 Effects of Urban Transformation ............................................................................................... 61 7.6 Summary of Conclusions ............................................................................................................ 62 7.6.1 Scope for further study ......................................................................................................... 63 Bibliography ........................................................................................................................................ 64 Appendices ........................................................................................................................................... 67 1. Proposed development of roads of Calcutta in 1938 -1939 .......................................................... 67 2. Inventory Format .......................................................................................................................... 68

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Maps Map 1: Location of the city of Kolkata ................................................................................................. 13 Map 2: Development of Calcutta over the years .................................................................................. 13 Map 3: Concentration of Armenians in Calcutta,1911, 1961 ............................................................... 16 Map 4: Concentration of Jews in Calcutta,1911, 1961 ........................................................................ 18 Map 5: Sociological map 1910-1915 .................................................................................................... 19 Map 6: Growth of Calcutta over the years ........................................................................................... 23 Map 7: Location of spaces with the highest concentrations of diasporic communities recorded ........ 29 Map 8: Location of sites in Central Kolkata......................................................................................... 30 Map 9: Location of Bara Bazar (red) in Central Kolkata (Scale: NTS) ............................................... 31 Map 10: Bara Bazar (1785, 1858, 2018) .............................................................................................. 31 Map 11:Urban study of Brabourne Road ............................................................................................. 32 Map 12: Figure-ground of Bara Bazar in 2018 ................................................................................... 32 Map 13: Location of the important diasporic historic building in Bara Bazar .................................... 34 Map 14: Location of Park Street (Green) in Central Kolkata (Scale: NTS)........................................ 41 Map 15: Park Street (1785, 1858, 2018) .............................................................................................. 41 Map 16: Urban study of Park Street area............................................................................................. 42 Map 17: Figure ground of Park Street area in 2018 ............................................................................ 42 Map 18: Location of important diasporic historic buildings in Park Street ......................................... 44 Map 19: Important nodes, street hierarchy and sites of buildings in Bara Bazar and Park Street ...... 53 Map 20: Location of Armenian and Jewish communities in India. ...................................................... 57

Figures Figure 1: Conceptual Flow of Research ............................................................................................... 10 Figure 2: Flow of Research Development ............................................................................................ 11 Figure 3: Timeline of prevailent styles in the world ............................................................................. 20 Figure 4: Analytical diagram focusiing on three aspects ..................................................................... 25 Figure 5: Evolution of prominent structures built by the Armenians and Jews in India ...................... 60

Images Image 1: Esplanade Mansions ................................................................................................................ 5 Image 2: Churches at Armenia ............................................................................................................. 15 Image 3: View of the Great Synagogue at Baghdad ............................................................................. 17 Image 4: The Great Synagogue in Aleppo in 2011 ............................................................................... 18 Image 5: St John's Church Calcutta ..................................................................................................... 21 Image 6: Writers Building 1777........................................................................................................... 21 Image 7: Park Mansion 1910 ............................................................................................................... 22 Image 8: Victoria memorial 1921 ......................................................................................................... 22 Image 9: Bara Bazaar in 1880.............................................................................................................. 33 Image 10: Bara Bazar in 2018.............................................................................................................. 33 Image 11: View of Armenian Street in Bara Bazar............................................................................... 33 Image 12: View of Brabourne road, towards St Andrews Kirk. ........................................................... 33 Image 13: Development of Park Street (1930, 2018) ........................................................................... 43

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Image 14: News article on Hawkers occupying the colonnade of the Grand hotel .............................. 49 Image 15: Encroachment of Queens Mansion and Neveh Shalome Synagogue ................................... 49 Image 16: Fire incidents at Bara Bazar and Park Street .................................................................... 50 Image 17: View of Maghen David Synagogue ...................................................................................... 63

Tables Table 1: Inventory Format .................................................................................................................... 26 Table 2: Tabular analysis of data. ........................................................................................................ 27 Table 3: Survey of major diasporic minority communities in Kolkata ................................................. 28 Table 4: Buildings built by Armenians in Calcutta............................................................................... 29 Table 5: Buildings built by Jews in Calcutta ........................................................................................ 30 Table 6: Permissible interventions for respective Grade of Heritage buildings .................................. 51 Table 7: Grade of Armenian and Jewish buildings, along Bara Bazar and Park Street ...................... 51 Table 8: Analysis of Urban Context (Bara Bazar-BBD Bagh) ............................................................. 55 Table 9: Analysis of Urban Context (Park Street) ................................................................................ 56 Table 10: Analysis of Architectural style (Bara Bazar-BBD Bagh) ..................................................... 58 Table 11: Analysis of Architectural style (Park Street) ........................................................................ 59

Inventories Inventory 1: Armenian Church data ..................................................................................................... 35 Inventory 2: Beth El Synagogue Data................................................................................................... 38 Inventory 3: Queens Mansion data ....................................................................................................... 45 Inventory 4: Chowringhee Mansion data ............................................................................................. 47

Sheets Sheet 1: Armenian Church (Page 1) .................................................................................................... 36 Sheet 2: Armenian Church (Page 2) .................................................................................................... 37 Sheet 3: Beth-El Synagogue (Page 1) .................................................................................................. 39 Sheet 4: Beth-El Synagogue (Page 2) .................................................................................................. 40 Sheet 5: Queens Mansions .................................................................................................................... 46 Sheet 6: Chowringhee Mansions......................................................................................................... 48

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Chapter 1: Introduction 1.1 Background of the study Calcutta, today known as Kolkata, was an important trading centre for the British empire.

Having a rich history filled with important events, the city houses many resettled business communities like the Armenians, Chinese, Jews, Parsis, Gujaratis, Marwaris, Tamilians, and more. Some belonged to a far-flung diaspora, as they originated from outside of today's India.

The term diaspora is used for people who have left their ancestral hometowns and migrated to various parts of the world, in search of a better life. Some reasons for this migration included events like wars, persecutions, conflicts, economic necessities, expansion etc. An interesting aspect about the city of Kolkata is that it contains a complex set of sociological groups, where the architecture built by the communities, carried particular characteristics and had an interesting development. This helped the communities establish a root within the city.

"The city allows a space for people to interact with others, to learn, to accept, to reject, to develop, to create new ways of life and of life itself." ~ Himadri Banerjee, Nilanjana Gupta, Spira Mukherjee, Calcutta Mosaic 2012.

Image 1: Esplanade Mansions An Art Nouveau building built in 1910, for a Jewish businessman called Elias Ezra in Calcutta.

Some communities, particularly the Indian ones, did well in businesses and are still active.

While others, whose architecture has made a lasting impression on the city, are on the verge of dying out. The communities are different from each other, with some integrated socially and economically, while others architecturally. The project aimed to understand the latter, as only few studies have been found, to try and understand how the communities have been architecturally influenced by the urban landscape.

This project was a study on the architecture, built by the diasporic communities, from the early 18th century to the early 20th century. It looked at communities that had played an important, economic and architectural role in Calcutta. These included the Armenians and Jews, whose architectural contributions are mainly found in Bara Bazar and Park Street, two commercially different but important areas. Involved in important mercantile businesses, these communities had a close association with the British and some marginalized communities. Some members helped create important buildings like, grand mansions (Refer Image 1), religious and educational institutions, most of which are still currently active in the city's everyday life. `

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These architectural contributions act as heritage sites, as they help one understand the history, development and transformation of the migrant community over time. Presently very few in number, these communities are rarely recognized in discussions of the city's architecture and urbanism, thus making this study important, to help increase the awareness about them.

The project was intended to contain a threefold discussion, looking at urban context, architectural style and, current issues. This would help understand the importance of the buildings in the two areas, and how they are crucial in maintaining the identity of the minority communities. The analysis is based on the inferences of, Zoreh Torabi and Sara Brahman article, Effective factors in shaping the identity of Architecture, published in 2013, and the observations of Brian Paul Bach in his book Calcutta's Edifice, the buildings of a great city, published in 2006. It helped to understand, how the migrant communities adapted to the city with their architecture and the different ideologies associated with it.

The study also tried to convey the current condition of the buildings in the post-colonial period and the necessity for proper guidelines and measures to protect the buildings from further damage.

1.2 Need and importance of the study Currently, Kolkata's rapid urbanization has led to the architecture of the Armenians and Jews to be lost within a complex urban setting. What makes these two communities different, are their major architectural contributions to Calcutta's urban fabric, compared to other migrant communities in the early 20th century.

Tiretti Bazar and Tangra, housing the Chinese diasporic community, have a number of studies associated with them. Research papers, short films and proposals to protect their cultural identity, urban heritage, architecture, portray how they are more socially integrated and recognized within the city. However, neither the public nor scholars are very familiar with the architecture of the Jews and the Armenians, as little study has been found on it. A study on the different influences on their architecture helped to interpret how these communities created an identity and integrated with the city.

This project also aimed to learn about the heritage of the city and contribute to architectural conservation. In the process also understanding, the importance of Kolkata in the colonial period and the development of its urban fabric over time.

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1.3 Aim and Objectives of the study Aim of the study: To study the character and transformation of Armenian and Jewish architecture in the urban setting of Kolkata.

The objectives of the study are: 1. To understand the growth and evolution of the communities with the city.

2. To survey the architectural contribution of the two communities with respect to: 2.1. Evolution of the urban context 2.2. Chronology and functional typologies 2.3. Stylistic characteristics 3. To select few examples for detailed study and analysis, with respect to their history, stylistic attributes, context, current condition and relationship with the city.

1.4 Research Questions 1. What defines the architectural identity of the diasporic communities in Calcutta?

2. How has urban transformation and the changed architectural context affected the Armenian and Jewish communities?

1.5 Central Argument Buildings built by the diasporic communities were constructed based on their memories and experiences.

The buildings are currently situated in an urban setting which is neglected, run-down and heavily commercialized, making what were once prominent landmarks invisible today.

1.6 Scope and Limitations •

•

Two case studiesKolkata has traces of architecture built by many communities like the Chinese, Parsi, Armenian, Jews, Anglo Indians and even the Portuguese, Dutch, Scottish and more. But the project was limited to the Armenians and Jews as these communities were forefront as distinctive business entrepreneurs, who built important buildings for the city in comparison to the others.

Information sourcesInformation about the history of the communities is available through secondary sources about Calcutta's minority communities and the prominent historic structures in the city. Some communities also have video documentaries, online archives, blogs and news articles about themselves. Important historic pictures depict how the buildings and the surroundings used to be at a particular time period.

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•

•

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DetailingThe study contains an overall survey of the buildings in Calcutta but only details the buildings in Bara Bazar (Brabourne Road) and Park Street.

It was limited to the study of the urban context, styles and issues of the architecture in order to understand the architectural identity of the two communities.

Comparative studySelection on the cases for comparison depended upon similarities in the time period, architectural style, function and location.

The communities architecture in Calcutta was also compared to their architecture in other parts of India and the world, that helped understand their distinctive choices in the selection of style.

Lack of informationInformation on some buildings was not available, due to lack of documentation or preservation of documents.

1.7 Operational Definitions For the purpose of this project 1. Diaspora: The term is used for people who have dispersed or spread from their original homeland.

Examples of such communities are the Jewish, Armenians, Chinese diasporas.

2. Architectural Identity: Architecture is associated with identity as it helps carry a message, concept and characteristics attributed to a community in the place it was created. Rappaport describes identity as the ability to distinguish and identify an element from another. It is a feature which can be associated with physical attributes like shape, size, decoration, construction style, etc. or can be specific activities or practices in the environment or its functions.

Architectural identity is defined by ideas, effects and functions of a structure, that are a result of the culture at that time. Factors like beauty, knowledge and design originality are results of a dynamic thought that creates a genuine and meaningful architecture with identity. (Torabi, Z and Brahman, S 2013) 3. Urban Context: Urban context is the surrounding environment and its various constructions- physical, social, economic, ecological, cultural and more, in which architecture is integrated and dependent upon. (Bhuyan, 2016) 4. Urban Fabric: It is defined as the physical aspect of urbanism, emphasizing building types, thoroughfares, open spaces, frontages and streetscapes but excluding environmental, functional, economic and socio-cultural aspects.

5. Inventory: For this study, it is an organization of a list of important information of the structure used for data collection. It contains information like the location, style, characteristics, significance, threats and more.

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1.8 Methodology The project began with the generation of aims and objectives, a framework using relevant literature, and focussed on the need for the study. A research approach was then formulated to reach a conclusion.

1.8.1 Stage 1: Formulation of the project The project was formulated by understanding the problem and its importance, along with its context. It focussed on the understanding of how the architecture came to be, and what were its implications on the site.

Research Approach 1. Preliminary background research.

2. Formulation of aims and objectives, by understanding the problem.

3. Understanding the background of the city and the communities.

4. Produce a preliminary survey of the different diasporic communities in Kolkata.

5. Collect relevant data with the help of inventories, of the two diasporic communities 6. Detailed study of influence of the architectural style through a comparative study of the historical architectural character of the city and the community.

7. Study effect of urbanization and change in political rule over the architecture.

8. Analysis of the findings, and test central argument.

9. Derive conclusions from the analysis.

1.8.2 Stage 2: Data Collection Background data was planned to be collected through primary sources and secondary sources.

1) Primary sources1. Information gathered on site, through drawings, sketches surveys, inventories etc.

2. Members of the communities interviewed 3. Official authorities and organisations 2) Secondary sourcesInformation gathered from book sources, journals, archives and video documentaries, etc.

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Figure 1: Conceptual Flow of Research

1.8.3 Stage 3: Process of Analysis The buildings to be analysed were selected based on their similarities and context.

Religious and commercial-residential buildings built between the early 18th century to the early 20th century were considered, due to availability of information.

The analytical framework was based on the background data collected and theories related to architectural identity. Along with the buildings on the site, it looked at examples of buildings built by the communities in other states of India at that period, to test the central argument.

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Figure 2: Flow of Research Development

1.8.4 Stage 4: Conclusions Inferences derived at the stage of analysis for the three parts, urban context, architectural style and issues was intended to help formulate the conclusion. It was planned to be represented through figures, diagrams and photographs.

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1.9 Chapter Outline

Chapter 1: It is an introduction to the study, explaining its purpose, aim and objectives. It also contains some operational definitions and the research methodology used for the project.

Chapter 2: Reviews relevant literature on the background of Calcutta and the communities.

It consists of literature about the prevalent styles in Calcutta (between early 18th century and early 20th century)and the development and current issues of the city. It also contains reviews of an article, containing important theories related to architectural identity, which helped devise an analytical framework.

Chapter 3: Introduces the study area, i.e. Kolkata, and the architectural character in the colonial period. It also contains surveys and the background of the diasporic communities in the city.

Chapter 4, 5: Gives a background of the two study areas, Bara Bazar and Park Street. The data collected on the structures in these areas, were represented through inventories and charts .

Chapter 6: Contains the findings and inferences of the current issues in the post-colonial period observed in the two areas.

Chapter 7: Discusses the analysis of the study. It is mainly categorized into urban context and architectural style, and details various subcategories for the selected buildings. It analyses the information collected in the form of tables and generates inferences.

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Chapter 2: Review of Literature The city of Kolkata is located in the state of West Bengal, India. The following chapter contains a brief history of this city, its architecture and context, the diasporic communities it inhabits, the origins of these communities and details of their architecture in their homeland.

Map 1: Location of the city of Kolkata

2.1 The Historical Context of Calcutta Calcutta, once the capital of the British empire (1773 -1911), has a rich architectural heritage.

The city grew around three small villages on the eastern banks of River Hooghly, called Sutanuti, Kalikata and Gobindapur. It was an active trading centre which housed notable trading families. On August 1960, a senior merchant of the East India Company called Job Charnock, landed in the village of Sutanuti and decided to set up a trading post there. The three villages had been administered independently by the Nawabs of Bengal but were part of an estate belonging to the great Mughal emperor, Aurangzeb.

Map 2: Development of Calcutta over the years Source: Calcutta the living city

Trade expanded to a great extent with the establishment of the East India Company base, inviting new Europeans each year. New ways of life appeared with the emerging urban business and trading opportunities. Siraj Ud- Daula, the Nawab of Bengal in 1756, conquered the city in retaliation as he felt insulted and ignored by the activities of the Company. This led to the events of the Battle of Plassey which cemented the British rule on the Indian subcontinent. The Company became the ruler of India, with its own law, treasury and army, who were originally just a trading organization in Surat, Madras (now Chennai), Bombay (now Mumbai) and Calcutta (now Kolkata).

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Joanne Taylor and Jon Lang the authors of The Great Houses of Calcutta (2016) write how the British ultimately became the colonial power despite the presence of the Portuguese prior to the rule of Aurangzeb, and the presence of Dutch, Danish and French trading companies.

The land was already home to Hindu, Muslim, Portuguese and Armenian traders. The development of trade networks helped connect Bengal to China, Persia and Europe.

Calcutta soon became part of the global economy with the increase in international trade.

This helped develop the city's architectural character which was shaped by both the Indian and British financial capital. New grand Palladian government administration buildings, residential buildings, classical mansions were then constructed that shaped the city.

Known as the dying city, the most punished city, City of Joy, City of Palaces, City of Swamps and also the City of flyovers, today it is home to 4.6 million people and has one of the highest population densities in the world.

2.2 Diasporic minority communities in Calcutta The editors of the book Calcutta Mosaic Himadri Banerjee, Nilanjana Gupta, Sipra Mukherjee (2009), describe the minority communities in Calcutta, through interviews and surveys. The city has traces of communities like the Armenians, Baghdadi Jews, Chinese, Portuguese, Dutch, British, Sindhis, Biharis, Marwaris, Tamilians, Kannadas, Asamiyas, Tibetians, Nepalese, Oriyas, Maharashtrians, Bohra Muslims, Sikhs and communities from East Bengal. India, initially known for its lack of anti Semitism and relative religious freedom welcomed Jews and Armenians as their homelands were in a constant state of conflict.

2.2.1 Armenian community General History and Origin Anthony Khatchaturian in an article called Armenians in India (2017) writes that the Armenian community has its own branch of Christianity, the Armenian Orthodox Church with its own pope. The country Armenia endured constant attacks by the Turks, Mongols, Egyptians and Byzantines. But the conquests of the Ottoman and Safavid in the Armenian highland in the 15th century CE, made some citizens leave the country. They dispersed across the Ottoman and Persian empires for better economic benefits and established themselves in Constantinople, Baghdad, Isfahan, St. Petersburg, Delhi and Agra (Mughal capitals). While the Armenians went overland with the Persian camel caravans through Persia, Bactria (Afghanistan) and Tibet, then finally to Delhi and across to Bengal, Zoroastrians chose the sea route to India, arriving first at Gujarat.

Armenians were actively involved in the Mughal court of India, during the rule of Akbar, concerned with trade, current events and politics. Akbar then provided them land for the construction of a church at Agra in 1562 CE. The Armenian College and Philanthropic Academy website described that the Armenians established commercial centres before the arrival of European traders. They prospered and developed from the 16th to the 18th century and were then involved with both the Indians as well as the East India Company. They held important positions all across India (as advocates, governors, businessmen).

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Armenian architecture outside Calcutta The Armenian Studies Program by the California State University described in an article called Arts of Armenia (Architecture), that the Armenian architectural style was formed as a National style which started in the late 6th or early 7th century. The unique style mainly catered to church buildings. The program states that "it had been achieved long before Byzantine, Romanesque and Gothic or the less known Ethiopian, Scandinavian, and Slavic styles were concretely formed".

Some architectural characteristics include: 1. The buildings were built completely of available stone (volcanic tufa or basalt) due to the scarcity of wood 2. Stone vaulted ceilings and structural arches 3. Thick walls with few small openings 4. Use of pointed dome, conical or semi-conical radially segmented dome or cupolas over a cylindrical drum 5. Frescos and Cravings As Armenia was a highly seismic and volcanic zone, the buildings were skillfully designed and were different as they experimented with stone unlike the Roman and Byzantine Empires, which used bricks, and Syria which used wood for roofing.

Image 2: Churches at Armenia Left : Church of Mughini, St. Gevorg, 17th century Right: Church of Shoghagat, domed single nave church, 1664-1669 Source: Photso: Ara Guler https://web.archive.org/web/20081231160331/http://armenianstudies.csufresno.edu/arts_of_armenia/architectu re.htm

The church of Mughni and the church of Shoghagat (Refer Image 2), were important examples of churches in Greater Armenia. They display the simplicity and unique characteristics followed in the architectural style.

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Forms of Armenian Architecture: 1. The Basilica and the Single Nave Church Single Aisle and Three aisles examples (4th and 6th century) Sometimes rooms are attached to apse and covered porch on one side.

2. Domed Basilica and Domed Single Nave Church 3. Central Plan (centrally planned domed churches) 4. Niche-buttressed Square 5. Hripsime Type 6. Circular Plan 7. The Gavit or Jamatun The Armenian College and Philanthropic Academy website also convey that Armenians did not restrict themselves as a vibrant commercial community, but also re-established their socio-cultural identity, by building churches in their settlements and inviting priests and pastors from their homeland. The preservation of religion, language, literature and national identity, by building churches and providing educational facilities was considered a patriotic duty by the community.

History in Calcutta The book Calcutta Mosaic, edited by Himadri Banerjee, Nilanjana Gupta, Sipra Mukherjee (2009), conveys that a vast majority of the first Armenian resettlers in Calcutta were from Shiraz and New Julfa in Persia. The inscriptions on a tombstone of Rezabeebeh, the wife of late charitable Sookias, in a churchyard, bearing the year 1630, is said to be evidence of Armenians settling in the city before the English. Their existence came to be truly known with the arrival of His Holiness Karekin II, Supreme Patriarch and Catholicos of All Armenians Map 3: Concentration of Armenians in Calcutta,1911, in 2007. The colony played a significant 1961 Source: Calcutta Mosaic role in Bengal trade and commerce started forming and developing mainly from the end of the 17th and early 18th century. The community was initially segregated throughout the city but were finally concentrated in Park Street by 1961 (Refer Map 3).

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2.2.2 Jewish Community General History and Origin Sreekala. S. the author of the thesis on Israel's policy of "absorption of immigrants": a case study of the Indian Jews (2000) explained about the three groups of Jewish communities in India, the Bene Israel, Cochin Jews and Baghdadi Jews. Jews from Aleppo, Baghdad and Basra travelled to Surat in the second half of the eighteenth century for trading purposes.

Some Jews later settled in the cities of Bombay, Pune and Calcutta with the coming of the British in 1765.

Alex Shams in his article on The Baghdadi Jewish connection, on the website Ajam Media Collective, mentioned that the Baghdadi Jews migrated to Calcutta and grew prosperous due to business and trading activities. They were later joined by Jewish Arabs from Aleppo and Yemen. They built the Neveh Shalome Synagogue in 1825 and gradually built cemeteries, prayer halls and more synagogues. Calcutta mostly contained Syrian Jews in the first two decades of the nineteenth century and immigrants from Iraq in the second quarter due to the persecution by Daud Pasha of Baghdad. Most Jews in the nineteenth century moved to stock exchange and became large urban landowners. They adapted to the food and lifestyle of the new region, still keeping a strong hold on their culture and tradition.

Shams also writes that the growth in the speed of travel and communication in the 18th and 19th century helped the Jews expand to Yangon, Singapore, Hong Kong, Shanghai, London and Manchester and developed an extensive trading network.

Jewish architecture outside Calcutta The website The Museum of the Jewish People provides insight on the Jewish community of Baghdad, the largest city of Iraq and its architecture. The community was founded in the mid 8th century were active in the field of medicine, pharmacy and most importantly in trade. The city of Baghdad had a turbulent history, as it was under a series of different rulers ranging from Mongol, Ottoman, Persian, Turkish and British. The Turkish rule in the second half of the 18th century and the beginning of the 19th century deteriorated the Image 3: View of the Great Synagogue at Baghdad condition of the Jews. This led to many Source: http://archive.diarna.org/site/detail/public/299/ wealthy members move to Persia, India as well as other countries. The number of synagogues dropped from 60 synagogues in 1950 to only seven in 1960. Currently, only one synagogue is still functioning in the city but is not used by the Jews to worship.

The online archive Diarna, speaks about the Great Synagogue at Baghdad, Iraq. Located along a busy Jewish neighbourhood market street, it is one of the largest synagogues in Iraq and is home to beautiful Jewish art. The building is destroyed by years of ill-treatment. It is said to be built by King Jehoachin, who supposedly built the Shad veYativ with bricks made of earth from Israel. Israel currently houses the reconstructed synagogue.

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Synagogues in Western Europe were built of tough durable material unlike the synagogues in East that were built using dirt, clay or wood.

The archive also mentions that the synagogues had an open outdoor worship area, instead of an enclosed worship space, influenced by the hot and arid climate of the Middle East. It served as a space for worship and communal gathering and was an Image 4: The Great Synagogue in Aleppo in 2011 Source:http://jewishrefugees.blogspot.com/2016/05/ale inspiration for many synagogues in Iraq. ppo-jews-prayed-next-year-in.html

Prayers took place in a square shaped, uncovered plaza where the pulpit stood in the middle covered with a roof (Refer Image 4). Stone roof sanctuaries with benches surrounded and opened up into the courtyard. Torah scrolls (holy artifacts) were placed in niches in each sanctuary. Knesset ha- hekal, the most important sanctuary, was the middlemost and faced west. It had three niches, that held the most valuable Torah scrolls and seating for the head of the community. Galleries and seating for women were designed in designated sanctuaries.

Public buildings also used a similar design for the flow of fresh air in hot months The importance of the West wall in the Great Synagogue of Baghdad was also seen in the synagogues in Calcutta, which had a raised platform, a half dome, and three curtained doors housing Torah scrolls. The pulpit in the middle and the use of brick were some similarities seen in both the synagogues. The difference being the use of an enclosed space rather than the open outdoor space used for worship.

History in Calcutta Calcutta Mosaic (2009) conveys that Jews arrived much later in Calcutta than the Armenians. Shalom Aharon Ovadiah HaCohen was first Jew arrived towards the end of 18th century. He came to Calcutta via Surat. The Jews formed an interconnection of trading posts that stretched from Shanghai to London.

Beginning with the trade of horses and precious stones with various Persian Gulf Ports, they also started trade in opium and wool with the British. Many Jews from Map 4: Concentration of Jews in Calcutta,1911, 1961 Yemen, Iraq, Basra, and Syria migrated to Source: Calcutta Mosaic Calcutta in the 19th century.

The Baghdadi Jews were said to have received protection from the East India Company which helped them flourish. The communities initially lived in the Armenian Street and Bow Bazar areas but gradually moved to the south of Park Street (Refer Map 4).

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2.3 Urban Context The authors of Calcutta Mosaic convey how by the early eighteenth century, the city had come to be divided into fairly well-defined European and Native quarters, known as the White and the Black town. The segregation was based on skin complexion, with the fair skinned (English) in the White town and dark-skinned (Indians) in the Black town. The towns had different Urban fabrics and construction of the houses. The White town lay to the north of the old fort, while the Black town spread over Sutanuti, Chitpur and, Gobindapur. The separation was increased with the gradual movement of whites away from Sutanuti and the construction of a deep trench in 1710, 16-18 feet wide to probably drain the white town.

Between the white and the black town was the 'grey area', that housed the Chinese, Armenian, Jewish Diaspora. The communities mainly lived in Chief European business localities in the early 20th century (Refer Map 5).

Map 5: Sociological map 1910-1915 Source: Old maps online.com

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2.4 Architectural Style

1750-1900

Figure 3: Timeline of prevailent styles in the world

Banister Fletcher, in his book A History of Architecture (1987) mentioned that European styles, particularly those of the later Renaissance in Britain, like the Palladian, neoclassical and Baroque, as well as 19th-century revival styles, were favoured by the governments of colonial cities. Local hybridized styles were also created which were influenced by tropical climate and ornamental motifs. The city of Calcutta had a strong influence of these styles which were seen in buildings built by the British.

2.4.1 The Architectural Character of Calcutta The Book the Great houses of Calcutta (2016) conveys that, the officials of the East India Company brought their world views, architecture and urban layouts from Britain to Calcutta.

After 1757 till the 20th century, buildings with classical facades were erected. The architecture had to adapt to the local climate, conditions and materials.1 The nineteenth century witnessed the construction of beautiful brick buildings with decorative elements and embellishments of European origin. Local craftsmen and masons helped construct pillars of different designs, balusters, cornices, pilasters, facia, porticos and flamboyant 2. They also replicated the "chiselled stonework" in moulded burnt clay units or stucco work.3 Buildings contained Corinthian capitals, Ionic Volutes, pediments, stained glass, turrets and friezes. The courtyard typology continued for natural ventilation and lighting, with the use of Venetian louvered openings to control the glare and flow of air in the humid climate of the city. It also used thick walls and high roofs. The staircase and verandahs had intricate cast iron railings that gave the structures a distinctive architectural character.

Building Materials: The buildings were constructed of brick clad in stucco. Its stucco was made out of an aggregate, a bonding material and water. The editors of Calcutta Built Heritage today, Prosenjit Das Gupta and Ayan Ghosh (2015), wrote that reinforced cement concrete appeared in 1930s Calcutta when Central Avenue (Chittaranjan Avenue) came up.

Buildings used perforated concrete slabs, and cast iron grillwork of mostly Indo Saracenic designs with Jaipur Bikaner style especially of the residences of trading communities that emigrated from Rajasthan.

1

Pg 107, Joanne Taylor, J. L. (2016). The Great Houses of Calcutta. New Delhi: Niyogi Books. of or a style of French Gothic architecture marked by wavy flame-like tracery and ornate decoration.

3 Stucco work has slabs of burnt brick aggregates with brick dust and lime laid on a layer of tiles supported on rafters and beams of timber and steel.

2

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2.4.2 Prominent architectural styles observed in Calcutta 1. Neo-Classical 4 Popular from 1750s to 1900s Characteristics: • Use of classical elements in churches and modern buildings • A continuous line of columns and usually symmetrical • Use of a balustrade along the edge of the roof • A vast rectangular (or square) plan, with a flat roof • The exterior was divided into multiple levels, each contained a repeated classical pattern, usually a Image 5: St John's Church Calcutta series of arches and/or columns (Neo Classical style) • Use of classical motifs (e.g. columns, Source:http://heritagestructurewb.blogspot.com/201 pilasters, pediments, blind arches) 2/07/st-johns-church-kolkata-st-johns-church.html porticos and pediments • Some contain classical gateways, corner towers, and a courtyard 2. Italian Renaissance revival influence5 Also called second renaissance revival Popular from 1800s to 1930s.

Characteristics: • Symmetrical and flat facades • Rectangular or square in plan • Two to three storey high • Masonry or stucco walls • Different architectural treatment on different stories • Decorative detailing • Arcading on the ground floor of public buildings Image 6: Writers Building 1777 • Balustrades on the roof line (Greco Roman style) Source:http://photos.wikimapia.org/p/00/04/17/75/33 • Different type of window on each _big.jpg storey • Symmetrical appearance • Tall narrow windows often pedimented and supported by ancons.

• Upper storey windows are simple, square in shape and small.

• Arches above exterior doors • Hooded entryway • Entablature supported by pilasters

4

Neoclassical and Romantic Architecture (2018). Essential Humanities. Retrieved from http://www.essentialhumanities.net/western-art/architecture/neoclassical-romantic/ 5

Italian Renaissance style. (n.d.) McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Architecture and Construction. (2003).

Retrieved November 9 2018 from https://encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/Italian+Renaissance+style

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3. Edwardian Baroque influence6 Popular from 1901 to 1910s It encompasses a number of styles, with five main strands identified: Gothic Revival, Arts and Crafts, Neo-Georgian, Baroque Revival and the Beaux-Arts style.

Associated with multi-unit flats or apartment buildings constructed at the beginning of the 20th century.

Characteristics: • Extensive rustication usually on the ground floor, continuing with Image 7: Park Mansion 1910 voussoirs of arched openings (Edwardian Baroque influence) • Domed corner rooftop pavilions • Central taller tower • Revived Baroque elements- exaggerated keystones, segmental arched pediments, columns with engaged blocks, window surrounded by block rustication, colonnades single and paired in the ionic order 4. Indo-Saracenic 7 Popular from late 19th c to early 20th c British architects in the late 19th century British India drew elements from native IndoIslamic and Indian architecture, and combined it with the Gothic revival and Neo-Classical styles favoured in Victorian Britain.

Characteristics: • • • • • • • • • •

Onion (Bulbous) Domes Overhanging Eaves Pointed Arches, Cusped Arches, or Scalloped Arches Vaulted Roofs Domed Kiosks Many Miniature Domes, or Domed Chhatris Towers or Minarets Harem Windows Open Pavilions Pierced Open Arcading

Image 8: Victoria memorial 1921 (Indo-Saracenic) Source: pixabay.com

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Edwardian Baroque Architecture. (n.d.). Retrieved September 16, 2018, from Revolvy: https://www.revolvy.com/page/Edwardian-Baroque-architecture 7 Gulati, S. (2013, November 12). Indo Saracenic architecture. Retrieved October 8, 2018, from Slideshare: https://www.slideshare.net/shivikagulati/indo-saracenic-architecture

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2.5 Current Issues of Built Heritage The editors of Calcutta built heritage today, Prosenjit Das Gupta and Ayan Ghosh (2015) try to convey the current situation of Kolkata. The pressure on the built environment increased with the growth of population and the partition of the country in 1947. The character of the buildings changed with the ground floor being converted for commercial use and the facades changed as per convenience degrading heritage character.

"The buildings that were erected with great care and attention are decaying and their condition deteriorating due to lack of maintenance and repair."~ Prosenjit Das Gupta and Ayan Ghosh, Calcutta Built Heritage today.

The writer conveys that issues like, lack of funds, multiplicity of ownership, dispute and disagreement, old tenancy laws, and incompatible structural and visual changes, that are complex and often interlinked often created many problems for the heritage buildings in the city. 8

Map 6: Growth of Calcutta over the years Source: Atlas of Kolkata by NATMO

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Prosenjit Das Gupta, A. G. (2015). Calcutta- Built Heritage Today . Calcutta: G.M.Kapur Convenor.

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2.6 The Concept of Architectural Identity As architecture plays an important role in the identity of a city, I have tried to read some articles that could help me understand how could identity be understood. One such article is Effective Factors in Shaping the Identity of Architecture by Zoreh Torabi and Sara Brahman (2013).

The harmony between orderly thoughts and organized action help generate architectural identity. Two moments, cultural and technological represent the architecture culture of people, groups, and societies. The moment's help understand the type of architecture people want and how they want to make it. Heavily influenced by culture, value and behavioural patterns of society, the architectural style serves as a reflection of the culture and art, which were active at that period.

They mention that Lynch considered two major functions for identity, the sense of recognition and emotional function of environment identity. This helps us judge and predict the kind of environment at that period.

Seven main characteristics had been considered effective in evaluating architectural identity.

These include: 1. Spatial organization - It involves the design and layout of spaces in order to achieve a particular goal that determines the frequency and type of communication between elements. Can be understood by studying the relationship between the inside and outside.

2. Time organization - It is associated with cultural and social principles and characteristics used at that time period for construction.

3. Semantic organization - Each architectural space displays the community's special ideas and gives them an appropriate appearance and becomes their symbol which should be understood by the users. Evaluating the use of cultural concepts and principles, themes and memories for the structure. (Semantic- relating to meaning in language or logic) 4. General design principles - It includes ideas and concepts forming architectural design which provide consistency in the design process 5. Building shape and form - Associated with the visible appearance that creates an immediate impression of the built or objective environment. A correct form needs to have proportion, scale and harmony.

6. Building materials - Materials represent faith, beliefs and culture of the historic period.

7. Relationship with context - Emphasis on unity and visual linkage between the building and environment can have a strong role in creating an architectural identity.

The building's relationship can be opposed, be under conflict or integrated with the environment.

(Z, Torabi and S, Brahman 2013)

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2.7 Analytical Framework An analytical framework was devised based on the ideas of Zoreh Torabi and Sara Brahman, and Fletcher's approach to understand the architectural significance of the community in the respective areas.

Fletcher in his book history of architecture (1987) described the styles by dividing the structures based on typology then subdivided by age and looked at location stylistic elements size/proportion and material of the structure.

The study was categorized into three parts urban context, architectural style and urban issues and analysing it as shown below in Figure 4:

2

1

3

Figure 4: Analytical diagram focusiing on three aspects

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2.7.1 Inventory Format Data was collected on site with the help of an inventory format. It contains the location, architects, typology, significance threats and more data, which will be filled in using data from articles, books and observations.

Inventories were intended to be made for all the buildings built by the communities in the Bara Bazar and Park Street. Table 1 depicts the chart created for data collection.

Table 1: Inventory Format

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2.7.2 Analysis Format The data collected through the inventories and book sources were analyzed in two charts, urban context and architectural style, as shown in Table 2. The buildings are divided by type, community and age.

Urban Context looked at: 1. The orientation and visibility to understand the relationship with its context 2. Built space to understand spatial organisation 3. Scale and Proportion to understand its shape and form All aspects are interrelated with each other and as a whole provided with an understanding of the importance of identity with respect to urban context.

Architectural Style looked at: 1. Description and characteristics to understand general design principles 2. Prominent elements and similar buildings to understand the time and semantic organisation Data collected was analysed by two tabular charts as shown below.

Table 2: Tabular analysis of data.

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Chapter 3: Architecture of the Diasporic Communities in the City This chapter contains a survey of the diasporic communities in the city followed by their Architecture of the Armenians and Jews and the most prominent locations they were located in the city.

3.1 Survey of the diasporic communities A preliminary survey was conducted to gather information of the most important diasporic communities in Kolkata (Refer Table 3). This helped establish the main background of the diasporas. The British who were an important aspect of the city took possession of the city in 1690 and made it the capital of British India up to 1911. This long period of political rule had a profound impact on the architecture of the city, whose influence was expected to be seen in the architecture of the well established minority communities.

Mapping out the buildings and prominent locations of four diasporic communities, Armenians, Jews, Parsis and Chinese in the city, according to data available in Calcutta Mosaic (2009) and the online archive Recalling Jewish Calcutta, it was found that most the significant buildings were located in Central Calcutta (Refer Map 7, Pg 29). It was also observed that the sites housing Jews and Armenians, overlapped in Bara Bazar and Park Street. These two sites are currently commercially important zones in the city. Bara Bazar more of a traditional marketplace and Park Street a more modernised and commercialized zone, both affected by different factors of commercialization due to their precinct.

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Table 3: Survey of major diasporic minority communities in Kolkata

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Map 7: Location of spaces with the highest concentrations of diasporic communities recorded

3.2 Architectural contributions of the communities A survey was also conducted to list the prominent buildings built by the Armenians and Jews in Calcutta. It was mainly divided into functional typologies and location. It depicted a similar involvement of both the communities in real estate and mixed-used building typology (Refer Table 4 and 5).

Table 4: Buildings built by Armenians in Calcutta

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Table 5: Buildings built by Jews in Calcutta

Through the survey it was found that sites of some of the important buildings, of both the communities, were located in mainly two areas, Bara Bazar and Park Street (Refer Map 8).

These two sites were selected for further study, which is explored in the following chapters.

Map 8: Location of sites in Central Kolkata

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Chapter 4: Bara Bazar / Burra Bazar This chapter contains an urban study and some important architectural cases studies of Bara Bazar, understanding the main community buildings and their surroundings.

4.1 Background Bara Bazar, the biggest market in the city, is located in Central Kolkata. It is connected to Howrah (Haora) city by Brabourne road (location is shown in red on Map 9).

Translated as Big Market, it houses one of the largest unorganised wholesale markets in India which bustles with commercial activity. It has a strong network of business in the hinterland of eastern and north-eastern India including Nepal, Bhutan and Bangladesh. The market is closely connected to the central business district of Dalhousie Square towards the south, and the Ghats of Hooghly towards the west (which houses many godowns and warehouses along the Strand road). It is also close to the Howrah and Sealdah stations. Business carries on here due to its low cost and high profit.

Map 10 shows the development of the market and the location of Brabourne Road.

Map 9: Location of Bara Bazar (red) in Central Kolkata (Scale: NTS)

Map 10: Bara Bazar (1785, 1858, 2018) Left- map of Bara Bazar in 1785 depicting urban street network Centre- map of Bara Bazar in 1858 showing urban street network in response to the urban density, with the location of future proposed roads, and synagogues Right-Figure ground of Bara Bazar in 2018 Source: Left- https://puronokolkata.com/2013/06/08/plan-of-calcutta-1784-85-commissioners-of-police Centre-https://rumsey.geogarage.com/maps/gct001429a.html

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4.2 Urban Study of Bara Bazar

Map 11:Urban study of Brabourne Road

Building use: Primarily a commercial market area, with uncontrolled development, it is in general a wholesale market zone, that also acts as a godown where fresh goods come and go, near the river. It has shops, offices and houses stacked over each other and acquires most of the space available.

Bara Bazar contains important religious structures along Brabourne road by different communities. Most of its residential structures have now been commercialized. (Refer Map 11).

It previously contained an informal school for the Armenians set up in 1798, which was located at 358, Old China Bazar Street near the Armenian Holy Church of Nazareth. It was replaced by the present Armenian College and Philanthropic Academy in 1821. The site also housed the Jewish Girls School, located near the Beth-El synagogue. The building was then converted into a post office. The Jewish School was shifted to a building in Park Street.

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Map 12: Figure-ground of Bara Bazar in 2018

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Brian Paul Bach in the book Calcutta Edifice, the buildings of a great city, states that" in the core city, this is where mercantilism flourishes most conspicuously, money may reside in the banks of Clive Street but Bara Bazar is where it is made."9 Urban Density: The buildings are located in a highly dense area with narrow lanes and streets (Refer Map 11). It houses buildings of heights mainly from G+1 to G+4.

Though the addition of Brabourne road (proposed in 1939) made way for new projects and increasing the land value, altering the areas architectural character. The road acts as a common thread linking all the main architectural contributions of the communities.

This is shown in the areas close-grained urban density and building use diagrams (Refer Map 10, 11,12).

Image 9: Bara Bazaar in 1880 Source:https://puronokolkata.com/tag/barabazar/

Image 11: View of Armenian Street in Bara Bazar

Image 10: Bara Bazar in 2018

Image 12: View of Brabourne road, towards St Andrews Kirk.

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Published on Pg. 654, Bach, B. P. (2006). Calcutta's Edifice, The Buildings of a Great City. New Delhi: Rupa. Co.

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4.3 Architectural Case Studies Brabourne road contains many religious buildings built by different communities. One religious building each of the Armenian and Jewish community was selected; The Church of Holy Nazareth, an important Armenian church with distinctive architectural features, and the Beth-El synagogue, an relevant cultural space and a case showing the development of architectural style for the Jews. The cases studies were done using books, on-site documentation and observations which were put forth in inventories and sheets.

Map 13: Location of the important diasporic historic buildings in Bara Bazar

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4.3.1 Case study 1: The Church of Holy Nazareth

Inventory 1: Armenian Church data

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4.3.2 Case study 2: Beth-El Synagogue

Inventory 2: Beth El Synagogue Data

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Chapter 5: Park Street (now Mother Teresa Sarani) This chapter contains an urban study and some important architectural cases studies of Park Street which houses the main mansions and educational institutions of the two communities.

It helped understand the main community buildings and their surroundings.

5. 1 Background Park Street, a highly recognised commercial area in the city, is located in Central Kolkata and is connected to Chowringhee road towards its left (location shown in green on Map 14).

It was previously developed as a European residential quarter, after the digging of the Maratha Ditch. It was once known as the "Great Burial Ground Road", then as "Park Street" (adapted from the 1840s), probably due to the extensive park and grounds around the house of Sir Elijah Impey on Middleton Row, now the site of Loreto House, the Roman Catholic convent, school and college.

The site finally developed into a commercial Map 14: Location of Park Street (Green) in Central Kolkata (Scale: NTS) hub with many mansions, offices, shops, restaurants, cafes and hotels, due to its location in the city.

It was also called 'Little Armenia' by the Armenians dude a large number of Armenian buildings in the area. Its urban fabric changed drastically over time, with the small residential quarters converting into large commercial projects (Refer Map 15).

Map 15: Park Street (1785, 1858, 2018) Left- Map of Park Street in 1785 depicting urban street network and density Centre- Map of Park Street 1858 showing urban street network in response to the urban density.

Right- Figure ground of Park Street in 2018 Source: Left- https://puronokolkata.com/2013/06/08/plan-of-calcutta-1784-85-commissioners-of-police Centre-https://rumsey.geogarage.com/maps/gct001429a.html

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5.2 Urban Study of Park Street

Map 16: Urban study of Park Street area

Barun De the author of an article called Erasing the Past, published in 2004 wrote that Park Street acted as a personification of British India elegance where "stately mansions came up at the western end replacing the lawns of the old garden houses".10 Building Use: The buildings along Park Street are mainly mixed-used buildings, with mansions, hotels and other commercial establishments.

Urban Density: There was a significant development in the urban density in Park Street, after the early 20th century with the construction of real estate projects, mansions and commercial buildings (Refer Map 15).

Map 17: Figure ground of Park Street area in 2018

The architectural consistency of the main street is maintained, but is found ruined in the secondary roads, by un-thought constructions, having no regard of the frontage resemblance, which help give a specific character to the streets. Barun De also wrote that the mansions are all in ramshackle now, most requiring restoration. Park Streets fine restaurants have deteriorated. A decay in the urban landscape is also seen, due to poorly installed and badly maintained infrastructure services and billboards (Refer Image 13).

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De, B. (2004, December 14). Erasing the Past. Retrieved September 15, 2018, from Telegraph India: https://www.telegraphindia.com/opinion/erasing-the-past/cid/1019478

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Image 13: Development of Park Street (1930, 2018) Source: Top right- https://wiki.eanswers.net/en/Chowringhee_Road Middle and bottom right- https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Park_Street,_Kolkata

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5.3 Architectural Case Studies Park Street contains mainly four mansions built by the diasporic communities. One built by a Jewish businessman and three, Armenian businessmen. Two mansions, the Queens Mansion, built by an Armenian businessman and Chowringhee Mansion, built by a Jewish businessman, that stands at a start of Park Street, were taken for the detailed casestudies. The cases studies were done using books, on-site documentation and observations, which were put forth in inventories and sheets.

Map 18: Location of important diasporic historic buildings in Park Street

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5.3.1 Case study 3: Queens Mansion (Galstaun Mansions)

Inventory 3: Queens Mansion data

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5.3.2 Case study 4: Chowringhee Mansions

Inventory 4: Chowringhee Mansion data

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Chapter 6: The Built Heritage of the Diasporic Communities Today This chapter discusses the effect of commercialization, poor maintenance and management on heritage buildings. It contains different articles published on these matters and details of the grading of heritage buildings by Kolkata Municipal Corporation and their permissible interventions.

6.1 Issues and Challenges Some of the main issues observed were encroachment, subjection to fire hazards, negligence in following conservation guidelines, illegal alterations and poor maintenance.

Encroachment by hawkers and vendors often created, poorly maintained spaces, restricting peoples movement and changes the appearance of the building. This leads to damage and alteration to the structure, changing its original design intention. An article on the Telegraph Calcutta (Refer Image 14) conveys the negative aspects of the encroachment under the Grand Hotel. The chaotic, unclean spaces are avoided by people unless they intend to shop.

Restricting the business of the main formal Image 14: News article on Hawkers occupying the shops on the ground floor, it also creates a colonnade of the Grand hotel once owned by Arathoon Stephen, menace for the owners of the building. This is an Armenian from Isfahan also observed along Queens Mansion and Source: Metro - The Telegraph (Calcutta) published Neveh Shalome Synagogue. (Refer Image 15) on 2nd August 2018.

Image 15: Encroachment of Queens Mansion and Neveh Shalome Synagogue

Bara Bazar and Park Street (Stephen Court) have witnessed many fires over time. An article

by Saikat Ray called 'Many fires on, Burrabazar still hasn't learnt its lessons' on the Times of India (September 2018) conveyed about the problems the market faced mainly due to negligence. The market has had many fire tragedies due to the poor conditions of the dilapidated buildings, which are still used. As the market invites traders to do business at minimal establishment cost, the traders use poorly maintained buildings, with dingy narrow

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corridors, no fire-fighting equipment and tangled electrical wiring, accommodating almost all space available. Owners hardly maintain the building and lend their shops without valid papers, giving no insurance by subtenants. Ray mentions that the fire services said "The high powered committee has recommended basic fire safety rules for buildings in Burrabazar. It is mandatory to decongest the entrances and unclog the corridors and staircases for easy access.

But there has been zero compliance."11 Tamaghna Banerjee wrote in a Telegraph article, called Brick by Brick Stephen Court rises (March 2014) about the safety and security measures adopted for the people residing in the building. This included the addition of better emergency staircases, water tank for fire emergencies, sprinklers, fire alarms, better wiring, restoration of facades and lifts.12

Image 16: Fire incidents at Bara Bazar and Park Street Left Fire at a three storey building in Bara Bazar.

Right: Fire at Stephen Court in Park Street.

Source :Left- https://www.livemint.com/Politics/NsbHx54eKIAUHYqrY3v8uK/Burrabazar-fire-Firefighterstrying-to-contain-blaze-no-ca.html Right- https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/other-states/Stephen-Court-fire-toll-rises-to34/article16625592.ece

Even though most of the buildings built by the Jews and Armenians are graded by the Kolkata Municipal council, there is still a negligence observed in following of the guidelines.

This is seen in the form of encroachment, hoardings, billboards, the addition of illegal floors and more, which leads to degradation of the building (Refer Table 6 and 7, Pg 51).

11

Ray, S. (2018, September 17). Many fires on, Burrabazar still hasn't learnt its lessons. Retrieved September 23, 2018, from THE TIMES OF INDIA: https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kolkata/many-fires-on-burrabazar-still-hasnt-learnt-itslessons/articleshow/65838188.cms 12

Banerjee, T. (2014, March 24). Brick by Brick Stephen Court Rises. Retrieved August 19, 2018, from The Telegraph: https://www.telegraphindia.com/states/west-bengal/brick-by-brick-stephen-courtrises/cid/1289161

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Table 6: Permissible interventions for respective Grade of Heritage buildings Source: Capacity Building Programme, Volume XI, Graded list of Heritage Buildings, Kolkata Municipal Cooperation

Table 7: Grade of Armenian and Jewish buildings, along Bara Bazar and Park Street

6.2 Inferences Poor management, violation of laws, urban pressure and most importantly the less recognition of the value of these heritage buildings, subject the structures to damage. It is important to maintain these buildings well by increasing the public's awareness. Solutions need to be found to rehabilitate or develop the area with the encroached hawkers. Proper guidelines need to be established and inspected after studying the buildings and their surroundings. The building should be properly maintained and appropriate precautionary services should be installed for the safety of the users and the structure.

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Chapter 7: Discussion and Conclusions This concluding chapter discusses the overall findings and inferences of this research project on the architecture built by the Jews and Armenians in Calcutta. It also summarises how the main objectives of the project were fulfilled, which showed the process that was followed, which started with a study of the background of the communities (Origins and Evolution), their architectural contributions, and ended with detailed studies of selected examples in Bara Bazar and Park Street. The main aim of the project was to find out if the Jews and Armenians, had an architectural identity of their own in Kolkata and whether there was an impact of urban transformation on their architecture. Lastly, it discusses the issues raised by the initial research questions of the project about the architecture of the diasporas in Calcutta, lists the overall conclusions of the study, and the scope for further study.

7.1 Origin and Evolution of the Armenian and Jews of Calcutta Beginning as a strong vibrant business community, with a recorded peak population of about 1000 people by the end of 19th century, the Armenian population fell to 39 in 1961 but rose to 150 by 2018, with the help of the Armenian church. While the Jewish population were said to have a peak population of about 5000 people, which dropped to less than 10 in 2018. After the independence of India, many Armenians and Jews left the country, migrating to Australia, Canada, USA and UK, due to the nationalisation of business and properties, questioning their future in the country.

The Armenians, with the help of the Armenian College and Philanthropic Academy, are still trying to make the best use of the infrastructure services provided in Kolkata, bringing students and faculty from cities outside India that house other Armenian communities. Due to the college, the Armenian churches in the Kolkata have relatively good participation, used alternately every Sunday. The churches are in good condition, maintained regularly by the community. As the city contains very few members of the Jewish community, their synagogues are no longer actively functioning. Two major synagogues are supervised and preserved with the help of ASI, and the community. These heritage structures help serve as a remembrance of their existence, acting mainly as tourist attractions. The Jewish Girl's school no longer contains any Jewish students or teachers, but members from other communities.

"It is the city's loss, because the city is losing its cosmopolitan edge." ~ Ms. Aline M. Cohen, The Last Jews of Kolkata, Unique Stories From India, a video documentary by 101 India, 2016.13 Kolkata's loss of its multi-cultural communities, makes people lose the experience of different lifestyles, their language, traditions, arts and more. These communities are an important part of the city's development making it unique, making it important for them to be recognised and protected, for the benefit of the city.

7.2 Architectural Contributions of the Communities Jews and Armenians have constructed many buildings in Kolkata, these include religious structures, mansions, clubs, schools, houses and some commercial projects. As depicted in Table 4 and 5 in Chapter 3 on page 30, there is a similarity in the location between the two communities. Both their main architectural contributions are mainly found in Bara Bazar, 13

Ms . Aline M. Cohen is the secretary of Jewish Affairs Kolkata.

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housing the important religious structures (mid 19th century and earlier) and Park Street, housing the grand mansions built by the community (early 20th century).

Bara Bazar and Park Street contain different unique urban contexts and architectural styles which are elaborated below.

7.2.1 Urban Context The urban context of Bara Bazaar is mainly defined by the building use, street hierarchy and urban density. As mentioned in chapter 4, page 34, Brabourne road acts like a main spine connecting most of the religious structures, it contains more modern buildings, compared to the many traditional buildings along the secondary and tertiary roads.

Park Street is defined by the scale and prominence of its mansions, as well as the commercial establishments. Its urban density is larger than that of Bara Bazar. The area also contains three educational institutions, two Armenian and one Jewish institute.

NTS

NTS

Map 19: Important nodes, street hierarchy and sites of buildings in Bara Bazar and Park Street

Both places contain important nodes, that are defined by the architecture (Refer Map 19). The urban context influences an individual's perception of the architecture. As most of the important religious structures are located in Bara Bazar, it represents the communities significance in the area. Park Street represents the development of the communities over time, showing the change in the orientation of their businesses, from smaller business establishments in Bara Bazar to larger mansions in Park Street.

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7.2.2 Chronology Most buildings of the two communities were built during the British empire and were influenced by the architectural trends that were started by the British, (use of prevalent styles and building techniques, using architecture to make strong political statements and emphasise power). The time period dictated the social and cultural principles, which were kept in mind while designing buildings. Many religious structures were built in the 1800s, while the mansions in the 1900s. The architecture of the mansions represented how the communities had developed to adapt to the context at that time period.

7.2.3 Stylistic Issues The local context had a strong influence on the buildings built by the communities. Neoclassical, Edwardian, Victorian, Indo Saracenic introduced by the British, are some of the styles that were seen throughout the city. With time, the influence of the prevalent trends grew stronger and was observed in most of the Jewish and Armenian buildings. It helped make the buildings historically identifiable but sometimes be misinterpreted as British colonial buildings.

7.3 Detailed Studies of Selected Examples For detailed studies, similar buildings in the two sites were selected. Along with the Armenian and Jewish structures, religious buildings of other communities were also selected for comparison. This selection was based on their function and age. The analysis is divided into two parts Urban Context and Architectural Style.

7.3.1 Urban Context With the study of the buildings in the two areas, the analysis brought out the important role they play in the context. The buildings did not stand as individual entities but were a part of the urban fabric, defined by their scale, orientation, and visual linkages. (Refer Table 8 and 9) Inferences from the study: • Standing as landmarks, the religious buildings serve an important role in the urban context.

• The religious buildings stood on sites which act like islands in a busy congested market in Bara Bazar.

• The buildings displayed a strong interconnection between business, religion and social life of the people in the area.

• Currently, most of the religious buildings are underused and now only play a role in serving, visitors and the few members that remain.

• In the early 20th century, the more important its location the more thought was put into the design.

• The similarities in scale and profile of the mansions of Park Street helped give them a unique identity.

• When a building was built it did not only serve as an identity for a community but also for the area. It made the area unique with many landmarks and used different adapted styles. Scale, orientation, profile and prominence helped define the building.

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7.3.2 Architectural Style The architectural style was not limited to a location, its prominence and recognition, helped it spread to various cities, which may have had a common link between the cities rulers and communities. The context influenced the use of some distinctive features that were prominent in the area. Style influences were also marginally based on community preferences and knowledge. (Refer Table 10 and 11) • • • •

The religious structures along Brabourne road contain different styles of architecture. It as a whole gives an identity to the place. This depicted the stronghold the community may have had on the site.

Most buildings have a mixture of styles and are not clearly limited to one. They are designed according to the contextual styles.

The building site played an important role in deciding the level of ornamentation.

Building designs started to be dictated by materials and techniques to make it more functional than aesthetic in the early 20th century.

Chowringhee road acted as a space for the frontages of commercial buildings to be grander. The effectiveness of this grandness was also dependent on the funding for the building. The ornateness of a building depended upon its location and function.

Upon mapping of communities locations in India, it showed that most of the Armenians and Jews had settled in colonial cities (Refer Map 20). The prevalent styles had a strong influence in the development of the prominent synagogues in these cities. As the Armenian architectural style was a national style, its influence was seen in most Armenian churches. These Armenian churches had also adapted to their respective contexts (Refer Figure 5, Page 61)

Map 20: Location of Armenian and Jewish communities in India.

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Figure 5: Evolution of prominent structures built by the Armenians and Jews in India

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7.4 Architectural Identity The prevalent architectural style and urban context played an import role in influencing the architecture of the communities. One can assume that the knowledge from their homeland would be primarily used in the architecture of a well-established community in a city. But it was not the case for the Armenians and Jews in Calcutta. This was observed after understanding the architecture in their homeland and evaluating the architectural identity of the buildings based on factors stated by Zoreh Torabi and Sara Brahman (Refer Pg. 24).

1. Spatial organization - The were buildings were designed responding to the context using features like prominence, scale and orientation. While the religious buildings followed the traditional principles for their layout of spaces. The mansions in Park Street followed spatial layouts, similar to other mansions and commercial buildings in the city. The synagogues and the Armenian church were along the E-W axis and the Portuguese and Scottish churches along the N-S axis. The exterior and interior spaces were clearly defined by their form and shape.

2. Time organization - The use of prevalent styles for construction, followed mainly by the British acted as a trend followed during that time period. The sites displayed the need for architectural detailing and prominence that governed the design of the building.

3. Semantic organization - The Armenian churches displayed the communities unique national architectural style, which exhibited community's ideas. While synagogues and mansions seemed to follow the trends of architecture at that time period.

4. General design principles - The architectural design was formed by the ideas and concepts followed in the context. Religious buildings mainly followed the planning principles used in their hometowns.

5. Building shape and form - The proportion, shape, scale of the building had a strong influence and response to the context.

6. Building materials - The building materials used were similar to what the other buildings used in the city at that time. It strongly depended upon the context and owner of the building.

7. Relationship with context - The synagogues and churches opposed the building

relationship with the environment, with different styles used in each building. While the mansions were well integrated with the environment, using similar characteristics to their context.

7.5 Effects of Urban Transformation Urban Transformation subject buildings to new problems. Kolkata's rabid urbanization has led to the increase of infrastructure services. Heritage buildings are often damaged and replaced to make way for new buildings. They are also subjected to illegal encroachment.

The design of the building requires the addition of appropriate safety measures in case of any accidents. The loss of the heritage buildings will be a loss for the city. They need to be protected using effective laws, inspections and increasing public awareness.

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7.6 Summary of Conclusions Kolkata is different from other cities due to its turbulent history, culture, multiple social groups. The city's architecture is an important part of its identity. The surviving Armenians and Jews, are still trying to resist their disappearance and protect their identity, documentaries, books, articles, archives, conserving their architecture, and community involvement. This study aimed at recognizing these efforts, and contributing to the communities by understanding the characteristics and influences of their architectural identity. This could also help contribute to the conservation of Kolkata's heritage buildings.

Summary of findings and inferences Through the study, it was found that: 1. The local architectural culture determined the architecture of the Jewish and Armenian community. While the communities memories played a minor role in their architectural identity.

2. The local architectural culture14 was mainly defined by prevalent architectural styles that were used by the British who were major stakeholders in Calcutta at that time period.

3. Although the buildings did not undergo much physical transformation, they were affected by the changes in the urban fabric, the addition of infrastructure services and mismanagement by governing authorities.

Architectural identity: The architectural identity of the diasporas was mainly defined by two factors, urban context and prevalent architectural styles at that time period. The buildings did not adapt to a singular style but were also influenced by their location, the builders memories and ideas. With NeoClassical, Victorian, Edwardian and Indo-Saracenic elements, the buildings of the Armenian and Jewish diasporas are often misinterpreted as British colonial architecture due to the similarities observed. As discovered in the analysis of the structures, the buildings at Bara Bazar and Park Street had a strong influence of the prevalent architectural styles and trends of the context (e.g. addition of the clock). These prevalent styles were also observed in other colonial cities like Mumbai, London, Perth and more.

14

The local architecture culture constituted of time organization (associated with cultural and social principles and characteristics used at that time period for construction) and relationship with context.

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7.6.1 Scope for further study Calcutta also has traces of Parsis, Marwari, Chinese, Scottish, Dutch, Portuguese and more which could be further studied to understand the uniqueness of the city's architecture. It still has room for more research on the population, expansion of the communities, family history and contributions, street hierarchy and nomenclature, and more. A similar study could be tested, in Mumbai, Surat, Pune and other cities that housed diasporic communities. This could be done to check if the urban context had a profound impact on their buildings in those cities as well.

Image 17: View of Maghen David Synagogue

An Aga Khan awarded rehabilitation project in Nicosia, could be a good approach to follow in Kolkata, as it involved two different communities unite for the development of the city.

The solutions devised increased the potential of the city, through restoration, rehabilitation, proper planning, and management. This benefited all people associated and visiting the area.

It also opened up new possibilities for economic and socio-cultural development and was a good platform for learning the importance of heritage, community upliftment, and integration. Specific guidelines could be similarly made for the buildings in Bara Bazar and Park Street, that are based on a study of their immediate context.

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Bibliography Books: Bach, B. P. (2006). Calcutta's Edifice, The Buildings of a Great City. New Delhi: Rupa. Co. Davies, P. (1985). Splendors of the Raj- British architecture in India, 1660 to 1947. UBSPD. Fletcher, B. (1987). Sir Banister Fletcher's A History of Architecture. Delhi: CBS Publishers and Distributors.

Himadri Banerjee, Nilanjana Gupta, Sipra Mukherjee. (2009). Calcutta Mosaic. Anthem Press.

Joanne Taylor, J. L. (2016). The Great Houses of Calcutta. New Delhi: Niyogi Books.

Prosenjit Das Gupta, A. G. (2015). Calcutta- Built Heritage Today . Calcutta: G.M.Kapur Convenor.

Thesis: Sikes. K. (2007). Jews in India: A study of history and culture. Unpublished Bachelors Thesis, Saginaw Valley State University.

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Brahman, Z. T. (2013). Effective Factors in shaping the Identity of Architecture. Middle-East Journal of Scientific Research 15(1) , 106-112.

Moses, N. (n.d.). The Heritage of the Jewish Communities of India. Historian- Bene Israel & Genealogy Research, President Indian Jewish Heritage Center.

Websites: Armenian College and Philanthropic Academy. (n.d.). Retrieved from www.armeniancollege.edu.in: http://www.armeniancollege.edu.in/armenian-churches-ofindia/ Arts of Armenia (Architecture). (n.d.). Retrieved October 28, 2018, from Armenain Studies Program, California State University, Fresno: https://web.archive.org/web/20081231160331/http://armenianstudies.csufresno.edu/arts_of_a rmenia/architecture.htm Banerjee, T. (2014, March 24). Brick by Brick Stephen Court Rises. Retrieved August 19, 2018, from The Telegraph: https://www.telegraphindia.com/states/west-bengal/brick-bybrick-stephen-court-rises/cid/1289161

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Bhuyan, M. R. (2016, January 29). Architecture and its Urban Context: Place, Path and People . Retrieved October 14, 2018, from contextbd.com: https://contextbd.com/architecture-and-its-urban-context-place-path-and-people/ Chakraborty, A. (2016, April 24). Armenia still lives in the heart of Kolkata. Retrieved from timesofindia.indiatimes.com: https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kolkata/Armenia-stilllives-in-the-heart-of-Kolkata/articleshow/51962323.cms Chaudhuri, A. (2015, July 2). The Guardian. Retrieved August 24, 2018, from The Guardian website: https://www.theguardian.com/cities/2015/jul/02/calcutta-architecture-heritagedestruction-city-campaign-amit-chaudhuri De, B. (2004, December 14). Erasing the Past. Retrieved September 15, 2018, from Telegraph India: https://www.telegraphindia.com/opinion/erasing-the-past/cid/1019478 International diaspora Engagement Alliance. (n.d.). Retrieved from www.diasporaalliance.org: http://www.diasporaalliance.org/what-is-a-diaspora/ Khatchaturian, A. (2017, August 30). The Armenians of India. Retrieved October 14, 2018, from www.livehistoryindia.com: https://www.livehistoryindia.com/coverstory/2017/08/30/the-armenians-of-india Mishra, S. (2017, September 24). Kolkata’s China Town: A Recap. Retrieved from www.gounesco.com: https://www.gounesco.com/chinese-kolkata-immigrant/ Ray, S. (2018, September 17). Many fires on, Burrabazar still hasn't learnt its lessons.

Retrieved September 23, 2018, from THE TIMES OF INDIA: https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kolkata/many-fires-on-burrabazar-still-hasnt-learntits-lessons/articleshow/65838188.cms Recalling Jewish Calcutta. (n.d.). Retrieved July 20, 2018, from www.jewishcalcutta.in: http://www.jewishcalcutta.in/exhibits/show/08-homes--mansions-and-officia Revitalizing Ethnic Identity: Kolkata. (2014). Retrieved from Cept portfolio website: https://portfolio.cept.ac.in/revitalizing-ethnic-identity-urban-heritage-in-kolkata/ Shams, A. (n.d.). The Baghdadi Jewish connection. Retrieved October 26, 2018, from Ajjam Media Collective: https://ajammc.com/2018/10/22/amba-iraqi-mangopickle/?fbclid=IwAR2HJo4ObKywu2arzfNQaHMl_vdFm7g5qw6Uob1cxTMqDU_srUpgiB 8nMTo Shodhganga a reservoir of Indian theses. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/: http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/18327/7/07_chapter%202.pdf Sreekala, S. (2014, February 18). Israel's policy of "absorption of immigrants": a case study of the Indian jews. Retrieved October 14, 201, from Shodhganga: http://hdl.handle.net/10603/15965 The Great Synagogue (Oldest) at Baghdad, Iraq. (n.d.). Retrieved October 15, 2018, from Diarna: http://archive.diarna.org/site/detail/public/299/ The Jewish Community of Baghdad, Iraq. (n.d.). Retrieved October 10, 2018, from The Museum of the Jewish People: https://www.bh.org.il/jewish-community-baghdad-iraq/

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urban-fabric. (n.d.). Retrieved October 11th, 2018, from http://www.yourdictionary.com/urban-fabric Neoclassical and Romantic Architecture (2018). Essential Humanities. Retrieved from http://www.essential-humanities.net/western-art/architecture/neoclassical-romantic/ Gulati, S. (2013, November 12). Indo Saracenic architecture. Retrieved October 8, 2018, from Slideshare: https://www.slideshare.net/shivikagulati/indo-saracenic-architecture Edwardian Baroque Architecture. (n.d.). Retrieved September 16, 2018, from Revolvy: https://www.revolvy.com/page/Edwardian-Baroque-architecture Italian Renaissance style. (n.d.) McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Architecture and Construction.

(2003). Retrieved November 9 2018

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Appendices 1. Proposed development of roads of Calcutta in 1938 -1939 Source: Kolkata Morphology, chapter 4, Shodganga

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2. Inventory Format

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