Sustainable Architecture in India: A Critical Review through the framework of Circular Economy Dissertation submitted to Avani Institute of Design in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of the Bachelor of Architecture degree
By
Aleesha Antony (20180007) under the guidance of
Ar. Soumini R. Ph.D.
Avani Institute of Design 2023 © Avani Institute of Design
Aknowledgement I would like to take this opportunity to express my sincere gratitude to those who have provided invaluable guidance and support throughout the research and writing process of this thesis report. First and foremost, I am deeply grateful to my dissertation mentor, Ar. Soumini R. PhD., for her expert guidance and insights that have been instrumental in shaping the direction of this research project. Her support and encouragement have been invaluable and greatly appreciated. I would also like to extend my thanks to the architects who participated in the interview process, Madhav Raman from Anagram Architects, and Ar. Guruprasad Rane & Ar. Manasi Puliyappatta from Bhoomija Creations. Their contributions have greatly enriched this report, and I am thankful for their support and willingness to share their knowledge and experiences. Finally, I express my heartfelt thanks to Ar. Julie Ann Tharakan for her invaluable guidance and support throughout the various juries and reviews at all stages of this research project. Her expertise and insights have been instrumental in refining and improving the content and structure of this report, and I am deeply grateful for her dedication and commitment to ensuring its quality and rigor. Once again, I would like to extend my sincere thanks to everyone who has contributed to this research project, and I am grateful for their support, encouragement, and invaluable contributions.
Abstract “Waste and pollution are not accidents; they are consequences of decisions made at the design stage.”
-Ellen MacArthur Foundation
The world economy today is based on the notion of turning resources into waste. This linear economic model, born out of industrialization in the mid-1700s, has been successful in providing affordable products on a mass scale, but has contributed to some of the major global challenges faced by human society today such as the depletion of finite resources, significant waste issues and environmental degradation. The limitations of this model of production was recognized as early as 1798 by Thomas Malthus in his famous book, ‘An essay on the Principle of Production’. Since then many alternate schools of thought for sustainability have been ideated, including Industrial Ecology, Cradle to Cradle, Performance Economy, Biomimicry and Blue Economy. Circular Economy is one such upcoming model for a sustainable world economy that focuses on “the principles of designing out waste and pollution, keeping products and materials in use, and regenerating natural systems” (Ellen MacArthur Foundation 2019). By definition, Circular economy works as an antonym of ‘linear economy’ (Murray, 2015). This paper aims to critically examine current sustainable architecture practices in India through the framework of a circular economy. This framework, built to analyse material, technique and spatial planning of a building, aims to evaluate using both direct parameters derived from established body of knowledge regarding the concept of circular economy and indirect parameters that may be an effect of these direct parameters. In this era of greenwashing, the paper aims to conclude with the analysis of selected eco-effective ways of building in the social and cultural context of India today that aims to achieve long term sustainability by critically evaluating through the lens of circularity. Keywords: Circular Economy, Waste, Sustainable Architecture, Design
Figure 1: Design for Circularity (Source: Author)
INDEX 1. Introduction…………………………………...………………………………………1 1.1. Working Definitions…………………………………………………………..….1 1.2. Need for Research………………………………………………………………1 1.3. Key Inquiry………………………………………………………..……………...4 1.4. Aim and Objectives……………………………………………………….……..4 1.5. Methodology…………………………………………………………………….. .5 1.6. Limitations and Scope……….………………………………..……………….10 2. Conceptualizations and Origins of Circular Economy………………................11 2.1. Limits of Linear Consumption………………………………………………...11 2.2. Origins of Circular Economy………………………...……..…………………13 2.3. The Concept of Circular Economy………………...…………………………19 3. Design for Circularity……………………………………………………………….21 3.1. Impact of Construction Industry………………………………......………….21 4. Parameters of Evaluation of Circular Building Design……………………….…24 4.1. Direct Parameters………………………………………………………...……24 4.2. Indirect Parameters……………………………………………………...…….27 4.3. Secondary Case Study……………………………………………………..…29 5. Analysis of Building Practice in India using derived Parameters……………...34 5.1. ‘Koodaram’ Kochi-Muziris Biennale Pavilion 2018…………………...…….34 5.2. Bhoomija Creation Office……………………………………...………………39 5.3. Inferences…………………………………………………………………….…40 6. Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………..41 7. Bibliography…………………………………………………………………………42
1. INTRODUCTION 1.1. Working Definitions Circular Economy - “A circular economy is a continuous cycle that preserves and enhances natural capital, optimises resource yields, and minimizes system risks by managing finite stocks and renewable flows.” Ellen MacArthur Foundation, Circular Economy in India: Rethinking growth for long-term prosperity, 2016. Circularity - Circularity refers to the principle of designing out waste and pollution, keeping products and materials in use and regenerating natural systems to facilitate a circular economy. Sustainability - In 1987, the United Nations Brundtland Commission defined sustainability as “meeting the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs”. Cassen, R. H. 1987. "Our Common Future: Report Of The World Commission On Environment And Development". International Affairs 64 (1). doi:10.2307/2621529. Sustainable Architecture - Sustainable architecture is architecture that aims to minimise the negative impacts of building on the environment through sensitive exploitation and preservation of the natural environment, and improved efficiency and moderation in the use of materials to reduce the carbon footprint of buildings. Design practice - Practice here refers to the knowledge-based act of designing and making through research and experimentation.
1.2. Need for Research The linear economic model, born out of industrialization in the mid-1700s, has been successful in providing affordable products on a mass scale. But this model has
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contributed to some of the major global challenges faced by human society today such as the depletion of finite resources, significant waste issues and environmental degradation (Ellen MacArthur Foundation, 2013). The term circular economy, linguistically, is an antonym of a linear economy, in the sense that it aims for closedloop product flows (Murray, 2015). The Ellen MacArthur Foundation, a charity dedicated to promoting the global transition to the circular economy, understands the concept as an economic model “based on the principles of designing out waste and pollution, keeping products and materials in use, and regenerating natural systems” (Ellen MacArthur Foundation 2019).Drawing on these earlier works, the Foundation developed the system or ‘butterfly’ diagram (Figure) based on the notion that material flows can be divided into two interacting loops: the technical and biological resource cycles.
Figure 2: Circular Economy Butterfly diagram (Source: Ellen McArthur Foundation)
The uniqueness of the Circular Economy comes from two interconnected ideas, the closed-loop economy and ‘design to re-design’ thinking. The UNEP report suggests that features of the Circular Economy include ‘low consumption of energy’, ‘low
2
emission of pollutants’ and ‘high efficiency’, using it as a generic term for an industrial economy which is, by design or intention, restorative and in which material flows are of two types— those which are biological nutrients, designed to re-enter the biosphere safely, and technical nutrients, which are designed to circulate at high quality without entering the biosphere. The aims are to ‘design out’ waste, return nutrients, and recycle durables, using renewable energy to power the economy (UNEP 2006). Furthermore, it goes beyond traditional notions of sustainability by focusing on the positive restoration of the environment within the industry (Nakajima 2000; Pitt 2011; Cooper 1999a, b). Its concept of redesigning systems of manufacture and service supply focuses on achieving value from such redesign rather than simply improving resource utilisation (Murray, 2015). India is now the second largest market for green buildings. This trend is completely market-driven and has been achieved with very little government support (Turab, 2012). In an Annual ranking report from the US Green building council (USGBC), India ranked third among the top 10 countries for LEED green buildings. But green Building Certificates in India including the LEED certification measure sustainability on the basis of energy efficiency and preservation of the natural environment (PTI, 2018). Although this does make the problem less bad, to achieve long-term solutions there is a need to critically evaluate these sustainable building practices through the lens of circularity. A Circular Economy aims to decouple economic growth from resource consumption. Instead, products and assets are designed and built to be more durable and to be repaired, refurbished, reused and disassembled. This maintains components and their materials at the highest useful purpose as long as feasible which minimises resource waste (ARUP,2016). Circular Economy is a global concept that originated and has been greatly adapted in the West. Environmental agendas and green buildings in India are often based on the precedents of developed countries. As the framework for achieving circularity is
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defined in the context of India, there is also a need to incorporate the critical dimension of social and cultural sustainability (Mathur)
1.3. Key Inquiry How circular is current sustainable building practices in India? How should the framework for building and designing embedded in circular economic practices be defined within the Indian context?
1.4. Aim and Objective The research aims to critically examine current sustainable architecture practices in India through the framework of a circular economy. The following are the objectives of this research paper: ●
To gain familiarity with the concept of circular economy and related schools of thought to achieve new insight.
●
To accurately portray the scenario of designing for Circularity and its established practices and principles
●
To identify parameters to evaluate the circularity of building practices based on a case-based methodology.
●
To analyse the circularity of selected building practices in India based on the identified parameters.
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1.5. Methodology What to
Detailed
What is
Sources of
Mode of
Expected
Achieve
research
required?
Information
Analysis
Outcome
How is the
Working
Secondary
Secondary Understan
concept of a
definitions
Resources: data
Circular
of the
Economy
concept of
currently
circular
interpreted
economy
and
and its
operationaliz
studies of
ed across
its potential
the design?
in the built
questions
To gain familiarity with the concept of circular economy and related schools of thought
practice of
to
architecture?
achieve new insight.
Books,
collection
ding of the Circular Economy
talks,
model and
research
its scope
papers
in design
environment
What are the
Literature of
Secondary
different
origins of
Resources: data
schools of
this concept
thought that
and its
led to this
evolution
concept and
from
who are the
important
significant
main
contributors
contributio
contributors? in this field.
ns in this
Books, talks, research papers
Secondary Understan collection
ding of the evolution of this concept and the
field.
5
What are the
Criticisms of Secondary
limitations of
this
this
economic
economic
model in
model and
business
criticisms
and practice
Literature
Resources: Review
Critical reflection of this
Books,
economic
talks,
model and
research
its
papers
against it?
practicality in the field of architectur e and design.
To
What is the
C&D sector
Secondary
accuratel
need for
data
Resources: data
y portray
designing
analysis to
the
buildings
support
scenario
within the
need
of
framework of
Books, talks, research papers,
Secondary Establish collection
the problems and potentials within the
designing circularity in
C&D
for
sector in
India?
Circularit
India
6
y and its
What are the
General
Secondary
establish
principles for
principles of
Resources: data
ed
construction
design for
practices
in a circular
circularity
and
economy?
Books,
Secondary An collection
ding of existing
talks,
framework
research
principles
understan
s for
papers,
designing for circularity. Framework
Secondary
existing
Designs by
Resources: on,
frameworks
established
for designing
Circular
with
Economy
circularity
Foundations
been
like Ellen
designing
established?
McArthur
for
Foundation,
circularity
Books, talks, research papers
ARUP etc.
7
Observati
An
How has
understandi
Secondary ng of Data
existing
Analysis
frameworks for
What is an
Case
Abstracting
example that
Study
possible
satisfies the
parameters
parameters
from successful
established
design for
in existing
Circularity
frameworks?
To identify paramete rs to evaluate the circularity of building practices based on a certain methodol ogy.
What are the
Existing
Secondary
Evaluation Identificati
direct
parameters
Resources: Criteria
parameters
of Circular
that can be
Economy
derived from
derived by
the simple
foundations
definition of
like Ellen
the concept
McArthur
of circular
Foundation
on of direct
Books,
parameter
talks, research papers
economy?
What are the
Studies of
Secondary
indirect or
indirect
Resources: Criteria
proxy
factors
parameters
affecting
that can be
circular
derived from
economy
Books, talks, research papers
predicting patterns of
8
Evaluation Identificati on of indirect/pr oxy parameter s
relationship between circularity and other dependent factors?
To analyse the circularity of a selected building
Which
Data about
Selected
Observati
Selection
building
the current
Case
on
of three to
practice
commonly
Study and
four
should be
practiced
building
common
selected for
sustainable
visit
sustainabl
discourse
building
e building
and why?
construction
practices
methods
in India
practice in India based on the identified paramete rs.
How circular
Data about
Selected
Case
Analysis
are current
the
Case
Study
of
sustainable
materiality,
Study and
circularity
building
method of
building
of
practices in
construction visit
selected
India?
and
practices
application
based on
of selected
parameter
building
s identified
practice
9
1.6. Limitations and Scope 1.6.1. Limitations ●
The paper will not include all sustainable building practices due to the limitations of time. Therefore, may not provide a holistic view of Sustainable Architecture in India. 1.6.2. Scope
●
The paper covers commonly practised sustainable building construction methods in India that are seen to be popularised within the last 10 years.
●
This research is positioned in the field of Architecture in India, and Circular Economy being a fairly new concept in India has the scope to create awareness of the effectiveness of discussed sustainable building practices.
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1. CONCEPTUALIZATIONS AND ORIGINS OF CIRCULAR ECONOMY 2.1. Limits of Linear Consumption Over the last 150 years, our industrial economy has been dominated by a one-way model of production and consumption in which goods are manufactured from raw materials, sold, used, and then incinerated or discarded as waste (Wautelet 2018,1). The limitations of this model was realised as early as 1798, by Thomas Malthus in his famous ‘An essay on the Principle of Production’. In his book, he expressed concern that the human population was growing too rapidly to be absorbed by available arable land and that this would lead to poverty and famine (Dobbs et al. 2011). Criticism against his theory justifies why his premonition has not come to fruition yet, as he could not accurately predict the effect of technological and scientific advancements that improved both our agricultural yield (e.g.: green revolution, globalisation) and health (e.g.: vaccines, contraception) (UNAT 2020). Therefore, his calculations using a geometric progression of population growth and an arithmetic progression of food production have also not played out at the rate he predicted (UNAT 2020). Contemporary economist and game theorist, Kenneth Binnmore in his essay, ‘Malthus Economics: Right or wrong?’ argues how despite the incongruences in calculations, Malthus’ principle argument remains true to this day, in the fact that the common sense precepts on the nature of production remain valid whatever technology may be applied (Binnmore 2018). Industrial innovations came to solve the needs and demands of the growing population with a hefty price for the environment. Many ecological economists, including Kenneth Boulding in his paper ‘The economics of the coming Spaceship Earth’, recognised this pattern of linear consumption and production where the inputs of parts are not linked to the outputs of parts (Boulding 1966). He picturizes the world economy as a ‘cowboy economy’, an open system in which the natural environment is typically perceived as limitless:
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no limit exists on the capacity of the outside to supply or receive energy and material flows. This linear economy is characterised both by environmental impacts such as pollution and by social impacts such as exploitative and violent behaviours (Wautelet 2018,2-3). In contrast he proposed a ‘spaceman economy’, “in which the earth has become a single spaceship, without unlimited reservoirs of anything, either for extraction or for pollution, and in which, therefore, man must find his place in a cyclical ecological system which is capable of continuous reproduction of material form even though it cannot escape having inputs of energy” (Boulding 1966). It is claimed that Kenneth Boulding’s Spaceship Earth Theory, conceptualised in 1966, is the originator of the school of thought leading to Circular Economy concepts (Murray, Skene, and Haynes 2015). In the 1970s, an international team of researchers at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology began a study of the implications of continued worldwide growth. They identified five factors that ultimately limit growth; industrialization, population growth, agricultural production, non-renewable resource depletion and deteriorating environment. The data was computed on a world model and tested on behaviour of the model under various assumptions (Meadows, Meadows, Randers, and Behrens 1972, 21). The findings of this research was published in 1972 as a book called “The Limits to Growth” and led to the formation of The Club of Rome. Although both Malthusian theorists and the Club of Rome recognized the urgency of the problem of Population explosion, the latter had a more hopeful message when they found a possible solution to the problem by saying, “Man can create a society in which he can live indefinitely on earth if he imposes limits on himself and his production of material goods to achieve a state of global equilibrium with population and production in carefully selected balance.”(Meadows, Meadows, Randers, and Behrens 1972). Despite these arguments and the growing environmental concerns of the 20th century, the dominant thesis and hope remained that the market would ride to the rescue by providing sufficient supply and productivity (Dobbs et al. 2011).
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2.2 Origins of Circular Economy 2.2.1. Industrial Ecology Industrial ecology arose from the perception that human economic activity is causing unacceptable environmental changes and emerged in the 1970s in opposition to the consideration of the industrial system as separate from the environment (e.g. factories and cities on one side and nature on the other) (Wautelet 2018, 4-5). From the early 1950s, ecologists have focused on an ‘end-ofpipe’ angle where the consequences of various forms of pollution to nature were only controlled (Erkman 2001). The seminal article, ‘Strategies for manufacturing’ by Nicholas E. Gallopoulos and Robert A. Frosch was published in 1989 when it became increasingly clear that such attempts at protecting the environment through regulating or decreasing the quantity of pollutants were ineffective (Saavedra, Iritani, Pavan, and Ometto 2018). The article highlights how if by 2030, all of the population which is predicted to be around 10 billion consume critical natural resources such as copper, cobalt, molybdenum, nickel and petroleum at current U.S. rates, and if new resources are not discovered or substituted or developed, such an ideal would last a decade or less (Frosch and Gallopoulos 1989). Therefore, they saw a necessity to see that the “waste from one industrial process can serve as the raw materials for another, thereby reducing the impact of industry on the environment” (Frosch and Gallopoulos 1989). According to Suren Erkman, the agenda of Industrial Ecology aims to reorganise four main challenges: (Erkman 2001) 1. Industrial ecosystems should be designed to efficiently use resources and turn waste into valuable resources for other businesses through ecoindustrial networks, rather than relying solely on traditional recycling methods (Erkman 2001). 2. Industrial products and services should be designed to minimise or eliminate harmful dispersion into the environment, as the use of these products often causes more pollution than their manufacturing (Erkman 2001).
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3. The economy should aim to minimise the use of resources and energy while providing the same level of services. This can be achieved by designing products to be more efficient and using less material (Erkman 2001). 4. The economy should decrease its reliance on fossil fuels and transition to cleaner, renewable energy sources (Erkman 2001). 2.2.2. Cradle-to-Cradle The concept of Cradle-to-cradle (C2C) is a development paradigm with a focus on eco-effectiveness; improving the 'positive footprint' in contrast to the more conventional eco-efficient approaches; reducing the 'negative footprint' (Toxopeus, de Koeijer, and Meij 2015). This approach was first developed by the architect William McDonough and the chemist Dr. Michael Braungart in their 2002 book "Cradle to Cradle: Remaking the Way We Make Things" (McDonough and Braungart 2002).
Figure 3: Road from less negative to more positive (Adapted from source: EPEA)
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The C2C concept has played a significant role in the development and popularisation of the circular economy. The C2C approach is based on the principles of: ●
Waste equals food: The idea that waste from one process can serve as input for another, with no waste remaining in the end (McDonough and Braungart 2002)
●
Use of current solar income: Designing products and systems that rely on renewable energy sources and not deplete natural resources (McDonough and Braungart 2002)
●
Celebrate diversity: Encouraging a wide range of materials and organisms to thrive in a given ecosystem (McDonough and Braungart 2002)
It focuses on designing products and systems that can be easily disassembled and the materials used in them can be recovered and reused. The C2C model does this by distinguishing two types of products depending on their use: products of consumption and products of service (Wautelet 2018). Products of consumption, such as textiles, brake pads, shoe soles, etc., are consumed during their life cycle through physical degradation or abrasion. These products may end up in our natural systems, and thus they should be designed to return safely to the natural environment and to have a positive impact on it if possible. On the one hand, products of consumption should be made of biodegradable materials (i.e. natural/plant-based materials) which can become, after use, biological nutrients for living systems and flow in biological cycles. For example, soap will end in water when used and thus it could be designed to improve the water quality instead of polluting it. On the other hand, technical nutrients are materials of human artifice (e.g. synthetic or mineral) which should circulate within a closed-loop system of manufacture, recovery and reuse, without contaminating the biosphere. The best strategy to keep technical nutrients flowing within the technical cycle is to sell performance or a
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product of service. This strategy enables manufacturers to take back the materials and put them back in the technical cycle (McDonough and Braungart 2002).
Figure 4: Distinction between biological and technical cycles (Source: EPEA) Furthermore, the product of service strategy provides mutual benefits to the manufacturer and the customer. It allows manufacturers to take back the materials and put them back in the technical cycle, while customers are guaranteed a product that is always in good condition and that can be replaced easily and at no extra cost (Braungart, McDonough, and Bollinger 2006). 2.2.3. The Performance Economy In 1976, the European Commission commissioned a research report titled "The Potential for Substituting Manpower for Energy," co-authored by Walter Stahel and Geneviève Reday. This report is considered the first to introduce the concept of a Performance Economy. The report analysed the potential for substituting manpower for energy in car manufacturing and building construction and found that product-life extension constitutes the best strategy to substitute manpower for energy (Stahel and Reday 1976). The report is recognized as the first to articulate the idea of a circular economy (Ellen mcArthur Foundation 2017) and further elaborated in Stahel's book "The Performance Economy" (Stahel 2010). According to Stahel, a Performance Economy calls for a shift in economic thinking from 'doing things right' to 'doing the right things' by focusing on resource sufficiency over resource
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efficiency and promoting systems solutions over product and manufacturing business models (Stahel 2010, p. 6). The main goal is to uncouple wealth creation from resource throughput while creating local jobs. A Performance Economy shifts the focus from throughput flow management to stock optimization and from value added to value preservation and maintenance.This change of focus opens opportunities in three loops as shown in Figure 00: Reuse, Remanufacturing and Recycling.(Stahel and Clift 2016) ●
Reuse Loop includes second-hand markets, commercial and private reuse of goods, these activities are usually done locally (Stahel and Clift 2016)
●
Loop 1- Remanufacturing- includes product-life extension activities such as repair, remanufacturing, and upgrading, which can be carried out locally or via regional service centres (Stahel and Clift 2016)
●
Loop 2- Recycling- includes product reprocessing activities that recover secondary materials to be used in the manufacturing of new products, these activities may be operated at a regional level or as part of a global supply system (Stahel and Clift 2016).
Figure 5: The Basic Loops of Circular Economy (Adapted from source: Stahel and Clift, 2016, p.141)
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The Performance Economy is characterised by the following principles (Stahel 2013): 1. Shrinking the Loop - The smaller the loop (activity-wise and geographically), the more profitable and resource efficient it is. This means that activities such as reuse and service-life extension are best done locally or regionally. Additionally, resource sufficiency is favoured over resource efficiency to avoid packaging and transport costs while creating local jobs. 2. Closing the Loop - Loops have no beginning and no end, and businesses focus on maintaining and preserving the value of goods throughout its lifetime, replacing the concept of value added in a linear economy. 3. Slowing the Loop - The speed of circular flows is crucial, and efficiency in managing stocks increases with a decreasing flow speed. 4. Continued ownership is cost-efficient, as it saves double transaction costs. 5. A performance economy needs functioning markets, which enable efficient marketplaces where supply and demand can meet. Stahel argues that "selling goods as service, or performance, is the most profitable and resource efficient business model of the circular economy" (Stahel, 2013, p. 11). 2.2.4. Conclusion The concept of Circular Economy has is roots in concepts dating back to 1970’s Club of Rome’s ‘Limits to Growth, Boulding’s ‘Spaceman’s Economy’, Industrial Ecology, Braungart and McDonough’s ‘Cradle-to-cradle’ concept and Stahel’s Performance Economy as briefly explained above. Other concepts like Lyle’s ‘regenerative design model’, biomimicry and Blue Economy have also influenced its development. The economic model of Circular Economy is an amalgamation of all these different schools of thought. It is developed and popularised not just as an environmental agenda but as a business model with applications in various industries like automotive industry, construction industry, textile industry etc. In
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conclusion, although this concept has been gaining traction recently, it is not a new one and has been slowly evolving and developing since the last 50 years, when it became apparent to some that systemic change was necessary to change patterns of resource consumption, waste generation and environmental degradation.
2.3. The Concept of Circular Economy Circular Economy is an economic model based on the principles of designing out waste and pollution, keeping products and materials in use and regenerating natural systems (Ellen McArthur Foundation 2019). The main arguments in favour of Circular Economy are: ●
Decouples economic growth from resource extraction
●
Reduces dependence on foreign countries for critical raw materials
●
Lowers CO2 emissions
●
Reduces waste production
China has been slowly integrating the concept into industrial and environmental policies in pursuit of sustainable development since the early 2000s (Zhu, Fan, Shi, and Shi 2019). In Europe and America, the Ellen McArthur Foundation played an important role in the diffusion of this concept. The European Union introduced the vision of a circular economy in 2014 and in March 2020 presented the Circular Economy Action Plan. The popularisation and adoption of this concept by governments in the 2000s was not only to reduce pressure on the environment but also to ensure a stable supply of raw materials (European Parliament, 2015).
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Figure 6: The principles of Circular Economy (Source: Ellen McArthur Foundation) 2.3.1. Criticisms against Circular Economy Many scholars have criticised the lack of ability of the concept of circular economy to engage with civil society as it does not have any cultural or social lenses. There are three critical perspectives on the concept of circular economy seen in previous research (Mah 2021): 1. Korhonen and coauthors’ critique that the concept has significant material and political limits (Korhonen, Honkasalo, and Seppälä 2018). The limitations of materials and technology make it difficult to change the way things are currently done. It also demands high levels of complex socio-political organisation of material and energy done by companies and governments. 2. Hobson, Kertsy & Lynch argue that the circular economy reduces citizens to consumers (Hobson, Kersty, and Lynch 2016). While it may provide radical change in the business world, it doesn't acknowledge the social complexities. 3. O’Niell points to the inequities and injustices associated not only with waste generation and disposal, but with the solutions to those problems too (O’Neill 2019). Global transition propositions like the Circular economy concept can drive people of lower economic strata out of livelihoods and require inclusion.
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3. DESIGN FOR CIRCULARITY 3.1. Need for Design for Circularity Designers play a very important role in the global transition to a circular economy as there is a need to redesign products and systems in order to improve resource utilisation and facilitate easy reuse, repair, disassembly, remanufacture and recycling. This ‘design-to-redesign thinking’ is the cornerstone of the concept of circular economy and requires much innovation in design. This approach ensures that materials and components are maintained at their highest useful purpose for as long as possible. Right now more than ever, there is a need for the application of Circular Economy in Design fields, as end-of-pipe methods of resolving this are only delaying the negative outcomes. Taking the example of the global construction industry itself we see how there is great potential for the economy through proper utilisation of resources that are not taken an advantage of yet. The construction industry is a major contributor to solid waste generation across the world. Surveys conducted in several countries have found that the amount of waste generated by the construction and demolition (C&D) activity is as high as 20% to 30% of the total waste entering landfills throughout the world (Ellen McArthur Foundation 2013). In the US, out of the 26% of C&D waste generated, less than one-third is recycled, reused or recovered in any manner. A lot of the rest of the currently discarded waste has the potential to be recovered as shown in the figure below.
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Figure 07: US C&D Waste (Source: Ellen McArthur Foundation) Construction waste management (CWM) has become a major environmental concern in most of the Indian municipalities as the CW generated in India is 150 MT and accounts for 35%–40% of the global C & D waste annually (Jain, 2021, Kolaventi et al., 2019). The share of C&D waste in the total waste generation of the country is approximately 25-30%. Out of this 25%, only 1% of the C&D waste is recovered formally, the rest are discarded in landfills. The composition of the discarded materials includes soil, sand and gravel (36%), concrete (23%), metals (5%), bitumen (2%), wood (2%) and other materials (1%) (Miranda, Tike, and Vadake 2017).
Figure 08: India C&D Waste (Adapted from source data: Miranda, Tike, and Vadake 2017)
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When looking at the statistics of waste recovery in India is it also important to consider a large informal waste economy that is dependent on the generation of waste especially C&D waste for their livelihoods. The informal waste economy is commonly reduced to the end-product of consumption and the starting point of reprocessing industries (Harriss-White, 2018). The labels of ‘scavenger’, ‘kabbadiwala’, ‘waste picker’ and ‘waste recoverer’ or ‘recycling traders’ are terms used to describe the actors in this sector in India. These actors have been credited by activist research literature to already realize the concept of circular economy to some degree without any formal structure through disassembly and recycling which reduces resource wastage and creates environmental protection. But at the same time, this “petty privatization” or “privatization from below” as Rajyashree N Reddy terms it, is critiqued to have failed in adopting environmentally sound techniques, providing occupational safety for the waste workers and offer equitable terms of employment (Reddy 2013). It is also important to acknowledge the caste-stratified oppression that has been a interlocked with this economy in India (Harriss-White, 2018). Practices like ‘manual scavenging’ which is removing excreta by hand is illegal in India, yet performed by about 300,000 households, almost exclusively by lower caste women in N. India (Human Rights Watch, 2014). The traditional Indian economy has long incorporated the principles of reusing, repurposing, and recycling. However, with the growing population and increased demand for resources, it is now necessary to formalize these practices on both macro and micro scales. Although the concept of Circular Economy is primarily a technologically driven economic and business model in Europe and other Western countries, its adoption in emerging economies with large and diverse populations, such as India, must take into account the multiple cultural and social variables that may impact its effective integration into society.
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4. PARAMETERS FOR EVALUATION OF CIRCULAR BUILDING DESIGN
Figure 09 – Framework for Evaluation (Source: Author)
4.1. Direct Parameters The direct parameters associated with Material and Technique are derived directly from the principles of circular economy. Ideal examples are selected to demonstrate the evaluation criteria and illustrate the parameters being considered. 4.1.1 Material Dematerialising Waste
Figure 10 - POLLI-BRICK (Source: Hebel, Wisniewska, and Heisel, 2014, 137)
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The parameter of dematerializing waste aims to assess whether a building utilizes existing waste in alternate forms in its construction materials. A notable example of this is the POLLI-Brick, which is a multifunctional product made from 100% recycled PET. Initially used as a drinking bottle, it can be repurposed as a building material. The designers changed the usual round shape to a modular three-dimensional honeycomb form that makes the bottle extremely strong as a beverage container, but also suitable for the construction sector (Hebel, Wisniewska, and Heisel 2014, 136-139). Modular construction of facades and structural elements has been done using these blocks. It is important to note that simply downcycling materials into forms of lesser value is not considered a productive method of dematerialization. Regenerative Ability and Recyclability
Figure 11- HempFlax (Source: ARUP) Regenerative ability refers to the capacity of construction materials to biodegrade over time. When assessing these materials, it is crucial to consider the ease of separating technical and biological nutrients. The use of synthetic adhesives, such as glue, or the mixing of biodegradable materials with non-biodegradable materials like plastic can reduce the regenerative ability of the building. HempFlax is a biodegradable material developed from hemp fibres that has high regenerative ability. The product employs natural textiles and fabrics from previous production and are shredded and pressed to obtain panels (ARUP, 2017).
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Longevity
Figure 12- Self healing concrete (Source: ARUP) Longevity is informed by the predicted lifespan of a building or material used for construction. The parameter evaluates if the materials and techniques used reflect the needs of the building within its lifespan. Bacteria-based self-healing concrete is an example of material technology recently being developed by Microlab at Delft University of Technology in order to increase the longevity of concrete. Increasing the durability of concrete by reducing crack formation can prevent corrosion of steel members and keep the structural integrity. The parameter not only assesses the longevity of the building intended for a single lifespan, but also takes into consideration the lifespan of the materials used in the building after its initial use. 4.1.2 Technique Reusability
Figure 13 - Modular Construction of Huoshenshan Hospital, China (BBC, 2020) The assessment of a building's reusability parameter involves determining the extent to which the building can be repurposed after its initial use, which may
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include reusing entire components of the building, such as in the case of modular prefab construction. Alternatively, reusability may be evaluated at the material level, which requires effective dismantling connections to be in place to ensure successful implementation. Energy Optimising
Figure 14 - Dye sensitised solar cells integrated concrete (Source: Hebel, Wisniewska, and Heisel, 2014, 149) The Energy Optimizing parameter includes both active and passive systems aimed at reducing a building's carbon footprint. A recent example of this is the use of dyesensitized solar cells integrated into concrete, which was developed by Architect Thorsten Klooster and artist Heike Klussmann at the University of Kassel in Germany. This innovative technology reduces a building's reliance on nonrenewable energy sources such as fossil fuels. The technology is based on the principle discovered by Michael Gretzel in 1992, which involves transforming solar energy into electrical current using organic dyes extracted from grape juice. The development of this technology is a promising step towards enhancing the energy efficiency of buildings and reducing their environmental impact.
4.2. Indirect Parameters Indirect parameters are those that are indirectly derived from the concepts of circular economy and may be proxy effects of the direct intended goals of achieving sustainability through circular economy.
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4.2.1 Spatial Planning The identified indirect parameter for evaluation of buildings in this report is Spatial Planning. This parameter evaluates the spatial configuration and design of the building to extend the life of the building sustainably. By considering spatial planning as an indirect parameter, circular economy principles can be integrated into not only the design stage but also the operational stage of the building. Adaptability Adaptability is a crucial aspect of building sustainability, encompassing multifunctionality and reconfiguration. A prime example of this is the Expandable House project by Urban Rural Systems (Figure 24), which demonstrates how spatial adaptability can promote sustainable development in rural communities. This parameter evaluates a building's capacity to transform, expand, or contract as needed over time, reducing the need for demolition and extending the building's lifespan if designed for adaptability.
Figure 15 - Spatial Adaptability of Expandable House by Urban Rural Systems (Source: Archdaily, 2018)
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4.3. Secondary Case Study 4.3.1 Project Overview - People's Pavilion, Eindhoven, Netherlands
Figure 16 – People’s Pavilion, Netherlands (Source: ArchDaily) & Figure 17 – Qualitative Evaluation using parameters (Source: Author) The People's Pavilion is a 100% circular building that has a close to zero carbon footprint. It was constructed using entirely borrowed materials and designed with easily reversible connections that do not require nails or glue. Recycled plastic, specifically over 9000 recycled PET bottles donated by local Eindhoven residents, was used as a construction material. Once the pavilion was dismantled, all borrowed materials were returned.
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4.3.2. Parameters Dematerializing waste
Figure 18 – Tiles made of recycled PET bottles (Source: Archello) These tiles are made of recycled plastic household waste(PET bottles), collected largely by Eindhoven residents. The tiles were produced in collaboration with manufacturer Govaplast. After use they were transformed into a new personalised and unique form and gifted back to the habitants of the city. Regenerative ability/Recyclability
Figure 19 (Source: ArchDaily) & Figure 20, Figure 21 (Source: ARUP) The primary load bearing timber structure is made of rough pinewood which being a biobased material making it regenerative.
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Longevity
Figure 22 (Source: ArchDaily) These tiles are made of recycled plastic household waste (PET bottles), collected largely by Eindhoven residents. The tiles were produced in collaboration with manufacturer Govaplast. After use they were transformed into a new personalised and unique form and gifted back to the habitants of the city. Reusability
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Figure 23 & Figure 24 (Source: ArchDaily) Reusability without damage to the borrowed wood was ensured by use of no screws, glue, drills, or saws, instead the building is tied using steel tension belts. Energy Optimising
Figure 25 (Source: ArchDaily) The VENLO greenhouse roof structure is borrowed from a greenhouse supplier, and this may act as a passive heating technique for the building. Similarly, the glazing that wraps the lower part of the pavilion was left over from the refurbishment of an office building in Utrecht. After Dutch Design Week, the glass will be used for another project. This glass too may have the same effect.
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Spatial Adaptability
Figure 26 (Source: ArchDaily) It was used as a meeting place and hangout for visitors and served as a venue for music and theatre. The Pavilion was programmed for two weeks during the days and evenings with events like the Age of Wonderland, TEDx try-out, the Making of Your World readings, and a Climate Action debate. The Pavilion could accommodate 200 seated or 600 people standing and is open to all.
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5. ANALYSIS OF BUILDING PRACTICES IN INDIA USING DERIVED PARAMETERS 5.1. ‘Koodaram’ Kochi-Muziris Biennale Pavilion 2018 by Anagram Architects
Figure 27 (Source: Anagram Architects) 5.1.1. Overview of the Project ‘Koodaram’ was a 760 sq.m Temporary Pavilion built for the Kochi-Muziris Biennale 2018 located in Cabral Yard, Fort Kochi. The identified strategy for circularity was to make the structure easily salvageable by the formal and informal waste economy. The materials were planned on being used for low cost housing after its use in the pavilion. But this idea did not see to fruition due to financial constraints. Since the building only needs to be operating for 6 months, the building was designed with the principle of ‘remaining light on the ground’ - allowing minimum impact on the land it stands on.
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5.1.2. Evaluation of Parameters Dematerialization of Waste
Figure 28 (Adapted from source: Anagram Architects) & Figure 29 (Source: Author) There has been use of many eco-efficient building materials like Aerocon blocks and polycarbonate walls. These allow for use less material than conventional building material like concrete. Since the building is meant for a use of 6 months these materials are ideal for its life span and after use can be dismantled for reuse. Aerocon blocks, for example, have a density of 600kg/cu.m unlike regular concrete block which has 2240kg/cu.m density. This means that Aerocon blocks use 73% less material than the latter. Wall panelling is also designed to be easily fixed and removed. For example, the retaining wall in the figure above is observed to be of a bamboo thatched framework and an architectural element of wall panelling which are fixed with simple nut and bolt connections.
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Regenerative Ability and Recyclability
Figure 30,31,32 (Source: Anagram Architects) & Figure 33 (Source: Author) The two primary materials used are - Bamboo and Steel. Bamboo is less efficient than steel but has lower embodied energy. Therefore, steel structural members are used only where necessary, and the roof is supported by bamboo members. Bamboo being a biodegradable material, is capable of returning to the environment making it regenerative. Steel on the other hand is designed to be easily cut in lengths and salvaged. Longevity
Figure 34 (Source: Anagram Architects) & Figure 35 (Source: Author)
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When using materials like steel with high embodied energy and longer lifespan, they have made the members easy to dismantle by having welded, bolted and tied connections. The simple form of the building and its placement on site is also done to have minimum impact on the ground it stands on - an ideology they follow in all designs - "Lightness on the landscape". Reusability
Figure 36 (Source: Anagram Architects) & Figure 37 - welding, bolting & tying (Source: Author) The connections at joineries are made by welding, bolting and tying making it designed for reusability, the other materials like Aerocon blocks, acrylic sheet and perforated metals are also made for easy detachability. Energy Optimising
Figure 38 (Source: Anagram Architects) & Figure 39 (Source: Author)
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The pavilion is designed to allow a lot of light into it despite it having to fulfil the programme of theatre, it is not designed as a Black Box. This ensures the daylight is not wasted and controlled lighting need not be provided all the time. This also takes the focus away from the performer and brings it to the people. Energy efficient air-conditioning systems are used in the pavilion as it was an unavoidable requirement. Spatial Adaptability
Figure 40 (Source: Anagram Architects) & Figure 41 (Source: Author) The open plan and flexible large space extend the program of the pavilion from more than a theatre allowing it to a multifunctional space of engagement. The program of the building as a temporary pavilion also demands this need for spatial adaptability throughout the Biennale. The spatial planning is done such that it accommodates various kinds of performances also by allowing the position of the stage to create a extroverted or introverted setting as shown in Figure 41.
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5.2. Bhoomija Creations Office by Bhoomija Creations
Figure 42 – Bhoomija Creations Office (Source: Bhoomija Creations) The Bhoomija Creations Office Building was selected for study to understand how the principles of circularity could be used to understand sustainability in a building intended for permanent use unlike the previous case study. Ar. Guruprasad Rane provided insight into their process and philosophy for the design of this building in the interview conducted. The identified strategy of Circularity was to design the building as a non-monlithic structure that can organically grow with time. This strategy has been brought to design by using steel roof frame supported on rammed earth walls that could be lifted and removed as a whole if required. Rammed earth as a material has a low carbon footprint and its biodegradability allows for regenerative ability of the building. Circularity is accommodated in the making of the building in the simplest and most natural ways like leftovers the v-board used for the flooring of the waiting area is not wasted and instead used for the skirting of the discussion room. The building is an example of how vernacular techniques and ways of construction are naturally circular and therefore energy-efficient.
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5.3. Inferences
Figure 43 (Source: Anagram Architects) & Figure 44 (Source: Author) The evaluation of the building using parameters such as dematerialization of waste, regenerative ability and recyclability, longevity, reusability, energy optimizing, and spatial adaptability provides valuable insights for designing sustainable buildings. The figure above (Figure 41) shows the relative qualitative evaluation of the Koodaram Pavilion using the derived parameters with reference to the secondary case study (People’s Pavilion) selected for study. Through the evaluation we see how the identified strategy for Circularity – Design for Salvageability is achieved through different design strategies. The conceptualization of "Koodaram" was designed to be circular, but the Biennale Foundation faced financing difficulties, preventing it from serving as a viable model for the circular economy. Currently, the contracting company holds the dismantled steel members, while the bamboo members have yet to find a second use. In addition, most of the other materials used in the construction may end up as typical construction waste in a landfill, rather than being repurposed. This unfortunate outcome highlights the challenge of implementing circular economy principles in real-world construction projects and underscores the need for more sustainable financing models to support such initiatives.
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6. CONCLUSION In conclusion, the evaluation of sustainable building practices using parameters such as waste reduction, energy optimization, and the regenerative and recyclable potential of materials highlights the need for prioritizing these aspects in sustainable building design. While the concept of circular economy originated and was popularized in European ideologies, its implementation in the Indian economy requires accounting for cultural and social complexities, such as the large informal waste economy. An attempt to address this complexity can be seen in the conceptualization of the 'Koodaram' Project by Anagram Architects. Furthermore, the report also aims to bring to attention an example of vernacular construction techniques employed that naturally creates a form of design for circularity that is not generally recognized within the general body of knowledge on this topic. It also emphasizes the importance of extending design strategies that fulfil these parameters discussed in the paper, from buildings that require to be temporary to buildings that require to be permanent, to mitigate the impact of construction and demolition waste on the environment. The report also highlights the importance of designing for spatial adaptability, an indirect but often overlooked parameter, in achieving sustainability through design. This paper demonstrates how architecture that accommodates this framework of design can successfully achieve sustainability through design. Overall, it emphasizes the significance of sustainable building practices and encourages the adoption of circular design principles in the future of Sustainable Architecture in India.
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