Children and Their Development, Canadian Edition, 5th edition Robert V. Kail Solution Manual.pdf

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Type:

Solution Manual

Children and Their Resource: Development Edition:

5th Edition

Author(s):

Robert V. Kail Anne M.C. Barnfield

Chapter 1 The Science of Child Development CHAPTER OVERVIEW

2

MODULE SUPPLEMENTS Module 1.1: SETTING THE STAGE

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Learning Objectives Key Terms Classroom Activities Films/Videos/DVDs Module 1.2: FOUNDATIONAL THEORIES OF CHILD DEVELOPMENT

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Learning Objectives Key Terms Classroom Activities Films/Videos/DVDs Module 1.3: THEMES IN CHILD-DEVELOPMENT RESEARCH

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Learning Objectives Key Terms Classroom Activities Films/Videos/DVDs Module 1.4: DOING CHILD-DEVELOPMENT RESEARCH

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Learning Objectives Key Terms Classroom Activities Films/Videos/DVDs INTERNET RESOURCES

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CASE STUDIES

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HANDOUTS

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ANSWER KEY

30

TEST YOURSELF

34 1 .

CHAPTER 1 OVERVIEW I.

Module 1.1: Setting the Stage i.

Historical Views of Children and Childhood 1. Plato 2. Aristotle 3. John Locke a) Tabula Rasa 4. Jean Jacques Rousseau 5. Nature vs. Nurture debate

ii.

Origins of a New Science 1. Industrial Revolution 2. Charles Darwin’s Theory of Evolution a) Baby Biographies 3. G. Stanley Hall 4. Alfred Binet 5. Sigmund Freud 6. John B. Watson 7. James Mark Baldwin and the Psychology Department of the University of Toronto 8. Foundation of the Canadian Psychological Association (CPA) 9. Society for Research in Child Development (SRCD) 10. Changes during the war years 11. Increased profile for female psychologists a) Applied Developmental Science

II. Module 1.2: Foundational Theories of Child Development a.

Theory

b. The Biological Perspective i.

Maturational Theory 1. Arnold Gesell

ii.

Ethological Theory 1. Konrad Lorenz a) Critical Period 2 .

b) Imprinting c.

The Psychodynamic Perspective i. Psychodynamic Theory 1. Sigmund Freud a) Id b) Ego c) Superego 2. Psychosexual stages ii.

Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory 1. Erik Erikson a) Psychosocial Theory

d. The Learning Perspective i.

Early Learning Theories 1. Classical Conditioning a) Ivan Pavlov b) Watson and “Little Albert” 2. Operant Conditioning a) B.F. Skinner i.

Reinforcement

ii. Punishment 3. Observational Learning 4. Imitation ii.

Social Cognitive Theory 1. Albert Bandura (originally from Alberta, Canada) a) Social Cognitive Theory of Learning b) Self-efficacy

e.

The Cognitive Developmental Perspective i.

f.

Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development

The Contextual Perspective i.

Culture

ii. Vygotsky’s Theory of Contextual Development 3 .

1. Lev Vygotsky iii. Bronfenbrenner’s Theory of Ecological Systems 1. Ecological Systems Theory 2. Microsystem 3. Mesosystem 4. Exosystem 5. Macrosystem 6. Chronosystem 7. Example of systemic impact on Indigenous Peoples of Canada iv. The Big Picture v. Summary Table—Characteristics of Developmental Perspectives III. Module 1.3: Themes in Child-Development Research i.

Continuity of Development 1. Continuity-versus-Discontinuity Issue

ii. Impact of Nature and Nurture 2. Nature-Nurture Issue iii. The Active Child 3. Active-Passive Child Issue iv. Links Between Different Domains of Development 1. Continuity 2. Nature and Nurture 3. Active Children 4. Connections IV. Module 1.4: Doing Child-Development Research a. Measurement in Child-Development Research i.

Systematic Observation 1. Naturalistic Observation a)

Variables

b) Nominal scale c)

Checklist

4 .

2. Structured Observation 3. Bias in Observational Studies a) Observer Bias b) Inter-rater Reliability c) Observer Influence d) Habituation ii. Sampling Behaviour with Tasks iii. Self-Reports 1. Response Bias iv. Physiological Measures v. Summary Table—Ways of Measuring Behaviour in Child-Development Research vi. Evaluating Measures 1.

Reliable

2.

Validity a) Construct Validity b) Concurrent Validity

vii. Representative Sampling Populations 1. a) Sample b. General Designs for Research i. Reliable Research Design ii. Correlational Studies 1. Correlational Study 2. Correlation Coefficient 3. Positive Correlation 4. Negative Correlation iii. Experimental Studies 1. Experiment 2. Independent 3. Variable

Dependent

4. Variable

Inferential

Statistics

5 .

5. Null Hypothesis 6. Field Experiment 7. Quantitative Research 8. Qualitative Research c.

Designs for Studying Age-Related Change i.

Longitudinal Design 1. Longitudinal Design 2. Microgenetic Study 3. Problems with the Longitudinal Method a) Practice effects b) Selective attrition c) Cohort effects 4. Cohort

ii.

Cross-Sectional Design 1. Cross-sectional Study

iii. Longitudinal-Sequential Design 1. Longitudinal-Sequential Study iv. Integrating Findings from Different Studies 1. Meta-Analysis v. Summary Table—Designs in Child-Development Research d. Ethical Responsibilities i.

Seek to do research that benefits humanity

ii. Minimize risks to research participants iii. Describe the research to potential participants so they can determine whether they wish to participate 1. Obtaining Informed Consent iv. Avoid deception v.

Keep results anonymous or confidential

vi. Give a debriefing afterward 1. Debriefing vii. REB

6 .

e.

Communicating Research Results

f.

Child-Development Research and Family Policy i.

Why Link Research to Policy

ii. Ways to Influence Family Policy iii. Emphasis on Policy Implications Improves Research 1. Quasi-Experimental Design

7 .

MODULE SUPPLEMENTS MODULE 1.1: SETTING THE STAGE LEARNING OBJECTIVES: • • •

What ideas did philosophers have about children and childhood?

How did the modern science of child development emerge?

How do child-development scientists use research findings to improve children’s lives?

(See Handout 1-1 for a listing of this chapter’s Learning Objectives)

KEY TERMS: baby biographies applied development science

CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES: • How Do You Know a Child When You See One? Rather than defining childhood by an age range, ask your students to explain how they determine who is (and who is not) a child. What are the characteristic “symptoms” of childhood? When does childhood end? This exercise is especially helpful in distinguishing between childhood and adolescence, and between various sub-groups of children (e.g., infants versus toddlers, toddlers versus preschoolers, etc.).

FILMS/VIDEOS/DVDS: • •

• • •

Childhood (Films for the Humanities and Social Sciences, 1996, 49 minutes). This program explores the experience of childhood over the past hundred years and examines major improvements in the lives of children, due to progress in medicine, science, and education.

History and Trends (Magna Systems, 1997, 29 minutes). This video is from the Developing Child series (module 1). This module describes the history of child development, from early philosophies to changing beliefs about human nature, with a look at the nature-nurture question.

Innocence (Films for the Humanities and Social Sciences, 1997, 54 minutes). Historical overview on the construct of childhood innocence from the late 19th century to the 1990s.

No One Quite Like Me… Or You (Sunburst Communications, 1992, 16 minutes). A video to help students understand that everyone is unique.

The Creation of Childhood (Insight Media, 1990, 25 minutes). Provides an overview of how the concept of childhood has changed throughout history, including a discussion of Neal Postman’s suggestion that the concept of childhood is decaying in contemporary society.

8 .

MODULE 1.2: FOUNDATIONAL THEORIES OF CHILD DEVELOPMENT LEARNING OBJECTIVES: • • • • •

What are the major tenets of the biological perspective?

How do psychodynamic theories account for development?

What is the focus of learning theories?

How do cognitive-developmental theories explain changes in children’s thinking?

What are the main points of the contextual approach?

KEY TERMS: theory maturational

imitation

theory ethological

observational learning

theory critical

social cognitive theory

period imprinting

self-efficacy

psychodynamic theory

cognitive-developmental perspective

id

culture

ego

ecological systems theory

superego

microsystem

psychosocial theory

mesosystem

classical conditioning

exosystem

operant conditioning

macrosystem

reinforcement

chronosystem

punishment

CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES: • Supporting Evidence for the Maturational Theory. According to maturational theory, child development reflects a specific and prearranged scheme or plan within the body.

Maturational theorists, like Arnold Gesell, argued that development is largely determined by biological forces; experience matters little. Consequently, Gesell argued that human development was quite predictable. (You may wish to mention that Gesell generated comprehensive norms of development that were utilized extensively by medical and child development professionals during the first half of this century.) From their personal experiences with infants and young children, ask your class to cite evidence that supports Gesell’s contentions that development is predictable and • biologically determined.

From Ducklings to Infants. Ethological theory views development from an evolutionary perspective, meaning that many behaviours are viewed as adaptive (i.e., they have survival value). While human infants do not exhibit imprinting, ask your class to consider behaviours • or abilities of infants that have survival value. Do critical periods exist for any aspects of human development?

Intrapsychic Conflict. Ask for three volunteers to role-play the components of personality, as described by Sigmund Freud.

Inform the rest of the class that it will be 9 their job to determine which component is being portrayed by each student. Present . the volunteers with a specific

•

•

situation (e.g., deciding what to do tonight, seeing an attractive person, finding a lost wallet, etc.) and ask them to select which component of the personality they are comfortable portraying (making sure that each volunteer understands the function of the component chosen—id, ego, or superego). After a few minutes of role-playing, it should be obvious to the class the role that each volunteer is portraying. Ask members of the class to suggest additional “actions” that each component of the personality might take.

Eriksonian Parenting Tips. Using Handout 1-2 (a reprint of Table 1-1 in the text on Erikson’s Eight Stages of Psychosocial Development), ask the class to work in small groups in an effort to determine what parents should do to encourage a positive or healthy resolution to each of the first four psychosocial crises.

List the parenting tips generated by the groups on the board. This discussion will provide ample opportunity to supplement the text’s coverage of Erikson’s theory and will facilitate comparisons to Freud’s psychosexual theory.

• Identifying Positive and Negative Reinforcement. Negative reinforcement is usually a difficult concept for students to grasp; they often believe that it is synonymous with punishment. To aid their comprehension of this construct, have your class complete Handout 1-3, either individually or in small groups.

• Who Said That? Either individually or in small groups, have your students complete Handout 1-4. This exercise will allow students to clarify the conceptual differences between the major theoretical perspectives reviewed.

• Advice Columns. What would Sigmund Freud or Albert Bandura suggest? This exercise (see Handout 1-5) will give your students a chance to speak for several notable developmental theorists. As a classroom exercise, Handout 1-5 should be completed in small groups. You can also use this handout as a homework assignment and as a take-home portion of an exam.

Students respond well to it in any of these formats.

• Internet Annotated Bibliography. Have your students use the Internet to identify 10 websites that give scholarly information on the theories/theorists discussed in this chapter. Students should type an annotated bibliography that lists the URLs (website addresses) for these websites, and gives a brief (one or two paragraph) summary/review of each.

1. The name of the website (e.g., Jean Piaget Society).

2. A valid URL (website address, e.g., http://www.piaget.org).

3. A brief (one or two paragraph) review of the website. Reviews should include a brief summary of what students can expect to find if they visit the website and a brief evaluation of the website.

4. As a follow-up to this activity, students can combine all of the annotated bibliographies into an Internet Resource Directory that could be distributed in class.

FILMS/VIDEOS/DVDS: • •

Albert Bandura (Insight Media, 1988, Part I: 89 minutes; Part II: 148 minutes). Part I: Bandura discusses the development of his social cognitive theory. Part II: Bandura discusses the classic Bobo doll experiment, moral issues, and the impact of violence in the media.

Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory: An Introduction (Davidson Films, 2002, 30 minutes).

This video reviews Albert Bandura’s classic experiments utilizing Bobo dolls, his research on phobias, and his current work on self-efficacy. Making this video especially compelling is that Dr. Bandura is the narrator.

10 .

• B. F. Skinner: A New Appraisal (Davidson Films, 1999, 41 minutes). A thorough review and critique of the work of B. F. Skinner. This video dispels some myths, and credits Skinner with contributions not often attributed to him.

• B. F. Skinner and Behavior Change (Insight Media, 1975, 45 minutes). An overview of the ethics and applications of modern behaviourism.

• Child Development (Insight Media, 1992, 30 minutes). Provides an overview of the study of child development, including the ideas of early philosophers such as Locke and Rousseau and historically significant theorists such as Freud, Erikson, Bowlby, Watson, Gesell, and Piaget.

The video also includes a review of research methodology utilized in the study of child development.

• Classical and Operant Conditioning (Films for the Humanities and Social Sciences, 1997, 56 minutes). The principles of behaviourism are explained, as are its important applications in clinical therapy, education, and child-rearing.

• Cognitive Development (Insight Media, 1990, 30 minutes). Presents an overview of Piaget’s theory. Also reviews general aspects of cognition and language development.

• Discovering Psychology, Part 8: Learning (Annenberg/CPB Collection, 1990, 30 minutes).

Classic footage of Pavlov, Watson, and Skinner demonstrating the fundamentals of classical and operant conditioning.

Erik Erikson: A Life’s Work (Insight Media, 1992, 38 minutes). Erik Erikson discusses his • stage theory of psychosocial development.

Everybody Rides the Carousel (Pyramid, 1975, 73 minutes in three parts). A carousel and its • riders provide metaphors to describe Erikson’s eight stages.

Freud: The Hidden Nature of Man (Learning Corporation of America, 1970, 27 minutes). An • introduction to many basic Freudian concepts, including sexuality, consciousness, and a discussion of the id, ego, and the superego.

His Own Best Subject: A Visit to B.F. Skinner’s Basement (Davidson Films, 2000, 20 • minutes). This video is a tour of Skinner’s basement by his daughters. During the video, they focus on Skinner and his relationship as a father.

The Infant Mind (Insight Media, 1992, 30 minutes). Contemporary cognitive and • developmental psychologists review and challenge some aspects of Piaget’s stage theory.

Learning (Insight Media, 1990, 30 minutes). Includes an interview with B.F. Skinner and • reviews some applications of classical and operant conditioning.

Learning in Context (Films for the Humanities and Social Sciences, 1997, 31 minutes). This • video examines developmental science in relation to contextual factors in learning and performance.

Learning: Observational and Cognitive Approaches (Insight Media, 2001, 30 minutes).

• Reviews the components of observational learning, illustrates the cognitive aspects of learning, and discusses B.F. Skinner’s research.

The Learning Infant (Insight Media, 1988, 30 minutes). Demonstrates classical and operant • conditioning with infants.

Jean Piaget (Insight Media, 1969, Part I: 40 minutes). An interview with Jean Piaget • highlights his stages of development and other developmental issues including motivation, learning, and perception.

Jean Piaget (Insight Media, 1969, Part II: 40 minutes). Piaget presents his views on Freud’s • developmental concepts and his reactions to criticism and misapplication of his own theory.

Piaget’s Developmental Theory: An Overview (Davidson Films, 1989, 30 minutes). David • Elkind introduces Piaget’s theory and interviews children. The video includes clear demonstrations of egocentric thought and conservation of liquid.

11 .

• • •

•

•

Piaget on Piaget (Yale University, 1978, 45 minutes). Piaget discusses his theory of cognitive development.

Skinner: A Fresh Approach (Davidson Films, 1999, 40 minutes). This video is narrated by Murray Sidman. It uses historical and current footage about Skinner to explain his theory and research.

Theories of Development (Insight Media, 1997, 29 minutes). This video provides an overview of the cognitive, psychosexual, psychosocial, behaviourist, social-learning, and sociocultural theories of child development. The work of Piaget, Freud, Erikson, Gesell, Skinner, and Vygotsky is featured.

Theories of Human Development (Insight Media, 2002, 29 minutes). This video highlights six major theories of human development: Freud’s psychodynamic theory, Erikson’s psychosocial theory, the integrated theory of Bowlby and Ainsworth, Bandura’s social learning theory, Piaget’s cognitive theory and Vygotsky’s cognitive mediation theory.

Vygotsky’s Developmental Theory: An Introduction (Davidson Films, 1994, 28 minutes).

Classroom footage from the United States and archival footage from Russia and Papua New Guinea illustrate Vygotsky’s theory of the Zone of Proximal Development, scaffolding, and other basic tenets of his theory and research.

12 .

MODULE 1.3: THEMES IN CHILD-DEVELOPMENT RESEARCH LEARNING OBJECTIVES: • • • •

How well can developmental outcomes be predicted from early life?

How do heredity and environment influence development?

What role do children have in their own development?

Is development in different domains connected?

KEY TERMS: continuity-versus-discontinuity issue nature-nurture issue active-passive child issue

CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES: •

Debates. Have the class divide into three large groups. One group will debate the continuityversus- discontinuity issue, one group will debate the nature-nurture issue, and one group will debate the active- passive child issue. Once the three large groups are decided, each group should subdivide into two smaller groups so that both sides of the debate issue are represented (a group for nature and a group for nurture). Give students several class periods to prepare for the debate. On debate day, the first two groups will debate the topic of continuity versus discontinuity while the other groups watch and evaluate. Then the second two groups will debate the topic of nature versus nurture while the other groups watch. Finally, the last two groups will debate the topic of active versus passive children while the other groups watch. A format for the debate is listed below and can be modified to fit classes of different lengths: Debate 1: Continuity-versus-Discontinuity (30 minutes) I.

Constructive Speeches (Presentation of your side of the argument): A. Continuity side will present for 7 minutes 1. Cross-examination by the Discontinuity side for 3 minutes B. Discontinuity side will present for 7 minutes 1.

Cross-examination by the Continuity side for 3 minutes

II. Rebuttal Speeches (Your response to the other side’s argument): A. Discontinuity side will rebut for 5 minutes B. Continuity side will rebut for 5 minutes III. Questions from Audience (5 minutes) Debate 2: Nature-Nurture (30 minutes) I.

Constructive Speeches (Presentation of your side of the argument): A. Nature side will present for 7 minutes 13 .

1. Cross-examination by the Nurture side for 3 minutes B. Nurture side will present for 7 minutes 1. Cross-examination by the Nature side for 3 minutes II. Rebuttal Speeches (Your response to the other side’s argument): A. Nature side will rebut for 5 minutes B. Nurture side will rebut for 5 minutes III. Questions from Audience (5 minutes) Debate 3: Active-Passive Child (30 minutes) IV. Constructive Speeches (Presentation of your side of the argument): A. Active side will present for 7 minutes 1. Cross-examination by the Passive side for 3 minutes B. Passive side will present for 7 minutes 1. Cross-examination by the Active side for 3 minutes V. Rebuttal Speeches (Your response to the other side’s argument): A. Passive side will rebut for 5 minutes B. Active side will rebut for 5 minutes VI. Questions from Audience (5 minutes)

FILMS/VIDEOS/DVDS: • Contexts of Development (RMI Media Productions, 1993, 30 minutes). Highlights the interactive influences of biological, social, economic, and cultural factors on human development.

• Human Brain Development: Nature and Nurture (Insight Media, 2006, 30 minutes). This DVD demonstrates the interplay of genetic predispositions and experiences in the development of the brain after birth. It explains the concept of plasticity and presents research studies that illustrate the evolution of visual perception and stages of language acquisition from infancy through old age.

• Study of the Child: History and Trends (from The Developing Child Series, Magna Systems, 1997, 28 minutes). Reviews the history of child development, including its philosophical roots and early scientific investigations. The video illustrates two developmental methodologies and presents major developmental principles, including an examination of the nature-nurture question.

• Worlds of Childhood, Programs 5, 23, and 24 (Great Plains National Instructional Television Library, 1993, 30 minutes each). Program 5, Nature and Nurture Interwoven, includes a review of research on twin studies. Programs 23 and 24, Nature and Nurture of Development (Parts I and II), explore the roles of biology, history, economics, family, peers, school, community, and culture in child development.

14 .

MODULE 1.4: DOING CHILD-DEVELOPMENT RESEARCH LEARNING OBJECTIVES: • • • • • •

How do scientists measure topics of interest in children’s development?

What general research designs are used in child-development research?

What designs are unique to the study of age-related change?

What ethical procedures must researchers follow?

How do researchers communicate results to other scientists?

How does child-development research influence family policy?

KEY TERMS: systematic observation

positive correlation

naturalistic observation

negative correlation

variable

experiment

nominal scale

independent variable

checklist

dependent variable

structured observation

inferential statistics

observer bias

null hypothesis

inter-rater reliability

field experiment

observer influence

quantitative research

habituation

qualitative research

self-reports

longitudinal design

response bias

microgenetic study

reliable

cohort

validity

cross-sectional study

construct validity

longitudinal-sequential study

concurrent validity

meta-analysis

population sample

informed consent

reliable research design

debriefing

correlational study

quasi-experimental design

correlation coefficient

15 .

CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES: •

“Results of a Recent Study Indicate that People Rarely Question the Results of Research Studies.” For an advanced developmental course: Ask your students to locate a study on some aspect of development that is of interest to them and bring a copy of the Method section to class. In small groups, have the students engage in critical reviews of the articles that they found, focusing on sample representativeness and the reliability and validity of the measures or procedures used. Since students often ignore the method section of journal articles, this exercise should render this section less threatening while honing their critical thinking skills.

For an introductory developmental course: Ask your students to find research results that have been reported in the mass (print) media, make copies of the stories, and bring them to class. Ask for some volunteers to summarize their stories, reading verbatim the section reporting the research results. Then guide the class through a discussion of how to critically interpret the reported results. This exercise produces the same result as the one described above for advanced courses: Your students will develop sharper critical thinking skills.

•

• •

• •

•

•

•

Understanding Correlations. To illustrate the concept that correlation does not equal causation, have your class generate examples of variables that co-vary, and discuss why causal relationships between them cannot be determined. Further, to introduce the concept of spurious correlations, ask the class to think of variables that are highly correlated, but meaningless (e.g., birds migrate south when footballs appear in neighborhoods).

Designing an Experiment. In small groups, have your students design an experiment.

Handout 1-6 will guide them through the process of stating a hypothesis, identifying and operationalizing variables, and considering a variety of methodological and ethical issues.

Longitudinal versus Cross-Sectional Designs. Before the class session on developmental research methods, assign half of your students a longitudinal study to read and half a crosssectional study to read on the same topic. In class, have the students compare and contrast the results obtained with the different research designs, debating the advantages and disadvantages of each design.

Evaluating Developmental Research Methods. As a comprehensive review of the research method module in the chapter, ask your students to complete Handout 1-7, either in class or as a homework assignment.

Name That Research Design. To determine if your students can recognize the various research designs when given brief examples of them, have them complete Handout 1-8. This handout serves as an excellent study aid and can be completed as a homework assignment or in-class activity.

Where Did They Go Wrong? Present your students with brief examples of unethical research practices and ask them to identify the violations present. Handout 1-9 includes some research situations that students can assess. This handout works well either as an in-class small group exercise or as a homework assignment.

Guest Speaker: Child Advocate. Invite a speaker from any local child advocacy group and ask that speaker to talk with your class about issues that have been informed and shaped by developmental research. This expert can discuss how developmental research can be translated into law or public policy.

Guest Speaker: Lawyer Specializing in Divorce Mediation and Custody Arrangements.

Some lawyers may be well-informed about developmental research pertaining to the impact of divorce on children and how various custody arrangements influence the development of children. Progressive, charismatic lawyers can provide interesting and discussion-provoking real-world examples.

16 Copyright © 2020 Pearson Education, Inc.

•

Petitioning Policymakers. This exercise could be developed into a major project to be completed in stages as the course progresses. Divide your students into groups (or the class can work together as one group if it is a small class) and ask each group to identify a significant developmental issue that has family policy implications (e.g., adolescent substance use and abuse, child abuse, teen sexuality and pregnancy, divorce and custody arrangements, poverty and public assistance programs, etc.).

Each group should thoroughly investigate the developmental research available on the issue, then contact a person at the local, county, provincial/territorial, or national level (via letter or e-mail) who is in a position to create or influence social policy. Each group should create a packet of materials on their selected subject to better educate the official they contacted. Each group should send this material to the official, ask for some reactions to it from the official, and solicit an opinion from the official regarding how this information might be used to shape social policy. To conclude this project, each group could report the results of their efforts in an oral presentation to the rest of the class.

FILMS/VIDEOS/DVDS: • •

• •

• • •

•

Discovering Psychology, Program 2: Understanding Research (Annenberg/CPB Collection, 1990, 30 minutes). Describes the scientific method, data collection and analysis, and the role of critical thinking in research.

Ethics in America, Program 9: The Human Experiment (Columbia University Seminars on Media and Society, 60 minutes). A round-table discussion, including C. Everett Koop and Dr. Arnold Relman (editor of the New England Journal of Medicine), reviews ethical considerations faced within the medical research field.

Experiments in Human Behavior (Annenberg/CPB Project, 1990, 35 minutes). Presents an overview of research methods used in studying behaviour.

Exploring Qualitative Methods (Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 2005, 46 minutes). A dream may be the most difficult human experience to quantify—but dreaming is an excellent topic for building qualitative research skills. This program illustrates experiments, designed and conducted by students that revolve around sleep and dreams. In the process, it provides thorough insight into the issues relevant to collecting and utilizing qualitative data. Viewers are shown how to create effective questionnaires, prepare participant interviews, assemble case studies, and conduct observational studies. The program also covers the use of content analysis and explores the correlational method, employed to make qualitative data more meaningful. A viewable/printable instructor’s guide is available online.

Observation (from The Developing Child Series, Magna Systems, 1993, 37 minutes). The video depicts naturalistic observation methods with infants, toddlers, and preschoolers as well as describing methods more suitable for older children.

Observing Children (Insight Media, 1991, 10 minutes). Presents various methods of observing children.

Research Methods for the Social Sciences (Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 2005, 4 Part Series, 23 to 46 minutes each part). Using psychology as its primary medium, this fourpart series thoroughly explores qualitative and quantitative research methods used in a wide range of disciplines. Hosted and narrated by students, each program demonstrates the ins and outs of testing hypotheses, preparing experiments, and analyzing data—while improving knowledge of terms and concepts essential to examination boards. Viewable/printable instructor’s guides are available online. 4-part series, 23 to 46 minutes each.

Scientific Method (Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 1999, 23 minutes). This video provides a complete overview of all steps of the scientific method, from researching and identifying a problem to communicating the results.

17 Copyright © 2020 Pearson Education, Inc.

• •

•

Two Research Styles (Insight Media, 1991, 24 minutes). Experimentation and observation are compared using profiles of two research programs.

Understanding Psychology Experimental Methods in Psychology (Insight Media, 2004, 37 minutes). This DVD is an examination of attractiveness research. It examines variables that affect a person’s perception of others and considers whether that perception can be manipulated. The DVD questions whether laboratory and field experiments yield the same results.

Understanding Psychology: Non-Experimental Research Methods (Insight Media, 2006, 30 minutes). Researchers in this DVD explain their methodologies, and expert analyses of young people’s cell phone use. It explores the use of questionnaires, surveys, interviews, and naturalistic observations.

INTERNET RESOURCES • • • • • • •

•

https://www.apa.org – Website of the American Psychological Association https://childcarecanada.org – Website for child care resources and research https://cpa.ca Website of the Canadian Psychological Association https://www.psychologicalscience.org – Website of the Association for Psychological Science https://psychclassics.yorku.ca – This is an internet resource for historical information about psychology/theorists. http://www.piaget.org and https://archivespiaget.ch – Locations of the Jean Piaget Society and the Jean Piaget Archives. https://policywise.com – Website for PolicyWise for Children & Families. This not-forprofit corporation develops and mobilizes priority research evidence into policy. Because children and their families in Alberta share fundamental needs with children living elsewhere, our research has relevancy and impact that extends to outside of Alberta, thus making PolicyWise an innovative nexus for the most important issues for children. https://vanierinstitute.ca – Website for the Vanier Institute of the Family, in Ottawa which offers research and discussion on families and society.

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CASE STUDY Dungeon of Doom: Part I “He’s still playing Dungeon of Doom? I’m getting worried about the amount of time Matthew spends in front of that video game, Tyler.”

“I don’t think Matthew is going to be harmed by it, Shari. It’s just a game. He still plays with his kindergarten friends, and goes bike riding and swimming a lot.”

“But I worry that he’ll start to become a bully—make that a ‘Dungeon Master.’ Maybe we should limit the amount of time he spends with the game.”

“That won’t be easy, Shari, but it’s probably a good idea. Besides, if Matthew spends less time playing Dungeon of Doom, I can spend more time playing my favorite video game, Carnival of Carnage.”

1. How can Sigmund Freud’s theory of personality be used to explain the appeal of video games like Dungeon of Doom or Carnival of Carnage?

2. What kinds of concerns might Erik Erikson have about 6-year-old Matthew’s habitual video game playing?

3. What suggestions would B. F. Skinner have for changing Matthew’s behaviour?

4. Impose the contextual perspective of Vygotsky on the case described above.

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CASE STUDY Dungeon of Doom: Part II “He’s still playing Dungeon of Doom? I’m getting worried about the amount of time Matthew spends in front of that video game, Tyler.”

“I don’t think Matthew is going to be harmed by it, Shari. It’s just a game. He still plays with his kindergarten friends, and goes bike riding and swimming a lot.”

“But I worry that he’ll start to become a bully—make that a ‘Dungeon Master.’ Maybe we should limit the amount of time he spends with the game.”

“That won’t be easy, Shari, but it’s probably a good idea. Besides, if Matthew spends less time playing Dungeon of Doom, I can spend more time playing my favorite video game, Carnival of Carnage.”

1. State Shari’s concerns about the effects of the video game on Matthew’s behaviour as a testable hypothesis.

2. Design a study to test the hypothesis you just stated.

3. Tyler saw a segment on the local news that reported the results of a recent correlational study on video games and aggression. The study indicated that children who spend more time playing video games tend to act more aggressively toward their peers. Tyler concluded that video games cause an increase in aggression, and he decided to return Dungeon of Doom and rent The Wonderful World of Worms instead. Evaluate Tyler’s interpretation of the research results.

4. Shari suggested that before acting hastily, they watch Matthew’s behaviour before and after playing video games and ask their friends to watch their own children’s pre- and post-videogame behaviours. What measurement technique is Shari proposing? What may be a limitation or weakness in asking just her friends to watch their children’s behaviour?

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HANDOUT 1-1 Learning Objectives/Discussion Questions for Chapter 1: 1. What ideas did philosophers have about children and childhood?

2. How did the modern science of child development emerge?

3. How do child-developmental scientists use research findings to improve children’s lives?

4. What are the major tenets of the biological perspective?

5. How do psychodynamic theories account for development?

6. What is the focus of learning theories?

7. How do cognitive-developmental theories explain changes in children’s thinking?

8. What are the main points of the contextual perspective?

9. How well can developmental outcomes be predicted from early life?

10. How do heredity and environment influence development?

11. What role do children have in their own development?

12. Is development in different domains connected?

13. How do scientists measure topics of interest in children’s development?

14. What general research designs are used in child-development research?

15. What designs are unique to the study of age-related change?

16. What ethical procedures must researchers follow?

17. How do researchers communicate results to other scientists?

18. How does child-development research influence family policy?

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HANDOUT 1-2 The First Four Stages of Psychosocial Development in Erikson’s Theory Directions: What would Erikson suggest for parents who are raising children that fit into the following four stages?

Psychosocial

Age

Challenge

Basic Trust vs.

Mistrust

Birth to 1 year

To develop a sense that the world is safe, a “good place.”

Autonomy vs.

Shame and Doubt

1 to 3 years

To realize that one is an independent person who can make decisions.

Initiative vs. Guilt

3 to 6 years

To develop a willingness to try new things and to handle failure.

Industry vs.

Inferiority

6 years to adolescence

To learn basic skills and to work with others.

Stage

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Eriksonian Parenting Tips

HANDOUT 1-3 Identifying Positive and Negative Reinforcement Directions: In each of the following scenarios, identify the type(s) of reinforcement present, as well as who is being reinforced. (Note: Some scenarios involve both positive and negative reinforcement.)

1. Andrew will not take his asthma medication daily, as his doctor has prescribed. Andrew’s parents have been nagging him, telling him that he may have to be rushed to the hospital if he doesn’t take the medicine as directed.

2. Rowena was given a sticker every time she remembered to brush her teeth.

3. Julio’s parents went to great lengths to provide him with hot dogs and cheese fries since he would have serious temper tantrums if given any other type of food.

4. Angela is a third-grader in Mr. Robertson’s class. Mr. Robertson is giving each child work materials individually. As Mr. Robertson turns to each child, Angela makes grunting noises and yells, “teacher, teacher—me next!” On each occasion, Mr. Robertson turns to Angela and says, “Shhh. Wait your turn.”

5. At supper, Taeyung has to eat a little bit of everything prepared, including the dreaded vegetables. If he picks a fight with his little sister, he is immediately sent to his room with his plate. Taeyung has been sent to his room four times in the past week.

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HANDOUT 1-4 Who Said That?

Directions: Match the theorist or theoretical perspective to the statement that best represents their viewpoint. Explain your choice.

B. F. Skinner

Sigmund Freud

Albert Bandura

Erik Erikson

John Locke

Arnold Gesell

Jean Piaget 1. In everyday life, unconscious needs are struggling for expression; behaviour and development is the product of efforts to satisfy needs.

2. Development is the product of one’s biological plan; experience matters little.

3. People learn from observing others.

4. Development involves facing a sequence of crises or challenges. How earlier crises are resolved influences later development.

5. Thought develops in four qualitatively different stages, ranging from exploring through the senses and motor abilities to abstract, logical thinking.

6. One’s development is influenced by the reinforcements and punishments one receives.

7. The human infant is a blank slate; experiences mold and shape it into a distinct individual.

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HANDOUT 1-5 Advice Columns Directions: Indicate below how each theorist would explain these problems and recommend treating them.

B.F. Skinner

Sigmund Freud

Heather (6 years old) gets upset when her father pays attention to her younger brother. She insists on playing video games and other twoplayer games with her father in an attempt to exclude her brother.

Erik Erikson

Lev Vygotsky

Albert Bandura

Jean Piaget

Markie (2 1/2 years old) insists on bathing and dressing himself even though he doesn’t do either very well.

Emily and Ethan (5-yearold twins) are tag-team trouble at the dinner table, meaning that they make terrible messes of the table, the floor, and themselves.

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HANDOUT 1-6 Designing an Experiment Directions: The following questions serve as a guide for designing an experiment. Answer each question in the space provided.

1. What is your general research problem or question?

2. What are your variables? Identify your independent and dependent variables. Are your variables operationally defined?

3. What is your causal hypothesis?

4. Who is your population of interest? How will you draw your sample? Describe your experimental (i.e., manipulated) and control groups, and how subjects will be assigned to each.

5. What data gathering strategies (e.g., self-report, sampling behaviour with tasks, etc.) and/or “treatment” will you use?

6. Describe, diagram, or explain your research procedure.

7. How did you minimize bias in your study?

8. Discuss possible ethical problems or issues.

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HANDOUT 1-7 Evaluating Developmental Research Methods Directions: Identify the strengths and weaknesses for each of these research methods: Research Method

Strengths

Weaknesses

Experiment

Correlational Study

Sampling Behaviour with Tasks

Self-Report Study

Naturalistic Observation

Longitudinal Study

Cross-Sectional Study

Longitudinal-Sequential Study

Physiological Measures

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HANDOUT 1-8 Name that Research Design Directions: Below are brief descriptions of research situations. Indicate which specific measurement techniques and research design are being utilized in each situation.

1. A researcher was interested in determining if there were sex differences in honesty among 9-year-olds. To do this, she placed a hand-held electronic game on a bench on a playground prior to recess, and from a nearby window she unobtrusively recorded the sex and actions (e.g., playing with the game, giving it to a teacher, putting it in a pocket to keep it, etc.) of any child who came into contact with the game.

2. In an effort to determine if there was a relationship between parenting style and socioeconomic status, a researcher telephoned households at random and, if there were parents of children under the age of 18 living in the household, asked them several questions about how they interact with their children, and asked them about their jobs and annual income.

3. Does background music affect the play of young children? To address this question, a researcher videotaped the play of small groups of preschool children at a local daycare.

Using the same playroom and collection of available toys for each group, the researcher recorded the toy selections made by the children and frequency of cooperative versus competitive play under classical, country, rock music, and no music conditions.

4. A school system had implemented a new program to its curriculum designed to reduce aggressive behaviour in first-graders. To determine the effectiveness of the program, it was decided that one elementary school in the district would implement the curriculum while another elementary school served as the control group. At the beginning of the school year, parents and teachers were asked to complete a log indicating the frequency of aggressive behaviours that they observed in their children/students during a one-week period. At the end of the 15-week program, the parents and teachers again completed the logs of aggressive behaviours. At the end of that school year and again one year later, the parents and teachers were asked to complete logs of aggressive behaviour observed in their children/students.

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HANDOUT 1-9 Where Did They Go Wrong?

Directions: Below are descriptions of research practices that may or may not be ethical. Assess the ethical acceptability of each. Be sure to list specific ethical violations or issues of concern when they are present.

1. Two preschool teachers were discussing the issue of a “sugar fix,” one teacher believing that sugar significantly affected the behaviour of children while the other doubted that sugar alone influenced behaviour. To settle their debate, they decided to give cookies and pop to one of their classes for an afternoon snack, while the other class was given crackers and milk.

The teachers then watched their classes play.

2. Third-graders (and their parents) and seventh-graders (and their parents) were invited to participate in a study being conducted at the child research laboratory at a local university. They were told that the researchers were trying to determine how spatial and problem- solving skills were developed in children. In actuality, the researchers were interested in differences in the communication patterns and emotional expression characteristics of third- grade versus seventh-grade parentchild dyads. At the conclusion of the testing sessions the participants were thanked and dismissed.

3. After obtaining informed consent from parents to have their children participate in a research project, the eye-hand coordination abilities of 6-year-old boys and girls were assessed by having the children throw metal darts at balloons that were taped to a wall (similar to a carnival game). The number of balloons popped served as the dependent variable. Each child’s results were then reported to his/her classroom teacher and physical education instructor.

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ANSWER KEY CASE STUDY

Dungeon of Doom: Part I 1. Violent video games can serve as a means through which the primitive needs of the id (such as aggressive impulses) are satisfied. The ego can channel these impulses through the socially-accepted venue of video games.

2. For a child who habitually plays video games, Erikson would most likely have concerns about the child’s ability to work with others and the child’s mastery of basic skills. If the child devotes much of his/her time to video game playing, the child is not socializing with peers, nor is the child practicing academic skills.

3. B.F. Skinner would suggest that Matthew’s parents positively reinforce other “healthier” activities that Matthew may engage in (such as engaging in cooperative play activities with friends, crafts, household chores, etc.).

4. Vygotsky would argue that by making video games such as Dungeon of Doom available to Matthew, his parents are conveying the message that society values violence and solitary activity.

Dungeon of Doom: Part II 1. The more time a child spends playing video games, the more aggressive behaviour or “bullying” is likely to be exhibited by the child.

2. An experiment can be designed with some children being exposed to varying amounts of video video game playing (the experimental groups) while other children played with no

games (the control group). The level of aggression or bullying after the play trials can

3.

then be systematically observed.

Or, a correlational study can be designed in which parents are asked to indicate (or

4. keep a log that chronicles) how much time their children spend playing video games, then correlate that data with data derived from parents’ ratings of the level of aggression or bullying exhibited by their children.

Tyler incorrectly inferred causation from a correlational study.

Shari is proposing a naturalistic observation measurement technique. The limitations or weaknesses in asking her friends to watch their children’s behaviour include the following: (1) the children of Shari’s friends do not constitute a representative sample; 30 (2) parents may not witness all of the aggressive acts of their children; (3) parents may Copyright © 2020 Pearson Education, Inc. define aggression in different ways, compromising the reliability and validity of the data.

HANDOUT 1-2: The First Four Stages of Psychosocial Development in Erikson’s Theory Psychosocial Stage

Eriksonian Parenting Tips

Basic Trust vs. Mistrust Parents should meet the needs of their children consistently, and they should maintain a fairly predictable schedule or routine with their children.

Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt

Parents should allow their children to do certain things for themselves (e.g., dressing and feeding themselves) and allow their children to engage in tasks in which success is more likely than failure.

Parents should encourage their children to try new things, supporting their attempts even in the face of failure.

Parents should help their children learn new skills, assisting them with Industry vs. Inferiority school work and giving them responsibilities at home.

Initiative vs. Guilt

HANDOUT 1-3: Identifying Positive and Negative Reinforcement 1. Andrew’s parents’ nagging is NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT. 2. The sticker given to Rowena is POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT. 3. Julio’s temper tantrums served as NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT for the parents’ behaviour of providing Julio with hot dogs and cheese fries. Julio’s tantrums were POSITIVELY REINFORCED by the parents when they gave him these foods.

4. Mr. Robertson’s attention to Angela by telling her to wait her turn is serving as a POSITIVE REINFORCER for Angela’s obnoxious behaviour.

5. Taeyung is being POSITIVELY REINFORCED for fighting with his sister because he— presumably—enjoys being sent to his room.

HANDOUT 1-4: Who Said That?

1. In everyday life, unconscious needs are struggling for expression; ~ Sigmund Freud behaviour and development is the product of efforts to satisfy needs.

2. Development is the product of one’s biological plan; experience matters ~ Arnold Gesell little.

3. People learn from observing others.

~ Albert Bandura

4. Development involves facing a sequence of crises or challenges. How~ Erik Erikson earlier crises are resolved influences later development.

5. Thought develops in four qualitatively different stages, ranging from ~ Jean Piaget exploring through the senses and motor abilities to abstract, logical thinking.

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6. One’s development is influenced by the reinforcements and punishments ~ B.F. Skinner one receives.

7. The human infant is a blank slate; experiences mold and shape it into~aJohn Locke distinct individual.

HANDOUT 1-5: Advice Columns Heather (age 6)

Markie (age 2 1/2)

Emily and Ethan (age 5, twins)

B.F. Skinner:

Sigmund Freud:

Heather is seeking the positive Heather’s id impulses are reinforcement of her father’s overwhelming her ego. Her father attention. He should use positive should respond to her in appropriate reinforcement when she exhibits ways to help her develop her sense appropriate behaviour. Punishment of right and wrong (internalized by may be needed if the inappropriate the superego). behaviour persists.

Erik Erikson: Lev Vygotsky: Markie is striving to develop autonomy as he faces the autonomyMarkie has learned from his parents vs. shame & doubt developmental that independence is valued in his crisis. His parents should allow him culture. His parents should to dress and feed himself, and encourage his attempts to develop should buy him clothes and make this and other traits valued by their him food that he can manage culture. successfully.

Albert Bandura: Emily and Ethan have observed others (e.g., their parents, older Jean Piaget: siblings, peers, or television characters) behaving badly. Their From their preoperational level of reasoning, Emily and Ethan have a parents should expose them to fairly immature understanding of models who are exhibiting more appropriate behaviours at the dinnertable manners that is magnified by their inability to understand the table. perspective of others. Their parents need to teach them proper table manners and try to help them see how their behaviours affect others.

HANDOUT 1-7: Evaluating Developmental Research Methods See theSummary Tables on pages 25 and 34 in the text.

HANDOUT 1-8: Name that Research Design 1. Research Design: Correlational study—sex of the child and degree of honesty serve as correlates. Students could also argue for the quasi-experimental design with sex serving as the independent variable.

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2. Research Design: Correlational study—parenting style and socioeconomic status serve as the correlates.

3. Research Design: Experimental study—type of music served as the independent variable and toy selection and play behaviours (i.e., cooperative versus competitive play) served as the dependent variables.

4. Measurement Technique: Naturalistic observation—parents and teachers were asked to complete a behavioural log of their children/students in which they recorded aggressive behaviours as they occurred in natural settings.

HANDOUT 1-9: Where Did They Go Wrong?

1. No parental permission was granted. The teachers did not gain informed consent.

2. Since deception was used, a complete explanation of the true nature of the study and the reasons for using deception needed to be given to the participants.

3. Results of the research were not kept confidential. Instead, they were reported to the teachers and physical education instructors.

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End-of-Chapter Test Yourself Questions: The Science of Child Development a 1. The view of a child’s mind as tabula rasaemphasizes the role of _______________________ in shaping a child’s development.

2. _______________________ are detailed, systematic observations of individual children.

3. In maturational theory, development consists of _______________________.

4. Ethologists show that some behaviours can only be learned during a _______________________, when organisms are biologically prepared for that learning.

5. Freud’s psychodynamic theory emphasized the role of _______________________ in shaping later development.

6. In Erikson’s psychosocial theory, development is driven by the need to resolve conflict between _______________________.

7. According to Jean Piaget, children of all ages create _______________________.

8. A systems view of families divides the environment into the microsystem, the mesosystem, the exosystem, the macrosystem, and the _______________________.

9.

Finding that early development is related to later development is evidence for _______________________ in development.

10. According to the _______________________ of children, they are masters of their own destinies.

11. A potential shortcoming of structured observations is that _______________________.

12. In a _______________________, high scores on one variable are associated with high scores on a second variable.

13. A measure is _______________________ when it actually measures what it’s supposed to measure.

14. In a(n) _______________________, a researcher manipulates an independent variable and measures its effect on a dependent variable.

15. The biggest advantage of longitudinal studies is that a researcher can _______________________.

Answers: (1) experience; (2) baby biographies; (3) the unfolding of a specific and prearranged scheme or plan within the body; (4) critical period; (5) early experiences; (6) a person’s biological drives and society’s standards of right; (7) theories that help them understand their worlds; (8) chronosystem; (9) continuity; (10) active view; (11) the artificial nature of the setting may distort the behaviour of interest; (12) positive correlation; (13) valid; (14) experimental study; (15) determine the extent to which behaviours at a younger age are related to behaviours at an older age.

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Chapter 2 Genetic Bases of Child Development CHAPTER OVERVIEW

36

MODULE SUPPLEMENTS Module 2.1: MECHANISMS OF HEREDITY

38

Learning Objectives Key Terms Classroom Activities Films/Videos/DVDs Module 2.2: HEREDITY, ENVIRONMENT, AND DEVELOPMENT

41

Learning Objectives Key Terms Classroom Activities Films/Videos/DVDs INTERNET RESOURCES

43

CASE STUDY

44

HANDOUTS

45

ANSWER KEY

54

TEST YOURSELF

56

35 .

CHAPTER 2 OVERVIEW I.

Module 2.1: Mechanisms of Heredity a.

The Biology of Heredity i.

Chromosomes ii.

In Vitro Fertilization iii. Autosomes iv. Sex Chromosomes v.

Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA)

vi. Gene 1. Genotype 2. Phenotype b. Single Gene Inheritance i.

Allele 1. Homozygous 2. Heterozygous

ii. Dominant Allele iii. Recessive Allele iv. Incomplete Dominance v. c.

Sickle Cell Trait

Cultural Influences i.

Why Do African Canadians Inherit Sickle-Cell Disease?

d. Genetic Disorders i.

Inherited Disorders

ii. Table 2-1 – Some Common Phenotypes Associated with Single Pairs of Genes iii. Table 2-2 – Common Disorders Associated with Recessive Alleles 1. Huntington’s Disease 2. Sex-linked 3. Hemophilia iv. Abnormal Number of Chromosomes 1. Down syndrome 2. Children’s Lives: Genetic Counselling 3. Table 2-3: Common Disorders Associated With The Sex Chromosomes 36 .

II. Module 2.2: Heredity, Environment, and Development a.

Behavioural Genetics i.

Behavioural Genetics

ii.

Polygenic Inheritance

iii. Methods of Behavioural Genetics 1. Monozygotic (Identical) Twins 2. Dizygotic (Fraternal) Twins 3. Twins and adoption studies (Tables 2-4, 2-5, and Summary Table) iv. Gene Editing 1. CRISPR v. Which Psychological Characteristics are Affected by Heredity? b. Focus on Research i. c.

Hereditary Bases of Children’s Peer Relationships

Paths From Genes to Behaviour i.

Heredity and environment interact dramatically through development 1. Reaction Range 2. Epigenesis 3. Methylation 4. Heritability Coefficient

ii. Genes can influence the kind of environment to which a child is exposed 1. Niche-Picking iii. Environmental influences typically make children within a family different 1. Nonshared Environmental Influences

37 .

MODULE SUPPLEMENTS MODULE 2.1: MECHANISMS OF HEREDITY LEARNING OBJECTIVES: • What are chromosomes and genes?

• What are dominant and recessive traits? How are they inherited?

• What disorders are inherited? Which are caused by too many or too few chromosomes?

(See Handout 2-1 for a list of the learning objectives for the chapter.)

KEY TERMS: chromosomes

heterozygous

in vitro fertilization

dominant allele

autosomes

recessive allele

sex chromosomes

incomplete dominance

deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)

sickle-cell trait

gene

Huntington’s disease

genotype

sex-linked

phenotype

hemophilia

allele

Down syndrome

homozygous

CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES: •

Guest Speaker: Fertility Specialist. Ask a fertility specialist to speak to your class about his/her work and the some of the challenges and rewards of working in this area.

Contact a local hospital for a referral.

•

Send in the Clones. Ask your students to respond to the following two questions: Would you want to have another “you” around? Why or why not? Their answers to the “why or why not” question should lead into a discussion of the benefits and risks of genetic engineering in general and cloning in particular. Several popular sources (Time and Newsweek) have featured stories on cloning, which may supplement the discussion nicely.

Your Genetic Profile. To clarify the concepts of phenotype, genotype, dominant and recessive alleles, ask your students to complete Handout 2-2 either before class or as an in-class exercise. While heterozygous genotypes may be difficult to determine, the point of this exercise is to make the students maintain clear distinctions between phenotypes and genotypes, and to cause them to reason about dominant and

•

recessive inheritance patterns.

38 .

• Genetics Worksheet. For another activity to clarify the concepts of phenotype, genotype, dominant, and recessive alleles, ask your students to complete Handout 23 either before class or as an in-class exercise. The point of this exercise is to make the students maintain clear distinctions between phenotypes and genotypes, and to cause them to reason about dominant and recessive inheritance patterns.

• Your Genetic Family Tree. This project is an elaboration of the “Your Genetic Profile” exercise described above. As a homework assignment, have your students construct a family tree of genetic characteristics, including normal characteristics and genetic disorders. Students may be encouraged to enlist the help of parents and/or others who may be able to provide additional information (e.g. other relatives).

•

Guest Speaker: Genetic Counsellor. Invite a genetic counsellor to speak to your class about his/her work (call a local hospital for referrals). Have your students prepare questions in advance of the visit to make the session even more valuable.

• Dealing with Down Syndrome. Depending upon availability of speakers and the interests of your class, invite to your class an individual who is involved with caregiving for children with Down syndrome. This person may be a parent of a child with Down syndrome, a counsellor in a group home or larger facility that serves the needs of children with developmental disorders, a preschool or elementary teacher with special education certification, etc. Ask him/her to share some insight about children with Down syndrome, bringing to your class a personal (rather than simply academic) perspective.

• Internet Annotated Bibliography. Have your students use the Internet to identify 10 websites that give scholarly information on the genetic disorders discussed in this chapter. Students should type an annotated bibliography that lists the URLs (website addresses) for these websites and gives a brief (one or two paragraph) summary/review of each.

1. The name of the website (e.g., Down Syndrome).

2. A valid URL (website address, e.g., http://cdss.ca).

3. A brief (one or two paragraph) review of the website. Reviews should include a brief summary of what students can expect to find if they visit the website and a brief evaluation of the website.

As a follow-up to this activity, students can combine all of the annotated bibliographies into an Internet Resource Directory that could be distributed in class or use it to complete the Knowing the Risks activity described next.

• Knowing the Risks. To provide students with a more in-depth exposure to genetic disorders, have them complete Handout 2-4 by using the text, library resources, or the Internet (see Internet Resource list for this chapter). Students could also use their Internet Annotated Bibliography from the previous activity. This assignment works well as an individual or small group project.

FILMS/VIDEOS/DVDS: •

All in the Genes (Filmakers Library, 1998, 28 minutes). In this program, the new science of cloning is discussed in relation to the affect it could have on children with genetic disorders.

39 .

• Cracking the Code of Life (NOVA, 2001, 120 minutes). In this program, Eric Lander, the director of the Whithead Institute/MIT Centre for Genome Research, explains the human genome project and the search for the sequence of genetic information. It includes two brothers with Tay Sachs disease. This can also be viewed at http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/genome/ •

Different Strokes: Nurture and Human Diversity (Insight Media, 2006, 30 minutes).

The effect of nature and nurture on personality development is the focus of this DVD. This program examines the influences of the prenatal environment, peer groups, and culture on human development. It considers differences in white, Latino, Asian, and African-American cultures and their effects on the growing child.

•

Genetic Engineering (Insight Media, 2005, 40 minutes). This DVD features biologist Richard Burgess, activist Jeremy Rifkin, plant geneticist Anna Maria Nuutila, and stem cell researcher Timothy Mulcahy and explores issues in bioethics. It considers how far scientific research and progress will and should advance and covers such topics as cloning, gene splicing, in- vitro fertilization, embryo adoption, and stem cell innovations.

•

Genetic Translation (Films for the Humanities and Social Sciences, 1996, 15 minutes). This program covers the translation of genetic material into a living organism. It also specifically describes genetic testing and amniocentesis.

•

Hand-Me-Down Genes: Family Patterns (Films for the Humanities and Social Sciences, 1997, 28 minutes). This program focuses on the formation of sex cells and genetic abnormalities (cystic fibrosis and Turner’s syndrome).

•

Hand-Me-Down Genes: How Genes Work (Films for the Humanities and Social Sciences, 1997, 25 minutes). This is an introduction to genetics.

Heredity and the Environment: Blueprints for a Baby (from “The Developing Child Series,” Magna Systems, 1996, 29 minutes). Explores the various aspects of conception, the function of genes and chromosomes, and provides an overview inheritance and the interaction of nature and nurture. Genetic abnormalities and genetic counselling are also covered.

•

•

•

•

Human Reproductive Biology (Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 1994, 35 minutes). This program covers the processes leading to normal impregnation as well as various fertilization techniques (e.g., synthetic stimulation of hormones, in vitro fertilization, micro-insemination, and test-tube embryo transfer to the womb).

Prenatal Testing: A Mixed Blessing (Films for the Humanities and Social Sciences, 1995, 51 minutes). This program follows 4 couples through prenatal testing and counselling. It includes a discussion about Down syndrome.

The Lily Videos: A Longitudinal View of Life with Down Syndrome (Davidson Films – see details below). Elizabeth Grace captures the essence of her daughter, Lily, as a school girl, a young woman, and an adult with Down syndrome. An engaging and inspiring video series.

•

Lily: A Story About a Girl Like Me (1978, 14 minutes). Lily at age 10 (3rd grade).

•

Lily: A Sequel (1988, 15 minutes). Lily, at age 20, graduates from high school, works at a restaurant, and resides in a group home.

•

Lily at Thirty (1997, 14 minutes). Lily lives in an apartment in an independent living program and is working in a supermarket. She shares her views on life with her disability.

40 .

•

Sean’s Story—A Lesson in Life segment from Lifespan Human Development, Series III (ABC News/Prentice Hall Video Library, 1996, 16.5 minutes). Video segment details the first months of public school for an 8-year-old child with Down syndrome.

Issues of mainstreaming and developmental expectations are portrayed.

•

Special Needs Students in Regular Classrooms? Sean’s Story (Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 1994, 45 minutes). This video tells the story of Sean, an 8-year-old with Down syndrome, whose parents fought to have him in regular classrooms. Comparisons are made to Sean’s friend, Bobby, who also has Down syndrome but is enrolled in a special education school.

•

Understanding: The Power of Genes (Insight Media, 2005, 55 minutes). This DVD examines the degree to which humans are genetically programmed with traits and abilities. It probes similarities in identical twins, discusses biotechnology, and explores the nature versus nurture debate in light of modern technological advances.

MODULE 2.2: HEREDITY, ENVIRONMENT, AND DEVELOPMENT LEARNING OBJECTIVES: •

What methods do scientists use to study the impact of heredity and environment on children’s development?

•

How do heredity and environment work together to influence child development?

KEY TERMS: behavioural genetics

epigenesis

polygenic inheritance

methylation

monozygotic (identical) twins

heritability coefficient

dizygotic (fraternal) twins

niche-picking

CRISPR

nonshared environmental influences

reaction range

CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES: •

Demonstrating Reaction Range. Reaction range can be a difficult concept to convey via lecture. Students are often quick to dismiss it as “common sense.” The importance of this construct can be demonstrated with an in-class exercise that is interesting and clearly demonstrative of the complexities of the reaction range issue. Split your class into three sections. Students sitting in “Section One” should be given a blank sheet of white paper. Students sitting in “Section Two” should be given an identical sheet of white paper, and also some crayons. Students sitting in “Section Three” should be given the same white paper, some crayons, scissors, and tape/glue. Then, instruct your students to “create something interesting” with the materials in front of them. The creative products of the students in the “impoverished section” (Section One) will look decidedly different from the creative products of the students sitting in the “enriched sections” (Sections Two and Three). You can then explain that even though they all started with the same piece of paper (representing identical genotypes); their creative products (representing phenotypes) differ dramatically. (Note: Depending on

41 .

class size, students can work individually or in small groups.) A discussion of other “real life” reaction range situations can follow.

•

Great Expectations. Have students review the video Great Expectations (see reference below in the Films/Videos section). Students can write a summary/review of the video, or you can use the following questions to help guide and evaluate students’ viewing of the film.

1. According to the video, does divorce affect boys and girls differently? Give evidence to support your answer.

2. Discuss what you believe Urie Bronfenbrenner meant when he described the nature versus nurture controversy as “out-of-date.”

3. According to the video, how is development affected by both our own childhood and the experiences of our parents?

4. Discuss Jerome Kagan’s idea that some aspects of growth are universal.

5. Discuss Jerome Kagan’s beliefs about how differences in people emerge.

•

Nature and Nurture Interactions. Scientists are learning more about the interactions of genes and the environment in child development and these lessons have important implications for understanding people’s behaviour and functioning in the world. The following activity is designed to engage students in thinking about the “real-world” implications of this research. Students can be assigned a reading from the popular press that focuses on the implications of gene-environment interactions in individuals’ lives. An example of this is Emily Bazelon’s (2006) article, A Question of Resilience, from the New York Times magazine. This article profiles three sisters who demonstrate resilience in the aftermath of childhood sexual abuse and examines recent research on gene-environment interactions to address the question: why are some individuals more resilient than others? This article could be read as background for a class discussion about the role of genetic research in contributing to understanding behaviour. Students could be instructed to discuss the following question in pairs, small groups, or as a class:Imagine you had a million dollars that you wanted to donate to research that would contribute to our understanding of resilience and you had to choose just 1 research program to fund. Would you choose to focus on genetic research? Why or why not? What do you see as the value and/or limitations of this kind of research?

FILMS/VIDEOS/DVDS: •

DNA: Pandora’s Box (Insight Media, 2003, 57 minutes). This DVD discusses issues related to genetic manipulation. It examines the ways in which scientist are working to improve humankind and addresses critics, including the family of a child with Down syndrome.

•

Genetic Discoveries, Disorders, and Mutations (Films for the Humanities and Social Sciences, 2000, 26 minutes). Mendel and Darwin’s contributions are analyzed. The principles of heredity are applied to the spread of congenital conditions. The second part of the video looks at types of mutations.

Heredity and Environment (Insight Media, 1988, 30 minutes). Provides a broad introduction to genetics, including the structure of DNA and chromosomes. Also

•

42 .

discusses the joint role of heredity and environment in determining human characteristics. Conception and mitosis are also covered.

• •

•

Like Two Peas in a Pod (Filmakers Library, 1991, 55 minutes). Reviews the psychology of twins by following three sets of twins as they develop.

The Human Animal: Nature and Nurture (Films for the Humanities and Social Sciences, 1991, 52 minutes). Produced by Phil Donahue, this video includes classic footage from Harlow’s lab and the Minnesota twin study as well as interviews with prominent psychologists covering the nature/nurture debate.

The Mystery of Twins (Insight Media, 2000, 52 minutes). This examines the naturenurture controversy by reviewing twin research.

INTERNET RESOURCES •

https://cdss.ca/ – Canadian Down Syndrome Society website

•

https://www.marchofdimes.ca/en-ca – Website for March of Dimes Canada

•

https://www.marchofdimes.org/ – Home page for the American March of Dimes organization. This site contains information and links that pertain to genetic and chromosomal disorders.

•

https://muscle.ca/ – Website for Muscular Dystrophy Association of Canada website

•

https://www.ndss.org/– National Down Syndrome Society website.

•

https://web.ornl.gov/sci/techresources/Human_Genome/index.shtml – Human Genome Project information, gene mapping, and links to the Genetic World (social issues, basic genetic information, educational resources, etc.).

•

https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/genome/ – NOVA Online: Eric Lander the director of the Whithead Institute/MIT Centre for Genome Research explains the human genome project and the search for the sequence of genetic information. It includes two brothers with Tay Sachs disease.

43 .

CASE STUDY Genetic Bases of Child Development Barbara and Brenda are adolescent twins. They both have brown hair, hazel eyes, wavy hair, freckles, thin lips, and, at the moment, they have cases of poison ivy. As a child, Brenda enjoyed playing and actively exploring her environment; Barbara was quieter and enjoyed being held by her mother, who was a bright and shy woman. Since Brenda was the “explorer,” her extroverted, athletic father (unintentionally) played with her more than he played with Barbara. Barbara participated in more solitary play activities or worked on crafts with her mother. In their teenage years, Brenda was described by her peers as “outgoing, animated, spontaneous, talkative, friendly, and popular.” Barbara was described by her peers as “quiet, shy, intelligent, and nice.”

1. Many characteristics of Barbara and Brenda are listed in the case above. Do these features represent their phenotypes or genotypes?

2. Which of Barbara and Brenda’s characteristics are the results of homozygous genotypes and which are likely the results of heterozygous genotypes?

3. Which characteristics in the above descriptions of Barbara and Brenda are likely the results of single gene inheritance? Polygenic inheritance?

4. What types of careers are Barbara and Brenda likely to pursue? Career selection is an example of what type of gene-environment relation?

44 .

HANDOUT 2-1 Learning Objectives/Discussion Questions for Chapter 2: 1. What are chromosomes and genes?

2. What are dominant and recessive traits? How are they inherited?

3. What disorders are inherited? Which are caused by too many or too few chromosomes?

4. What methods do scientists use to study the impact of heredity and environment on children’s development?

5. How do heredity and environment work together to influence child development?

45 .

HANDOUT 2-2 Your Genetic Profile Directions: Complete the following table by listing the characteristics of your parents and yourself.

Mother’s Trait Characteristic

Father’s Trait

Your Trait

(her phenotype) (his phenotype) (your phenotype) Your Genotype *

Eye colour

Hair colour

Height (tall, average, short) Body weight (overweight, average, underweight)

Blood type

Personality (shy or outgoing; passive or aggressive, etc.)

*Homozygous, heterozygous, or incomplete dominance

46 .

HANDOUT 2-3 Genetics Worksheet Dominant-Recessive Genetic Relationships (Homozygous-Homozygous): B = Dark Hair (Dominant)

b = Blonde Hair (Recessive)

Dark-Haired Father (Homozygous)

Blonde Mother (Homozygous)

Genotype:BB

Genotype:bb

Phenotype:Dark Hair

Phenotype:Blonde Hair

Genotype: ________ Genotype: ________ Genotype: ________ Genotype: ________ Phenotype: ________Phenotype: ________Phenotype: ________Phenotype: ________ Dominant-Recessive Genetic Relationships (Heterozygous-Homozygous):

47 .

Dark-Haired Father (Homozygous)

Blonde Mother (Homozygous)

Genotype:BB

Genotype:bb

Phenotype:Dark Hair

Phenotype:Blonde Hair

Genotype: ________ Genotype: ________ Genotype: ________ Genotype: ________ Phenotype: ________Phenotype: ________Phenotype: ________Phenotype: ________ Dominant-Recessive Genetic Relationships (Homozygous-Heterozygous): B = Dark Hair (Dominant)

b = Blonde Hair (Recessive)

Dark-Haired Father (Homozygous)

Dark-Haired Mother (Heterozygous)

Genotype:BB

Genotype:Bb

Phenotype:Dark Hair

Phenotype:Dark Hair

48 .

Genotype: ________ Genotype: ________ Genotype: ________ Genotype: ________ Phenotype: ________Phenotype: ________Phenotype: ________Phenotype: ________ Dominant-Recessive Genetic Relationships (Heterozygous-Heterozygous):

Dark-Haired Father (Homozygous)

Dark-Haired Mother (Heterozygous)

Genotype:Bb

Genotype:Bb

Phenotype:Dark Hair

Phenotype:Dark Hair

Genotype: ________ Genotype: ________ Genotype: ________ Genotype: ________ Phenotype: ________Phenotype: ________Phenotype: ________Phenotype: ________ Dominant-Recessive Genetic Relationships (Codominance): A = Type A Blood (Dominant)

B = Type B Blood (Dominant)

o = Type O Blood (Recessive)

49 .

Father (Type A –Homozygous)

Mother (Type B–Homozygous)

Genotype:AA

Genotype:BB

Phenotype:Type A Blood

Phenotype:Type B Blood

Genotype: ________ Genotype: ________ Genotype: ________ Genotype: ________ Phenotype: ________Phenotype: ________Phenotype: ________Phenotype: ________

Father (Type A –Heterozygous)

Mother (Type B–Heterozygous)

Genotype:Ao

Genotype:Bo

Phenotype:Type A Blood

Phenotype:Type B Blood

50 .

Genotype: ________ Genotype: ________ Genotype: ________ Genotype: ________ Phenotype: ________Phenotype: ________Phenotype: ________Phenotype: ________ Dominant-Recessive Genetic Relationships (X-Linked or Sex-Linked) X = Normal Female Sex Chromosome (Dominant) Y = Normal Male Sex Chromosome Xh = Female Sex Chromosome (Hemophilia Trait – Recessive)

Unaffected Father

Carrier Mother

Genotype: XY

Genotype: XXh

Phenotype: Unaffected Male

Phenotype: Carrier Female

Boy 1

Boy 2

Girl 1

Girl 2

Genotype: ________ Genotype: ________ Genotype: ________ Genotype: ________ Phenotype: ________Phenotype: ________Phenotype: ________Phenotype: ________

51 .

Hemophiliac Father

Carrier Mother

Genotype: XhY

Genotype: XXh

Phenotype: Hemophiliac Male

Phenotype: Carrier Female

Boy 1

Boy 2

Girl 1

Girl 2

Genotype: ________ Genotype: ________ Genotype: ________ Genotype: ________ Phenotype: ________Phenotype: ________Phenotype: ________Phenotype: ________

52 .

HANDOUT 2-4 Knowing the Risks Directions: Knowledge of genetic disorders may be your best protection against them. Use the textbook, library resources, or the Internet to locate information on the characteristics, risk factors, and available treatments (if any) for the genetic disorders listed below.

Characteristics of the Genetic Disorder

Disorder

Risk Factors

PKU (phenylketonuria)

Down syndrome

Sickle-cell disease

Huntington’s disease

Hemophilia

53 .

Treatment (if any)

ANSWER KEY CASE STUDY Genetic Bases of Child Development 1.

Phenotypes

2.

Homozygous versus heterozygous genotype:

Homozygous Genotype

Heterozygous Genotype

Brown hair

Hazel eyes

Thin lips

Wavy hair

Susceptibility to poison ivy

Freckles

3. Single versus polygenic inheritance.

Single Gene Inheritance

Polygenic Inheritance

Hair colour

Childhood activity levels

Eye colour

Teenage personality characteristics

High cheek bones

Teenage intelligence

Narrow noses

4. Barbara is likely to pursue a career that does not involve extensive interaction with others (e.g., writing, computer programming). Brenda’s outgoing personality will likely guide her toward a career in sales, marketing, politics, law, etc. These are both examples of niche picking.

HANDOUT 2-3: Genetics Worksheet Dominant-Recessive Genetic Relationships— Homozygous-Homozygous Genotypes: Bb, Bb, Bb, Bb Phenotypes: Dark hair, Dark hair, Dark hair, Dark hair Heterozygous-Homozygous Dominant-Recessive Genetic Relationships— Genotypes: Bb, Bb, bb, bb Phenotypes: Dark hair, Dark hair, Blonde hair, Blonde hair 54 .

Dominant-Recessive Genetic Relationships—Homozygous-Heterozygous Genotypes: BB, Bb, BB, Bb Phenotypes: Dark hair, Dark hair, Dark hair, Dark hair Dominant-Recessive Genetic Relationships—Heterozygous-Heterozygous Genotypes: BB, Bb, Bb, bb Phenotypes: Dark hair, Dark hair, Dark hair, Blonde hair Dominant-Recessive Genetic Relationships—Codominance- A-Homozygous-B-Homozygous Genotypes: AB, AB, AB, AB Phenotypes: AB blood type, AB blood type, AB blood type, AB blood type Dominant-Recessive Genetic Relationships—Codominance- A-Heterozygous-B-Heterozygous Genotypes: AB, Ao, Bo, oo Phenotypes: AB blood type, A blood type, B blood type, O blood type Dominant-Recessive Genetic Relationships—Sex-Linked – Unaffected Male-Carrier Mother Genotypes: XY, XhY, XX, XXh Phenotypes: Normal male, Hemophiliac male, Normal female, Carrier female Dominant-Recessive Genetic Relationships—Sex-Linked – Hemophiliac Male-Carrier Mother Genotypes: XY, XhY, XXh, XhXh Phenotypes: Normal male, Hemophiliac male, Carrier female, Hemophiliac female

55 .

End-of-Chapter Test Yourself Questions: Genetic Bases of Child Development 1. The human genotype consists of 22 pairs of _____________ and one pair of sex chromosomes.

2. Each chromosome actually consists of one molecule of _____________.

3. Inherited disorders are usually caused by _____________ alleles.

4. Genetic counselling usually involves obtaining a detailed family history as well as _____________.

5. When a child has extra, missing, or damaged chromosomes, the usual result is that _____________.

6. Down syndrome is caused by _____________.

7. _____________ is the branch of genetics concerned with the inheritance of behavioural and psychological traits.

8.

In _____________, the phenotype reflects the combined influence of many pairs of genes.

9. When a fertilized egg splits in two, ____________ result.

10. Twin studies are based on the assumption that ______________.

11. In an adoption study, an inherited trait will cause adopted children to resemble their _____________.

12. The main drawback to adoption studies is that _____________.

13. _____________ refers to the constant interaction across development between genes and multiple levels of the environment.

14. Niche-picking refers to the fact that children and adolescents _____________.

15. _____________ make children within a family different from each other.

Answers: (1) autosomes; (2) DNA; (3) recessive; (4) doing genetic testing; (5) development is disrupted; (6) an additional 21st chromosome; (7) Behavioural genetics; (8) polygenic inheritance; (9) monozygotic (identical) twins; (10) when heredity is involved, identical twins resemble each other; (11) biological parents; (12) agencies may place adoptees in environments like those of their biological parents; (13) Epigenesis; (14) end up being exposed to environments based on their genes; (15) Nonshared environmental influences.

56 .

Chapter 3

Prenatal Development, Birth, and the Newborn CHAPTER OVERVIEW

59

MODULE SUPPLEMENTS Module 3.1: FROM CONCEPTION TO BIRTH

64

Learning Objectives Key Terms Classroom Activities Films/Videos/DVDs Module 3.2: INFLUENCES ON PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT

67

Learning Objectives Key Terms Classroom Activities Films/Videos/DVDs Module 3.3: HAPPY BIRTHDAY!

70

Learning Objectives Key Terms Classroom Activities Films/Videos/DVDs Module 3.4: THE NEWBORN.

72

Learning Objectives Key Terms Classroom Activities Films/Videos/DVDs

57 .

INTERNET RESOURCES

74

CASE STUDY

75

HANDOUTS

76

ANSWER KEY

86

TEST YOURSELF

88

58 .

CHAPTER 3 OVERVIEW I.

Module 3.1: From Conception to Birth i.

Prenatal Development

a. Period of the Zygote (Weeks 1-2) i.

Zygote

ii.

Blastocyst

iii. Implantation iv. Germ Disc v.

Placenta

b. Period of the Embryo (Weeks 3-8) i.

Embryo

ii.

Ectoderm

iii.

Mesoderm

iv.

Endoderm

v.

Amniotic

Sac

vi.

Amniotic Fluid vii.

Umbilical Cord viii.

Villi c. Period of the Fetus (Weeks 9-38) Period i. of the Fetus Cerebral ii. Cortex iii. Vernix iv. Age of Viability v.

Fetal Behaviour

d. Improving Children’s Lives i. e.

Five Steps Toward a Healthy Baby

Summary Table: Changes During Prenatal Development

59 .

II. Module 3.2: Influences on Prenatal Development a.

General Risk Factors i.

Nutrition 1. Spina Bifida

ii.

Stress

iii. Mother’s Age 1. Teenage Mothers a. Unama'ki Maternal Child Health program in Eskasoni, Nova Scotia 2. Older Mothers b. Spotlight on Theories - A Theory of the Risks Associated with Teenage Motherhood 1. Social Influence 2. Social Selection c.

Teratogens: Diseases, Drugs, and Environmental Hazards i.

Teratogen

ii.

Diseases 1. Table 3-1: Teratogenic Diseases and Their Consequences

iii. Drugs 1. Table

3-2:

Teratogenic

Drugs

and

Their

2. Consequences Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder (FASD); testing a.

Fetalnew Alcohol Syndrome (FAS) iv. Environmental Hazards 1. Lack of Access to Clean Drinking Water 2. Table 3-3: Environmental Teratogens and Their Consequences d. Focus on Research i. e.

Impact of Prenatal Exposure to Environmental Toxins on Sex Ratios

How Teratogens Influence Prenatal Development i.

The impact of a teratogen depends on the genotype of the organism

ii. The impact of teratogens changes over the course of prenatal development iii. Each teratogen affects a specific aspect (or aspects) of prenatal development iv. The impact of teratogens depends on the dose

60 .

v.

Damage from teratogens is not always evident at birth but may appear later in life

vi. The Real World of Prenatal Risk f.

Prenatal Diagnosis and Treatment i.

Ultrasound

ii.

Amniocentesis

iii. Chorionic Villus Sampling (CVS) iv. Non-Invasive Prenatal Testing (NIPT) v.

Summary Table – Methods of Prenatal Diagnosis

vi. Fetal Medicine vii. Genetic Engineering III. Module 3.3: Happy Birthday! a.

Labour and Delivery i.

Labour has 3 stages 1. Stage 1 a.

Usually 12-24 hours for first child but shorter for subsequent children

2. Stage 2 a.

Crowning

b. Breech Presentation 3. Stage 3 a.

Afterbirth

4. Summary Table: Stages of Labour b. Approaches to Childbirth i.

prepared childbirth

ii. methods of dealing with pain iii. relaxation iv. supportive “coach” v.

Doula

vi. Births in hospitals, home births and birthing centres vii. Midwifery for home births and hospital births; resurgence in FNMI communities

61 .

c.

Adjusting to Parenthood i.

Postpartum Depression

d. Birth Complications i.

Hypoxia

ii.

Caesarean Section (C-Section)

iii. Table 3-4: Common Birth Complications iv. Prematurity and Low Birth Weight 1. Premature Infant 2. Small-for-Date Infants 3. Kangaroo Care 4. Infant Mortality e.

Cultural Influences i.

Infant Mortality 1. Infant Mortality for Different Countries Around the World (Figure 3-10)

IV. Module 3.4: The Newborn a.

Assessing the Newborn i.

Apgar Score 1. Table 3-5: Five Signs Evaluated in the Apgar Score

b. The Newborn’s Reflexes i.

Reflexes

ii. Table 3-6: Some Major Reflexes Found in Newborns c.

Newborn States i.

Alert Inactivity

ii. Waking Activity iii. Crying iv. Sleeping

62 .

v.

Crying 1. Basic Cry 2. Mad Cry 3.

Pain Cry

vi. Swaddling vii. Sleeping 1. Rapid-Eye-Movement (REM) Sleep (Irregular Sleep) 2. Non-REM (Regular) Sleep viii. Sudden Unexpected Infant Death 1. Sudden Unexpected Infant Death (SUID) d. Children’s Lives: Back to Sleep! e.

Perception and Learning in the Newborn

63 .

MODULE SUPPLEMENTS MODULE 3.1: FROM CONCEPTION TO BIRTH LEARNING OBJECTIVES: • What happens to a fertilized egg during the first two weeks after conception?

• When do body structures and internal organs emerge during prenatal development?

• When do body systems begin to function well enough to support life?

(See Handout 3-1 for a list of the learning objectives for the chapter.)

KEY TERMS: prenatal development

endoderm

zygote

amniotic sac

blastocyst

amniotic fluid

implantation

umbilical cord

germ disc

villi

placenta

period of the fetus

embryo

cerebral cortex

ectoderm

vernix

mesoderm

age of viability

CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES: •

Guest Speaker: Childbirth Educator. Ask a childbirth educator (e.g., Lamaze instructor, hypnosis in childbirth expert, etc.) to speak to your class about prenatal development and the birth process. To locate such a speaker, contact a local hospital for a referral, or search online for childbirth education.

•

Pregnancy: Past and Present. Before the class session(s) on prenatal development, ask your students reveal to interview their mothers (or other middle-aged mothers) in an attempt to some of the relatively recent changes in our beliefs about prenatal development. Have

•

your students that the get answers to the questions appearing in Handout 4-3 (and other questions students generate). The answers to the questions in Handout 3-3, when contrasted with contemporary approaches to pregnancy and prenatal development, usually prompt extensive class discussions of the practical aspects of pregnancy.

Miracle of Life Video Reflection. The 1-hour video The Miracle of Life (see below for listing) is a great tool for visually illustrating prenatal development. Additionally, it can help reinforce many of the key terms discussed in this chapter. The length of the video 64 makes it a . perfect showing time for most classes. You may choose to follow-up the viewing by having students turn in a one- or two-page written reflection on the video, but it also lends itself way to general class discussion in small groups or as a class. Handout 3-4 – Spelling of Words in The Miracle of Life Video can be given to students as an accompaniment to this

•

The Visible Embryo. Divide the class into one of the 3 stages of prenatal development and ask them to research their assigned stage by visiting http:/www.visembryo.com.

FILMS/VIDEOS/DVDS: •

A Human Life Emerges from the Reproduction series (Films for the Humanities and Social Sciences, 1995, 35 minutes). Detailing the physiological aspects of reproduction, this video follows the egg from fertilization through birth.

•

Body Story: Invasion of the Embryo (Child Development Media, 25 minutes). Produced for the Discovery Channel, this program follows the pregnancy of Marion and her husband, Ian. From fertilized egg to newborn, computer animation, video footage, endoscopic imaging of fetal development, and ultrasound imaging chronicle prenatal development and the birth process.

•

Childhood, Program 1: Great Expectations (Ambrose Video, 1991, 60 minutes). The first half of this program explores the mutual influence of nature and nurture. The second half of the video includes captivating footage of three births in Brazil, Russia, and the United States, revealing cultural differences in prenatal care and labour and delivery practices. Ultrasound images highlight coverage of some of the basics of prenatal development. (This can also be shown in conjunction with Chapter 2, or it makes a good segue film between Chapter 2 and Chapter 3.)

•

Conception to Neonate: Pregnancy (Concept Media, 1991, 26 minutes). This video reviews pregnancy from the parents’ perspective, following a couple from conception to birth.

Psychological and physical developmental changes are chronicled in the mother and fetus.

•

Developmental Phases Before and After Birth from The Psychological Development of the Child series (Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 28 minutes). This program focuses on development during the fetal period through the first year of life.

•

Healthy Journey (Injoy Videos, 2007, 61 minutes). This DVD is directed at expectant parents. It focuses on what it takes to have a rewarding pregnancy and a healthy baby. A complete teacher’s toolbox, Healthy Journey presents the latest information in the fields of fetal development, nutrition, prenatal health care, and more. It is filled with well-researched, consumer-oriented options. It offers viewers up-to-date information in a friendly format.

Throughout the program, diverse families share their thoughts and reveal the steps they are taking to help ensure their babies are born healthy. Also included are Ask Dr. Amy segments, featuring an approachable obstetrician who answers challenging questions, emphasizing the importance of making informed choices. Other highlights include a variety of healthy tips, advice for dads and support people, and amazing fetal fun facts, which are as entertaining as they are educational.

•

•

Pregnancy from the Human Development series (Concept Media, 26 minutes). Reviews the emotional and psychological reactions to pregnancy as well as the physical changes that occur in the mother and fetus. Extra attention in this video is given to issues facing expectant parents.

Prenatal Development (Meridan Educational Corporation, 2002, 20 minutes) This is an overview of conception to birth. The emphasis is on the expectant mother’s health, nutrition and care in the development of a healthy baby.

65 .

•

Prenatal Development: A Life in the Making from The Developing Child series (Magna Systems, 1996, 26 minutes). This program provides a comprehensive overview of the stages of prenatal development, including an examination of the prenatal environment. Maternal, paternal, and environmental influences on prenatal development are also reviewed.

•

Prenatal Development and the Birth Process from the World of Childhood Series #3 (Great Plains National Instructional Television Library, 1992, 28 minutes). This video provides an overview of prenatal development, including a live ultrasound sonogram. It takes the viewer through the birth process from different cultural perspectives. It also provides a history of different methods of childbirth.

•

Psychological Development Before Birth from The Psychological Development of the Child series (Films for the Humanities and Social Sciences, 22 minutes). This program illustrates prenatal testing and the responsiveness of the fetus to stimulation. Also portrayed is how mothers-to-be cope with pregnancy and prepare for childbirth.

•

Reproduction: Fetal Development (Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 23 minutes). In this BBC production, enhanced MRI scans and endoscopic images show the process of conception and cell division. The stages of fetal development and birth are also covered.

(Contains explicit language.)

The Miracle of Life (Time-Life Video/NOVA, 1982/1986, 57 minutes). Captivating footage of fertilization and prenatal development

•

66 .

MODULE 3.2: INFLUENCES ON PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT LEARNING OBJECTIVES: •

How is prenatal development influenced by a pregnant woman’s nutrition, the stress she experiences while pregnant, and her age?

•

What is a teratogen, and what specific diseases, drugs, and environmental hazards can be teratogens?

How exactly do teratogens affect prenatal development, and what effects do they have on the continuing development of the child?

How can prenatal development be monitored? Can abnormal prenatal development be corrected?

• •

KEY TERMS: spina bifida

ultrasound

stress

amniocentesis

social influence

chorionic villus sampling (CVS)

social selection

non-invasive prenatal testing

teratogen

(NIPT)

fetal alcohol spectrum disorder (FASD)

fetal medicine

fetal alcohol syndrome

genetic engineering

CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES: •

Guest Speaker: Obstetrician. Invite an obstetrician to speak to your class about threats to prenatal development and ways to reduce them. Have your class generate questions in advance of this session so that their individual interests and concerns are addressed. Contact a local hospital for a referral.

•

Prenatal Jeopardy. The textbook provides quite a bit of information about general risk factors and teratogens that may affect prenatal development. This activity will reinforce the message that the mother’s (and father’s) actions have great impact on prenatal development.

Your class should be divided into six groups, each group being given a topic category (nutrition, maternal age, stress, diseases, drugs, and environmental hazards). Ask each group to create a series of answers to “Jeopardy-style” questions that can be used later in the class session to play the game “Prenatal Jeopardy.” For example, the nutrition group may generate the following item: “Absence of this nutrient from the mother’s diet puts her baby at risk for spina bifida.” Once the groups have generated five to ten “answers,” collect them from the class and assume the role of Alex Trebek (or your favourite game show host), asking the groups to compete against each other for the correct answers and, of course, valuable prizes.

(Note: Groups can only answer questions from the categories for which they did not generate items. And remember, all answers must be phrased in the form of a question.)

•

Where Do You Stand? Pregnancy presents many complex physical, psychological, moral, and social dilemmas to the expectant parent(s). Ask your class to consider and discuss their views on the issues that appear in Handout 3-5. Small group discussions may be more effective (and less intimidating) than class discussions of these sensitive issues. Remind the 67 .

class that there are no “right” answers to the dilemmas posed in Handout 4-5; the goal of the exercise is to help students clarify their values surrounding pregnancy and parenting.

•

•

•

•

Prenatal Medicine and Diagnostics Internet Search and Paper. Students can conduct a thorough search of the Internet on basic medical care and diagnostic tests during prenatal development. Results of the search could be presented as a paper or oral presentation to the class, or in some other format (e.g., brochure). A documentation of the Internet search (i.e., websites visited) should accompany the final product, which should include a summary of the information found and a reflection on how that information relates to infant development.

Principles of Teratology. Since the principles of how teratogens influence prenatal development are important and sometimes difficult to understand, have your students complete Handout 4-6. This exercise requires the students to identify the principle of teratology illustrated by each example.

Understanding Teratogen Research. Handout 3-7 gives some tips for your students on interpreting and understanding teratogen research. Students can combine the information in Handout 4-7 with a research project (either Internet or library-based) by conducting a thorough search of the literature on any of the following teratogens: cigarettes, cocaine, heroin, marijuana, prescription drugs, caffeine, or other illegal drugs. Students should turn in a one- or two-page typed paper summarizing and evaluating the findings of their search. A documentation of the literature search (e.g., articles and/or books used or websites visited) should be attached to the paper.

Internet Annotated Bibliography. Have your students use the Internet to identify 10 websites that give scholarly information on teratogens. Students should type an annotated bibliography that lists the URLs (website addresses) for these websites and gives a brief (one or two paragraph) summary/review of each.

1. The name of the website (e.g., Clinical Teratology Web).

2. A valid URL (website address, e.g., http://depts.washington.edu/~terisweb/).

3. A brief (one or two paragraph) review of the website. Reviews should include a brief summary of what students can expect to find if they visit the website and a brief evaluation of the website.

As a follow-up to this activity, students can combine all of the annotated bibliographies into an Internet Resource Directory that could be distributed in class.

FILMS/VIDEOS/DVDS: •

Birth Defects: Causes and Prevention (Meridan Education Corporation, 1990, 10 minutes).

This video describes both genetic and environmental causes of birth defects and prevention

•

Blueprints for Life (RMI Media Productions, 1992, 30 minutes). Provides a review of prenatal development and the impact of teratogens on the developing fetus.

Fetal Alcohol Syndrome and Other Drug Use During Pregnancy (Films for the Humanities and Social Sciences, 1993, 19 minutes). This video shows the effects of alcohol and cocaine on fetuses and the long-term consequences of exposure to each.

•

•

Fetal Alcohol Exposure: Changing the Future (Films for the Humanities and Social Sciences, 2006, 31 minutes). This video focuses on the diagnosis of fetal alcohol spectrum disorders and the affect upon development.

68 .

•

Pregnancy and Birth: Caring and Preparing for the Life Within from The Developing Child series (Magna Systems, 1996, 26 minutes). This video presents a contemporary view of pregnancy and the birth process, examining how the advances in technology and knowledge affect both. Medical monitoring, testing, and intervention are covered in light of how they can reduce the possible risks of pregnancy and birth. Widely-practiced childbirth methods are also discussed.

•

Reducing Risk Factors (Concept Media, 34 minutes). Discusses environmental factors associated with low birth weight and birth defects. Reduction of preventable risk factors is stressed and sound advice about sexuality, personal risks, and prenatal care is given.

•

Stop Smoking Now: Reasons Not to Smoke When You’re Pregnant (libraryvideo.com, 2004, 20 minutes). Rob Reiner hosts this program that emphasizes the reasons not to smoke when you're pregnant. Viewers will learn that when pregnant, everything one eats, drinks, and breathes affects one's health and the baby's health -- and quitting smoking is one of the most important things one can do for a baby. Doing so increases the amount of oxygen that the baby will get, lowers the risk that the baby will be born too early and increases the chances of having a healthy baby. The program also provides support, guidance, and information about resources to help expectant mothers resist the urge to smoke.

69 .

MODULE 3.3: HAPPY BIRTHDAY! LEARNING OBJECTIVES: •

What are the stages in labour and delivery?

•

What are “natural” ways of coping with the pain of childbirth? Is childbirth at home safe?

•

What are the effects of postpartum depression?

•

What are some complications that can occur during birth?

KEY TERMS: crowning

Caesarean section (C-section)

breech presentation doula

premature infant

postpartum depression hypoxia

small-for-date infants kangaroo care infant mortality

CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES: •

Guest Speaker: New Parent(s). Ask one or more new parents to bring their newborns to your class to share with your class their birth stories and descriptions of their first days at home with the new baby.

FILMS/VIDEOS/DVDS: • A Timeless Way: A History of Birth from Ancient to Modern Times (Child Development Media, 20 minutes). This video presents a cross-cultural perspective on how women from around the world have given birth to their babies throughout the ages. From ancient images and modern footage, the history of birth practices is engagingly reviewed. Baby on Board: Birthing, Child Development, and Parenting (Films for the Humanities and Social Sciences, 2008, 24-25 minutes) This seven-part series uses case studies to explore pregnancy, labour, and the many hurdles that form an initiation into parenting.

Some of the specific issues that are examined are medical conditions, sibling dynamics, job circumstances, and single-parent situations.

• Birth: Eight Women’s Stories (Films for the Humanities and Social Sciences, 1993, 70 minutes). This award-winning video tells the story of eight women who gave birth in a variety of circumstances (e.g., natural birth at home and in the hospital, twins delivered via C-section, induced labour with vaginal delivery, and water birth in a hospital). Explicit footage of each birth is included, while no one method is promoted over the others.

• Commentaries from mothers, fathers, midwives, and obstetricians are also included.

Birth and the Newborn (Concept Media, 27 minutes). Contrasts the current birth experience • with This that of 30 years ago, and describes contemporary family-sensitive birth practices.

video also shows initial interactions between parents and their newborns and discusses the physical care and abilities of neonates.

70 Childhood, Program 1: Great Expectations (Ambrose Video, 1991, 60 minutes). The first . half of this program explores the mutual influence of nature and nurture. The second half of the video includes captivating footage of three births in Brazil, Russia, and the United States,

revealing cultural differences in prenatal care and labour and delivery practices. (This can also be shown in conjunction with Chapter 2, or it makes a good segue film between Chapter 2 and Chapter 4.)

• •

•

The Dad Film (Fanlite Productions, 1991, 28 minutes). This video assuages the anxieties of “expectant dads” and encourages the involvement of fathers in the birth experience.

Easier to Bear segment from the Lifespan Human Development, Series III (ABC News/Prentice Hall Video Library, 1996, 12 minutes). Presents a modern variation on natural childbirth: underwater birthing. The video includes footage of several underwater births as various methods of childbirth are discussed.

Great Expectations (RMI Media Productions, 1992, 30 minutes). Covers the preparations for and experience of the birth process. Birth techniques, locations, and some birth complications are addressed. Footage includes both vaginal and Caesarean births

•

Joyce’s Birth (Injoy Productions, 1996, 12 minutes). Joyce has a long labour which is supported by her husband. However, in the end she has a caesarian section.

•

Judith’s Birth (Injoy Productions, 1996, 17 minutes). Forty-year-old Judith has a natural child birth and delivers a first baby with the help of an episiotomy.

Julie’s Birth (Injoy Productions, 1999, 12 minutes). Thirty-year-old Julie has a first baby with the help of an epidural and her husband, as a birth coach.

Kim’s Birth (Injoy Productions, 1998, 12 minutes). Kim has a first baby with the help of Lamaze and her partner Chris.

Pregnancy and Birth (Magna Systems, 2005, 29 minutes). This DVD looks at the reasons why some couples can’t “get pregnant.” It includes artificial insemination, in vitro fertilization, and surrogacy. There is an overview of the three trimesters of pregnancy. Other topics included are how ultrasounds reveal if it’s a boy or girl; prenatal care; how much weight a mother should gain and why and seven common prenatal tests.

There is also a discussion about childbirth choices in hospitals and at home; the role of childbirth classes, including Lamaze and the importance of a childbirth coach or Doula.

The three stages of labour and the difference between analgesics and anesthesia are explained as well as the reasons for Caesarian section.

• • •

•

•

•

Pregnancy and Birth: Caring and Preparing for the Life Within from The Developing Child series (Magna Systems, 1996, 26 minutes). This video presents a contemporary view of pregnancy and the birth process, examining the how advances in technology and knowledge affects both. Medical monitoring, testing, and intervention are covered in light of how they can reduce the possible risks of pregnancy and birth. The most widely practiced childbirth methods are also discussed.

The Limits to Birth: Breaking the 23-Week Barrier (Films for the Humanities and Social Sciences, 2001, 48 minutes). Using several case studies, this program examines the scientific and moral dilemmas associated with saving the youngest premature infants.

The Living Body: Reproduction—Into the World (Films for the Humanities and Social Sciences, 1991, 26 minutes). Provides a brief overview of prenatal development and includes footage of a natural childbirth. The video also explores the physiological adaptations made by the newborn.

71 .

•

The Process of Birth (Films for the Humanities and Social Sciences, 1993, 30 minutes). This program shows how different cultures and difference individuals determine the best birth position; whether births should take place in a hospital; that should be in attendance at the birth and whether the mother should breastfeed the newborn.

MODULE 3.4: THE NEWBORN LEARNING OBJECTIVES: •

How do we determine if a baby is healthy and adjusting to life outside the uterus?

•

How do reflexes help newborns to interact with the world?

•

What behavioural states are observable in newborns?

•

How well do newborns experience the world? Can they learn from experience?

KEY TERMS: Apgar

swaddling

score

rapid-eye-movement (REM) sleep

reflexes

(irregular sleep)

basic

cry

non-REM (regular) sleep

mad

cry

sudden unexpected infant death (SUID)

pain cry

CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES: •

Neonatal Assessment. Handout 3-9 presents various descriptions of newborns and asks the student to evaluate the health status of each using the APGAR scale. This activity is successful as a homework assignment, as a group discussion facilitator, or individual student exercise.

•

Guest Speaker: New Parent(s). Ask one or more new parents to bring their newborns to your class to share with your class their birth stories and to demonstrate the reflexes of their babies.

•

Evaluating Infant Toys. As a homework assignment, send your class to a toy store and have each student choose a toy that is marketed for infants. (This can also be done as an in-class exercise if you bring a supply of infant toys to your class.) When assessing the toys, your students should ask themselves one question: “Why would an infant like this toy?” Their answers to this question should include a review of the sensory or perceptual abilities the toy is designed to stimulate. This assignment can then be elaborated upon when the class covers future chapters.

FILMS/VIDEOS/DVDS: •

Babywatching (Films for the Humanities and Social Sciences, 50 minutes). Based on the bestselling book by Desmond Morris, this program depicts the world through the eyes of a baby.

•

Childhood, Program 2: Louder than Words (Ambrose Video, 1991, 60 minutes). This video begins with a birth and subsequent (temporary) abandonment of a newborn by its mother in a jungle (a testament to the newborn’s survival skills). The rest of the video reviews other newborn abilities and how parents can shape the development of their children.

72 .

•

First Adaptation (Insight Media, 1993, 30 minutes). Demonstrates the sensory and learning abilities of newborns, as well as their sleep/wake states and perceptual preferences.

•

In the Beginning: Newborns and Their Environment (Films for the Humanities and Social Sciences, 1994. 25 minutes). This video examines newborns who are interacting with their surroundings. It shows how newborns prefer to look at faces and listen to human speech.

Sleeping, feeding, and brain development are specific topics addressed in this video which is a part of the series Baby It’s You: The First Three Years.

•

Infant Crying (Insight Media, 1993, 30 minutes). This video aims to increase understanding and enhance care of the crying infant. The causes of crying and strategies for soothing the infant are also addressed.

•

The Newborn (Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 23 minutes). This program shows the reactions of the newborn ten days after birth. The most important functions, such as sitting, standing, walking, grasping, and social contact, can already be recognized in their incipient form. At this point, however, these capabilities are solely the result of innate reflexes. They disappear during the course of the first few months, as the brain is gradually able to take over the control of these movements. The first tests give the examining physician indications of possible damage to and developmental disorders of the newborn. explores the newborn baby and its developmental needs The Newborn: Development and Discovery (Magna Systems, 1996, 29 minutes). This video explores the newborn baby and its developmental needs. Bonding between parents and the newborn child is addressed, as are the motor, reflex, and sensory abilities of the newborn.

•

•

7 Steps to reduce the Risk of SIDS (Injoy Videos, 2006, 14 minutes). Based on the latest recommendations from the American Academy of Pediatrics, 7 Steps to Reduce the Risk of SIDS (SUID) shows how to dramatically lower an infant’s risk using simple, important safety steps.

73 .

INTERNET RESOURCES •

https://www.healthyfamiliesbc.ca/ – This site provides information and resources for expectant parents about childbirth, breastfeeding, pregnancy, and parenting.

•

https://canadianmidwives.org/ – The Canadian Association of Midwives site.

•

https://www.choicesinchildbirth.com/ – Links for pregnancy and childbirth

•

www.pregnancy-and-giving-birth.com – Accurate, evidence-based information about pregnancy and birth http:/www.visembryo.com – This site is an interactive online tutorial about human development from conception to birth. It includes both normal and abnormal development. https://www.phac-aspc.gc.ca/ – Health Canada’s website where students can find useful information about a healthy pregnancy.

• •

74 .

CASE STUDY Prenatal Development, Birth, and the Newborn Roger and Elizabeth had been trying to conceive a child for years without success. Since Elizabeth is 41 years old, she was growing concerned about her chances to ever have a child.

Finally, she and Roger consulted a fertility specialist who recommended in vitro fertilization, which they did. Now, Elizabeth is nearing her due date and expects to deliver twins. Her pregnancy hasn’t been easy (she has been confined to bed rest for four weeks due to experiencing some premature labour), but the prognosis is good for her to have two newborns delivered vaginally.

1. Due to her age, Elizabeth is facing what risks to her pregnancy? Elizabeth’s children are at greater risk for what genetic disorder? How could Roger and Elizabeth know if their children have a genetic disorder?

2. Since Elizabeth was underweight prior to her pregnancy, she had to modify her diet while she was pregnant. What nutritional recommendation would you give Elizabeth? How much weight should she expect to gain during her pregnancy?

3. Elizabeth and Roger both enjoy a glass of wine with dinner, and Roger smokes cigars a few times a week. What are your recommendations to Elizabeth regarding alcohol consumption during pregnancy? Does Roger’s cigar smoking pose a risk to the fetus? Support your answers with specific information on teratogens.

4. With the delivery expected sometime next week, what warning signs should Elizabeth attend to that signal the beginning of labour? Since she missed most of her childbirth class due to the ordered bed rest, briefly summarize what Elizabeth should expect to experience when she gives birth to her twins.

75 .

HANDOUT 3-1 Learning Objectives/Discussion Questions for Chapter 3: 1. What happens to a fertilized egg in the first two weeks after conception?

2. When do body structures and internal organs emerge in prenatal development?

3. When do body systems begin to function well enough to support life?

4. How is prenatal development influenced by a pregnant woman’s nutrition, the stress she experiences while pregnant, and her age?

5. What is a teratogen, and what specific diseases, drugs, and environmental hazards can be teratogens?

6. How exactly do teratogens affect prenatal development, and what effects do they have on the continuing development of the child ?

7. How can prenatal development be monitored? Can abnormal prenatal development be corrected?

8. What are the stages in labour and delivery?

9. What are “natural” ways of coping with the pain of childbirth? Is childbirth at home safe?

10. What are the effects of postpartum depression?

11. What are some complications that can occur during birth?

12. How do we determine if a baby is healthy and adjusting to life outside the uterus?

13. How do reflexes help newborns to interact with the world?

14. What behavioural states are observable in newborns?

15. How well do newborns experience the world? Can they learn from experience?

76 .

HANDOUT 3-2 Everything Happens in Threes Directions: Below are two timelines that represent prenatal development and pregnancy. On the “Prenatal Development” timeline, indicate the timing (in weeks) of the three stages of prenatal development and the major developmental phenomena that occur during each. Then, on the “Pregnancy” time line, indicate the timing (in weeks) of the three trimesters, and then list the things that the mother (and father, when appropriate) should be doing, experiencing, or avoiding.

Prenatal Development Timeline Pregnancy Timeline Conception

Conception

Birth

Birth

77 .

HANDOUT 3-3 Pregnancy: Past and Present Directions: Ask your mother or grandmother the following questions in an attempt to reveal some of the relatively recent changes in our beliefs about prenatal development. Summarize her answers in the space below each question. (Note: Fathers can certainly be included in these interviews.)

1. What were some of the things you were told to do while you were pregnant?

2. What were some of the things you were told not to do?

3. What type of prenatal care did you receive (e.g., how often did you visit the obstetrician; did you take prenatal vitamins, etc.)?

4. Were any prenatal tests performed (e.g., ultrasound)?

5. Did you attend childbirth classes?

6. Other questions:

78 .

HANDOUT 3-4 Spelling of Words in The Miracle of Life Video •

Amniotic sac

•

Blastocyst

•

Cervix

•

Chorion

•

Cilium (singular) or cilia (plural)

•

Corpus luteum Cowper’s gland

•

Epididymis

•

Embryo

•

Embryonic disk Erogenous zones

•

Fallopian tubes

•

Fetal respiration Fetus

•

Fimbriae

•

Flagellum (singular) or flagella (plural)

•

Follicle

•

Liquor folliculi

•

) Mucin (more commonly known as cervical mucus

•

Ovary

•

Ovulation

•

Penis

•

Placenta

•

Prostate gland

•

Protozoan (singular) or protozoa (plural)

•

Scrotum

•

Semen

•

Seminal vesicles

•

Seminiferous tubules

•

Sperm

•

Testes or testicles 79 .

•

Testosterone

•

Umbilical cord

•

Urethra

•

Uterus

•

Vagina

•

Vas deferens

•

Villi

•

Zygote

80 .

HANDOUT 3-5 What Would You Do? Directions: Consider how you would respond to the following issues if you had to face them.

Discuss the options available to you in each scenario and explain what action (if any) you would take.

1. The results of an amniocentesis reveal that your fetus has Down syndrome. What, if anything, do you do?

2. Most societies view parenthood as a right rather than a privilege. What are the benefits of this philosophy? What are the negative consequences of this philosophy?

3. Should mothers who abuse drugs or alcohol while pregnant be prosecuted?

4. Results of an early ultrasound image reveal abnormal physical development of the fetus.

Your child, if it survives through the prenatal period, is likely to be severely physically disabled. What, if anything, do you do?

5. A surrogate mother signed a contract in which she agreed to forfeit her parental rights upon delivery of the baby. You have paid for her prenatal health care, and she has accepted a payment of $15 000 to carry and deliver you and your spouse’s child. One week after delivering the baby, the surrogate mother would like to see the baby. She even offered to be its nanny, if one was needed. What would you do?

6. The results of chorionic villus sampling reveal that your embryo is a boy. You and your spouse already have two sons and were desperately hoping that your third child, who you have decided will be your last child, would be a girl. What, if anything, would you do?

81 .

HANDOUT 3-6 Principles of Teratology Directions: From the following list, identify which principle (or principles) of teratology is/are illustrated in each of the examples below. Due to the fact that there may be more than one principle involved in each of the examples, indicate why you selected the principle(s) you chose in the space below each item.

A. The impact of a teratogen depends upon the genotype of the organism.

B. The impact of teratogens changes over the course of prenatal development.

C. Each teratogen affects a specific aspect (or aspects) of prenatal development.

D. The impact of teratogens depends on the dose.

E. Damage from teratogens is not always present at birth but may appear later in life.

1. Jacqueline and Francine, co-workers at a dry-cleaning company, became pregnant at about the same time. Jacqueline decided to quit her job shortly after she was aware that she was pregnant, while Francine continued to work for another two months.

Jacqueline’s baby was born slightly underweight, while Francine’s baby was underweight, premature, and had short arms and legs.

2. Leon and Shayna adopted a healthy newborn boy. His biological mother was a teenager who had run away from home and had an extensive history of delinquency and drug use. The baby boy weighed 7 pounds, 4 ounces at birth, and was alert and responsive. It wasn’t until the boy entered preschool that it became apparent that he had a very limited attention span and acted impulsively and aggressively toward his peers.

3. Birgit and Rolf are fraternal twins who were born to a mother who took prescription medication for her severe asthma. Birgit is a healthy, responsive baby, whereas Rolf is exhibiting hearing and visual impairments.

4. Kayla’s grandmother gave her the following advice: “Don’t get stressed during your pregnancy, or else you’re going to have an anxious, fidgety baby.” Having taken a child development course in college, Kayla knew that her grandmother’s advice was well-intentioned, but inaccurate. Experiencing prolonged stress during pregnancy is associated with prematurity or low birth weight.

82 .

HANDOUT 3-7 Tips on Understanding Teratogen Research •

Be a smart consumer—be skeptical of everything you hear until you have researched it.

•

Stay up-to-date with the latest information. New information on teratogens comes out every week.

Research quickly becomes outdated.

•

Don’t get caught up in media hype.

•

Pull information from as many sources as possible. Compare and contrast what you find.

•

The Internet can be a good source of the latest information on teratogens, but make sure to always check the date of the information and the source (see below) Evaluate the credibility of the source—for example, the International Coffee Growers Association has vested interest in minimizing the effects of caffeine on pregnancy. By contrast, parenting magazines or networks, or organizations like the March of Dimes might have vested interest in over dramatizing the effects of certain substances in an attempt to help protect children.

•

•

Study the research carefully. Is it a well-done research study, or an opinion piece? The medical field is a good source of information on teratogens. Talk to doctors or read medical journals. Don’t be afraid to question what you’re told.

•

Be aware of your own biases—for example, if you believe that drinking is morally wrong, this might affect how you interpret the facts.

Be aware of the biases of others—for example, you doctor is probably not going to tell you that something is 100% safe, since you might come back to sue him/her later.

Understand the concept of RISK. Teratogens put you at-risk for something happening—it is not a definite guarantee.

• •

83 .

HANDOUT 3-8 Birth Profile Directions: Talk with your parents in an effort to develop your own newborn birth profile. If this information is unavailable to you, complete the birth profile for a newborn baby by interviewing a couple who recently gave birth.

Day, date & time of birth:

Birth setting/location:

Who was present at the birth?

Timing of birth (circle one):

Birth weight:

Length at birth:

Physiological jaundice?

Hypoxia or placenta previa?

PREMATURE MATURE POSTMATURE

Apgar Scores:

YES

NO

YES

NO

Treatment:

Treatment:

Birth complications:

(circle one):

Method of childbirth (circle one):

LOCAL

LAMAZE

Type of anesthesia used

GENERAL NONE

LEBOYER

OTHER:

84 .

HANDOUT 3-9 Neonatal Assessment Directions: Use the Apgar Scale to evaluate the health status of each of the newborn infants described below.

APGAR Scoring System DIMENSION

0 POINTS

1 POINT

2 POINTS

Appearance (Color)

Blue

Body pink, arms & legs are blue

Completely pink

Pulse (Heart Rate)

Pulse is absent

Grimace (Reflex Irritability)

No response

Pulse is slow < 100 Pulse is normal 100-140 bpm beats per minute Strong reflex Weak reflex

Activity (Muscle Tone) Limp

Weak movement

Respiration (Breathing)No breathing, absent Slow, irregular, shallow breathing

Active motion Good breathing, strong cry

1. Josh is 1 minute old. He is not breathing; he appears blue; his heart rate is 50 bpm; he is completely limp; and exhibits no response to a pinprick on the heel. Josh’s APGAR score would be .

2. Maria is 1 minute old. She is crying loudly; she appears completely pink; her heart rate is 125 bpm; she is actively moving; and exhibits a weak response to a pinprick on the heel.

Maria’s APGAR score would be .

3. Caleb is 1 minute old. His breathing is shallow; his body is pink but his arms and legs are tinged blue; his heart rate is 130 bpm; he is showing weak movement; and he exhibits a weak response to a pinprick on the heel. Caleb’s APGAR score would be .

4. Keiko’s APGAR score was a 7 at 1 minute of age. At 5 minutes, she is retested with the following results: she is crying loudly; she appears completely pink; her heart rate is 140 bpm; she is actively moving; and she exhibits a strong reflex in response to a pinprick on the heel. Keiko’s APGAR score taken at 5 minutes would be .

5. DeShawn’s APGAR score was a 3 at 1 minute of age. At 5 minutes, he is retested with the following results: his breathing is irregular; his body is “pink” but his arms and legs are grayish-blue; his heart rate is 90 bpm; he exhibits weak movement and a weak reflex in response to a pinprick on the heel. DeShawn’s APGAR score taken at 5 minutes would be .

85 .

ANSWER KEY CASE STUDY Prenatal Development, Birth, and the Newborn 1. * Due to her age, Elizabeth was facing what risks to her pregnancy?

Increased risk of miscarriage and stillbirth. *

Elizabeth’s child is a greater risk for what genetic disorder?

Down syndrome.

*

How could Roger and Elizabeth know if their child has a genetic disorder?

Amniocentesis and chorionic villus sampling (CVS) can both be used to detect genetic disorders.

2. * Since Elizabeth was underweight prior to her pregnancy, she had to modify her diet while she was pregnant. What nutritional recommendation would you give Elizabeth?

Eat a well-balanced diet, increasing her caloric intake by 10-20 percent. Adequate consumption of proteins, vitamins, and minerals (including folic acid) is essential.

If Elizabeth was of * How much weight should she expect to gain during her pregnancy? average weight prior to becoming pregnant, she should gain between 25 and 35 pounds.

3. * Elizabeth and Roger both enjoy a glass of wine with dinner, and Roger smokes cigars a few times a week. What are your recommendations to Elizabeth regarding alcohol Even moderate consumption of alcohol can cause harm consumption during pregnancy? to her developing child, resulting in alcohol-related neurodevelopmental disorder (ARND). Elizabeth should not take this risk and should eliminate alcohol from her diet while pregnant. *

Does Roger’s cigar smoking pose a risk to the fetus? Support your answers with specific information on teratogens.

Roger’s second-hand smoke can result in the twins being smaller at birth. (Since twins tend to be smaller than single-birth newborns, this is an especially salient risk factor for Elizabeth and Roger’s babies.)

4. * With the delivery expected sometime next week, what warning signs should Elizabeth attend to that signal the beginning of labour? See the “Is This the Moment We’ve Been Waiting For?” classroom activity from Module 3.3. * Since she missed most of her childbirth class due to the ordered bed rest, briefly summarize what Elizabeth should expect to experience when she gives birth to her twins.

Since Elizabeth is expected to deliver her twins vaginally, students should describe the three stages of labour.

86 .

HANDOUT 3-6: Principles of Teratology A. The impact of a teratogen depends upon the genotype of the organism.

B. The impact of teratogens changes over the course of prenatal development.

C. Each teratogen affects a specific aspect (or aspects) of prenatal development.

D. The impact of teratogens depends on the dose.

E. Damage from teratogens is not always present at birth but may appear later in life.

1.

B

(also contains elements of C & D)

2.

E

(also contains elements of C)

3.

A

(also contains elements of C)

4.

C

HANDOUT 3-9: Neonatal Assessment APGAR scores: Josh (1), Maria (9), Caleb (6), Keiko (10), DeShawn (5)

87 .

End-of-Chapter Test Yourself Questions: Prenatal Development, Birth, and the Newborn 1. The fertilized egg implants in the wall of the uterus during the period of the _______________________.

2. Differentiation of cells begins in the period of the _______________________.

3. The developing organism becomes much larger and its bodily systems begin to work during the period of the _______________________.

4. General risk factors during prenatal development include inadequate nutrition, stress, and _______________________.

Diseases, drugs, and _______________________ are common categories of teratogens.

5.

Exposure to teratogens during the period of the fetus usually results in 6. _______________________. _______________ is a procedure that generates an image of the fetus, which can be used to determine its sex and the existence of multiple pregnancies.

One way to check for genetic disorders in a fetus is amniocentesis; another is 8. ___________________.

The first stage of labour is usually the longest, but the baby is born in the 9. __________________ stage.

7.

10. Prepared childbirth emphasizes education, _____________________, and the presence of a supportive adult.

11. A woman who, following childbirth, experiences prolonged irritation, feelings of low-self worth, and disturbed sleep is probably suffering from _______________________.

12. At-risk infants often develop normally if _______________________.

13. _________________ uses five vital signs to provide a quick, rough evaluation of a newborn’s status.

14. Infants spend their day alternating between sleeping, crying, alert inactivity, and ______________.

15. The national program to eliminate sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS) encourages _______________.

Answers: (1) zygote; (2) embryo; (3) fetus; (4) maternal age; (5) environmental hazards; (6) minor defects in bodily structure or improperly functioning body systems; (7) Ultrasound; (8) chorionic villus sampling (CVS); (9) second; (10) relaxation; (11) postpartum depression; (12) they are exposed to a stable, supportive environment; (13) The Apgar score; (14) waking activity; (15) parents to place infants on their backs for sleeping.

88 .

Chapter 4

Growth and Health CHAPTER OVERVIEW

90

MODULE SUPPLEMENTS Module 4.1: PHYSICAL GROWTH

93

Learning Objectives Key Terms Classroom Activities Films/Videos/DVDs Module 4.2: CHALLENGES TO HEALTHY GROWTH

97

Learning Objectives Key Terms Classroom Activities Films/Videos/DVDs Module 4.3: THE DEVELOPING NERVOUS SYSTEM

100

Learning Objectives Key Terms Classroom Activities Films/Videos/DVDs INTERNET RESOURCES

102

CASE STUDY

103

HANDOUTS

104

ANSWER KEY

107

TEST YOURSELF

109

89 .

CHAPTER 4 OVERVIEW I.

Module 4.1: Physical Growth a.

Features of Human Growth i.

Describing Growth 1. Cephalocaudal 2. Proximodistal

ii. Muscle, Fat, and Bones 1. Epiphyses iii. Variations on the Average Profile 1. Secular Growth Trends b. Mechanisms of Physical Growth i.

Sleep 1. Growth Hormone

ii.

Nutrition 1. Breastfeeding 2. Table 4-1: Eating to Meet Preschoolers’ Nutritional Needs 3. Picky Eaters

c.

The Adolescent Growth Spurt and Puberty i.

Puberty 1. Children’s Lives: Preventing Osteoporosis 2. Primary Sex Characteristics 3. Secondary Sex Characteristics 4. Menarche 5. Spermarche

ii. Mechanisms of Maturation iii. Cultural Influences: Adolescent Rites of Passage iv. Spotlight on Theories: A Paternal Investment Theory of Girls’ Pubertal Timing v.

Psychological Impact of Puberty

90 .

II. Module 4.2: Challenges to Healthy Growth a. Malnutrition i.

Malnutrition

ii. Short-Term Hunger b. Eating Disorders: Anorexia and Bulimia i.

Anorexia Nervosa

ii. Bulimia Nervosa iii. Body Dysmorphic Disorder c.

Obesity i.

Body Mass Index (BMI)

ii.

Physical Activity

d. Disease e.

Accidents i.

Motor vehicle accidents: infant car seats

ii.

Other types of accidents for infants and toddlers are drowning, burns and suffocation

iii. Adolescent leading cause of death is motor vehicle accidents due to drinking and/or not wearing seat belt iv. Firearms III. Module 4.3: The Developing Nervous System a. Organization of the Mature Brain i.

Neuron

ii.

Cell Body

iii. Dendrite iv. Axon v. Myelin vi. Terminal Buttons vii. Neurotransmitters

91 .

viii. Synapse ix. Cerebral Cortex x. Hemispheres xi. Corpus Callosum xii. Frontal Cortex b. The Developing Brain i.

Emerging Brain Structures 1. Neural Plate 2. Synaptic Pruning

ii.

Structure and Function 1. Electroencephalogram (EEG) 2. Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) 3. Specialization occurs early in development 4. Specialization takes two specific forms 5. Focus on Research: Brain Specialization for Processing of Emotional Expressions 6. Different brain systems specialize at different rates 7. Successful specialization requires stimulation from the environment 8. Experience-expectant growth 9. Experience-dependent growth 10. The immature brain’s lack of specialization confers a benefit: greater plasticity

iii. Brain-based Education

92 .

MODULE 4.1: PHYSICAL GROWTH LEARNING OBJECTIVES:

• What are the important features of physical growth during childhood? How do they vary from child to child?

•

How do sleep and nutrition contribute to healthy growth?

• What are the physical changes associated with puberty, and what are their consequences?

(See Handout 4-1 for a list of the learning objectives for the chapter.)

KEY TERMS: cephalocaudal

primary sex characteristics

proximodistal

secondary sex characteristics

epiphyses

osteoporosis

secular growth trends

menarche

growth hormone

spermarche

puberty

CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES: •

•

The Secular Trend. An easy demonstration of the secular trend can be performed by using the students in your class. Prior to the class session in which you will discuss the subject, ask your students to talk with their same-sex parent and grandparent(s) in an effort to collect data on height. You will need to choose a common age for the height comparison across generations, and the age should be a memorable one. You can use age 16 or their height indicated on their first driver’s license, and height at age 18 also works since this height is typically the same as their adult height. When the students bring this data into class (along with their own heights listed), average heights for each generation can be easily calculated.

When the differences are determined, ask your class to speculate as to why current generations are taller than previous generations. (Answer: Most experts agree that improved nutrition is the primary cause for the secular growth trend.)

Class Debate: Breast versus Bottle. Have the class divide into two groups. One group will debate the breastfeeding side of the issue while the other group will debate the bottle-feeding side of the issue. Give students several class periods to prepare for the debate. A format for a half-hour debate is listed below which can be modified to fit classes of different lengths: I.

Constructive Speeches (Presentation of your side of the argument): A. BREASTFEEDING side will present for 7 minutes 1. Cross-examination by the BOTTLE-FEEDING side for 3 minutes B. BOTTLE-FEEDING side will present for 7 minutes 1. Cross-examination by the BREASTFEEDING side for 3 minutes

93 .

II. Rebuttal Speeches (Your response to the other side’s argument): A. BOTTLE-FEEDING side will rebut for 5 minutes B. BREASTFEEDING side will rebut for 5 minutes III. Questions from Audience (5 minutes) •

•

•

•

•

Guest Speaker: Breastfeeding Advocate. Invite a volunteer from LaLeche League to report to the class on the advantages of breastfeeding and how this organization helps new mothers with breastfeeding. Locate a speaker by calling a local hospital, pediatrician, or searching online.

Confessions from Picky Eaters. Have your class get into small groups to share stories of food preferences that they now have that were shaped by experiences during early childhood.

How many members of your class were part of the “Clean Plate Club?” How many members of your class were raised in households where only one meal was served for dinner (i.e., no alternatives were provided when “yucky” meals were served)? How many members of your class were given a choice of what they wanted to eat for dinner? What are the ramifications of all of these approaches? Have they affected how your students now eat? Your groups can also swap food “horror stories,” the best of which (from each group) can be shared with the class (if the students are comfortable with this). The results of this exercise will be a thorough coverage of tips on how (and how not) to encourage young children to try new foods.

Food Preferences Paper. You can follow up the Confessions from Picky Eaters activity by asking students to write a paper on children’s food preferences and eating habits. The paper should be developmental in nature (talking about changes in food preferences and eating habits over time) and tied to text/lecture. Students can have the option to either A) write about how their own food preferences and eating habits have changed over time, or B) write about the food preferences and eating habits of a child that they are very familiar with. If option A is chosen, students should be sure to interview their own parents or caretakers about their food preferences and eating habits as children.

Picky Preschool Eating Habits. Introduce the students to Canada’s Food Guide to Healthy Eating through the Health Canada website: http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/fn-an/food-guidealiment/index-eng.php. Divide the class into small groups and challenge the groups to come up with the best strategy to encourage healthy eating among preschool children.

Dear Diary: Reflections on Puberty. It is the psychological, rather than the physical, consequences of puberty that can make it a challenging developmental experience. Handout 4-2 presents several questions that should prompt the students to reflect on their pubescence.

Depending on the comfort level and dynamics of your class this handout may be used to stimulate class discussion on the topic, either in pairs or small groups. Because of the potentially sensitive nature of these questions, students should be instructed that they are not required to disclose or discuss sensitive personal information.

FILMS/VIDEOS/DVDS: •

2½ to 6 Years: Physical Growth and Motor Development, from the Human Development series (Concept Media, 2007, 21 minutes). This DVD discusses the patterns of growth seen in the years between 2½ and 6 and describes how the differential growth of various organs affects the child's ability to function. It describes gross motor development of the preschool child including walking, running, jumping, skipping, and stair climbing. It also illustrates fine motor development and eye-hand coordination and discusses how these abilities aid the child 94 .

in performing personal skills. It also discusses how caregivers can maximize children's physical potent •

6 to 12 Years: Physical Growth and Motor Development, from the Human Development series (Concept Media, 1998, 29 minutes). Details the normal height, weight, and body proportion changes characteristic of school-age children. Childhood obesity is also discussed.

In addition, changes in body systems and organs and nutritional needs are highlighted. Gross and fine motor development is reviewed, as are strategies for injury prevention.

•

Adolescent Physical Development (Insight Media, 1990, 30 minutes). Physical changes that occur during adolescence, including the psychological consequences of early and late maturity.

•

Boys: Entering the Teen Years (Films for the Humanities and Social Sciences, 2002, 42 minutes). Although facial and body hair are the most visible signs of male puberty, the process of becoming a man actually involves major organs like the heart and lungs. No one demonstrates that better than 14-year-old Jesse, whose physique is developing rapidly—while Mark, at almost the same age, poignantly awaits even the first hint of change. Meanwhile, 12-year-old choir member Dominic struggles to maintain the purity of his voice; 11-year-old Andy, to find shoes that fit. All share their anxieties and goals through video diaries and unhindered conversations, while animation and live-action sequences focus on sex drive, sleep patterns, muscle growth, aggression, and other subjects. This DVD contains explicit images and material. Original BBCW broadcast title: Boys.

Breastfeeding (Films for the Humanities and Social Sciences, 1994, 33 minutes). In this video, 36 mothers and their babies, along with some fathers, participate with health-care workers in discussing the value and demonstrating the methods of breastfeeding. Topics covered include the special nature of mothers’ milk as food and medicine; proper positioning and attachment; night feeding and sleepy babies; pumping and hand-expression; nipple soreness, duct blockage, engorgement, and mastitis; and the correct way to breastfeed premature babies, twins, and toddlers. The value of mother-to-mother support groups, the role of fathers, and alternatives for women who are unable to breastfeed are also addressed. This informative program was scripted and directed by Dr. Gro Nylander, recognized as one of the world’s foremost experts in the field.

First 2½ Years: Physical Growth and Motor Development, from the Human Development series (Concept Media, 2001, 19 minutes). Emphasizes individual differences in physical and motor development. The effects on development of nutrition and the mother’s health habits during pregnancy are also covered.

Girls: Entering the Teen Years (Films for the Humanities and Social Sciences, 2002, 42 minutes). “Everything is wrong,” complains Claudia—who, until her changing body lost its sense of balance, envisioned no obstacles to becoming a professional dancer. Identical twins Jessica and Rebecca prepare for high school and the social stress it will bring, with bra shopping at the top of their worry list. And Alex, now 13, sheds light on the trauma of starting puberty at age seven. Incorporating eye-catching animation, frank video diary entries, and unflinching cinematography, this program guides viewers through the inner and outer lives of girls as they begin the transition to adulthood. Diet, hormones, peer pressure, bullying, and many other factors are closely studied. This DVD contains explicit images and material. Original BBCW broadcast title: Girls.

Healthy Habits= Healthy Children (Films for the Humanities and Social Sciences, 2001, 15 minutes). This video promotes healthy eating, sleeping, and exercise.

•

•

•

•

95 .

•

Middle Childhood: Physical Growth & Development, from The Developing Child series (Magna Systems, 1997, 28 minutes). The physical changes from age 6 to 12 are presented in this program, including growth, motor skill development, obesity, disabilities, and the effects of poverty on physical growth and development.

•

Nature’s Way segment from the Lifespan Human Development Series (ABC News/Prentice Hall the Video Library, 1996, 12:20 minutes). This segment of a 20/20 program discusses

•

• •

•

•

• •

pros and cons of breastfeeding. Some mothers who experienced difficulties with breastfeeding are interviewed.

Nutrition, from The Developing Child series (Magna Systems, 1993, 27 minutes). The importance of good nutrition for children’s health, energy, and growth is emphasized.

Nutritional needs for each stage of childhood are addressed, as are guidelines for feeding infants, children, and adolescents Physical Development in the Middle Years (Insight Media, 1990, 30 minutes). Reviews the physical development of children 6 to 12 years of age.

Physical Growth and Motor Development (Concept Media, 2001, 25 minutes). This video includes about the patterns and the norms of physical development, including discussions the brain.

Preschool Physical Development (Insight Media, 1990, 30 minutes). Reviews physical development during the preschool years, including skeletal, circulatory, and nervous system development. Seasons of Life: Infancy and Early Childhood and Seasons of Life: Childhood and Adolescence (Annenberg/CPB Collection, 1990, 60 minutes each). Both videos explore the biological, social, and psychological clocks of the respective age groups. These videos provide an excellent and compelling overview of infant, child, and adolescent development.

Teenage Mind and Body (Insight Media, 1992, 30 minutes). Describes cognitive and physical development in adolescence.

Teen Species: Understanding the Adolescent (Films for the Humanities and Social Sciences, 2002, 42 minutes). Their behaviour and physical changes are often so surprising—and at

times alarming—that teenagers seem to be a separate species. This series delves into the mysteries exploring of adolescence by following several participants over a two-year period,

the biological, psychological, and social pressures that begin with the onset of 96 puberty.

Through with teens and detailed passages . from the expert interviews, in-depth conversations

participants’ video diaries, viewers will learn about the development of the adolescent

brain, its of link to physiological and behavioural transformations, and the real-world dilemmas identity and conformity these changes bring on. This DVD contains explicit images and material. Original BBCW broadcast title: Teen Species.

MODULE 4.2: CHALLENGES TO HEALTHY GROWTH LEARNING OBJECTIVES: •

What is malnutrition? What are its consequences? What is the solution to malnutrition?

•

How do nature and nurture lead some adolescent girls to diet excessively?

•

Why do some children become obese? How can they lose weight permanently?

•

How do diseases and accidents threaten children’s development?

KEY TERMS: malnutrition anorexia nervosa bulimia nervosa

body dysmorphic disorder body mass index (BMI)

CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES: •

•

•

•

•

Guest Speaker: Indigenous Person or Elder. Have an Indigenous person or elder visit your class to discuss how the lack of access to traditional food sources and the transition to a more “Westernized” lifestyle has increased rates of obesity and type-2 diabetes; and the impact this has had on Indigenous Peoples.

Guest Speaker: Public Health Nurse or Nutritionist. Have a public health nurse or nutritionist visit your class to discuss efforts to promote healthy eating and the challenges to healthy growth associated with nutrition.

Eating Disorders and Society. To demonstrate to your class how cultural ideals may contribute to the high rates of occurrence of eating disorders, ask your class to either (1) view one hour of music videos, focusing on the most popular videos among teens today; or (2) visit the “girls” section of a large chain toy store. Have students reflect on the following questions: What do the videos or toys suggest about society’s ideals concerning female attractiveness?

Did you find examples of this that were especially striking to you? Did you see any examples that challenge these ideals? What can we, as individuals or as a group (i.e. class, student society, etc.), do to contribute to healthier images of women in society? Students’ responses to these questions can then be discussed in pairs, small groups, or as a whole class. Note that larger class discussions can be more productive if students are first provided with an opportunity to engage in preliminary discussions with a partner or small group in order to “try out” their ideas.

Guest Speaker: Eating Disorders Counselor. Invite a counselor who treats adolescents with eating disorders to speak to your class about the issue, including the precursors, psychological consequences, and treatment of eating disorders.

Dietary Excesses. By law, fast food chains are required to provide nutritional information to their customers who request it. Have your students visit three of their favourite fast food establishments (national chains) and ask for nutritional information. Students should then compare the calorie and fat content of these fast foods to the Canada Food Guide. Since consumption of “Happy Meals,” “Kids Club Meals,” and other fast food meals packaged for children increase dramatically during early childhood and remain popular through adolescence (or adulthood, for some of us!), this information should serve as a catalyst for a class discussion on nutritional needs of school-age children and the extent to which a typical fast food meal meets those needs. The topic of obesity should also be raised in this context.

97 .

•

Dietary Models. Prior to the class session where you plan to address nutrition and school-age children, ask your class to view a 30-minute television program that targets this age group as its viewing audience. If it fits their busy schedules, ask your class to view children's programming on Nickelodeon, Disney, Cartoon Network, FOX Family, or network programming oriented toward children that airs in the after-school hours.

Have your class pay particular attention to any scenes involving food or commercials for food products or restaurants. Your students should tally the number of “healthy” versus “unhealthy” dietary models (i.e., stimuli) they witness. Have your students bring their tallies into class so that you can calculate the overall proportion of healthy to unhealthy messages that children are being exposed to as a part of their regular television viewing. This exercise can serve as an interesting introduction to the various influences on the eating habits of children and the contribution of the media to childhood obesity.

•

Safety Visit. Prior to the class period where you expect to address accidents/injuries during early care childhood, ask your students to visit the home of a preschool-aged child or a day

facility. The students should talk with a parent (or day care worker) about the •

measures that have been taken to protect the child from dangers around the house (or day care facility).

After your students visit the homes or day care facilities, they can report back to the class 1. Thethe name of the (and website (e.g., National Disorders). about effective ineffective) safety Eating practices they observed.

Internet Annotated Bibliography. your students use the Internet to identify 10 2. A valid URL (website address,Have e.g., http://www.nationaleatingdisorders.org).

3. A brief (one or two paragraph) review of the website. Reviews should include a brief websites summary of what studentson can expect to find ifStudents they visitshould the website and a brief that give scholarly information eating disorders. type an annotated evaluation of the bibliography that listswebsite. the URLs (website addresses) for these websites, and gives a

(one to this activity, students can combine all of the annotated bibliographies into an As abrief follow-up or two paragraph) summary/review of each.

Internet Resource Directory that could be distributed in class.

FILMS/VIDEOS/DVDS: •

2½ to 6 Years: Physical Growth and Motor Development, from the Human Development series (Concept Media, 2007, 21 minutes). This DVD discusses the patterns of growth seen in the years between 2½ and 6 and describes how the differential growth of various organs affects the child's ability to function. It describes gross motor development of the preschool child including walking, running, jumping, skipping, and stair climbing. It also illustrates fine motor development and eye-hand coordination, and discusses how these abilities aid the child in performing personal skills. It also discusses how caregivers can maximize children's physical potential.

•

6 to 12 Years: Physical Growth and Motor Development, from the Human Development series (Concept Media, 1998, 29 minutes). Details the normal height, weight, and body proportion changes characteristic of school-age children. Childhood obesity is also discussed.

In addition, changes in body systems and organs and nutritional needs are highlighted.

Gross and fine motor development is reviewed,98as are strategies for injury prevention. .

•

Adolescence: Physical Growth & Development, from The Developing Child series (Magna Systems, 1995, 25 minutes). Covers adolescents’ physical changes during puberty, the impact of early versus late maturation, and adolescent problems associated with nutritional disorders, teen pregnancy, and other adolescent physical risks.

•

Battling Eating Disorders (Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 2006, 29 minutes).

Anorexia and other eating disorders exert a frightening degree of control over millions of teenagers, especially young women. Manifested in so-called “Pro-Ana” websites, which actively promote anorexia, bulimia, and binge eating, the mental and physical grip of these sicknesses can prove impossible to break. This program represents a powerful weapon in the battle against eating disorders, pinpointing their origins in body image and self-esteem issues, illustrating their grim consequences in crystal-clear terms, and offering students, parents, teachers, and counselors a rich source of information and support. Hosted by The Sopranos’ Jamie-Lynn Sigler, herself a survivor of teenage anorexia, the video explains how to recognize eating disorders, how friends and loved ones should communicate their fears and concerns, and how those who suffer from these often-fatal illnesses can find professional help. Special emphasis is placed on identifying anorexia, bulimia, and binge eating as actual diseases, not as misguided lifestyle choices—a realization necessary for effective treatment.

A viewable/printable instructor’s guide is available online.

Dying to be Thin (Insight Media, 2000, 60 minutes). Presents statistics on the prevalence of eating disorders, explores psychological and physical aspects of the diseases, and reviews effective therapies.

•

•

• •

•

•

Eating Disorders (Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 1994, 19 minutes). Reviews the personality profiles of those most likely to suffer from eating disorders and shows the development and treatment of eating disorders.

The Famine Within (PBS Video, 1990, 55 minutes). This video explores the relationship between the portrayal of women in the media and eating disorders.

First 2½ Years: Physical Growth and Motor Development, from the Human Development series (Concept Media, 2001, 19 minutes). Emphasizes individual differences in physical and motor development. The effects development of nutrition and the mother’s health habits during pregnancy are also covered. Life at 3: Fighting Fat (Films for the Humanities and Social Sciences, 2008, 56 minutes). This video looks at five toddlers who are part of a largescale longitudinal study in child development about childhood obesity.

Middle Childhood: Physical Growth & Development, from The Developing Child series (Magna Systems, 1997, 28 minutes). The physical changes from age six to 12 are presented in this program, including growth, motor skill development, obesity, disabilities, and the effects of poverty on physical growth and development.

Transitions Throughout the Lifespan: Grow Baby Grow (Coast Learning Systems; Oakville, Ont.: Magic Lantern [distributor]. 2003, 30 minutes). This video highlights the connection between normal physical growth and a supportive social environment. Experts in developmental psychology talk about gross and fine motor development, about the importance of reflexes for infant survival, and the about the importance of nutrition and breast milk during the first two years.

99 .

MODULE 4.3: THE DEVELOPING NERVOUS SYSTEM LEARNING OBJECTIVES: •

What are parts of a nerve cell? How is the brain organized?

•

When is the brain formed in prenatal development? When do different regions of the brain begin to function?

KEY TERMS: neuron

corpus callosum

cell body

frontal cortex

dendrite

neural plate

axon

synaptic pruning

myelin

electroencephalogram (EEG)

terminal buttons neurotransmitters

functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)

synapse

experience-expectant growth

cerebral cortex

experience-dependent growth

hemispheres

CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES: •

Show an in-class video (see lists below, including internet resources). Students will appreciate a visual introduction to understanding the developmental nervous system.

Recommending resources include (but are not limited to) videos from the Center for the Developing Child at Harvard University and the PBS (Frontline) special, Inside the Teenage Brain (see Internet Resources below for links).

FILMS/VIDEOS/DVDS: •

The Amazing Human Brain (The Healing Tree Media Ltd, 2003, 30 minutes). Dr. Perry covers the basics of brain autonomy to help caregivers and professionals diagnose and treat the adverse effects of neglect, fear, trauma and violence.

•

The Brain (Insight Media, 2009, 20 minutes). This video identifies the most critical

•

time for brain development as birth to five years of age. It describes how the brain influences memory

•

and learning.

The Brain, from The New Living Body series (Films for the Humanities and Social Sciences, 1995, 20 minutes). This program uses CTs and MRIs to reveal the functions of the brain and the consequences of head injuries. Topics include brain structure and function, localization of brain activity, and simple reflex arcs.

Growing the Mind: How the Brain Develops (Films for the Humanities and Social 100 Sciences, 2000, 50 minutes). This program charts the changes in the human brain from infancy to .

adulthood, documenting the brains adaptability (plasticity) and its vulnerability to damage.

•

Human Brain Development: Nature and Nurture (Insight Media, 2006, 30 minutes). This DVD demonstrates the interplay of genetic predispositions and experiences in the development of the brain after birth. It explains the concept of plasticity and presents research studies that illustrate the evolution of visual perception and stages of language acquisition from infancy through old age.

•

Pediatric Brain Development: The Importance of a Head Start (Films for the Humanities and Social Sciences, 1995, 17 minutes). Diane Sawyer reports on the neurological connections that form in a child’s brain during pregnancy and early childhood and the long-term effects of sensory stimulation and deprivation during the first three years.

Young Minds: Is Zero-to-Three Destiny? (Films for the Humanities and Social Sciences, 1999, 12 minutes). Prominent neuroscientists and developmental psychologists address the question, “Can Mozart’s music have a lasting impact on the growth of a baby’s brain?” The arguments focus on the developmental significance of the first three years of life.

•

101 .

INTERNET RESOURCES •

https://www.ama-assn.org/

–

American

Medical

Association

home

page.

•

https://www.anred.com/ – Anorexia and Related Eating Disorders. – Includes

•

information and links on anorexia, bulimia, and other less well-known eating disorders, including available treatments. https://cpa.ca/ – Canadian Psychological Association (CPA) – use

•

link for eating disorders in adolescents https://www.llli.org/ – Home page of La Lecher League International, this site provides

• • •

an overview of the techniques and benefits of breastfeeding. https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/teenbrain/ – Inside the Teenage Brain web resources https://www.brainfacts.org/ – Facts and resources focused on bringing knowledge of neuroscience to the public https://developingchild.harvard.edu/resources/three-core-concepts-in-earlydevelopment/ – The website of the Center on the Developing Child at Harvard University contains helpful

information and resources for teaching about brain-experience interactions in early childhood.

This link is to the video series: “Three Core Concepts in Early Development”. Topics covered in this series include: (1) Experience Builds Brain Architecture; (2) Serve and Return Interaction Shapes Brain Circuitry; and (3) Toxic Stress Derails Healthy Development

102 .

CASE STUDY Growth and Health “I can’t take it anymore. We’ve been back at school for over a month and the kids in my class still pick on me. I don’t want to go back there, Mom.” “That’s not an option, Darlene. Fifth grade can’t be all that bad now, can it?”

“I hate it. I’m always picked last for teams in gym class, the boys tape notes to my back that say, ‘Wide Load,’ and the girls call me ‘Dolly.’”

“Dolly?”

“As in Dolly Parton, Mom.” “Oh, I see. Well, just don’t pay any attention to them, honey. They’re probably jealous because you’re taller and prettier than they are. Here, have some frozen candy bars. They always make me feel better when I’m having a bad day.”

1. Darlene is an obese child. What factors have probably contributed to her obesity?

2. Darlene’s parents believe that her extra weight is just “baby fat” and aren’t concerned about it. What are some of the physical and social consequences of obesity that Darlene may experience?

3. On an average day, Darlene consumes over 3500 calories. She has occasionally tried radical diets (e.g., the rice diet, the grapefruit diet) without success. What would you recommend to her (and her family) regarding an effective approach to weight loss?

4. Darlene has started to experience some of the changes of puberty, but her classmates have not. What challenges does this pose for her?

103 .

HANDOUT 4-1 Learning Objectives/Discussion Questions for Chapter 4: 1. What are the important features of physical growth during childhood? How do they vary from child to child?

2. How do sleep and nutrition contribute to healthy growth?

3. What are the physical changes associated with puberty, and what are their consequences?

4. What is malnutrition? What are its consequences? What is the solution to malnutrition?

5. How do nature and nurture lead some adolescent girls to diet excessively?

6. Why do some children become obese? How can they lose weight permanently?

7. How do diseases and accidents threaten children’s development?

8. What are parts of a nerve cell? How is the brain organized?

9. When is the brain formed in prenatal development? When do different regions of the brain begin to function?

104 .

HANDOUT 4-2 Dear Diary: Reflections on Puberty Directions: For most adolescents, it is the psychological rather than the physical consequences of puberty that make it a challenging developmental experience. Now that you’ve had some time to get accustomed to your adult physique, take a moment to reflect on your reactions to the physical changes as they were occurring. Answer each of the following questions about your experiences of puberty.

1. At what age did you first notice your body physically changing? Did these changes occur before, at about the same time, or after your friends experienced them? (In other words, were you an early, on-time, or late developer?)

2. What types of physical changes did you notice first? How did you react to these changes?

3. How did other people (e.g., siblings, parents, extended family, friends, teachers, other adults, etc.) react to your physical changes?

4. What were some positive consequences of puberty? Negative consequences?

5. Is there anything that you wish you could have changed about your pubescence?

105 .

HANDOUT 4-3 Puberty: It’s All in the Timing Directions: The impact of puberty may vary dramatically depending upon its timing. Indicate some of the pros and cons for males and females regarding the timing of puberty.

FEMALES

Pubertal Timing

PROs

MALES

CONs

PROs

Early Maturation

On-Time Maturation

Late Maturation

What pubertal timing appears to be the “best-case scenario” for females?

What appears to be the “worst-case scenario” for females?

What pubertal timing appears to be the “best-case scenario” for males?

What appears to be the “worst-case scenario” for males?

106 .

CONs

ANSWER KEY CASE STUDY Growth and Health 1. Darlene is an obese child. What factors have probably contributed to her obesity?

Darlene’s mom used food for comfort rather than for nutritional consumption and she encouraged Darlene to eat high-fat food (frozen candy bars). In addition, the following factors may play a role in Darlene’s obesity: Heredity: Genes may influence a child’s activity level or set the basal metabolic rate.

Environment: Television advertisements for fattening foods; parents who encourage their children to “clean their plates.”

2. Darlene’s parents believe that her extra weight is just “baby fat” and aren’t concerned about it. What are some of the physical and social consequences of obesity that Darlene may experience?

• Unpopular •

Low self-esteem

•

At- risk for medical problems.

3. On an average day, Darlene consumes over 3500 calories. She has occasionally tried radical diets (e.g., the rice diet, the grapefruit diet) without success. What would you recommend to her (and her family) regarding an effective approach to weight loss?

•

Change Darlene’s eating habits and encourage her to be more active.

•

Darlene needs to more closely monitor her eating and activity levels, setting goals and identifying rewards for achieving those goals.

Her parents need to assist her in the above endeavors, while also monitoring their own lifestyles to make sure that they aren’t fostering obesity-causing habits.

•

4. Darlene has started to experience some of the changes of puberty, but her classmates have not. What challenges does this pose for her?

Darlene is an early-maturing female and, as such, she is more likely to be: • Lacking in self-confidence •

Less popular

•

More depressed or have behavioural problems

•

More likely to smoke and drink

•

More negative in their feelings about their physical development

•

Doing more poorly in school or in more trouble at school

•

More likely to be sexually active

107 .

HANDOUT 4-3: Puberty: It’s All in the Timing

While your students’ cells in Handout 4-3 may contain more than the following items, the text included the following information.

BOYS who were EARLY MATURERS tended to be: • Dating more often •

More positive in their feelings about their physical appearance and athletic abilities

BOYS who were LATE MATURERS tended to be: • Frustrated due to being treated like little boys rather than young men GIRLS who were EARLY MATURERS tended to be: • Lacking in self-confidence •

Less popular

•

More depressed or have behavioural problems

•

More likely to smoke and drink

•

Doing more poorly in school or in more trouble at school

•

More likely to be sexually active

No specific information given about on-time maturation for boys or girls, or late maturation for girls.

What pubertal timing appears to be the “best-case scenario” for females?

On-time

What appears to be the “worst-case scenario” for females?

Early

What pubertal timing appears to be the “best-case scenario” for males?

Early*

What appears to be the “worst-case scenario” for males?

Late*

* New results are contradictory for boys—some studies show timing is not important for boys, while others show that early and late maturation are not as good as “on-time”

108 .

End-of-Chapter Test Yourself Questions: Growth and Health Test Yourself 1. Physical growth is particularly rapid during infancy and

.

2. Sleep is essential for normal growth because this is when most

is secreted.

3. Breastfeeding has many advantages for infants, including protecting from disease (through the mother’s antibodies), reducing cases of diarrhea and constipation, easing the transition to solid foods, and .

4. The role of the environment in triggering puberty is shown by cross-national comparisons, by historical data, and by the impact of on the onset of puberty in girls.

5. Maturing early often has harmful consequences for

.

6. To break the vicious cycle of malnutrition, children need an improved diet and .

7. Adolescents afflicted with alternate between binge eating and purging themselves.

8. One reason why obese children overeat is that they pay more attention to cues to eating.

9. Integrated Management of Childhood Illness attempts to combat childhood diseases by improving skills of healthcare professionals, improving healthcare systems so that they are more responsive to childhood diseases, and .

10.

11. The it alive.

are the leading cause of death for North American adolescents. is the part of the neuron that contains the biological machinery that keeps

12. During prenatal development and continuing into childhood and adolescence, axons of nerve cells acquire myelin, a fatty wrap that allows neurons to .

13. With development, brain systems become more specialized, in that the smaller brain regions become activated and .

14. In growth, a developing brain depends upon environmental stimulation to fine-tune neural circuits.

15. A developing brain is more plastic than a mature brain, which means that following injury a developing brain .

Answers: (1) adolescence; (2) growth hormone; (3) avoiding contamination, which can be a significant problem with bottle-feeding in developing countries; (4) the social environment (in particular, a stressful environment); (5) girls; (6) parental education that teaches parents how to foster their children’s development; (7) bulimia nervosa; (8) external; (9) changing family and community practices to prevent illness (e.g., having children sleep under mosquito netting); (10) Motor-vehicle accidents; (11) cell body; (12) transmit information more rapidly; (13) more specific stimuli trigger brain activity; (14) experience-expectant; (15) is more likely to recover.

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Chapter 5

Perceptual and Motor Development CHAPTER OVERVIEW

111

MODULE SUPPLEMENTS Module 5.1: BASIC SENSORY AND PERCEPTUAL PROCESSES

114

Learning Objectives Key Terms Classroom Activities Films/Videos/DVDs Module 5.2: COMPLEX PERCEPTUAL AND ATTENTIONAL PROCESSES

116

Learning Objectives Key Terms Classroom Activities Films/Videos/DVDs Module 5.3: MOTOR DEVELOPMENT

118

Learning Objectives Key Terms Classroom Activities Films/Videos/DVDs INTERNET RESOURCES

121

CASE STUDY

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HANDOUTS

123

ANSWER KEY

130

TEST YOURSELF

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110 .

CHAPTER 5 OVERVIEW i.

Introduction 1. Sensory and Perceptual Processes 2. Motor Skills

I.

Module 5.1: Basic Sensory and Perceptual Processes 1. Habituation a.

Smell, Taste, and Touch i.

Reducing Pain Sensation

b. Hearing i. c.

Auditory Threshold

Children’s Lives - Hearing Impairment in Infancy

d. Seeing 1. Visual Acuity 2. Cones e.

Integrating Sensory Information

f.

Spotlight on Theories i.

The Theory of Intersensory Redundancy 1. Amodal 2. Intersensory Redundancy Theory

II. Module 5.2: Complex Perceptual and Attentional Processes a.

Perceiving Objects i.

Perceptual Constancies 1. Size Constancy

ii.

Depth 1. Visual Cliff 2. Kinetic Cues 3. Visual Expansion 4. Motion Parallax 5. Retinal Disparity 6. Pictorial Cues

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iii. The Impact of Motor-Skill Development on Perceptual Skills 1. Texture Gradient 2. Linear Perspective 3. Interposition 4. Relative Size vi. Perceiving Faces b. Focus on Research i. c.

Early Visual Experiences and Face Processing

Attention 1. Attention 2. Tools of the Mind

d. Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) 1. Hyperactivity 2. Inattention 3. Impulsivity III. Module 5.3: Motor Development 1. Locomotion 2. Fine-Motor Skills a.

Locomotion 1. Toddlers 2. Dynamic Systems Theory 3. Ban on Baby Walkers i.

Posture and Balance

ii.

Stepping

iii. Environmental Cues iv. Coordinating Skills 1. Differentiation 2. Integration

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b. Cultural Influences: Cultural Practices that Influence Motor Development v. Beyond Walking c.

Fine-Motor Skills i.

Reaching and Grasping

ii.

Handedness

d. Physical Fitness i.

Canadian Fitness and Lifestyle Research (CFLRI) Study of Children’s Physical Activity Levels

ii. Canadian Physical Activity Levels Among Youths (CAN PLAY) iii. Participating in Sports

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MODULE SUPPLEMENTS MODULE 5.1: BASIC SENSORY AND PERCEPTUAL PROCESSES LEARNING OBJECTIVES: •

Are newborn babies able to smell and taste? Do they respond to touch and experience pain?

•

How well do infants hear? How do they use sounds to understand their world?

•

How accurate is infants’ vision? Do infants perceive colour?

•

How do infants integrate information from different senses?

(See Handout 5-1 for a list of the learning objectives for the chapter.)

KEY TERMS: sensory and perceptual processes

visual acuity

motor skills

cones

habituation

amodal

auditory threshold

intersensory redundancy theory

CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES: •

Baby Show and Tell. Invite a parent to bring an infant to class to demonstrate the infant’s perceptual skills. Demonstrations of smell and taste discrimination are relatively easy to orchestrate, as are auditory preferences (e.g., the sound of parent’s voice versus the sound of a stranger’s voice) and visual discrimination. Habituation can also be easily demonstrated with the use of a metronome or other repetitive stimuli.

•

Guest Speaker: An Audiologist. Invite an audiologist to your class and ask him/her to speak about the causes, diagnosis, and treatment of hearing problems in infants and young children.

Also, ask the audiologist to discuss the developmental consequences of hearing impairments.

To locate an audiologist, contact a local hospital or pediatrician for a reference.

Evaluating Infant and Child Toys II. This project was described earlier in this Instructor’s Manual, but it is appropriate for this and future modules as well. To reiterate, send your class to a toy store and have each student choose a toy that is marketed for infants or young children. (This can also be done as an in-class exercise if you bring a supply of toys to your class.) What senses are the toys designed to stimulate? Are there ways in which the toys can be improved to better enhance perceptual development? If students find similar toys, can they recommend one over the other? Upon what evidence do they base their recommendations?

This project can be elaborated upon when the class covers future chapters in the text.

Demonstrating Intersensory Integration. To demonstrate to your students how sophisticated adult skills of intersensory integration are, bring a series of similar objects to class. Sets of balls make a good choice since they are usually easy to access and are relatively inexpensive.

Create two identical sets of balls, including tennis balls, racquet balls, ping-pong balls, golf balls, round sponge balls, billiard balls, baseballs, solid rubber balls, etc. Arrange one set on the desk in front of the class and leave the other in a box nearby. Ask a student volunteer to wear a blindfold or keep his/her eyes closed, reach into the box, and select a ball. It is the

•

•

114 .

volunteer’s job to examine the ball by touch alone, then after returning the ball to the box, identify the ball from the set in front of the class. This is a simple demonstration of a sophisticated skill, and you can enhance the demonstration by elaborating on the development of intersensory integration. Additionally, if you conduct this demonstration by walking around your classroom with the box of balls, it also becomes a demonstration of size constancy because your students will have to identify the ball they selected from a set in front of the classroom that cast a smaller retinal image than the one imagined when holding the ball.

•

Observing Newborns Sensory Abilities. To help students apply the information about sensory abilities have them complete Handout 5.2 prior to a small group discussion, during class.

Following the discussion have each group report on their finds, about one of the senses. Other groups can add their comments and findings. If different.

FILMS/VIDEOS/DVDS: •

The Newborn: Development and Discovery (Magna Systems, 2005, 29 minutes). This DVD looks at the newborn or neonate, in the first four weeks of life. It looks at physical characteristics, sensory awareness, sleeping, and breast feeding versus bottle feeding.

Assessment tools for newborns: the APGAR scale, random mass spectrometry and the revised Braselton Clinical Neonatal Assessment Scale are also reviewed. It explores brain development, and examines methods of assessing a newborn’s motor, reflex, and sensory systems. It also considers changes in reflexes, bonding, cognitive, and emotional development.

•

The Baby Human (Films for the Humanities and Social Sciences, 2003, 52 minutes). With the aid of insightful experiments orchestrated by researchers in child development, this fascinating three-part series focuses on vital psychological and motor skill advancements in infants from birth to 18 months: walking, thinking, and talking.

Seeing is Believing: Seeing and Sight (Insight Media, 2001, 23 minutes). This program explains the physiology of vision and how the brain interprets images. Colour blindness is also discussed.

•

115 .

MODULE 5.2: COMPLEX PERCEPTUAL AND ATTENTIONAL PROCESSES LEARNING OBJECTIVES: •

How do infants perceive objects?

•

What are the components of attention? How do they develop?

•

What is attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)? How does it affect children’s development?

KEY TERMS:

size constancy kinetic cues

retinal disparity pictorial cues

visual cliff

texture gradient

visual expansion motion parallax

interposition linear perspective attention relative size

CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES: •

Do You See What I See? To highlight the visual perceptual abilities (and the development thereof) of infants, ask your students to bring a colour picture to class (or you can bring one or more pictures to class). The pictures, which can be photographs or magazine images, must depict some sort of indoor or outdoor scene so that colour and depth cues can be identified. Ask your students to view the pictures through the eyes of a newborn and a 1-year-old, and then complete Handout 5-3. This activity can be done as an individual or small group activity, or as a homework assignment.

•

Guest Speaker: Adult with ADHD or Parent of a Child with ADHD. These firsthand accounts of ADHD will make the subject of ADHD a much more profound one for your students. Invite your speaker to address such topics as their experiences with the

•

academic and social challenges faced by children with ADHD, as well as diagnosis and treatment of the disorder.

Internet Annotated Bibliography. Have your students use the Internet to identify 10 websites that give scholarly information on attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD).

Students 1. The name of the website (e.g., National Institute for Mental Health’s ADHD page). should type an annotated bibliography that lists the URLs (website addresses) for 2. A valid URL (website address, e.g., http://www.nimh.nih.gov/publicat/adhd.cfm). these 3. A briefand (one or two paragraph) review of the website.

Reviews should include a brief websites, gives a brief (one or two paragraph) summary/review of each. summary of what students can expect to find if they visit the website and a brief evaluation of the website.

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As a follow-up to this activity, students can combine all of the annotated bibliographies into an Internet Resource Directory that could be distributed in class.

FILMS/VIDEOS/DVDS: •

Attention Deficit Disorder (Insight Media, 2004, 20 minutes). This DVD features Barbara Berg, who was diagnosed with ADHD at age 42; this program offers insights into the impacts of the disorder on children and teachers. It covers common symptoms and less obvious behaviours. The program also presents strategies for creating manageable routines and shows how to provide directions.

•

Attention Deficit Disorder: A Dubious Diagnosis? (PBS Video, 1995). John Merrow reports on the myths and realities of ADD. First Adaptation (Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 1993, 30 minutes). This video reviews the sensory and learning abilities of the newborn, including footage involving the visual cliff, infant control of visual stimulation, and visual preferences.

•

•

Ritalin: Drug Treatment for Attention Deficit Disorder (Films for the Humanities and Social Sciences, 2000, 20 minutes). This video looks at the uses and misuses of Ritalin. Included are scenes from a school for children with behavioural problems who are taught skills that help them focus their attention without drugs.

•

Sensation and Perception (Insight Media, 2001, 30 minutes). This video illustrates how information about the world is gathered by sensory receptors and transmitted and interpreted by the brain. Visual, tactile, and chemical reception/perception are covered.

•

Odd Kid Out: Living with Attention Deficit Disorder (Insight Media, 2004, 52 minutes). In this program, families of children with ADHD reveal the challenges of daily life and discuss successful and unsuccessful treatments that they have implemented with their children. The program presents interactions between the children and their families and shows how they cope with a variety of situations.

•

The Baby’s Attention During Play (Child Development Media, 28 minutes). Focusing on infants between 9 and 12 months of age, this video presents the different types of attentiveness that infants can exhibit under favourable circumstances (i.e., play).

•

The Diagnosis and Treatment of Attention Deficit Disorder in Children (Films for the Humanities and Social Sciences, 2000, 27 minutes). This program shows how a diagnosis of ADD is made and what treatments work. Footage of children at home and at school, on medication and off medication, is included.

•

The Infant Mind (Insight Media, 1992, 30 minutes). Numerous perceptual and cognitive skills of infants are reviewed, and Piaget’s theories of object permanence and sensorimotor development are explained and challenged.

•

The Study of Attention (Insight Media, 1995, 42 minutes). Examining the means by which people focus their attention on specific stimuli, this video considers the degree to which people must pay attention in order to direct their behaviour.

•

What Babies can Do (Insight Media, 2009, 52 minutes). This DVD reviews over 30 years of infant research and describes how very young infants are capable of a high-level perception and cognition. It covers such cognitive skills as colour perception, object recognition, and memory.

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MODULE 5.3: MOTOR DEVELOPMENT LEARNING OBJECTIVES: •

What are the component skills involved in learning to walk, and at what age do infants typically master them?

•

How do infants learn to coordinate the use of their hands? When and why do most children begin to prefer to use one hand?

Are children physically fit? Do they benefit from participating in sports?

•

KEY TERMS: locomotion

dynamic systems theory

fine-motor skills

differentiation

toddlers

integration

CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES: •

Guest Speaker: Pediatrician. Ask a pediatrician to talk with your students about motor development, both normative and non-normative. The pediatrician should be able to discuss various means of determining normative development and those factors that contribute most to it. Also, a discussion of physical disabilities and their impact on child development would be valuable. Your students should come to this class with questions prepared in advance.

•

Look Into It. Students can go out of class to do some focused library searches. Depending upon your class size (under 40 works well) and available library resources (Psyc-Lit, Academic Search Premier, Psych Articles or equivalent databases), this project can be an effective means of allowing students to explore a topic that is of particular interest to them.

Handout 5-6 provides a series of questions that will guide the students’ library searches.

(NOTE: “Look Into It” exercises occur in future chapters and function well as out-of-class assignments.)

The following factors have been shown to influence motor development. Assign one topic to each student (or small groups of students) in your class and have them explore the professional literature. During your next class session, have them briefly present their findings to the rest of the class. A list of topics that pertain to motor development follows.

•

(a)

genetics

(f)

ethnicity

(b)

health status at birth

(g) nutrition

(c)

low birth weight

(h) birth order

(d)

prematurity

(i)

social class

(e)

size

(j)

child-rearing practices

Being Left-handed in a Right-handed World. Have one (or a panel) of left-handed students talk about their experiences as left-handers. What difficulties or discrimination have they encountered in school and in carrying out daily activities? What tools or devices do they find 118 .

especially challenging to use? Are there specific motor skills in which they feel they excel?

Do they believe their left-handedness provides any advantages in their daily functioning? Did they ever try to be (or were they encouraged by others to be) right-handed?

•

Evaluating Infant and Child Toys III. This project is similar to one described in Module 5.1, but now the focus should be on motor development. (If you used the “Evaluating Infant and Child Toys” project from Module 5.1, you may want to have your students simply add information to the project that they already started.) Send your class to a toy store and have each student choose a toy that is being marketed for infants or young children. What motor skills (locomotor or fine-motor skills) is the toy supposed to facilitate or challenge, and how does it accomplish this? Are there ways in which the toy can be improved to better impact a child’s motor development? Again, this project can be elaborated upon when the class covers future chapters in the text.

•

Developmental Milestones Paper. Students can reflect on and write a paper about their own development between the ages of birth-2, 2-3, 3-5, or 6-12 years. The paper should be developmental in nature (talking about changes in physical abilities over time). Students should be sure to interview their own parents or caregivers for a description of their development at their chosen ages. This can be followed up with a classroom discussion of findings.

FILMS/VIDEOS/DVDS: •

2½ to 6 Years: Physical Growth and Motor Development, from the Human Development series (Concept Media, 1992, 21 minutes). Describes gross motor, fine motor, and eye-hand coordination skills of preschool children, and how caregivers can enhance children’s physical potential.

•

6 to 12 Years: Physical Growth and Motor Development, from the Human Development series (Concept Media, 1998, 29 minutes). In addition to presenting information about growth and other physical changes during these ages, the video also highlights gross and fine motor development and injury prevention.

Aspects of Child Development: Fetus to Age 3 (Films for the Humanities and Social Sciences, 1999, each part 53-55 minutes). Created with the help of many leading pediatricians, child psychiatrists, nutritionists, psychologists, and sociologists as well as dozens of children and their parents, this comprehensive six-part series explores key stages of a child’s growth, focusing on the period from the final months in the womb to three years of age.

•

•

Aspects of Child Development: Ages 4 to 11 (Films for the Humanities and Social Sciences, 1999, 52 minutes). Drawing on the insights and experience of experts from a wide range of disciplines, this detailed three-part series tracks children’s development during the period from 4 to 11 years of age.

•

Childhood, Program 3: Loves Labor (Ambrose Video, 1991, 60 minutes). Reviews development from 6 months to 3 years, when brain maturation is revealed in increasing abilities of the child, including improved coordination, increased mobility, the development of language, and an emerging sense of self.

The Baby Human (Films for the Humanities and Social Sciences, 2002, 3 part series each part is 52 minutes). With the aid of insightful experiments orchestrated by researchers in child development, this fascinating three-part series focuses on vital psychological and motor skill advancements in infants from birth to 18 months: walking, thinking, and talking.

•

119 .

•

•

The First 2½ Years: Physical Growth and Motor Development, from the Human Development series (Concept Media, 2001, 19 minutes). This video emphasizes individual differences by depicting a wide range of normal physical growth and motor development.

Freedom to Move on One’s Own (Child Development Media, 26 minutes). The role of movement and body position of infants is explored with respect to their impact on the mental

functioning of the child. Three infants are videotaped (8, 12, and 13 months of age) •

and connections between each infant’s movement and her cognitive development are made by Hungarian pediatrician Emmi Pikler.

•

•

Infancy: Landmarks of Development (Magna Systems, 2003, 29 minutes This DVD shows these landmarks, identifies their timing and clarifies the influences of environment and culture. Both natural development and current practice help determine the experiences of breastfeeding, weaning and sleeping patterns. The understanding of early brain development brings focus to what is optimal in relationships and stimulation in the first two years.

Middle Childhood: Physical Growth and Development, from The Developing Child

•

series (Magna physical Systems, 1997, 28 minutes). Physical changes in motor skills, growth, and health between the ages of 6 and 12 are reviewed.

• •

•

Physical Growth and Development (Films for the Humanities and Social Sciences, 2000, 28 minutes). Middle childhood, from ages 6-12, is a time of significant growth and development.

This video explores the wide variety of physical changes taking place, and is an excellent tool for caregivers. l.

Preschoolers: Physical and Cognitive Development, from The Developing Child series (Magna of the Systems, 1994, 28 minutes). This program presents a comprehensive review physical and cognitive changes that occur during the preschool years. Improvements in locomotion, and fine motor development and their impact on cognitive development gross are chronicled.

See How They Move (Child Development Media, 28 minutes). Infants from 3 months to 2 years demonstrate the stages of gross motor development.

Toddlerhood: Physical and Cognitive Development, from The Developing Child series (Magna Systems, 1992, 26 minutes). This video illustrates how the action of walking significantly changes the way the toddler sees and examines the world and manipulates objects.

Significant advances in cognitive development during the toddler years are also portrayed.

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.

To Walk (Films for the Humanities and Social Sciences, 2003, 52 minutes) This program uses stimulating experiments—conducted by Indiana University Professor of Psychology Esther Thelen, and Dr. Karen Adolph, from New York University—to assess motor development in infants as they learn to take their first steps. Remarkable evidence is used to argue that new

INTERNET RESOURCES •

https://add.org/ – Attention Deficit Disorder Association. World’s leading Adult ADHD organization

•

https://childdevelopmentinfo.com/add-adhd/ – Child Development Institute page on ADHD.

•

https://ase.tufts.edu/cfw/ – The Child & Family Web Guide describes trustworthy websites on topics of interest to parents and professionals. All the sites listed on the Web Guide have been systematically evaluated by graduate students and faculty in child development. These sites have been selected from thousands that are available on the Web, based primarily on the quality of the information they provide.

•

http://thinkhelp.com/chaddcanada – Children and Adults with Attention Deficit Disorders supports people with ADD and those who care for them. http://www.nacd.org/what-parents-need-to-know-about-the-side-effects-of-adhd-drugs – National Association for Child Development home page contains lots of information on children’s development, including this page focused on ADHD.

•

•

https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/topics/attention-deficit-hyperactivity-disorderadhd/index.shtml – National Institute for Mental Health’s website on ADHD.

•

https://monell.org/ – Monell Chemical Senses Center. Leading research center on smell and taste https://www.zerotothree.org/ – Zero to Three. Professional organization focusing on the first 3 years of life.

•

121 .

CASE STUDY Perceptual and Motor Development Six-year-old Michael is a quiet but energetic kindergartner. He is usually well behaved, but this morning he hit another child who took a crayon away from him. Also, Michael is not showing much interest in the pre-reading exercises that you’re using with the class, and his spoken utterances are often unclear or non-grammatical. As Michael’s teacher, you are concerned about his intellectual and social development, so you decide to have a conference with his parents. During this parent-teacher conference, Michael’s parents reveal that they have noticed that his four-year-old sister seems more talkative than Michael and has shown more interest in reading, but they just attributed that to the different personality characteristics of their children.

Michael has never enjoyed tasks that take time or effort, while his sister often looks through books or plays with building blocks for long periods of time. Lately, Michael’s parents have been trying to address his habit of interrupting ongoing conversations, but their efforts have met with little success.

1. Without further information, what issues do you suspect may be impacting Michael’s development? Identify the evidence that fuels your suspicions.

2. Following your conversation with Michael’s parents, you decide to attend more carefully to Michael’s interactions with other children. You notice that it often takes his classmates two or three tries to get his attention. What conclusion can you draw from this and, given your conclusion, what would you recommend to his parents?

3. Sensory disabilities and learning disabilities can have long-term negative consequences on development. Use the Internet or conduct a brief literature search to determine the long-term consequences of the suspicions and conclusions from the above two questions. Review the major findings below.

122 .

HANDOUT 5-1 Learning Objectives/Discussion Questions for Chapter 5: 1. Are newborn babies able to smell and taste? Do they respond to touch and experience pain?

2. How well do infants hear? How do they use sounds to understand their world?

3. How accurate is infants’ vision? Do infants perceive colour?

4. How do infants integrate information from different senses?

5. How do infants perceive objects?

6. What are the components of attention? How do they develop?

7. What is attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder? How does it affect children’s development?

8. What are the component skills involved in learning to walk, and at what age do infants typically master them?

9. How do infants learn to coordinate the use of their hands? When and why do most children begin to prefer to use one hand?

10. Are children physically fit? Do they benefit from participating in sports?

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HANDOUT 5-2 Observing Newborns Sensory Abilities Students can apply the information from pages 157 to 163, by getting permission from the parents to observe their newborn (an infant under the age of 4 weeks). If a newborn is not available, the student could do this observation using video clips. The students should complete the chart below and then bring it to class to discuss in small groups.

Newborns age

(days)

Sense

Newborn’s sex Anticipated response Anticipated Changes (use quotes or research (use quotes or research from text) from text)

Observation

Smell

Taste

Touch

Hearing

Seeing

Integration of Senses

124 .

HANDOUT 5-3 Do You See What I See? Directions: Imagine viewing the picture through the eyes of a newborn and a 1-year-old infant.

What can you see? Complete the following table.

Newborn Child

VISUAL ACUITY: Describe the objects in the picture that each child can see.

COLOUR VISION: Describe the colours of the objects in the picture as they would appear to each child.

Would any objects appear to be the same colour?

DEPTH PERCEPTION: How can each child determine which objects are more distant than others in the picture? What depth cues can each child utilize?

125 .

1-year-old Child

HANDOUT 5-4 Reviewing Research: Guiding Questions Directions: Answer the following questions as you read the assigned research article.

1. What was the aim of the study?

2. How did the investigator(s) measure the topic of interest?

3. Who were the children in the study?

4. What was the design of the study?

5. Were there ethical concerns with the study?

6. What were the results?

7. What did the investigator(s) conclude?

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HANDOUT 5-5A

HANDOUT 5-5A

Are You Paying Attention?

INSTRUCTOR: Copy then cut along the dotted lines. You’ll need one cover page for each test booklet.

IMPORTANT: Please do not turn the page until instructed to do so.

DIRECTIONS: You will be shown a series of cards. Try to remember the numbers on the cards in the order they are shown.

HANDOUT 5-5A

HANDOUT 5-5A

Are You Paying Attention?

Are You Paying Attention?

IMPORTANT: Please do not turn the page until instructed to do so.

IMPORTANT: Please do not turn the page until instructed to do so.

DIRECTIONS: You will be shown a series of DIRECTIONS: You will be shown a series of cards. Try to remember the colours of the cards. Try to remember the words on the cards in the order they are shown. cards in the order they are shown.

127 .

HANDOUT 5-5B DIRECTIONS: On the spaces below, list the numbers on the cards in the order they were shown.

INSTRUCTOR: Copy then cut along the dotted lines. You’ll need one copy of this set of three pages for each test booklet.

1. _______________________________ 2. _______________________________ 3. _______________________________ 4. _______________________________ 5. _______________________________ 6. _______________________________

DIRECTIONS: On the spaces below, list the DIRECTIONS: On the spaces below, list the colours of the cards in the order they were words on the cards in the order they were shown. shown.

1. _______________________________ 1. _______________________________ 2. _______________________________ 2. _______________________________ 3. _______________________________ 3. _______________________________ 4. _______________________________ 4. _______________________________ 5. _______________________________ 5. _______________________________ 6. _______________________________ 6. _______________________________

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HANDOUT 5-6 Look Into It Directions: You have been assigned a topic that impacts motor development. It is your job to investigate research on this topic using any available library resources. To help focus your search, please respond to the questions below.

TOPIC: 1. How does your topic impact motor development? (Describe the positive or negative relationships that exist between your topic and motor development.)

2. What type of research (e.g., experiments, observational studies, etc.) has been conducted to investigate the relationship between your topic and motor development?

3. How can the impact of your topic on motor development be mediated? In other words, if parents or teachers are aware of how your topic impacts motor development, what can they do about it?

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ANSWER KEY CASE STUDY Perceptual and Motor Development 1. Without further information, what issues do you suspect may be impacting Michael’s development?

Identify the evidence that fuels your suspicions.

2. Many of Michael’s behaviours (e.g., hitting another child, interrupting his parents) indicate impulsivity. Other behaviours (e.g., not enjoying tasks that take time or effort) may indicate an inability to pay attention and stay on task. Finally, Michael was described as “energetic.”

Depending upon his level of activity, he may be exhibiting hyperactivity. All of these characteristics are symptoms of ADHD. 3. Following your conversation with Michael’s parents, you decide to attend more carefully to Michael’s interactions with other children. You notice that it often takes his classmates two or three tries to get his attention. What conclusion can you draw from this and, given your conclusion, what would you recommend to his parents?

Given the difficulty in getting his attention and Michael’s unclear utterances, a hearing impairment may be the culprit. Also, Michael’s lack of interest in reading and the fact that he talks less than his younger sister may be indicative of a language delay, which is common among children with hearing impairments.

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HANDOUT 5-3: Do You See What I See? Newborn Child 1-year-old Child Since visual acuity is poor in Since visual acuity in 1-yearVISUAL ACUITY: newborns, only the largest old is comparable to that of objects in the picture will be adults, all objects in the picture discernable to this child. will be discernable to this Describe the objects in the child. picture that each child can see.

COLOUR VISION:

Due to immaturity in the visual By 3 or 4 months of age, colour sensory system responsible for vision is functioning well, so colour vision, newborns can 1-year-olds should be able to Describe the colours of the see only a few, bold (usually see all of the colours in the objects in the picture as they primary) colours. Subtle hues picture. would appear to each child. (e.g., pastels) will not be Would any objects appear to be perceived by newborns. the same colour?

DEPTH PERCEPTION: Due primarily to their poor By the time a child is 7 months visual acuity, newborns will not of age, several monocular cues be able to detect depth in a are used to indicate depth in How can each child determine picture. Binocular cues (suchtwo and three-dimensional which objects are more distant as retinal disparity), available images: linear perspective, than others in the picture? to 1.5-month-olds, do not work texture gradient, interposition, What depth cues can each child on two-dimensional images and relative size. utilize?

131 .

End-of-Chapter Test Yourself Questions: Perceptual and Motor Development Test Yourself 1. Newborns prefer

tasting substances.

2. Infants can best hear sounds pitched

.

3. If an infant does not respond to his or her name by months, this may be a sign of hearing impairment.

4. By three or four months of age, infants’ colour perception is similar to that of adults, including the fact that infants see the spectrum as representing different of colour.

5. According to , infants are particularly sensitive to amodal information that is presented in more than one sensory system simultaneously.

Infants use many cues to object unity, including common motion, colour, 6. , and aligned edges.

Infants use kinetic cues to judge depth, including visual expansion and 7. .

Between three and nine months of age, face processing becomes 8.

9. When infants encounter an unfamiliar stimulus, they often show a(n)

. in which

they startle, they stare at the stimulus, and their heart rate changes.

10. The three defining symptoms of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder include hyperactivity, inattention, and .

11. Maintaining an upright posture is particularly challenging for infants because their body .

12.

refers to breaking down a complex motor skill into its component parts.

13. Four-month-olds use both hands to explore an object, but the two hands

.

14. By their birthday, most children show a preference for one hand over the other (and for most of them, it is the right hand).

15. Children and adolescents often drop out of organized sports when

.

Answers: (1) sweet; (2) in the range of human voices; (3) eight or nine; (4) categories; (5) intersensory redundancy theory; (6) texture; (7) motion parallax; (8) more finely tuned; (9) orienting response; (10) impulsivity; (11) shape makes them top-heavy; (12) Differentiation; (13) are not well coordinated; each acts as if it has a mind of its own; (14) first; (15) coaches emphasize winning over skill development and participation.

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Chapter 6

Theories of Cognitive Development CHAPTER OVERVIEW

134

MODULE SUPPLEMENTS Module 6.1: SETTING THE STAGE: PIAGET’S THEORY

137

Learning Objectives Key Terms Classroom Activities Films/Videos/DVDs Module 6.2: MODERN THEORIES OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

142

Learning Objectives Key Terms Classroom Activities Films/Videos/DVDs Module 6.3: UNDERSTANDING IN CORE DOMAINS

146

Learning Objectives Key Terms Classroom Activities Films/Videos/DVDs INTERNET RESOURCES

148

CASE STUDIES

149

HANDOUTS

151

ANSWER KEY

160

TEST YOURSELF

163

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CHAPTER 6 OVERVIEW I.

Module 6.1: Setting the Stage: Piaget’s Theory a.

Basic Principles of Piaget’s Theory Assimilation i. ii. Accommodation iii. Equilibration iv. Schemas/Schemata

b. Stages of Cognitive Development i.

The Sensorimotor Stage 1. Sensorimotor Stage a.

Adapting to and Exploring the Environment

b. Understanding Objects c.

Object Permanence

d. Using Symbols ii.

The Preoperational Stage 1. Preoperational Stage 2. Egocentrism 3. Animism 4. Centration

iii. The Concrete Operational Stage 1. Concrete Operational Stage 2. Mental Operations iv. The Formal Operational Stage 1. Formal Operational Stage 2. Deductive Reasoning c.

Table 6.1: Piaget’s Four Stages of Cognitive Development

d. Piaget’s Contributions to Child Development i.

The study of cognitive development itself

ii.

A new view of children 1. Constructivism

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iii. Fascinating, often counterintuitive discoveries 1. iv. Weaknesses of Piaget’s Theory 1. Piaget’s theory underestimates cognitive competence in infants and young children and overestimates cognitive competence in adolescents 2. Piaget’s theory is vague with respect to processes and mechanisms of change 3. Piaget’s stage model does not account for variability in children’s performance 4. Piaget’s theory undervalues the influence of the sociocultural environment on cognitive development e.

Children’s Lives: Teaching Practices That Foster Cognitive Growth: Educational Applications of Piaget’s Theory 2. Facilitate rather than direct children’s learning 3. Recognize individual differences when teaching 4. Be sensitive to children’s readiness to learn

Emphasize exploration and interaction II. Module 6.2: Modern Theories of Cognitive Development a.

The Sociocultural Perspective: Vygotsky’s Theory i.

Sociocultural Perspective ii.

Intersubjectivity iii. Guided Participation iv. The Zone of Proximal Development 1. Zone of Proximal Development v.

Scaffolding 1. Scaffolding

vi. Private Speech 1. Private Speech 2. Inner Speech b. Cultural Influences: How Do Parents in Different Cultures Scaffold Their Children’s Learning?

1. c.

Information-Processing Theories 1. Information Processing Theory 2. Sensory Memory 135 .

3. Working Memory 4. Long-Term Memory 5. Central Executive/Executive Functioning i.

How Information Processing Changes with Development 1. Better Strategies 2. More Effective Executive Functioning 3. Increased Automatic Processing 4. Automatic Processes

ii.

Increased Speed of Processing

iii. Summary Table – Types of Developmental Change in Information Processing d. Connectionist Theories i. e.

Connectionist Theories

Core-Knowledge Theories i.

Core-Knowledge Theories

ii. Summary Table – Characteristics of Modern Theories of Cognitive Development III. Module 6.3: Understanding in Core Domains a.

Understanding Objects and Their Properties

b. Understanding Living Things i.

Movement

ii.

Growth

iii. Internal Parts iv. Inheritance v.

Illness

vi. Healing 1. Teleological explanations 2. Essentialism c.

Understanding People 1. Folk Psychology 2. Theory of Mind

d. Focus on Research: Understanding Others’ Intentions e. Children’s Lives: Theory of Mind in Autism 136 .

MODULE SUPPLEMENTS MODULE 6.1: SETTING THE STAGE: PIAGET’S THEORY LEARNING OBJECTIVES: • What are the basic principles of Piaget’s theory of cognitive development?

•

How does thinking change as children move through Piaget’s four stages of development?

• What are the lasting contributions of Piaget’s theory? What are some of its shortcomings?

(See Handout 6-1 for a list of the learning objectives for the chapter.)

KEY TERMS: assimilation

accommodation

equilibration

schemas

egocentrism animism centration

(schemata) sensorimotor stage

concrete operational stage

object

mental operations

permanence

preoperational stage

formal operational stage

CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES:

deductive reasoning constructivism

•

A Scheme about Schemes (or Simple Theories). Use the following demonstration to illustrate how schemes serve to organize experiences and knowledge. Ask your students to listen carefully to a list of words that you are about to read to them. Forewarn them that when the list is completed, they will be asked to write down all of the words that they can recall, in any order. Then, read them the following list, slowly pacing your reading: pillow, rest, dream, night, snore, bed, yawn, stars, moon, blanket When the list has been read, ask them to write down as many words as they can recall, in any order. After a minute or two, when they appear to have fully tapped their memories, push them to recall one more word.

Next, ask your students, by a show of hands, how many recalled the word “pillow”? “Rest”?

“Dream”? (At this point, take the opportunity to remind them of the primacy effect in shortterm memory.) How many recalled the word “blanket”? “Moon”? “Sleep”? Many hands should rise when you ask about the word “sleep” which, of course, was not in the original list. Explain that this exercise simply accessed their “sleep schemes.” Even though “sleep” was not in the original list, it is a logical member of the sleep scheme.

•

Name That Simple Theory. To demonstrate to your students the significance of Piaget’s concept of scheme (also referred to as “simple theory”), ask them to list all of the schemes that they have employed in the last ten minutes. If your students truly understand the concept of “scheme,” their lists should be rather lengthy. Items such as “writing scheme,” “sitting scheme,” “Piaget’s boring theory scheme,” “the student role scheme,” “pretend to be 137 .

interested scheme,” “get dressed quickly and sprint to class scheme,” are likely to appear on their lists. Ask the students to share some of their schemes with the class, and note the different types of schemes (e.g., action schemes, function schemes, concept schemes, abstract properties and relations schemes). Finally, have your students identify examples of the various schemes that children use on a daily basis to facilitate their survival in their world.

•

•

•

•

•

Personal Equilibration. When it comes to helping students understand Piaget’s concepts, one beneficial technique is to have them identify changes in their own thinking, then explain them from a Piagetian perspective. Handout 6-2 will guide your students through an exercise that requires them to comprehend and utilize the concepts underlying Piaget’s theory of cognitive development. Handout 6-2 can be completed in class or can be used as a homework assignment.

Piagetian Tasks. To demonstrate Piaget’s concepts of conservation and centration, you can reproduce in class, or have students reproduce with each other or with children, any or all of the seven classic Piagetian conservation tasks. A list of Piagetian conservation tasks can be found in many books, on the web on sites such as http://www.cog.brown.edu/courses/cg63/ conservation.html,—Conservation of Mass and Number. If they are working with children, it is suggested that students choose children in the 5-7-year age range because this is when the most variability is seen. Students should secure parental permission and then test and evaluate the child’s performance on the chosen conservation task(s) and record the results in a logical and precise fashion. Students should be watching to see 1) if the child can perform each task, and 2) the types of errors, if any, the child makes. Students should gain some insight into how the child is thinking about the problem, and where any breakdowns in thought are occurring.

This activity can be done as an in-class demonstration or an outside assignment or turned into a Piagetian Fun Fair, where students set up stations for each task and invite local children to participate in the activities. Students could also be assigned a specific conservation task which they could videotape and present to the class.

Class Presentations: Sensorimotor Substages. Divide the class into six groups and assign each group to a substage of the sensorimotor period. Each group should prepare a description of the assigned substage, complete with examples of behaviours and cognitive abilities characterized, by the substage. The groups will then visit a childcare setting where they will introduce the same toy, to an infant, from their assigned substage. The recorded reaction of the infant to the toy should clearly provide examples of the behaviours and the cognitive abilities, of the substage. Students should be able explain how the reaction to the toy, demonstrates their sensorimotor substages when they present the information, to the rest of the class.

Discussing Circular Reactions: Are You Being Manipulated? Ask your students if they have ever been drawn into a “game” of picking up a dropped object and returning it to an infant, only to have the infant drop it again. Why do infants continue to drop objects? Are they clumsy, or is there another explanation? The other explanations generated by your students should raise the issue of the types of circular reactions that infants are mastering during the sensorimotor period.

Observing Egocentrism. Either invite several 4- and 5-year-olds to your class or have your students locate children these ages on their own (e.g., family members, neighbors, etc.).

Students should ask the children the questions that appear on Handout 6-3, recording the children’s answers and identifying those that reveal egocentric thinking. If children are brought to class, ask your students to sit on the floor and interview the children in small groups (2-3 students per child). If the students will be locating children on their own, remind them to gain parental permission before talking with the children.

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•

Adult Conservation Skills. Assign various conservation abilities (e.g., number, liquid, area, mass, length, weight, volume) to small groups of students. Ask them to identify and demonstrate to the rest of the class situations in adult everyday functioning where their assigned conservation skill is utilized. One successful format is to have each group demonstrate the original test of conservation that Piaget developed for their assigned conservation skill, role-playing how a preoperational and a concrete operational child would respond to the test. Then, each group demonstrates the everyday situation that utilizes the assigned conservation skill. Preparations for the class demonstrations usually require a few days. This can be a good follow-up to the Piagetian tasks activity.

•

Make Me Laugh. Tell your students to collect jokes from children and adolescents of various ages, ranging from preschoolers to college students. Have your students write the jokes down and record the ages of the people who told them, bring these jokes into class, and share the ones that can be repeated with the rest of the class. Write the gist or punch-line (and age of the joke teller) of several jokes on the board and then ask your class, “What makes these funny to the joke tellers?” As the age of the joke teller increases, a relatively clear progression in the humorous elements of the jokes should be apparent. Young children find simple characteristics of jokes funny (e.g., funny sounding words or rhymes, simple incongruity or nonsense, etc.). Older children and early adolescents should require their jokes to “make sense;” that is, any incongruity between the punch line and the opening lines should be able to be resolved. Finally, the jokes of late-adolescents and college students may include humorous elements that are abstract (e.g., social or political satire, irony, etc.). These jokes can then be assessed with respect to Piaget’s stages of cognitive development.

•

•

•

Demonstrating Formal Operations: The Pendulum Task. The text describes Piaget’s colourless liquid task as a means of assessing formal operational reasoning abilities. An alternative method can be easily demonstrated to your class. What is required is three strings of different lengths (12, 18, and 24 inches will suffice—longer lengths can be used for improved visibility if you have a large classroom) and three different weights that can be easily connected to the strings. The pendulum task requires an individual to determine what affects the speed of the swing of the pendulum. (Answer: The length of the string.) Ask a volunteer to come to the front of the class to solve the pendulum task. Did the volunteer reveal formal operational reasoning? How did the class determine if the volunteer was a formal or concrete operational thinker? (A systematic approach to determining what influences the speed of the swing of the pendulum is indicative of formal operational reasoning. Trial and error or haphazard attempts to solve the problem are indicative of concrete operational reasoning.)

Identifying Piaget’s Stages. Handout 6-4 requires students to name the stages in which various individuals appear to be functioning. In true Piagetian fashion, your students are also asked to provide an explanation for their classifications. As an in-class exercise, Handout 6-4 can be completed individually or in small groups, or it functions nicely as a homework assignment.

Guest Speaker: Early Childhood Educator. Invite a teacher who specializes in early childhood education to your class to talk about the challenges and rewards of this vocation.

The speaker should address how the curriculum recognizes and contributes to a child’s cognitive development. The teacher should also identify how the child's cognitive development determines or limits the curriculum. Also, ask the teacher to discuss the training of certain cognitive abilities (e.g., can a child be taught to conserve or be less egocentric?).

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•

Piaget in Action. In an effort to reveal to the class the challenges and benefits of applying Piagetian concepts in formal education, divide the class into small groups and assign each group (or have each group select) a topic that is challenging for elementary school children to grasp. Sample topics include the “carrying over” rule in addition, the “borrowing” rule in subtraction, telling time, colour mixing (e.g., primary versus secondary colours), the importance of recycling, the infield fly rule in baseball, etc. Have the members of each group create a Piagetian means of teaching their topic. Each group should utilize the material in the “Improving Children’s Lives: Teaching Practices that Foster Cognitive Growth— Educational Applications of Piaget’s Theory” box of this module. The curriculum that each group develops can then be demonstrated to the class.

FILMS/VIDEOS/DVDS: •

Babies’ Minds: Piagetian and Kleinian Perspectives (Films for the Humanities and Social Sciences, 1993, 24 minutes). This video examines Jean Piaget’s and Melanie Klein’s theories on infant mental representation.

•

Cognitive Development (Concept Media, 2001, 28 minutes). This DVD discusses perception and then describes schemata and the research technique of habituation-dishabituation. It includes Piaget's theories of object permanence and the sensorimotor stage. There is a discussion about memory, problem solving, and the ways to facilitate a child's cognitive development.

•

Cognitive Development (Films for the Humanities and Social Sciences, 1995, 58 minutes).

This DVD examines Piaget’s theory and evaluates it in light of modern research. It covers the cognitive stages of development from birth to twelve years old and provides illustrations of children’s behaviour at each level. Recent research is examined in relation to each stage and comparisons are drawn with the theories of Jerome Bruner. The program concludes that children are more cognitively capable at an earlier age than Piaget suggested, but it is the ages rather than the stages that are disputed. Other developments such as metacognition and theory of mind are outlined, and recent research findings are reported.

•

Cognitive Development: Representation in Three- to Five-Year-Old Children (Films for the Humanities and Social Sciences, 1997, 30 minutes). This video research about theory of mind, analogical reasoning, casual reasoning, and other cognitive abilities in children from three to five years of age.

The First 2½ Years: Cognitive Development (Concept Media, 1991, 25 minutes). Reviews how infants during the first 30 months of life acquire knowledge. Observations by Jean Piaget and Jerome Kagan are included.

•

•

Infant and Child Development (Insight Media, 2001, 30 minutes). This video reviews various theories of child development as it examines how a newborn acquires the skills to interact with the surrounding world. Piaget’s theory is given special attention.

•

Jean Piaget, Part 1 (Insight Media, 1969, 40 minutes). Part 1 of an interview in which Piaget clarifies his stages of cognitive development and discusses motivation, learning, and perception.

•

Piaget’s Developmental Theory: An Overview (Davidson Films, 1989, 27 minutes). Narrated

by David Elkind, this video includes archival footage of Piaget as well as Elkind’s explanations of many of Piaget’s basic concepts and his theory of cognitive development.

Elkind is also shown testing children’s development of object permanence, egocentrism, and conservation skills.

140 .

•

Piaget on Piaget: The Epistemology of Jean Piaget (Yale University, 1978, 45 minutes). Jean Piaget discusses his own theory of cognitive development, trying to clear up misunderstandings and explaining his studies of the development of knowledge in humans.

•

Adolescent Cognition: Thinking in a New Key (Insight Media, 1999, 30 minutes). This video addresses the cognitive changes that occur in adolescence. David Elkind reviews the work of Piaget, Erikson, and Goffman and explores the intellectual, emotional, and social consequences of changes in thinking.

Adolescent Development (Insight Media, 1990, 30 minutes). The developmental tasks of early and late adolescence are reviewed, as is the development of cognitive abilities (including adolescent egocentrism) and moral reasoning.

•

•

Childhood, Program 5: Life’s Lessons (Ambrose Video, 1991, 60 minutes). This video highlights the “5–7 shift”—the time when children become more responsible and capable.

Children’s cognitive and physical development is reviewed within the context of formal schooling.

▪ Classic Piaget Series (Davidson Films).

Growth of Intelligence in minutes). the Preschool Years (1971, 31 minutes).

(1968, 29 16 ▪ Classification Conservation (1968, minutes).

Formal Reasoning Patterns (1978, 32 minutes).

▪ ▪ ▪

The content of each of the above videos is reflected in the title. Each video includes discussions with Piaget and demonstrations of his concepts.

•

Concrete Operations (Davidson Films, 1993, 25 minutes). David Elkind hosts and illustrates the development of transitive thinking and reversibility as children move from preoperational thinking to concrete operational thinking.

•

The Elementary Mind (Insight Media, 1992, 30 minutes). Robert Sternberg and Rochele Gelman discuss Piaget’s views of memory, cognition, and intelligence. Also shown are experiments related to developing cognition.

•

Formal Thought (Insight Media, 1990, 30 minutes). Provides an overview of Piaget’s theory and other aspects of cognition and language development in children.

Play and Imagination (Insight Media, 1992, 30 minutes). This video demonstrates how play contributes to cognitive and socio-emotional skills. Includes a review of play and imagination from infancy through adolescence and reveals cultural differences in how mothers interact with their children during play activities.

Preschool Mental Development (Insight Media, 1983, 30 minutes). Compares Piaget’s view of cognitive development during the preschool years with the behaviourist approach to mental development and learning.

•

•

•

How Children Learn (Insight Media, 1997, 23 minutes). This video serves as an introduction to cognitive theory, using the theories of Piaget, Vygotsky, and Erikson to highlight the important interaction of experience and brain maturation as a child prepares for school learning.

•

The Infant Mind (Insight Media, 1992, 30 minutes). Piaget’s stage theory is reviewed and challenged. Emphasis of this critical review of Piaget’s theory is on infancy.

141 .

• Jean Piaget, Part 2 (Insight Media, 1969, 40 minutes). Part 2 of an interview with Piaget in which he discusses his views on Freud’s concepts and reacts to Jensen’s research on intelligence. Of greatest interest to this module is Piaget’s reactions to criticism and misapplication of his theories.

The • Preschooler’s Mind (Insight Media, 1992, 30 minutes). This video reviews the major changes in children’s thinking during the preschool years through recreations of classic experiments in child development. Piaget’s theory of development is critiqued.

Toddlerhood, Physical and Cognitive Development (Magna Systems, 2003, 27 minutes).

• An overview of how a toddler takes on the grand challenge of moving into the world on two feet.

•Also looks at the toddler’s ability to think and talk. Using What We Know: Applying Piaget’s Developmental Theory in Primary Classrooms (Davidson Films, 1991, 35 minutes). David Elkind proposes and illustrates educational practices based upon Piaget’s theory. The video is filmed in three public school classrooms.

MODULE 6.2: MODERN THEORIES OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT •LEARNING In Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory, how do adults and other people contribute to children’s OBJECTIVES: cognitive development?

•

According to information-processing psychologists, how does thinking change with development?

How do connectionist theorists view the development of the mind?

•

What naïve theories do children hold about physics, psychology, and biology?

•

KEY TERMS: sociocultural perspective

sensory memory

intersubjectivity

working memory

guided participation

long-term memory

zone of proximal development

central executive

scaffolding

executive functioning

private speech

automatic processes

inner speech

connectionist theories

information-processing theory core-knowledge theories

CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES: •

Observing Naïve Theories in Children. Assign one of the three naïve theories covered in the text (i.e., naïve physics, naïve psychology, or naïve biology) to your students, who can work on this project individually or in small groups. Prior to the class session in which you intend to cover this material, have each student/group interact with a preschool-age child. Your students should follow the procedures described in the text (or, ideally, they should find the original research that is cited) to have the children they observe demonstrate their naïve 142 .

theories. What makes an assignment like this especially effective is if your students can videotape their interactions with the preschoolers. Videotaping increases the seriousness with which students approach the project, thereby increasing the quality of the work they do on it.

Also, the short video segments can be played to the class, and each group can explain their observations as the tape is being played.

•

Discovering Naïve Theories in College Students. While the research on naïve theories has focused primarily on preschoolers, evidence of naïve theories of physics, psychology, and biology can be found in college students (and other adults) as well. Handout 6-5 is an engaging and entertaining way to have your students explore their own naïve theories. The accuracy of your students’ naïve theories can be determined via class discussion—rely on your own students’ expertise in physics, psychology and biology to assess the validity of the naïve theories they hold.

•

Getting Zoned: Vygotsky’s Theory of Cognitive Development. Ask your students to work in small groups to identify their own zones of proximal development. What tasks, if any, can they do much better with assistance? If they are having difficulty generating current zones, have them reflect back on their development during childhood or adolescence (e.g., learning to drive a car is usually a memorable zone of proximal development accompanied by sometimes agonizing scaffolding). For each of the zones of proximal development that they are able to identify, ask your students to describe the scaffolding, if any, they have received.

Handout 6-6 will help them organize their thoughts. After students have completed Handout 6-6, ask them to share some of their zones and scaffolds with the rest of the class.

•

•

•

Evaluating Infant and Child Toys. This project has been discussed in several preceding chapters of this instructor’s resource manual. Your students should now assess the infant and child toys with respect to the cognitive challenges or stimulation they provide children. What cognitive processes from Piaget’s or Vygotsky’s theories are involved in the toys? Can your students think of ways to improve how the toys contribute to a child’s cognitive development?

Working Memory Task. Compile a list of working memory tasks (e.g., forward and backward digit-span tasks, Sperling’s working memory tasks, etc.). Use a selection of these tasks in class to demonstrate the concept of working memory, and the “magic number 7” when it comes to chunking information together.

“Hey, Professor. Here’s my lucubration*.” In small groups, ask students to complete Handout 6-7. This handout provides a review of the “mental hardware” and “mental software” (as described in the text) involved in information processing. This activity will require students to comprehend the distinctions between sensory memory, working memory, and long-term memory, and to identify some of the processes involved in each. *lucubration: (n) work produced at night; laborious study.

•

Developing Test-Taking Strategies. For a simple yet very compelling demonstration of problem-solving strategies, tap into a set of strategies that are very familiar to every student: test-taking strategies. Ask your students what they do, while taking a multiple-choice exam, if they do not know an answer to a question. List the strategies on the board as they are suggested. Then, ask your students to label each strategy according to its probability of success in identifying the correct answer (high, moderate, low). As discussed in the text, efficient strategies enable an individual to solve a problem more quickly and/or more accurately. With experience, children develop strategies that are more likely to produce correct answers to problems, similar to the “high probability” test-taking strategies used by your students.

143 .

Sample strategies and their relative probabilities of success are listed below.

Strategies with a high probability of success

Strategies with a moderate probability of success

Strategies with a low probability of success

(a) Look for clues in the (a) Just choose “C.” question or in the answer (b) Spell “ABACADABA” (b) Retrieve the information options themselves. (b) Eliminate extreme (e.g., from a mental image of with your answer choices. your notebook, text, or where the answer was “always” and “never”) written on the chalkboard. answer options. (a) Process of elimination

•

•

Demonstrating Automatic Processes. While the concept of automatic processes is rarely difficult for students to grasp, its significance to development is often underestimated. To illustrate how automatization of skills allows for the processing of increasing amounts of information, ask your students to take notes with their other hand (e.g., right-handed students should take notes with their left hands) while you lecture for a few minutes on the topic of automatic processes (be sure to cover terms and definitions “that will definitely be on the test”). Their frustration with trying to comprehend what you are saying while also concentrating on the act of writing will become apparent in moments. After directing them to return their writing implements to their preferred hands, discuss their reactions to the demonstration (and, of course, go back over the terms and definitions).

Look Into It: Changes in Information Processing. Have your students visit the library (or their computers) to do some focused library searches. Depending on your class size (under 40 students works well) and available library resources (Psyc-Lit, InfoTrak Expanded Academic ASAP, or equivalent search systems), this project can be an effective means of allowing students to explore a topic that is of particular interest to them. Handout 6-9 provides a series of questions that will guide the students’ library searches.

The following factors have been shown to influence cognitive development. Assign one topic to each student (or small groups of students) in your class and have them explore the professional literature. During your next class session, have them briefly present their findings to the rest of the class. A list of topics that pertain to information-processing changes in cognitive development appears below. (a) More efficient strategies (b) Increased capacity of working memory (c) More effective inhibitory processes (d) Increased automatic processing (e) Increased speed of processing

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FILMS/VIDEOS/DVDS: •

Cognitive Development, Part 2: Information Processing, from the Human Development video series (Concept Media, 1998, 28 minutes). This video contrasts the information processing approach with that of Piaget, illustrating the developmental changes that occur in attention and memory processes. Memory strategies and metacognition are also discussed.

•

Concepts, Memories, and Reasons (Insight Media, 1992, 30 minutes). Focusing on cognitive development between the ages of 5 and 7, this video reviews changes in memory strategies, logical thinking, and problem-solving skills.

•

Discovering Psychology, Program 10: Cognitive Process (Annenberg/CPB Collection, 1990, 30 minutes). Reasoning, planning, and problem-solving abilities are reviewed.

•

How Children Learn (Insight Media, 1997, 23 minutes). This video serves as an introduction to cognitive theory, using the theories of Piaget, Vygotsky, and Erikson to highlight the important interaction of experience and brain maturation as a child prepares for school learning.

Growing Minds: Cognitive Development in Early Childhood (Davidson Films, 1996, 25 minutes). David Elkind highlights similarities and differences between the work of Vygotsky and Piaget.

•

•

Play: A Vygotskian Approach (Davidson Films, 1996, 26 minutes). Through observations of children engaging in play, Vygotsky’s views of play as a means for children to master their worlds are contrasted with views of play held by Erikson and Piaget.

•

Preschoolers; Cognitive Development (Magna Systems, 2008, 24 minutes). This DVD uses footage of preschoolers in the classroom and interviews with teachers and caregivers, to provide a detailed overview of the cognitive development that takes place between the ages of three and five. It also gives suggestions for activities that foster cognitive development.

Scaffolding Self-Regulated Learning in the Primary Grades (Davidson Films, 1996, 35 minutes). The essential elements of scaffolding and the concept of zones of proximal development are portrayed in classroom settings.

•

•

Vygotsky’s Developmental Theory: An Introduction (Insight Media, 1994, 28 minutes). This video reviews and illustrates with preschool and elementary school children the basic concepts underlying Vygotsky’s developmental theory.

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MODULE 6.3: UNDERSTANDING IN CORE DOMAINS LEARNING OBJECTIVES: •

What do infants understand about the nature of objects?

•

When and how do young children distinguish between living and nonliving things?

•

How do young children acquire a theory of mind?

KEY TERMS: teleological explanations

folk psychology

essentialism

theory of mind

CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES: •

•

Teddy Bears and Imaginary Friends. Ask your students if they had a teddy bear (or favourite stuffed toy). How long did they have this stuffed toy? Did they love their stuffed toy? Did it love them back? Most students will hesitate to answer this last question, but many students, reflecting back on their childhood, will answer affirmatively. This, of course, illustrates animism. Imaginary friends, although somewhat less common than favourite stuffed toys, also indicate animistic thinking (and highly creative thinking, too). Ask students to share stories of imaginary friends with the class. These stories are usually very interesting and reveal the extent to which children attribute life-like properties to inanimate—in this case, imaginary—objects.

Internet Annotated Bibliography. Have your students use the Internet to identify 10 websites that give scholarly information on the topic of metacognition (theory of mind). Students should type an annotated bibliography that lists the URLs (website addresses) for these websites, and gives a brief (one or two paragraph) summary/review of each.

1. The name of the website (e.g., Metacognition: An Overview).

2. A valid URL (website address, e.g., http://www.gse.buffalo.edu/fas/shuell/CEP564/Metacog.htm).

3. A brief (one or two paragraph) review of the website. Reviews should include a brief summary of what students can expect to find if they visit the website and a brief evaluation of the website.

As a follow-up to this activity, students can combine all of the annotated bibliographies into an Internet Resource Directory that could be distributed in class.

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FILMS/VIDEOS/DVDS: •

Cognitive Development: Representation in Three-to Five-Year-Old Children (Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 1997, 30 minutes). In this program, academic researchers from Cambridge University and elsewhere discuss a theory of mind that stems from a child’s experiential-based understanding of causal relationships.

Observations drawn from experiments employing false belief tasks and analogical reasoning games support their hypothesis as an alternative to the neuro-cognitive module concept. Piaget’s theory is also addressed.

•

Seasons of Life: Infancy and Childhood and Seasons of Life: Childhood and Adolescence (Annenberg/CPB Collection, 1990, 60 minutes each). Both videos explore the biological,

social, and psychological clocks of the respective age groups. These videos provide an excellent dialecticaloverview of infant, child, and adolescent development, emphasizing the nature of human development.

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INTERNET RESOURCES •

http://www.edpsycinteractive.org/topics/cognition/infoproc.html – This document provides a detailed overview of the information-processing perspective. The site emphasizes the application of information-processing research and theory to the classroom.

•

http://www.piaget.org & http://www.unige.ch/piaget https://archivespiaget.ch/– Home pages of the Jean Piaget Society and Jean Piaget Archives. These sites contain the most complete information about Jean Piaget available on the Internet.

•

https://www.marxists.org/archive/vygotsky/ – Soviet Psychology: The Lev Vygotsky Archive

•

https://www.zerotothree.org/ – Zero to Three is a non-profit organization that focuses on the physical, cognitive, social, and emotional development of infants and toddlers.

148 .

CASE STUDY Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development

time.

“C’mon, Daddy, I wanna play hide-n-seek!” 4-year-old Emily implored for the third

“We’ve already played hide-and-seek so many times; I’m running out of places to hide.

Why don’t you try hiding this time? I’ll count to ten.” I hid my eyes and slowly counted to ten.

Then, after announcing “Ready or not, here I come!” in my best troll voice, I began to look for her. The search didn’t take long. Emily had hidden in the same hiding space that I had used a few minutes earlier.

“Ah-hah! I found you! Now I’m going to eat you up!”

“No, Daddy, you can’t see me!” Emily said, as she covered her face with her hands.

“Oh, really? Well, if I can’t see you, that means I haven’t found you yet. And if I haven’t found you yet, why are we talking to each other?”

“Because I’m a ghost.”

1. Emily enjoyed playing games over and over again. How would Piaget explain this desire to repeat actions?

2. Emily is 4 years old. According to Piaget, in what stage of cognitive development is she likely to be functioning?

3. What are the major characteristics of the stage of cognitive development that you indicated in your answer to question #2, and what characteristics of this stage does Emily exhibit?

4. When she’s not playing hide-n-seek, Emily enjoys working on puzzles or colouring. While engaging in these and other activities, she often talks to herself. Is this normal? Explain.

What function does this self-talk serve, if any?

5. According to Piaget, Emily is not yet able to conserve. Is Piaget right? Secondly, should her parents try to teach her conservation abilities? Discuss the research findings surrounding both of these questions.

149 .

CASE STUDY Information-Processing Approaches to Cognitive Development “Three little monkeys, jumping on the bed; One fell off and bumped his head; Mommy called the doctor and the doctor said: ‘No more monkeys jumping on the bed.’”

Four-year-old Byron giggled when he finished then looked up at his mom, proud that he had remembered the whole rhyme.

“What a silly rhyme. Where did you learn that, Byron?”

“At preschool, Mommy. We’ve been saying it at school every day this week.”

Byron’s grandfather, who was listening to the conversation between his daughter and grandson, couldn’t sit quietly any longer. “You spend time at preschool every day saying rhymes like that? Aren’t you learning to count and to say your ABCs?” “Mostly we just play, grandpa. We play lots of games, we sing lots of songs, we have a water table and a sand box, and we makes lots of stuff with paper, crayons, and paste.”

“So tell me, what else did you learn this week?” Byron’s grandfather asked. …”

Byron thought for a moment, and then replied: “Two little monkeys, jumping on the bed

1. Byron mentioned that his preschool class repeated the rhyme every day. Why is repetition important for the cognitive development of children? Answer this question with respect to what is known about the information-processing abilities of children.

2. Assess the silly rhyme that Byron learned at preschool. What academic skills is it teaching Byron?

3. What memory strategy is Byron’s preschool teacher using to encourage her students to remember the rhyme? Also discuss how this rhyme might contribute to the development of Byron’s scripts.

150 .

HANDOUT 6-1 Learning Objectives/Discussion Questions for Chapter 6: 1. What are the basic principles of Piaget’s theory of cognitive development?

2. How does thinking change as children move through Piaget’s four stages of development?

3. What are the lasting contributions of Piaget’s theory? What are some of its shortcomings?

4. In Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory, how do adults and other people contribute to children’s cognitive development?

5. According to information-processing psychologists, how does thinking change with development?

6. How do connectionist theorists view the development of the mind?

7. What naïve theories do children hold about physics, psychology, and biology?

8. What do infants understand about the nature of objects?

9. When and how do young children distinguish between living and nonliving things?

10. How do young children acquire a theory of mind?

151 .

HANDOUT 6-2 Personal Equilibration Directions: Remember a time when you were confronted with information or evidence that forced you to re-evaluate something you believed to be true. For example, you may have changed your attitude or beliefs about minorities, the opposite sex, politics, smoking, Santa Claus, religion, parents, etc. Once you have identified such a change in your thinking, respond to the questions below.

1. What was your original belief? In other words, describe your original scheme.

2. Before you changed your belief, how did you deal with evidence that contradicted your belief?

3. What finally caused you to change your belief? Describe the period of disequilibrium you experienced, and how you resolved it.

4. Describe your new belief. In other words, what scheme(s) resulted from your accommodation process?

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HANDOUT 6-3 Observing Egocentrism Directions: Interview a 4- or 5-year-old child in an effort to determine if the child thinks egocentrically. After a warm-up period where you establish a comfortable rapport with the child, ask the child the questions below, recording the answers verbatim (or as accurately as possible).

After the interview is concluded, look at the answers again and underline or highlight statements that reveal egocentrism.

1. Why does the sun shine?

2. Why are balls round?

3. Why does the wind blow?

4. Why is there snow?

5. Close your eyes. Can you see me? Do you think I can see you?

6. Do you have a best friend? What is your best friend’s name? Does friend) have a friend? Who?

7. Other questions:

153 .

(the child’s best

HANDOUT 6-4 Identifying Piaget’s Stages Directions: Name the stage in which each of the following individuals appears to be functioning.

Explain why you chose the stage that you did for each person.

1. Marti wants more cookies, so her aunt breaks in half the ones that she already has, and Marti is satisfied.

2. Sammy wants you to pick up his toy and put it in his crib so that he can drop it again.

3. From a group of objects, June chooses a straw, a pencil, and a ruler to form a group of “things that go together” because they are all long and skinny.

4. A patient is able to discuss the question, “What would happen if people would never become ill?”

5. Mother: “How do you think Molly feels when you take her toy away from her?” Child: “She feels like I want to play with it.”

6. Doug can now enjoy playing “peek-a-boo.”

7. When given three kinds of meat, three kinds of cheese, and three kinds of bread, Lisa can make 27 kinds of sandwiches.

154 .

HANDOUT 6-5 Discovering Your Own Naïve Theories Directions: This handout will reveal to you some of the naïve theories you have about the world and people around you. Remember that these naïve theories are common and are not a sign of intellectual weakness or academic unpreparedness. The label "naïve" has been applied to them because these theories are the product of your own observations and are not the result of formal education or systematic research. For each of the general topics listed below, describe the beliefs (i.e., naïve theories) that you hold to be true, and indicate how confident you are in the accuracy of each of your naïve theories. Be prepared to share some of your beliefs with the class, if your instructor chooses.

General Topic Areas

Briefly describe your beliefs (i.e., Degree of Confidence naïve theories) about each (HI, MOD, LOW) question.

PHYSICS: What makes a curveball curve?

What causes the ocean tides?

How do weather forecasters know when it is going to rain?

PSYCHOLOGY: How do you know if someone has a romantic interest in you?

How do you make someone else feel jealous, and how do you know if they are jealous?

Why do you forget things you once knew?

155 .

BIOLOGY: Why do people age (i.e., what causes physical aging)?

Why do muscles get sore after strenuous exercise?

How do you know you are alive?

HANDOUT 6-6 Getting Zoned: Vygotsky’s Theory of Cognitive Development Directions: This handout will enable you to identify zones of proximal development that you are currently experiencing (or experienced at some point during your childhood or adolescence) and the scaffolding that is contributing to your cognitive development.

1. What task(s) can you perform alone that you can perform much better with assistance? In other words, describe your current zone(s) of proximal development.

2. Who provides assistance for you with the task(s) described above? How is the assistance provided? Describe the type(s) of scaffolding you are experiencing.

3. Has the person(s) providing assistance (see #2) ever provided too much assistance? Too little assistance? Explain.

4. Do you engage in private speech? If so, under what circumstances? What role, if any, does private speech play regarding your cognitive functioning?

156 .

HANDOUT 6-7 “Hey, Professor. Here’s my lucubration.”

Directions: Trace the journey that the term “lucubration” takes through your informationprocessing system by answering the questions below. lucubration: (n) work produced at night; laborious study.

1. Describe the purpose of sensory memory and how the term lucubration is processed in this memory system.

2. How does information enter into working memory?

3. Describe the processes or mental activities that occur in working memory upon the “arrival” of the term lucubration. In other words, how do you attempt to comprehend and remember the meaning of this term?

4. How is long-term memory involved in the processing of the term lucubration? Will this term be stored in your long-term memory forever? If so, how might you explain being unable to recall the term or its definition in the event that you forget it?

157 .

HANDOUT 6-8 The Game of 20 Questions Directions: Locate two elementary-aged children (ages 5-6 and 10-11 years old) to play the game of 20 questions. Ideally, you should play the game with each child separately so that the children do not influence each other. After obtaining parental permission to play the game with each child, spend a few minutes establishing rapport with each child. Then, suggest that you’d like to play a game with the child. Recite the following instructions: Here’s a fun game we can play. I am thinking of something in this room. Your job is to figure out what I am thinking about. To help you figure this out, you can ask me any questions that can be answered “yes” or “no.” I can’t tell you anything more than “yes” or “no” when you ask questions. You can ask as many questions as you want to, but try to figure out what I am thinking about by asking as few questions as you can.

Choose a specific object in the room, and then tell the child to try and figure it out. Even though the game is called “20 questions,” young children may require more than 20 questions to identify the object you chose. If the children ask questions that can’t be answered “yes” or “no,” remind them of the instructions. If the children cannot identify the object (or become frustrated trying), praise them for their efforts and stop the game. As the game is progressing, keep track of the YOUNGER CHILD OLDER CHILD number of hypothesis and constraint questions each child asks in the following table.

Then, Target object: complete the questions below.

Number of hypothesis questions: Number of constraint questions: Total number of questions required to identify target:

1. List some of the constraint questions asked by both the younger and older child.

2. Was there any evidence of the use of more efficient strategies by the older child? Explain.

3. Did the two children handle the task as you anticipated they would, or were you surprised by any of their responses? Explain.

158 .

HANDOUT 6-9 Look Into It: Changes in Information Processing Directions: You have been assigned a topic that impacts cognitive development. It is your job to investigate research on this topic using any available library resources. To help focus your search, please respond to the questions below.

TOPIC: 1. How does your topic impact cognitive development? (Describe the positive or negative relationships that exist between your topic and cognitive development.)

2. What type of research (e.g., experiments, observational studies, etc.) has been conducted to investigate the relationship between your topic and cognitive development?

3. How can the impact of your topic on cognitive development be enhanced? In other words, if parents or teachers are aware of how your topic impacts cognitive development, what can they do about it?

159 .

ANSWER KEY CASE STUDY Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development 1. Emily is engaging in an elaborate secondary circular reaction. Also, an argument could be made that she is gaining a mastery of hide-and-seek via practice, or as Piaget would suggest, via assimilation.

2. Preoperational stage.

3. Egocentrism: Emily thinks that by covering her eyes, she can’t be seen. Also, she exhibits a logic in responding to the “Why are we talking to each other” question that is self-serving.

Appearance as Reality: If the father was acting like or dressed like a troll, then Emily would believe that he actually was a troll.

Animism and centration (lack of conservation) are also part of this period but are not present in the case.

1. Emily’s self-talk is a demonstration of private speech. According to Vygotsky, private speech helps children regulate their behaviour and thinking.

2. Emily may not be able to conserve all physical dimensions, but she may be able to conserve some, with practice and if the conservation tasks are simplified. Emily is also more likely to exhibit conservation if she is asked to render just one judgment about the materials rather than two, according to research by Winer et al., 1992. Research by Gelman (1969) also suggests that Emily can be trained to conserve if given practice with physical dimensions or, according to research by Miller and Brownell (1975), if allowed to work on conservation problems with a child who can conserve.

160 .

CASE STUDY Information-Processing Approaches to Cognitive Development 1. Repetition is important for the cognitive development of children because repetition is an important strategy for storing information in long-term memory. Structured, formal repetition is important for preschoolers, especially, since they do not rehearse information spontaneously.

2. The rhyme is teaching Byron phonological awareness; the rhyme emphasizes the sound units of the language. Also, given that the rhyme has verses that count down in terms of the number of monkeys jumping on the bed, the rhyme is teaching Byron the stable-order principle of counting.

3. The repetition of the rhyme is an example of rehearsal, a memory strategy that can be used to store information in long-term memory. The rhyme might also contribute to the development of a script for Byron in that it contains a common sequence of events: a risky behaviour is followed by an injury, which is then followed by a call to the doctor, and the call to the doctor results in medical treatment (or advice).

HANDOUT 6-4: Identifying Piaget’s Stages 1. Preoperational Stage. Marti is lacking in conservation of mass because she thinks she has more cookies when her aunt breaks the cookies she already has in half.

2. Sensorimotor Stage. Sammy is engaging you in a secondary circular reaction.

3. Concrete Operational Stage. June is successfully categorizing the objects.

4. Formal Operational Stage. The patient is thinking hypothetically.

5. Preoperational Stage. The child is exhibiting egocentrism.

6. Sensorimotor Stage. Doug has acquired object permanence.

7. Formal Operational Stage. Lisa can devise a plan (a form of abstract thinking) to produce every possible combination of sandwiches.

161 .

HANDOUT 6-7: “Hey, Professor. Here’s my lucubration.”

1. Sensory memory is where information being sent from the senses is stored very briefly, in unanalyzed form. Having read the term “lucubration,” the visual image created by this term is stored briefly in sensory memory.

2. Working memory is the site of ongoing cognitive activity (i.e., information processing).

Information enters into working memory from sensory memory if we attend to it.

3. Part of working memory is devoted to storage, maintaining the word “lucubration” in mind, while other processes take place that are involved in comprehending the word and giving it meaning.

4. Long-term memory (LTM) is involved in processing the term “lucubration” because information on related word meanings is stored in LTM. Also, any memory strategies that may be invoked to process the term have been stored in LTM. The word “lucubration” will be stored in LTM permanently if enough effort is devoted to its storage. In other words, if strategies for storage of information have been utilized successfully (e.g., organization, elaboration, rehearsal, etc.), the term should be stored as a new link in an associative network in LTM. If the term is forgotten after its successful storage that would be the result of a retrieval failure, meaning that our memory search failed to activate any link that was associated with the term “lucubration” in our associative network.

162 .

End-of-Chapter Test Yourself Questions: Theories of Cognitive Development Test Yourself 1. Piaget’s theory is built around the metaphor of children as __________.

2. In Piaget’s theory, __________ is illustrated by a breastfed baby who changes the way that she sucks to get milk from a bottle.

3. The accomplishments of the sensorimotor stage include adapting to and exploring the environment, understanding objects, and __________.

A defining feature of children in the __________ stage of development is that they are often 4. egocentric; that is, they are unable to take the perspective of other people.

During the __________ stage, thinking is rule-oriented and logical but limited to the tangible 5. and real.

Piaget underestimated the ability of __________ but overestimated the ability of adolescents.

6.

The __________ refers to the difference between what children can accomplish alone and 7. what they can do with assistance.

According to Vygotsky, young children often rely on __________ to help them regulate their own behaviour.

In information-processing theories, the __________ is like a computer’s operating system in 9. coordinating the flow of information through the system.

8.

10. According to the information-processing account, cognitive development reflects several age-related changes, including better strategies, increased capacity of working memory, more automatic processing, and __________.

11. __________ propose that specialized processing systems evolved to simplify learning of certain kinds of knowledge, such as language.

12. Research on infants’ understanding of objects suggests that babies have __________ understanding than Piaget suggested.

13. Infants and toddlers rely upon __________ to identify animate objects.

14. Preschoolers’ beliefs about living things are rooted in teleology (living things exist for a reason) and __________.

15. By age four, children have a reasonably sophisticated __________, understanding, for example, that people will act on their beliefs even when those beliefs are false.

Answers: (1) scientists; (2) accommodation; (3) using symbols; (4) preoperational; (5) concrete operational; (6) infants; (7) zone of proximal development; (8) private speech; (9) central executive; (10) faster speed of processing; (11) Core-knowledge theories; (12) greater; (13) selfpropelled motion; (14) essentialism—the idea that living things have a hidden “essence” that defines them; (15) theory of mind.

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Chapter 7 Cognitive Processes and Academic Skills CHAPTER OVERVIEW

166

MODULE SUPPLEMENTS Module 7.1: MEMORY

169

Learning Objectives Key Terms Classroom Activities Films/Videos/DVDs 172

Module 7.2: PROBLEM SOLVING Learning Objectives Key Terms Classroom Activities Films/Videos/DVDs

174

Module 7.3: ACADEMIC SKILLS Learning Objectives Key Terms Classroom Activities Films/Videos/DVDs

177

Module 7.4: ELECTRONIC MEDIA Learning Objectives Key Terms Classroom Activities Films/Videos/DVDs

164 .

INTERNET RESOURCES

180

CASE STUDY

181

HANDOUTS

182

ANSWER KEY

190

TEST YOURSELF

191

165 .

CHAPTER 7 OVERVIEW I.

Module 7.1: Memory a. Origins of Memory i.

Brain Development and Memory

b. Strategies for Remembering 1. Memory Strategy 2. Rehearsal 3. Organization 4. Elaboration 5. Chunking i.

Metacognition 1. Metamemory 2. Metacognitive Knowledge 3. Cognitive Self-Regulation

c. Knowledge and Memory 1. Script i.

Spotlight on Theories 1. Fuzzy Trace Theory

ii. Autobiographical Memory 1. Autobiographical Memory 2. Infantile Amnesia iii. Eyewitness Testimony 1. Interviewing Children Effectively d. Focus on Research i.

Do Stereotypes and Suggestions Influence Preschoolers’ Reports?

II. Module 7.2: Problem Solving a.

Developmental Trends in Solving Problems

b. Features of Children’s and Adolescents’ Problem Solving i.

Young Children Sometimes Fail to Solve Problems Because They Don’t Encode All the Important Information in a Problem 1. Encoding Processes 166 .

ii

Young Children Sometimes Fail to Solve Problems Because They Don’t Plan Ahead

iii. Successful Problem Solving Typically Depends Upon Knowledge Specific to the Problem as well as General Processes 1. Means-End Analysis iv. Children and Adolescents Use a Variety of Strategies to Solve Problems 1. Heuristics v. c.

Collaboration Often Enhances Children’s Problem Solving

Scientific Problem Solving i.

Children and adolescents often have misconceptions about scientific phenomena that interfere with their scientific thinking

ii. Children and adolescents often devise experiments in which variables are confounded iii. Children and adolescents often reach conclusions prematurely, basing them on too little evidence III. Module 7.3- Academic Skills a.

Reading 1. Word Recognition 2. Comprehension i.

Foundations of Reading Skill 1. Phonological Awareness

ii. Recognizing Words 1. Decoding iii. Educational Implications for Teaching Reading iv. Comprehension 1. Children’s language skills improve, which allows them to understand words that they’ve decoded 2. Children become more skilled at recognizing words, allowing more working capacity to be devoted to comprehension 3. Working memory capacity increases, which means that older and better readers can store more of a sentence in memory as they try to identify the propositions it contains 4. Children acquire more general knowledge of their physical, social, and psychological worlds, which allows them to understand more of what they read

167 .

5. With experience, children better monitor their comprehension 6. With experience, children use more appropriate reading strategies b. Children’s Lives: Rhyme is Sublime Because Sounds Abound c. Writing i.

Greater Knowledge and Access to Knowledge About Topics

ii. Greater Understanding of How to Organize Writing 1. Knowledge-Telling Strategy 2. Knowledge-Transforming Strategy iii. Greater Ease in Dealing with the Mechanical Requirements of Writing iv. Greater Skill in Revising d. Knowing and Using Numbers i.

Learning to Count 1. One-to-One Principle 2. Stable-Order Principle 3. Cardinality Principle

ii.

Adding and Subtracting

iii. Comparing North American Students with Students in Other Countries 1. Canadian students generally score higher than students in the United States, except for Aboriginal school-age children iv. Educational Implications of Cross-Cultural Findings on Academic Achievement e.

Cultural Influences: Grade 5 in Taiwan 1. Time in school and how it is used 2. Time spent in homework and attitudes toward it 3. Parents’ attitudes 4. Parents’ beliefs about effort and ability

IV. Module 7.4 Electronic Media a.

Television i.

Influence on Cognition

b. Computers i. Computers in the Home ii. Computers in the Classroom 168 .

MODULE SUPPLEMENTS MODULE 7.1: MEMORY LEARNING OBJECTIVES: •

How well do infants remember?

•

How do strategies help children to remember?

•

How does children’s knowledge influence what they remember?

(See Handout 7-1 for a list of the learning objectives for the chapter.)

KEY TERMS: memory strategies

metacognitive knowledge

rehearsal

cognitive self-regulation

organization

script

elaboration

autobiographical memory

chunking

fuzzy trace theory

metamemory

infantile amnesia

CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES: •

•

•

Storing Information in Long-term Memory: An Examination of Note-Taking Styles. The metacognitive abilities of most students suggest to them that if they wish to retain information presented in class in their long-term memories, they should take notes. After lecturing on a particular topic (memory strategies, perhaps), ask your students to form small groups of 3 or 4. Once the small groups have formed, ask your students to pass their notebooks to someone else in the group. Each student should identify the note-taking style of the person whose notes are before him/her. (Note: Students should seek permission from each other before leafing through the notebooks.) Handout 7-2 poses questions to the students to aid their analyses of note-taking strategies. A class discussion of the various note-taking styles should highlight the variety of strategies available to facilitate the transfer of information to long-term memory.

Preparing for Retrieval: An Examination of Studying Strategies. Ask your students to share how they study for a multiple-choice exam versus an essay exam versus a fill-in-the-blank exam. Make a list of their studying strategies on the board. How do their studying strategies differ? Why do their studying strategies differ? With which strategies do they feel they learn the most information? Do they always use these “learn the most” strategies? If not, why not?

This class discussion should reveal the importance of creating effective and efficient retrieval cues and the fact that the selection of effective retrieval cues is a learned skill.

Exploring Children’s Scripts. Children and adults tend to organize routine experiences into scripts, and these scripts increase in sophistication as individuals develop. Ask your students to interview a preschooler (ages 3-4 years) and a first- or second-grade child (or bring children of these age groups into your classroom). Completion of Handout 7-3 should reveal some of the developmental changes in scripts. For example, young children’s scripts are 169 .

usually simple with actions being organized sequentially, while older children’s scripts are usually more elaborate and frequently contain conditional qualifiers (e.g., “When we go to McBurger’s, we order at the counter, but when we go to Pizza Cabana, they bring the food to our table”).

•

Short Video Clips. Visual resources are very effective in helping students to understand new concepts. However, there is not always enough time, to view full videos, during class.

Instead, consider using the short video clips, from www.davidsonfilms.com to provide an interesting, overview of cognitive development. The video clips tend to be less than 5 minutes, in length. Assign the students responsibility to view these topics and summarize the main concepts. This activity can be done in the classroom or as homework. The tiles recommended for this activity are: i.

Using What We Know Applying Piaget’s Theory in Primary Grades (4 minutes, 58 seconds)

ii. Scaffolding Self-directed Learning in the Primary Grades (3 minutes, 59 seconds) iii. Concrete Operations (3 minutes, 56 seconds) iv. Adolescent Cognition: Thinking in a New Key (4 minutes, 9 seconds) Another source of short video clips is YouTube. Students can be assigned the task of finding specific topics that relate to cognitive processes, memory, problem solving, and academic skills.

The short video clip can be used to provide a visual reinforcement of a concept.

FILMS/VIDEOS/DVDS: •

Cognitive Development (Films for Humanities and Sciences, 2004, 58 minutes). This video examines Piaget's theory and critically evaluates it in light of current research. It also describes the child development theories that are based on Piaget's and their themes. The cognitive stages of development from birth to twelve years old, illustrating children's behaviour at each level are covered. Recent research is examined in relation to each stage and comparisons drawn with the theories of Jerome Bruner. Current and future developments, such as metacognition and theory of mind, and reports about recent research findings are also included.

•

How Does Your Memory Work? (Insight Media, 2008, 50 minutes). This DVD explores the mechanisms of human recollection and presents case studies and medical findings that reveal the complexity of the brain’s memory center.

•

Learning and Memory (Insight Media, 1993, 34 minutes). Presenting the results of research with insect, animal, and human populations, this video explains what past research has revealed about short- and long-term memory.

• • •

Memory (Insight Media, 2001, 30 minutes). This video describes several models of memory, and it reviews the processes involved in remembering and forgetting.

The Elementary Mind (Insight Media, 1992, 30 minutes). This video provides excellent coverage of the development of concepts and memory strategies in elementary-aged children.

The Preschooler’s Mind (RMI Media Productions, 1992, 30 minutes). Reviews the development of cognitive processes during the preschool years.

170 .

•

The Minds Storehouse: Memory (Insight Media, 2006, 30 minutes) This DVD questions whether memory is reliable. It includes interviews with memory researchers that cover such topics as encoding, storage, and retrieval of memory and presents demonstrations of shortterm memory. The program also features Elizabeth Loftus, who explains her role in debunking the phenomenon of repressed memories. DVD

•

Seasons of Life: Infancy and Early Childhood (Annenberg/CPB Collection, 1990, 60 minutes). This video is an engaging overview of the intellectual, social, and physical development of children from birth to age 6. While it is not specific to memory development, it covers relevant issues that portray memory development in light of the total development of the child.

•

The Age of Reason: Cognitive Development during the School Years (Insight Media, 2003, 30 minutes). This video shows how children’s thought processes become more sophisticated and logical during the school years. It discusses Jean Piaget’s stage theory of concrete operational thought and Kohlberg’s moral reasoning theory.

•

The Study of Memory (Insight Media, 1996, 74 minutes). This video provides a comprehensive introduction to the study of memory, elaborating on concepts such as encoding, storage, and retrieval.

171 .

MODULE 7.2: PROBLEM SOLVING LEARNING OBJECTIVES: •

Do older children and adolescents typically solve problems better than younger children?

•

What factors contribute to the success of children and adolescents in solving problems?

•

Can children and adolescents reason scientifically?

KEY TERMS: encoding processes

heuristics

means-ends analysis

confounded

CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES: •

Internet Annotated Bibliography. Have your students use the Internet to identify 10 websites that give scholarly information on problem-solving skills in children and/or adolescents.

Students should type an annotated bibliography that lists the URLs (website addresses) for these websites and gives a brief (one or two paragraph) summary/review of each.

1. The name of the website (e.g., How You Can Help Children Solve Problems).

2. A valid URL (website address, e.g., http://www.scholastic.com/teachers/articles/teaching-content/how-you-can-helpchildren-solve-problems).

3. A brief (one or two paragraph) review of the website. Reviews should include a brief summary of what students can expect to find if they visit the website and a brief evaluation of the website.

As a follow-up to this activity, students can combine all of the annotated bibliographies into an Internet Resource Directory that could be distributed in class.

•

Look Into It: Changes in Information Processing. Have your students visit the library (or their computers) to do some focused library searches. Depending upon your class size (under 40 works well) and available library resources (Psyc-Lit, InfoTrak Expanded Academic ASAP, or equivalent search systems), this project can be an effective means of allowing students to explore a topic that is of particular interest to them. Handout 7-4 provides a series of questions that will guide the students’ library searches.

The following factors have been shown to influence children’s and adolescents’ problem solving. Assign one topic to each student (or small groups of students) in your class and have them explore the professional literature. During your next class session, have them briefly present their findings to the rest of the class. A list of topics that pertain to problem solving appears below. (a) Encoding Processes (b) Heuristics (c) Means-end Analysis

172 .

(d) Scientific Problem Solving (e) Confounded Variables •

Evaluating Infant and Child Toys. This project has been discussed in several preceding chapters of this instructor’s resource manual. Your students should now assess the infant and child toys with respect to the challenges or stimulation they provide children with regards to problem solving. Is problem solving enhanced or stifled by the toys? Can your students think of ways to improve how the toys contribute to a child’s problem-solving abilities?

FILMS/VIDEOS/DVDS: •

Critical Thinking and Problem Solving (Insight Media, 2009, 50 minutes). This DVD video defines critical thinking and shows how to apply critical thinking to the problem-solving process.

•

Higher Order Thinking Skills (NEA Professional Library, 1993, 23 minutes). Episode 24 of the Learning Channel’s Teacher TV Series. Discusses the methods in which teachers can promote problem-solving skills in students. Critical thinking by young children is examined.

•

How to Engage Students in Critical Thinking Skills (Insight Media, 2000, 15 minutes). This video discusses critical thinking activities and emphasizes the importance of integrating critical thinking into the daily curriculum.

•

20 Critical Thinking and Problem-Solving Activities (Championship Productions, 2002, 44 minutes). Highlights 20 activities through distinctly different critical thinking games.

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MODULE 7.3: ACADEMIC SKILLS LEARNING OBJECTIVES: •

What are the components of skilled reading?

•

As children develop, how does their writing improve?

•

When do children understand and use quantitative skills?

KEY TERMS: word recognition comprehension phonological awareness decoding knowledge-telling strategy

knowledge-transforming strategy one-to-one principle propositions

principle cardinality principle

CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES:

•

stable-order

Evaluating Children’s Books. Prior to the class session in which you intend to cover prereading skills, ask your students to go to a local public library and borrow a few children’s books written for preschoolers, (or borrow a few books from preschoolers they may know).

Students should be encouraged to borrow a selection of books that they believe represent both “good” and “bad” children’s books.

(Note: For those students, who are unsure about their abilities to judge children’s books, tell them to look for books that have and have not won literary awards.) During class, ask your students to work in small groups to assess the good and bad books that they found. After giving the groups several minutes to compare their books, engage the class in a discussion about what makes a “good book” a good book.

In addition to the surface elements of the books (e.g., artwork, story line), direct your class to consider the following developmental elements of the books: (a) How do the books enhance word recognition? (Do the authors use repetition?) (b) How is comprehension facilitated? (Do the authors maintain simple story lines that are supplemented by pictures?) (c) What techniques to enhance phonological awareness are employed? (Do the authors use rhymes, alliteration, or onomatopoeia?)

•

Developmental analysis of children’s books has been an effective vehicle through which to address a variety of the reading issues covered in the text, and this activity has the added benefit of making the students (especially those who are parents, baby-sitters, day care employees, or elementary education majors) more sophisticated consumers of children’s literature.

Guest Speaker: Early Childhood Educator. Invite an early childhood educator to address curriculum issues with your class. Ask the educator to review the development of both, reading and counting/math skills, and the techniques that are used to facilitate the development of these skills. If possible, arrange a demonstration of some of the educational activities by inviting a few preschoolers (and their parents) to attend this class.

174 .

•

•

Investigating Early Childhood Curriculums. Divide the students in your class into three groups and ask them to investigate a specific approach to early childhood education. One group should investigate the Montessori method, another group should investigate the academic skills method (e.g., emphasis on pre-reading skills, counting skills, etc.), and a third group should investigate an approach that emphasizes emotional-social development (e.g., this approach is often called a “play-based curriculum” and focuses on cooperation and empathy). Each group of students should survey the research literature and then contact a preschool or day care program in the community that has adopted their respective educational method. Each group should arrange a visit to the program and an interview with the director or a teacher at the facility. Finally, each group should present its findings to the rest of the class.

Creating Educational Games. Individually or in small groups, ask your students to create a game that will foster the development of reading and/or counting/math skills (and additional information-processing abilities). Handout 7-5 provides detailed instructions for this activity.

The final product should include the game itself (e.g., playing cards, game board, game pieces, etc.), a detailed set of instructions, and a developmental critique. The developmental critique is a short paper in which each group identifies the developmental constructs included in their game and provides a review of supporting research that indicates the importance and appropriateness of each construct for the age group for whom the game is designed. (Handout 7-5 fully describes each element of this assignment.) For the past several years, I have concluded this project with “Game Day,” a class session devoted to demonstrating and playing all of the groups’ games. My students have consistently described this project as an enjoyable, meaningful, and valuable experience.

FILMS/VIDEOS/DVDS: •

Back to the Books: Creating a Literacy Culture in Your School (Insight Media, 2006, 80 minutes). This set (2 DVDs) offers differentiated

•

Building Literacy Competencies in Early Childhood (Davidson Films, 2000, 30 minutes).

This video illustrates the development from infancy through kindergarten of several cognitive, physical, and emotional competencies necessary to learn to read and write.

•

Childhood, Program 3: Love’s Labors (Ambrose Video, 1991, 60 minutes). This program reviews the remarkable intellectual, physical, and psychosocial development that occurs between 6 months and 3 years of age.

•

Childhood, Program 5: Life’s Lessons (Ambrose Video, 1991, 60 minutes). Focusing on the “5–7 shift,” this video explores the stage in development where children are physically and intellectually prepared for formal education.

▪ “Emergent Literacy” modules from the “Early Childhood Training” series (Magna Systems, 2001) ▪ Activities in a Print Rich Environment (29 minutes). A variety of activities that promote an interest in print are presented, from reading to preschool children to the creation of a reading experiences for older Origins and Skills (29chart minutes).

Thischildren. video focuses on a concept called “Emergent ▪

Literacy,” and it is illustrated by showing children move along a continuum from less to more skillful use of language and print. The development of writing skills is emphasized.

175 .

•

Differentiated Reading and Writing Strategies for Elementary Classrooms (Insight Media, 2006, 80 minutes). This set of 2 DVDs) offers differentiated strategies for teaching reading and writing at the elementary and secondary levels. It combines differentiation, flexible groupings, and classroom climate enhancements.

•

“Path to Math” modules from the “Early Childhood Training” series (Magna Systems, 1996): ▪ One to One Correspondence; Comparing (21 minutes). This video examines how children discover relationships between groups of objects, and that quantity and other physical properties can be shared across (31 groups of objects.

Sets & Classification; Seriation (Ordering) minutes).

This video reviews how ▪ children put things together based on a shared characteristic (sets), how they join, or ▪

•

separate (classification), they put inreviews some form order (seriation).

Number &sets Counting; Numeralsand (33how minutes).

Thisthem video the of development of a number concept, beginning with rote counting and ending with the notion of cardinality.

“Phonemic Awareness” modules from the “Early Childhood Training” series (Magna Systems, 2002): ▪ Foundational Blocks for Sound Awareness: Sentences, Compounds and Rhyming (29 minutes). This video presents hands-on activities for teachers to help students master the largest unit of phonemic awareness: sentences. The next level of phonological awareness, rhyming, is also reviewed, as are interactive games designed to help a child gain the ability to use/create compounds.

Phonemes and Phonics (28 minutes). This video examines the smallest unit of sound, ▪ phonemes, and stresses the importance of proper sound production. Teaching techniques for teaching phonemicand awareness and phonics are minutes). presented.This program begins with Phonemic Awareness Introduction to Print (26 ▪

▪

an overview of phonemic awareness and theories underlying phonics. The importance of print is also stressed, as are several techniques for teaching children the basic elements of printed communication.

Sound Manipulation (26 minutes). The importance of segmenting sound and blending it back together is the main theme of this video. Instructional techniques are presented that will allow children to recognize and separate phonemes, and to spell words systematically.

•

Piaget’s Constructivism and Elementary Mathematics (Insight Media, 1996, 58 minutes).

This DVD reviews Piaget’s theory of constructivism and shows its applications to classroom practices. It explains that traditional mathematics education teaches how to find correct answers while constructivism fosters broader thinking skills.

•

What Every Teacher Should Know About Reading Comprehension Instruction (Insight Media, 2005, 70 minutes). In this program, reading researcher and comprehension theorist P. David Pearson discusses the latest theories and studies about teaching comprehension, offers practical classroom applications, and explains why strategy-based instruction works. The program covers such topics as the primary goals of reading instruction, writing and talking about reading, content study, and assessment.

176 .

MODULE 7.4: Electronic Media LEARNING OBJECTIVES: •

How does watching television affect children’s attitudes and behaviour?

•

How does TV viewing influence children’s cognitive development?

•

How do children use computers at home and in school?

CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES: •

•

Media Issues Activity. Students often enjoy discussing the multitude of issues involving mass media and children. To facilitate this discussion, place signs around the classroom that say Strongly Agree, Agree, Disagree, and Strongly Disagree. As you read out loud, or put up on the overhead or document camera, the statements from Handout 7-6, have the students move to the part of the room that best reflects their opinion on each statement. From within these self-sorted groups, have the students discuss each statement, stating why they agree or disagree. Make sure to remind students to use courtesy and respect as these discussions can often get heated.

Internet Annotated Bibliography. Have your students use the Internet to identify 10 websites that give scholarly information on the effects of electronic media on children. Students should type an annotated bibliography that lists the URLs (website addresses) for these websites, and gives a brief (one or two paragraph) summary/review of each.

▪ The name the website (e.g.,e.g., Healthychildren.org).

A valid URLof(website address, http://www.healthychildren.org/English/family▪ life/Media/Pages/default/aspx).

A brief (one or two paragraph) review of the website. Reviews should include a brief ▪ summary of what students can expect to find if they visit the website and a brief evaluation of the website.

As a follow-up to this activity, students can combine all of the annotated bibliographies into an Internet Resource Directory that could be distributed in class.

•

•

Life Without Television. There is no denying the fact that television plays a significant role in the lives of children, adolescents, and adults. The text does an excellent job of conveying the ways in which television influences social behaviour, attitudes, consumer behaviour, creativity, and intellectual development. However, there is little to no research on how television impacts child development via unrealized potential. In other words, “What are we missing out on while we’re watching television?” Ask your students to imagine life without television. What would they do with the time that they currently spend watching television?

What would they have done during their childhood and adolescence with the time they spent watching television (approximately 25 hours each week)? To make this point even clearer, challenge them to avoid television for one entire week. Ask them to summarize (or keep a daily log) of their activities and what additional activities/interests they were able to pursue during their television-free week.

What is Educational Television? Ask your class to generate a list of criteria that they believe should be used to define “educational programming” at various ages, including preschool, middle childhood, and adolescence. Students could then do an internet search for research articles on educational media to compare their ideas about educational programming to 177 .

findings from recent research. There is a good deal of scholarship on educational shows (e.g.

Sesame Street) suggesting some positive effects of watching some kinds of television. So far, most research has focused on early childhood and less is known about the potential for educational programming with older children and adolescents. This activity is useful for encouraging students to think critically about the media as well as developing their understanding of connections between research and children’s lives.

• Debating the Effects of Television Violence. While most experts agree that there is a correlation between viewing televised violence and behaving violently, the causal links between viewing and behaviour are still being debated. Have your class research various perspectives (including hypothesized variables that mitigate the relationship) on the relationship between televised violence and violent behaviour. An excellent place to start this research is with searching for articles on violence in the Center for Media and Child Health website, www.cmch.tv. As moderator, it will be your job to generate a list of questions to keep the debate focused and organized. Questions such as the following should prompt discussion: ▪ How strong is the correlation between viewing televised violence and acting violently?

▪ Why don’t all children who view violence behave violently?

▪ ▪

For those that behave violently following exposure to televised violence, how is this relationship explained?

Can the relationship between televised violence and violent behaviour be mediated?

The format used in other chapters in this manual for debates can be used here as well.

•

•

Children’s Television and Domains of Development. Students should watch an episode of a children’s television show, e.g., Sesame Street, Blue’s Clues, Arthur, Zooboomafoo, etc.

Students should then 1) summarize the episode of the show that they watched, and 2) evaluate the episode based on what they have learned in class/text about cognitive, socioemotional, and physical development. Students should be sure to address the following questions: 1) How do you feel particular aspects of the show help foster children’s development in each of the three domains? and 2) Do you feel that the show is developmentally appropriate for young children based on what you have learned?

Best of the Net. In small groups, have your students develop Internet resource guides for parents, a “Best of the Net” collection of sites (and accompanying descriptions) that will benefit the intellectual, emotional, and social development of children. Depending upon the level of success your students have with this project, you may want to organize the lists into a form that can be shared with the public (e.g., as leaflets or as a column in the local newspaper). Your students should enjoy this exercise and experience a sense of accomplishment regarding the public service they are performing.

FILMS/VIDEOS/DVDS: •

Childhood: A Journey, Program 5: Global Children’s TV (Christian Science Monitor, approximately 20 minutes). The best of children’s programming worldwide is explored through interviews with experts.

•

Computers in the Classroom: Will They Improve Education? (Films for the Humanities and Social Sciences, 2000, 22 minutes). ABC News correspondents Gina Smith and Ted Koppel review the pros and cons of using computer technology in today’s classroom.

178 .

•

Cyberbullying: Cruel Intentions (Films for the Humanities and Social Sciences, 2006, 40 minutes). This ABC News program reports on how cell phones, digital cameras, and personal websites encourage and amplify the frequent cruelty of teen behaviour. With the help of an experiment conducted by Brigham Young University child development researchers, the program analyzes the behaviour of a group of teenage girls as they use online verbal innuendos and emotional attacks to vie for attention and create a social hierarchy. The program also looks at the difficulties that parents face in monitoring what kids do on the Internet.

•

Effects of TV Violence on Children’s Behavior (ABC/Prentice Hall, 1995, 4:50 minutes). This World News Tonight segment provides a concise view of the impact of television violence on children.

•

Global Television Programs for Children (Insight Media, 2006, 15 minutes). This program examines the variations in quality, sources of financing, and broadcast scheduling of children’s television programming around the world. It addresses television’s power as an educational and marketing tool.

•

Growing Up in a Video World (Insight Media, 2000, 24 minutes). The average American child spends 40 hours a week engaging with electronic media. This program reviews the threats to development posed by television and video games.

•

Hate and the Internet: Web Sites and the Issue of Free Speech (Films for the Humanities & Social Sciences, 2000, 22 minutes). Communities of intolerance have proliferated on the Internet, protected by the First Amendment. A discussion of the medium, the messages, and the issue of content filtering is presented.

•

Kids and Computers (Films for the Humanities and Social Sciences, 2000, 22 minutes). This video explores computer-assisted learning and the value of the “virtual classroom.”

Kids and the Media (Films for the Humanities and Social Sciences, 2000, 22 minutes). This video studies the connection between kids and the media in today’s society, and the need to make TV a positive force in child development

•

•

Killing Screens: Media and the Culture of Violence (Insight Media, 1994, 40 minutes).

Psychological, political, social, and developmental effects of our culture of violence are discussed. Consequences of being immersed in media violence are reviewed.

•

Television and Human Behavior (Insight Media, 1992, 26 minutes). This program reveals that television is a distorted mirror of society, and the effects of these distortions on attitudes and behaviour are explored.

•

Tube of Plenty, from the Lifespan Human Development Series III (ABC News/Prentice Hall Video Library, 1995, 7:17 minutes). This “Prime Time Live” segment features the author of Smart Parent’s Guide to Kids’ TV and his suggestions about how to control the amount of television that children watch.

•

TV Violence and You (Films for the Humanities & Social Sciences, 1995, 30 minutes). A comprehensive review of the social and developmental consequences of exposure to blatant and subtle violence. From the news to sports to cartoons, TV violence shapes our perceptions and influences our behaviours.

179 .

INTERNET RESOURCES •

https://www.aera.net/ – Home page for the American Educational Research Association; contains articles about current issues facing educators and links to journals and current educational research.

•

https://www.montessori.org/ – This site includes information on Montessori education as well as information about the Montessori Foundation. https://mediasmarts.ca/digital-media-literacy – MediaSmarts focuses its efforts on equipping adults with information and tools to help young people to understand how the media work, how the media may affect their lifestyle choices and the extent to which they, as consumers and citizens, are being well informed. MediaSmarts also provides reference materials for use by adults and youth alike in examining media issues from a variety of perspectives.

•

•

https://cmch.tv/ – Centre on Media and Child Health at Harvard University contains information about the effects of media on children’s health and development. The site includes a searchable database of research on children and the media.

180 .

CASE STUDY Cognitive Processes and Academic Skills Hayley is 30 months old (2 1/2 years), and she loves to count the steps at her Gigi’s house as she walks down them. Starting with the first step, Hayley will say “2.” As she takes the next step, she says, “2” and so on down all the steps, counting, “2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2…10! Yeah!”

Gigi (Hayley’s grandmother) thinks this is very cute, but she wonders how much her granddaughter understands about numbers and counting, since no matter how many times she tries to help Hayley count accurately, Hayley still says “2, 2, 2, 2, 2, …10!” What can you tell her?

1. Does Hayley understand the one-to-one principle? Why or why not?

2. Does Hayley understand the stable-order principle? Why or why not?

3. Does Hayley understand the cardinality principle? Why or why not?

4. If Hayley was growing up in an Asian country, do you think her counting would be more accurate? Why or why not?

181 .

HANDOUT 7-1 Learning Objectives/Discussion Questions for Chapter 7: 1. How well do infants remember?

2. How do strategies help children to remember?

3. How does children’s knowledge influence what they remember?

4. Do older children and adolescents typically solve problems better than younger children?

5. What factors contribute to the success of children and adolescents in solving problems?

6. Can children and adolescents reason scientifically?

7. What are the components of skilled reading?

8. As children develop, how does their writing improve?

9. When do children understand and use quantitative skills?

10. How does watching television affect children’s attitudes and behaviour?

11. How does TV viewing influence children’s cognitive development?

12. How do children use computers at home and in school?

182 .

HANDOUT 7-2 Note-Taking Strategies Directions: The metacognitive abilities of most students suggest to them that if they wish to retain information presented in class in their long-term memories, they should take notes. After receiving their permission to do so, look at a few pages of notes taken by two other students in your class. Answer the following questions in an attempt to develop an awareness of the strengths and weaknesses associated with various note-taking (i.e., memory) strategies.

STUDENT #1

Circle one:

Note-taking strategies:

Evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of each strategy:

Are the notes organized into an outline?

Y Are the notes a verbatim transcript of the lecture?

Y Are diagrams or other spatial representations Y used?

Is there any evidence of unusual memory strategies being used? Y

FR

SO

JR

SR

N N N

N

STUDENT #2

Circle one:

Note-taking strategies:

Evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of each strategy:

Are the notes organized into an outline?

Y

N

Are the notes a verbatim transcript of the lecture?Y

N

Are diagrams or other spatial representations Y used?

N

Is there any evidence of unusual memory strategies being used? Y

N

183 .

FR

SO

JR

SR

HANDOUT 7-3 Exploring Children’s Scripts Directions: After receiving their parents’ permission to do so, interview a preschool child and a first- or second-grader. Spend a few minutes establishing rapport with each child, then ask each child (separately) the questions below and record their answers as completely as you can.

“Tell what happens when …

Younger Child’s Scripts

Older Child’s Scripts

… you eat breakfast.”

… you go to (pre)school.”

… you go to a restaurant.”

… you get sick with the flu.”

… you go to a birthday party.”

What differences did you notice in the scripts used by the children you interviewed? Please describe:

184 .

HANDOUT 7-4 Look Into It: Problem Solving Directions: You have been assigned a topic that impacts children’s and adolescents’ problem solving. It is your job to investigate research on this topic using any available library resources.

To help focus your search, please respond to the questions below.

TOPIC: 1. How does your topic impact problem solving? (Describe the positive or negative relationships that exist between your topic and problem solving.)

2. What type of research (e.g., experiments, observational studies, etc.) has been conducted to investigate the relationship between your topic and problem solving?

3. How can the impact of your topic on problem solving be enhanced? In other words, if parents or teachers are aware of how your topic impacts problem solving, what can they do about it?

185 .

HANDOUT 7-5 Creating Educational Games Directions: You and your group have just been hired as the research and development team for the Aggresso Toy Company. Since Aggresso’s last product, a game called “Toxic Waste Wars,” was not a great hit with parents (perhaps the Surgeon General’s warnings about mutations and other unpleasant side effects stunted sales), you have been hired to create a developmental game.

Specifically, Aggresso would like you to design a game that will facilitate the reading, mathematical, and information-processing abilities of children. Aggresso is interested in being able to market your game as a tool for enhancing a variety of abilities (the more, the better, as far as Aggresso is concerned). The board of directors at Aggresso thought that any of the following skills that could be included in the game would be easily marketable (but you are welcome to incorporate additional skills): Reading Skills

Mathematical Skills

Information-processing Skills

word recognition

quantity

problem-solving strategies

phonological awareness one-to-one principle

automatic processing

comprehension

stable-order principle

speed of processing

propositions

cardinality principle

memory strategies

etc.

counting

cognitive monitoring

addition

knowledge

subtraction

scripts

advanced math concepts

etc.

etc.

Your game must include the following components: (a) Instructions – you must explain how the game is to be played, including the purpose of the game, the number of players, their ages, rules of play, and any other information necessary to play the game (please include sub-headings to organize your instructions). The page length of your instructions will vary with the complexity of your game, but one or two pages (typed, double-spaced) is usually sufficient. (b) Developmental Critique – you must provide a 3-page (minimum), typed, double-spaced summary of the developmental concepts incorporated into your game, including the reading, mathematical, and information-processing skills enhanced by the game. You will support the relevance of each of the developmental constructs for your game by reviewing published research that supports the significance of each construct to the age group(s) for whom the game is designed. (Minimum number of sources = 6) 186 .

(c) Demonstration – All groups will be asked to demonstrate their games to the class during “Game Day.” This demonstration will require that you create or find the materials necessary to play your game (e.g., a game board, playing pieces, game equipment, etc.). All game materials will be returned to your group after the game has been graded.

Note: You are encouraged to have some fun with this project; please keep that in mind. Also, a stroll through a toy store may prove helpful toward generating game ideas (but do not design a game that violates any copyright laws or patents—in other words, don’t copy an existing game— Aggresso has enough problems to contend with already).

187 .

HANDOUT 7-6 Media Issues Activity •

I plan to monitor everything my child listens to, watches on TV, reads, or plays with on computers.

•

I think it is the moral responsibility of TV/movie producers and directors to reduce the amount of violence, sex, and offensive language that is currently shown on television and in the movies.

•

I think it is important that parents limit their own TV viewing and monitor the content of what they watch so that they can be role models for their children.

•

I think it is appropriate for children to watch the news on television.

•

I plan on placing limits on the amount of television my family watches.

•

If I can afford it, I will let my children have their own televisions in their room.

•

I think it is in the best interests of my family to not have a television at all.

•

I think children should play an active role in deciding what they can watch on television.

•

I think Disney movies are great family entertainment that is appropriate for all ages.

•

•

I think it is appropriate for my child to read books for children that discuss alternate lifestyles (gay/lesbian families, interracial couples, etc.).

I think that school libraries should ban/censor books that contain sexual situations or offensive language.

I think it is okay for parents to listen to their favourite radio station in the presence of their children.

I will not allow my children to watch MTV.

•

I will not allow my children access to the Internet, except when I can be there to monitor it.

•

I think it is okay for children to have their own private e-mail accounts.

•

I think music retailers should ban the sale of any music carrying a parental advisory label to anyone under the age of 18.

•

I think children’s books that deal with monsters, magic, fairies/elves, or other fantasies (e.g., Harry Potter) are appropriate for children and help stimulate their imaginations.

I think that all retailers should ban the sale of any computer or console games carrying an M (Mature) rating to anyone under the age of 17 or a T (Teen) rating to anyone under 13.

I think the current movie rating system (G, PG, PG-13, R, NC-17) works well.

• •

• •

188 .

HANDOUT 7-7 Video Arcade Study Directions: Visit a local video arcade and study the games available to the customers and the behaviours of the customers while they are playing the games and immediately afterward.

Organize your observations by addressing the questions below.

1. How many video games are available to the customers in the facility you are visiting?

2. How many of the video games have violent content?

3. For those customers seeking a nonviolent alternative to video games, does the arcade provide any (e.g., skeeball, pinball machines, etc.)? Describe.

4. Are there more male or female customers?

5. What is the age range of the customers?

6. What percentage of customers is playing alone?

7. Describe the behaviours of the customers who are playing the video games.

8. How do the customers react when the game is over?

9. Describe the customers’ behaviour as they leave the arcade.

10. Overall, do video games appear to have a positive or negative impact on the customers?

189 .

ANSWER KEY CASE STUDY Cognitive Processes and Academic Skills that there must be one and only one 1. Hayley clearly understands the one-to-one principle number name for each object that is counted because she counts each step once and only once (even though she assigns the wrong number label to her counting).

2. It is a little difficult to know whether Hayley understands the stable-order principle that number names must be counted in the same order since she uses the number 2 for each number. However, the fact that she uses 10 as the last number and consistently counts the same way each time suggests that this is probably an emerging skill for her—one that she is just beginning to grasp but hasn’t yet mastered.

3. Again, it is a little difficult to know whether Hayley understands the cardinality principle that the last number name differs from the previous ones in a counting sequence by denoting the number of objects. While the fact that she uses a different number to denote the last step provides some evidence that she grasps this concept, she doesn’t repeat the number 10, which may indicate that she doesn’t yet realize that this means the number of steps she has counted. This contradictory information suggests that this is probably an emerging skill for Hayley—one that she is beginning to grasp but hasn’t yet mastered.

4. Hayley would probably be a more accurate counter if she was growing up in an Asian country such as China, Japan, or Korea, because in contrast to English number systems, Chinese, Japanese, and Korean number systems are almost perfectly regular. Simplified number names explain why children growing up in Asian countries count more accurately than U.S. children of the same age. Should Hayley’s grandmother worry? Not at all. Hayley is right on track for normal mathematical development.

190 .

End-of-Chapter Test Yourself Questions: Cognitive Process and Academic Skill 1. Important features of memory are evident in young infants: They can remember past events, but with the passage of time some events are no longer recalled, although can help to retrieve a forgotten memory.

2. Diagnosing memory problems and monitoring the effectiveness of memory strategies are two important elements of .

3. According to fuzzy trace theory, older children and adolescents are more prone to memory errors because they tend to remember .

4. Autobiographical memory develops early as children acquire basic memory skills, language, and .

5. Young children often fail to solve problems because they don’t encode all the information that is necessary and because .

6. Children and adolescents both rely on heuristic and analytic solutions, but solutions are more common among adolescents.

7. When children try to reason scientifically, they often devise confounded experiments, frequently reach conclusions prematurely, and have difficulty .

8. In many languages, read.

9.

is the best predictor of a child’s success in learning to

instruction is an essential part of programs designed to teach children to read.

10. When young children write, they often rely upon a

strategy.

11. Infants can distinguish different quantities because

.

12. By three years, children have mastered the principles of counting (for small sets of objects).

, stable-order, and cardinality

13. Two reasons why students in Asian countries often excel in math achievement are that their parents set higher standards and their parents believe that .

14. Watching with others.

programs on television can help young children in their interactions

15. Computers can be useful in schools by providing opportunities for

.

Answers: (1) a cue; (2) metamemory; (3) gist (not verbatim); (4) a sense of self; (5) they do not plan ahead; (6) analytic; (7) integrating theory and data; (8) phonological awareness; (9) Phonics; (10) knowledge-telling; (11) the perceptual system is sensitive to quantity; (12) one-to-one; (13) hard work, not innate ability, is the key to achievement; (14) prosocial; (15) experiential learning.

191 .

Chapter 8

Intelligence and Individual Differences in Cognition CHAPTER OVERVIEW

193

MODULE SUPPLEMENTS Module 8.1: WHAT IS INTELLIGENCE?

195

Learning Objectives Key Terms Classroom Activities Films/Videos/DVDs Module 8.2: Features of IQ Scores

198

Learning Objectives Key Terms Classroom Activities Films/Videos/DVDs Module 8.3: SPECIAL CHILDREN, SPECIAL NEEDS

200

Learning Objectives Key Terms Classroom Activities Films/Videos/DVDs INTERNET RESOURCES

204

CASE STUDY

205

HANDOUTS

206

ANSWER KEY

217

TEST YOURSELF

218

192 .

CHAPTER 8 OVERVIEW I.

Module 8.1: What is Intelligence? a.

Psychometric Theories 1. Psychometricians Fluid Intelligence 2.

Crystallized

Intelligence 3. b. Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences Table 8-1: Nine Intelligences in Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences 1. Emotional Intelligence (EI) i. c.

Implications for Education

Sternberg’s Theory of Successful Intelligence

d. Spotlight on Theories: The Theory of Successful Intelligence 1. Analytic Ability 2. Creative Ability 3. Practical Ability e. Cultural Influences: How Culture Defines What is Intelligent f.

Summary Table – Features of Major Approaches to Intelligence

II. Module 8.2: Features of IQ Scores a.

Binet and the Development of Intelligence Testing 1. Mental Age (MA) i.

The Stanford-Binet 1. Intelligence Quotient (IQ)

ii.

Infant Tests

iii. Stability of IQ Scores b. What do IQ Scores Predict? i.

Improving Predictions with Dynamic Testing 1. Dynamic Assessment 2. Response to Intervention

c.

Heredity and Environmental Factors i.

Canadian Aboriginal Head Start (AHS) 1. Collectivity 193 .

d. Children’s Lives: Providing Children with a Head Start for School e.

Impact of Ethnicity and Socioeconomic Status i.

A Role for Genetics?

ii.

Experience with Test Contents 1. Culture-Fair Intelligence Tests

iii. Stereotype Threat 1. Stereotype Threat iv. Focus on Research: Making Tests Less Threatening v.

Test-Taking Skills

vi. Conclusion: Interpreting Test Scores III. Module 8.3: Special Children, Special Needs a.

Gifted and Creative Children 1. Gifted 2. Divergent Thinking

b. Children with Disability and Disorder i.

Children with Intellectual Disability 1. Intellectual Disability

ii.

Children with Specific Learning Disorders 1. Learning Disorder 2. Developmental Dyslexia 3. Impaired Reading Comprehension 4. Mathematical Learning Disability or Developmental Dyscalculia

c.

Spotlight on Theories: Impaired Reading Comprehension Is Impaired Language Comprehension

194 .

MODULE SUPPLEMENTS MODULE 8.1: WHAT IS INTELLIGENCE? LEARNING OBJECTIVES: • What is the psychometric view of the nature of intelligence?

•

How does Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences differ from the psychometric approach?

• What are the components of Sternberg’s theory of successful intelligence?

(See Handout 8-1 for a listing of this chapter’s learning objectives.)

KEY TERMS: psychometricians

fluid

(EI)

analytic

intelligence

crystallized

ability creative

intelligence

emotional

ability

intelligence

practical

CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES: •

ability

Defining Intelligence. In a simple exercise that can be conducted prior to or during your first class session devoted to intelligence, ask your students to collect some definitions of intelligence from their friends and family members (or other students that they pass outside of the classroom). Ask your students to ask others to complete the following sentence: “An intelligent person is someone who …” Ask your students to write down the answers they receive and bring them to class. In class, list a variety of the responses your students collected on the board and have your students identify themes that appear in the responses. As indicated in the text, it is likely that themes involving problem-solving abilities, logical thinking, verbal abilities, knowledge, and social competence will emerge.

Additional discussion questions will make this exercise even more valuable. Ask your class to consider the following questions: 1. Can a person be smart in some respects and not smart in others?

2. Is intelligence a single trait, or is it a package of characteristics about an individual?

3. What is the relationship between education and intelligence?

4. Is a person’s intelligence primarily determined by nature or nurture?

•

Are You a “g” Student? This activity should give your students a better understanding of Spearman’s notion of g, or general intelligence. Ask your students to complete Handout 8-2.

Since most students achieve relatively consistent performance academically, it can be inferred that they possess a general level of intelligence that enables them to perform at a certain level scholastically. The results of this exercise can then be discussed in class.

•

Gardner’s Intelligences—Identifying Your Multiple Intelligences. Howard Gardner proposed nine distinct intelligences: linguistic, logical-mathematical, spatial, musical, bodilykinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, naturalistic, and existential. Have your students 195 .

complete Handout 8-3 to determine which of Gardner’s multiple intelligences they are strongest in. Make sure to stress to students that it is not what they like most; it is how they learn best that they should be thinking of as they complete the handout. If a student demonstrates more than one multiple intelligence (which most will), have them decide which one best represents their learning style. Then have students move to the part of the room that is labeled with each of the nine learning styles. This gives students a good visual representation of how different all our intelligences are, and also gives them an idea of which intelligences are the most common among students. After the class has been sorted in this way into multiple intelligence groups, I usually have them answer the following questions on newsprint that is then displayed and discussed as a class: 1) Describe what it means to be a (name of multiple intelligence) learner, 2) What activities or assignments work best for your learning style? and 3) How can teachers or parents help foster your learning style? Sometimes I supplement Handout 8.3 with other tests (available online) that measure multiple intelligences.

•

•

•

Gardner’s Intelligences Handbook for Teachers and Parents. As a follow-up to the activity Gardner’s Intelligences—Identifying Your Multiple Intelligences you can have students compile a booklet of activities and teaching strategies that foster development in each of the nine intelligences. This information is readily available in books, articles, and on the internet.

Students could be assigned to an intelligence and then all results could be compiled, or students could work individually or in groups on all nine intelligences. Programs like Publisher can be used to create a professional-looking booklet that could be distributed to teachers or parents.

Guest Speaker: Elementary or Secondary School Teacher. Invite a teacher to speak to your class about the intellectual development of children, specifically focusing on the construct of intelligence. Ask the teacher to describe how, if at all, various theories of intelligence shape the curriculum experienced by his/her students. Ideally, the speaker will be able to provide examples from his/her classroom or school system that illustrate attempts to foster Gardner’s different types of intelligences.

Identifying Your Own Successful Intelligence. Sternberg’s theory of successful intelligence, due to its complexity and importance, merits substantial coverage. Handout 8-4 provides an overview of analytic, creative, and practical abilities and asks students to provide examples in which they have exhibited all three forms of intelligence. Handout 8-3 functions well as an in-class exercise or a homework assignment.

FILMS/VIDEOS/DVDS: •

Battle of the Brains: The Case for Multiple Intelligence (Films for the Humanities and Social Sciences, 2007, 50 minutes). This DVD discusses creating an array of unusual challenges to assess brainpower and makes an argument for the interplay of multiple intelligences. Assisted by the insights of Harvard’s Howard Gardner and experts using brain scanning technology at UC Davis’ M.I.N.D. Institute, the program brings together a group of obviously bright and talented people and presents them with trials of all shapes and sizes. The results establish the validity of measuring not just what people know but also the equally important ways in which they exercise their practical, creative, emotional, and kinesthetic IQs.

•

EQ and the Emotional Curriculum (Films for the Humanities & Social Sciences, 2000, 49 minutes). This program provides an in-depth analysis of intelligence, including how it is defined and its neural components. Among the several preeminent intelligence experts in the video are Howard Gardner and Daniel Goleman (author of Emotional Intelligence).

196 .

•

Intelligence (RMI Media Productions, 1990, 30 minutes). This video reviews problems in defining and measuring intelligence, including a debate on the aptitude and achievement elements of intelligence tests and definitions.

•

Intelligence, Creativity, and Thinking Styles (Insight Media, 1996, 30 minutes). Robert Sternberg discusses the single trait (“g”) notion of intelligence, his own views on intelligence, and the role of IQ testing in schools.

•

Multiple Intelligences (Insight Media, 2007, 23 minutes). This video reviews the multiple intelligences theory. It offers practical strategies for implementing the theory in physical education lesson planning. It also covers learning objectives and learning styles.

•

Multiple Intelligences: Other Styles of Learning (Films for the Humanities and Social Sciences, 1993, 29 minutes). In this program, David Lazear (author of Seven Ways of Knowing and Seven Ways of Teaching) presents the argument that teachers should teach for the five nontraditional intelligences (from Gardner’s model) in addition to teaching for the traditional intelligences.

•

The Search for Intelligence: Intelligence (Insight Media, 2006, 30 minutes). This DVD questioning whether standardized intelligence tests can properly measure intelligence. It presents theories of intelligence and covers such topics as triarchic theory, multiple intelligences, and emotional intelligence and explores the ways in which nature and nurture influence intelligence. The DVD also considers the phenomenon of stereotype threat.

197 .

MODULE 8.2: FEATURES OF IQ SCORES LEARNING OBJECTIVES: •

Why were intelligence tests devised initially? What are modern tests like?

•

What do tests predict? How does dynamic testing differ from traditional testing?

•

What are the roles of heredity and environment in determining intelligence?

•

How do ethnicity and socioeconomic status influence intelligence test scores?

KEY TERMS: mental age (MA) intelligence

collectivity

quotient

culture-fair intelligence tests

assessment

(IQ)

dynamic

response

to

stereotype threat

intervention

CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES: •

•

•

•

Demonstrating Intelligence Tests. Since most students have not been given a standardized intelligence test, they are fascinated when given the chance to actually see one. Locate a Stanford-Binet, WISC-R, WPPSI, and/or K-ABC and allow the class to examine the test(s).

Direct your students to assess the items and testing instructions, looking for evidence of bias in the test or in the testing procedures. If multiple copies of the test(s) are available, have students work in small groups and test each other on some of the items. Discuss potential problems that your students identify.

Guest Speaker: School Psychologist. Invite a school psychologist to speak to your class about intelligence testing, perhaps demonstrating some testing procedures on one or more children. The school psychologist should also discuss the utility and risks of intelligence testing.

A New Test of Intelligence. Divide your class into small groups of 4 or 5. Ask each group to develop its own test of intelligence. Handout 8-5 will guide your students through this activity. Completion of Handout 8-5 will result in increased awareness of the difficulties in designing an intelligence test, familiarity with existing tests, comprehension of reliability and validity issues, and sensitivity to biases and dangers associated with the practice of intelligence testing.

Look Into It: Influences on Intelligence. As discussed in previous chapters, you can send students out of class to do some focused library searches. Depending upon your class size (under 40 works well) and available library resources (Psyc-Lit or equivalent search systems), this project can be an effective means of allowing students to explore a topic that is of particular interest to them. Handout 8-6 provides a series of questions that will guide the students’ library searches.

The following factors have been shown to influence intelligence or performance on intelligence tests. Assign one topic to each student (or small groups of students) in your class and have them explore the professional literature. During your next class session, have them briefly present their findings to the rest of the class. A list of topics that pertain to influences on intelligence appears on the next page.

198 .

(a) Heredity (b) Home/family environment

(c)

Poverty/social class (SES) (d) Enrichment/training

(e)

Ethnicity

FILMS/VIDEOS/DVDS: • A Conversation with David Wechsler (Insight Media, 1976, 55 minutes). Dr. David Wechsler discusses the research the led to the development of his intelligence tests, and he explains why so many definitions of intelligence exist.

•

Discovering Psychology, Program 16: Testing and Intelligence (Annenberg/CPB Collection, 1990, 30 minutes). Reviews the techniques involved in the administration and interpretation of psychological tests.

•

Fourth Edition of the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale (Riverside Publishing Co., 1985, 30 minutes). Includes interviews with Robert Thorndike and Jerome Sattler, authors of the 4th Edition. They review the theoretical origins of the subtests that comprise this edition of the Stanford-Binet.

•

Intellectual Growth and Achievement, from the Human Development video series (Concept Media, 1994, 27 minutes). This video discusses the role of heredity and environment on cognitive development. The influence of cultural group and social class on intellectual performance and expectations is also examined.

Intelligence (RMI Media Productions, 1990, 30 minutes). This video reviews problems in defining and measuring intelligence, including a debate on the aptitude and achievement elements of intelligence tests and definitions. The video also includes historical footage describing the origins of intelligence tests.

Intelligence and Creativity (Insight Media, 2001, 30 minutes). This video investigates the effects of nature and nurture on intelligence, and it probes the history and criticism of intelligence testing. Gardner’s concept of multiple intelligences is also described.

•

•

•

IQ and the Pressure to Perform (Films for the Humanities & Social Sciences, 2000, 49 minutes). Several renowned cognitive and developmental psychologists, including David Elkind and David Greenough, debate the validity of critical periods and examine the latest scientific research about how the brain develops in the early years and beyond.

•

IQ Testing and the School (Insight Media, 1991, 60 minutes). Reviews the debate about the validity and reliability of IQ tests. School achievement of children with learning disabilities and gifted children is also portrayed.

•

Performance Assessment: Moving Beyond the Standardized Test (Films for the Humanities & Sciences, 1993, 28 minutes). In response to the age of multicultural classrooms and new understandings about multiple intelligences, Dr. Art Costa addresses the need to create viable alternatives to standardized tests that can measure creativity, problem solving, and cooperation.

199 .

MODULE 8.3: SPECIAL CHILDREN, SPECIAL NEEDS LEARNING OBJECTIVES: •

What are the characteristics of gifted and creative children?

•

What are the different forms of intellectual disability and disorder?

KEY TERMS: gifted

developmental dyslexia

divergent thinking

impaired reading comprehension

intellectual disability

mathematical learning disorder

learning disorder

or developmental dyscalculia

CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES •

A New Test of Creativity. In an exercise similar to one described earlier regarding intelligence testing, ask your class to devise a new test of creativity. Divide your class into small groups of 4 or 5. Ask each group to develop its own test of creativity.

Handout 8-8 will guide your students through this activity. Completion of Handout 8-8 will result in increased awareness of the difficulties in designing a creativity test, comprehension of reliability and validity issues, and sensitivity to the complexities associated with the practice of creativity testing.

•

Demonstrating Creativity Tests. Since most students have not seen a standardized creativity test, they are interested when given the chance to actually see one. Showing your students

standardized creativity tests may be especially helpful following their completion of the previous classroom activity. Locate a Torrance Test, Mednick’s Remote Associations Test, •

the Wallach and Kogan creativity measure, or any other standardized test of creativity and allow testingthe class to examine the test(s). Direct your students to assess the items and

instructions, looking for evidence of bias in the test or in the testing procedures.

•

•

•

Discuss potential problems that your students identify.

Inclusion: Divide the class into 2 groups. Group 1 are the parents of a 9-year-old child who has a 9- difficulty reading and is reading at a kindergarten level. Group 2 are the parents of

year-old child who is academically gifted and reading at a 13-year-old level. Ask the groups to prepare a letter to the school board recommending that their child be put in an inclusive

setting. The groups should focus on describing the benefits and the disadvantage of the Inclusive setting, for their child.

200 Guest Speaker: Gifted & Talented Program Teacher or Director. Invite a teacher or a . director educate of a gifted program to speak to your class about how the program attempts to

and stimulate gifted students. Topics for discussion should also include identification of gifted the intellectual and social development of these students, and the factorsstudents, that contribute to the development of giftedness.

students with intellectual disabilities. Ask your students to prepare for the debate by researching their assigned position (i.e., FOR or AGAINST inclusion) using available search systems (e.g., Psyc-LIT or ERIC) and/or the Internet. Students may also be encouraged to conduct online research to explore the history and current practices related to inclusion in their province.

To effectively moderate the debate, a debate format is listed below: I.

Constructive Speeches (Presentation of your side of the argument): A. PRO side will present for 7 minutes 1. Cross-examination by the CON side for 3 minutes B. CON side will present for 7 minutes 1. Cross-examination by the PRO side for 3 minutes

II. Rebuttal Speeches (Your response to the other side’s argument): A. CON side will rebut for 5 minutes B. PRO side will rebut for 5 minutes III. Questions from Audience (5 minutes) •

•

Discussing Learning Disabilities. Most students are familiar with the concept of learning disabilities, and the chances are good that at least one student in your class has been diagnosed as having a learning disability (with nearly 5 percent of students being classified as learning disabled). But what does having a learning disability mean? Many of the issues surrounding this topic should be revealed by having your class discuss the scenario presented in Handout 8-9.

Internet Annotated Bibliography. Have your students use the Internet to identify 10 websites that give scholarly information on types of learning disabilities. Students should type an annotated bibliography that lists the URLs (website addresses) for these websites, and gives a brief (one or two paragraph) summary/review of each.

1. The name of the website (e.g., Learning Disabilities Resources).

2. A valid URL (website address, e.g., http://www.ldresources.com/).

3. A brief (one or two paragraph) review of the website. Reviews should include a brief summary of what students can expect to find if they visit the website and a brief evaluation of the website.

As a follow-up to this activity, students can combine all of the annotated bibliographies into an Internet Resource Directory that could be distributed in class.

201 .

FILMS/VIDEOS/DVDS: •

Bright Kids. Bad Grades (Insight Media, 2006, 20 minutes). This DVD examines learning disabilities and explains that they cause difficulties in such subject areas as reading, writing, and math. It examines research regarding the causes of and treatments for a variety of learning disabilities and questions whether some children may be able to overcome specific learning challenges.

•

Coping with Learning Disabilities (Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 1994, 25 minutes). Adults explain what life was like as a child with learning difficulties.

Down Syndrome in the Inclusive Classroom (Films for the Humanities and Social Sciences, 2001, 2-part series 32-76 minutes each). This compelling two-part series examines the challenges and benefits of educational mainstreaming for children with mental disabilities through the poignant story of Peter Gwasdauskis, a child with Down syndrome. Owing to the extensive classroom footage and many insightful interviews, the series is an indispensable resource for anyone studying or working with Down syndrome, especially within an educational context.

•

•

Dyslexia: A Different Kind of Mind (Films for the Humanities and Social Sciences, 1999, 29 minutes). This program reviews how dyslexic students learn and how new teaching techniques are helping them succeed.

•

Dyslexia: Diagnosis and Prognosis (Films for the Humanities and Social Sciences, 1990, 26 minutes). This video explores the nature and probable causes of this learning disability.

Dyslexia in the Primary Classroom (Films for the Humanities and Social Sciences, 2000, 40 minutes). A comprehensive review of the symptoms approaches to identification, and classroom strategies for effective teaching of students diagnosed with dyslexia.

•

•

The Gifted Child (Films for the Humanities and Social Sciences, 1997, 24 minutes). This program seeks to foster an understanding of gifted children by identifying their characteristics, addressing their educational needs, and recommending ways to enhance their development.

•

F.A.T. City: How Difficult Can This Be? A Learning Disabilities Workshop (PBS Video, 1989, 70 minutes). In addition to an excellent overview of learning disabilities presented by Richard LaVoie, this video contains simulations of learning disabilities that allow viewers to experience the same feelings of F.A.T. (Frustration, Anxiety, and Tension) that individuals with learning disabilities experience.

•

The Foolish Wise Ones: “Idiot Savants” (Filmmakers Library, 1996, 30 minutes). Some mentally handicapped people possess exceptional talents. In this film, three such people are portrayed.

•

Child Genius: Young and Gifted (Insight Media, 2008, 49 minutes). This DVD will provide insight into the stresses of children who are gifted.

In a Class of His Own (Films for the Humanities and Social Sciences, 26 minutes). This video captures how difficult it is to be an exceptionally bright child.

Inside Dyslexia (Films for the Humanities and Social Sciences, 2007, 58 minutes). This DVD illustrates the challenges faced by Amanda, Carmen, and Gio—three young people living with dyslexia—through personal interviews with them and those close to them. Viewers are guided into their unique and often overlooked world, made clear through eye-opening scenes at school and home. Produced by filmmakers who are themselves dyslexic, the film serves as a tool for educating others about dyslexia, dyscalculia, and dysgraphia, and for identifying a

• •

202 .

common vocabulary that can bridge the gap between those with and without learning disabilities. A viewable/printable instructor’s guide is available online.

•

Killing Creativity: Are Schools or Parents to Blame? ((Films for the Humanities and Social Sciences, 2007, 60 minutes). This video observes the creativity of a group of 25 seven-yearolds and their families to try to understand why it fades, and why it matters.

•

May’s Miracle (Filmakers Library, 28 minutes). The medical term for Leslie, a blind, severely retarded adolescent with cerebral palsy featured in this video, is idiot-savant.

Despite his impairments, Leslie is able to play the piano, imitating singers from the past with uncanny clarity. The loving care he received from his mother, May, is featured prominently.

•

Sean’s Story – A Lesson in Life segment from Lifespan Human Development, Series III (ABC News/Prentice Hall Video Library, 1996, 16.5 minutes). Video segment details the first months of public school for an 8-year-old child with Down syndrome. Issues of mainstreaming and developmental expectations are portrayed.

Understanding Learning Disabilities (Films for the Humanities &Social Sciences, 1996, 16 minutes). In this program, the viewer watches children being taught new ways to learn while gaining insight into the nature of learning disabilities.

•

203 .

INTERNET RESOURCES •

https://giftedchildrenbc.org/ – The Gifted Children's Association of British Columbia

•

https://www.educationworld.com/a_curr/curr054.shtml – Howard Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences makes people think about IQ, about being smart. The theory is changing the way some teachers teach.

•

https://dyslexiaida.org/ – This site is the home page for the International Dyslexia Association; it provides extensive coverage of dyslexia as well as resources and support.

•

http://www.ldresources.com/ – LD Resources. This site contains almost 1000 entries on learning disabilities http://www.pz.harvard.edu/ – This site contains information about Howard Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences, and information about Project Zero, an educational initiative to “understand and enhance learning, thinking, and creativity.”

•

•

https://www.institute4learning.com/2020/03/27/8-kinds-of-smart-a-checklist-for-identifyingyour-childs-multiple-intelligences/ – Information about multiple intelligences

204 .

CASE STUDY Intelligence and Individual Differences in Cognition Hector and Lois were anxiously awaiting the return of their philosophy exams. Lois greeted her exam with a sigh of relief—she received a “B+”. Hector also sighed, but his was one of resignation. Staring at the “D–” written at the top of his exam, he lamented to Lois that he “just doesn’t get it.”

“I do so well in my pre-calculus and economics courses, but just can’t get through this introductory philosophy class.”

“Don’t worry about it, Hector. Between the final exam and the paper, there’s still time to improve your grade.”

“That’s easy for you to say. This humanities stuff makes sense to you. Maybe I should start practicing saying ‘Do you want fries with that?’ If I don’t pass this core course, I won’t be able to finish my accounting degree.”

“Why don’t we study for the final exam together? I’ll bring the note cards that I use to study for each test; you bring the fries.”

“Very funny.”

1. What challenges to the traditional, general factor (“g”) theories of intelligence are presented

by Hector’s situation above?

2. What contemporary theories of intelligence better account for Hector’s successes in calculus and economics and his struggles in philosophy?

3. According to Robert Sternberg’s Successful Theory of Intelligence, are Hector’s difficulties in philosophy indicative of future difficulties in the business world?

4. Is it possible that Hector has a learning disability that accounts for his poor performance in philosophy? How would you determine if he does?

205 .

HANDOUT 8-1 Learning Objectives/Discussion Questions for Chapter 8: 1. What is the psychometric view of the nature of intelligence?

2. How does Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences differ from the psychometric approach?

3. What are the components of Sternberg’s theory of successful intelligence?

4. Why were intelligence tests devised initially? What are modern tests like?

5. What do tests predict? How does dynamic testing differ from traditional testing?

6. What are the roles of heredity and environment in determining intelligence?

7. How do ethnicity and socioeconomic status influence intelligence test scores?

8. What are the characteristics of gifted and creative children?

9. What are the different forms of intellectual disability and disorder?

206 .

HANDOUT 8-2 Are You a “g” Student?

Directions: Locate at least two years’ worth of your grades from high school or post-secondary institution. If you have not saved your grade reports, try asking the admissions office or your academic advisor for a copy of your high school transcript, or request a copy of your college or university transcript from the registrar’s office (or appropriate office on campus). Use your grades to determine if you exhibit Charles Spearman’s notion of “g” or general intelligence.

TABLE 1: Charting the consistency of your grades over the course of two years.

LETTER

FREQUENCY

PERCENT of Total Grades

GRADE

(Tally the number of A’s, B’s, C’s, D’s and F’s)

(Divide the tally for each letter grade by the total number of letter grades reported)

TABLE 2: Charting your grades by subject area.

SUBJECT AREA

FREQUENCY

Math

A

(including all math courses and B C statistics) D F English & Humanities (including Art, Drama, Music, History, Philosophy, etc.)

A B C D F

207 .

MOST COMMON GRADE

Natural Sciences (including Chemistry, Biology, Physics, etc.)

A B C D F

Social Sciences (including Social Studies, Psychology, Sociology, Government, Economics, etc.)

A B C D F

Other

A

(including Physical Education, B C vocational training, etc.)

D F

1. From TABLE 1, is there a single letter grade that is representative of most of your academic performance? Explain.

2. From TABLE 2, is there a pattern of letter grades across subject areas that indicates general academic/intellectual ability? Explain.

208 .

HANDOUT 8-3 Gardner’s Nine Multiple Intelligences Type

Likes To

Linguistic Read, write, tell The Word Player stories Logical/ Mathematical The Questioner

Spatial The Visualizer

Musical The Music Lover

Is Good At

Learns Best By

Like Me

Memorizing Saying, hearing, Yes Maybe No names, places, and seeing words dates, and trivia

Yes Maybe No Do experiments, Math, reasoning, Categorizing, figure things out, logic, problem classifying, work with numbers, solving working with ask questions, abstract patterns explore patterns & and relationships relationships Draw, build, design Imagining things, Visualizing, Yes Maybe No and create things, sensing changes, dreaming, using daydream, look at mazes/puzzles, the mind’s eye, pictures, watch reading maps, working with movies, play with charts colours/pictures machines Sing, hum tunes, Picking up sounds, Rhythm, melody, Yes Maybe No listen to music, play remembering music instrument, respond melodies, noticing to music

pitches/rhythms, keeping time

Physical activities Touching, Bodily/Kinestheti Move around, Yes Maybe No c touch and talk, use (sports, dance, moving, interacting with body language acting), crafts The Mover space, processing knowledge though bodily sensations Sharing, Have lots of Understanding Interpersona Yes Maybe No comparing, l The friends, talk to people, leading people, join groups others, organizing, relating, Socializer communicating, cooperating, manipulating, interviewing mediating conflicts

209 .

Intrapersonal The Individual

Work alone, pursue Understanding Working alone,Yes Maybe No individualized self, focusing own interests projects, selfinward on feelings/dreams, paced instruction, following own instincts, pursuinghaving interests & goals, space being original

Finding patterns, Be outdoors, Outdoor Naturalistic Yes Maybe No categorizing, The Nature Lover science, hiking, biology, botany, activities, science camping, recycling, gardening animals activities, zoology activities involving hierarchical classification Existential The Spiritual Thinker

Discuss “life” Seeing the “big Visits to museums Yes Maybe No or nature, questions, read picture,” learning studying the philosophy & new things (as mythology, study long as the value background (history) of history & ancient of this is problems, being cultures, meditate,understood), helped to see the art masterpieces & discussion of natural wonders, questions about value of a particular learning learn about religion life experience

210 .

HANDOUT 8-4 Identifying Your Own Successful Intelligence Directions: Read the following descriptions of the analytic, creative, and practical abilities that comprise Robert Sternberg’s theory of successful intelligence. Provide examples of how you exhibit each of the three abilities of successful intelligence.

ANALYTIC ABILITY Analytic ability involves analyzing problems and generating different solutions.

Examples of analytic ability from your life:

CREATIVE ABILITY Creative ability involves dealing adaptively with novel situations and problems. Examples of creative ability from your life:

PRACTICAL ABILITY Practical ability involves knowing what solution or plan will actually work. Examples of practical ability from your life:

211 .

HANDOUT 8-5 A New Test of Intelligence Directions: Working with other students in the class, create a new test of intelligence. To help you design your test, respond to each of the following questions.

1. How do you define intelligence? State your operational definition of intelligence.

2. What types of items or tasks will be included in your intelligence test? Describe the various scales included in your test (if applicable) and provide sample items from your test.

3. How will you determine if your test is reliable and valid? Describe the procedures you would use to assess your test’s reliability and validity.

4. Who should be tested with your test, and how should your test be used? Describe some appropriate and inappropriate applications of your test.

212 .

HANDOUT 8-6 Look Into It: Influences on Intelligence Directions: You have been assigned a topic that impacts intelligence or performance on intelligence tests. It is your job to investigate research on this topic using any available library resources. To help focus your search, please respond to the questions below.

TOPIC: 1. How does your topic impact intelligence or intelligence testing? (Describe the positive or negative relationships that exist between your topic and intelligence.)

2. What type of research (e.g., experiments, observational studies, etc.) has been conducted to investigate the relationship between your topic and intelligence?

3. How can the impact of your topic on intelligence be enhanced? In other words, if parents or teachers are aware of how your topic impacts intelligence, what can they do about it?

213 .

HANDOUT 8-7 IQ Beliefs Directions: Bane and Jencks (1976) argue that if intelligence is inherited there is nothing the schools or anyone can do to improve a child’s chances in life. Below are five beliefs about IQ that are commonly accepted as true. What do you think? Using your own experience and what you have learned from this chapter, respond to each belief.

1. IQ tests are the best measure of human intelligence.

2. The poor are poor because they have low IQs. Those with high IQs end up in well-paid jobs.

3. Your IQ is overwhelmingly determined by your genetic endowment.

4. The main reason African-American children and poor white children have low IQ scores is that they have “bad” genes.

5. Improving the quality of the schools will go a long way toward wiping out the differences between ethnic groups in IQ and school achievement, thereby equalizing all children’s chances in life.

214 .

HANDOUT 8-8 A New Test of Creativity Directions: Working with other students in the class, create a new test of creativity. To help you design your test, respond to each of the following questions.

1. How do you define creativity? State your operational definition of creativity.

2. What types of items or tasks will be included in your creativity test? Describe the various scales included in your test (if applicable) and provide sample items from your test.

3. How will you determine if your test is reliable and valid? Describe the procedures you would use to assess your test’s reliability and validity.

4. Who should be tested with your test, and how should your test be used? Describe some appropriate and inappropriate applications of your test.

215 .

HANDOUT 8-9 Discussing Learning Disabilities A child with a learning disability, according to our text, is someone who (a) has difficulty mastering an academic subject, (b) has normal intelligence, and (c) is not suffering from other conditions that could explain poor performance such as sensory impairment of inadequate instruction (Hammill, 1990; as cited in Kail, 1998). While the definition of learning disability is fairly simple, its diagnosis is not. Consider the following story: Janet, a seventh-grader, cannot understand algebra. She tries for hours at a time but cannot seem to grasp the concepts. Since they were concerned about her, Janet’s parents arranged to have her take an intelligence test, which revealed an IQ of 105. In most other subjects, Janet gets fairly good grades.

1. Do you think Janet has a learning disability? Why or why not?

2. What other information about Janet would you need to know before classifying her as learning disabled?

3. If Janet doesn’t have a learning disability, what might account for her poor performance in algebra?

4. What suggestions do you have for Janet, her teacher, and her parents regarding improving her performance in algebra?

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ANSWER KEY CASE STUDY Intelligence and Individual Differences in Cognition 1. Hector does well in other courses, but not in philosophy. The general factor (“g”) theories of intelligence imply that his performance should be fairly consistent regardless of the subject matter.

2. Howard Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences could account for why Hector can excel in math and economics courses (using his logical-mathematical intelligence) but struggle in philosophy (revealing a deficit in existential intelligence). John Carroll’s model of intelligence may also pertain to Hector’s academic situation, implying that his fluid intelligence exceeds his crystallized intelligence.

3. Robert Sternberg’s theory distinguishes between abilities (analytical, creative, practical) that comprise successful intelligence Hector may have difficulty in philosophy, revealing some deficits in his creative ability, but his analytic ability may allow him to excel in the business world.

4. If Hector did have a learning disability, he would need to have his IQ tested, and his sensory functioning would need to be evaluated. Also, the quality of instruction he is receiving in philosophy would need to be ascertained.

HANDOUT 8-9: Discussing Learning Disabilities 1. Janet meets two of the three criteria for having a learning disability (difficulty mastering an academic subject and she has normal intelligence), but a definitive diagnosis cannot be made because we need more information.

2. More information is needed about other conditions that might account for Janet’s performance in algebra, including the quality of instruction she is reading and any sensory impairments she may have that would pose special problems for algebra. (Sensory impairments seem unlikely given her success in other classes.)

3. Janet’s poor performance in algebra may be the result of poor instruction in the subject. It also may be that Janet’s intellectual strengths do not lie in Gardner’s logical-mathematical type of intelligence; she may excel in other types of intelligence instead.

4. Janet may need additional instruction in algebra, or perhaps she would benefit from a nontraditional approach to the subject (one that might capitalize on her intellectual strengths).

217 .

End-of-Chapter Test Yourself Questions: Intelligence and Individual Differences in Cognition 1. The psychometric approach to intelligence relies upon

.

2.

g (general intelligence) and specific theories of intelligence measure both components, such as fluid intelligence.

3. In formulating his theory of multiple intelligences, Gardner drew upon , studies of brain-damaged persons, and studies of persons with exceptional talent.

4. Linguistic, logical-mathematical, and intelligences are included in psychometric theories as well as in Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences.

5. Sternberg’s theory of successful intelligence includes , creative, and practical abilities.

6. Infant IQ tests do not predict childhood IQ accurately, but are still valuable because .

7. Dynamic assessments of intelligence .

8. IQ scores predict success in school as well as predicting

.

9. Evidence for the impact of heredity on IQ comes from studies of twins (in which identical twins had more similar scores than fraternal twins) and from .

10. The role of the environment on intelligence is revealed by research linking home environments to intelligence, , and the impact of intervention programs.

11. Ethnic group differences have been linked to

.

12. Intelligence is associated with convergent thinking, whereas creativity is associated with thinking.

13. Intellectual disability is defined by limited intellectual ability and which emerge before age 18.

, both of

14. Children with have normal intelligence and sensory functioning yet have difficulty mastering an academic subject.

15. Common learning disabilities include developmental dyslexia, mathematical learning disability (developmental dyscalculia).

, and

Answers: (1) performance on intelligence tests; (2) Hierarchical; (3) child-development research; (4) spatial; (5) analytic; (6) they can be used to determine whether development is progressing normally; (7) measure a child’s learning potential; (8) occupational success; (9) adopted children (adoptees’ scores resembled the scores of their biological parents, not their adoptive parents); (10) increases in IQ scores during the latter part of the 20th century; (11) stereotype threat; (12) divergent; (13) problems adapting to the environment; (14) learning disability; (15) impaired reading comprehension.

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Chapter 9

Language and Communication CHAPTER OVERVIEW

221

MODULE SUPPLEMENTS Module 9.1: THE ROAD TO SPEECH

224

Learning Objectives Key Terms Classroom Activities Films/Videos/DVDs Module 9.2: LEARNING THE MEANINGS OF WORDS

226

Learning Objectives Key Terms Classroom Activities Films/Videos/DVDs Module 9.3: SPEAKING IN SENTENCES

228

Learning Objectives Key Terms Classroom Activities Films/Videos/DVDs Module 9.4: USING LANGUAGE TO COMMUNICATE

230

Learning Objectives Key Term Classroom Activities Films/Videos Module 9.5: SIGNED LANGUAGE AND GESTURAL COMMUNICATION Learning Objectives Key Term Classroom Activities Films/Videos/DVDs

219 .

232

INTERNET RESOURCES

234

CASE STUDY

235

HANDOUTS

236

ANSWER KEY

244

TEST YOURSELF

245

220 .

CHAPTER 9 OVERVIEW I.

Module 9.1: The Road to Speech a.

Elements of Language 1. Language 2. Phonology 3. Morphology 4. Semantics 5.

Syntax

6. Pragmatics b. Perceiving Speech 1. Phonemes i.

The Impact of Language Exposure

ii. Identifying Words 1. Infant-Directed Speech (Motherese) c.

First Steps to Speech 1. Cooing 2. Babbling 3. Intonation 4. Cochlear Implant

d. Children’s Lives: Are Cochlear Implants Effective for Young Children?

II. Module 9.2: Learning the Meanings of Words a. Understanding Words as Symbols b. Fast Mapping Meanings to Words 1. Naming Explosion 2. Fast Mapping i.

Joint Attention

ii. Constraints on Word Names iii. Sentence Cues iv. Cognitive Factors v. Developmental Change in Word Learning vi. Naming Errors 221 .

1. Underextension 2. Overextension c. Spotlight on Theories: A Shape-Bias Theory of Word Learning 3. d. Individual Differences in Word Learning 1. Phonological Memory i.

Word Learning Styles 2. Referential Style 3. Expressive Style

e. Encouraging Word Learning i. f. g.

Impact of Video

Focus on Research: Why does Exposure to Parents’ Speech Increase Children’s Vocabulary Cultural Influences: Growing Up Bilingual

h. Beyond Words: Other Symbols 1. Allophones III. Module 9.3: Speaking in Sentences a. From Two-Word Speech to Complex Sentences 1. Telegraphic Speech i.

Beyond Telegraphic Speech 1. Grammatical Morphemes 2. Over-regularization

b. How do Children Acquire Grammar? i.

The Behaviourist Answer

ii.

The Nativist Answer 1. Semantic Bootstrapping Theory a.

Specific regions of the brain are known to be involved in language processing

b. Only humans learn grammar readily c.

Children develop linguistic communication with little or no formal input •

Pidgin

•

Creole 222 .

d. There is a critical period for learning language e.

The development of grammar is tied to the development of vocabulary

iii. The Cognitive Answer iv. The Social-Interaction Answer 1. Symbolic Interaction Theory 2. Relational Frame Theory (RTF) v.

Summary Table – Different Approaches to Explaining Children’s Acquisition of Grammar

vi. Promoting Language Development 1. Talk with children frequently and treat them as partners in conversation 2. Use a child’s speech to show new language forms 3. Encourage children to go beyond minimal use of language 4. Listen 5. Make language fun IV. Module 9.4: Using Language to Communicate a.

Taking Turns

b. Speaking Effectively i.

Preschool children give more elaborate messages to listeners

ii.

School-age children speak differently to adults and peers

iii. In the United States, some African Americans speak African American English 1. African American English (AAE) c. Listening Well V. Module 9.5: Signed Language and Gestural Communication a.

Using Gestures to Communicate

b. Signed Language i.

It has arbitrary units and is therefore symbolic

ii. ASL is structured and meaningful iii. ASL shows displacement iv. There is generativity c.

Evidence for Language Development

223 .

MODULE SUPPLEMENTS MODULE 9.1: THE ROAD TO SPEECH LEARNING OBJECTIVES: • What are basic sounds of speech, and how well can infants distinguish them?

•

How does infant-directed speech help children learn about language?

• What is babbling, and how does it become more complex in older infants?

(See Handout 9-1 for a listing of this chapter’s learning objectives.)

KEY TERMS: language

phonemes

phonology

infant-directed speech

morphology

cooing

semantics

babbling

syntax

intonation

pragmatics

cochlear implant

CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES: •

•

•

Phonemic Awareness. To illustrate the significant challenge facing infants during their first year of life, ask your class to identify phonemes that DO NOT appear in English. Ask them to construct a list of speech sounds from other languages that are not a part of the English language. After a few moments, several students should have examples that they can share with the class. After the students have demonstrated the non-English phonemes, ask your class to imagine how an infant perceives language. How does an infant know which sounds are part of his/her language?

(If students struggle with responding to the above question, ask them what letters they would choose if they were playing “Wheel of Fortune.” Why did they choose those letters? The same notion of frequency that contestants use when choosing letters for “Wheel of Fortune” applies to how infants discriminate between native language and non-native language phonemes.)

Observing Chats with Children. In an effort to acquaint your class with infant-directed speech, ask your students to informally observe parents talking with their infants or young children under the age of two. Your students should take note of how the parents change their speech when speaking to their children versus speaking to other adults. Shopping malls, restaurants, and grocery stores are excellent locations for students to observe infant-directed speech. Ask your students to present summaries of their observations to the class.

Talking with Tots. If class size permits and toddlers are available, ask your students to have a conversation with a toddler. If possible, each student should tape record his/her conversation, then analyze it in an attempt to identify various aspects of infant-directed speech. Ask some students to play their tapes to the class, identifying elements of infant-directed speech as they occur.

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•

Guest Speaker: Speech-Language Specialist. Invite a speech pathologist or speech therapist to your class to discuss language problems and the means of assisting young children who have language deficits.

FILMS/VIDEOS/DVDS: •

Childhood, Program 3: Love’s Labor (Ambrose Video, 1991, 60 minutes). This program provides an overview of the rapid development of children between the ages of 6 months and 3 years. Contained in this overview is terrific footage of language development in a single child during this time frame.

•

The First 2½ Years: Language Development (Concept Media, 1991, 25 minutes). Reviews the stages of language development during the first 30 months, including coverage of infantdirected speech, nonverbal communication, semantics and syntax.

•

Infancy: Beginnings in Cognition & Language, from The Developing Child series (Magna Systems, 1991, 2003, 29 minutes). This program traces the sensory and perceptual abilities used in early learning, in addition to other means through which infants come to understand their world. The program also examines language development from first communications to first words, emphasizing the important role of adults in infant language development.

•

Language Development (Films for the Humanities and Social Sciences, 1997, 40 minutes). A comprehensive review of language development from its origins in infancy to fluent speech during middle childhood.

•

Language Development (Magna Systems, 1993, 29 minutes). Language development from infancy to middle childhood is reviewed, culminating in reading and writing skills. The role of adults in supporting this development is demonstrated.

•

Language Development: Birth to Two-and-a-Half Years (Insight Media, 2001, 29 minutes).

This DVD addresses the roles of biology and environment in language development. It examines pre- language communication in infants.

• •

Nourishing Language in Early Childhood (Davidson Films, 1996, 31 minutes). This video emphasis the importance of language for cognitive, social, and emotional development.

“Phonemic Awareness” modules from the “Early Childhood Training” series (Magna Systems, 2002): ▪ Foundational Blocks for Sound Awareness: Sentences, Compounds and Rhyming (29 minutes). This video presents hands-on activities for teachers to help students master the largest unit of phonemic awareness: sentences. The next level of phonological awareness, rhyming, is also reviewed, as are interactive games designed to help a child gain the ability to use/create compounds.

Phonemes and Phonics (28 minutes). This video examines the smallest unit of sound, ▪ phonemes, and stresses the importance of proper sound production. Teaching techniques ▪

for teaching phonemicand awareness and phonics are minutes). presented.This program begins with Phonemic Awareness Introduction to Print (26 an overview of phonemic awareness and theories underlying phonics. The importance of print is also stressed, as are several techniques for teaching children the basic elements of printed communication.

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▪

Sound Manipulation (26 minutes). The importance of segmenting sound and blending it back together is the main theme of this video. Instructional techniques are presented that will allow children to recognize and separate phonemes, and to spell words systematically.

MODULE 9.2: LEARNING THE MEANINGS OF WORDS LEARNING OBJECTIVES: •

How do children make the transition from babbling to talking?

•

What rules do children follow to learn new words?

•

What different styles of language learning do young children use?

•

What conditions foster children’s learning of new words?

•

How does children’s understanding of symbols progress beyond language?

KEY TERMS: naming explosion

phonological memory

fast mapping

referential style

underextension

expressive style

overextension

allophones

CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES: •

Baby Charades. Playing charades may sound silly, but your class will certainly enjoy this activity while gaining an appreciation for the importance of gestures in early communication.

Ask a few volunteers from your class to use gestures to convey the meanings of the phrases that appear below. Have the rest of the class form teams to guess the phrases (or at least the general messages being conveyed by each).

Phrases for Baby Charades: “I want a bottle.”

“I’m hungry.”

“That frightens me.”

“My diaper is wet.”

“Open the door.”

“Wheee! Do that again!”

“Pick me up.”

“I don’t like this food.”

“Too loud!”

“Put me down.”

“I’m happy to see you.”

“Look at that.”

•

Observing Styles of Language. Ask each of your students to observe the spontaneous speech of young children between the ages of 12 and 24 months. For each child that your students observe, ask them to record the number of words/phrases (see Handout 9-2) in which the child is naming or identifying something (i.e., exhibiting the referential style) versus the number of words/phrases in which the child is influencing others (i.e., exhibiting the expressive style). How would they classify each child they observed based upon their use of language? This activity can be completed individually or in small groups.

226 .

•

•

•

Understanding a Snork. Handout 9-3 presents an exercise in fast mapping to your students.

Ask your students to complete the exercise quickly and without discussing it with other students. The first four questions should be easy for them to complete, but the last question was designed to be impossible to answer without further information. The series of questions puts your students in the shoes of toddlers who are listening to adults speak. Like toddlers, your students must rely on context to comprehend the strange vocabulary used to describe the snork. And, in the absence of adequate context (as presented by question #5), comprehension is impossible.

Here’s to Sesame Street. As noted in the text, educational programs like Sesame Street help children develop their language skills. In small groups, ask your students to design an educational show or game that will help children learn the meaning of new words. The show or game should be presented to the class while each group explains how the show or game will facilitate the language development of children. If you had your class develop a game for previous chapters, you may simply want your students to add a component to enhance language development. If you have your class design an educational show, have your students videotape a segment from their show that can then be played for the class. Students are often more comfortable videotaping their productions rather than trying to present them “live.”

Bilingual Education: Does it Help or Hinder Language Development? Bilingual education is increasingly popular in much of Canada. For example, many parents are now enrolling their children in early French immersion programs. What are the advantages and drawbacks of being immersed in a second language in early childhood? Students can conduct online research to find information for and against early immersion programs. You might have them imagine that they are the parents of a 4-year-old who is about to start school. Would they choose to enroll their child in a French immersion program? Students should be instructed to use research to support their response.

Note: The debate format and guidelines presented in other modules can be used here.

FILMS/VIDEOS/DVDS: •

Baby Sign Language (Films for the Humanities and Social Sciences, 2005, 10 minutes).

“I want my diaper changed.” “I want to go to sleep.” These are two of many examples of what a pre-verbal child can communicate through American Sign Language. Using the work of researcher Joseph Garcia, founder of the business Sign with Your Baby, as a platform, this program illustrates the benefits and positive implications of introducing ASL to children regardless of whether their hearing is impaired. Parent/child ASL creates a new source of bonding while reducing the frustrations associated with point-and-cry communication— without delaying normal speech development.

•

Cognition and Language (Insight Media, 2001, 30 minutes). This video examines the components of language, including the use of symbolic representations of objects, actions, ideas, and feelings. The program also considers whether or not animals can learn human language.

Language and Thinking (Insight Media, 1992, 30 minutes). Several noted psychologists discuss language acquisition during infancy and the development of grammar. The relationship between language and other cognitive skills is also explored.

•

•

Language Development (Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 1997, 40 minutes). A comprehensive review of language development from its origins in infancy to fluent speech during middle childhood.

227 .

•

Language Development (Magna Systems, 1993, 32 minutes). Language development from infancy to middle childhood is reviewed, culminating in reading and writing skills. The role of adults in supporting this development is demonstrated.

•

Learning to Communicate: Doing What Comes Naturally (RMI Media Productions, 1991, 60 minutes). This video examines the sequence of language development, provides an overview of various theories of language acquisition, and presents information on the language development of bilingual, learning disabled, and deaf children.

Middle Childhood: Cognitive & Language Development, from The Developing Child series (Magna Systems, 1997, 29 minutes). This program reviews several aspects of cognitive development during middle childhood, and it also reviews the role of schools and parents in language development.

Nourishing Language Development in Early Childhood (Insight Media, 1996, 31 minutes).

This DVD stresses the important role that language plays in intellectual, social, and emotional development. It also reviews strategies that caregivers should use in the early stages of language development.

You Must Have Been a Bilingual Baby (Filmmakers Library, 46 minutes). This documentary investigates how babies become bilingual, how school children fare in language immersion classes, and how adults cope with learning foreign language.

•

•

•

MODULE 9.3: SPEAKING IN SENTENCES LEARNING OBJECTIVES: •

How do children progress from speaking single words to creating complicated sentences?

•

How do children acquire the grammar of their native language?

KEY TERMS: telegraphic speech

pidgin

grammatical morphemes

creole

over-regularization

symbolic interaction theory

semantic bootstrapping theory

relational frame theory (RFT)

CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES: •

Observing Grammatical Advances. Prior to your coverage of grammar, divide your class into small groups and ask each group to locate children of an assigned age group (e.g., 18–24 months, 24–30 months, 30–36 months, 36–48 months, and 48–60 months of age). Each group of students should tape record a 5- to 10-minute sample of sentences used by children in their assigned age group. During the class session in which you discuss grammar, play the tapes to the entire class. If you play them in chronological order, ask the class to identify the features of grammar exhibited by each age group (e.g., telegraphic speech, grammatical morphemes, overregularization, intonation, use of wh words, negation, etc.). If you play the tapes in random order, ask the class to guess the age groups based upon the level of complexity they detect in each child’s use of grammar and sentence structure. Make sure to remind your class to secure parental permission before tape-recording children.

228 .

•

Is the Grammar Lesson Over Yet? While language development is typically considered a childhood phenomenon, improvements in language continue throughout life. Ask your students to consider grammatical issues that they are still trying to master. What mistakes have been pointed out to them on recent papers they have written? This activity can function as a catalyst for class discussion, or you can modify it for use as a homework assignment by asking your students to locate a paper that was carefully graded for content and expression by one of their professors. Completion of Handout 9-4 will not only enhance their understanding of grammatical issues involved in the language development of children but should also shed some light on grammatical issues that they, themselves, must still master.

•

Testing Language Development Theories: The Tragic Story of Genie. One of the most moving stories regarding language development is captured in a PBS program entitled Genie (bibliographic information appears below in the “Films/Videos” list). Classes have been greatly impacted by this video which details the discovery of a 13-year-old girl who was called “Genie.” Genie had been raised by horribly abusive parents who locked her in her bedroom for most of her life and neither spoke to her nor allowed her to make any type of noise. The video, including extensive original footage of Genie and her therapists, chronicles the attempts to help Genie while also using her as a research subject who was beyond the hypothesized “critical period” for language development.

FILMS/VIDEOS/DVDS: •

Building Literacy (Davidson Films. 2000, 30 minutes). This program discusses strategies for developing literacy skills in preschool class rooms.

•

Discovering Psychology, Program 6: Language Development (Annenberg/CPB Collection.

1990, 30 minutes). This program reviews how children develop complex language abilities and how they use language in social communication.

•

English Language Development: Third Grade (Insight Media, 2006, 46 minutes). This DVD examines English-language development at the third-grade level. It allows educators to observe an actual classroom lesson taught by a beginning teacher and encourages the development of coaching skills

•

Genie: Secret of the Wild Child (PBS Video, 1993, 60 minutes). This NOVA program is a compelling presentation of the story of a girl called “Genie” whose abusive upbringing by her parents set the stage for a study of language development. This highly recommended video is described in more detail in “Testing Language Development Theories: The Tragic Story of Genie.”

•

The Ideas of Chomsky (Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 1977, 47 minutes). Chomsky challenges some explanations for how language is learned and examines the relationship of language to experience.

•

Language (Insight Media, 1990, 30 minutes). This video reviews the roles that innate capabilities and experience play in language development. Stages of language development are chronicled, and research on language disorders resulting from brain damage is presented in an effort to understand human language processing.

Out of the Mouths of Babes (Filmmakers Library, 1980, 28 minutes). This video reviews the chronology of language development from infancy through age six, emphasizing the parent’s role in language development.

•

229 .

•

Successful Language Development Strategies in Early Childhood Classrooms for English (Insight Media, 2003. 25 minutes). This DVD Language Learners and Native Speakers demonstrates successful language development techniques. It shows teaching strategies that facilitate language and vocabulary with diverse students and covers such topics as using music and movement, encouraging meaningful language in real settings, and maximizing social situations.

MODULE 9.4: USING LANGUAGE TO COMMUNICATE LEARNING OBJECTIVES: •

When and how do children learn to take turns in conversation?

•

What are the skills required to be an effective speaker?

•

What is involved in becoming a good listener?

KEY TERM: African American English (AAE)

CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES: •

Observing Turn-Taking. Divide your class into small groups of three per group and ask them to observe toddlers and preschoolers engaging in turn-taking. Turn-taking in these age groups can be easily observed in day care or preschool classes, at grocery stores, libraries, shopping centers, restaurants, playgrounds, etc. What evidence did they observe of turn-taking? What criteria did they use to identify turn-taking? How did turn-taking vary among different ages of children? Handout 9-5 will assist in their completion of this assignment. Once completed, have your students present their findings to the class.

•

Demonstrating Shatz and Gelman’s (1973) Research. To emphasize how children are capable of speaking effectively to a variety of audiences, demonstrate Shatz and Gelman’s now classic 1973 study on the effective communication skills of preschool children. Simply re-enact the study as it is described in the text. Invite a few 2- to 5-year-old children and their parents to your class. Have several toys handy for use in this demonstration. Ask an older child to describe a toy to a younger child, then to describe it to an adult (another child’s parent typically works better than the child’s own parent). Have the class take notes on the differences between the descriptions of the toys given to younger children versus those given to the adults. Your students can then summarize their observations orally or in writing.

•

•

Diversity or Error? An Educator’s Dilemma. Ask your students to assume the role of a preschool teacher. How would they respond to language variety in preschoolers? Your students should first discuss what “language variety” means, and what they would and would not tolerate. For example, are racial/ethnic dialects appropriate in the preschool classroom?

What about incorrect grammar? Slang? Expletives? Do they support or oppose bilingual education? What are the risks and benefits of tolerating language variety?

Assessing Children’s Books. Have each of your students bring a favourite children’s book to class. Then, distribute Handout 9-6 to your students so that they can assess the linguistic complexities their books pose to child readers or listeners. Ask for some volunteers to present their assessments of their favourite children’s books. In effect, this activity combines the enjoyment of “show-and-tell” with the rigor of critical thinking.

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•

Internet Annotated Bibliography. Have your students use the Internet to identify 10 websites that give scholarly information on listening skills and/or speaking skills. Students should type an annotated bibliography that lists the URLs (website addresses) for these websites and gives a brief (one or two paragraph) summary/review of each.

1. The name of the website (e.g., Listening Skills).

2. A valid URL (website address, e.g., http://www.d.umn.edu/student/loon/acad/strat/ss_listening.html).

3. A brief (one or two paragraph) review of the website. Reviews should include a brief summary of what students can expect to find if they visit the website and a brief evaluation of the website.

As a follow-up to this activity, students can combine all of the annotated bibliographies into an Internet Resource Directory that could be distributed in class.

FILMS/VIDEOS/DVDS: •

Developing Language: Learning to Question, Inform, and Entertain (Films for the Humanities and Social Sciences, 1994, 24 minutes). In addition to documenting the development of language during infancy and childhood, this program examines the skill of using conversation for establishing social relationships, the ability to employ language as a part of games, the capacity to understand jokes, and the awareness of what other people know and understand.

•

Language (Insight Media, 1990, 30 minutes). Characteristics of language and language learning are reviewed.

Language Development (Magna Systems, 1993, 25 minutes). This video reviews language development from infancy through adolescence, emphasizing the social and cultural influences on language development

•

•

Symbolic Formation and the Acquisition of Language (Worlds of Children Series, University of Nebraska, 30 minutes). This video explores how humans learn to use a symbolic system such as language to communicate.

•

Unlocking Language (Films for the Humanities and Social Sciences, 1998, 29 minutes). A far-reaching video that covers the origins of language in humans, the development of language in children, and the transmission of language between generations. The ability of language to express abstractions, brain physiology implicated in language, language disorders, and the isolation of a speech gene are discussed.

231 .

MODULE 9.5: SIGNED LANGUAGE and GESTURAL COMMUNICATION LEARNING OBJECTIVES: •

When and how do gestures count as communication?

•

How do signed languages operate?

•

What do signed languages tell us about language development?

CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES: •

Baby Sign Language. Ask each of your students to visit the website www.babysignlanguage.com to research information about the benefits of teaching babies sign language. Ask each student to teach the class ONE sign that can be used when interacting with a baby.

•

Class Debate: American Sign Language (ASL) versus Oral Language. Speech pathologists and the deaf community are struggling with a difficult issue regarding language development: Should hearing-impaired children be encouraged to learn ASL or should oral language be emphasized? Children with hearing impairments can develop language skills through ASL that parallel those of hearing children in both content (i.e., the elements of language) and timing. However, mastery of ASL may segregate them from the hearing community.

Conversely, acquiring oral language skills is very difficult for many hearing-impaired children. What form of language should hearing-impaired children be taught?

Assign half of your students to the ASL position and the other half to the oral language position.

Ask your students to review the available research for their respective positions in preparation for a class debate on the topic.

To effectively moderate the debate, you should prepare several questions that each side will address. Some sample questions follow.

1. What does ASL entail? What does oral communication entail?

2. What do educators like/dislike about each approach?

3. What do parents like/dislike about each approach?

4. What is the ideal approach to language education for the hearing-impaired?

•

Class Debate: Cochlear Implants. On a similar note, students can also debate the pros and cons of cochlear implants for deaf children. In preparation for the debate, a viewing of the film Sound and Fury (listed in the films/videos section) can assist students in conceptualizing the issues. Assign half of your students to the PRO position and the other half to the CON position. Ask your students to review the available research for their respective positions in preparation for a class debate on the topic. A format for the debate follows:

232 .

I.

Constructive Speeches (Presentation of your side of the argument): A. PRO side will present for 7 minutes 1. Cross-examination by the CON side for 3 minutes B. CON side will present for 7 minutes 1. Cross-examination by the PRO side for 3 minutes

II. Rebuttal Speeches (Your response to the other side’s argument): A. CON side will rebut for 5 minutes B. PRO side will rebut for 5 minutes III. Questions from Audience (5 minutes)

FILMS/VIDEOS/DVDS: •

Baby Sign Language (Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 2005, 10 minutes). “I want my diaper changed.” “I want to go to sleep.” These are two of many examples of what a preverbal child can communicate through American Sign Language. Using the work of researcher Joseph Garcia, founder of the business Sign with Your Baby, as a platform, this program illustrates the benefits and positive implications of introducing ASL to children regardless of whether their hearing is impaired. Parent/child ASL creates a new source of bonding while reducing the frustrations associated with point-and-cry communication— without delaying normal speech development.

•

Sound and Fury (Docudrama, 2001, 80 minutes). This Academy Award winning documentary asks the intriguing questions “If you could make your deaf child hear, would you?” and then proceeds to highlight both sides of the debate over cochlear implants. This highly recommended video is described in more detail in “Class Debate: Cochlear Implants.”

What American Sign Language Is and Is Not (Insight Media, 2002, 45 minutes). This DVD traces the history of American Sign Language and introduces deaf culture.

Discovering Psychology, Program 6: Language Development (Annenberg/CPB Collection.

1990, 30 minutes). This program reviews how children develop complex language abilities and how they use language in social communication.

• •

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INTERNET RESOURCES •

https://www.asha.org/public/speech/development/ – This site, maintained by the American Speech- Language-Hearing Association, provides a broad overview of a wide variety of topics related to language development.

•

http://www.babies-and-sign-language.com/ – information about how to teach babies and toddlers signs https:// www.langandlit.ualberta.ca – Language and Literacy is an online journal for educators interested in a broad range of literacy issues encompassing research and teaching in print, multimedia, and oracy.

•

•

https://www.naeyc.org/ – This home page for the National Association for the Education of Young Children provides an impressive collection of links to information on early childhood and elementary education, including information on language and literacy development.

•

http://nabe.org/ – This home page for National Association for Bilingual Education.

•

https://www.ethnologue.com/ – This is a reference cataloguing all of the world’s 6,912 known living languages.

•

https://www.babysignlanguage.com/ – This website advocates the use of baby signing and includes resources and articles about baby signing https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genie_(feral_child) – This is a wiki describing Genie’s life, research, and present situation. Students can go here for updates on her condition.

•

234 .

CASE STUDY Language and Communication An aunt was talking with her 2½-year-old niece about the circus they attended yesterday afternoon. When asked what she liked best about the circus, the niece responded, “I like the clowns bestest!”

“Oh, so you liked the clowns the best. What else did you like?” the aunt asked. “The kitty-cats!”

“The kitty-cats? Do you mean the lions and tigers?”

“Yeah, the lions and tigos. I no like the ephalants. They too big.”

“The elephants were as big as boxcars, weren’t they? Did you know that the elephants are the muscle of the circus? The elephants help raise the tent and can carry heavy things with their trunks.”

At that moment, the niece’s mother chimed-in: “The elephants may be the muscle, but the lion tamer is the bread and butter of that circus. He’s the one that most people go to see.”

“Do you want to go back to the circus again?” the aunt asked the niece. “No. The circus goed away.”

1. Focus on what the niece said in the above conversation. Identify any phonetic and grammatical errors that appeared in her speech. After you list each, describe the specific type of error made.

2. In speaking with her niece, what did the aunt do to facilitate the language development of her niece?

3. Do you think the niece understood what her mother was trying to say about bread and butter?

Why or why not? What is this language device called?

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HANDOUT 9-1 Learning Objectives/Discussion Questions for Chapter 9: 1. What are the basic sounds of speech, and how well can infants distinguish them?

2. How does infant-directed speech help children learn about language?

3. What is babbling, and how does it become more complex in older infants?

4. How do children make the transition from babbling to talking?

5. What rules do children follow to learn new words?

6. What different styles of language learning do young children use?

7. What conditions foster children’s learning of new words?

8. How does children’s understanding of symbols progress beyond language?

9. How do children progress from speaking single words to complicated sentences?

10. How do children acquire the grammar of their native language?

11. When and how do children learn to take turns in conversation?

12. What are the skills required to be an effective speaker?

13. What is involved in becoming a good listener?

14. When and how do gestures count as communication?

15. How do signed languages operate?

16. What do signed languages tell us about language development?

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HANDOUT 9-2 Observing Styles of Language Directions: Locate at least two children between the ages of 12 and 24 months. Record their spontaneous speech over the course of 20-30 minutes or until you have recorded 10-15 words or phrases. After each recorded word/phrase, indicate whether the child was naming something or trying to influence or interact with someone. Tally the number of “naming” versus “influencing” phrases in an attempt to classify each child’s language style as either referential or expressive.

CHILD #1’s Words/Phrases:

Naming

Influencing (check one)

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

12.

13.

14.

15.

Overall language style (circle one): Referential

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Expressive

Naming

CHILD #2’s Words/Phrases:

Influencing (check one)

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

12.

13.

14.

15.

Overall language style (circle one): Referential

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Expressive

HANDOUT 9-3 Understanding a Snork Directions:Refer to the following drawing to answer the questions below.

1. This is a snork. It walks on its flaxes. How many flaxes does a snork have?

2. Snorks have twice as many flaxes as ampolinks. Draw an arrow pointing toward the ampolinks. .

3. Snorks are covered with garslim. Garslim is like 4. Like dogs, snorks can wag their pangeers. Draw an arrow pointing toward the pangeer.

5. Do you think snorks can bispooche? Why or why not?

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HANDOUT 9-4 Is the Grammar Lesson Over Yet? Directions: Most people think of language development as something that occurs during childhood. However, everyone makes occasional grammatical mistakes throughout their lifetimes. Locate a graded paper that you recently completed for one of your classes. Ideally, you should choose a paper that was graded carefully for both content and expression. If you cannot locate such a paper, try to remember some of the feedback that you usually receive about the papers you turn in. Then, with paper in hand (or in mind), complete the following tasks:

1. Copy some of the lines from your paper that were indicated as incorrect by your instructor. If you were unable to locate a paper or if you write exceptionally well, describe some of the conscious efforts you make to produce good written work.

2. What types of grammatical errors occurred in the lines that you listed above? For example, were there errors in verb tense, plural/singular inconsistencies, run-on sentences, word-order problems, incomplete sentences or sentence fragments, etc.? If you were unable to locate a paper or write exceptionally well, list the types of feedback instructors frequently provide regarding your grammatical expression.

3. After considering the information you provided for #2, what specific rules of grammar are you apparently still trying to master? If you write exceptionally well, what rules are you consciously employing as you write?

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HANDOUT 9-5 Observing Turn-Taking Directions: Working individually or with two other members of your class (as determined by your instructor), observe the turn-taking abilities of toddlers and preschoolers. Turn-taking in these age groups can be easily observed in day care or preschool classes, at grocery stores, libraries, shopping centers, restaurants, playgrounds, etc. The following chart should help you accomplish this task.

Description of the turn-taking interactions

Estimated age of the Summary of the participants evidence of turntaking

Participant #1:

Participant #1:

Participant #2: Participant #1:

Participant #2:

Participant #2: Participant #1: Participant #2: Participant #3:

Participant #3:

Participant #4: Participant #3:

Participant #4:

Participant #4: Participant #3: Participant #4: Participant #5:

Participant #5: Participant #6: Participant #5:

Participant #6:

Participant #6: Participant #5: Participant #6: 241 .

HANDOUT 9-6 Assessing Children’s Books Directions: Find one of your favourite children’s books. Once you have located it (probably in a dusty box in an attic at home or at a local library), assess the linguistic challenges it poses to a child reader or listener. Respond to the questions below as you evaluate your favourite children’s book.

1. What is the title and who is the author of your favourite children’s book?

2. In what year was it written?

3. For what age of child was the book written?

4. At what age did you enjoy reading it or listening to it?

5. What are the most challenging vocabulary words in the book? List them below. If you did not know what the words meant when you first read or heard them, do you recall how you learned their meaning?

242 .

6. What is the mean length of utterance (MLU) used by the author? The MLU is the average length of each sentence. To compute the MLU, follow the instructions in (a) or (b) below. (a) If the book is relatively short, make a list of the number of words in each sentence of the book, add these numbers together, and then divide this sum by the total number of sentences in the book. (b) If the book is relatively long, make a list of the number of words in each sentence of a page or chapter in the book, add these numbers together, then divide this sum by the total number of sentences in the page or chapter.

MLU:

7. Describe any grammatical challenges posed to the reader or listener. For example, does the story contain sentences with negatives? Does the story include the use of metaphors or sarcasm? List any examples of these grammatical challenges below.

243 .

ANSWER KEY CASE STUDY Language and Communication 1. “bestest” -- an over-regularization error. “tigos” – an error in pronouncing the embedded /r/ phoneme.

“I no like ephalants” -- the child is learning to use negation but erred in the grammar. “ephalants” – an error in sequencing the phonemes that comprise the word “elephant”.

“They too big” – a grammatical error, resulting in an almost “telegraphic” sentence. “goed” – an overregularization error.

2. The aunt was questioning the girl, forcing her to express herself.

The questioning was in the format of turn-taking.

The aunt was elaborating on what the niece said, recasting some of the niece’s comments into proper grammatical form.

3. It is unlikely that the girl in the case understood her mother’s comment about bread and butter because 30-month-old children interpret language quite literally, and they devote much of their attention to learning the meanings of new words. The mom was attempting to use a metaphor, something that the little girl will not comprehend until age 5 or so.

244 .

End-of-Chapter Test Yourself Questions: Language and Communication 1. Newborns can hear a wide range of language sounds, but by the first birthday infants readily distinguish only those sounds . , 2. To pick out individual words from a steady stream of speech, infants use knowledge of what phonemes sound good together and where they appear in words, and familiar function words.

3. In

, adults speak slowly and with exaggerated changes in pitch and loudness.

4. During the first year, babbling becomes progressively more language-like, and at about 8 to 11 months sounds like real speech because .

5. A child’s first word probably reflects the child’s mastery of symbols because . : They start to learn new words 6. At about 18 months children experience a much more rapidly than before. and the child’s language environment contribute to individual differences in the size of children’s vocabulary.

8. There are many ways that parents can help infants to learn new words (e.g., reading books to them), but is not one of them.

7.

9. The benefits of bilingualism include greater understanding of the symbolic nature of language and .

10. In the telegraphic speech that is common among one-and-a-half-year-olds, children .

11. Overregularizations in children’s speech (e.g., “I goed to the store”) show that children master grammar by .

12. The development of grammar includes contributions from language-specific processes, cognitive skills, and .

13. An example of preschoolers’ communicative skill is that when talking with younger children, four-year-olds . but not language.

14. Simple gestures can be 15. Similarities in development of signed languages and speech give evidence for of language.

Answers: (1) that are meaningful in their own language; (2) stress cues; (3) infant-directed speech; (4) it mimics the intonation patterns of the infant’s native language; (5) children begin to use other symbols, such as gestures, at about the same time that they start to speak; (6) naming explosion; (7) Phonological memory; (8) showing them infant-oriented language videos; (9) greater skill at task-switching and inhibiting inappropriate responses; (10) include only words that are directly relevant to meaning; (11) learning rules; (12) social interaction; (13) use simpler grammar and more attention-getting words; (14) communication; (15) innateness.

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Chapter 10

Emotional Development CHAPTER OVERVIEW

247

MODULE SUPPLEMENTS Module 10.1: EMERGING EMOTIONS

249

Learning Objectives Key Terms Classroom Activities Films/Videos/DVDs Module 10.2: TEMPERAMENT

252

Learning Objectives Key Terms Classroom Activities Films/Videos/DVDs Module 10.3: ATTACHMENT

254

Learning Objectives Key Terms Classroom Activities Films/Videos/DVDs INTERNET RESOURCES

257

CASE STUDY

258

HANDOUTS

259

TEST YORUSELF

268

246 .

CHAPTER 10 OVERVIEW I. Module 10.1: Emerging Emotions a.

The Function of Emotions

b. Experiencing and Expressing Emotions i.

Development of Basic Emotions 1. Basic Emotions 2. Social Smiles 3. Stranger Wariness

ii. Emergence of Complex Emotions 1. Self-Conscious Emotions iii. Summary Table – Infants’ Expression of Emotions iv. Later Developments v. c.

Cultural Differences in Emotional Expression

Recognizing and Using Others’ Emotions 1. i.

Social Referencing

Understanding Emotions 1. Display Rules

d. Regulating Emotions II. Module 10.2: Temperament 1. Temperament a. What is Temperament?

1. Surgency/Extraversion 2. Negative Affect 3. Effortful Control b. Spotlight on Theories: A Theory of the Structure of Temperament in Infancy c.

Heredity and Environmental Contributions to Temperament

d. Cultural Influences: Why is Yoshimi’s Son so Tough? e.

Stability of Temperament

f.

Temperament and Other Aspects of Development

g.

Focus on Research: Temperament Influences Outcomes in Adolescence and Adulthood

247 .

III. Module 10.3: Attachment a.

The Growth of Attachment 1. Evolutionary Psychology 2. Attachment a.

Preattachment (birth to 6-8 weeks)

b. Attachment in the making (6-8 weeks to 6-8 months) c.

True attachment (6-8 months to 18 months)

d. Reciprocal relationships (18 months on) i.

The Role of Fathers

b. The Quality of Attachment 1.

Secure

Attachment

2.

Avoidant

Attachment 3. Resistant Attachment 4.

Disorganized

(Disoriented)

Attachment

Patterns of Attachment Worldwide i. ii. Consequences of Quality of Attachment iii. Factors Determining Quality of Attachment 1. Internal Working Model 2. Secure Adults 3. Dismissive Adults 4. Preoccupied Adults iv. Work, Attachment, and Childcare c.

Children’s Lives: Determining Guidelines for Childcare for Infants and Toddlers

248 .

MODULE SUPPLEMENTS MODULE 10.1: EMERGING EMOTIONS LEARNING OBJECTIVES: • Why do people “feel”? Why do they have emotions?

•

At what ages do children begin to experience and express different emotions?

• When do children begin to understand other people’s emotions? How do they use this information to guide their own behaviour?

• When do children show evidence of regulating emotion, and why is this an important skill?

(See Handout 10-1 for a listing of this chapter’s learning objectives.)

KEY TERMS: basic emotions social smiles stranger wariness

self-conscious emotions social referencing display rules

CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES: •

Researching Infant Emotions. To give your students first-hand exposure to some of the research on infant emotions, divide your class into four pairs of groups and assign one of the following articles to each pair of groups: De Pliveria, C.A.., Neufield Baily, H., Moran, G. & Pederson, D. R. (2004). “Emotional socialization as a framework for understanding the development od disorganized attachment.” Social Development, 13, 437-467.

Matias, R., & Cohn, J. F. (1993). “Are NIAX-specified infant facial expressions during faceto-face interaction consistent with differential emotions theory?” Developmental Psychology, 291, 524-531.

Montaque, D.P., & Walker, A. S. (2001). “Peekaboo: A new look at infants’ perception of emotion expressions.” Developmental Psychology, 37(6), 826-838.

Repacholi, B. M., Meltzoff, A.N.., & Olsen, B. (2008). “Infants’ understanding of the link between visual perception and emotion?” Developmental Psychology, 44 (2), 561-574.

Spangler, G., Maier, U., Gaserick, B., & von Wahlert, A. (2010). “The influence of attachment representation on parental perception and interpretation of emotions: A multilevel approach.” Developmental Psychology, 52, 411-423.

Wintre, M. G., & VaHence, D. D. (1994). “A developmental sequence in the comprehension of emotions: Intensity, multiple emotions, and valence.” Developmental Psychology, 30, 509-514.

Since research articles are often difficult for students to understand, it is recommended to have two groups of students work on each article to make sure that all important points are identified and interpreted correctly. Have each group complete Handout 10-2, compare their completed handout with the group that shared their article, then present a summary of their assigned article to the rest of the class.

249 .

•

Article Review. Panksepp, J. (2001). “The long-term psychobiological consequences of infant emotions: Prescription for the twenty first century” Infant Mental Health Journal, 22(2-3), 132-173. Divide the class into small groups and ask each group to identify the most important concepts in this article. Challenge each group to use the concepts to develop a brochure that would be useful to new parents.

•

Guest Speaker: Parent and Infant Child. Invite a parent to bring his or her infant (under the age of 12 months) to your class to discuss infant emotions. (If possible, a panel of parents and infants makes for a memorable class session.) Ask the parent to recall when the child first smiled and what she or he thought caused the earliest smiles. When did the child start to engage in social smiling? When did the child first laugh? What caused the laughter? Ask the parent about how she or he interprets the child’s other emotions as well. Finally, ask the parent if the child senses her emotional states. How does the parent know if/when the child perceives her emotional states?

Who’s Afraid of the Big, Bad Wolf? At approximately 6 months of age, stranger anxiety may become apparent in infants. Later, during the preschool years, other fears may arise. Assign different fears to each of your students and ask them to research the development of their assigned fear. A list of potential fears appears below.

•

Stranger wariness

School phobia

Separation anxiety

Fear of spiders

Fear of the dark

Fear of water

Fear of monsters

Fear of

?

Handout 10-3 will guide your students through their research efforts. Have your students present their findings to the class.

•

Recollections of Complex Emotions. Ask your students to complete Handout 10-4 in an effort to gain an understanding of how complex emotions differ from basic emotions. It will also give students a chance to reflect back on their own childhood and connect course content to their own development. This activity can serve as a catalyst for class discussion or as a homework assignment.

•

EQ Assessment & Reflection. Students can use a computerized or paper/pencil EQ Inventory to assess their Emotional Quotient (EQ). Upon completion of the assessment, students could discuss the assessment in class and/or write a reflection on the assessment and their emotional development, including suggestions for how they might work to raise their EQ. Adult Emotional Management: Social Referencing and Display Rules. Ask your students to generate examples of recent situations in which they engaged in social referencing. Why did they look to the reactions of other to determine their own reactions to the situations they described? The answers to this question will explain why infants engage in social referencing as well (ambiguous situations are ones in which social referencing is most likely to occur).

During this discussion, you may want to talk about the notion of “display rules,” or the set of norms that dictate appropriate emotional expressions in a variety of circumstances. These norms are learned during childhood and adolescence. What display rules have your students learned? Have they ever broken display rules? What were the consequences for breaking these rules?

•

250 .

FILMS/VIDEOS/DVDS: •

Emotional and Social Development: Birth to Two- and-a Half-Years (Insight Media, 2001, 25 minutes).This program serves as a comprehensive overview of emotional and social development during infancy and early childhood. It covers Erikson’s first two stages, infant emotions, attachment, temperament, stranger wariness, and separation anxiety, and the child’s growing self-awareness.

•

Emotional/Social Development, from the Human Development series (Concept Media, 2001, 25 minutes). This video discusses temperament, attachment, and social responses such as smiling, stranger anxiety and separation anxiety, self-awareness and empathy.

•

Infancy: Emotional and Social World, from The Developing Child series (Magna Systems, 1993, 2001, 19 minutes). This video portrays the early development of emotions, selfregulation, social referencing, and separation-individuation.

•

Infants Social and Emotional Development (Magna Systems, 2010, 23 minutes). This DVD portrays the first year of life and the range of infants’ emotions. It includes how infants distinguish the expressions of others and mimic them as well. It also examines the different stages of emotional development, and how children form attachments with people. Students can observe how personality and temperament affect an infant’s social and emotional growth and how caregivers handle various situations.

Toddlerhood: Emotional Development (Magna Systems, 1992, 30 minutes). This video presents an overview of a variety of issues regarding emotional development, including Erikson’s stage of autonomy versus shame and doubt, socialization, and managing emotions.

•

251 .

MODULE 10.2: TEMPERAMENT LEARNING OBJECTIVES: •

What are the different features of temperament? How

•

do heredity and environment influence temperament?

•

How

•

childhood? What are the consequences of different

stable

is

a

child’s

temperament

across

temperaments?

KEY TERMS:

temperament

negative affect

surgency/extraversion

effortful control

CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES: •

•

Identifying Temperaments: Interviewing Primary Caregivers. In an effort to ensure that your students understand how temperament classifications are determined (and to give your students an appreciation for how difficult this classification can be), ask them to interview the primary caregivers (most likely the mothers) of at least two infants (2 to 12 months of age).

Your students should generate a standard set of questions that they will ask each primary caregiver they interview. These questions should be based upon the dimensions of temperament discussed in the text. Your students should then attempt to classify the infants of the primary caregivers they interviewed into the three temperament groups identified by Thomas and Chess: “easy,” “difficult,” and “slow-to-warm-up.” (You will want to inform them that nearly one-third of all infants do not fit neatly into one of these categories.) A discussion of how difficult it was to attach a single temperament label to the observed infants will reveal to your students the more contemporary practice of using the dimensions of temperament independently. Have your students summarize their interviews and their attempts to classify the infants either in writing or as a class presentation.

The Practical Importance of Temperament. To help students understand the lifelong impact of temperament, invite them to visit http://www.temperament.com and to find the link to “Things to Do at This Website.” From this link, ask them to link to “Practical Importance of Temperament.” After reading the article ask the students to answer the following 2 questions: 1. How does understanding temperament help you in your own life?

2. Why is understanding temperament important for parents and teachers?

•

Identifying Temperaments: Observing Infants. If students have access to infants between the ages of 2 and 12 months, they would benefit from a modified version of the exercise above. Instead of interviewing primary caregivers about their children, ask your students to directly observe at least two infants in their homes or at a day care facility and attempt to identify their temperament classifications. Handout 10-5 will provide structure for your students’ observations. Ask your students to summarize their observations and their classifications in a brief presentation to the class.

252 .

•

Of Course I Was a Good Baby...Wasn’t I? In an exercise your students will certainly enjoy, ask them to talk with their parent(s) about how they (your students) acted as infants.

Specifically, your students should try to determine their own infant temperaments.

Additionally, this exercise will cause your students to consider the stability of temperament issue covered in the text. Completion of Handout 10-6 will foster your students’ comprehension of the influences on, and/or determinants of, temperament.

•

Guest Speaker: Parenting Skills Educator. Invite a parenting skills educator to your class to speak about the impact of temperament on parent-infant interactions. Ask the speaker to address the issue of how parents can influence their infant’s temperament and how the infant’s temperament influences the parents’ relationship with the infant. To locate such a speaker, contact a local hospital, mental health facility, or county agency that sponsors parenting classes.

FILMS/VIDEOS/DVDS: •

First Feelings (Insight Media, 1992, 30 minutes). Jerome Kagan, Mary Ainsworth, Alan Sroufe, and Lisa Bridges explain their views and research on attachment, temperament, and the origins of personality.

•

Nature and Nurture (Films for the Humanities and Social Sciences, 1986, 52 minutes). This video focuses on the influences of nature and nurture on personality development. Twin studies are presented and various home environments are explored to highlight the contributions of genetics and environment to the personality development of the child.

Toddlers Social and Emotional Development (Magna Systems, 2009, 26 minutes). This DVD portrays how toddlers come to understand that their actions can affect others. It also examines how gender and temperament play a role in development.

•

253 .

MODULE 10.3: ATTACHMENT LEARNING OBJECTIVES: •

How does an attachment relationship develop between an infant and the primary caregiver?

•

What different types of attachment relationships are there? What are the consequences of different types of relationships?

KEY TERMS: evolutionary psychology

disorganized (disoriented) attachment

attachment

internal working model

secure attachment

secure adults

avoidant attachment

dismissive adults

resistant attachment

preoccupied adults

CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES: •

Evidence of Attachment: Interviewing Parents. Ask your students to interview the parents of an infant who is between 6 and 12 months old. The interview should include both parents because differences in mother-child and father-child attachment will be explored. If your students have difficulty locating parents of infants, you may want to give them the option of either teaming up for this assignment or doing a retrospective interview with their own parents. Your students should generate interview questions that explore how each parent facilitated the child’s establishment of an attachment relationship. For example, questions such as “What did you do when your child cried?” or “How much time did you spend each day playing (or feeding or snuggling, etc.) with your child?” or “When did your child first reveal a preference to be held by you rather than someone else?”

From the answers given to the interview questions, each student should be able to summarize the potential for the development of secure attachment relationships through this rather crude assessment of each parent’s degree of responsiveness and consistency in meeting their child’s needs. You may want to suggest that your students summarize their interviews by rating mothers and fathers on 10-point scales for responsiveness and consistency, and then you can tally the ratings that the class generates. With or without the ratings, this exercise usually leads to an in-depth discussion about the “ingredients” for establishing a secure attachment relationship, and differences between mother-child and father-child relationships are highlighted.

•

Re-enacting the Strange Situation. To demonstrate Ainsworth’s Strange Situation, ask for four pairs of student volunteers to play the roles of parent and child (you will play the role of experimenter). Assign four of your students to play the roles of children who have formed secure attachment, avoidant attachment, resistant attachment, and disorganized (disoriented) attachment relationships with the other students playing the role of parents. Assign students to these roles in such a way that the rest of the class is unaware of which type of attachment relationship has been assigned to each student. Then, referring to Handout 10-7, guide the parent-child dyads through the Strange Situation (one pair at a time).

NOTE: It is critical that the students who are playing the roles of the children understand the behaviours and emotional reactions that are consistent with their assigned attachment type.

254 .

You may want to provide a script to each of these four students. The role of the parent in each Strange Situation is fairly simple and consistent.

The rest of the class should try to identify the type of attachment relationship being portrayed at the conclusion of each of the Strange Situation tests.

•

Look Into It: Influences on Attachment Relationships. As mentioned in previous chapters, students can be sent to the library to do some focused literature searches. Depending upon your class size (under 40 works well) and available library resources (Psyc-Lit, Infotrak’s Expanded Academic ASAP or equivalent search systems), this project can be an effective means of allowing students to explore a topic that is of particular interest to them. Handout 10-8 provides a series of questions that will guide the students’ library searches.

There are many factors that influence the attachment relationship that the child develops with the parent(s). Assign one of the following topics to each student (or small group of students) in your class and have them explore the professional literature. During your next class session, have them briefly present their findings to the rest of the class. A list of topics that pertain to attachment follows:

•

(a) maternal employment

(g) family size

(b) day care

(h) divorce

(c) temperament

(i) culture

(d) child abuse

(j) parenting skills

(e) adoption

(k) birth order

(f) prematurity

(l) other:

Debating the Consequences of Child Care. Have the class divide into two groups. One group will debate the PRO side of the childcare issue while the other group will debate the CON side of the issue. Give students several class periods to prepare for the debate. Even though extensive literature exists on this topic, your students may want to start by reading the “Yes” and “No” positions on Issue 1: “Does Maternal Employment Have a Negative Effect on Infant Development?” in Taking Sides: Clashing Views on Controversial Issues in Childhood and Society by DelCampo and DelCampo (1998). A format for a half-hour debate is listed below which can be modified to fit classes of different lengths: I.

Constructive Speeches (Presentation of your side of the argument): A. PRO side will present for 7 minutes 1. Cross-examination by the CON side for 3 minutes B. CON side will present for 7 minutes 1. Cross-examination by the PRO side for 3 minutes

II. Rebuttal Speeches (Your response to the other side’s argument): A. CON side will rebut for 5 minutes B. PRO side will rebut for 5 minutes III. Questions from Audience (5 minutes) 255 .

•

Internet Annotated Bibliography. Have your students use the Internet to identify 10 websites that give scholarly information on childcare arrangements. Students should type an annotated bibliography that lists the URLs (website addresses) for these websites and gives a brief (oneor two-paragraph) summary/review of each.

1. The name of the website (e.g., Child Care Canada).

2. A valid URL (website address, e.g., http://www.childcarecanada.org).

3. A brief (one or two paragraph) review of the website. Reviews should include a brief summary of what students can expect to find if they visit the website and a brief evaluation of the website.

As a follow-up to this activity, students can combine all of the annotated bibliographies into an Internet Resource Directory that could be distributed in class.

• Discussion Questions—Love’s Labors. Have your students watch the video Love’s Labors described in the following Films/Videos section. Then have the students answer the following questions as either an assignment or an in-class reflection/discussion.

1. Describe the importance of playful interactions between infant and caregiver.

2. Describe what results when contact is avoided, and intimate interaction does not take place between infant and caregiver? (Lecture: nonorganic failure to thrive) 3. Describe the importance of symbolic play (symbolic understanding) for language acquisition.

How important is the environment in the development of the moral emotions? (Kagan) 4.

FILMS/VIDEOS/DVDS: •

Attachment (Insight Media, 1996, 24 minutes). This video reviews the development and measurement (The Strange Situation Test) of the various forms of attachment relationships.

•

The Dark Matter of Love (Directed by Sarah McCarthy and produced by Double Bounce Films, 2012, 93 minutes). This moving documentary follows an American family as they adopt three children from a Russian orphanage. It includes interviews with the family prior to the adoption, footage of the family meeting for the first time at the orphanage in Russia, and the challenges and joys of their first year together. The family works with attachment counselors to understand and improve their relationships with one another. The film also includes archival footage of early psychological experiments related to attachment. Available through iTunes.

Attachment Theory: The Baby/Caregiver Bond (Films for the Humanities & Social Sciences, 2001, 24 minutes). This video provides an overview of attachment theory, including a presentation of the Strange Situation attachment assessment process. The effects of day care on attachment and long-term consequences of attachment patterns are discussed.

Attachment Relationships: Nurturing Healthy Bonds (Magna Systems, 2010, 29 minutes).

This DVD follows the journey from prenatal bonding to a baby’s phases of attachment from birth to age two. It includes founding theorists John Bowlby and Mary Ainsworth and examples of how parents and caregivers can foster healthy attachment relationships.

•

•

256 .

•

Beginning with Love: The First Three Months: Connecting With Your Child (Civitas Initiative, 2000, 30 minutes). This video which is hosted by Oprah Winfrey Is based on recent research. It explains the importance of a responsive and enriching environment, for a baby.

•

Childhood: Love’s Labors (Ambrose Video, 1991, 60 minutes). This video does a wonderful job of showing child development and the important role of caregiver interactions. This video can be used for the activity Discussion Questions: Love’s Labors.

•

John Bowlby: Attachment and Loss (Insight Media, 1989, 2 volumes, 60 minutes each). John Bowlby reviews the development of his theory of attachment, and discusses the emotional responses when attachments are broken.

•

Early Relationships: Habits of the Heart (Insight Media, 1991, 60 minutes). Discusses attachment and includes a demonstration of Ainsworth’s Strange Situation.

First Feelings (Insight Media, 1992, 30 minutes). Jerome Kagan, Mary Ainsworth, Alan Sroufe, and Lisa Bridges explain their views and research on attachment, temperament, and the origins of personality.

•

•

Infancy: Early Relationships (Magna Systems, 1991, 2003, 30 minutes). Reviews various aspects of early socio-emotional relationships including bonding and attachment. This video also discusses day care for infants.

•

John Bowlby: Attachment Theory Across the Generations (Davidson Films, 2007, 35 minutes). This DVD focuses on the impact attachment relationships have on adult behaviour and the transmission of attachment patterns to the next generation.

•

Mary Ainsworth: Attachment and the Growth of Love (Davidson Films, 2005, 38 minutes). In this DVD, viewers see two mother-child dyads undergoing Dr. Ainsworth’s assessment procedure, the “Strange Situation” and then see them in their home environments. The four types of parent-child attachment relationships are illustrated along with segments from an “Adult Attachment Interview.” Dr. Ainsworth’s personal and professional biography is fondly chronicled by her ex-student and friend, Dr. Robert Marvin.

•

Toddler (Insight Media, 1992, 3O minutes). This video contrasts the development of a securely attached toddler with one whose mother is in prison, witnessing their struggle with dependence and autonomy.

INTERNET RESOURCES •

https://childcarecanada.org/ – The Childcare Resource and Research Unit (CRRU) focuses on research and policy resources in the context of a high-quality system of early childhood education and childcare in Canada.

•

http://www.personality-project.org – A comprehensive site on Temperament Theory.

•

http://www.personalityresearch.org/attachment.html – Comprehensive site on Attachment Theory and Evolutionary Psychology.

•

http://www.psychology.sunysb.edu/attachment/ – Supported by SUNY Stony Brook and the New York Attachment Consortium, this site provides information on research and professional conferences focusing on the parent-child attachment relationship.

•

https://www.b-di.com/ – Discusses the concept of behavioural individuality in infants, children, and adults.

257 .

CASE STUDY Emotional Development “Is Jake crying again?! It’s only midnight and he’s awake for the third time tonight.

Looks like we’re in for another long night.”

“Why don’t you see if his diaper is wet or if he’s hungry?” “Didn’t you just feed and change him an hour ago?”

“I did, but you know how unpredictable he can be.”

“Jake’s 10 months old—shouldn’t he be sleeping through the night by now? Who would’ve thought that parenting was going to be so much work?”

“Just see what he needs. Hopefully, he’ll quiet down quickly so we can get some sleep.”

1. From the description of Jake in the conversation above, what temperament pattern do you think he is exhibiting? Explain your choice.

2. If the parents are feeling very frustrated with Jake, will he be able to detect their frustration?

3. If Jake is frequently unhappy and is somewhat difficult to comfort, how might this impact his attachment relationships with his parents?

4. To foster a secure attachment relationship, how should the parents respond to Jake?

258 .

HANDOUT 10-1 Learning Objectives/Discussion Questions for Chapter 10: 1. Why do people “feel”? Why do they have emotions?

2. At what ages do children begin to experience and express different emotions?

3. When do children begin to understand other people’s emotions? How do they use this information to guide their own behaviour?

4. When do children show evidence of regulating emotion, and why is this an important skill?

5. What are different features of temperament?

6. do heredity and environment influence temperament?

How 7. stable is a child’s temperament across childhood?

How 8. What are the consequences of different temperaments?

9. How does an attachment relationship develop between an infant and the primary caregiver?

10. What different types of attachment relationships are there? What are the consequences of different types of relationships?

259 .

HANDOUT 10-2 Researching Infant Emotions Directions: Read the article that your group has been assigned by your instructor, and then respond to the questions below.

Assigned article: 1. What is the aim/purpose of the study?

2. How did the investigators measure the topic of interest?

3. Who were the children in the study?

4. What was the design of the study (e.g., correlational, experimental, cross-sectional, longitudinal)?

5. Were there ethical concerns with the study?

6. What were the results and conclusions?

260 .

HANDOUT 10-3 Who’s Afraid of the Big, Bad Wolf?

Directions: You have been assigned a topic regarding childhood fears. It is your job to investigate research on this topic using any available library resources. To help focus your search, respond to the questions below.

TOPIC: 1. How common is your assigned fear among infants and young children?

2. How is this fear expressed by infants and young children (i.e., what are the signs that a child has this fear)?

3. How is this kind of fear typically acquired?

4. What type of research (e.g., experiments, observational studies, etc.) has been conducted to investigate your assigned fear?

5. How can your assigned fear be prevented, mediated, or treated? In other words, if parents or teachers are aware of the conditions that contribute to the development of this fear and they are aware of the symptoms in a child that has this fear, what can they do about it?

261 .

HANDOUT 10-4 Recollections of Complex Emotions Directions: Complex emotions, such as pride, embarrassment, and guilt, develop during early childhood as the intellectual abilities of the child increase. Some understanding of self and the comprehension of rules or norms are prerequisites to experiencing complex emotions. Think back to your earliest experiences of complex emotions. Complete the following table in an effort to assess why you experienced those emotions.

Complex Emotion

Describe your earliest memory of What basic emotions did you also experiencing each complex experience at the same time? emotion listed.

Pride

Embarrassment

Guilt

262 .

HANDOUT 10-5 Identifying Temperaments: Observing Infants Directions: Locate two infants between the ages of 2 and 12 months. If you are planning to observe the infants in their homes, do so after gaining their parents’ permission and with the parent present. If you are planning to observe the infants in a day care facility, gain permission to do so from the director of the facility and from the teacher(s) responsible for the infants you plan to observe. Observe each infant for at least 20 minutes, noting emotions, behaviours, and other characteristics that enable you to classify each infant’s temperament. Completion of the following table will assist you in this process.

INFANT #1

Sex:

Age:

Temperament Dimension

Description of the infant being observed

Activity level

Rhythmicity Approach/ Withdrawal

Distractibility Adaptability Intensity of reaction Mood Threshold Attention span and persistence

INFANT #1’s TEMPERAMENT CLASSIFICATION: 263 .

HANDOUT 10-5 INFANT #2:

Sex:

Age:

Temperament Dimension Description of the infant being observed

Activity level Rhythmicity Approach/ Withdrawal

Distractibility Adaptability Intensity of reaction Mood Threshold Attention span and persistence INFANT #2’s TEMPERAMENT CLASSIFICATION: (a) What differences did you notice between the two infants?

(b) Did their temperamental classifications differ? How so?

264 .

HANDOUT 10-6 Of Course I Was a Good Baby...Wasn’t I? Directions: Determine the type of temperament you exhibited as an infant. You may need to talk with your parent(s) about this. Once you’ve identified your infant temperament, answer the following questions.

1. How would you describe your infant temperament (e.g., “easy,” “difficult,” “slow-to-warmup”)? Support your choice.

2. If you have siblings, how would you describe their temperaments? How different or similar were your individual temperaments?

3. Did your temperament remain relatively stable throughout your childhood and adolescence, or did it change? Explain.

4. How does your present personality relate to your infant temperament?

5. Describe some of the advantages and disadvantages of your temperament. Did your temperament pose any special challenges to you or your parent(s)?

265 .

HANDOUT 10-7 Ainsworth’s Strange Situation Test EPISODE

DESCRIPTION

1

Parent, baby, and observer enter experimental room. Observer leaves.

Many attractive toys are scattered around.

2

Parent sits and watches while baby is free to explore the room.

3

Stranger enters. Stranger is silent for 1 minute. Stranger approaches baby.

Parent leaves room unobtrusively.

4

Baby is alone with stranger.

5

Parent comes back into room and greets and comforts baby. Baby is encouraged to play again.

6

Parent leaves room, says “Bye-bye.”

7

Stranger attempts to interact with baby.

8

Parent enters room. Greets baby and picks up baby. Stranger leaves.

BEHAVIOURS OBSERVED

266 .

HANDOUT 10-8 Look Into It: Influences on Attachment Relationships Directions: You have been assigned a topic that impacts the development of attachment relationships. It is your job to investigate published research on this topic using any available library resources. To help focus your search, respond to the questions below.

TOPIC: 1. How does your topic impact the attachment relationship? (Describe the positive or negative influences that exist between your topic and attachment.)

2. What type of research (e.g., experiments, observational studies, cross-sectional or longitudinal studies, etc.) has been conducted to investigate the relationships between your topic and the development of attachment relationships?

3. How can the impact of your topic on attachment be mediated? In other words, if parents, teachers, employers, day care workers, etc., are aware of how your topic impacts the development of attachment relationships, what can they do about it?

267 .

End-of-Chapter Test Yourself Questions: Emotional Development 1. Modern approaches to emotion emphasize the people to adapt to their environment.

of emotions in helping

2.

are experienced by people worldwide and consist of a subjective feeling, a physiological change, and an overt behaviour.

3. Complex emotions (sometimes called self-conscious emotions) develop between 18 and 24 months of age because they depend on the child having .

4. In , infants look to a parent to help them interpret an unfamiliar or ambiguous environment.

5. Compared to younger children’s emotion regulation, older children and adolescents rely on themselves, not parents, to regulate emotions; more often rely on mental strategies to regulate emotions; and .

6. In the New York Longitudinal Study, most babies were happy and cheerful; they were called babies.

7. Rothbart’s theory of temperament includes three dimensions: surgency/extraversion, negative affect, and .

8. Temperament is from infancy through adulthood.

9. Inhibited children are more likely as adults to have an

personality.

10. When young children with difficult temperaments grow up, they are prone to .

11. Modern theories view attachment from an evolutionary perspective and emphasize the .

12. Young infants are interested in people and can identify their mothers, but not until months of age do infants identify a single attachment figure who provides a stable social-emotional base.

13. In the Strange Situation, infants with attachment are not upset when the caregiver leaves and ignore their caregiver when she or he returns.

14. Around the world,

attachment is the most common form.

15. The most important factor in determining a secure attachment is

.

Answers: (1) functional value; (2) Basic emotions; (3) some understanding of himself or herself; (4) social referencing; (5) match regulation strategies more accurately to the setting; (6) easy; (7) effortful control; (8) relatively stable; (9) introverted; (10) behavioural problems; (11) survival value of a strong social-emotional relationship between caregiver and child; (12) 6 to 8; (13) avoidant; (14) secure; (15) caregivers responding predictably and appropriately to the baby.

268 .

Chapter 11

Understanding Self and Others CHAPTER OVERVIEW

270

MODULE SUPPLEMENTS Module 11.1: WHO AM I? SELF-CONCEPT

272

Learning Objectives Key Terms Classroom Activities Films/Videos/DVDs Module 11.2: SELF-ESTEEM

276

Learning Objectives Key Term Classroom Activities Films/Videos/DVDs Module 11.3: UNDERSTANDING OTHERS

279

Learning Objectives Key Term Classroom Activities Films/Videos/DVDs INTERNET RESOURCES

281

CASE STUDY

282

HANDOUTS

283

ANSWER KEY

289

TEST YOURSELF

290

269 .

CHAPTER 11 OVERVIEW I.

Module 11.1: Who Am I? Self-Concept 1. Self-Concept a.

Origins of Self-Recognition

b. The Evolving Self-Concept c.

Summary Table – Developmental Change in Self-Concept

d. The Search for Identity 1. Adolescent Egocentrism 2. Imaginary Audience 3. Personal Fable 4. Illusion of Invulnerability 5. Diffusion 6. Foreclosure 7. Moratorium 8. Achievement i.

Ethnic Identity 1. Ethnic Identity 2. Enculturation 3. Bicultural 4. Acculturation

e.

Cultural Influences: Dea’s Ethnic Identity

f.

Focus on Research: Identity and Acculturation of Immigrant Youth i.

Storm and Stress

ii.

Depression

II. Module 11.2: Self-Esteem 1. Self-Esteem a.

Developmental Change in Self-Esteem i.

Structure of Self-Esteem 1. Scholastic Competence 2. Athletic Competence

270 .

3. Social Competence 4. Physical Appearance ii. Changes in Level of Self-Esteem b. Variations in Self-Esteem Associated with Ethnicity and Culture c.

Sources of Self-Esteem

d. Low Self-Esteem: Cause or Consequence? iii. Narcissistic III. Module 11.3: Understanding Others a.

Describing Others

b. Understanding What Others Think i.

Table 11-1 – Selman’s Stages of Perspective Taking 1. Recursive Thinking

c.

Prejudice 1. Prejudice

d. Spotlight on Theories - Developmental Intergroup Therapy

271 .

MODULE SUPPLEMENTS MODULE 11.1: SELF-CONCEPT: WHO AM I? LEARNING OBJECTIVES: •

When do infants first acquire a sense of self?

•

How does self-concept become more elaborate as children grow?

•

How do adolescents achieve an identity?

(See Handout 11-1 for a list of this chapter’s learning objectives.)

KEY TERMS: self-concept adolescent egocentrism imaginary audience personal fable illusion of invulnerability diffusion foreclosure

moratorium achievement ethnic identity enculturation bicultural acculturation

CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES: •

Observing Self-recognition. There’s no more effective means of conveying the significance of self-recognition than to demonstrate the construct with actual infants.

Either invite infants (and their parents) to your class or ask your students to locate infants that they know. At least two infants are required for this demonstration: An infant between the ages of 6 and 12 months and an infant between the ages of 18 and 24 months (infants between 12 and 18 months can certainly be used, but their selfrecognition abilities are unpredictable). Once these infants have been located, replicate Lewis and Brooks-Gunn’s (1979) procedure by placing each infant in front of a mirror and observing their reactions to their images. Then, surreptitiously smudge the infants’ noses with red costume makeup (or lipstick), and again observe their reactions to their now altered appearance. Ask your class the following questions: How did the infants respond after the smudge of makeup was applied? Did both infants respond in similar ways?

What behaviours or reactions indicated the development of self-recognition? Did either infant demonstrate self-recognition? Which one (what age)?

Those infants who have developed a sense of self-recognition will touch the smudges on their own noses, while infants who do not yet recognize themselves will reach for the smudge on the nose of the infant “in the mirror.” If you assign your students to complete this activity outside of class, make sure that they obtain parental permission to interact with the infants they locate, and require the parents’ presence during the observation. Your students should then share their experiences (and their answers to the above questions) with the rest of the class.

272 .

•

My Evolving Self-Concept. Handout 11-2 sheds light on how the self-concepts of your students (and the self-concepts of people in general) changed during their preschool, school age, and adolescent years. Have your students complete Handout 11-2, then ask volunteers to read one of their self-concept descriptions and have the rest of the class guess the age group that would likely generate each description. Finally, ask some of your students to summarize their responses to the questions at the bottom of the handout.

•

Stories of Our Adolescence. Pass out 3×5-inch index cards and have your students write a brief description of something they did as a young teenager (in junior high or high school) that they would not do now. Also ask them to briefly indicate why they did it. Ask them to leave the cards anonymous and to omit any information that would reveal their identity.

Collect the cards, put the class into groups, and pass out the cards, randomly, to the groups.

Ask the groups to determine which actions could be explained by Elkind’s theory of adolescent egocentrism (i.e., personal fable and imaginary audience). After a few minutes, ask the groups to present examples of their findings.

Identity Statuses in Film. Students will respond very positively to being “forced” to watch a full-length feature film. There are several films that do an excellent job of presenting adolescent struggles with identity without turning the characters into caricatures. Older recommended films include Stand By Me and The Breakfast Club. For a child development class that occasionally delves into adolescent issues (as the text does), Stand By Me is ideal because it centers on the development of four boys who are about to enter junior high, while a secondary set of older adolescent characters is also featured. Other movies with adolescent identity issues portrayed include Dead Poet’s Society, Say Anything, Cinema Paradiso, Diner, Ferris Bueller’s Day Off, Pretty in Pink, and Pump Up the Volume, in addition to many newer releases (students can choose any relevant movie, as long as they secure instructor permission first). An analysis of the character’s identity development according to Marcia’s identity statuses can be done as a written assignment or in-class discussion.

Cultural Identity Paper. Students can write a 5- to 7-page paper describing the formation of cultural identity, its significance, and relevance. Papers should include a minimum of five scholarly references from sources outside the text/lecture. This activity and the one below can be combined together or done separately.

Adolescent Identity Paper. Students can write a 5- to 7-page paper describing the formation of adolescent identity, its significance, and cultural relevance. Papers should include a minimum of five scholarly references from sources outside the text/lecture. This activity and the one above can be combined together or done separately.

Who Am I? Ask the class to prepare a 5-minute presentation to the question “Who Am I? Divide the class into small groups and then have individual students present his or her response to the question while each small group identifies and supports the ego identity that fits best with the presentation.

•

•

•

•

273 .

FILMS/VIDEOS/DVDS: •

Adolescence: Social and Emotional Development (Magna Systems, 1995, 38 minutes). The search for identity is reviewed within the context of changing family and peer relationships.

•

Childhood Depression (Films for the Humanities & Sciences, 2000, 28 minutes). Children suffering from depression talk about how they cope with it, and prominent therapists discuss the importance of early diagnosis and treatment to avoid potential patterns of repeated depression later in life.

Childhood, Program 5: Life’s Lessons (Ambrose Video, 1991, 60 minutes). This video highlights the “5-7 shift”—the time when children become more responsible and capable, and when they begin formal training for their future roles in society.

•

•

Childhood, Program 7: The House of Tomorrow (Ambrose Video, 1991, 60 minutes). In one hour, the viewer is exposed to a wealth of information about the challenges and rewards experienced by adolescents. Issues include identity development, separation/individuation from parents, peer relations, sexuality, and the impact significant others have on how the adolescent handles all of these issues.

•

Developmental Psychology, Part 11: Adolescence – Crisis or Change (RMI Media Productions, 1991, 60 minutes). This video focuses on three major issues confronting adolescents: Autonomy, peer relationships, and identity. Teenage pregnancy, AIDS, and stage theories of individualism and vocational identity are discussed.

The Development of Self (Insight Media, 1991, 60 minutes). The video provides an overview of the development of self-concept and self-esteem during childhood and adolescence. It also covers functional and clinical disorders associated with low self-esteem.

•

•

Discovering Psychology, Program 15: The Self (Annenberg/CPB Collection, 1990, 30 minutes). This video, hosted by Philip Zimbardo, reviews the emotional, motivational, and behavioural consequences of beliefs about oneself.

•

From Depression to Discovery: A Teenager’s Guidebook (Films for the Humanities & Social Sciences, 2005, 25 minutes). This DVD shatters common misconceptions about depression, helping young viewers recognize its outward and internal symptoms. The latest forms of treatment are also explored. Interviews with teens who are living successfully with the disease, and commentary by renowned adolescent psychologist Dr. Harold S. Koplewicz, are interwoven with eye-catching and informative graphics that reinforce essential points. A viewable/printable instructor’s guide containing student activities, discussion questions, vocabulary terms, and other helpful features is available online. In this program, medical professionals and six teens talk about depression: what it is, what it feels like, how to identify it, what its triggers and symptoms are, and how to treat it.

From Here to Self-Esteem: A Road Map for Parents of Young Children (Films for the Humanities and Social Sciences, 1996, 30 minutes). This program presents ten specific ways in which parents can build self-esteem in their children through everyday interactions such as responding to a baby’s emotional needs, helping a child solve his or her own problems, encouraging independence, and promoting creativity.

•

274 .

•

Middle Childhood: Social and Emotional Development (Magna Systems, 1997, 28 minutes). Development of a sense of self, in addition to broader socio-cognitive and family changes, is portrayed.

•

Seasons of Life, Program 2: Childhood and Adolescence (Annenberg/CPB Collection,

•

1990, 60 minutes). This video portrays issues underlying self-concept, self-esteem, and identity development during childhood and adolescence (ages 6-20).

Who Am I? Psychosocial Development During Adolescence, (Insight Media, 2003, 30 minutes). This DVD explains how adolescents adopt adult roles while forging their personal identities. It examines the processes by which values and attitudes are integrated into a coherent definition of individuality.

275 .

MODULE 11.2: SELF-ESTEEM LEARNING OBJECTIVES: •

How does self-esteem change as children develop?

•

How does self-esteem vary depending on ethnicity and culture?

•

What factors influence the development of self-esteem?

•

Is children's development affected by low self-esteem?

KEY TERM: self-esteem narcissistic

CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES: •

Assessing Self-Esteem. While most students are aware of the concept of self-esteem, they typically have a relatively simplistic understanding of it. One idea that is good to stress is the multifaceted nature of self-esteem—it is not just a single “thing” that people have a lot or a little of. Handout 11-3 reinforces this multidimensional quality of self-esteem and causes students to consider the various ways in which self-esteem can be impacted.

•

Look Into It: Sources of Self-Esteem. As mentioned in previous chapters, you can ask your class to do focused literature searches. Depending on your class size (under 40 works well) and available library resources (Psyc-Lit, Infotrak's Expanded Academic ASAP or equivalent CD-ROM search systems), this project can be an effective means of allowing students to explore a topic that is of particular interest to them. Handout 11-4 provides a series of questions that will guide the students’ library searches.

There are many factors that influence a child’s level of self-esteem. Assign one of the following topics to each student (or small group of students) in your class and have them explore the professional literature. During your next class session, have them briefly present their findings to the rest of the class. A list of topics that pertains to self-esteem follows: (a) parental involvement

(f) teacher characteristics

(b) parental discipline

(g) extracurricular involvement

(c) sex differences

(h) school transition

(d) academic competence

(i) pubertal timing

(e) peer feedback

(j) other:

276 .

•

Guest Speaker: Junior High Teacher/Guidance Counselor or a Child Psychologist. Invite one of the listed individuals to speak to your class about self-esteem issues in junior high school students. Why does the school transition from elementary school to junior high pose a challenge to many students’ sense of self-worth? What can be done about it? Your students should come to this class session with questions that they would like to ask the speaker.

•

Internet Annotated Bibliography. Have your students use the Internet to identify 10 websites that give scholarly information on self-esteem and children in this chapter. Students should type an annotated bibliography that lists the URLs (website addresses) for these websites and gives a brief (one or two paragraph) summary/review of each.

1. The name of the website (e.g., National Association for Self-Esteem).

2. A valid URL (website address, e.g., http://healthyselfesteem.org).

3. A brief (one or two paragraph) review of the website. Reviews should include a brief summary of what students can expect to find if they visit the website and a brief evaluation of the website.

As a follow-up to this activity, students can combine all of the annotated bibliographies into an Internet Resource Directory that could be distributed in class.

277 .

FILMS/VIDEOS/DVDS: •

The Development of Self (Insight Media, 1991, 60 minutes). The video provides an overview of the development of self-concept and self-esteem during childhood and adolescence. It also covers functional and clinical disorders associated with low self-esteem.

•

Developmental Psychology, Part 8: Through the Looking Glass—The Development of Self (RMI Media Productions, 1991, 60 minutes). This video reviews the developmental changes in a child’s sense of self and the factors that influence one’s sense of self. Susan Harter discusses her “Perceived Competence Scale for Children” and the causes and consequences of low self-esteem.

•

Feel Good about Failure: The Dark Side of Self-Esteem Classes (Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 2000, 13 minutes). The negative consequences of some self-esteem classes are explored. Research evidence is reviewed that suggests that intensive, unmerited praise undermines academic motivation and may set the stage for school violence.

•

Helping Your Child Succeed (Insight Media, 1990, 50 minutes). This video presents information to parents that is designed to teach them how to enable their children to succeed.

The promotion of self-esteem and problem-solving skills are discussed, as are the topics of praising a child and preparing a child to resist peer pressure.

Seasons of Life, Program 2: Childhood and Adolescence (Annenberg/CPB Collection, 1990, 60 minutes). This video portrays issues underlying self-concept, self-esteem, and identity development during childhood and adolescence (ages 6-20).

•

•

Self Esteem and How We Learn (Filmakers Library, 30 minutes). This program focuses on the school-age years, especially adolescence, when self-image is challenged in an environment outside of the protective confines of the home.

•

Self Esteem Begins in the Family (Filmakers Library, 30 minutes). This program focuses on three families, a divorced mother, a married couple, and a single father, as they try to plant the seeds of a healthy self-image in their children.

•

Self-Esteem in School-age Children (Insight Media, 1990, 25 minutes). The title of this video captures its essence: An overview of various issues that impact a child’s self-esteem. The constructs of self-concept and self-control are also discussed, as are ways in which adults can enhance the self-esteem of children.

•

Underdeveloped and Overexposed: Putting Your Self-Esteem in Focus (Films for the Humanities and Social Sciences, 1993, 30 minutes). This video focuses on self-esteem during adolescents, but also discusses the development of self-esteem and teaches techniques for creating more positive self-esteem.

278 .

MODULE 11.3: UNDERSTANDING OTHERS LEARNING OBJECTIVES: •

As children develop, how do they describe others differently?

•

How does understanding of others’ thinking change as children develop?

•

When do children develop prejudice toward others?

KEY TERMS: recursive thinking prejudice

CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES: •

What is a Friend? This activity requires your students to find three children and adolescents of various ages (5-18 years old) and ask them to complete the following statement: “My best friend is because …” Your students should be encouraged to get as much detail as possible from the people they are interviewing. Students should record the responses and the age and sex of each person interviewed. Once all three interviews have occurred, ask your students to summarize developmental changes in the descriptions of best friends either in writing or in an oral presentation to the rest of the class.

•

How Old Am I? As an alternative to the above activity, you might want to have students work in small groups to develop descriptions of fictional friends that children of various ages would generate. On 3 × 5-inch index cards, write a number between five and 18 (representing the age of a fictional person) and distribute the cards to each group in your class. Have the groups write descriptions of fictional best friends that are consistent with the age indicated on the card. (You might want to have the groups complete the “My best friend is because …” statement used above.) Once the groups have written their descriptions, collect the cards and read them to the class, asking the class to guess the age group that would most likely offer each description.

•

Observing Perspective-Taking. Either invite children (and their parents) to your class or ask your students to locate children that they know. At least three children are required for this demonstration; children should be selected from the age groups specified for Selman’s Stages of Perspective-Taking (see Table 11-1 on p. 395). Handout 11-5 will guide your students through the class demonstration or through their own observations of perspective-taking. If you assign your students to complete this activity outside of class, make sure that they obtain parental permission to interact with the children they locate. Your students should then share their experiences (and their answers to the questions on the handout) with the rest of the class.

•

Prejudice Plan & Presentations. Working individually, in pairs, or small groups, students can choose an issue of interest to them that deals with some aspect of prejudice, racism, and discrimination. Students will identify indicators of racism, prejudice, and discrimination and then formulate strategies for reducing these factors.

Blue-Eyed Video. Either in class or on their own, have the students view the video BlueEyed. This excellent film depicts a workshop where adults are separated and discriminated against based on their eye colour. It provides a wonderful forum for a class discussion on prejudice and racism and makes a good lead-in or follow-up to the previous activity Discussing Prejudice. Having students write a one- or two-page reflection on their reactions

•

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to the film outside of class gives them a chance to process their thoughts and feelings about this controversial video. See the section on Films/Videos for the reference for this film.

Note: It is helpful to remind students that the woman in the movie, Jane Elliott, is conducting an exercise and that she is treating people a certain way to make a point.

FILMS/VIDEOS/DVDS: •

A Class Divided (Insight Media, 1985, 60 minutes). This video is a follow-up to an awardwinning 1971 documentary on prejudice. In the original documentary, a third-grade class in Iowa is divided by eye colour and told that those with blue eyes were “good” children at one point, then they were labeled “bad” children later that year. The behaviour and performance of the labeled children and the prejudicial attitudes held by the non-blue-eyed children were greatly affected by the labelling. A Class Divided presents footage from the original documentary and shows the reunion of the third graders with their teacher 15 years later. The video also shows an analogous demonstration of prejudice with a prison population.

•

Attitudes (Insight Media, 2001, 30 minutes). This program examines how attitudes are formed, including the concepts of cognitive dissonance and in-group/out-group relations.

Stereotyping, ethnocentrism, and Sherif’s Robber’s Cave experiment on combating group prejudice are reviewed.

Childhood, Program 6: Among Equals (Ambrose Video, 1991, 60 minutes). The influences of parents and peers on the social and mental development of children are engagingly revealed in this video.

•

• • •

•

•

Family Influences (Insight Media, 1992, 30 minutes). This video reviews the influences of parenting style and family background on children’s views of themselves and others.

Five to Eight Years (Insight Media, 1990, 13 minutes). Provides an overview of social and moral development during these ages.

Prejudice, Discrimination, and Stereotypes (Insight Media, 2003, 22 minutes). This DVD looks at the roots of prejudice and discrimination and considers the effects of discrimination on victims and those who discriminate. It teaches how to avoid stereotyping and promote tolerance and respect Prejudice: The Eye of the Storm (Insight Media, 1970, 25 minutes). A documentary about the classic “blue-eye/brown-eye” prejudice study among third graders. Original footage reveals the broken friendships, feelings of frustration and anger, and vicious behaviour that resulted from one teacher’s simple manipulation.

The Roots of Prejudice and Intolerance (Insight Media, 2002, 25 minutes). This program discusses the origins of prejudice, its different forms, and distinguishes between prejudice and intolerance. Bigotry, stereotyping bias, and discrimination are also considered.

•

6 to 12 Years: Psychosocial Development, from the Human Development series (Concept Media, 1998, 30 minutes). This video discusses some of the overall changes in children’s behaviour during the school-age years, including a review of Erikson’s issue of industry versus inferiority, development of self-concept and an understanding of others, and changes in self-esteem.

•

Three to Five Years (Insight Media, 1990, 14 minutes). Provides an overview of social and moral development during early childhood.

Understanding Prejudice (Films for the Humanities and Social Sciences, 1996, 50 minutes).

This program reviews the nature of prejudice and its effects on individuals and society.

•

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•

Understanding Race (Films for the Humanities and Social Sciences, 2000, 52 minutes). This video examines the history and power of the artificial distinction called “race.”

INTERNET RESOURCES •

https://www.cln.org/themes/self_esteem.html – This “Theme Page” has links to two types of resources related to the study of Self-Esteem. Students and teachers will find curricular resources (information, content...) to help them learn about this topic. In addition, there are also links to instructional materials (lesson plans) which will help teachers provide instruction in this theme.

•

https://janeelliott.com/ – Website for Jane Elliott, the creator of the Brown-Eyed/Blue-Eyed exercise featured in Blue-Eyed and Eye of the Storm. http://selfesteemgames.mcgill.ca/ – online games to promote self-esteem.

• •

https://healthyselfesteem.org/ – The National Association for Self-Esteem home page provides an extensive collection of links to sites on many aspects of self-esteem, including its measurement and tips on how to increase it.

•

https://www.tolerance.org/ The home site for the Teaching Tolerance organization. Their motto is “fight hate and promote tolerance.”

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CASE STUDY Understanding Self and Others “I’m so glad that family reunion is finally over, Brianna. I got sick of people asking me what I wanted to be when I grow up. I’m only in seventh grade. I won’t be a grown-up for at least 10 or 20 years.”

“Family reunions can be awful, Casey, but at least they don’t happen very often.”

“That’s the only thing that’s good about them. All these people I don’t know saying things like ‘What do you want to be when you grow up?’ ‘Oh, look how big you’ve gotten.’

‘What subjects do you like in school?’

‘Gimme those cute cheeks.’ Puh-leez—leave me alone already. I started saying things like ‘I wanna be a bum when I grow up’ and ‘I like lunch period the best.’ They wouldn’t stop bugging me.”

“Was it really that bad?”

“I just got tired of all the attention and questions. I don’t know what I want to be when I grow up. I don’t like my cheeks. And I didn’t want to tell them I get “C’s” in most everything at school. I just wanted to be left alone.”

1. Casey doesn’t know what she wants to be when she grows up, and she doesn’t mention any attempts to address this issue. According to James Marcia, what identity status is descriptive of Casey’s identity development? What statuses is she likely to experience in the next few years?

2. How would you describe Casey’s self-esteem? On which specific domains from the SelfPerception Profile for Children (Harter, 1985, 1988) would Casey likely score low? What, if anything, can be said about her overall sense of self-worth?

3. How can Casey’s self-esteem be enhanced? What recommendations do you have for her parents, teachers, or for her friend, Brianna?

4. Casey and Brianna are close friends. How do you think Casey would describe Brianna? What level(s) of perspective-taking does she most likely engage in?

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HANDOUT 11-1 Learning Objectives/Discussion Questions for Chapter 11: 1. When do infants first acquire a sense of self?

2. How does self-concept become more elaborate as children grow?

3. How do adolescents achieve an identity?

4. How does self-esteem change as children develop?

5. How does self-esteem vary depending on ethnicity and culture?

6. What factors influence the development of self-esteem?

7. Is children's development affected by low self-esteem?

8. As children develop, how do they describe others differently?

9. How does understanding of others’ thinking change as children develop?

10. When do children develop prejudice toward others?

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HANDOUT 11-2 My Evolving Self-Concept Directions: Think back through your adolescence, elementary school years, and preschool years, and recall your interests, abilities, likes, and dislikes. Try to turn back the hands of time and view the world and yourself from your own preschool, elementary school, and adolescent perspectives.

For each of these age groups, try to answer the following question: “How would you describe yourself?”

To answer this question, complete the table below.

AGE GROUP

SELF-DESCRIPTION

Preschooler I am …

I like …

I am good at …

Elementary School Child I am …

I like …

I am good at …

Adolescent I am …

I like …

I am good at …

How did your descriptions in the three age groups differ?

How does your current self-description differ from your adolescent description?

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HANDOUT 11-3 Assessing Self-Esteem Directions: Self-esteem refers to a person’s judgment and feelings about his or her own worth.

These feelings are based upon self-evaluations of many aspects of one’s life. Below are several aspects of an individual’s functioning. Evaluate yourself along each of these dimensions, and describe how an individual’s self-esteem can be influenced (and by whom) in each of the areas listed.

Very Dissatisfied 1. PHYSICAL MATURITY How can this aspect of self-esteem be influenced?

2. ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE

Very Satisfied

1

2

3

4

5

6

1

2

3

4

5

6

1

2

3

4

5

6

1

2

3

4

5

6

1

2

3

4

5

6

1

2

3

4

5

6

How can this aspect of self-esteem be influenced?

3. WORK EXPERIENCES How can this aspect of self-esteem be influenced?

FINANCIAL INDEPENDENCE 4.

How can this aspect of self-esteem be influenced?

5. FAMILY RELATIONS How can this aspect of self-esteem be influenced?

6. PEER RELATIONS How can this aspect of self-esteem be influenced?

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Very Dissatisfied 7. ROLE IN THE COMMUNITY

Very Satisfied

1

2

3

4

5

6

1

2

3

4

5

6

1

2

3

4

5

6

1

2

3

4

5

6

How can this aspect of self-esteem be influenced?

8. SENSE OF VALUES AND RELIGIOSITY How can this aspect of self-esteem be influenced?

9. ROMANTIC AND INTIMATE RELATIONSHIPS How can this aspect of self-esteem be influenced?

COPING SKILLS How can this aspect of self-esteem be influenced?

What is your total self-esteem score? (Add the numbers you circled) High Self-Esteem: 45-60

Moderate Self-Esteem: 25-45

Low Self-Esteem: 10-25

What are the strengths and weaknesses of this approach to assessing self-esteem?

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HANDOUT 11-4 Look Into It: Sources of Self-Esteem Directions: You have been assigned a topic that impacts the development of self-esteem. It is your job to investigate published research on this topic using any available library resources. To help focus your search, respond to the questions below.

TOPIC: 1. How does your topic impact the development of self-esteem? (Describe the positive or negative influences that exist between your topic and self-esteem.)

2. What type of research (e.g., experiments, observational studies, cross-sectional or longitudinal studies, etc.) has been conducted to investigate the relationships between your topic and the development of self-esteem?

3. How can the impact of your topic on self-esteem be mediated? In other words, if parents, teachers, employers, day care workers, etc., are aware of how your topic impacts the development of self-esteem, what can they do about it?

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HANDOUT 11-5 Observing Perspective-Taking Directions: Locate at least three children in three different age groups listed in the table on page 395 of the text (Table 11-1: Selman’s Stages of Perspective-Taking). After obtaining parental permission to interview each child, read the following story (from Selman & Byrne, 1974) to each child individually: Holly is an 8-year-old girl who likes to climb trees. She is the best tree climber in the neighborhood. One day while climbing down from a tree she falls off the bottom branch but does not hurt herself. Her father sees her fall. He is upset and asks her to promise not to climb trees anymore. Holly promises.

Later that day, Holly and her friends meet Sean. Sean’s kitten in caught up in a tree and cannot get down. Something has to be done right away or the kitten may fall. Holly is the only one who climbs well enough to reach the kitten and get it down, but she remembers her promise to her father. (a) If you were Holly, what would you do? (b) What will Holly’s father think when he hears what Holly did?

Record each child’s responses in the table below, indicate which stage of perspective-taking each child is exhibiting, and explain your stage placement.

Responses to (a) and (b)

Perspective-Taking Stage

(a)

Stage:

CHILD #1 Explain:

Age: Sex:

(b)

CHILD #2 Stage:

(a)

Explain:

Age: Sex:

(b)

CHILD #3 Stage:

(a)

Explain:

Age: Sex:

(b)

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ANSWER KEY CASE STUDY Understanding Self and Others 1. According to James Marcia, Casey is likely to be in the identity diffusion status. When she starts to actively explore her options, she will move into the moratorium status, and when she makes decisions about aspects of her identity, she will transition into the identity achieved status.

2. Casey’s self-esteem appears to be fairly low in certain aspects of her life. Specifically, her SPPC scores are likely to be low regarding academic competence and physical appearance.

3. Her overall self-worth may be moderate or high—there isn’t information in the case

about the other dimensions of the SPPC. Casey’s parents, teachers, and her friend, Brianna, should focus on areas of success or strength for Casey. Casey’s teachers should avoid encouraging students to compare themselves to each other, and they should take the time to recognize the 4. accomplishments of each of their students, making each of them feel special. Casey’s parents should encourage Casey to explore areas of interest and potential growth, creating opportunities for Casey to enjoy success. Brianna should remain supportive and encourage Casey to remain actively

involved socially. As an early adolescent, Casey would most likely describe Brianna in terms of her personality characteristics, educational and occupational goals, and maybe some appearance characteristics. Casey is probably able to engage in third-person perspective-taking, able to view situations from the perspective of an objective observer.

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End-of-Chapter Test Yourself Questions: Understanding Self and Others

1. When a 12-month-old with a mark on her face looks into a mirror, she’ll probably ____________.

2. ____________ define themselves in terms of their physical characteristics, possessions, and preferences.

3. An emphasis on the future is unique to self-concept during ____________.

4. In the ____________ status, individuals have not explored alternatives but have an identity determined largely by adults.

5. Adolescents are more likely to achieve an ethnic identity when ____________.

6. Adolescence is not a period of storm and stress for most families, but it can be for adolescents who ____________.

7.

8.

During the elementary-school years, domains of self-esteem include scholastic competence, ____________, social competence, and physical appearance.

Self-esteem is greatest during ____________.

9. When children and adolescents from minority groups experience discriminatory behaviour, they are ____________.

10. Children with high self-esteem often have parents whose disciplinary practices are characterized by ____________.

11. Children with low self-esteem ____________.

12. Young children’s descriptions of others are unusual in that they ____________.

13. Children who are more skilled in taking the perspective of others typically ____________.

14. Prejudice typically increases in adolescence because teens internalize some prejudiced views of those around them and ____________.

15. Contact between diverse groups of children can reduce prejudice when the groups have equal status, the contact involves pursuit of mutual goals, and ____________.

Answers: (1) touch the mark in the mirror; (2) Preschool children; (3) adolescence; (4) foreclosure; (5) their parents encourage them to learn about their heritage and prepare them for discrimination; (6) don’t regulate their emotions well; (7) athletic competence; (8) the preschool years; (9) less at risk if they have a well-developed ethnic identity; (10) rules and reasonable expectations, paired with a willingness to discuss discipline; (11) are more likely to be involved in antisocial behaviour; (12) consistently look for good things in others, not bad things; (13) get along better with peers; (14) their search for identity leads them to have a more positive view of their own group; (15) parents and other adults support the goal of reducing prejudice.

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Chapter 12

Moral Understanding and Behaviour CHAPTER OVERVIEW

293

MODULE SUPPLEMENTS Module 12.1: SELF-CONTROL

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Learning Objectives Key Term Classroom Activities Films/Videos/DVDs Module 12.2: REASONING ABOUT MORAL ISSUES

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Learning Objectives Key Terms Classroom Activities Films/Videos/DVDs Module 12.3: HELPING OTHERS

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Learning Objectives Key Terms Classroom Activities Films/Videos/DVDs Module 12.4: AGGRESSION

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Learning Objectives Key Terms Classroom Activities Films/Videos/DVDs

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INTERNET RESOURCES

306

CASE STUDY

307

HANDOUTS

308

ANSWER KEY

317

TEST YOURSELF

318

292 .

CHAPTER 12 OVERVIEW I.

Module 12.1: Self-Control 1. Self-Control a.

Beginnings of Self-Control

b. Influences on Self-Control i. c.

Inductive Reasoning

Improving Children’s Self-Control

II. Module 12.2: Reasoning About Moral Issues a.

Piaget’s Views 1. Premoral 2. Moral Realism 3. Heteronomous Morality 4. Immanent Justice 5. Moral Relativism 6. Autonomous Morality

b. Kohlberg’s Theory 1. Preconventional Level a.

Stage 1: Obedience Orientation

b. Stage 2: Instrumental Orientation 2. Conventional Level a.

Stage 3: Interpersonal Norms

b. Stage 4: Social System Morality 3. Postconventional Level a.

Stage 5: Social Contract Orientation

b. Stage 6: Universal Ethical Principles

c.

i.

Summary Table – Stages in Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development

ii.

Support for Kohlberg’s Theory

Beyond Kohlberg’s Theory i.

Gilligan’s Ethic of Caring

ii. Development of Domains of Social Judgment

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1. Social Conventions 2. Personal Domain d. Cultural Influences—Lies, White Lies, and Blue Lies iii. Origins of Moral Reasoning in Infancy iv. The Role of Emotions e. Promoting Moral Reasoning III. Module 12.3: Helping Others 1. Prosocial Behaviour 2. Altruism a.

Development of Prosocial Behaviour

b. Skills Underlying Prosocial Behaviour 1. Perspective Taking 2. Empathy a.

Empathy

b. Cognitive Empathy c.

Affective Empathy

3. Moral Reasoning c.

Situational Influences 1. Feelings of responsibility 2. Feelings of competence 3. Mood 4. Cost of altruism

d. The Contribution of Heredity e.

Socializing Prosocial Behaviour 1. Modelling 2. Disciplinary practices 3. Opportunities to behave prosocially i.

Summary Table – Factors Contributing to Children’s Prosocial Behaviour

IV. Module 12.4: Aggression i.

Aggression

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a.

Change and Stability 1. Instrumental Aggression 2. Hostile Aggression 3. Reactive Aggression 4. Relational Aggression ii. Stability of Aggression Over Time

b. Roots of Aggressive Behaviour i.

Biological Contributions

ii. Impact of the Family 1. Monitoring iii. Influence of Community and Culture 1. Television and video games 2. Peers 3. Failure in School 4. Poverty 5. Culture of Violence iv. Cognitive Processes v. Multiple, Cascading Risks 1. Socialized Aggression c.

Spotlight on Theories: Social-Information-Processing Theory and Children’s Aggressive Behaviour d. Focus on Research: Benefits of Martial Arts Participation for Children e. Victims of Aggression 1. Cyberbullying

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MODULE SUPPLEMENTS MODULE 12.1: SELF-CONTROL LEARNING OBJECTIVES: • When does self-control begin, and how does it change as children develop?

• What factors influence children’s ability to maintain self-control?

• What strategies can children use to improve their self-control?

(See Handout 12-1 for a list of this chapter’s learning objectives.)

KEY TERMS: self-control inductive reasoning

CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES: •

Observing Self-Control: A Classroom Demonstration. Observations of children exercising self-control can be easily facilitated with a classroom demonstration.

Invite a few parents to bring their toddlers and preschoolers (ages 2 to 5) to your class. Have some attractive toys within reach and clearly visible in the front of the class. Before the children enter the classroom, tell your students to observe how long it takes before a child starts playing with the toys. Then, engage the children in the following, formal demonstration of self-control: Get the attention of all of the children. Tell them that you are going to tell them some stories, but before you begin, you need to know if they’d like to have a small container of PlayDoh®

to play with now or if they’d like to have a large container of Play-Doh® when you’re done talking they with them in a few minutes. They can only have one container of Play-Doh®; do

want a smaller one now or a larger one later? Your class should note the choices the children of various ages make. Leave both canisters of Play-Doh® students within reach of the children to again challenge their self-control. Your should observe the strategies these children use to help them resist taking the larger •

container Look Into It: Family Influences on Self-Control. As mentioned in several previous chapters, that is within their reach. there are times when it is beneficial to have students focus on literature searches. Handout While you have these children in your classroom, and since you need to fill a few 12-2 provides a series of questions that will guide the students’ library searches.

Assign minutesone of the following issues to each of your students (or small groups of students) and have them explore the research literature. During the next class session, have them briefly while your students self-control, askAthe children what ittomeans to be present their findingsobserve to the rest of the class. list of topics about that pertain self-control good or bad (seebelow: the classroom activity entitled “Children’s Judgments of Good and Bad” in appears Module 12.2).

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1. parenting styles

1. sibling spacing/relationships

2. single- versus two-parent households2. parental modelling 3. discipline techniques

3. latchkey families

4. family size

4. other:

5. cultural differences •

The Consequences of Impulsivity: Interviewing Friends. What are the consequences of low self-control?

Many adolescents and adults seek immediate gratification rather than seeking longer-term (perhaps greater) rewards. What are the benefits and costs of impulsivity? Ask each of your students to interview two friends: One that they believe exercises a high level of self-control and another that they believe is impulsive. Your students should generate interview questions that will shed light on the factors that led to their friends’ levels of self-control as well as the current benefits and costs of their friends’ levels of self-control.

This “interviewing friends” activity may even succeed within your class if you have the class sort itself into two groups: Those who seek distant rewards versus those who seek immediate rewards. Depending on how you present the descriptions of both groups—most people attach negative connotations to seeking immediate rewards—your class may divide relatively equally into these two categories, enabling your students to interview each other.

•

What Do You Do? When faced with a situation that demands self-control, what do your students do to maintain their self-control? Handout 12-3 poses a series of questions to your students that will give them some insight into their own self-control practices. This handout can be used as a homework assignment or as a catalyst for class discussion.

FILMS/VIDEOS/DVDS: •

Common Sense Parenting: Teaching Children Self-control (Insight Media, 2006, 28 minutes).

This DVD teaches appropriate parenting interventions for managing emotionally intense situations with children. It presents techniques for remaining composed, shows how to calm an angry or explosive child, and discusses follow-up teaching. The program emphasizes the benefits of instilling self-control in children.

•

Compliance, Self-Control, and Prosocial Behavior, from the Human Development series (Concept Media, 1994, 27 minutes). This program discusses factors that influence all of the behaviours in the title of the video, including temperament, attachment, cognitive development, parenting styles, and discipline techniques. Life at 3: Bad Behavior (Films for the Humanities and Social Sciences, 2008, 57 minutes). This DVD follows five toddlers who are learning to manage their own feelings and actions.

The Influence of the Family (Insight Media, 1991, 60 minutes). The video examines how complex family interactions affect childhood development. Data on discipline styles, birth order, and various family structures are presented.

•

•

Toddlerhood: Emotional Development (Magna Systems, 1992, 30 minutes). This video presents an overview of a variety of issues regarding emotional development, including Erikson’s stage of autonomy versus shame and doubt, socialization, and managing emotions.

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MODULE 12.2: REASONING ABOUT MORAL ISSUES LEARNING OBJECTIVES: •

How does reasoning about moral issues change during childhood and adolescence?

•

How do concern for justice and caring for other people contribute to moral reasoning?

•

What factors help promote more sophisticated reasoning about moral issues?

•

How can youth be encouraged to reason at more advanced levels?

KEY TERMS: premoral

preconventional level

moral realism

conventional level

heteronomous morality

postconventional level

immanent justice

social conventions

moral relativism

personal domain

autonomous morality

CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES: •

Children’s Judgments of Good and Bad. Invite a few parents to bring toddlers and preschoolers to your class (perhaps use the children who were involved in the classroom demonstration of “Observing Self-Control”). Have a few toys available to make them comfortable in front of your class. After they have spent a few minutes getting used to the strange environment of your classroom (a good opportunity to remind your class about Ainsworth’s Strange Situation), get their attention and tell them that you are going to tell them a story about two little children. Then, tell them the story described below.

One day, a girl named Olivia was playing with her mommy. Olivia decided that it would be fun to have a tea party with her mommy and her dolls. So, Olivia went into the kitchen and got a box of crackers and six tea cups. Olivia carefully arranged the tea cups on a tray, but while she reached for the box of crackers, the tray accidentally slipped out of her hands and the six cups smashed into pieces on the floor.

Another girl, one named Jacqueline, was playing with her daddy. Jacqueline wanted to play marching band in the kitchen by clanging pot lids together. When her daddy said that he didn’t want to play marching band because it was too loud, Jacqueline became very upset.

She was so angry that she grabbed a cup off of the counter and threw it onto the floor, smashing it into pieces.

Which girl do you think was more bad, Olivia or Jacqueline?

According to Piaget (1997), young children, who are in a stage of moral realism, judge right, and wrong by the consequences of one’s actions. Therefore, young children should say that Olivia is “more bad” because she broke more cups. These objective judgments give way to subjective judgments when children (around age 8) enter the stage of moral relativism. In this advanced stage, children consider motives when judging one’s actions.

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The demonstration described above can also be adapted as an assignment for your students.

Simply provide them with a copy of the story and have them locate preschool and elementary school children to assess (getting parents’ permission before interacting with the children, of course). Your students can then give written summaries or oral summaries of their efforts.

Reference: Piaget, J. (1997). The Moral Judgment of the Child. New York: Free Press Paperbacks.

•

•

•

•

Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Reasoning. Handout 12-4 will give your class the opportunity to identify various levels of moral reasoning revealed by people’s statements in various situations. This handout can serve as an effective vehicle for clarifying Kohlberg’s stages and their applications to everyday settings.

Assessing Moral Reasoning. Your students will gain an appreciation for the sophistication and complexity of Kohlberg’s research by assessing the moral reasoning of a child, an adolescent, and an adult that they know. Handouts 12-5, 12-6, and 12-7 will guide your students through this process. Your students can work individually or in pairs to complete this assignment, but larger groups prove too intimidating to successfully interview children and adults about this subject matter. It is recommended that you have the students hand in their written summaries of their assessment and ask a few volunteers to share with the class their interview experiences.

Adapted from: Horton, S., & Preisser, G. (1997). Instructor’s Resource Manual for Development Across the Lifespan. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Discussing Everyday Moral Dilemmas. Ask your students to think about a situation that they recently encountered that presented a moral dilemma to them. How did they resolve the dilemma, and what was the justification for their decision or action? At what stage of Kohlberg’s theory of moral reasoning did they function? Then, ask them to assess the same situation according to Gilligan’s theory of morality. If they are comfortable doing so, students can share their situations (and their assessments) with the rest of the class.

An effective class discussion following the activity above focuses on immoral behaviour. Ask your students why other students cheat. If we all know that cheating in school is wrong, why do so many students do it? Why do websites that sell term papers receive so much traffic? If you saw someone else cheating, what would you do? Why? Discussions of the inconsistencies between one’s moral thought and one’s actions are usually interesting and involve most students in the class.

FILMS/VIDEOS/DVDS: •

Adolescence: Cognitive and Moral Development (Magna Systems, 1995, 25 minutes).

Presented in the context of cognitive development, changes in moral reasoning are discussed.

The influence of schools, culture, mass media, and parents on moral development is emphasized.

•

Character 101: Reading, Writing, and Respect (Films for the Humanities and Social Sciences, 1995, 21 minutes). A program about how schools teach moral behaviour and good citizenship.

•

Encouraging Moral Development in Children (Films for the Humanities and Social Sciences, 2006, 14 minutes). This video illustrates ways to encourage moral development from infancy onward, showing how children and young people learn and act out good and bad behaviour.

Scenes from a busy preschool show how toddlers absorb concepts of right and wrong, personal responsibility, and compassion, demonstrating that these qualities are best learned 299 .

through social interaction. Also featured is a roundtable session in which teens frankly discuss moral dilemmas, using their personal experiences as examples. Teaching materials are included.

•

Listening to Children: A Moral Journey with Robert Coles (Insight Media, 1995, 90 minutes).

How does a child grow up to become a good person? What values guide a child through life’s struggles? Robert Coles examines these questions in this PBS video.

•

Moral Development (Magna Systems, 1978, 30 minutes). This video provides a review of several theories of moral development and includes methods for enhancing moral development.

•

Moral Development I: Concept & Theory (Magna Systems, 1998, 29 minutes). This video explains the concept of morality, reviews key vocabulary, and presents nearly universal key values fundamental to most moral codes. The development of moral thinking is also discussed.

Moral Development II: Learning to be Moral (Magna Systems, 1998, 29 minutes). This program provides a thorough description of the development of moral behaviour from infancy through adolescence. The roles of parents, society, schools, and other institutions are emphasized.

Morality: Judgments and Actions (Insight Media, 2002, 30 minutes). This program considers how individuals from diverse backgrounds make moral judgments and act on their judgments.

The work of Piaget, Kohlberg, Skinner, Mailgram, and Turiel is reviewed.

•

•

•

Morality: The Process of Moral Development (Insight Media, 1977, 28 minutes). This program illustrates Kohlberg’s theory of moral development by interviewing and testing children, adolescents, and adults.

•

Right and Wrong: Moral Development (Films for the Humanities and Social Sciences, 2006, 60 minutes). This DVD explores those questions by observing a group of 25 six-year-olds and the varying levels of honesty and compassion they display. Confronted with simple yet specific tests—gauging their willingness to lie, cheat, and even destroy a photograph they are told is sentimentally valuable—each child exhibits a unique sense of what is good and correct. Equally revealing are the program’s comparisons between childhood and adult idealism. Original BBCW broadcast title: Right and Wrong. Part of the BBC series Child of Our Time, 2006. (60 minutes).

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MODULE 12.3: HELPING OTHERS LEARNING OBJECTIVES: •

At what age do children begin to act prosocially? How does prosocial behaviour change with age?

•

What skills do children need to behave prosocially?

•

What situations influence children’s prosocial behaviour?

•

How does heredity contribute to children’s prosocial behaviour?

•

How can parents encourage their children to act prosocially?

KEY TERMS: prosocial behaviour

empathy

altruism

cognitive empathy affective empathy

CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES: •

Researching Prosocial Behaviour. To give your students first-hand exposure to some of the current research on prosocial behaviour, divide your class into four pairs of groups and assign one of the following articles to each pair of groups: Eisenberg, N., Fabes, R. A., Spinard, T. L. (2010). “Prosocial/hostile roles and emotion comprehension in preschoolers.” Aggressive Behavior, 36(6) 371-389.

Malti, T., Gummeurum, M., Keller, M., & Buchmann, M. (2009) “Children’s moral motivation, sympathy, and prosocial behavior.” Child Development, 80, 442-460.

Nantel-Vivier, A., Kokko, K., Caprara, G.V., Paciello, M. Cote, S., Pihl, R., Vitaro, F. & Tremblay, R.K. (2009) Prosocial development from childhood to adolescence: a multiinformant perspective with Canadian and Italian longitudinal studies.” Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 50, 590-598.

Persson, G., (2005) “Young children’s prosocial and aggressive behaviors and their experiences being targeted for similar behaviors by peers.” Social Development, 14, 206-228.

Rudolph, K. D., Caldwell, M.S., & Conley, C.S. (2005). “Need for approval and children’s well-being.” Child Development, 76, 309-323.

Roberts, W.S. & Strayer, J (1996) “Empathy, Emotional Expressiveness, and Prosocial Behavior.” Child Development, 67, 449-470.

Since research articles are often difficult for students to understand, have two groups of students work on each article to make sure that all important points are identified and interpreted correctly. Have each group complete Handout12-8, compare their completed handout with the group that shared their article, and then present a summary of their assigned article to the rest of the class.

•

Observing Prosocial Behaviour. If possible, arrange to have your class visit a local preschool. The preschool setting is ideal for observing prosocial behaviours (and aggression—see next module) due to the extensive interaction the children have with one 301 .

another and due to the fact that most preschools actively foster the development of prosocial behaviours. Ask your students to record the types of prosocial behaviours they witnessed and to identify the behaviours of others that elicited the prosocial response. Your students should then report their observations to the class during your next class period. If a preschool visit is not possible, your students can observe children playing in parks, playgrounds, or childoriented entertainment places (e.g., Chuck E. Cheese).

•

Random Acts of Kindness. According to the text, most acts of kindness are not random.

Situational and dispositional variables impact on prosocial behaviour. Ask your students to debate the notion of “random acts of kindness.” Are there such things?

Following a brief debate about the random acts of kindness, ask your students to recall one of their own altruistic acts. Why did they do it? What compelled them to act that way? Was there anything about the situation or people involved that influenced their behaviour? What changes to the situation or people involved would have caused them NOT to act altruistically? How did they feel after behaving altruistically? Finally, assign your students to conduct a random act of kindness before your next class period. Tell them that you will call on students randomly to describe their prosocial acts.

•

Guest Speaker: Elementary School Teacher. Invite an elementary school teacher to your class to discuss the prosocial and moral development of elementary-aged children. What types of prosocial behaviours does the teacher see in his/her classroom? What do schools do to foster prosocial behaviours? Does this generation of elementary school children differ from previous generations regarding their prosocial behaviours? Have video games and the media impacted students’ altruism? Have your students prepare questions in advance of this guest’s presentation.

•

Institutional Influences on Prosocial Development. Every community should be concerned about the values it conveys to its children. One means of encouraging prosocial behaviour is through membership in groups or organizations that value community involvement. Ask your class to list the clubs, groups, or organizations they belonged to during their childhood (e.g., Scouts, church groups, Boys/Girls Clubs, etc.) that promoted civic values. What prosocial values did the groups try to convey? Were the groups successful in fostering prosocial behaviours? Why or why not? Are your students currently members of groups or organizations that promote prosocial behaviour? What are the similarities and differences between the current groups and those from your students’ pasts?

•

Internet Annotated Bibliography. Have your students use the Internet to identify 10 websites that give scholarly information on prosocial development as discussed in this chapter.

Students should type an annotated bibliography that lists the URLs (website addresses) for these websites, and gives a brief (one or two paragraph) summary/review of each.

1. The name of the website (e.g., Learning to Give).

2. A valid URL (website address, e.g., http://www.learningtogive.org/resources/prosocialbehavior).

3. A brief (one or two paragraph) review of the website. Reviews should include a brief summary of what students can expect to find if they visit the website and a brief evaluation of the website.

As a follow-up to this activity, students can combine all of the annotated bibliographies into an Internet Resource Directory that could be distributed in class.

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FILMS/VIDEOS/DVDS: •

Childhood, Program 6: Among Equals (PBS/Ambrose Video, 1991, 60 minutes). The program emphasizes the important influence of peers on social development, including decisions about morality. Issues regarding gender socialization are also presented.

•

Compliance, Self-Control, and Prosocial Behavior, from the Human Development series (Concept Media, 1994 27 minutes). This program discusses factors that influence all of the behaviours in the title of the video, including temperament, attachment, cognitive development, parenting styles, and discipline techniques.

Education (Insight Media, 1991, 30 minutes). This video reviews the goals of formal education, including the role that schools play in the socialization of children.

Gender, Early Morality, and the Self (Insight Media, 1992, 30 minutes). The role of the family is reviewed in relation to the development of gender, morality, and self-concept. The impact of the family on relationships outside of the home is demonstrated.

• •

•

How to Develop Values (Magna Systems, 2001, 19 minutes). This video reviews the development of values, why they are important, and how to hold onto them. Interviews with individuals who share their experiences with helping others and those who were helped are also presented.

•

Preschoolers: Social and Emotional Development (Magna Systems, 2008, 23 minutes). In this DVD viewers will learn: the skill set that makes up social and emotional development; the value of encouraging creativity and risk taking; activities that foster initiative and positive self-esteem; how culture and gender affect development; levels of social participation; examples of pro-social and antisocial behaviours and ways caregivers can develop skills.

MODULE 12.4: AGGRESSION LEARNING OBJECTIVES: •

When does aggressive behaviour first emerge? How stable is aggression across childhood, adolescence, and adulthood?

•

How do families, television, and the child’s own thoughts contribute to aggression?

•

Why are some children victims of aggression?

KEY TERMS: aggression

relational aggression

instrumental aggression

monitoring

hostile aggression

socialized aggression

reactive aggression

cyberbullying

CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES: •

Observing Aggression. Unfortunately, it is easy to observe aggressive behaviour exhibited by children in a variety of settings. If your class is able to visit a preschool (see “Observing Prosocial Behaviour”), have them record instances of aggression and note the behaviours of others that elicited the aggressive response. If a preschool setting is not available, ask your students to observe children in other settings (e.g., playgrounds or parks, stores, restaurants, 303 .

etc.). Regardless of the setting, also ask your students to record the consequences of the aggressive behaviour. Did the child get rewarded for his/her aggression? How did other children respond to it? Did an adult respond to the aggressive act? If so, how? Have your students report their findings to the rest of the class.

•

•

•

•

An Interview with Parents. Ask your students to interview parents of children or adolescents about how they respond to their children’s behaviours. Handout 12-9 provides some organization for this interview, but encourages your students to generate additional interview questions. The data that your students collect from these interviews can be combined in class and correlations between parental discipline and aggressive behaviour in children can be calculated.

Assessing TV Violence. In an extension of the “See For Yourself” exercise described at the end of the chapter, ask your class to engage in a study of violence on television. Rather than simply counting the acts of violence, as many studies have done, have your class assess the patterns of violent programming on broadcast and cable networks. You’ll need to divide the viewing schedule into three 2-hour blocks (e.g., 4:00-6:00 PM, 6:00-8:00 PM, and 8:00-10:00 PM) and into broadcast (e.g., NBC, ABC, CBS, FOX, PBS) versus select cable networks (e.g., TNT, USA, Nickelodeon, MTV, TBS, Cartoon Network, etc.). Each of your students need to volunteer to view a specific network for a 2-hour block of time, counting the number of verbal and physical acts of aggression. If your class size permits, you can compare weekday to weekend programming as well. Once all of the observations have been made, have your students calculate the average number of violent acts per 2-hour time slot, and compare the average amount of violence on broadcast versus cable networks. The results of this study should make for interesting reading in the campus (or community) newspaper.

Violence and Television/Movies. In lieu of, or in addition to, the above activity you can choose three television or movie clips (each about 3-5 minutes in length) to show in class.

The clips should include some violent acts and should also be TV shows or movies that children are likely to watch. It is often interesting to include a clip from a Disney movie among the three clips, since students tend to think that Disney movies are appropriate for all ages; however, they can include violent or frightening images that often surprise students. As they watch the clips, students should complete the questions on Handout 12-11. Follow this with small and/or large group discussion.

Guest Speaker: Juvenile Delinquency Professional or Youth Crimes Officer. Invite a professional from the fields of juvenile delinquency/juvenile justice or law enforcement to speak to your class about the underlying causes of youth crimes and aggression. Have the speaker address crime prevention and rehabilitation practices as well. Your students should prepare questions in advance of this class session.

FILMS/VIDEOS/DVDS: •

Before It’s Too Late: Children and Severe Anger (Films for the Humanities and Social Sciences, 2000, 30 minutes). This program details the lives of families with children who have severe anger control problems. Identification and treatment issues are covered as well.

Boys Will Be Boys, But What About Girls? Childhood Aggression and Gender (Insight Media, 3008, 50 minutes). This DVD This DVD explores relational aggression and questions why this form of bullying is highly prevalent among girls and young women.

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•

Corporal Punishment: “Loving Smacks” (Films for the Humanities and Social Sciences, 2000, 52 minutes). The long-term consequences of physical punishment are chronicled in this program. Psychologists discuss the myths, justifications, and effects of corporal punishment and present alternatives to the use of violence when disciplining children.

•

Effects of TV Violence on Children’s Behavior (ABC News/Prentice Hall, 1995, 4:50 minutes). This World News Tonight segment presents a concise synopsis of the impact of television violence on children.

•

Origins of Human Aggression: The Other Story (National Film Board of Canada, 2005, 50 minutes). This video examines the question “Is human aggression a result of nature or nurture?” Interviews with researchers from various fields—including a Nobel Prize winner-shed light on the question. It includes footage of children acting out their aggressive impulses. It also examines the complex factors that affect the socialization of aggressive behaviour among humans. Biological, environmental, and psychological components are addressed, and guidelines for the prevention of human violence are also provided.

•

1-2-3 Magic (Insight Media, 1990, 120 minutes). This video presents numerous demonstrations of ineffective and effective discipline techniques.

Raising Non-Violent Children in Violent Times (Films for the Humanities & Social Sciences, 1996, 18 minutes). Why is violent behaviour among adolescents on the rise, and what can be done to reverse this trend? This program reviews parenting practices that can be used to counteract such behaviour early in a child’s life.

The Spanking Controversy (Insight Media, 2000, 17 minutes). This video presents the opinions of parents and developmental experts on spanking as a disciplinary measure, and it explains that spanking often works in the short term but can have negative long-term effects.

•

•

•

Take Omri, For Example (Filmakers Library, 1998, 29 minutes). This documentary captures the cruelty of children and the vulnerability of those who don’t fit in. The focus is on Omri, an unwilling outcast who tries to fit in to his fifth-grade class in Jerusalem.

•

Trouble Kids (Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 2000, 22 minutes). This DVD focuses on ways to identify and reduce aggressive tendencies in young children.

Tube of Plenty segment from Lifespan Human Development, Series III (ABC News/Prentice Hall, 1995, 7:17 minutes). This Prime Time Live segment effectively demonstrates the negative consequences of excessive television viewing and provides suggestions for controlling the amount of television children view.

Understanding and Coping with Bullies (Magna Systems, 2001, 20 minutes). Targeted to a child audience, this video presents information important to a wider audience regarding the causes/effects of bullying and how a child should respond if he/she is the victim of bullying.

•

•

•

Working with Hostile and Resistant Teens (Insight Media, 1992, 45 minutes). This video focuses on a counselor who works with angry teenagers and illustrates effective means of communicating and working with them.

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INTERNET RESOURCES •

https://www.learningtogive.org/resources/prosocial-behavior – The Learning to Give website has specific information about empowering students to be giving and caring citizens.

•

https://www.moraledk12.org/about-mde – This document provides a concise overview of some of the most noted researchers in moral development, including Piaget, Kohlberg, Turiel, and Gilligan.

•

https://www.prevnet.ca/ –PREVNet is a Canadian network of leading researchers and practitioners working to address bullying. The website contains extensive practical resources and information on current research.

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CASE STUDY Moral Understanding and Behaviour Marcie was collecting money for UNICEF (United Nations Children’s Fund), a fundraising effort that her entire fourth-grade class was participating in. Marcie’s mom was at work, but she left her purse on the kitchen counter. So, without asking her mom, Marcie opened her mom’s purse, found her wallet, took out a five-dollar bill, and stuffed it into her UNICEF box.

Later that afternoon, Marcie’s younger brother, Stephen, heard the ice cream truck coming down the street. Stephen didn’t have any money, but he wanted an ice cream sandwich.

So, Stephen took a dollar out of Marcie’s UNICEF box to buy himself an ice cream treat.

1. Imagine that you read the above stories to a preschooler. Who would the preschooler say was “more bad,” Marcie or Stephen? Why?

2. After Stephen bought his ice cream sandwich, he tripped and fell on the front steps, scraping his knee, (and ruining his ice cream sandwich). How would a preschooler explain this “accident”?

3. Describe some of the skills and situational variables that are likely influencing Marcie’s altruism.

4. What should Marcie’s mom do to encourage Marcie’s altruistic behaviour?

5. What should Stephen’s mom do to discourage Stephen’s inappropriate behaviour?

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HANDOUT 12-1 Learning Objectives/Discussion Questions for Chapter 12: 1. When does self-control begin, and how does it change as children develop?

2. What factors influence children’s ability to maintain self-control?

3. What strategies can children use to improve their self-control?

4. How does reasoning about moral issues change during childhood and adolescence?

5. How do concern for justice and caring for other people contribute to moral reasoning?

6. What factors help promote more sophisticated reasoning about moral issues?

7. How can youth be encouraged to reason at more advanced levels?

8. At what age do children begin to act prosocially? How does prosocial behaviour change with age?

9. What skills do children need to behave prosocially?

10. What situations influence children’s prosocial behaviour?

11. How does heredity contribute to children’s prosocial behaviour?

12. How can parents encourage their children to act prosocially?

13. When does aggressive behaviour first emerge? How stable is aggression across childhood, adolescence, and adulthood?

14. How do families, television, and the child’s own thoughts contribute to aggression?

15. Why are some children victims of aggression?

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HANDOUT 12-2 Look Into It: Family Influences on Self-Control Directions: You have been assigned a topic that impacts the development of self-control. It is your job to investigate published research on this topic using any available library resources. To help focus your search, respond to the questions below.

TOPIC: 1. How does your topic impact the development of self-control? (Describe the positive or negative influences that exist between your topic and self-control.)

2. What type of research (e.g., experiments, observational studies, cross-sectional or longitudinal studies, etc.) has been conducted to investigate the relationships between your topic and the development of self-control?

3. How can the impact of your topic on self-control be mediated? In other words, if parents, teachers, day care workers, etc., are aware of how your topic impacts the development of self-control, what can they do about it?

309 .

HANDOUT 12-3 What Do You Do? Directions: Everyone faces situations that challenge our abilities to maintain our self-control.

These situations can be pleasant (e.g., “Should I have a hot fudge sundae before dinner?”) or unpleasant ones (e.g., “That *#%@!! driver just cut me off!”); both require self-control. Below are a series of questions that should give you some insight about the techniques you use to maintain self-control.

1. Describe some of the situations you routinely face that challenge your abilities to maintain self-control. In other words, list those situations that force you to make a choice between what you should do versus what you want to do.

2. Of the above situations, which one(s) require the greatest effort to maintain self-control?

3. Try to remember a specific time that you faced one of the situations you listed in #2. What did you do in your attempts to maintain self-control? What thoughts did you have, or actions did you take to maintain self-control?

4. How did you learn to maintain self-control? Were you specifically taught to do the things you described in #3?

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HANDOUT 12-4 Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Reasoning Directions: Below are several situations in which people are revealing various levels of moral reasoning. Using Kohlberg’s stages of moral reasoning, assess the stage of moral reasoning exhibited by each person. Each stage may be used more than once. Explain your stage choices.

Preconventional Morality

Conventional Morality

Post-Conventional Morality

Stage 1: Obedience orientation Stage 2: Instrumental orientation

Stage 3: Interpersonal norms Stage 4: Social systems morality

Stage 5: Social contract orientation Stage 6: Universal ethical principles

1. Shaking her head and frowning disapprovingly at the teenager who was slipping a candy bar from the shelf into the pocket of his jacket, an elderly shopper lectured, “You know as well as I do that shoplifting is against the law. What if everyone just took what they wanted?”

Indicate the level of moral reasoning demonstrated by the elderly shopper.

STAGE #:

EXPLAIN:

2. Amy’s mother has insisted that Amy not eat snacks between meals. Now, if Amy should eat this Twinkie before dinner, she should be unhappy when thinking about how she would be disappointing her mother. This reasoning demonstrates what level of morality?

STAGE #:

EXPLAIN:

3. Well, Amy ate the Twinkie. When talking with a friend about it the next day, Amy’s friend told her that she (Amy) was bad because her mother caught her eating snacks between meals and punished her for it. Amy’s friend is using what level of moral reasoning?

STAGE #:

EXPLAIN:

4. You are distressed when your boss asks you to charge a late fee to customers who miss the deadline. You believe that a late fee is clearly unjustified; late orders cause no real difficulty and cost the company no more to process than early orders. While you recognize the right of the company to make a profit, you insist that a late fee is not fair to the customer. You are demonstrating what level of moral reasoning?

STAGE #:

EXPLAIN:

5. Conversation overheard in a cafeteria line: “Why should I want to report the guy for failing to submit all the money we collected for the charity fund? Sure he kept some of it, but he shared it with me.” What level of moral reasoning does this demonstrate?

STAGE #:

EXPLAIN: 311 .

HANDOUT 12-5 Kohlberg’s Dilemma VII: Moral Reasoning Interview for an Adult Directions: Read the following dilemma to an adult. Then ask him or her, the questions that follow. Either write or tape-record the adult’s answers for later analysis.

Age of adult

Sex of adult

Two young men, brothers, had got into serious trouble. They were secretly leaving town in a hurry and needed money. Karl, the older one, broke into a store and stole $1000. Bob, the younger one, went to a retired old man who was known to help people in town. He told the man that he was very sick and that he needed $2000 to pay for an operation. Bob asked the old man to lend him the money and promised that he would pay him back when he recovered. Really Bob wasn't sick at all, and he had no intention of paying the man back. Although the old man didn't know Bob very well, he lent him the money. So Bob and Karl skipped town, each with $1000.

1. Which is worse, stealing like Karl or cheating like Bob? 1a. Why is that worse?

2. What do you think is the worst thing about cheating the old man?

2a. Why is that the worst thing?

3. In general, why should a promise be kept?

3a. Is it important to keep a promise to someone you don't know well or will never see again?

3b. Why or why not?

4. Why shouldn't someone steal from a store?

5. What is the value or importance of property rights?

6. Should people do everything they can to obey the law?

6a. Why or why not?

7. Was the old man being irresponsible by lending Bob the money?

7a. Why or why not?

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HANDOUT 12-6 Researching Prosocial Behaviour Directions: Read the article that your group has been assigned by your instructor, then respond to the questions below.

Assigned article: 1. What is the aim/purpose of the study?

2. How did the investigators measure the topic of interest?

3. Who were the children in the study?

4. What was the design of the study (e.g., correlational, experimental, cross-sectional, longitudinal)?

5. Were there ethical concerns with the study?

6. What were the results and conclusions?

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HANDOUT 12-7 Interviewing Parents about Child-Rearing Directions: Interview the parent of a child or an adolescent about the parent’s child-rearing, especially when it comes to responding to his/her child’s aggression. The following questions provide a start for the interview. You are encouraged to ask additional questions of the parent you interview.

1. I’d like to talk with you about your child(ren) for a class assignment. My class is trying to learn more about how parents raise children. Your name and your children’s names will not be recorded so that you remain anonymous. Please tell me how many children you have, their age, and sex.

2. If you have more than one child, please just choose one to focus on for the rest of this interview. It doesn’t matter which one. What is the age and sex of the child of the child you have in mind?

AGE:

SEX:

3. If you were to rate this child’s level of aggressiveness on a 10-point scale, where 1 is highly passive and 10 is highly aggressive, how would you rate the child? Please explain your rating.

4. Upon occasion, every child acts aggressively. How do you typically respond to your child’s aggression?

5. About how often do you see your child behaving aggressively each week?

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6. About how often do you see you child behaving in a helpful or altruistic manner each week?

7. How do you respond when your child is helpful or altruistic?

8. How does your child get along with his/her siblings or other family members?

9. How does your child get along with his/her peers?

10. About how many hours of television does your child watch each day?

11. What kinds of television programs does your child like to watch?

12. How often do you do each of the following in an average week? ____ scold your child

____ bargain with your child

____ yell at your child

____ use threats with your child

____ physically punish your child

____ reason with your child

____ deny privileges (e.g., phone, TV, etc.)

____ send child to room/time out

OTHER QUESTIONS: Thank you very much for sharing your time and insights with me.

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HANDOUT 12-8 Violence and Television/Movies Name: I. Watch the clip from

and answer the following questions:

a. What violent acts did you notice in the clip? b. Was the violence realistic or more imaginary? c. What age do you think this movie is appropriate for? d. What messages, both positive and negative, do you think children might take away from a viewing of the clip that you saw?

II. Watch the clip from

and answer the following questions:

a. What violent acts did you notice in the clip? b. Was the violence realistic or more imaginary? c. What age do you think this television show is appropriate for? d. What messages, both positive and negative, do you think children might take away from a viewing of the clip that you saw?

III. Watch the clip from

and answer the following questions:

a. What violent acts did you notice in the clip? b. Was the violence realistic or more imaginary? c. What age do you think this movie is appropriate for? d. What messages, both positive and negative, do you think children might take away from a viewing of the clip that you saw?

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ANSWER KEY CASE STUDY

Moral Understanding and Behaviour 1. According to Piaget, preschoolers would say that Marcie was “more bad,” because Marcie took more money from her mom’s purse than did Stephen. Preschoolers judge right and wrong by focusing on the outcome of the behaviour, not the person’s intentions.

2. Stephen’s “accident” was his punishment for taking money from his mom’s purse. This is an example of immanent justice, or the belief that all misdeeds are punished.

3. Marcie’s altruism is a product of her perspective-taking skills, her empathy toward others, and her level of moral reasoning. Her mood is probably positive and the cost of altruism to her is not high.

4. Marcie’s mom should use dispositional praise when Marcie exhibits altruism, she should use reasoning and discussion when disciplining Marcie, she should set a good example of altruism for Marcie to emulate, and she should have Marcie help with chores around the house.

5. Stephen’s inappropriate behaviour needs to be shaped into more appropriate, altruistic behaviour. Instilling feelings of responsibility toward others and feelings of competence will increase Stephen’s likelihood of behaving prosocially.

HANDOUT 12-4: Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Reasoning 1. Stage 4: The shopper refers to shoplifting as being “against the law.” The shopper also asks a question about societal order.

2. Stage 3: The focus is on maintaining a good relationship with her mother.

3. Stage 1: Amy’s friend refers to the notion of punishment.

4. Stage 5: Questioning existing rules or laws is indicative of Stage 5.

5. Stage 2: The self-serving, hedonistic rationale for the misbehaviour is consistent with Stage 2.

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End-of-Chapter Test Yourself Questions: Moral Understanding and Behaviour 1. The first step in the development of self-control occurs when infants

.

2. Children’s self-control is affected by parents’ discipline and by a . child’s 3. Self-control can be improved by reminding children of the need to avoid temptation and by .

4. According to Piaget, until about eight years of age children are in a stage of moral realism in which they believe that . level in Kohlberg’s theory, people believe that moral decision 5. At the making is based on social norms (i.e., how others expect them to behave).

6. Gilligan argued that Kohlberg’s theory places too much emphasis on justice in moral decision making and ignores the role of . , and the 7. Domains of social judgment include moral transgressions, personal domain.

Emotions may influence children’s moral development by .

8.

Skills necessary for prosocial behaviour include perspective taking, 9. , and moral reasoning.

10.

11.

Aspects of a situation that influence helping include , feelings of competence, a child’s mood, and the cost of altruism.

Parents foster altruistic behaviour by modelling it for children to see, by prosocially.

, and by providing children with the opportunity to behaviour

12. In

aggression, children use aggression to achieve their goals.

13. Children are more likely to behave aggressively when their parents use physical punishment frequently, , and are in frequent conflict with each other.

14. Cultural influences on aggression include the media, peers, experiences in school, , and a culture of violence.

15. According to the social-information-processing framework, aggressive children are biased

.

Answers: (1) become aware that others impose demands on them and they must react accordingly; (2) temperament; (3) activities that divert attention from temptation; (4) rules are created by wise adults and must be followed and cannot be changed; (5) conventional; (6) caring for others; (7) social conventions; (8) helping children create different categories of morally relevant concepts; (9) empathy; (10) a child’s feelings of responsibility; (11) their disciplinary practices; (12) instrumental; (13) don’t monitor their children’s behaviour; (14) poverty; (15) to interpret actions in terms of aggressive intent and to respond aggressively by default.

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Chapter 13

Gender and Development CHAPTER OVERVIEW

320

MODULE SUPPLEMENTS Module 13.1: GENDER STEREOTYPES

322

Learning Objectives Key Terms Classroom Activities Films/Videos/DVDs Module 13.2: DIFFERENCES RELATED TO GENDER

324

Learning Objectives Key Terms Classroom Activities Films/Videos/DVDs Module 13.3: GENDER IDENTITY

326

Key Terms Classroom Activities Films/Videos/DVDs Module 13.4: GENDER ROLES IN TRANSITION

328

Learning Objectives Key Term Classroom Activities Films/Videos/DVDs INTERNET RESOURCES

329

CASE STUDY

330

HANDOUTS

331

TEST YOURSELF

337

319 .

CHAPTER 13 OVERVIEW 1. Social Roles 2. Gender Roles 3. Gender Identity I.

Module 13.1: Gender Stereotypes 1. Gender Stereotypes a. How Do We View Men and Women?

1. Instrumental Traits 2. Expressive Traits b. Learning Gender Stereotypes

II. Module 13.2: Differences Related to Gender a.

Differences in Physical Development and Behaviour

b. Differences in Intellectual Abilities and Achievement i.

Verbal Ability

ii.

Spatial Ability 1. Mental Rotation 2. Spatial Memory

iii. Mathematics iv. Memory c.

Focus on Research: Development of Sex Differences in Spatial Ability

d. Cultural Influences: A Cross-Cultural Look at Gender Differences in Math e.

Differences in Personality and Social Behaviour i.

Aggressive Behaviour 1. Androgens

ii. Emotional Sensitivity iii. Social Influence iv. Effortful Control v. f.

Depression

Frank Talk About Gender Differences i.

Summary Table – Sex Differences in Physical and Behavioural Development

320 .

III. Module 13.3: Gender Identity 1. Sex Assigned at Birth a. The Socializing Influences of People and the Media i.

Parents

ii.

Teachers

iii. Peers 1. Enabling 2. Constricting iv. Television b. Cognitive Theories of Gender Identity 1. Gender Schema Theory c.

Spotlight on Theories: Gender Schema Theory

d. Biological Influences 1. Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia (CAH) 2. Dynamic Systems Theory IV. Module 13.4: Gender Roles in Transition a.

Emerging Gender Roles 1. Androgynous

b. Beyond Traditional Gender Roles c.

Children’s Lives: Encouraging Valuable Traits, Not Gender Traits

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MODULE SUPPLEMENTS MODULE 13.1: GENDER STEREOTYPES LEARNING OBJECTIVES: • What are gender stereotypes, and how do they differ for males and females?

• How do gender stereotypes influence behaviour? When do children learn their culture’s stereotypes for males and females?

(See Handout 13-1 for a list of this chapter’s learning objectives.)

KEY TERMS: social role gender role gender identity

gender stereotypes instrumental expressive

CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES: •

Gender Stereotypes in Children’s Literature. Where do children learn gender stereotypes?

One important source of information for children is books. Have each of your students bring a few of their favourite children’s books to class. Then, distribute Handout 13-2 to your students so that they can identify the presence of gender stereotypes in their books. Ask some students to volunteer sharing their evaluations of their favourite children’s books with the rest of the class.

•

Gender Stereotypes in Historical Context. Have students use the internet to identify the most popular children’s movies of the last 50 years. Students can be divided into groups that each focus on a specific decade. Have the students print out images of the lead male and female characters from 2 of the most popular films of the decade as well as a brief synopsis of the storylines. Students should work together to answer the question, what do these films suggest about society’s ideas about women, men and their roles? Groups can present their findings in class chronologically (beginning with the group responsible for the oldest film and ending with the most recent films). The printouts of images can be pasted up in the classroom chronologically in order to provide a visual timeline of ideas about gender. A whole-class discussion can then focus on the question, how have gender stereotypes changed over the last 50 years?

Internet Annotated Bibliography. Have your students use the Internet to identify 10 websites that give scholarly information on gender stereotypes and gender differences. Students should type an annotated bibliography that lists the URLs (website addresses) for these websites and gives a brief (one or two paragraph) summary/review of each.

•

The name of the website (e.g., Gender Creative Kids).

A valid URL (website address, e.g., http://gendercreativekids.ca).

A brief (one or two paragraph) review of the website. Reviews should include a brief summary of what students can expect to find if they visit the website and a brief evaluation of the website.

As a follow-up to this activity, students can combine all of the annotated bibliographies into an Internet Resource Directory that could be distributed in class.

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FILMS/VIDEOS/DVDS: •

Cross-Cultural Comparisons: Gender Roles (Insight Media, 1994, two volumes – 60 minutes each). These videos compare gender roles across several countries and cultures. It looks at societies that have tried to remedy gender inequities with specific policies and laws.

•

Gender (Insight Media, 2002, 30 minutes). Sociologists discuss how society’s expectations influence the definitions and behaviours associated with gender.

Gender and Sexuality (Insight Media, 20001, 30 minutes). This video highlights the difference between sex and gender, and it examines the ways in which men and women differ. It discusses gender roles and gender identity, looks at gender role stereotypes, and discusses the application of social-learning theory to the study of gender-role development.

Gender Socialization (Insight Media, 1993, 60 minutes). The impact of gender roles on selfesteem, behaviour, and world views is considered.

In My Country: An International Perspective on Gender (Insight Media, 1991, two volumes – 91 minutes total). This program is a resource for studying a wide variety of cultural attitudes related to gender, including division of household labour, types of discipline for boys and girls, marriage decisions, control of money, societal views of rape, care of the elderly, and attitudes about homosexuality.

•

• •

•

The Role of Gender (Insight Media, 2007, 30 minutes). This DVD examines the ways in which humans learn about gender from an early age. It shows how gender-based roles, expectations, and assumptions are changing.

•

Sexual and Racial Stereotypes in the Media (Films for the Humanities and Social Sciences, 2008, 2-part series, 38-42 minutes, each). This two-part series scrutinizes the media in order to both expose and understand common sources of bias and the intentions behind them.

Expert commentary is provided by Carolyn Kitch, director of the Mass Media and Communication program at Temple University; Oscar Gandy, professor emeritus at the Annenberg School for Communication; and NPR’s Bob Garfield, co-host of On the Media.

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MODULE 13.2: DIFFERENCES RELATED TO GENDER LEARNING OBJECTIVES: •

How do boys and girls differ in physical development, intellectual abilities, and social behaviour? What factors are responsible for these gender differences?

•

What are the implications of these gender differences for boys’ and girls’ development?

KEY TERMS: mental rotation

androgens

spatial memory

CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES: •

Observing Gender Differences. Ask your students, individually or in small groups (two to four), to visit a preschool or kindergarten classroom in an attempt to observe a variety of ways in which boys and girls may differ. Handout 13-3 provides some structure for your students’ observations. Once your students have completed their observations, they should summarize their findings in writing or give oral summaries to the rest of the class.

•

Look Into It: The Myths and Realities of Gender Differences. Students can benefit from independently investigating issues of interest to them. The text presents an excellent overview of a variety of topics in which gender differences have and have not been substantiated.

Assign one of the following topic areas to each of your students (or small groups of students) and have them investigate it more thoroughly. Handout 13-4 will help guide their library search activities. The students should present a summary of their findings to the rest of the class during the next class session.

Gender differences search topics: (a) physical development

(f) spatial abilities

(b) activity level and athleticism

(g) aggression

(c) health status (d) verbal abilitiesabilities (e) mathematical

•

(h) emotional expressiveness and empathy (i) susceptibility to persuasion/conformity

Debating Mathematical Differences. Ask your students to debate the question “Are Boys Better in Math than Girls?” An excellent resource for this debate is a pair of articles that appear in DelCampo and DelCampo (1998). Your students should align themselves with the “yes” or “no” perspective regarding the question being debated, read the appropriate position paper in the source cited below, and do additional research to substantiate their position. As moderator of the debate, you should be prepared with questions to pose to both sides, such as those listed below.

1. What evidence suggests that boys are better in math than girls?

2. What evidence suggests that boys are NOT better in math than girls?

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3. Where differences between boys and girls have been found, how can they be explained?

4. Should parents of school-aged girls be concerned about their children being able to master mathematics? Why or why not?

5. What can teachers do to enable boys and girls to gain comparable math skills?

FILMS/VIDEOS/DVDS: •

How Boys and Girls Differ: The First Six Years (Insight Media, 2002, 20 minutes). This video reviews the developmental differences between boys and girls regarding their cognitive, social, emotional, and physical growth in the early childhood years.

•

The Role of Gender (Insight Media, 2007, 30 minutes). This DVD reviews how humans learn about gender from an early age. It also looks at changes in gender roles, expectations, and assumptions

•

The Secret Life of Boys (Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 2000, 24 minutes). This video is a segment from the ABC News 20/20 program in which the “strong and silent” stereotype about males is examined. What are the behavioural consequences of raising boys to repress their feelings?

•

The Theories of Gender Role Differences: The Biological Difference (Insight Media, 1994, 60 minutes).

•

•

This video investigates theories that propose biological origins for the differences in gender roles. It considers the impacts of social structures on gender role development.

Sex Roles: Charting the Complexity of Development (RMI Media Productions, 1991, 60 minutes).

Theories of sex-role development are presented. In addition, sex-related differences in intellectual abilities are explored.

The Sexual Brain (Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 1997, 28 minutes). Physiological differences in male and female brains are reviewed, offering a physiological explanation for sex differences that are often attributed to social or cultural differences between the sexes.

•

War of the Sexes: Language (Films for the Humanities and Social Sciences, 2005, 45 minutes). This DVD studies language differences between the sexes and explores the possibility that many communication skills are gender-specific. Following two teams of welleducated adults as they undergo a crash course in broadcast journalism, the program documents wide variations between male and female abilities to verbally multitask, and examines distinctions in physical interaction, eye contact, and other behavioural factors.

Clinical evidence regarding the significance of testosterone levels is also explored.

•

War of the Sexes: Spatial Ability (Films for the Humanities and Social Sciences, 2005, 45 minutes). This DVD resists broadly brushed stereotypes but does identify disparities in the ways men and women operate machines, manipulate tools, focus on tasks, and navigate.

Accompanying two teams as they race to organize and complete an extended car trip, the program juxtaposes a woman’s use of personal reference points and outside assistance with the male penchant for self-reliance and schematic course-plotting—while observations from psychologists and neurologists link these tendencies with brain evolution.

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MODULE 13.3: GENDER IDENTITY LEARNING OBJECTIVES: •

How do parents, peers, and the media influence children’s learning of gender roles?

•

How do cognitive theories explain children’s learning of gender roles?

•

How does biology influence children’s learning of gender roles?

KEY TERMS: sex assigned at

gender-schema theory

birth

congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH)

enabling

dynamic systems theory

constricting

CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES: •

Discussing Gender Role Socialization. To familiarize your students with the variety of ways in which gender roles are influenced by various elements in society, divide them into small groups and distribute Handout 13-5. Ask your students to list the ways that society influences gender development. Students should then share their group’s responses with the rest of the class.

•

The Company They Keep: Observing Children’s Play. If possible, arrange a class visit to a local preschool or kindergarten class. If a class visit is impractical, ask your students to arrange their own individual or small group (two to four) visits to a preschool or kindergarten classroom. Students may also be able to observe the play of young children on playgrounds or at a local park. Ask the students to record instances of gender-appropriate play. Who plays with whom? What activities do boys tend to engage in? What are girls playing? What happens when children engage in, or suggest, cross-gender play? Students should also attend to enabling versus constricting interactions, as described in the text. Results of their observations can be summarized in writing or in an oral presentation.

• When I Grow Up… Ask your students to think back through their childhood. What did they want to be when they grew up? Who did they want to be like when they grew up? What evidence of gender constancy is apparent in their answers to these questions? Did your male students choose stereotypically male careers? Did your female students want to be like a female adult that they knew? For comparison purposes, ask your students who their “model for adulthood” is now. Is their current model a same-sex adult? This series of questions will likely reveal support for Kohlberg’s (1966) concept of gender constancy and for Martin and Halverson’s (1987) gender-schema theory. In effect, we learn our gender role by attending to the characteristics and actions of others who, with respect to their gender, are like us.

FILMS/VIDEOS/DVDS: •

Childhood, Program 4: In the Land of Giants (Ambrose Video, 1991, 60 minutes). The impact of family and educational institutions (e.g., preschool and kindergarten classes) on the social development of 3- to 5-year-olds is wonderfully portrayed. This program clearly presents how families convey proper roles in society to their children.

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•

Childhood, Program 6: Among Equals (Ambrose Video, 1991, 60 minutes). The program emphasizes the important influence of peers on social development, including decisions about morality. Issues regarding gender socialization are also presented.

•

A Gathering of Men (Films for the Humanities & Sciences, 1990, two volumes – 50 minutes and 38 minutes). These programs explore how men think about themselves, their sons, and their roles in society. The importance of the father-son relationship is a central theme.

•

Gender, Early Morality, and the Self (Insight Media, 1992, 30 minutes). The role of the family is reviewed in relation to the development of gender, morality, and self-concept. The impact of the family on relationships outside of the home is demonstrated.

•

Gender Socialization (Insight Media, 1991, 60 minutes). The impact of gender roles on selfesteem, behaviour, and world views is considered.

Learning Theories (Insight Media, 1994, 60 minutes). Gender role development is explained as a product of observational learning and socialization. This program also includes footage of children discussing what they want to be when they grow up.

•

•

Reviving Ophelia: Saving the Selves of Adolescent Girls (Insight Media, 1998, 35 minutes).

This program examines the role of media and popular culture in shaping the identities of teenaged girls.

•

Seasons of Life, Program 2: Childhood and Adolescence (Annenberg/CPB Collection, 1990, 60 minutes).

•

The interaction of biological, social, and psychological clocks forms the framework for the presentation of gender role and identity development during childhood and adolescence.

Self-Identity & Sex-Role Development (Magna Systems, 1993, 30 minutes). Examines the development of self, including gender identity, throughout childhood. Social and cultural influences are considered, and gender typing in the play of young children is presented.

•

Sex-Role Development (Magna Systems, 1993, 30 minutes). This video explores the issues of gender stereotyping and gender-role behaviours, parental influence on the development of gender roles, and the impact of changing societal conditions. Theories of gender-role development are also discussed.

•

Sex Roles: Charting the Complexity of Development (Insight Media, 1991, 60 minutes). This program reviews three prominent theories of sex-role socialization in addition to looking at the cultural ramifications of sex roles.

•

•

The Secret Lives of Boys (Films for the Humanities and Social Sciences, 1998, 24 minutes).

In this ABC News 20/20 program, correspondent John Stossel; Dr. William Pollack, of the Harvard Medical School and author of Real Boys; and researchers from Emory University and the University of Connecticut explore why boys tend to repress their feelings. Using a real counseling session, experts demonstrate how to help boys express their feelings before they begin to act them out at school and at home in antisocial behaviour—or even in a shooting spree or suicide.

Tough Guise (Insight Media, 1999, 40 minutes). This video explores the relationship between pop culture images and the social construction of masculine identity in contemporary America.

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MODULE 13.4: GENDER ROLES IN TRANSITION LEARNING OBJECTIVES: •

What is androgyny, and how is it related to traditional conceptions of masculinity and femininity?

•

Can parents rear gender-neutral children?

KEY TERM: androgynous

CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES: •

Gender Roles: Past, Present, and Future. Once again, a medium that has great impact on your students, television, can be used to illustrate how gender roles have changed during the past few decades (and how they will perhaps continue to change into the future). Ask your students to recall the original Star Trek or Battlestar Galactica series. What roles were assumed by the male and female actors? Compare the gender roles portrayed on the earlier series from the 1960s-1980s with a contemporary science fiction series, such as the most recent Star Trek. How have gender roles changed?

•

Gender Neutrality: Is it Possible? Ask your students to discuss the challenges facing parents who wish to raise their children in a non-stereotyped environment. How can a person’s gender be made irrelevant? Is that even a good idea? Discuss the pros and cons of gender neutrality or use the debate format discussed in previous chapters of this book to stage an inclass debate. As provocative background reading for this topic students can research news reports of the Toronto child, “Storm.” Storm’s parents Kathy Witterick and David Stocker sparked an international debate and were featured prominently in news reports between 2011 and 2013 as they attempted to raise Storm in a gender-neutral environment.

Gender Bias in the Classroom. After securing permission from the school/teacher, students should visit an elementary classroom or early childhood setting (e.g., childcare) and examine the classroom for evidence of gender bias. Students should pay particular attention to each of the following: 1. Materials and toys, 2. Books and other literature, 3. Posters and wall decorations, 4. Teacher interaction, 5. Lessons and curriculum. Students should make note of any examples of gender bias. Students should also discuss what the teacher can do to decrease bias in this setting.

•

•

The Androgynous Preschool. Divide the class into small groups and ask them to design a preschool that will produce androgynous behaviour in children by using the headings in Handout 13-6.

FILMS/VIDEOS/DVDS: •

Divide of the Sexes (Insight Media, 2008, 60 minutes). This DVD considers the influences of celebrity culture, consumerism, and media treatment of sexuality on gender roles and the expectations of children.

•

Sex Roles: Charting the Complexity of Development (RMI Media Productions, 1991, 60 minutes). Theories of sex-role development are presented. In addition, sex-related differences in intellectual abilities are explored. Children, parents, and researchers offer their opinions regarding gender-role stereotypes and androgyny.

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•

Talking Gender (Insight Media, 1999, 23 minutes). This video uses input from adolescents of both sexes to examine the way in which gender functions in society, including the relevance of gender to media coverage, education, and careers, and family in the home.

INTERNET RESOURCES •

https://www.aap.org/ – American Academy of Pediatrics site where there is information about gender differences and gender roles

•

https://gendercreativekids.ca/ – This site contains resources for supporting children who identify and express their gender in ways that differ from what others may expect. http://www.gendercenter.org/ – This site contains a discussion of gender issues and gender differences. It also provides references to other sources on gender issues. https://www.childrennow.org/ – This site is sponsored by Children Now, a nonpartisan group that represents “a voice for children, working to translate the nation’s commitment to children and families into action.”

• •

•

http://www.wisat.org/ – The home page of Women in Global Science and Technology; examines issues of gender related to the sciences and technology.

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CASE STUDY Gender and Development Sarah and John have two children, 5-year-old Zoe and 4-year-old Nicolas. Sarah and John have always tried to raise their children in a way that encourages flexibility in gender roles. This has not always been easy. When Sarah was pregnant with her first child she and John went shopping for new things for the baby’s room. They had elected not to find out the baby’s sex in advance of the birth and so were quite surprised to find that most children’s stores are rigidly divided into a boys’ and a girls’ section.

At their current ages, Zoe and Nicolas are each other’s favourite playmates and they enjoy engaging together in many games and activities. However, Sarah and John have noticed that their children are beginning to evidence more gender stereotypical behavior. Zoe has recently become obsessed with hula hooping and Nicolas is passionate about baseball. Zoe is interested in dolls and Nicolas loves playing with building blocks. Sarah and John are worried that their children’s relationship with one another will be negatively impacted by these recent developments.

1. Using developmental theory, how might we account for the children’s recent engagement in more gender stereotypical behaviour?

2. What can Sarah and John do at this stage in their children’s development to encourage gender neutrality?

3. What are some of the pros and cons of encouraging gender neutrality in childhood and adolescence?

4. How might Nicolas’ and Zoe’s relationship with one another be effected by their engagement in increasingly more gender-typical play?

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HANDOUT 13-1 Learning Objectives/Discussion Questions for Chapter 13: 1. What are gender stereotypes, and how do they differ for males and females?

2. How do gender stereotypes influence behaviour?

3. When do children learn their culture’s stereotypes for males and females?

4. How do boys and girls differ in physical development, intellectual abilities, and social behaviour?

5. What factors are responsible for these gender differences?

6. What are the implications of these gender differences for boys’ and girls’ development?

7. How do parents, peers, and the media influence children’s learning of gender roles?

8. How do cognitive theories explain children’s learning of gender roles?

9. How does biology influence children’s learning of gender roles?

10. What is androgyny, and how is it related to traditional conceptions of masculinity and femininity?

11. Can parents rear gender-neutral children?

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HANDOUT 13-2 Gender Stereotypes in Children’s Literature Directions: Find a few of your favourite children’s books. Once you have located them, identify any gender stereotypes present in them. Respond to the questions below as you evaluate your favourite children’s books.

1. Please complete the following table.

List the title, author(s), and year of publication for each book.

For what age child was At what age did you each book written? enjoy hearing or reading each?

a. b.

c.

2. How many main characters are boys or men, and how many main characters are girls or women?

3. Are there gender stereotypes present in the books? Describe them below.

4. What message(s) do the stereotypes convey to the child who is hearing or reading the books?

5. How would you improve each of the stories regarding their portrayal of males and females?

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HANDOUT 13-3 Observing Gender Differences Directions: You are to observe a preschool or kindergarten class in an attempt to identify ways in which boys and girls may differ. The following table will provide some structure for your observations. If permitted by the teacher, talk with the preschoolers or kindergartners about their perceptions of boys and girls.

Girls’ Characteristics PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT Estimated average height: Estimated average weight: Athletic abilities: Activity level: INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT Verbal ability: (e.g., vocabulary, verbal fluency) Mathematical ability: (e.g., math skills, counting) Spatial ability: (e.g., accuracy of drawings, spatial reasoning) SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT Aggressive behaviours: (e.g., fighting, arguing, name-calling) Emotional sensitivity: (e.g., expressiveness, empathy) Social influence: (e.g., leaders vs. followers, susceptibility

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Boys’ Characteristics

HANDOUT 13-4 Look Into It: The Myths and Realities of Gender Differences Directions: You have been assigned a topic that may or may not reveal gender differences in its development. It is your job to investigate published research on this topic using any available library resources. To help focus your search, respond to the questions below.

TOPIC: 1. How does gender impact the development of your topic? (Describe the gender differences that exist according to research on your topic.)

2. What type of research (e.g., experiments, observational studies, cross-sectional or longitudinal studies, etc.) has been conducted to investigate the relationships between gender and the development of your topic?

3. How can the impact of gender on your topic be mediated? In other words, if parents, teachers, day care workers, etc., are aware of how gender impacts the development of your topic, what can they do about it?

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HANDOUT 13-5 Discussing Gender Role Socialization

Directions: Working with a small group of students, consider the variety of ways in which society influences gender role development. List all the ways you can think of that society (i.e., parents, peers, relatives, siblings, teachers, media, etc.) influences gender development. Your group will be asked to share your responses with the rest of the class.

When a baby is born …

When the baby comes home from the hospital …

Toys and books …

Birthday parties, Christmas, Halloween, etc. …

Television …

Occupations …

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HANDOUT 13-6 Androgynous Preschool Directions: Divide the class into small groups and ask them to design a preschool that will produce androgynous behaviour in children by using the following headings: Under each heading describe all the materials and the set-up.

Physical Environment/Room Set-up:

Drama Centre:

Block Centre:

Book Centre:

Manipulative Activities:

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End-of-Chapter Test Yourself Questions: Gender and Development 1. Instrumental traits, which are often associated with males, describe people who act on the world; traits, which tend to be associated with females, describe people who value interpersonal relationships.

2. During the years, children’s knowledge of gender stereotypes expands to include personality traits.

3. By the middle elementary-school years, children know more gender stereotypes, but they also see stereotypes as .

4. Physically, boys tend to be stronger and more active; girls tend to have better fine-motor coordination and .

5. In the intellectual domain, boys often have greater spatial ability, but girls tend to have greater .

6. Girls do as well as boys in math in cultures where .

7. When boys are aggressive, it is usually physical; in contrast, the most common form of aggression with girls is .

8. In the domains of personality and social behaviour, girls are more sensitive emotionally, are , and are more prone to depression.

9. Although boys and girls differ in their average scores in several domains, it is also true that their scores .

10.

often respond to sons and daughters based on gender stereotypes, not based on knowledge of the individual child’s needs.

11. Teachers contribute to gender-role learning by making gender salient in the classroom; peers contribute by .

12. Play is usually segregated by sex, in part because girls do not enjoy boys’ rough-and-tumble play and because girls .

13. According to gender-schema theory, children first decide whether an object, activity, or behaviour is considered .

14. Girls exposed to large amounts of male hormones prefer masculine activities and .

15. Interventions designed to influence children’s gender stereotypes show that it is fairly easy to change children’s views of occupations but that children usually have same-sex friends and prefer .

Answers: (1) expressive; (2) elementary-school; (3) more flexible and not as obligatory; (4) to be healthier; (5) verbal ability; (6) males and females have comparable access to education, occupations, and political power; (7) relational; (8) more easily influenced by others (in part because they value group harmony); (9) overlap considerably; (10) Fathers; (11) being critical of peers who engage in gender-inappropriate play; (12) have an enabling style of play that is often ineffective with boys; (13) appropriate for males or females; (14) male playmates; (15) genderstereotypic activities.

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Chapter 14

Social Influences CHAPTER OVERVIEW

339

MODULE SUPPLEMENTS Module 14.1: PARENTING AND FAMILY RELATIONSHIPS

343

Learning Objectives Key Terms Classroom Activities Films/Videos/DVDs Module 14.2: PEER RELATIONSHIPS AND INFLUENCES

352

Learning Objectives Key Terms Classroom Activities Films/Videos/DVDs Module 14.3: INFLUENCES OF SOCIETY

356

Learning Objectives Key Terms Classroom Activities Films/Videos/DVDs INTERNET RESOURCES

358

CASE STUDIES

359

HANDOUTS

360

TEST YOURSELF

377

338 Copyright © 2020 Pearson Education, Inc.

CHAPTER 14 OVERVIEW I.

Module 14.1: Parenting and Family Relationships a.

The Family as a System

b. Styles of Parenting 1. Authoritarian Parenting 2. Authoritative Parenting 3. Permissive Parenting 4. Uninvolved Parenting i. ii. Variations Associated with Culture and Socioeconomic Status c.

Parental Behaviour i.

Direct Instruction 1. Direct Instruction

ii.

Learning by Observing 1. Observational Learning 2. Counterimitation

iii. Feedback 1. Reinforcement 2. Punishment 3. Negative Reinforcement Trap 4. Time Out 5. Time In d. Influences of the Marital System e.

Children’s Contributions i.

Age

ii. Temperament and Behaviour f.

The Impact of Divorce i.

What Aspects of Children’s Lives are Affected by Divorce?

1. Joint Custody

ii. How Does Divorce Influence Development? iii. Which Children Are Most Affected By Divorce? Why?

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g.

Blended Families 1. Blended Family

h. The Role of Grandparents 1. Influential Grandparents 2. Supportive Grandparents 3. Authority-Oriented Grandparents 4. Passive Grandparents 5. Detached Grandparents i.

Cultural Influences: Grandmothers in Indigenous Families

j.

Children of Gay and Lesbian Parents

k.

Firstborn, Laterborn, and Only Children i.

Adopted Children

ii. Open Adoption l.

Children’s Lives: Assessing the Consequences of China’s One-Child Policy

m. Qualities of Sibling Relationships n. Maltreatment and Its Consequences i.

Resilience 1. Ego-Resilience

o. Causes of Maltreatment i.

Culture and Community

ii.

Parents

iii. Children’s Contributions p. Preventing Maltreatment i. Summary Table - Factors that Contribute to Child Abuse q. Focus on Research - Education of Parents to Prevent Child Abuse II. Module 14.2: Peer Relationships and Influences a.

Development of Peer Interactions 1. Parallel Play 2. Associative Play 3. Cooperative Play

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i.

Make-Believe

ii.

Solitary Play

iii. Parental Influence 1. Playmate 2. Social Director 3. Coach 4. Mediator iv. Peer Relations After Preschool 1.. Rough-and-Tumble Play b. Friendship 1. Friendship i.

Who Become Friends?

ii.

Quality and Consequences of Friendship 2. Co-Rumination

c.

c.

Romantic Relationships i.

Sexual Behaviour

ii.

Sexual Orientation

Groups 1.

Clique 2.

Crowd i.

Group Structure 3. Dominance Hierarchy

ii.

Peer Pressure

d. Popularity and Rejection i.

Consequences of Rejection

ii.

Causes of Rejection

III. Module 14.3: Influences of Society a.

Childcare and After School Activities 1. Latchkey Children

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b. Part-Time Employment 1. School performance suffers 2. Mental health and behavioural problems are more likely 3. Affluence is misleading c.

Neighbourhoods

d. Spotlight on Theories: The Family Economic Stress Model e.

School i.

School-Based Influences on Student Achievement 1. Staff and students alike understand that academic excellence is the primary goal, and standards are set accordingly 2. The school climate is safe and nurturing 3. Parents are involved 4. Mentoring programs allow children and adolescents to learn from nonparental adults 5. Progress of students, teachers, and programs is monitored

ii.

Teacher-Based Influences 1. Manage the classroom effectively so they can devote most of their time to instruction 2. Believe they are responsible for their students’ learning and that their students will learn when taught well 3. Pay careful attention to pacing 4. Emphasize mastery of topics 5. Teach actively 6. Value tutoring 7. Teach children techniques for monitoring and managing their own learning 8. Have access to resources that allow them to improve their teaching

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MODULE SUPPLEMENTS MODULE 14.1: PARENTING AND FAMILY RELATIONSHIPS LEARNING OBJECTIVES: •

How do parenting styles and parent behaviours affect children’s development?

•

How do children help determine how parents rear them?

• What are the effects upon children of different kinds of families?

• How do sibling relationships change as children grow? What determines how well siblings get along?

• What happens when parent-child relationships go awry?

(See Handout 14-1 for a list of this chapter’s learning objectives.)

KEY TERMS: authoritarian parenting

time in

authoritative parenting

joint custody

permissive parenting

blended family

uninvolved parenting

influential grandparents

direct instruction

supportive grandparents

observational learning

authority-oriented grandparents

counterimitation

passive grandparents

reinforcement

detached grandparents

punishment

open adoption

negative reinforcement trap

ego-resilience

time out

CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES: •

“The Ideal Parents are Ones Who…” Ask your students to generate five phrases to complete this sentence. List several of the phrases that your students mention on the board.

Then, ask your students how these ideals meet the criteria for effective parenting discussed in the text (i.e., warmth/responsiveness and reasonable level of control). As an interesting outof-class addendum to this exercise, have your students ask their parents to describe “the ideal parents.” The similarities between the parent and student responses may surprise your students.

•

Personal Reflections on Parenting Styles. This is a simple yet effective class activity. To illustrate to your students how parenting styles impact children, ask your students to consider how the parenting styles of their own parents influenced their development. Handout 14-2 will guide your students through this exercise. This can be used as the basis for a discussion activity.

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•

Observing Parents in Action. Send your students to a playground, park, grocery store line, toy store, etc.—anyplace where they are likely to see parents interacting with children. Ask your students to note any disciplinary actions taken by parents. Handout 14-3 will guide your students through this observation activity. Students can then summarize their observations in writing or present their findings to the class.

•

Parents and Education. Ask your students to reflect back on their own education, asking themselves the following questions: 1) What role do you remember your parent(s) and/or guardian(s) playing in your education? 2) Did they help with homework? 3) Attend school functions? 4) Home school you? 5) Encourage (or discourage) you in your educational pursuits? Students should reflect on the role their parents or guardians played in their education at each level—1. Preschool/ elementary; 2. Middle school; 3. High School; 4.

College/University. Encourage your students to contact their parents or guardians about this (if possible), and include their points of view as well as their own in their reflections.

Look Into It: Family Influences on Child Development. As mentioned in other chapters, students can conduct literature searches of specific topics.

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The influence of family on child development topic is perfect for this exercise due to the availability of research in this area. Students can work individually or in small groups to complete this activity. Have them complete Handout 14-4 as they look into their topic. Here are some of the possible topics that you could assign your students: (a) cultural differences in parenting (b) grandparent/grandchild relationships (c) grandparenting styles (d) gay and lesbian parents (e) working mothers (f) adolescent parents (g) low-income households (h) other: •

Discussing Divorce. A class discussion about divorce can be difficult since chances are good that many of your students have experienced the divorce of their parents and several may still be experiencing difficulties because of the divorce. Also, since many consequences of divorce are negative, a developmental stigma may be felt by some of your students (even though the social stigma of divorce has dissipated significantly during the past two decades).

Be forewarned: Keeping the discussion academic rather than personal will be one of your greatest challenges.

Start the discussion with some demographic questions: a) What is the probability of a child witnessing the divorce of his/her parents? b) Approximately what percentage of new marriages is likely to end in divorce? c) How does the divorce rate in the United States compare to the rate in other countries?

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Then, move into a discussion of societal issues impacting divorce: d) Why did the divorce rate triple between 1960 and 1980? e) Why has the divorce rate remained relatively stable from 1980 to the present?

Finally, open the floor to a discussion of the developmental issues surrounding divorce: f)

How does a divorce impact the children in the family?

g) Are boys and girls affected in similar ways? h) How are the parent-child relationships altered by the divorce?

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i)

What are the long-term consequences of divorce?

j)

What are the pros and cons of single-custody versus joint-custody arrangement?

Setting the Stage for Successful Adjustment to Divorce & Remarriage. Ask your students to work in small groups to make lists of factors that influence the ability of children to adjust to the divorce of their parents and to subsequent remarriage. Students should approach this activity as if they are preparing a “tip sheet” for parents about to divorce or remarry. You may want to assign some groups to the “Adjusting to Divorce” list and others to the “Adjusting to Blended Families” tip list. Depending upon the level of complexity you wish to impose for this activity, you may want to have your students survey the research literature to assist in the creation of their lists.

Grandparents’ Day! Ask your students to talk to their grandparents (or grandparent-like figures in their lives). Students may invite them to attend a class session and share their grandparenting insights with the class or they could interview their grandparent (perhaps on video) and share their insights from this exercise with the class. The life stories and family anecdotes provided by the grandparents can serve as terrific illustrations of the various grandparenting styles detailed in the text. Encourage (or require) your students to prepare questions for the grandparents in advance.

Do You Fit the Mold? Part 1. Students are often fascinated by the birth order issue and are often frustrated by the research on the topic because it has not yielded much support for birth order playing a significant role in child development. What is necessary is a critical assessment of the role that birth order plays in influencing child development. Ask your students the following questions: FIRSTBORNS: Do you feel that you are more intelligent than your laterborn peers or younger siblings? If so, is your advanced intellect simply the product of being born first in your family? What else might account for your level of intellectual development?

LATERBORNS: Do you feel that you have better social skills and are more creative than your firstborn peers or oldest sibling? If so, is your superior social skills and creativity simply the product of being born later in your family? What else might account for your level of intellectual development?

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Do You Fit the Mold? Part 2. Handout 14-5 contains some common descriptions of firstborn, middle, youngest, and oldest children. Ask your students to read each of the characteristics of their birth position, and under the column titled ME, circle whether they AGREE, MAYBE agree, or DISAGREE with each statement. Students should then ask two people who know them well to complete the table (using the PERSON 1 and PERSON 2 columns) making sure that each person does not see the answers that the other people put down. After the table is complete, students should look over the results and write a brief (one or two paragraph) reflection on what they found out. In other words, does their birth position seem representative of their overall general personality?

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Setting the Stage for Sibling Success. In small groups, ask your students to make lists of factors that influence the quality of sibling relationships. Students should approach this activity as if they are preparing a “tip sheet” for parents about to have a second child. What can parents do to encourage positive sibling relationships? What characteristics of the older sibling significantly influence the sibling relationship for better or worse? What characteristics of the younger sibling significantly influence the sibling relationship for better or worse? What can parents expect regarding the relationships among their children as they grow up? Finally, what characteristics of the parents significantly influence the sibling relationships, for better or worse?

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Signs of Abuse and Neglect. One important aspect of child maltreatment is the signs of abuse and neglect. Since many students enrolled in child development classes are planning on pursuing careers in education, they should know that they are required by law to report—not investigate—suspected cases of abuse. In order to fulfill this legal and ethical obligation, students should be aware of the signs of abuse and neglect. Ask students to state the symptoms of abuse or neglect that they are aware of and compile the list that they generate on the chalkboard. The point of this exercise is to make sure that all students are aware of the complete set of physical, behavioural, and emotional symptoms of abuse and neglect. The exercise should be concluded by writing the phone number of where students should report abuse.

Guest Speaker: Representative from a Local Child Abuse Prevention Agency. Ask this speaker to address the proper channels to report abuse, legal definitions of abuse, sanctions, or forms of punishment for abusers, and factors contributing to the occurrence of abuse.

Guest Speaker: Child Psychologist. A child psychologist can convey the short-term and long-term consequences of child abuse and neglect to your class. Also, ask the therapist to describe the treatment that children and families receive following the confirmation of abuse or neglect.

Preventing Child Abuse. Ask your students to work in small groups to develop effective means of preventing child abuse. What programs or approaches do they suggest, to reduce the occurrence of abuse? What audience(s) would they target? What governmental agencies or societal institutions should be involved in an effective prevention program?

Internet Annotated Bibliography. Have your students use the Internet to identify 10 websites that give scholarly information on child abuse. Students should type an annotated bibliography that lists the URLs (website addresses) for these websites and gives a brief (one or two paragraph) summary/review of each.

1. The name of the website (e.g., Child Abuse Prevention Network).

2. A valid URL (website address, e.g., www.child-abuse.com).

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3. A brief (one or two paragraph) review of the website. Reviews should include a brief summary of what students can expect to find if they visit the website and a brief evaluation of the website.

As a follow-up to this activity, students can combine all of the annotated bibliographies into an Internet Resource Directory that could be distributed in class.

FILMS/VIDEOS/DVDS: •

Basic Parenting Skills (Films for the Humanities and Social Sciences, 1990, 50 minutes). Many important characteristics of parenting are presented via stories from parents who are confronting common parenting challenges. Features of healthy parent-child relationships and effective discipline techniques are reviewed.

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Caught in the Crossfire: Children of Gay and Lesbian Parents (Insight Media, 1997, 27 minutes).

In this program, seven children discuss their feelings about and experiences of being raised by same-sex parents. They explain their views of traditional and

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nontraditional families parents. and the positive and negative aspects of being raised by gay or lesbian The Child in the Family (Magna Systems, 1993, 30 minutes). Explores family influences

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on child the development, including types and functions of modern family units, the role of father, and the effects of birth order.

Child Management - Discipline (Magna Systems, 1995, 29 minutes). Through proven techniques, humour, and dramatized examples, this program addresses the issue of child discipline. Childhood, Program 4: In the Land of the Giants (Ambrose Video, 1991, 60 •

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minutes). The impact on the of family and educational institutions (e.g., preschool and kindergarten classes) social development of 3- to 5-year-olds is wonderfully portrayed. This program clearly presents children. how families, especially parents, convey proper roles in society to their This video can be used for the activity In the Land of the Giants Video Reflection.

Corporal Punishment: “Loving Smacks” (Films for the Humanities and Social Sciences, 2000, 52 minutes). This video effectively dispels many misconceptions about spanking (e.g., “spare the rod and spoil the child”) and illustrates the numerous negative developmental consequences of physical punishment.

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Disciplining Kids (Without Screaming or Scolding): How to Talk to a Child (Magna

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Systems, 1997, —is 20 minutes). Practical information on discipline —what to do and what not to do presented.

Early Adulthood: Parenthood (Magna Systems, 1999, 29 minutes). The rewards and challenges of parenting are discussed, along with the myths and misconceptions of parenting that are common in our culture. Issues347specific to step, foster, and adoptive parents are also . covered. Parenting styles are described and assessed as well.

Family Influences (Insight Media, 1992, 30 minutes). The impact of authoritative, permissive, authoritarian, and uninvolved parenting styles on people’s views of themselves and others are reviewed.

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On the Home Front: The Influence of the Family (RMI Media Productions, 1991, 60 minutes). This video reviews the impact of changing family structures on children’s development. Parental discipline techniques, child abuse, sibling relationships, and the bidirectionality of parent-child relationships are explored.

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Parenting Tips from the Pros (Films for the Humanities & Social Sciences, 2003, 22 minutes). In this program, child psychologists outline effective strategies to help manage the misbehaviour of children.

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Seasons of Life, Program 2: Childhood and Adolescence (Annenberg/CPB Collection, 1990, 60 minutes). The interaction of the biological, social, and psychological clocks form the framework for the presentation of gender role and identity development during childhood and adolescence. The influence of parents on the development of a sense of self is especially highlighted.

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Setting Limits and Boundaries: How to Say No to Your Kids (Insight Media, 2003, 35 minutes). This DVD presents ideas for setting family rules and expectations. It also offers methods for determining appropriate consequences for poor behaviour.

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The 5 Essentials of Successful Parenting (Films for the Humanities & Social Sciences, 2003, 5-part series, 10 minutes each). This comprehensive five-part set focuses on the critical time from birth through early childhood, offering easy-to-follow parenting techniques that increase positive parent involvement and lay the foundations for healthy, nurturing parent-child relationships. Parents will learn the secrets of delivering discipline and guidance with love, consistency, and patience. Includes teacher’s guides. preview. 5-part set,

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Understanding Parenting Styles: Authoritarian-Democratic-Permissive (Films for the Humanities & Social Sciences, 1998, 27 minutes). Using vignettes, this video shows teens interacting with their parents in stressful situations that demonstrate each of the parenting styles listed in the video’s title.

An American Stepfamily (Films for the Humanities and Social Sciences, 1990, 26 minutes).

This program explores how conflicting loyalties and rivalries arise in blended families.

And Baby Makes Two: Single Motherhood (Films for the Humanities and Social Sciences, 1998, 29 minutes). This program looks at the high price that our culture may pay for becoming a fatherless society. It also examines the responsibility we all share to help children grow into confident, productive, responsible adults.

Being a Single Parent (Films for the Humanities and Social Sciences, 19 minutes). This video profiles three different single parents including a divorced woman, an unmarried mother by choice, and the single father of two sons.

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Blended Families: (Yours, Mine, & Ours) (Magna Systems, 1995, 29 minutes). This video presents typical problems faced by the blended family and practical techniques to address the challenges of blending two families.

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“The Changing Face of the American Family” segment from the Lifespan Human Development Series III (ABC News/Prentice Hall Video Library, 1994, 7:22 minutes). A Nightline program where a judge and a politician (William Bennett) are asked to comment on the statistics that show that only half of all children in America will live in a “traditional” family.

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Divorce: A Survival Guide for Kids (Films for the Humanities & Social Sciences, 2002, 15 minutes). In this video, teens, psychologists, and divorced parents talk about the difficulties young people face when their parents decide to separate.

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Divorce & Stepfamilies: Breaking Apart/Coming Together (Insight Media, 2005, 30 minutes).

This DVD features a group of middle and high school students who have been impacted by divorce, including students whose parents have recently separated or are in the process of divorce and teenagers who are members of stepfamilies. It explores such issues as custody, visitation, relationships with single parents, and interracial stepfamilies.

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Divorce & The Family: When Parents Divorce (Magna Systems, 1995, 24 minutes). A thorough presentation of many important legal and interpersonal aspects of divorce. Issues that the divorcing parents must face as well as those of teen-age children are discussed.

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Effects of Divorce (Concept Media, 2001, 20 minutes). This video reviews the negative effects of divorce (e.g., reduced parenting, change in lifestyle, emotional trauma in children, and exposure to parental conflict). Advice on lessening the harmful effects of divorce on children is also presented.

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Fatherless in America (Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 1994, 26 minutes). This program looks at the causes, effects, and ways to slow the growing trend of fatherless homes.

Grandparenting (Magna Systems, 2000, 27 minutes). Over 4 million grandparents have complete or shared responsibilities of childrearing. This video provides practical strategies to assist them in dealing with the challenges of raising grandchildren.

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Grandparents (Films for the Humanities and Social Sciences, 2000, 22 minutes). In many families, grandparents have become a valuable resource in childcare—but their importance is more than economic. This video discusses the role of extended family in child development and gives advice on helping a child cope with a grandparent’s death.

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A Kid’s Guide to Divorce (Learning Tree, 1990, 36 minutes). A video that addresses all aspects of separation, divorce, and remarriage.

Life Without Father, from the Human Development series (Concept Media, 1996, 25 minutes). This video discusses the emotional effects of fatherlessness and the destabilizing effects of marital breakup.

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Single Parenting: Creating a Healthy Life For Your Child (Insight Media, 2008, minutes).

This DVD provides proven strategies for single parents to meet the varying needs and unique challenges of their children from birth through adolescence. It features real-life scenarios that explore such topics as toddlerhood, early childhood, and later childhood; people in the child’s life; and home life.

Single Parenting: One-Parent Families (Magna Systems, 1995, 29 minutes). Focused on single parents, this video addresses the challenges that they face in raising children alone.

The Scoop on Blended Families (Films for the Humanities and Social Sciences, 2006, 16 minutes). The program acknowledges feelings that children can experience when their parents remarry, including resentment and hostility toward new stepsiblings and half-siblings and a loss of privacy and trust…but it provides a clear strategy for improving relationships and circumstances, with the help of the acronym SCOOP: Supportive respect, Communication, a double-helping of Optimism, and Patience. Teaching materials are included.

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Birth Order and Its Effects (Insight Media, 1997, 18 minutes). This video explores the effects of birth order on children’s development.

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Brothers and Sisters: Love and Hate (Insight Media, 1994, 16 minutes). This video explores sibling interactions and the reactions to expect from a first child upon the arrival of a second child.

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Brothers and Sisters: Sibling Relationships (Films for the Humanities and Social Sciences, 1997, 52 minutes). This documentary explores the dynamics of the sibling bond. Issues of sibling rivalry, birth order, and being an only child are presented.

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Family Influences (RMI Media Productions, 1992, 30 minutes). Focuses on how various family issues impact social and emotional development during middle childhood. Family issues include sibling relationships, divorce, and ethnicity.

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Flesh and Blood: Sibling Rivalry (Films for the Humanities and Social Sciences, 2006, 60 minutes). The Influence of the Family (Insight Media, 1991, 60 minutes). This video examines how complex family interactions affect child development. Data on discipline styles, birth order, sibling spacing and rivalry, and various family structures are presented.

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My Brother Bit Me! Parenting Siblings—Skills Every Parent Needs (Magna Systems, 1998, 19 minutes). A practical guide for parents who are trying to meet the demands of raising more than one child.

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Breaking the Cycle of Abuse (Insight Media, 2009, 39 minutes). This DVD follows three primary caregivers (a grandmother, a mother, and a father) as they partake in a mentoring program for at-risk caregivers called Parent Aide. It shows how they apply new modification techniques to their children’s actions and to their own behaviour.

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Child Abuse: Neglect and Sexual Abuse (Concept Media, 2005, 28 minutes). This DVD defines neglect and discusses characteristics of negligent parents or guardians. It also discusses effects of neglect on children of different ages and describes the nonorganic failureto-thrive syndrome. And, it delineates activities that are deemed sexually abusive, the characteristics of perpetrators and victims, the phases of sexual abuse, and the physical and behavioural signs. It concludes by discussing the many-faceted and catastrophic effects of sexual abuse on children.

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Child Abuse: Psychological and Physical Abuse (Concept Media, 2005, 24 minutes). This DVD defines psychological abuse and discusses its effects on children. It also discusses characteristics of adults who physically abuse children and illustrates common physical signs of adult-inflicted injuries. The effects of physical abuse on children's emotional and social development are described and it concludes by identifying women during pregnancy and in the postpartum period, who may be at risk for maltreating their children.

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Child Abuse: The Vulnerable Child (Concept Media, 2005, 29 minutes) This DVD discusses factors in the child, the family, the environment, and in the culture itself that cause young children to be vulnerable to inadequate parenting, abuse and neglect. IT also discusses resiliency in children and details measures that professionals can take to assist children who are at risk.

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Childhood Physical Abuse (Films for the Humanities and Social Sciences, 1990, 26 minutes).

This program provides a thorough overview of the physical abuse of children including the characteristics of abusers, signs of abuse, consequences of abuse, breaking the cycle of abuse, legal issues and how to prevent child abuse.

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Childhood Sexual Abuse (Films for the Humanities and Social Sciences, 1990, 26 minutes).

This video presents information about the signs and consequences of sexual abuse, prevention efforts, and the reliability of children as witnesses.

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Hope Beyond the Breaking Point: No Child Ever Deserves to be Abused (Films for the Humanities and Social Sciences, 2005, 19 minutes). Inspired by “simulated baby” counseling programs for teenage students, this video uses a classroom setting and dramatizations to teach personal responsibility and self- awareness in parenting and childcare. It helps young people 350 .

recognize various forms of abusive behaviour, including physical injury, sexual abuse, emotional humiliation, neglect of parental duties, and imminent risk, or knowingly placing a child in danger.

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The Neglected Generation (Insight Media, 1997, 30 minutes). Half of all American adolescents suffer from parental neglect or lack of mentorship that places them at risk for compromised futures. This video explores the current state of parent-adolescent relationships and offers insights on how families and communities can better serve youth.

No More Secrets (Films for the Humanities and Social Sciences, 1990, 24 minutes). This video discusses the long-term damage that results from childhood sexual abuse, offers the stories of abused children, witnesses the trial of an offender, and shows how children can be helped.

Recovery from Sexual Abuse (Films for the Humanities and Social Sciences, 1995, 47 minutes). This program tells the stories of five teenagers who are working to recover from sexual abuse. Filmed over a six-month period, viewers witness the issues that the teens are struggling to address and how each teen makes progress toward recovery.

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MODULE 14.2: PEER RELATIONSHIPS AND INFLUENCES LEARNING OBJECTIVES: •

When do children first begin to interact with each other, and how do these interactions change during infancy, childhood, and adolescence?

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Why do children become friends, and what are the benefits of friendship?

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When do romantic relationships emerge in adolescence?

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What are the important features and influences of groups in childhood and adolescence?

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What are the causes and consequences of popularity and rejection?

KEY TERMS: parallel play

co-rumination

associative play

clique

cooperative play

dominance

rough-and-tumble play

hierarchy

crowd

friendship

CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES: •

Observing Children’s Play. Ask your students to observe a group of children playing at a playground or park. What types of play are the children engaging in? Handout 14-6 will structure your students’ observations. Your students should then summarize their observations in a class presentation. Unwanted customers? What suggestions does your class have for addressing these issues constructively?

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Interviews About Best Friends. Ask your students, either individually or working in pairs, to interview three individuals: a child between the ages of 4-6, a child between the ages of 8-10, and an adolescent between the ages of 12-16. Your students should interview them about their best friend relationships. Handout 14-7 contains several questions that students should ask their interviewees. This handout can serve as a written homework assignment, or students can summarize their interviews and share the highlights with the rest of the class.

Sexuality 101. The text indicated that by the end of adolescence, most teenagers have had at least one sexual partner. Where are teens getting their knowledge about sex? Ask your class to think back to their childhood and adolescence and remember how they learned about sex.

What were their sources of information? When they had questions about sex, whom did they ask? What myths about sex had they heard or even believed (e.g., green M&Ms make you horny, once aroused a male must find a release or he’ll explode, you can only get STDs from having sexual intercourse, etc.)? If students are reluctant to share their myths with the rest of the class, have them write their myths anonymously on note cards, collect them, and read several to the class.

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“Well, That’s How it Happened on Television.” Ask your students to keep track of the sexual content they view while watching several of their favourite television programs. What messages about sex is television conveying? Ask your students to compose three to five “rules” about sex that they learned as a result of watching television. (For example, “Sex usually happens after knowing someone for a few hours, or maybe a day or two,” or “After 352 .

sex, one’s hair and makeup remain perfect.”) Students can then share these “rules” with the rest of the class as an effective means of conveying the influence of the media on adolescent sexual attitudes or behaviours.

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Guest Speaker: Campus Health Care Professional. Have a health educator or health care provider from your campus health center speak to your class about sexuality on your campus, including incidents of date rape, rates of STDs, and pregnancy issues. Personalizing such presentations to reflect trends on your campus generates much more interest from the students, resulting in them asking many more questions than had the presentation focused on college students in general.

Getting Crowded. What crowds were your students in when they were in high school? What were the distinguishing characteristics of their crowds? Are they a part of any crowds today?

If so, how do the crowds differ? This discussion about crowds serves as an easy warm-up to a discussion of peer acceptance and rejection.

What Does It Take to Be Popular? In small groups (less than six), ask your students to generate lists of characteristics that contribute to popularity during childhood and adolescence. Do these characteristics differ from what we associate with popularity among adults? Also, have your class create a “tip sheet” for parents and teachers about how they contribute to peer acceptance or rejection, and include the consequences of peer acceptance and rejection on this tip sheet as well.

Guidebooks for Adolescent Peer Culture. In small groups, have your students compile a guidebook for parents or teachers regarding adolescent peer culture. These guidebooks should include summaries of research on peer groups and social development during late childhood and adolescence illustrated by the students’ own experiences during late childhood and adolescence. Your students should need approximately 1-2 weeks to complete these guidebooks. During this project, ask them to notice the dynamics underlying the functioning of their groups as they work to achieve a common goal. You may wish to have each student complete a “group process” supplement to this guidebook in which they detail their experiences and reactions to functioning within their assigned groups.

FILMS/VIDEOS/DVDS: •

Childhood, Program 6: Among Equals (Ambrose Video, 1991, 60 minutes). This program explores the important roles that peers play in child development, and it also reviews the significant impact of one of the most important activities of children: play.

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Early Socialization: From Age Two to Age Five (Insight Media, 2002, 30 minutes). This DVD traces the social development of two children from the ages of two to five. It shows

how they interact with each other, peers, and their families and presents specific •

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examples of multiple attachment, language development, limitation and identification, cooperative play, self-awareness, gender identification, and social conformity.

Friends and Foes: Peers in Development (RMI Media Productions, 1991, 60 minutes).

This program considers positive and negative peer influences. Play and friendship issues are also discussed.

Getting Along (Insight Media, 1992, 30 minutes). This video explores how perceptions of 353 others others.change during childhood and how these perceptions influence interactions with The roles of family and television are also. discussed.

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Healthy Relationships (Films for the Humanities & Social Sciences, 2000, 35 minutes). This program offers teenagers advice from experts on how to nurture healthy behaviour in themselves and others in dating and friendship relationships.

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Me and My Friends (RMI Media Productions, 1992, 30 minutes). This video presents an overview of social relationships, including friendships, during middle childhood.

Peer Culture, from the Worlds of Childhood Series (University of Nebraska Film Library, 30 minutes). Explores peer relationships in different cultures.

Peer Relationships, from the Human Development series (Concept Media, 1994, 31 minutes).

This program describes how children’s peer relationships change depending on their age and stage of development. The characteristics of popular, ignored, and rejected children are also reviewed.

Peers in Development (Insight Media, 1991, 60 minutes). This video provides a thorough overview of the important functions peers serve during child and adolescent development.

Includes information about how peer groups and friendships change, and examines the effects of conflict, sexual development, and inadequate peer relationships.

Play (Magna Systems, 1993, 30 minutes). A comprehensive review of play during childhood, including types of play, social functions, theories of play, and cultural differences in play.

This video also includes suggestions for encouraging play in children.

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Play: A Vygotskian Approach (Insight Media, 1996, 25 minutes). This program shows 4-yearolds at play and examines Vygotsky’s developmental theories.

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Playing and Learning: Cognitive Development (Insight Media, 2003, 30 minutes). This DVD discusses how preschool children learn to relate to others through sociodramatic play, roughand-tumble play, and other interactions with their peers. It also considers the ways in which parenting style affects psychosocial development Play and Imagination (Insight Media, 1992, 30 minutes). This program focuses on the role of play and imagination in the socio-emotional and cognitive development during infancy, childhood, and adolescence.

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Play and Socializing: Psychosocial Development (Insight Media, 2003, 30 minutes). This DVD discusses how preschool children learn to negotiate relationships through play and interactions with peers. It explains that children with healthy self-concepts are better equipped to get along with others and regulate emotions.

Real Life Teens: Peer Pressure (Films for the Humanities and Social Sciences, 2001, 21 minutes). This program is designed to help teens feel comfortable discussing issues surrounding the topic of peer pressure. Subjects covered include the positive effects of peer pressure; the negative effects of peer pressure; how to avoid negative peer pressure; where most peer pressure situations occur; and where to turn for help. After completing the program, students will have a better understanding of peer pressure and its effects.

The Promise of Play: The Mother of Invention (Insight Media, 2000, 56 minutes). Featuring the commentary of Jane Goodall and play theorist Brian Sutton-Smith, this video examines the role of play in development and social interaction.

The Role of Play (Insight Media, 1992, 22 minutes). This video defines and discusses the functions of play, including how play enhances gross and fine motor development, cognitive development, creativity, socialization, self-awareness, and illustrates its therapeutic value.

The various types of social and cognitive play are presented as well.

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Teenage Pregnancy (Films for the Humanities and Social Sciences, 19 minutes). This video follows several teenagers through the births of their children and subsequent changes in their lives. It is a realistic look at the responsibilities of teenage pregnancy.

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Teens, Sex, and AIDS (Films for the Humanities and Social Sciences, 1994, 28 minutes). This video presents a discussion among teens about AIDS, and includes dramatizations of teens dealing with decisions about sex.

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Throwaway Teens (Films for the Humanities & Social Sciences, 1999, 27 minutes). This ABC News special, hosted by Connie Chung, explores the plight of young people who are disowned by their families because of their sexual orientation and are forced to live or die on the streets.

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Toys (Filmmakers Library, 1994, 47 minutes). To what extent do the toys that children play with affect their attitudes and capabilities? Jerome Kagan, Howard Gardner, Bryan SuttonSmith, and other noted psychologists address this question.

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MODULE 14.3: INFLUENCES OF SOCIETY LEARNING OBJECTIVES: •

How are children affected by nonparental childcare?

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What is the impact of part-time employment on children’s development?

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How are children influenced by their neighbourhoods?

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What are the hallmarks of effective schools and effective teachers?

KEY TERM: latchkey children

CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES: •

Childcare Centre Visit. Devoting a class session to a visit to a nearby childcare centre will be well worth the time. During your visit, have your students informally evaluate the facility according to the criteria for a good childcare that are reviewed in the text.

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Alternatives to Institutional Childcare. Ask your students to interview parents who are using alternative childcare arrangements, meaning that their children do not attend a formal childcare centre. Examples of alternatives include in-home childcare, the use of nannies, grandparents or extended family members, babysitters, etc. Evaluate the quality of the care that children in these alternatives receive. Are the children adequately stimulated? Is the setting safe? Are televisions used as babysitters? How many children are being watched by how many adults? How does alternative childcare arrangements rate according to the criteria for good institutionalized childcare that are presented in the text?

When Is a Child Old Enough to Be Left Alone? While the text discusses the issue of selfcare within the context of latchkey children, the coverage begs a bigger question: When is a child old enough to be left alone? All parents wrestle with this issue, and they often rely on unreliable sources of information or use questionable factors (like chronological age alone) to arrive at an answer. Ask your class to peruse the developmental research literature in search of an answer to this question, and then create a list of variables that should be considered when deciding about the appropriate age and circumstances under which children can best care for themselves. This work can culminate in the creation of a brochure that can be shared with local parenting groups.

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Childcare Survey. Students can find out more about childcare options in their area by completing the Child Care Survey in Handout 14-8. This assignment will give students a good overview of different types of childcare options within a personal context (their own community) that they should find interesting. Make sure to have some general statistics about childcare in your state and nationwide as a point of comparison of students’ local findings.

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For Adolescents, Is There Such a Thing as a “Good Job”? Discussions about jobs students had during adolescence can be a lively and effective way to reinforce the counterintuitive research findings on adolescent employment. Ask your students the following questions: a. Why do most parents want adolescents to work? What types of arguments did your parents make in favour of getting a job? b. What types of jobs did you have as an adolescent?

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c.

Did your jobs deliver the benefits your parents argued for?

d. What did you actually learn from your adolescent jobs? e. What did you gain by working? f.

What did you lose by working?

g. Was it worth it?

At several points in the discussion about the above questions, you should be able to mention “the truth” about adolescent jobs (as revealed by the research).

•

Look Into It: Characteristics of Effective Schools. The qualities of effective schools should prove to be an interesting topic to your students for two reasons: (1) Many students taking Child Development courses have teaching aspirations, and (2) students will undoubtedly compare the characteristics of effective schools with the schools that they attended. Students can work individually or in small groups to complete a literature review on this topic. Have them complete Handout 14-9 as they look into their topic. Some of the possible topics that you could assign your students: a.

School size and class size

b. Open versus traditional classrooms c.

Teaching styles (classroom atmosphere)

d. Extracurricular opportunities e.

Parental involvement

f.

Tracking or ability grouping

g.

School funding

h. Other: •

Interview a Former Teacher. Ask your students to speak with or write to a former teacher that they remember fondly. Your students should generate a list of questions that they would like to ask a former teacher about the interaction between formal education and child development. Questions such as “How do you know if a child is applying him/herself enough to master the material or task or if the child is just lazy?” or “What do you see as the primary obstacle to enabling students to learn more than they currently are?” or “Do you think that standardized tests serve a useful role in elementary or secondary education?” may be interesting for the teachers to ponder and for your students to discuss. Alternatively, students could generate their own questions to ask the teacher. Your students should summarize their interviews either in writing or as an oral report to the class.

FILMS/VIDEOS/DVDS: •

Early Adulthood: The World of Work (Magna Systems, 1999, 29 minutes). While targeted toward young adult development, this video explores some of the challenges that adolescents share with young adults regarding career development. The video also reviews the major theories of career development.

357 .

•

Early Child Care and Education (Magna Systems, 2003, 29 minutes). This video examines the choices of early child care and educational programs available. It considers what differences are made by program quality and location and looks at modern areas of concern, including high cost of and the possibility of child abuse.

•

Education of the Young Child – Past, Present, and Future (National Association for the Education of Young Children, 50 minutes, 1987). Presents David Elkind’s keynote address to the National Association for the Education of Young Children in which he describes how societal views of children impact early education programs.

The Differentiated School Making Revolutionary Changes in Teaching and Learning (Insight Media, 2009, 60 minutes). This DVD features large urban schools and shows how to transform a school into an environment in which differentiation is an institutionalized practice. It features leaders from the profiled schools discussing such issues as developing a shared mission with faculty and staff, leading change, implementing a differentiated instruction initiative, and monitoring and evaluating to ensure success.

The Neglected Generation (Insight Media, 1997, 30 minutes). This video broadly encompasses the topic of work as it explores the various ways in which contemporary society neglects its youth. From parental neglect to a lack of mentorship opportunities, the video explores how families, communities, business, government, and the media can better serve adolescents

•

•

INTERNET RESOURCES •

http://www.child-abuse.com – Home page for the Child Abuse Prevention Network.

•

https://divorceandchildren.com/ – This website includes information about the impact of divorce on children and their difficulties adjusting to divorce. https://www.divorcesource.com/ – a legal resource regarding divorce issues and custody in Canada. https://www.positivediscipline.com/ – A resource for parents and teachers looking for positive discipline http://www.stepfamily.org – Sponsored by the Stepfamily Foundation, this site provides information to professionals and families who are facing stepfamily issues. http://www.childcarequality.ca – The Quality by Design Project is intended to promote and inform discussion, debate, and knowledge about quality in early learning and child care (ELCC). It is intended to contribute to quality as Canada’s new national ELCC program – framed by the “QUAD” principles of Quality, Universality, Accessibility and Developmental [ness] - develops.

• • • •

•

https://www.naeyc.org/ – Home page for the National Association for the Education of Young Children, an organization devoted to promoting excellence in early childhood education.

358 .

CASE STUDY Family Relationships Juanita and Enrique don’t know what to do. Their 4-year-old daughter, Amelia, has tantrums every time they tell her to do something that she doesn’t want to do. Whether it’s getting dressed in the morning, choosing which of the double-doors to walk through to enter the preschool building, or deciding what to have for dinner, there always seems to be a struggle.

Juanita has been yelling at Amelia more and more and has even resorted to threatening her with a spanking, but Amelia continues to be difficult. Most of the time, Juanita just gives in. Enrique is hoping that it’s just a phase Amelia’s going through, and he hopes that it passes quickly.

1. Juanita and Enrique frequently tell Amelia what to do and give her very little say in any decision. Although Amelia doesn’t respond well to their attempts to exercise control over her, they have not adjusted to better meet her needs. What type of parenting style have Juanita and Enrique most likely assumed? Explain your choice.

2. Juanita yells at Amelia quite a bit, but Amelia’s behaviour is not changing. Why?

3. What do you think about Enrique’s hope that Amelia is just in a phase? Do you agree with him, or will the behaviour patterns being established now continue into the future unless the parents do something about them? What role is Amelia playing in all of this?

4. What discipline techniques would you recommend Juanita and Enrique use the next time Amelia has a tantrum?

359 .

HANDOUT 14-1 Learning Objectives/Discussion Questions for Chapter 14: 1. How do parenting styles and parental behaviours affect children’s development?

2. How do children help determine how parents rear them?

3. How do sibling relationships change as children grow?

4. What determines how well siblings get along?

5. What are the consequences of child maltreatment?

6. How does play change during infancy and the preschool years?

7. What are some characteristics or qualities of positive friendships?

8. What happens when parent-child relationships go awry?

9. When do children first begin to interact with each other, and how do these interactions change during infancy, childhood, and adolescence?

10. Why do children become friends, and what are the benefits of friendship?

11. When do romantic relationships emerge in adolescence?

12. What are the important features and influences of groups in childhood and adolescence?

13. What are the causes and consequences of popularity and rejection?

14. How are children affected by nonparental childcare?

15. What is the impact of part-time employment on children’s development?

16. How are children influenced by their neighbourhoods?

17. What are the hallmarks of effective schools and effective teachers?

360 .

HANDOUT 14-2 Personal Reflections on Parenting Styles Directions: Answer the questions below. By doing so, you will gain insight into the parenting style(s) adopted by your parents and the impact of their parenting style(s) on your development.

1. Consider Baum rind’s categories of parenting styles (i.e., authoritarian, authoritative, permissive, uninvolved). Which style(s) appear(s) to best represent your own parents?

Explain your choice(s).

2. Did your parents have similar parenting styles? How do you think their similar or dissimilar styles interacted to influence your development and the functioning of your family?

3. Do you exhibit any of the common developmental consequences of the parenting style(s) exhibited by your parents? Explain.

4. Did the parenting style(s) of your parents remain stable throughout your childhood and adolescence, or did you notice a change in their style(s) over time? Explain.

5. If/when you become a parent, how do you think your own parenting style will compare with the style(s) your parents assumed?

361 .

HANDOUT 14-3 Observing Parents in Action Directions: Find a location where you can observe parents interacting with their children, and where disciplinary action is likely to occur (e.g., playground, park, grocery store, toy store, restaurant, etc.). Note any disciplinary events, and structure your observations by addressing the questions below.

1. Complete the following table: Event #1

Event #2

What behaviours prompted the discipline?

What did the parent do to discipline the child?

How did the child respond to the discipline?

What would you have done differently in the situation?

362 .

Event #3

Summarize your observations by responding to the following questions: 2. What types of discipline did you observe most often?

3. Were there differences noted in discipline used by mothers versus fathers? Describe.

4. Did sons versus daughters appear to receive different forms of discipline? Explain.

5. Did the age of the child appear to influence the type of discipline received? Explain.

6. Using information in the textbook, what might be an alternative approach to one or more of the discipline techniques you saw? Why might this approach be effective?

363 .

HANDOUT 14-4 Look Into It: Family Influences on Child Development Directions: You have been assigned a topic that pertains to the influence of families on child development. It is your job to investigate published research on this topic using any available library resources. To help focus your search, respond to the questions below.

TOPIC: 1. How does your topic impact the development of children? (Describe the positive and negative consequences of your topic on the development of children.)

2. What type of research (e.g., experiments, observational studies, cross-sectional or longitudinal studies, etc.) has been conducted to investigate the relationships between your topic and the development of children?

3. How can the impact of your topic on child development be mediated? In other words, if parents, teachers, day care workers, etc., are aware of how your topic impacts the development of children, what can they do about it?

364 .

HANDOUT 14-5 Birth Order Characteristics Directions: Find your birth order table among the following four choices: Only Child, Firstborn Child, Middle Child, or Youngest Child. Read each of the characteristics of your birth position, and under the column titled ME, circle whether you AGREE, MAYBE agree, or DISAGREE with each statement (i.e., does it describe you?). Then ask two people who know you well to complete the table (using the PERSON 1 and PERSON 2 columns). Make sure that each person does not see the answers that the other people put down. After the table is complete, look over the results and write a brief (one or two paragraph) reflection on what you found out. In other words, does your birth position seem representative of your overall general personality?

ONLY CHILD

ME

Likes being center of adult attention May have difficulty sharing

Agree

Maybe

Disagree

Agree Maybe

Disagree

Agree Maybe

Disagree

Agree

Maybe

Disagree

Agree Maybe

Disagree

Agree Maybe

Disagree

Agree

Maybe

Disagree

Agree Maybe

Disagree

Agree Maybe

Disagree

Agree

Maybe

Disagree

Agree Maybe

Disagree

Agree Maybe

Disagree

Agree

Maybe

Disagree

Agree Maybe

Disagree

Agree Maybe

Disagree

Agree

Maybe

Disagree

Agree Maybe

Disagree

Agree Maybe

Disagree

Agree

Maybe

Disagree

Agree Maybe

Disagree

Agree Maybe

Disagree

Agree

Maybe

Disagree

Agree Maybe

Disagree

Agree Maybe

Disagree

Agree

Maybe

Disagree

Agree Maybe

Disagree

Agree Maybe

Disagree

Prefers adult company Uses adult language Leader Self-Confident Organized Ambitious Logical, problem solver

PERSON 1

365 Copyright © 2020 Pearson Education, Inc.

PERSON 2

May be unable to laugh at self Agree

Maybe

Disagree

Agree Maybe

Disagree

Agree Maybe

Disagree

Perfectionist, can’t bear to fail Agree

Maybe

Disagree

Agree Maybe

Disagree

Agree Maybe

Disagree

Acts like a little adult

Agree

Maybe

Disagree

Agree Maybe

Disagree

Agree Maybe

Disagree

Deliberate

Agree

Maybe

Disagree

Agree Maybe

Disagree

Agree Maybe

Disagree

Self-motivated

Agree

Maybe

Disagree

Agree Maybe

Disagree

Agree Maybe

Disagree

Fearful and cautious

Agree

Maybe

Disagree

Agree Maybe

Disagree

Agree Maybe

Disagree

Voracious reader

Agree

Maybe

Disagree

Agree Maybe

Disagree

Agree Maybe

Disagree

Black and white thinker

Agree

Maybe

Disagree

Agree Maybe

Disagree

Agree Maybe

Disagree

Uses very, extremely and exactly Agree a lot

Maybe

Disagree

Agree Maybe

Disagree

Agree Maybe

Disagree

High expectations for self

Maybe

Disagree

Agree Maybe

Disagree

Agree Maybe

Disagree

Agree

366 .

FIRSTBORN CHILD

ME

PERSON 1

Authoritarian or strict, a little rigid

Agree

Maybe

Disagree

Agree Maybe

Disagree

Agree Maybe

Disagree

Bossy, particular with younger Agree siblings Leaders, expect others to follow Agree

Maybe

Disagree

Agree Maybe

Disagree

Agree Maybe

Disagree

Maybe

Disagree

Agree Maybe

Disagree

Agree Maybe

Disagree

High achievers

Agree

Maybe

Disagree

Agree Maybe

Disagree

Agree Maybe

Disagree

Competent

Agree

Maybe

Disagree

Agree Maybe

Disagree

Agree Maybe

Disagree

Generally compliant

Agree

Maybe

Disagree

Agree Maybe

Disagree

Agree Maybe

Disagree

May resent younger siblings

Agree

Maybe

Disagree

Agree Maybe

Disagree

Agree Maybe

Disagree

Conservative

Agree

Maybe

Disagree

Agree Maybe

Disagree

Agree Maybe

Disagree

Perfectionist

Agree

Maybe

Disagree

Agree Maybe

Disagree

Agree Maybe

Disagree

Enjoy the company of adults

Agree

Maybe

Disagree

Agree Maybe

Disagree

Agree Maybe

Disagree

367 .

PERSON 2

Self-critical

Agree

Maybe

Disagree

Agree Maybe

Disagree

Agree Maybe

Disagree

Most likely to succeed

Agree

Maybe

Disagree

Agree Maybe

Disagree

Agree Maybe

Disagree

Goal setters

Agree

Maybe

Disagree

Agree Maybe

Disagree

Agree Maybe

Disagree

Responsible

Agree

Maybe

Disagree

Agree Maybe

Disagree

Agree Maybe

Disagree

Well organized

Agree

Maybe

Disagree

Agree Maybe

Disagree

Agree Maybe

Disagree

Rule keepers

Agree

Maybe

Disagre

Agree Maybe

Disagre

Agree Maybe

Disagre

Determined

Agree

Maybe

e

Agree Maybe

e

Agree Maybe

e

Detail people

Agree

Maybe

Disagre

Agree Maybe

Disagre

Agree Maybe

Disagre

Fear of failure

Agree

Maybe

Agree Maybe

ME

e Disagree Disagre

Agree Maybe

MIDDLE CHILD

e Disagree Disagre

e Disagree Disagre

Even tempered

Agree

Maybe

e Disagre

Agree Maybe

e Disagre

Agree Maybe

e Disagre

Take it or leave it attitude

Agree

Maybe

e

Agree Maybe

e

Agree Maybe

e

A bit manipulative

Agree

Maybe

Disagre

Agree Maybe

Disagre

Agree Maybe

Disagre

Wants to achieve uniqueness

Agree

Maybe

PERSON 1

Agree Maybe

e Disagre e Disagre e

368 .

e

PERSON 2

Agree Maybe

e

Disagre

Disagre

e

e

Disagre

Disagre

e

e

Competitive (with older siblings) Agree Maybe

Disagre

Agree Maybe

Disagre

Agree Maybe

Disagre

Usually first to leave home

Agree

Maybe

e

Agree Maybe

e

Agree Maybe

e

Independent

Agree

Maybe

Disagre

Agree Maybe

Disagre

Agree Maybe

Disagre

Many friends outside the family Agree

Maybe

e

Agree Maybe

e

Agree Maybe

e

Comfortable with people, social Agree

Maybe

Disagre

Agree Maybe

Disagre

Agree Maybe

Disagre

Agree

Maybe

e

Agree Maybe

e

Agree Maybe

e

Agree

Maybe

May rebel against family’s values Flexible

Agree

Maybe

Agree

Maybe

e Disagre

Agree Maybe

e Disagre

Agree Maybe

e Disagre

Diplomatic

Agree

Maybe

Disagre e

Agree Maybe

Disagre e

Agree Maybe

Disagre e

Peacemaker

Agree

Maybe

e Disagre

Agree Maybe

e Disagre

Agree Maybe

e Disagre

Generous

Agree

Maybe

e

Agree Maybe

e

Agree Maybe

e

Feels like s/he doesn’t fit in

Agree

Maybe

Disagre

Agree Maybe

Disagre

Agree Maybe

Disagre

Wants to satisfy own needs

Agree

Maybe

e

Agree Maybe

e

Agree Maybe

e

Adept at negotiating and compromise Effective team player

Disagre Disagree e Disagree Disagre

Agree Maybe Agree Maybe

Disagre Disagree e Disagree Disagre

Agree Maybe Agree Maybe

Disagre Disagree e Disagree Disagre

Disagre

Disagre

Disagre

e

e

e

Disagre

Disagre

Disagre

e

e

Disagre

Disagre

e

e

e Disagre e

369 .

YOUNGEST CHILD

ME

PERSON

1

PERSON

2

Frequently spoiled or pamperedAgree

Maybe

Disagre

Agree Maybe

Disagre

Agree Maybe

Disagre

Wants to be bigger and better Agree

Maybe

e

Agree Maybe

e

Agree Maybe

e

May have huge plans that neverAgree work Needs to be nurtured Agree

Maybe

Disagre

Agree Maybe

Disagre

Agree Maybe

Disagre

Difficulty accepting responsibility Charming, may use to manipulate Light-hearted, easy going

Maybe

Agree

Maybe

Agree

Maybe

e Disagre Disagre e e

Agree Maybe Agree Maybe

Disagre Disagree

Agree Maybe

e

e Disagre Disagre e e Disagre Disagree

Agree Maybe Agree Maybe Agree Maybe

e

e Disagre Disagre e e Disagre Disagree e

Agree

Maybe

Disagre

Agree Maybe

Disagre

Agree Maybe

Disagre

Agree

Maybe

e

Agree Maybe

e

Agree Maybe

e

Often not taken seriously

Agree

Maybe

Agree Maybe

Agree

Maybe

Agree Maybe

Disagre Disagre e e

Agree Maybe

Difficulty deciding what to do with life Risk taker

Disagre Disagre e e

Agree Maybe

Disagre Disagre e e

Agree

Maybe

Disagre

Agree Maybe

Disagre

Agree Maybe

Disagre

Agree

Maybe

e Disagree Disagre

Agree Maybe

e Disagree Disagre

Agree Maybe

e Disagree Disagre

Outgoing, very adept socially

Agree

Maybe

Disagree e

Agree Maybe

Disagree e

Agree Maybe

Disagree e

Idea person

Agree

Maybe

Disagree

Agree Maybe

Disagree

Agree Maybe

Disagree

Playful, family clown, good humour Enjoys being in the spotlight

370 .

Creative

Agree

Maybe

Disagre

Agree Maybe

Disagre

Agree Maybe

Disagre

Questions authority

Agree

Maybe

e

Agree Maybe

e

Agree Maybe

e

My way is the only way attitude Agree

Maybe

Disagre

Agree Maybe

Disagre

Agree Maybe

Disagre

Tenacious about getting what Agree s/he wants More relaxed, seldom have Agree hidden agendas Not as sensitive to Agree needs/feelings of others

Maybe

e

Agree Maybe

e

Agree Maybe

e

Maybe

Disagre Disagree e

Agree Maybe

Disagre Disagree e

Agree Maybe

Disagre Disagree e

Maybe

Disagree Disagre

Agree Maybe

Disagree Disagre

Agree Maybe

Disagree Disagre

e

e

371 .

e

HANDOUT 14-6 Observing Children’s Play Directions: Observe a group of children playing at a playground or park. What types of play are the children engaging in? Answer the following questions as you observe children playing.

1. How many children are playing in the group that you are observing and what are their approximate ages?

2. Is the group that you are observing single-sex or mixed-sex? In either case, does the play appear to be gender- stereotyped?

3. Have you seen instances of nonsocial play, parallel play, associative play, or cooperative play? Describe.

4. Describe any forms of make-believe play that you observe. What benefits might the children derive from the make-believe play you witnessed?

5. Are adults influencing the play of the children? How?

6. Do any of the children you are observing exhibit behaviours or characteristics likely to influence their acceptance or rejection by peers? Explain.

372 Copyright © 2020 Pearson Education, Inc.

HANDOUT 14-7 Interviews About Best Friends Directions: Interview three individuals: A child between the ages of 4-6, a child between the ages of 8-10, and an adolescent between the ages of 12-16. Your interview should focus on their best friend relationships. Below are some questions that you can ask your interviewees. Feel free to add more questions to the list. Following the table are summary questions about your interviews.

Ask your interviewees the following questions (plus additional one that you create): Interview

4- to 6-year-old

8- to 10-year-old

12- to 16-year-old

Questions

Child

Child

Adolescent

Who is your best friend?

What is the sex and age of your best friend?

Why is this person your best friend?

How does a best friend differ from a regular friend or a peer?

Additional questions:

373 .

Summary Questions: 1. Did the best friends share physical characteristics (e.g., age, sex) that were typical of best friendships for each age group interviewed? Explain.

2. How did the answers about the best friend relationships (“Why is this person your best friend?”) differ among the three ages of interviewees?

3. What developmental trends did you notice regarding beliefs about best friend relationships?

4. What did you learn from the additional question(s) you asked?

374 .

HANDOUT 14-8 Childcare Survey Part 1: Call or visit 5 childcare providers in your area. Find out: 1. What type of childcare they are 2. The average cost of childcare (indicate whether the figure is per month, per week, etc.)

3. The number of children served.

Use the information you gather to complete the table below: Centre Name & Location Type of Child Care

Cost of Child Care Number of Children

Part 2: Based on the table above, answer the following questions: 1. What does the average cost of childcare in your area seem to be? Does this seem high?

Low? Average?

2. How many different types of childcare options did you find during your search? Which types seemed to be the most prevalent?

375 .

HANDOUT 14-9 Look Into It: Characteristics of Effective Schools Directions: You have been assigned a topic that pertains to the way in which various characteristics of elementary and secondary schools affect the education of children and adolescents. It is your job to investigate published research on this topic using any available library resources. To help focus your search, respond to the questions below.

TOPIC: 1. How does your topic impact the education of children? (Describe the positive and negative consequences of your topic on the education of children.)

2. What type of research (e.g., experiments, observational studies, cross-sectional or longitudinal studies, etc.) has been conducted to investigate the relationships between your topic and the education of children?

3. How can the impact of your topic on elementary or secondary education be mediated? In other words, if parents, teachers, school administrators, elected officials, etc., are aware of how your topic impacts the education of children, what can they do about it?

376 .

End-of-Chapter Test Yourself Questions: Social Influences 1. The two major dimensions of parental behaviour are warmth and ____________. In 2. a ____________, parents inadvertently reinforce the behaviours that they hope to discourage.

3. Two features of children that influence how parents treat them are age and 4. ____________.

Divorce influences children by forcing the loss of a role model and source of parental 5. help, by creating economic hardship, and by ____________.

6. Children usually benefit when a mother remarries; the exception is that 7. ____________.

8.

9.

According to an evolutionary perspective, grandparenting evolved because ____________.

When children reared by gay and lesbian parents are compared to children reared

by 10. heterosexual parents, the usual result is that ____________.

Adopted children are more likely to experience developmental problems when they 11.

are 12. adopted at an older age and when ____________.

Siblings get along best when they’re of the same sex, when neither is emotional, 13. when parents treat siblings fairly, and when parents ____________.

14. The impact of maltreatment is less when children can respond adaptively to new 15. situations and when they ____________.

16. Factors that contribute to child maltreatment include community values, ineffective parenting, and ____________.

17. Make-believe play is fun, promotes children’s cognitive development, and helps them 18. ____________.

19.

Parents are often involved in their children’s play, taking on roles as ____________,

social 20. director, coach, and mediator.

The best way to reduce adolescent sexual behaviour and teen pregnancy is with ____________.

Peer pressure is strongest when youth377 are younger, peers have high status and are .

friends, and ____________.

Some popular children are friendly, cooperative, and helpful; a smaller number tend to be ____________.

Answers: (1) control; (2) negative reinforcement trap; (3) temperament; (4) causing the distress produced by parental conflict; (5) sometimes preadolescent girls don’t adjust well because the stepfather’s presence interferes with a close mother–daughter relationship; (6) it was more valuable for middle-aged women to care for their grandchildren than to produce more children of their own; (7) both groups of children seem to develop similarly and both benefit from close relationships with warm, caring parents; (8) their care before adoption was poor; (9) have a warm, harmonious relationship with little conflict; (10) are more engaged in school; (11) children themselves (e.g., being ill or being a stepchild); (12) explore topics that frighten them; (13) playmate; (14) comprehensive sex education programs; (15) standards for appropriate behaviour are unclear (e.g., tastes in music or clothing, standards for smoking and drinking); (16) aggressive (physically aggressive for boys, relationally aggressive for girls); (17) spend their after-school time away from home, unsupervised; (18) the job allows them to acquire useful new skills; (19) neighbourhoods tend to be less cohesive, so that residents take less interest in neighbourhood events and people; (20) the school climate is safe and nurturing.

378 .