Thesis on Latin American Modernization

Adaptive Strategies

Molding the construct of identity through globalization.

Prepared for: Dr. ir. Stavros Kousoulas Prepared by: Albert Burgers, (2019-2020)

Theory Thesis (2020)

Albert Burgers (4117433)

ABSTRACT Globalization has dramatically influenced our lifestyles, built environment and environment. Its forces which have been present for at least 500 years, are in constant flux and need to be understood from a broad perspective and without bias. By contextualizing the globalist forces to a city, or place we make it visible and tangible.

This research is thereby an exploration into the economical, political, architectural and urban narratives of the city of São Paulo between the beginning of the twentieth till the turn of the twenty-first century.

Keywords: Globalization, Hybridization, Latin America, São Paulo

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Theory Thesis (2020)

Albert Burgers (4117433)

TABLE OF CONTENTS: ABSTRACT

2

INTRODUCTION

4

—— GLOBALIZATION, HYBRIDITY

6

——— GLOBALIZATION

6

——— THE NOTION OF HYBRIDITY

6

—— INDEPENDENCE, COFFEE, BELLE ÉPOQUE

8

——— INDEPENDENCE

8

——— COFFEE

8

——— BELLE ÉPOQUE

9

—— BRAZILIANNESS, INDUSTRIALIZATION

10

——— BRAZILIANNESS

10

——— INDUSTRIALIZATION

10

—— CENTRALIZATION, MODERNISM

11

——— THE CENTRALIZATION OF GOVERNMENT

11

——— MODERNIST MANIFESTATIONS

12

—— STRONGMAN, MATURITY

13

——— THE SECOND STRONGMAN

13

——— DRIVE TO MATURITY

13

—— PETROLEUM, THE GLOBAL CITY

14

——— THE FUEL CRISIS AND THE BRADY PLAN

14

——— THE EMERGENCE OF THE GLOBAL CITY

14

—— DEMOCRACY, STRATEGIC

15

——— RETURN TO DEMOCRACY

15

——— STRATEGIC PLANNING

15

—— DEVELOPMENT, SÃO PAULO

16

——— GLOBAL CITY DEVELOPMENT

16

——— CONTEMPORARY SÃO PAULO

17

CONCLUSION

18

ILLUSTRATIONS:

20

RESEARCH BIBLIOGRAPHY:

22

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Theory Thesis (2020)

Albert Burgers (4117433)

INTRODUCTION We are currently witnessing the homogenizing force of globalization as we have never seen it before. Cities are being replicated to such an extent that one may wonder if one is in Paris or somewhere in China, solely because a copy of the Eiffel Tower is built. This, however, is not a new phenomenon. An earlier replica of the Eiffel Tower had already been placed in Las Vegas, by the turn of this century. Both towers illustrate to what extend we have gone to create a sense of place and simultaneously show the extent to which western culture has been exported and reinterpreted as one’s own.

There are several factors/forces that have contributed to this phenomenon: the first being globalization, which has influenced our world since the discovery of the lost continent, or the so-called New World, which led to a massive advancement in our society. The start of the transatlantic trade ushered in a new era, namely that of an interlinked society that could trade their goods to a global market. While initially the trade consisted mainly of extraction of resources and the exploitation of slaves, we have slowly become more reliant (dependent) on this global network of trade over the last five hundred years.

Another factor is the extent to which technologies have not only affected our built environment, but also our lifestyles. where the first Conquistadors traveled by wooden ships like the Santa María - Christopher Columbus his flagship during his first voyage - we are now able to cross the Atlantic with a commercial plane within mere hours. Aside from the fact that we can now commute on a global scale, these technologies have also resulted in built objects, such as harbors and airports in this case. Our cities have been dramatically altered. Where they were once riddled with diseases and malaise, they have been retrofitted or designed from scratch in order to combat outbreaks and improve citizen wellbeing.

This homogenizing force, attempts to produce uniform manifestations of its presence. It endlessly fails to replicate itself, which is a result of the heterogeneous nature of our nations, cities and people. In the meantime, this force is also not static, as it is continuously in flux. Where the Spanish once dominated large parts of the world and mandated its manifestations per letter from the king, we currently manifest ourselves through our financial capabilities, or our lack of. This being especially apparent in the so-called periphery countries. These have become dependent on foreign civilization through its technologies, capital and culture. The homogenizing force, or in this case the dominant civilization, in an attempt to replicate itself it encounters the ‘heterogenous’, rooted culture and as a result, creates a hybrid culture.

Although the ‘hybrid’ is commonly placed in an inferior hierarchical order within global history, this research attempts to shrug off this order and place these hybrids on the same footing, or at least contextualize them, in their 4

Theory Thesis (2020)

Albert Burgers (4117433)

economic political or social setting. To better understand this homogenizing force, we will look at the Latin American continent. This continent has changed dramatically over the last five hundred years. Cities have been transformed, industrialized, modernized and developed. To emphasize how modernization and development are results of the current homogenizing force, the scope of the research is limited to the twentieth century of São Paulo. Additionally the topics of globalization and hybridity will be discussed to frame the discussion through the larger perspective.

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Theory Thesis (2020)

Albert Burgers (4117433)

—— GLOBALIZATION, HYBRIDITY ——— GLOBALIZATION Globalization can be best understood through the works of Stephen D. King or Saskia Sassen. It is not a new phenomenon. King highlights the flux of the homogenizing force in his book ‘Grave New World’ as follows: “Globalization is driven not just by technological advance, but also by the development – and demise – of the ideas and institutions that form our politics, frame our economies and fashion our financial systems both locally and globally”.1 King stresses the importance of understanding not only the technologies that are involved, but also the ideas and institutions that govern it. Sassen further expands this notion in her book ‘Globalization and its discontents’ in which she introduces cities into the analysis of economic globalization through reconceptualizing the process of economic globalization as physical complexes in space, or as concrete manifestations.2 ——— THE NOTION OF HYBRIDITY The notion of hybridity is one that is loaded, at least according to Felipe Hernández in his article “On the notion of architectural hybridization in Latin America” he states that because the term has had so many definitions in different context, the term has become associated with a variety of topics and has therefore become ambiguous. As a result, according to Hernández, cultural hybridization has lost its: “political efficacy and has been reduced to a problem of aesthetic syncretism”.3 This happens when architectural theorists use the terms hybrid and hybridization as fancy replacements for the term eclectic or eclecticism when discussing architectural works that combine a variation of materials, colors, forms, and/or logics.4 Another author who has written extensively on hybridization is Nestor Garcia Canclini, who wrote “Hybrid Cultures: Strategies for Entering and Leaving Modernity”. However, Hernández criticizes Canclini for not forming an innovative theoretical framework for his definition on the notion of hybridization and proclaiming in his article that he prefers hybridization over syncretism, mestizaje or others5. Hernández argues that by reformulating the notion, its definition can be enhanced and avoid the comparison where the one culture is superior/ inferior to the other. He takes architecture as an example as he states that 1

(King, 2018, p.14)

2

(Sassen, 2010, p. xviiii)

3

(Hernández, 2002, p.77)

4

(Hernández, 2002, p.80)

5

(Hernández, 2002, p.82)

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Theory Thesis (2020)

Albert Burgers (4117433)

buildings are hybrid - simply because they emerge in hybrid cultures rather than being a result of numerous architectural motifs.6 Canclini, however, does address several socio-cultural problems in relation to the existing economy and market structures in the continent.7 One of them being that hybridization can become a political tool that can protect from the homogenizing logic with which finance capital tends to shape cultures - all in an effort to maximize profits and standardize markets.8 Dominic Sachsenmaier reflects in his article on the rising interest in transcultural and global history, while taking into consideration the skepticism of universalism and eurocentrism approach in an effort to advocate for a multipolar and pluralistic approach.9 Sachsenmaier summarizes that although the critique is not unfounded that, the situation is improving and that through the increasing international connectedness, researchers are enabled to expand their knowledge beyond their field or country. And as a result, universalism and eurocentrism is fading.10

6

(Hernández, 2002, p.85)

7

(Hernández, 2002, p.82)

8

(Canclini, 2005, p.xli)

9

(Sachsenmaier, 2006, p.451)

10

(Sachsenmaier, 2006, p.464)

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Theory Thesis (2020)

Albert Burgers (4117433)

—— INDEPENDENCE, COFFEE, BELLE ÉPOQUE ——— INDEPENDENCE Unlike most Latin American countries, Brazil’s independence was rather smooth. According to Thomas E. Skidmore, Peter H. Smith and James N. Green in ‘Modern Latin America’ the nonviolent transition Brazil had an auspicious start after its independence in 1822. Because there was little civil unrest, the nation encountered little to no physical or economic damage, while simultaneously the political structure remained.11 Brazil’s independence came after Napoleon invaded Portugal in 1807. The Portuguese Royal house fled with the help of the British Navy and took refuge in Brazil. The King of Portugal, Dom João VI only returned to Lisbon after a decree was sent out in 1822, ordering him to return.

His son, Dom Pedro I, stayed behind. A year later he declared the nations independence, after the Brazilian Aristocracy forced a break with Portugal. By 1860, Dom Pedro II had reigned over the country for two decades. His grip, however, was fading after the large military apparatus, essential for the Paraguayan war, started to infiltrate his government. Additionally, the abolishment of slavery, took seventeen years, as the slaves were the essential workforce for the sugar fields. By 1889, Dom Pedro II has lost control of his empire and was exiled to Portugal. The next day, the country was declared the First Brazilian Republic.12 ——— COFFEE According to Skidmore et al, Brazil’s economy underwent a dramatic shift from the mid-nineteenth century to well into the twentieth century. The country was initially financially dependent on its sugar fields. However, this source of income slowly vanished, coinciding with the abolishment of slavery. Income streams flowing from its most lucrative crop were replaced by the export of rubber. The trade of rubber was thriving by the turn of the century until 1913, when the British discovered more productive fields in East Asia. The first Republics most durable export product became Coffee. The production especially flourished in large fields in the state of São Paulo. Similar to Argentine’s approach, Brazil turned to European immigrants as a labor force.

Ironically, they the government paid for their journeys while the local population was left to fend for itself. The infrastructure and technologies that were needed for growing the agro-export economy were imported through direct investments by foreign capital. These technologies included telegraph system, railroads, electric utilities, and shipping.13

11

(Skidmore et al, 2019, p.139)

12

(Skidmore et al, 2019, p.140-147)

13

(Skidmore et al, 2019, p.148-149)

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Theory Thesis (2020)

Albert Burgers (4117433)

——— BELLE ÉPOQUE According to Almandoz in Modernization, Urbanization and Development’ after the Latin America's Independences, Britain provided the nation with economic and technical support, while France became the cultural reference.14 This he illustrates through an earlier work in ‘Planning Latin American Cities’ by highlighting the European character of Rio de Janeiro by underscoring the likeliness to that of cities such as London and Paris.15 By the 1870's, São Paulo was still a small state capital with only 30,000 inhabitants. The city expanded through effectively tackling the ‘urban’ problems and through its increased connectedness with Santos and Rio de Janeiro.16 By the end of the century, the city experienced a demographic boom. São Paulo managed to increase its population from 61,000 inhabitants in 1890 to 350,000 in 1910. This was a result of foreign capital being invested in an electric tramline, the laying of more than 180 km of trails, and the developing of neighborhoods with civic functions, such as the Teatro Municipal in 1911.17 The Municipal Theatre was constructed from 1903 till 1911, by the architects Ramos de Azevedo, Claudio and Domiziano Rossi. Still influenced by French culture, the theater contained elements from the Renaissance, Baroque and Art Nouveau.18

14

(Almandoz, 2014, p.34)

15

(Almandoz, 2010, p.75)

16

(Almandoz, 2010, p.84-85)

17

(Almandoz, 2010, p.92-93)

18

(Centro Técnico de Artes Cênicas)

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Theory Thesis (2020)

Albert Burgers (4117433)

—— BRAZILIANNESS, INDUSTRIALIZATION ——— BRAZILIANNESS According to the Luis E. Carranza and Fernando Luiz Lara, writers of Modern Architecture in Latin America, modernism in the New World starts in 1925 with the publishing of Gregori Warchanavchick and Rino Levi’s manifestos on New Architecture. Both are a reaction to the debate that had been sparked when the established cultural critic Monteiro Lobato criticized New York-trained Brazilian artist Anita Malfatti’s first painting exhibition in São Paolo. This led to the city's first Modern Art Week, where Brazilian avant-garde artists gradually turned to the issue of adapting the avant-garde movement to Brazilian reality.

Subsequently, they created 'Brazilianness' - where they advocate a reinterpretation of their national identity. By the 1920s there were many competing takes on modernism in Brazil. Ten years later, only one would prevail.

In 1929, Le Corbusier was invited to give lectures in Argentina, Uruguay and Brazil on how the European Modernism could be transformed to cater to the pressing needs of these economies. Seven years later, Le Corbusier returned to work with Lúcio Costa and his team of young architects, which included Oscar Niemeyer. However, by that time, modern architecture had already manifested itself throughout as experimentation.19 ——— INDUSTRIALIZATION São Paulo’s influence was especially visible in the years 1889 to 1930, as the coffee state and 'Mines Gerais' or milk state, provided most of the nation's presidents. As a result, these relatively stable years were coined the ‘coffee and milk years’.20 By the 1920s, São Paulo, had tripled its population, it produced 30-40% of the nation's output and became self-sufficient in the decentralized Republic.21 The Great Depression (1929 to 1932) showcased the vulnerability of being reliant on one main crop, which was sold to only three countries; the U.S., Britain and Germany. Brazil had to make a shift and so it evolved towards a manufacturing economy. This shift became apparent by the 1930s and ‘40s as Brazil’s industrial sector underwent a large-scale expansion. Before this time, foreign manufactured goods were undependable, but as the Great Depression and the second World War limited the distribution of products, a new center of the industrial growth emerged in São Paulo. The initial upsurge was bolstered as Brazil ventured into the heavy industries through the production of steel and automobiles. As a result, these economic transformations led to a surge of urbanization.22 19

(Carranza & Lara, 2015, p.34-35)

20

(Skidmore et al, 2019, p.155-161)

21

(Skidmore et al, 2019, p.155)

22

(Skidmore et al, 2019, p.151)

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Theory Thesis (2020)

Albert Burgers (4117433)

—— CENTRALIZATION, MODERNISM ——— THE CENTRALIZATION OF GOVERNMENT After the military deposed the president in 1930, Getúlio Vargas was handed control of the nation. With his arrival, the relative stable political system changed. Vargas immediately set out to centralize the government, while Brazil entered one of its most agitated periods, Vargas was consolidating power.

Similar to the Nazi-communist battles on the streets of Berlin, insurrections emerged between fascist and communist parties on the streets. Vargas chose to squash the communist revolution, two years later he dissolved Congress and imposed his own brand of authoritarianism. Through what he called "Brazil’s Estado Novo" (new state), Vargas acquired the power to unilaterally negotiate between Nazi-Germany and the United States. In return for Brazil’s support, the U.S. provided raw materials, military bases, the construction of air- and naval installations and financed the nation's first large-scale steel mill.23 By the end of the war, Vargas had lost the favor of Brazilian army and was forced to resign. This was, however, a minor setback, because in 1950 he was elected president for his third term, and the only one by popular vote. Vargas set out to develop the country and maximized the inflow of foreign capital and technology. However, by 1954, the nation was not performing well and after several dramatic events, Vargas put a bullet through his heart.24 In1955, Juscelino Kubitschek was elected president. Ambitiously he set out to further develop the country and build a new futuristic capital. His motto had been “fifty years progress in five”, four years later, the city of Brasilia was built.25 However, by the end of his turn the country’s economy had run into inflation and owed outstanding balances. An attempt to stabilize the economy through the IMF had failed, leaving the next president with a mammoth task.26

23

(Skidmore et al, 2019, p.155-161)

24

(Skidmore et al, 2019, p.164-166)

25

(Skidmore et al, 2019, p.166)

26

(Skidmore et al, 2019, p.168)

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Theory Thesis (2020)

Albert Burgers (4117433)

——— MODERNIST MANIFESTATIONS The end of the first world war marked a paradigm shift; starting with the rise of the U.S. as the dominant global force,27 followed by São Paulo’s claim to Brazilianness in the 1920s and the national debates on identity.28 As was becoming apparent, the world was transforming and countries were questioning their place within it. Almandoz notes that by the late 1920s, there was a shift from the European mode of development, to the North American perspective.

This emphasized the two major problems of the epoch as the integration of automobiles in the city and that of skyscrapers.29 It is during this period that the nations tallest skyscraper emerged in São Paulo, namely the Martinelli building.

Designed by Italian Brazilian Giuseppe Martinelli, it was inaugurated in 1929.

With eclectic elements, it was reminiscent of the other buildings overlooking the park.30 The Martinelli building would be surpassed by the Arantes building in 1947. The Arantes building was constructed as the headquarter of the Bank of the state of São Paulo, designed as an Art Deco Skyscraper by Plinio Botelho do Amaral. It took, however, until after the construction of the capital of Brasilia for Brazilianness too manifest itself in São Paulo. One of the cities prime examples is the Ciccillo Matarazzo Pavilion, designed by Oscar Niemeyer and Hélio Uchõa, for the 4th edition of the São Paulo Biennial in 1957.31 In that same year, Lina Bo Bardi started the design for the São Paulo Museum of Art (MASP), on the prominent Avenida Paulista. The building, which was tasked with ‘maintaining the public space and the views from the park’, was elevated as a result.32 Other modern examples of modernism in São Paulo include the Copan building by Oscar Niemeyer and Carlos Alberto Cerqueira Lemos in 1961, and the Fitness Centre Club Atlético Paulistano, designed by Paulo Mendes Da Rocha, Jõao de Gennaro in 1961.

27

(Almandoz, 2014, p.36)

28

(Almandoz, 2010, p.98)

29

(Almandoz, 2010, p.100)

30

(Wikipedia, Martinelli)

31

(Architectuul, Ciccillo Matarazzo Pavilion)

32

(Carranza & Lara, 2015, p.208))

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Theory Thesis (2020)

Albert Burgers (4117433)

—— STRONGMAN, MATURITY ——— THE SECOND STRONGMAN By 1964 and two presidents later, Brazil had failed to curb the economy and had once again fallen into an authoritarian regime, through another coup.

General Castello Branco was quickly elected after the coup and immediately sought out to alleviate the inflation and to improve the outstanding balances.

Additionally, he overhauled the banking system and institutionalized the stockand government securities market. However, the government was replaced by a less tolerant one, as they took tough measures to oppress any political turmoil.33 ——— DRIVE TO MATURITY Even though Latin America’s largest economies showed relative economic prosperity between the end of the World War II and the mid 1960s, there was still significant economic expansion and sustained urbanization instigated by ISI policies in countries like Mexico and Brazil. With a growth rate of 6%, these became model economies, on the eve of Rostow’s ‘take off’ phase.34 However, their ‘drive to maturity’ would not be realized by the end of the century.

Almandoz notes that there is no generic answer for the whole continent, because of the continent's cultural diversity.35 However, he speculates that the lack of ‘maturity’ is somehow correlated to the rapid expansion, which is unique for the continent. Unlike other countries it had preceded the start of industrialization. Contrary to what had happened in the rest of the so-called "Third World", Latin American cities did not pull and absorb the rural population with manufacturing and other productive sectors. Rather, the abandoned countryside pushed the migration towards the city.36 By the late 1960 industrialization had neither diversified, nor consolidated the continent. Factors that contributed were the weak economic integration within the region, the small size of domestic markets and the disadvantage of competing with international manufactures.37 The Limitations of the ISI and the failure of modernization in combination with the excessive urbanization led to the emergence of the Dependency Theory, which tried to figure out what contributed to the continuous underdevelopment of Latin America.38

33

(Skidmore et al, 2019, p.173)

34

(Almandoz, 2014, p.100)

35

(Almandoz, 2014, p. 102)

36

(Almandoz, 2014, p. 110)

37

(Almandoz, 2014, p. 138)

38

(Almandoz, 2014, p. 141)

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Theory Thesis (2020)

Albert Burgers (4117433)

—— PETROLEUM, THE GLOBAL CITY ——— THE FUEL CRISIS AND THE BRADY PLAN According to Almandoz the collapse of Latin America’s model of development was catalyzed by international factors, such as the fuel crisis of 1973. Brought about by the war in the Middle East it had a catastrophic effect on Latin America’s inflation-stricken economies. As a result, the region's significance within the international economy had diminished. With the decrease of Latin American exports, the burden of foreign debt was exasperated.39 As the Cold War continued, pressure was enacted to intervene in Latin America’s politics by the U.S. Preparations were made for the debt crisis and the subsequent liberalization of the economic areas of the region.40 Following these changes, the traditional roles of the IMF became intertwined as they were supposed to ‘control the macroeconomics of countries’ whereas the World Bank, had to deal with the ‘structural issues’ The arrival of Liberalism throughout the 1980s - or the lost decade, can be attributed to regional and international factors that took steps towards dismantling the centralist model of government.

The policy cuts in public expenditure lead to a decline in wages and the deterioration of infrastructure. As a result, the so-called Brady Plan emerged in an attempt to help Latin America exit its debt crisis. Additionally, free trade was advocated for through the Washington consensus.41 ——— THE EMERGENCE OF THE GLOBAL CITY Unlike most other cities in Latin America, São Paulo became a global city.

The first global cities emerged around the 1970's as observed by Sassen. She describes the point of departure in her publication entitled “the global city”, which occurs when major cities become a strategic space where multi-national companies overcome spatial dispersal by clustering together and enhancing their global integration. As a result, major cities have stifled away from the traditional role as centers for international trade and banking, as they have evolved to function in four new ways. The first is through the concentration of command points in the organization of the world economy. Secondly, as key location for ‘specialized service firms’, which replaces manufacturing as the leading economic activity. Thirdly, as sites of production and innovation in these leading industries, and lastly, as markets for the products.42 These changes have reshaped the way cities function and have impacted international economic activity and the urban form to such an extent that Sassen has declared the appearance of a new city.

39

(Almandoz, 2014, p. 156)

40

(Almandoz, 2014, p. 162-163)

41

(Almandoz, 2014, p. 164)

42

(Sassen, 1991, p. 3-4)

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Theory Thesis (2020)

Albert Burgers (4117433)

—— DEMOCRACY, STRATEGIC ——— RETURN TO DEMOCRACY By 1973, the military government had vanquished the last guerrilla movements. A year later, it allowed for relatively free elections as it believed that it had won popular opinion. With the votes counted, it became clear that the opposition had won with a landslide. The period from 1968 till 1974 had returned the economy to a path of growth. As though to mark the end of an era, manufactured exports had overtaken coffee. However, by the 1980s, the country once again encountered a rising inflation.43 Brazil’s inflation was difficult to control and lasted until Fernando Henrique Cardoso became minister of inflation. Two years later, in 1993, inflation was back under control. His success was rewarded, as he was elected as president that same year. However, his inability to achieve substantial growth and tackle the social unrest, left the country vulnerable to the financial crisis of 1998.44 ——— STRATEGIC PLANNING What followed was the diminishing of central planning systems favored by the Status model of modernization and development and the proliferation of ‘strategic’ planning and/or gestión (management), which followed Neoliberal strategies. This new trend was understood as a continuous process of decision making with a focus on “realizing economic development any the local level, while adopting a sustainable stance in respect to the environment”.45

43

(Skidmore et al, 2019, p.173-174)

44

(Skidmore et al, 2019, p.177-178)

45

(Almandoz, 2014, p. 176)

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Theory Thesis (2020)

Albert Burgers (4117433)

—— DEVELOPMENT, SÃO PAULO ——— GLOBAL CITY DEVELOPMENT Sassen points in ‘the global city’ to what can be considered a troublesome development that has emerged alongside the global city. She stresses the extent to which the economic activity has changed the organization of work, the income distributions, and the occupational distribution of the workers. A major concern is that compared to the industrial industries there is currently a greater incidence of jobs at the high- and low-paying ends. In contrast, during the growth of the manufacturing industries most workers had middle-earning jobs. Sassen mentions two other developments that have contributed to economic polarization in global cities. The first being the fact that an increase of low-wage jobs, required by high-income gentrification in both its residential and commercial settings. The second development being the downgrading of the manufacturing sector. For Sassen this is “a process in which the share of unionized shops declines, and wages deteriorate while sweatshops and industrial homework proliferate.46 Sueli Ramos Schiffer argues in ‘global networks, linked cities’, a book edited by Sassen, that in a reaction to the increased deregulation process that occurred in the 1990s, São Paulo has claimed a role in the national and international processes of economic globalization. In addition to the deregulation, there was heavy national investment in regional infrastructure, and the building of digital networks - all in an attempt to claim leadership in the Mercosur free-trade zone.47 The state of São Paulo represented 35 percent of the nation's Gross National Product by 1998, while accounting for half of the Brazilian manufacturing output. Its automobile production, for example, is the tenth largest in the world.48 São Paulo’s shift from an industrial to a service-oriented economy is highlighted in the work of Tobias Töpfer, in ‘São Paulo: Big, Bigger, Global? The Development of a Megacity in the Global South’. According to Töpfer, the shift was especially apparent with the transformation of the Paulista Avenue in the 1960s. The aristocratic residential area, once the home to the coffee barons, became the first site for office towers in the newly declared commercial/banking district. These urban fragments house the headquarters of national enterprises and the branch offices of international companies, who conduct national and international business from these locations.49

46

(Sassen, 1991, p. 9)

47

(Sassen et al, 2004, p.207)

48

(Sassen et al, 2004, p.214)

49

(Töpfer, 2013, p.14-15)

16

Theory Thesis (2020)

Albert Burgers (4117433)

——— CONTEMPORARY SÃO PAULO São Paulo had dramatically changed between the moment Bo Bardi first moved to the city in 1947. Where it used to have a population of 1.6 million, by 1970 the population had swelled to over 6 million inhabitants.50 During this time, the city had witnessed an increase in corporate architecture with buildings such as the headquarters of the bank of London, designed by Giancarlo Palanti and Henrique Mindlin, which was finished in 1963.51 Also the Mirante do Vale, which was designed by structural engineer Waldomiro Zarzur and architect Aron Kogan, was the tallest building in the country upon inauguration in 1966.52 By 1977, however, the nation was about to witness another economic decline. This happened around the same time where Bo Bardi accepted the commission for the SESC facility. Seemingly ahead of the curve, Bo Bardi made the bold decision not to demolish the existing building and turn it into a cultural hub.53 Kenneth Frampton in ‘Prospects for a Critical Regionalism’, addresses the paradox that many underdeveloped countries endure, namely the wish to become modern maintaining once culture. He elaborates by initially pointing out that critical regionalism is not intended to denote the vernacular, but rather to describe the process of cross-fertilization between what is a rooted culture and civilization.54

50

(Carranza & Lara, 2015, p.311)

51

(Archuivo, Sede Do Bank of London)

52

(Archuivo, Mirante do Vale)

53

(Carranza & Lara, 2015, p.311-313)

54

(Frampton, 1983, p.148)

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Theory Thesis (2020)

Albert Burgers (4117433)

CONCLUSION Brazil had an auspicious start because of the smooth transition to independence in 1822. Because of the nation’s large size, it could produce large quantities of sugar, rubber and coffee. The sugar trade was a remnant of the transatlantic trade but was fading by the twentieth century. By then, coffee had become the most lucrative export. Large coffee fields emerged in the state of São Paulo and attracted laborers and capital, which resulted in the urbanization and the modernization of the city. By 1922, the city hosted its first Modern Art week, which is when the Brazilian avant-garde shifted their movement towards adapting the avant-garde to the Brazilian reality, and thereby creating Brazilianness. The Great Depression pushed Brazil towards industrialization after it could no longer depend on foreign manufactured imports. São Paulo, again, led the effort and continued its growth and dominance. Together with the city of Mine Gerais, the cities provided the nation’s presidents till 1930. During this same period the focus had turned on integrating automobiles and skyscrapers into the city, exemplified through the the Martinelli building in 1929.

The nation's stable political system changed after the military coup of 1930, which led to Vargas becoming president. Vargas centralized the nation's government during one of Brazil’s most agitated periods. As the world was preparing for war, Vargas strengthened the nations ties with the United States.

By 1950, the nation restored its democratic process. Five years later Kubitschek was elected president. He ambitiously built a new futuristic capital and improved its economic standings. After the completion of the futuristic capital, Brazilianness would manifest itself throughout São Paulo. Exemplified through the Matarazzo pavilion, Copan building, Paulistano Athletic Club and the MASP. By the 1960s, Brazil stood on the eve of Rostow’s ‘take off’ phase. The next phase - the ‘drive to maturity’ was, however, not reached. The weak economic integration within the region, the small size of the domestic market and the excessive urbanization led to a continuous state of underdevelopment.

The military orchestrated another coup in an attempt to strengthen the economy and elected a general as president of the nation. During 1968 till 1974, the economy returned to a path of growth. However, the fuel crisis of 1973 had a (delayed) catastrophic result on the inflation-stricken economy, which led to the liberalization of the economy by the 1980s. As a consequence, the planning of cities became a decentralized task, often done by the market and with the aim of a strategic intervention. The 1970s brought about a new phenomenon; the emergence of the global city. This development can be attributed to the concentration of multi-nationals, who from strategic places seek to improve their global reach and market integration.

18

Theory Thesis (2020)

Albert Burgers (4117433)

São Paulo emerged as a Global city because of the deregulation, the heavy national investment in regional infrastructure, and the building of digital networks. The city’s architecture reflects the globalist corporate presence through buildings like the headquarters for the Bank of London and the Mirante Do Vale. Bo Bardi’s SESC building reflects a reaction to these forces through a critical reflection on the building's context. Through the research it has become apparent that the context, technological advancement and the development of ideas and institutions have shaped our built environment, but that they are also a result of cross-fertilization between what is a rooted culture and civilization.

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Theory Thesis (2020)

Albert Burgers (4117433)

ILLUSTRATIONS: Figure 1: “São Paulo, Municipal Theatre”, photo taken by Swiss-Brazilian Guilherme Gaensly.

(Source: Google Arts and Culture Project Retrieved from https://artsandculture.google.com/asset/são-paulo-theatromunicipal-guilherme-gaensly/EAE3Aq-F6rK3Qg )

Figure 2: “Graf Zeppelin over São Paulo”, photograph taken by the German photographer, Theodor Preising in 1933. The Martinelli building, which is on the left.

(Source: thePreising.com Retrieved from https:// thepreising.com/the-preising-legacy/#jp-carousel-381)

Figure 3: “Arantes building seen from Avenida São João”, photograph taken by Life magazine photographer Dmitri Kessel in 1947.

(Source: saopaulo-40s-50s-60s.blogspot.com Retrieved from http://saopaulo-40s-50s-60s.blogspot.com/2014/03/1947seen-by-life-magazines-lens.html)

Figure 4: “São Paulo Museum of Art, MASP”, photograph taken by Domus magazine in 1968.

(Source: facebook.com/Domus Retrieved from https:// www.facebook.com/Domus/photos/ a.385546111119/10154418860636120/?type=3&theater )

Figure 5: “Ciccillo Matarazzo Pavilion”, photograph by Andres Otero.

(Source: Architectuul.com Retrieved from http:// architectuul.com/architecture/ciccillo-matarazzo-pavilion)

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Theory Thesis (2020)

Albert Burgers (4117433)

Figure 6: “Edifício Copan”.

(Source: Copansp.com.br Retrieved from http:// www.copansp.com.br/fotos.html)

Figure 7: “Fitness Centre Club Atlético Paulistano”. D (Source: Wikiarquitectura.com, Retrieved from https:// www.architectural-review.com/essays/retrospective-paulomendes-da-rocha/10044816.article)

Figure 8: “Headquarters of the Bank of London”, photograph by Jose Moscardi.

(Source: Arquivo.arq.br Retrieved from https:// www.arquivo.arq.br/sede-do-bank-of-london-and-southamerica)

Figure 9: “Edificio Mirante do Vale”, photograph by Saopauloinfoco.com.

(Source: Arquivo.arq.br Retrieved from https:// www.arquivo.arq.br/edificio-mirante-do-vale)

Figure 10: “SESC” (Source: Archdaily Retrieved from https:// www.archdaily.com.br/br/01-153205/classicos-daarquitetura-sesc-pompeia-slash-lina-bo-bardi)

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Theory Thesis (2020)

Albert Burgers (4117433)

RESEARCH BIBLIOGRAPHY:

Almandoz, A. (2014). Modernization, Urbanization and Development in Latin America, 1900s - 2000s. S.l.: Routledge Almandoz, A. (2010) Planning Latin Americas Capital Cities, 1850-1950. Routledge.

Architectuul. Ciccillo Matarazzo Pavilion, Retrieved from architectuul.com/architecture/ciccillo-matarazzo-pavilion.

Archuivo. Edificio Mirante do Vale, Retrieved from https://www.arquivo.arq.br/edificio-mirante-do-vale Archuivo. Sede do Bank of London, Retrieved from https://www.arquivo.arq.br/sede-do-bank-of-london-and-southamerica Bessa, A. S. (2015). Beyond the supersquare. Art & architecture in Latin America after modernism. Bronx: Fordham University Press.

Canclini Néstor García. (2008). Hybrid cultures: strategies for entering and leaving modernity. Minneapolis: Univ. of Minnesota Press.

Carranza, L. E., & Lara, F. L. (2015). Modern architecture in Latin America: Art, technology, and utopia. Austin: University of Texas Press.

Centro Técnico de Artes Cênicas . (n.d.). http://www.ctac.gov.br/tdb/english/teatro_sp1.asp. Retrieved from http:// www.ctac.gov.br/tdb/english/teatro_sp1.asp Chilcote, R. H. (2003). Development in theory and practice: Latin American perspectives. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield.

Encyclopedia Britannica (2019, January 09). By Brillembourg, C. F.: Latin American architecture. Retrieved from https://www.britannica.com/art/Latin-American-architecture/ Harvey, D. (2013). The new imperialism. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Töpfer, T. 2013. São Paulo: Big, Bigger, Global? The Development of a Megacity in the Global South. In Exenberger, A., Strobl, P., Bischof, G., & Mokhiber, J. (Eds.), Globalization and the City: Two Connected Phenomena in Past and Present. innsbruck university press. Retrieved from http://books.openedition.org/iup/1364 Hernández, F. (2002). On the notion of architectural hybridisation in Latin America. The Journal of Architecture, 7(1), 77–86. doi: 10.1080/13602360110114722 King, S. D. (2018). Grave new world: the end of globalization, the return of history. New Haven: Yale University Press.

“Martinelli Building.” Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, 3 Jan. 2020, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martinelli_Building.

Sachsenmaier, D. (2006). Global History and Critiques of Western Perspectives. Comparative Education, 42(3), 451-470. Retrieved April 17, 2020, from www.jstor.org/stable/29727795 Sassen, S. (1991). The global city. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press.

Sassen, S. (2004). Global networks, linked cities. New York, NY: Routledge.

Sassen, S. (2010). Globalization and its discontents: New York: New Press.

Skidmore, T. E., Smith, P. H., & Green, J. N. (2019). Modern Latin America. New York: Oxford University Press.

Slobodian, Q. (2020). Globalists: the end of empire and the birth of neoliberalism. S.l.: Harvard University Press.

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