“I had been my whole life a bell, and never knew it until at that moment I was lifted and struck.”
-Annie Dillard
ERNEST HEMINGWAY (1899–1961) was an American novelist, short story writer, and journalist whose distinctive prose style and adventurous life made him one of the most influential literary figures of the 20th century. Born on July 21, 1899, in Oak Park, Illinois, Hemingway was the second of six children in a conservative, upper-middle-class family. His father, a physician, taught him to hunt and fish, while his mother, a musician, encouraged his interest in the arts. These dual influences would shape both his writing and his lifestyle.
After graduating high school in 1917, Hemingway began his writing career as a reporter for The Kansas City Star, where he learned a concise, journalistic style that would later define his fiction. In 1918, he volunteered as an ambulance driver in World War I and was seriously wounded on the Italian front. His experiences during the war—especially the trauma, heroism, and disillusionment—deeply influenced his early work.
Hemingway’s breakthrough came with The Sun Also Rises (1926), a novel capturing the disaffected spirit of the “Lost Generation”—the expatriate Americans living in Paris after World War I. His next major work, A Farewell to Arms (1929), drew directly from his wartime experience and further established him as a major literary voice. His style, marked by simple sentences, minimalism, and the “iceberg theory” (the idea
Ernest Hemingway
that the deeper meaning should be implicit, not explicit), was revolutionary at the time.
Throughout his life, Hemingway traveled widely and sought adventure. He was a war correspondent during the Spanish Civil War and World War II, covering major battles and events firsthand. He also became famous for his love of big-game hunting in Africa, bullfighting in Spain, deep-sea fishing in Cuba, and drinking in Parisian cafés. These exploits contributed to his mythic persona as a man of action and influenced books such as Death in the Afternoon (1932), For Whom the Bell Tolls (1940), and The Old Man and the Sea (1952), the latter of which won the Pulitzer Prize in 1953.
In 1954, Hemingway was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature for his mastery of the art of narrative and the influence he had exerted on contemporary style. Despite his public success, Hemingway struggled with personal demons, including alcoholism, depression, and the effects of numerous head injuries. His later years were marked by declining health and mental instability.
Hemingway took his own life on July 2, 1961, at his home in Ketchum, Idaho. He left behind a remarkable literary legacy and a lasting impact. His works continue to be studied for their stylistic innovation and emotional depth, and his life remains a symbol of both literary genius and human complexity.
WILLIAM FAULKNER (1897–1962) was an American novelist, short story writer, and Nobel laureate, widely regarded as one of the most important writers in American literature. Known for his complex narratives and innovative literary techniques, Faulkner explored the deep social and psychological landscapes of the American South, particularly his native Mississippi.
Born on September 25, 1897, in New Albany, Mississippi, William Cuthbert Faulkner was the oldest of four brothers. He later moved with his family to Oxford, Mississippi, a town that would heavily influence his fictional setting of Yoknapatawpha County—a richly imagined landscape used in many of his novels and stories. Though a bright student, Faulkner dropped out of high school and later briefly attended the University of Mississippi without graduating.
During World War I, Faulkner attempted to join the U.S. military but was rejected due to his height. He enlisted in the Canadian Royal Air Force instead, although he never saw combat. Returning home, he worked various jobs and began to write poetry and fiction. His early work was not commercially successful, but in 1929 he published The Sound and the Fury, a groundbreaking novel that cemented his place in American literature.
Faulkner’s writing is known for its stream-of-consciousness style, shifting perspectives, non-linear timelines, and dense prose. He tackled themes of memory, time, race, decay, and the burden of the past—often within the context of the
William Faulkner
American South’s troubled history. Novels such as As I Lay Dying (1930), Light in August (1932), and Absalom, Absalom! (1936) showcase his literary ambition and mastery of form.
Despite critical acclaim, Faulkner’s work did not gain widespread recognition until the 1940s. In 1949, he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature “for his powerful and artistically unique contribution to the modern American novel.” In his acceptance speech, Faulkner emphasized the endurance of the human spirit and the writer’s role in illuminating the truths of the human condition.
He also worked in Hollywood as a screenwriter in the 1930s and 1940s, contributing to films like To Have and Have Not and The Big Sleep, though he reportedly disliked the experience. Nonetheless, his time in California provided financial stability and allowed him to continue writing novels on his own terms.
Faulkner’s relationship with race and the legacy of the South was complex. Though he criticized segregation and racial injustice in his work, his views were often seen as ambiguous or cautious in real life, which has sparked ongoing debate among scholars and readers.
William Faulkner died of a heart attack on July 6, 1962, in Byhalia, Mississippi. His influence on literature remains profound, with writers like Toni Morrison and Gabriel García Márquez citing him as an inspiration. Through his challenging, layered narratives and unflinching portrayals of the American South, Faulkner helped redefine the possibilities of the modern novel and left an enduring mark on world literature.
FLANNERY O’CONNOR (1925–1964) was a Southern American writer known for her sharp, often unsettling short stories and novels that combined dark humor, grotesque characters, and deep theological themes. A master of the short story form, O’Connor’s work reflects her devout Catholic faith, her Southern heritage, and a keen eye for human flaws and spiritual conflict.
Mary Flannery O’Connor was born on March 25, 1925, in Savannah, Georgia, to a Catholic family in a predominantly Protestant region. Her father, Edward O’Connor, died of lupus when she was just 15—a disease that would later affect her own life and work. After moving to Milledgeville, Georgia, with her mother, O’Connor attended Georgia State College for Women (now Georgia College & State University) and later earned a Master of Fine Arts in creative writing from the prestigious Iowa Writers’ Workshop.
While at Iowa, her talent quickly became evident. Her early stories gained attention for their original voice and distinctive style. Her first novel, Wise Blood (1952), told the story of a tormented young man obsessed with starting a church without Christ. The novel’s bleak tone, grotesque imagery, and religious undercurrents set the tone for much of her future work.
O’Connor’s writing is strongly influenced by her Roman Catholic beliefs, which she explored through the lens of the flawed, often violent world around her. She once wrote, “All
Flannery O’Connor
my stories are about the action of grace on a character who is not very willing to support it.” Her characters—often hypocritical, self-righteous, or deluded—are frequently confronted by moments of crisis, offering a chance for redemption, even if it comes through suffering or violence.
Her most celebrated work came in the form of short stories. Collections like A Good Man Is Hard to Find (1955) and Everything That Rises Must Converge (published posthumously in 1965) contain many of her best-known pieces. Stories such as “The Life You Save May Be Your Own” and “Revelation” exhibit her sharp wit, mastery of irony, and deep understanding of moral and spiritual ambiguity.
At the age of 25, O’Connor was diagnosed with lupus, the same disease that had killed her father. She returned to live at her family’s farm, Andalusia, in Milledgeville, where she spent the rest of her life. Despite her illness, she continued to write prolifically, raising peacocks and corresponding with a wide range of writers and friends. Her letters, later collected in The Habit of Being, reveal her intelligence, humor, and humility.
Flannery O’Connor died on August 3, 1964, at the age of 39. Though her life was brief, her influence has been lasting. She is widely regarded as one of the greatest American short story writers, and her ability to blend regional detail, grotesque realism, and spiritual depth continues to inspire readers and writers alike. O’Connor’s stories challenge readers to confront the mystery of grace, the reality of evil, and the possibility of redemption in a broken world.
ALICE WALKER (b. 1944) is an American novelist, poet, essayist, and activist best known for her Pulitzer Prize-winning novel The Color Purple. A prominent voice in American literature and a tireless advocate for civil rights, women’s rights, and environmental justice, Walker has used her writing to explore themes of race, gender, identity, and resilience.
Alice Malsenior Walker was born on February 9, 1944, in Eatonton, Georgia, the youngest of eight children in a sharecropping family. Growing up in the segregated South during Jim Crow, Walker experienced the harsh realities of racism and poverty from an early age. At the age of eight, she was accidentally blinded in one eye by a BB gun, an injury that led to a period of isolation but also deep introspection and creativity. During this time, she began to write poetry and develop her identity as a storyteller.
Walker’s academic journey took her to Spelman College in Atlanta and later to Sarah Lawrence College in New York, where she graduated in 1965. During the 1960s, she became actively involved in the Civil Rights Movement, participating in voter registration drives and advocating for racial justice in the South. This activism would profoundly shape her worldview and become a consistent thread throughout her work.
In 1982, Walker published The Color Purple, a novel that tells the story of Celie, a Black woman in the early 20th-century American South who overcomes a life of abuse, separation, and oppression to find her voice and self-worth. The novel was groundbreaking for its unflinching portrayal of Black wom-
Alice Walker
en’s lives and its use of African American vernacular. The Color Purple won the Pulitzer Prize for Fiction and the National Book Award in 1983, making Walker the first African American woman to receive the Pulitzer Prize in that category. The novel was later adapted into an acclaimed film in 1985 and a Tony Award-winning Broadway musical.
Walker’s literary career spans numerous novels, short stories, essays, and poetry collections, including In Search of Our Mothers’ Gardens, Possessing the Secret of Joy, and Meridian. Her work often centers on themes of womanism—a term she coined to describe a Black feminist perspective that celebrates women of color and their cultural and spiritual traditions. Her commitment to uplifting marginalized voices and celebrating Black heritage has made her a foundational figure in contemporary literature.
Beyond literature, Walker has remained an outspoken activist. She has advocated for LGBTQ+ rights, environmental sustainability, anti-war causes, and global human rights, particularly for women in developing countries. Her activism is deeply intertwined with her spiritual beliefs, including elements of Buddhism and Indigenous philosophies.
Alice Walker continues to write and speak out on social justice issues. Her legacy is marked by a fearless commitment to truth-telling and a profound belief in the transformative power of storytelling. Through her work, she has not only expanded the boundaries of American literature but also empowered generations of readers to confront injustice and embrace healing, compassion, and hope.
LANGSTON HUGHES (1902–1967) was an American poet, novelist, playwright, and essayist who became a central figure in the Harlem Renaissance—a cultural movement in the 1920s and 1930s that celebrated African American artistic expression. Through his vivid, lyrical writing, Hughes gave voice to the joys, struggles, and everyday experiences of Black Americans, capturing their resilience, pride, and hope.
James Mercer Langston Hughes was born on February 1, 1902, in Joplin, Missouri. His parents separated when he was young, and he was largely raised by his grandmother in Kansas. Her stories of African American heritage and activism had a lasting impact on him. After her death, Hughes lived with various relatives before eventually joining his mother in Cleveland, Ohio, where he began writing poetry and became involved in school publications.
In 1921, Hughes enrolled at Columbia University in New York City but left after a year, disillusioned by the racism he encountered. However, living in Harlem immersed him in a vibrant Black cultural scene that would shape the direction of his work. He supported himself through various jobs, including as a cook, seaman, and busboy, all the while writing poetry that reflected the rhythms and concerns of everyday Black life.
Hughes’s first major literary breakthrough came in 1926 with the publication of his debut poetry collection, The Weary Blues. The book, praised for its innovative blending of jazz, blues, and vernacular speech, marked him as a distinctive and authentic voice in American poetry. He followed it with Fine Clothes to the Jew (1927) and many subsequent collections, in-
Langston Hughes
cluding Montage of a Dream Deferred (1951), which captured the frustration and deferred hopes of postwar African Americans.
Hughes’s work often celebrated Black identity and culture while also confronting racism, inequality, and the American dream’s unfulfilled promises. Unlike some of his contemporaries, Hughes embraced the working-class Black experience and insisted that his art remain accessible to everyday people. His famous poem “Harlem” (which asks, “What happens to a dream deferred?”) remains one of the most powerful reflections on racial injustice in American literature.
In addition to poetry, Hughes wrote novels, plays, short stories, children’s books, and essays. His semi-autobiographical novel Not Without Laughter (1930) won the Harmon Gold Medal for Literature. He also created the character Jesse B. Semple, a wise and humorous Harlem everyman who appeared in a long-running newspaper column and several collections.
Throughout his life, Hughes was also politically engaged. Though he never joined the Communist Party, he was sympathetic to leftist causes and used his writing to advocate for social change. This occasionally brought him under scrutiny, particularly during the McCarthy era.
Langston Hughes died of complications from prostate cancer on May 22, 1967, in New York City. His ashes are interred beneath the Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture in Harlem, where a mosaic inspired by his poem “The Negro Speaks of Rivers” honors his legacy. Today, Hughes is remembered as a pioneering literary figure whose powerful, compassionate, and rhythmically rich work continues to inspire generations.
LUCILLE CLIFTON (1936–2010) was a celebrated American poet, writer, and educator whose work illuminated the everyday experiences of African Americans, especially Black women, with clarity, strength, and compassion. Known for her spare yet powerful verse, Clifton’s poetry confronted issues of identity, family, racism, womanhood, and resilience, often drawing from her own life and ancestral history.
Lucille Sayles was born on June 27, 1936, in Depew, New York, and raised in nearby Buffalo. Her father, Samuel Sayles, worked for the New York Steel Mills and was also a storyteller, while her mother, Thelma Moore Sayles, was a poet who encouraged Lucille’s interest in writing from a young age. Clifton was proud of her heritage and often cited a matrilineal lineage that included African American, Native American, and Afro-Caribbean roots. Her strong sense of ancestry and family deeply influenced her work.
Clifton attended Howard University in Washington, D.C., and later transferred to SUNY Fredonia, but she did not complete a degree. In 1958, she married Fred Clifton, a philosophy professor and civil rights activist, with whom she had six children. The demands of motherhood and domestic life did not deter her writing; instead, they fueled it. Much of her poetry reflects the complexities and joys of family life, often with a candid and intimate tone.
Clifton’s literary career began in earnest in 1969 with the publication of her first poetry collection, Good Times, which was named one of The New York Times’ best books of the year.
Lucille Clifton
Her work quickly gained attention for its distinctive style— short, unpunctuated lines, lowercase letters, and a conversational rhythm that invited readers into a deeply personal space.
Over the next four decades, Clifton published numerous acclaimed poetry collections, including An Ordinary Woman (1974), Next: New Poems (1987), The Terrible Stories (1996), and Blessing the Boats: New and Selected Poems, 1988–2000, which won the National Book Award in 2000. Her writing, though often understated in form, carried immense emotional and political weight. She addressed themes such as surviving breast cancer, the loss of her husband, and the injustices of racism and poverty.
In addition to poetry, Clifton wrote children’s books and memoirs, seeking to affirm and empower Black identity for readers of all ages. Her series about Everett Anderson became a staple in children’s literature. Clifton also held the position of Poet Laureate of Maryland from 1979 to 1985.
Despite personal tragedies—including the deaths of her husband and two children—Clifton’s writing remained filled with grace, affirmation, and spiritual depth. She often invoked themes of survival and transformation, believing in the enduring strength of the human spirit.
Lucille Clifton died on February 13, 2010, in Baltimore. Her legacy endures through her powerful, minimalist verse that continues to speak to the struggles and beauty of everyday life. She remains a vital voice in poetry—one who taught readers to find strength in simplicity, honesty, and the act of bearing witness.
SUSAN GLASPELL (1876–1948) was an American playwright, novelist, short story writer, and journalist who played a crucial role in the development of modern American drama. She is best remembered for her one-act play Trifles (1916), a pioneering feminist work, and for co-founding the Provincetown Players, a theater company that helped launch the careers of several major playwrights, including Eugene O’Neill. Glaspell’s work explored themes of gender, justice, individuality, and the often-unseen lives of women.
Born on July 1, 1876, in Davenport, Iowa, Susan Keating Glaspell grew up in a middle-class family with a strong appreciation for education. She graduated from Drake University in Des Moines in 1899, an unusual accomplishment for a woman at the time, and began her career as a journalist for the Des Moines Daily News. Her reporting, often focused on social issues and criminal trials, would later influence her fiction and drama.
In the early 1900s, Glaspell turned to fiction, publishing short stories in popular magazines like Harper’s and The Ladies’ Home Journal, and several novels. Her early novels, including The Glory of the Conquered (1909) and Fidelity (1915), dealt with women’s roles and internal conflicts in a changing society.
A turning point in Glaspell’s career came when she moved to Provincetown, Massachusetts, with her husband, George Cram Cook. There, in 1915, they co-founded the Provincetown Players, a revolutionary theater group that focused on produc-
Susan Glaspell
ing new, experimental works by American writers. The company became one of the most influential forces in American theater during the early 20th century.
It was with the Provincetown Players that Glaspell wrote Trifles, a short play inspired by a murder case she had covered as a journalist. In the play, two women discover key evidence in a murder investigation that the male characters overlook, highlighting the gendered divisions in perception, value, and justice. The play is now considered a landmark in feminist literature and is widely studied and performed.
Glaspell went on to write over ten plays, including The Verge (1921) and Inheritors (1921), many of which explored themes of social progress, gender roles, and artistic freedom. She also continued writing novels and won the Pulitzer Prize for Drama in 1931 for her play Alison’s House, which was loosely based on the life of poet Emily Dickinson.
Despite her early success, Glaspell’s reputation declined in the mid-20th century, and her work was largely overlooked for decades. However, feminist literary scholars in the 1970s and 1980s helped spark renewed interest in her contributions, particularly her focus on women’s experiences and her innovative use of form and structure.
Susan Glaspell died on July 27, 1948. Today, she is recognized as a trailblazer in American drama and a vital early feminist voice. Through her plays and fiction, she challenged societal norms, spotlighted the power of women’s insight, and helped lay the foundation for modern American theater.
