Tesi di Laurea Parte I: Conservation and renewal of historic urban areas in China. Xi'an Muslim Area

CONSERVATION AND RENEWAL OF HISTORIC URBAN AREAS IN CHINA : THE CASE OF THE MUSLIM DISTRICT OF XI’AN

Autore: Ruffino Alarico - 942391 Relatori: prof. Da Silva Ferreira De Carvalho Antonio, prof.ssa Sabatinelli Stefania

XI’AN UNIVERSITY OF ARCHITECTURE AND TECHNOLOGY | POLITECNICO DI MILANO Double Degree program - School of Architecture and History Master Thesis in Buildind Architecture - Academic year 2021-2022 Supervisor: prof. Li Yueyan

CONSERVATION AND RENEWAL OF HISTORIC URBAN AREAS IN CHINA : THE CASE OF THE MUSLIM DISTRICT OF XI’AN

ABSTRACT The aim of this thesis work is to develop an urban and architectural renewal project within the Muslim District of the city of Xi’an. The Muslim District, so named because of the high percentage of residents belonging to the Muslim Hui ethnic minority, is located within the historic walls and is considered one of the oldest parts of the city; one of the few portions of the urban texture survived to the urbanization process which still retains some of its historical features. Today this district is perhaps one the few parts of the city that still maintains a human scale, clearly distinguishing itself from the tall skyscrapers that have been built since the 1980s.

Within this area there are narrow streets, which do not allow the passage of many cars, thus promoting the development of a “slow mobility”, characterized by roads that become almost entirely pedestrian and grant a respite from the frenzy and traffic of the large avenues of the modern city. Along the streets there are many commercial and food activities: from fruit markets to spice shops, from traditional restaurants to pottery shops.

This human scale is not only present in the street system but also in the buildings, which rarely exceed 5-6 floors in height, favouring the creation of a greater sense of community within the district and fostering greater social interactions between the residents. In addition to these positive characteristics, however, there are also very important criticalities, such as a very dense and uncontrolled building texture that often led to the creation of situations of social hardship and a poor quality of life.

I

The lack of urban regulation has led to the birth of numerous abuses and a strong building speculation that often neglects the most essential housing needs, such as lighting and natural ventilation. An urban renewal project should therefore take into account both the positive characteristics that currently exist within the district and the problems that must be eliminated. In order to preserve the historical memory of the area it is necessary to guarantee the conservation of the existing urban texture, that is the street pattern and the urban blocks configuration, the human scale of the buildings, which probably should not exceed three floors in height, and also the intangible cultural heritage, characterized by the local cultural and religious traditions, the ancient commercial activities and functions. The density of the buildings should be maintained, while paying close attention to the quality of life of the residents. The urban analysis and the renewal proposal that this thesis project intends to develop, want to serve as guidelines and a possible model for the local government in order to preserve the historical memory of the Muslim District and its positive characteristics.

Keywords: Historic urban areas conservation, urban renewal, cultural heritage protection

II

CONSERVATION AND RENEWAL OF HISTORIC URBAN AREAS IN CHINA : THE CASE OF THE MUSLIM DISTRICT OF XI’AN

(CHINESE ABSTRACT) 摘 要 本文的写作目的是在西安市的穆斯林区开发一个城市和建筑更新项目。回 民街区因穆斯林回族居民比例高而得名，位于历史悠久的城墙内，被认为 是该市最古老的地区之一；这里的城市肌理是在城市化进程中为数不多幸 存下来的部分之一，仍然保留了其部分历史特征。现在，这个地区可能是 西安市为数不多的仍然保持人文尺度的街区之一，与自1980年代以来建造 的高耸摩天大楼明显不同。在这个区域内布满狭窄的街道，不允许大量汽 车通过，因此促进了“慢行系统”的发展，其特点是道路几乎完全变成了 人行道，并从现代城市大街道的焦躁交通状况中得到了喘息的机会。沿街 有许多商铺，包含美食及各种其他店铺：从水果市场到香料店，从传统餐 馆到陶器店。这种人文尺度不仅存在于街道系统中，也存在于建筑物中， 这些建筑物的高度很少超过

5-6

层，有利于在区域内创造更强的社区意

识，并促进居民之间的社会互动。然而，除了这些积极的特征之外，还有 一些比较消极的关键因素，例如区域内非常密集且不受控制的城市肌理， 这通常会导致社会困境和生活质量低下的情况。缺乏城市监管导致了许多 滥用和强烈的建筑投机行为的产生，这种投机行为往往忽视了最基本的住 房需求，例如照明和自然通风。因此，一个城市更新项目应该考虑到该地

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区目前存在的积极特征和必须消除的问题。为了保存该地区的历史记忆， 必须保证现有的城市肌理，即街道格局和城市街区配置，建筑物的人文尺 度，其高度可能不应超过三层，以及以当地文化和宗教传统、古老的商业 活动和功能为特征的非物质文化遗产。应适当保持建筑物的密度，同时密 切关注居民的生活质量。本文拟进行城市分析和更新建议，希望为当地政 府提供指导和可能的模式，以保存穆斯林街区的历史记忆及其积极特征。

关键词：历史城区保护，城市更新，文化遗产保护

IV

INDEX OF CONTENTS 01.

Introduction

1.

02. Origins of urban design in China

11.

2.1

Introduction

13.

2.2

Feng-shui and the Chinese house

14.

2.3

Hierarchy and division within Chinese society

21.

2.4

A comparison between the Chinese and the Roman ancient city model

24.

03. The protection of historic urban areas in China

29.

3.1

Introduction

31.

3.2

The phases of Chinese urbanization and the loss of historical memory

33.

3.3

The need for conservation of the historical parts of the cities

45.

3.4

The protection of urban areas in China

48.

3.5

Methods for protecting historic urban areas

54.

3.6

Some problems with the protection of historic

3.7

urban areas in China

55.

Cases of renewal of historic urban areas in China

56.

V

04. The conservation of historical heritage in Europe

75.

4.1

Introduction

77.

4.2

The concept of cultural heritage

79.

4.3

The landscape approach: from a single monument to heritage as a context

81.

4.4

A brief history of the theory of urban heritage

83.

4.5

The HUL approach

99.

4.6

Cases of renewal of historic urban areas in Europe

100.

05. Xi’an: an ancient city in modern China

121.

5.1

Introduction

123.

5.2

Geographical contest

126.

5.3

Historical background

129.

5.4

The Chang’an structure during the Tang Dynasty

137.

5.5

The urbanization phases of Xi’an

5.6

VI

from 1949 to 2020

141.

Mapping Xi’an - a city by layers

156.

06. The Muslim historical District of Xi’an

165.

6.1

Introduction

167.

6.2

The Drum Tower Muslim District

170.

6.3

The Hui ethnic minority

173.

6.4

Muslim District Historical Background

179.

6.5

Analysis of the physical spatial elements of the historical area of Beiyuanmen

6.6

187.

Analysis of the social and humanistic elements of the historical area of Beiyuanmen

194.

6.7

Protection and renovation of the Beiyuanmen historical area

197.

6.8

The housing model within the Muslim District:

6.9

between constants and evolutions

203.

Location of the study area

208.

07. General conclusions

211.

08. References

217.

VII

01.

Introduction

1

2

Xi’an University of Architecture and Technology

Master Thesis

Background China is one of the most urbanized and industrialized countries in the world, in fact, according to the latest estimates by the National Statistics Office, at the end of 2019 about 848 million people, over 60% of the total population, lived in urban areas, about 17 , 06 million more people than in the same period in the previous year, while the number of inhabitants in rural areas is decreasing. China, urbanizing at a rate unprecedented in human history, as urban planner Mike Davis points out, reached a greater population in the 1980s than all of Europe in the 19th century and is today the most populous country in the world. The rate of urbanization, less than 20% in the 1960s, has increased significantly since 1979, and the Chinese population became predominantly urban in the late 1980s.

According to estimates, 75% of Chinese inhabitants will live in the city in 2050 and half a billion square meters of new residential areas are expected to be built. This milestone is even more impressive when we consider that, up to a decade ago, urban residents represented 40% of the entire population, while the rest were rural inhabitants. In recent decades, many Chinese cities have undergone enormous urban changes; many historic neighbourhoods have been demolished and their residents relocated to outlying areas to profit from the development of new urban projects and to give cities a new and modern image.

Aggressive development in China has engulfed tens of thousands of historic sites over the past three decades. In 2010, officials from the State Administration of Cultural Heritage (SACH) realized that many sites had disappeared as they tried to compile a comprehensive list of the country ’s ancient tombs, temples, homes and other cultural heritages. Many of these historic sites have given way to roads and reservoirs, skyscrapers and new buildings. A conservation activist told the Guardian that the damage done over the past 20 years has been worse than during the period of the Cultural Revolution, which in its early stages saw the Red Guards ransack religious sites. Many of Beijing’s historic courtyard houses have only been demolished in the last decade, the old town of Dinghai in Zhejiang province was almost

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completely destroyed, and the family home of famous architect IM Pei, allegedly protected by the city of Shanghai, has been lost forever.

Chapter 01.

Introduction

In some cases, such as that of Qianmen Street, the capital’s centuriesold shopping street, the historic buildings have been replaced with surrogate versions, historical fakes that do not even remotely preserve the qualities of the pre-existing historic buildings; while, in other cases, historical sites have disappeared entirely to make room for new constructions. As reported by the SACH, some 30,995 of the sites and historical relics registered on the 1982 list have disappeared; however, this decline would also reflect inaccuracies in the 1982 survey and new counting methods, meaning that in some cases, multiple entries were recorded for a single site in the past. Even so, the large-scale construction of infrastructure and the uncontrolled urbanization process of the past three decades has had a major impact on the country ’s heritage.

Liu Xiaohe, deputy director of the 2010 survey, told the state-run China Daily newspaper that officials were doing everything possible to preserve the national historic sites, but added, “We have about 800,000 historic sites in China, but only 80,000 people are working for the protection of relics. What we can do now is to intervene to protect significant sites, such as the Summer Palace, while for the less important ones I fear that they will have to give way to economic development”.

He Shuzhong, head of the Beijing Cultural Heritage Protection Center, said in 2010: “The past 20 years have been the worst time for the protection of cultural heritage sites. It is even worse than during the Cultural Revolution: back then, most of the damage was to movable objects, but not tombs and buildings or ancient cities. In the process of redevelopment of the cities many old buildings were demolished; Beijing had 25 protection areas and I believe that only half of them are still well protected now ”. “The key to improving the situation is to change the attitude of the local population towards protection. The government has made many mistakes in the past and still does now; therefore, we need people and the media to play the role of observers and critics”.

China has seen an unprecedented process of urbanization since its reform and opening up to the outside world in 1979, particularly since the late 1990s. Economic development and uncontrolled urban sprawl reflect to some extent the prosperity of a nation; however, with the rise of large-scale urban projects across China, a conflict has arisen between the old and new areas of cities, especially in the historic blocks.

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Master Thesis

Xi’an University of Architecture and Technology

Failure to manage and protect these historic urban areas has led to the loss of their original city functions, the isolation of historic monuments, greater environmental pollution and road traffic congestion. All these problems slow down urban development and erase important historical evidence of the past that can no longer be recovered.

Faced with this situation, the whole country has tried to carry out a theoretical and practical exploration of urban renewal, but due to the lack of theoretical guidance, a well-equipped control system and a mature awareness of conservation parts , historic cities have been somehow further damaged by landscaping projects that sought only to re-propose and copy the architectural styles of the past. In this sense, it is urgent that Chinese planners and architects seek and develop an effective and sustainable methodology of investigation

and

development

to

protect

historic

urban

areas.

Even in the city of Xi’an, one of the oldest and first of the Chinese imperial capitals, the urbanization process has led to the demolition and loss of numerous historic sites and neighbourhoods. Since 1949, the historic area of ​​the city, or the part enclosed within the walls built during the Ming dynasty, has undergone enormous upheavals. The internal roads have been widened, including the two main axes that cut the city orthogonally dividing it into four sectors, to allow greater road traffic and avoid congestion and excessive traffic. Traditional buildings, consisting mainly of low-rise buildings of 1-2 floors above ground and organized around a central courtyard, have been replaced over the decades by palaces and skyscrapers to cope, on the one hand, with the increase in population and on the other another to “embellish” the historic part of the city, following a logic of building speculation, characterized by the demolition of the old to make room for the new.

Decades of renewal policies have therefore led to an almost total loss of historical memory, both material and immaterial, in almost all the main ancient Chinese cities and even today, unfortunately, we are witnessing phenomena similar to those of the past, where entire neighbourhoods are indiscriminately razed to make room for modern buildings. In this perspective, it is therefore essential to try to define new types of intervention to preserve and at the same time renew the historic urban

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areas of the cities and raise awareness among local government bodies on the issue.

Chapter 01.

Introduction

Thesis scope and organization The main objective of this thesis is to investigate the state of protection, conservation and renewal of historic urban areas in different contexts, in particular in Europe and China, in order to develop a possible intervention plan for an urban block located within the Muslim District of the Chinese city of Xi’an, in Shaanxi province. Even if the final goal of this project is urban renewal and the conservation of the physical and intangible elements kept within the historic Muslim District of Xi’an, it is not possible to think of being able to carry out a successful intervention, capable of respecting local traditions, solve the critical issues present and be sustainable in the long term by involving the resident population, without knowing at least some fundamental characteristics, concerning: the urban design of historical settlements in China, the evolution and the theory of conservation of historical areas , the urbanization phases of Chinese cities, in particular Xi’an, in the modern era and the urban, architectural, social and cultural factors that characterize the Muslim District. Starting from the analysis and theoretical study of the urban design of Chinese cities in ancient times, governed by the doctrine of Feng shui and strongly linked to natural and symbolic characteristics, the cognitive bases were laid to understand the traditional structure and social organization which in the past, especially during the long period of the imperial dynasties, characterized all urban settlements. Chapters 3 and 4 analyse the evolution and current state of conservation of historic urban areas, respectively in China and in Europe, also analysing for each of the two contexts, some case studies of urban renewal and redevelopment interventions that can be considered model to replicate successful strategies and avoid any mistakes made.

Finally, chapters 5 and 6 subsequently analyse the context in which the proposed redevelopment project takes place, providing some important information and historical characteristics of the city of Xi’an and the Muslim historical district respectively. In particular, chapter 6 is fundamental for understanding the urban structure of the neighbourhood and the demographic, ethnic, religious and cultural characteristics of the local population.

6

Xi’an University of Architecture and Technology

Master Thesis

Problem’s statement - Project area The Muslim District, located within the fortified walls of Xi’an dating back to the Ming dynasty, is one of the most important historical urban areas and the one that best preserves the urban configuration of the imperial era within the city. Due to the urbanization process, which began in the 1950s, the historic center of the city of Xi’an, like almost all other important Chinese historic cities, has undergone a profound architectural and street transformation. Within the Ming-cheng area (Ming dynasty walls), the streets have been progressively widened to allow for easier and faster passage of cars and public transport, including two subway lines, while the traditional courtyard buildings on one floor , which had characterized almost all the historic cities of the country until the rise to power of the Chinese Communist Party, were almost all demolished to make way for multi-storey buildings and sometimes real skyscrapers because they were generally considered unsuitable to meet modern housing needs in terms of comfort and health and of residential density. In this process of modernization, the material and intangible historical heritage of the historic city of Xi’an has been almost completely lost due to the still scarce and underdeveloped systems and regulations of protection and conservation. Today, in addition to the city walls, which are considered the largest and best preserved in all of China, only a few other isolated historical monuments and buildings have survived the different phases of urbanization of the city, among which certainly the most famous and important are the Bell and Drum Towers. Inside the walls there are only two historical areas which, although no longer characterized by the original courtyard buildings, still retain the traditional checkerboard urban plan, which are: the Muslim District and the Steles Forest area .

The Muslim District is so named because of the high percentage (60-65%) of the population belonging to the Muslim Hui ethnic minority, which has resided within it since the founding of modern Xi’an during the Ming dynasty. The district represents the most important urban historical area of ​​the city for its many ancient mosques still existing, for its alleys and large rectangular blocks that give the area a more human dimension than the other parts of the city, due to the presence of some examples of

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traditional court residences and for the religious, cultural and economic characteristics that constitute the intangible heritage of this area.

Chapter 01.

Introduction

The high population density and informal buildings within the area is due to the administrative autonomy of the neighborhood and to the fact that the land is directly owned by local residents, unlike the other parts of the city, where it is owned by state property. This autonomy is due to the presence of the high percentage of people belonging to the Hui ethnic minority, which also explains the lack of building regulations in the neighborhood and the inability of the local government to protect and preserve the historic buildings of the area. Due to strong building speculation and the government ’s lack of strict protection regulations, there are very few still existing and well-preserved historic buildings, decreasing with each passing year because of to demolitions and extensions. The issue of land ownership within the district represents a problematic issue that has yet to be investigated and resolved and which should involve a series of complex negotiations between the municipal administration of the city of Xi’an and the individual owners of the various built urban plots. The government should develop strategies to try to involve the community in the regeneration process of the Muslim district, for example by promoting economic incentives and bonuses to be awarded to residents for the architectural redevelopment of buildings.

This thesis seeks to develop and elaborate a possible plan for the renewal and conservation of the Muslim District taking as a model an urban block located in the area. The strategies and interventions proposed in this urban block could then serve as a prototype for the development of a larger redevelopment project for the entire district.

The project block is located along the perimeter of the district, in a strategic point, close to a main access to the area and adjacent to Beiyuanmen street, the best preserved and most touristic street in the area.

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Xi’an University of Architecture and Technology

Master Thesis

Research questions

1. What were the characteristics and design rules of ancient urban settlements in China?

2. What is the current state of preservation and redevelopment of historic urban areas in China and Europe? Are there any emblematic case studies that can be used as a model?

3. What urban and historical processes have led to the present state of the historic city of Xi’an enclosed by the walls?

4. What are the characteristics, criticalities and possible opportunities currently present within the Muslim Historic District of Xi’an?

5. What intervention strategy should be used to renew and at the same time preserve the tangible and intangible characteristics within the Muslim District of Xi’an?

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Chapter 01.

Introduction

10

02.

Origins of urban design in China

11

12

2. 1 Intr od ucti on

Xi’an University of Architecture and Technology

Master Thesis

Since ancient times, the choice of places to give life to a settlement, whether it was an agricultural village or a city, has always been subject to numerous investigations and studies by man; regardless of the geographical area to which they belong, people have always been looking for the ideal place to stop and build a shelter, a temporary camp or a permanent settlement. The main factor that has always influenced this choice is certainly the environmental quality of a certain area, which must have had characteristics favourable to human settlement: a temperate climate, the presence of a drinking water courses, the presence of vegetation to build houses, abundant fauna and arable land. In many cases, to these environmental factors, mystical beliefs and superstitions were added to influence the choice of one area over another; in Chinese culture specifically it was the birth and spread of “Geomancy ”.

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Origins of urban design in China

Geomancy, from the Greek geō “earth” and manteía “divination”, is an ancient divination art, probably born in the African continent, which is based on the interpretation, by a fortune teller, of portions of land to give responses and future predictions. Geomancy developed very early in China, it was already present during the Zhou Dynasty (XII - III century BC), and was initially accompanied with divination and witchcraft, aimed at analysing the places and choosing the most suitable ones for the construction of new settlements, whether they were homes for single families or large cities. It was therefore a mental framework and a method used since ancient times to select and design the anthropic environment. Starting from the period of the Han Dynasty (II BC - I AD), systematic and methodological notions were established for the choice of places, which were followed by the birth of a new profession, that of the “geomancer ”: experts on the subject, who wrote their theories giving rise to Feng-shui literature (fēng shuǐ, 風水), an ancient Taoistic geomantic art. These writings and doctrines are one of the main causes of the long permanence, during the centuries preceding modern history, of traditional Chinese settlement models, which spread and developed especially in the imperial age. The doctrine of Feng-shui is today mainly associated with the location of the house and the orientation of domestic spaces, however in the past, it was strictly applied to all areas of the dwelling generally understood. In the classical Chinese literature book on Geomancy “The writing of the dwelling” we read: “A dwelling is the basis of a human existence. A capital, a normal city, a village, but also any hut in any wild region, that is, wherever

2.2 Fe ng - shu i a nd the C hi nes e hous e

Chapter 02.

the human being is, that place must be considered a home. In the same way, the tomb and its surroundings must also be considered, since it is the abode in another world after death”.

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Xi’an University of Architecture and Technology

Master Thesis

Village of the Fang clan. Hills surround the village on four sides and a winding river runs through the houses from west to east according to the best Fengshui model.

In nature there are two kinds of essences, the positive and the negative (Yin and Yang), which are in constant dynamic contrast between them; according to the theories of Geomancy this essence tends to accumulate and disperse, so that in the first case there will be prosperity and flowering, while in the second case there will be decay and bad luck. To receive good Feng-shui it is therefore necessary to find a place where this essence is present and active, and since it cannot be seen by the human eye, it is necessary to study the orography of the land to understand if a place is favorable or not. “The earth is the container of the essence and the essence moves within the earth. When the essence meets the wind, it will be swept away and reduced to pieces, while when it meets the water, it will persist ”.

This is why we speak of the doctrine of Feng-shui, where Feng (風) means wind and Shui (水) means water. To ensure that a house receives positive Feng-shui it will therefore be necessary to have a stream near it, while the presence of mountains (or voluminous hills) to the north

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allows you to protect yourself from the wind and prevent the essence from dispersing.

Chapter 02.

Origins of urban design in China

Also, if the water flows quickly, the essence will disperse, while if the river is winding, slowed by the ground and hills, it will last for a long time. For this reason, Chinese settlements were always placed in the presence of streams and hills, while areas that were too flat were avoided. After the Han dynasty, the doctrine of Feng-shui was influenced by the idea of ​​the “five elements” (metal, fire, water, wood and earth), which increased the mystical character of its rules, adding all sorts of prohibitions and superstitions and losing the way of geography in favor of the most improbable beliefs. The first goal of Feng-shui is to select an ideal area to place and then design a house, however in nature there is no perfect model, so the discipline admits the possibility of altering the

Anhui Province Temple. Temples also followed Fengshui rules.

anthropic environment with artificial modifications: the hills can be raised by moving the land, the course of a river can be diverted and the vegetation can be cut or planted, thus leading also to a design of the natural environment by man.

The Chinese conception of nature is therefore that of trying to achieve a cohesion, a harmony, between the natural and human environment, where not only the adequacy of a geographical area is evaluated, but also the ability of man to integrate without causing disturbances to the surrounding environment.

This strong relationship between man and nature can be explained thanks to the strong influence that agriculture had in the past, and still has today, on Chinese society, in which peasants have always made up a large portion of the population and are considered to be essential for the survival of the entire society.

Already from the first historical dynasty, the Shang

Fujian Province Temple set according to Fengshui patterns.

Dynasty (XVI-XI century BC), the populations of the Chinese territory lived in quadrangular settlements, enclosed by walls built in beaten earth and wood.

16

Xi’an University of Architecture and Technology

Master Thesis

Fuzhou City, Fujian Province, surrounded by hills and river.

The Chinese city was based on an ideal model that we can find described in the “Book of rites” (禮記), one of the five Chinese classics on which Confucian doctrine is based and in which the rites and ceremonies of the Zhou Dynasty are described. Specifically, in the “Zhouli” (Rites of the Zhou), one of the three surviving works (written in the Han era) of which the book is composed, the ideal vision of the city is provided according to the canons of Confucian philosophy. The shape of the capital, or city in general, must be given by the sovereign, it must be located in the center of the space occupied by “civilization” (the kingdom), so that it must arise where “Heaven and Earth are in agreement, where the four seasons meet, the winds and rains and the negative and positive forces (Yin and Yang) harmonize”. It is therefore an ideal cosmic center that can only be identified with the help of Feng-shui and the study of the geography of a place.

Kaogong ji (考 工 记), also known as “Artificers’ Record”, is a classic Chinese manual of science and technology that is part of the Rites

17

of the Zhou and written towards the end of the Spring and Autumn period.

Chapter 02.

Origins of urban design in China

In the manual it is said that: “The capital of a kingdom should be designed as a square enclosed by walls, with each side 9 Li long (Chinese mile, about 500 meters) and with three access doors on each wall. Inside there must be nine main roads in a north- south direction and nine in an east-west direction and each of them must be wide enough to allow nine wagons to pass at the same time.

The Temple of the Sovereign’s Ancestors should be located to the east, the Temple of the God of the Earth to the west, the administrative center of the emperor (The Hall of Audience) to the south and the main market of the city to the north. Both the court and the market measure 1 fu (夫) in area”. Finally, in the center of the city, as a symbol of administrative power, the imperial palace must be placed, at the center of which is placed the Mingtang, or “Hall of Light ”.

The ideal city in “Zhouli Kao Gong ji” script.

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Xi’an University of Architecture and Technology

Master Thesis

In the description provided, the reference to some recurring numbers, considered “magic numbers” in traditional Chinese culture, is evident. The number three, which we find in the number of doors on each side of the walls, represents Heaven and three are also the sectors of the intelligible universe (Heaven, Earth and Man); the number nine, which we find in the streets, is three times the number three and recalls the ancient division of the Empire into nine provinces, by the emperor Da Yu in the third millennium BC. Finally, the number twelve is given by the sum of three and nine and represents both the number of months in the Chinese calendar and the celestial constellations towards which the twelve (three on four sides) access gates to the city are oriented. The reason why the plan of the ideal city is a square is probably due, in addition to organizational and formal issues, to the fact that in ancient China it was thought that the Earth was flat and square in shape. The shape of the square has mystical properties in Chinese culture, in fact, according to tradition, the ancient division of the empire into nine provinces was inspired by the great emperor Yu from the diagram called Lo Shu (Lo river script), in which some integers numbers are arranged to form a pattern called “Magic Square”: a square matrix with a 3 x 3 configuration which reflects the shape of the Universe and the basis of Feng-shui astrology. Legend tells that one day Emperor Yu (夏禹), while walking along the Lo River (洛河), saw a turtle coming out of the water with strange marks on its back and, after careful examination, he discovered that the signs represented numbers. In fact, the turtle had an unusual pattern on its shell which later became the basis of the “Lo Shu Square”, a mathematical grid in which the sum of the numbers of each row, column and diagonal is the same: that is 15. The number 15 is considered an important number because it corresponds to the number of days in each of the 24 cycles of the Chinese solar year. In other words, it is the number of days in the new moon cycle until the full moon. In addition, at the center of the matrix is ​​the number 5, which recalls the five natural elements of Chinese alchemy (water, metal, wood, fire and earth) and to which the Imperial Palace is associated, as the ideal center of

19

the city and the world.

Chapter 02.

Origins of urban design in China

The magic square “Lo Shu”.

Furthermore, another interesting aspect to note, regarding the continuous search for centrality, is that the word “China” literally means “Central Country ”, since there was the belief that the country was at the center of the world. The first capital of the empire, Chang’an (today Xi’an) in Shaanxi province, is located in the center of the Guanzhong Plain, which in turn was considered the geographical center of China; it follows that the imperial palace, which is ideally located in the geometric center of the capital, would have found itself at the center of the world, exactly as prescribed in the Zhouli: “Where Earth and Sky are in agreement, where the four seasons meet ...”.

A sort of universal center from which the emperor ’s power

could spread to any place on earth.

Even if the description reported in the Zhouli represents an ideal model it found a great correspondence in the urban planning practice of ancient Chinese cities, not only in the capitals but in all the important cities, starting from the Zhou Dynasty and during all subsequent ones. An emblematic example is that of the city of Chang’an built during the Han Dynasty and assumed as the capital of the empire also during the subsequent Tang Dynasty (7th - 10th century AD). Some cities in the neighboring Japanese state will also be inspired by this model, such as Nara and Kyoto.

20

2.3 H ie r a r chy a nd d i v i s i on wi thi n Chi nes e s oci ety

Xi’an University of Architecture and Technology

Master Thesis

The cosmic and hierarchical order underlying Chinese society and theorized by Confucius (孔夫子) Kǒng Fūzǐ, 551-479 BC) was also reflected in the rigid organization of the city. One of the most important components of urban design was represented by the central axis, always oriented in a north-south direction, which ideally cut the city into two identical parts, defining on the one hand the symmetry and organization of the urban morphology and, on the other hand, the social hierarchy that governed every aspect of daily life. The centrality given by the longitudinal axis is present both on the urban scale and on the scale of the single private residence in the courtyard. In fact, rows of houses lined up along the main paths, closed to the street by long blind walls that were organized towards an internal courtyard that served as the center of domestic activities and as the only source of lighting and ventilation, thus responding to the needs of a society founded on the division into patriarchal clans.

Each house, or rather each courtyard complex, was made up of several houses and hosted several generations of the same family, at the helm of which were the older members, as they were considered wiser and custodians of knowledge.

The residential districts were then placed around the imperial palace, organized in large blocks, also square in shape, surrounded by walls and bordered by streets crossed at right angles. In the areas near the center there were the most important social classes, such as officials and writers, while moving away towards the outer walls of the city were the merchants and artisans. The dimensions and decorations of the houses were dictated by precise urban rules, according to the social rank of the owners. A second fundamental element for the hierarchical division of city society were the walls.

The Chinese city, seat of the administrative and legislative bodies, was completely closed to the outside and this system of walls was called with the term “cheng” (城), which means precisely “a wall”; however, this system, both defensive and symbolic, was considered so important for ancient society that the same character was also used to identify the city itself. As already said, the walls were not only present at the edge of the city but also around the imperial palace,

21

the court residences of all social backgrounds, temples, markets and even around some private gardens.

Chapter 02.

Origins of urban design in China

In ancient times the walls were built using a wooden framework, which was then filled using beaten earth

and

clay;

only

starting

from the Ming Dynasty (XIV - XVII century) the external walls were reinforced using clay bricks and stones, in order to make them more resistant to both natural erosion and siege.

An ancient Chinese saying even said

that:

“Security

is

being

in times of peace in the city and in times of disorder in the countryside”; from this we can understand that this system had a more symbolic than defensive meaning

in

the

strict

sense,

the exact opposite of western cities, where in the Middle Ages the stronghold represented the defence

par

excellence

from

enemy sieges. The real purpose of the walls was to divide the internal space (“nei”) from the external one (“wai”): two terms

Qing era (1644-1911) drawing showing a group of bricklayers and carpenters building the outer wall of a residential courtyard house.

which are linked to the dichotomy between good and evil (yin and yang) of the natural essence in Feng-shui

philosophy.

It

was

a rigid division of spaces into areas of competence according to

function,

competences

and

social hierarchy to form clearly distinguishable nuclei; if desired, it could be considered as a first form of zoning.

22

Xi’an University of Architecture and Technology

Master Thesis

The central area was dedicated to the imperial palace, the temples were arranged in a crown all around, as a sort of mystical protection against evil forces, the residential districts were divided according to rank and professional skills (officials, artisans, peasants, merchants) and there was also a neighborhood dedicated to foreigners who stayed in the city permanently or for short periods of time. Real cities within the city itself, where strangers were almost locked up, on the one hand for fear that they could contaminate the Chinese style of life and traditions, on the other hand, because they were deemed unworthy to be part of society.

23

Origins of urban design in China

The ancient Chinese practice of choosing the places of future settlements

through

the

use

of

geomancy

and

the

study

of

geographical characteristics shows similarities and analogies with many other cultures and peoples of the past. In fact, almost every great civilization had traditions and procedures, even mystical ones, to identify favourable places for settlements. In the case of Roman civilization, the analysis of the places was entrusted to the Haruspex, a priest expert in the art of divination, who was able to determine whether it was a favourable area or not by interpreting the entrails of the animals captured in the place of the future settlement and sacrificing them to the gods. If the bowels of the animal, especially the liver, stomach and spleen, were healthy, it meant that the place where they lived was safe and conducive to the development of life.

If the interpretation gave a positive result then the Haruspex gave his consent and the area was consecrated by the Augure. The latter, positioning itself in the center of the future city, traced the two main axes in a north-south and east-west direction, dividing the urban layout into four parts, a symbol of universal order. Like the Chinese city, the Roman settlements also had a quadrangular plan with the main lines oriented according to the cardinal points; the main axis developed in a north-south direction (cardo), which was also wider than the secondary axis in an east-west direction (decumanus).

The streets were all strictly orthogonal to each other, defining, as in the case of ideal Chinese cities, a large orderly chessboard. The main axis, the cardo, symbolized the axis of the world, the decumanus represented the movement of the Sun from east to west, while the division into four equal square or rectangular parts alluded to the Cosmos. Finally, at the intersection of the two axes, if the Chinese placed the Imperial Palace and the throne (Mingtang), instead the Romans in the Archaic period dug a well, called “mundus Cereris”, which symbolized the direct relationship between man and terrestrial

2 .4 A com pa r iso n b e tw e en the C hi nes e a nd the Ro ma n a nci ent ci ty m od el

Chapter 02.

forces and around it the sanctuary of the god Ceres was placed.

Already starting from the Republican age (509 - 27 BC) this custom had been abandoned and at the intersection of the two main axes was instead placed the Forum, that is a large rectangular public square, closed by arcades along the four sides and center of city activities.

24

Xi’an University of Architecture and Technology

Master Thesis

Cardo

Decumanus

Urban model of a typical Roman city.

The main difference between Chinese and Roman civilizations in conceiving the city lies in the meaning attributed to the spaces and in the cultural conception of the relationship between man and nature.

In fact,both Romans and Chinese verified that a place was suitable for human needs by analysing the geographical and environmental conditions, but Romans did not verify the opposite: that the presence of men did not alter the natural environment upsetting its balance.

The Chinese, instead, through what we could define a “mystical ecology ”, verified that the creation of a human settlement did not disturb the cosmic balance of a place, and therefore were concerned that their actions on the anthropic environment did not lead to the dispersion of positive natural essence, which would consequently bring bad luck to them. Therefore, if the Romans tended to conquer a place, the Chinese tried to integrate harmoniously, to become one

25

with the surrounding natural environment.

Chapter 02.

Origins of urban design in China

From the point of view of the urban layout, the Roman city was certainly more heterogeneous and varied from the typological and morphological point of view of its buildings and public spaces; in fact, in the ancient Chinese settlements there is almost no differentiation of architectural structure between civil, public and religious buildings, which were all declined through the same internal courtyard configuration. The whole urban texture was then divided by beaten earth walls, which responded to the needs of a population who was characterized by the presence of numerous social rites and ceremonies differentiated according to the social background.

If on the one hand the Roman population was heterogeneous, multiethnic and multiracial, the Chinese society, on the other hand, was extremely homogeneous, mono-racial and culturally closed to external changes; this is also evident in the ability of this people to absorb and adapt the philosophical and religious influences of other countries to their own social and moral needs: Buddhist and Islamic cultures are an example of this attitude.

26

Summing up Urban design has very ancient roots in China, both the largest cities and small villages followed very precise rules both for the choice of the place of settlement and for the construction of roads, blocks and even individual residential houses. Before building a settlement, it was essential to study the geographical characteristics of the places to respect the rules of the Confucian doctrine of Feng-shui, to verify the presence of rivers or streams for the cultivation and supply of drinking water and the presence of hills and mountains for a better defence from enemies. Once that a suitable place was found the city was built, which in turn had to follow specific design rules concerning: the shape of the settlement, ideally squared, the defensive walls and access gates, the arrangement and division of the different urban functions and services, with the palace located in the center and closed by a second wall, and also the articulation of the internal streets according to a “chessboard” configuration with parallel and orthogonal paths that intersected defining the different districts and residential blocks (also closed by walls along the streets). Within the city street texture particular importance was given to the two large axes that cut the settlement in a north-south and east-west direction, crossing in the center, where the sovereign’s palace was located and ideally dividing the city into four equal parts. In reality, these very strict and geometric rules were applied only partially, as there was often the need to adapt to the orographic conditions of the soil, the presence of waterways or even the need to meet specific functional needs. In some Chinese cities of ancient foundation it is still possible to distinctly recognize the urban layout of the imperial dynasty, among which the city of Xi’an is certainly an emblematic model of conservation of the urban design rules of the past.

In fact, the city has the best preserved and most extensive historical walls throughout China, within which, in the so-called “Mingcheng” area, the street configuration still respects the ancient checkerboard configuration with large residential blocks.

27

Map of the Ming-cheng area nowadays (Xi’an). The two main axes that govern the structure of the city are still present and intersect at the present site of the Bell Tower. The internal streets still retain the traditional checkerboard configuration, even if the large rectangular blocks have been renovated and the traditional courtyard buildings have been replaced by high modern buildings.

28

03.

The protection of historic urban areas in China

29

30

3. 1 Intr od ucti on

Xi’an University of Architecture and Technology

Master Thesis

The urbanization process in China has had a notable and very fast increase from 1949, the year of the founding of the People’s Republic of China, to today; leading to the development of numerous new cities and the development of real urban megalopolises inhabited by millions of people. However, the increase in population has brought a series of problems, such as urban congestion, scarcity of soil, air pollution and the inadequacy and degradation of some homes. A large number of historic urban areas and neighborhoods have been affected, to varying degrees, by large-scale demolition and renovation operations, so much so that most of the historic buildings and streets of the city have now disappeared, while the remaining traditional buildings and historic sites are surrounded by modern buildings that almost always have an architectural scale and morphological characteristics very different from those of the past. The protection of historic districts, ancient buildings, urban textures, local customs and cultures has become an important topic and a theme of wide discussion. In this period, in which the historical memory of the past risks to be definitively eliminated by the careless progress of modernization, which still today leads to the demolition of important testimonies of the past in favor of new buildings and economic gains, it is necessary to try to develop strategies of intervention in order to renew and, at the same time, preserve and protect the historical and cultural heritage of China. The protection and renewal of historic urban areas is an urgent problem to be solved also in the city of Xi’an, one of the oldest and richest in China.

The level of urbanization of Xi’an is still high, the city continues to expand into the peripheral and neighboring areas; however, the new construction projects do not only affect the areas bordering the city, but are also developing in the context of the transformation of the “ancient ” city, which, for more than fifty years, continued to be affected by continuous modifications and interventions.

Today, still following the negative practices of the past of “demolition and reconstruction”, a clean sweep of entire residential districts is made and there is a risk of making the city of Xi’an lose the historical and cultural traditions

31

capital.

that have characterized this millenarian

Chapter 03.

The protection of historic urban areas in China

Nowadays the historical areas within the city of Xi’an have almost completely disappeared, in fact, within the historical city walls (the so-called Ming-cheng area), only two historical zones can now be identified: the community next to the “Forest of the Steles”and the Muslim District of the city (also called Huimin or Huifang district), characterized by the presence of numerous people of the “Hui” ethnicity, a Chinese minority of Muslim religion. Of the entire ancient city within the walls, founded during the Ming dynasty, only these two historic areas and a few other isolated ancient buildings remain within a modern urban texture.

32

3.2 The p ha se s o f Chi nes e ur b a ni z a ti on and the lo ss o f hi s tor i ca l m em or y

Xi’an University of Architecture and Technology

Master Thesis

In order to understand the need for the preservation of historic urban areas in China, it is necessary to know the reforms and urbanization processes that have characterized the country in the last seventy years of modern history, as these processes have totally changed the appearance of Chinese cities, leading on the one hand to an unprecedented development and, on the other hand, to an enormous loss of millenary historical testimonies and characteristics. In the course of the history of urban construction in China, four main phases of urbanization can be distinguished, which inevitably also led to the destruction of numerous buildings and historic districts, in favour of a rapid process of modernization. The first phase of destruction and renewal can be identified with the so-called “old materialism”, a phase of urbanization led by industrial development between 1949 and 1965, the second phase is the one that referred to the so-called “revolutionary theory ” and the “Anti-urbanism movements” between 1960 and 1977, the third phase was accompanied by the “theory of development ”, which took place during the most recent period of urban transformation and renewal from the early 1980s to the 1990s of the last century; finally, the fourth phase refers to the most contemporary and current events of Chinese urbanization.

Economic

reconstruction

and

industrialization-led

urbanization

(1949-1965) After the founding of the People’s Republic of China in 1949, the central government focused on recovering the national economy through several strategies, among which the main ones concerned rural land reform and urban industrialization. In 1950 the government adopted the “Land Reform Law of the People’s Republic of China”, which abolished feudal land ownership and offered it to the peasant class. Also in the 1950s, 156 major industrial projects were launched with the technical and financial support of the Soviet Union to promote the industrialization of the country, in particular of heavy industries.

Although the direct impact of these industries on urbanization was limited, they encouraged the growth of small industries which absorbed the rural workers in cities, leading to significant population migration and growth. In the planned

33

economy, all large factories were owned by the state and all major economic decisions were made by the government.

Chapter 03.

The protection of historic urban areas in China

In 1952, the Chinese Communist Party (CCP), after taking control of China, launched the First Five-year plan (1953- 1957), an economic policy which provided for an urban development plan of “ building key projects and constant progress” to promote China’s urbanization.

The plan set ambitious targets for infrastructure and manufacturing,

Propaganda posters:

particularly in heavy industries; the national economy was in fact

(on the left) “Strive for

underdeveloped and lacking in mining, steel and infrastructure

execution of the Five-year

the early completion and

industries. In addition to these shortcomings, the 1953 Chinese census

Plan” (1956), (on the

revealed a rising birth rate and a population approaching 600 million

receive instructions from

people. This population growth has made the government’s need to

right) Chinese engineers a Soviet Russian adviser.

increase production and economic growth even more urgent. Drawing on his experiences during a trip to Moscow in 1949, Chairman Mao Zedong embraced the Soviet model of the “five-year plan” for economic development. Previously Mao had focused his energies on the peasants, but his final plan became the transformation of China into a modern industrial power. The five-year plan was supported

by Soviet Russia, which helped providing consultancy, logistical and material support. Moscow provided also a small loan of $ 300 million and, above all, the services of several thousand Soviet engineers, scientists, technicians and planners for the realization of large urban and infrastructure projects. On paper, the results of this Five Year Plan have been impressive. Industrial production more than doubled, with an annual growth rate of 16%.

34

Xi’an University of Architecture and Technology

Master Thesis

While the first five-year plan achieved its goals of increasing heavy industry and stimulating the economy, these advances have worsened the imbalance between rural and urban populations, with serious implications for the new society. As with economic reforms in Soviet Russia, China’s emphasis on industrial growth has come at the expense of agriculture. Agricultural production, especially wheat, has struggled to keep pace with a growing population, jeopardizing the food supply.

Indeed, most of China’s economic growth in the mid-1950s was centered on large urban, industrial and infrastructure projects. These works have improved the quality of life of urban populations, whose number increased from 57 million to 100 million between 1949 and 1957.

Life expectancy has increased from 36 to 57 years, housing standards in cities have improved and urban incomes increased by 40%. Due to the large gap between urban and rural development, large numbers of peasants emigrated to cities and industrial and mining areas in search of work. So, although the government’s intent was to design a parallel development between urban and rural areas, between industry and agriculture, excessive urban production has pushed many rural dwellers to move to cities in search of better living conditions, causing an emptying of the countryside. Cities were conceived as centers of production, where consumption was minimized in order to maximize investment in industrial development.

The spatial configurations of Chinese economic activities reflected the Soviet socialist model of the time and the residential living space has been reduced to a minimum with common areas used as kitchens, canteens, laundries and cleaning rooms. Furthermore, the life of urban Chinese was strictly regimented through “danwei” or labour units.

The danwei provided the basic structure for work and controlled many aspects of daily life, including housing, education, and social services.

People even had to consult their danwei on matters relating to marriage, having children or travel. In 1958, China launched the “Great Leap Forward” movement, which set economic goals to be achieved, often with standards that were impossible to achieve. With the recovery of the national economy and industrialization, China’s level of urbanization has increased with an annual growth rate of 70.5% and 63 new cities

35

have been established, mainly in Heilongjiang, Inner Mongolia, Hebei, Anhui and Fujian provinces.

Chapter 03.

The protection of historic urban areas in China

However, the policies of the Great Leap Forward movement have had the negative effect of exacerbating industrial development and causing excessive rural migration to urban areas. It was a period that we can define as “over-urbanization”, considering the level of economic and social development of the time. The central government, driven by simple pragmatism, also believed that the destruction of old buildings was not a problem, but a necessary sacrifice to make room for modern buildings. Thus, following the model of the city of Beijing, a large number of ancient Chinese cities have been severely damaged and deprived of their historical memory.

The city of Beijing in the 1950s during the first

major

phase

of

urbanization. The photo shows

the

between

contrast

the

ancient

hutongs with courtyard buildings alleys

and

and

avenues

narrow

the

built

large in

the

Hotel

in

1950s.

The

Beijing

1954.

The

traditional

structure

of

urban

the

city,

characterized by narrow streets and small houses, has

been

completely

modified to allow the construction

of

large

avenues for the passage of

cars

and

public

transport such as buses and trams.

36

Xi’an University of Architecture and Technology

Master Thesis

The ancient gate of Zhengyangmen, Beijing, 1951. In the picture it can be seen the extent of the demolitions within the historic city to make way for modern buildings.

Anti-urban movements and the Great Cultural Revolution In the early 1960s, the country suffered a disastrous economic meltdown due to unrealistic economic objectives that distorted the ordinary relationships between different economic sectors; moreover, the situation was aggravated by three years of bad climatic conditions between 1959 and 1961, which led to consequent famines and bad harvests and also by the sudden end of relations with the Soviet regime which, in the summer of 1960, interrupted aid to China due to the Sino-Soviet split.

To try to remedy the situation and the growing popular discontent,

37

the central government subsequently implemented a policy of “readjustment, consolidation, strengthening and improvement ”.

Chapter 03.

The protection of historic urban areas in China

This strategy prioritized agriculture and light industries, compressing the scale of heavy industry, reducing the number of workers in state-owned enterprises, the size of urban areas and the population through the household registration system (Hukou). As a result, many urban workers were laid off between 1961 and 1964, and 90% of them returned to rural areas. This phase, between 1961 and 1965, is commonly referred to as the “First AntiUrban Movement”. The central government launched the “Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution” in 1966 to

Chinese Red Guards during the Cultural Revolution in China, 1966.

attempt a fundamental change in Chinese culture, led by teams of young people: the “Red Guards”. These activities led directly to the “Second Anti-Urbanization Movement”. In this period, adhering to the principle of “rupture between old and new”, many historical heritages were destroyed indiscriminately, showing total indifference and almost contempt for a past considered obsolete and of little value. An untold number of relics and historical sites have been destroyed or severely damaged during this dark period of Chinese history.

In the city of Taiyuan alone, in the Shanxi region, 190 temples were destroyed during the Cultural Revolution; in addition, the Japanese had already destroyed many

Religious sculptures torn from the pedestals of a Beijing

of the region’s temples during the Sino-Japanese War

suburban Buddhist temple by young Red Guards.

between 1937 and 1945 because they thought Chinese soldiers would use them as places of refuge.

Another emblematic example is that of the Confucius Temple in Qufu, where over 3000 books and 1000 old paintings were burned. These events have not been isolated, but have occurred on a large scale across China.

The city of Chengdu, the capital of the Sichuan province, was once the site of an imperial palace characterized by numerous traditional style architectures; however, during the Cultural Revolution the palace was destroyed

Burning of Buddha statues during the Cultural Revolution.

and replaced with a government building and a large Soviet-style square with a statue of Mao Zedong in the center.

38

Xi’an University of Architecture and Technology

Master Thesis

At the end of the Cultural Revolution, 4,922 “places of cultural or historical interest” had been destroyed in Beijing alone. The exact number of deaths is not known, but a figure of one million or more is more commonly quoted. Estimates range from 500,000 to eight million deaths, according to a 2011 paper by Song Yongyi, a scholar of the Cultural Revolution. The number of people persecuted for political ideologies and relations with the West is generally estimated in the tens of millions.

Photo of the Chengdu Imperial Palace before its demolition during the Cultural Revolution. The complex was characterized by typical courtyard buildings with double pitched roofs.

39

The site of the ancient palace of Chengdu today.

Chapter 03.

The protection of historic urban areas in China

Economic reform and market-led urbanization (1978-1995) The third urbanization phase was accompanied by the “theory of development”, which took place during the last period of urban transformation and renewal starting from the 80s and 90s.

In 1976, China’s national economy was on the verge of collapse and thus changes and reforms became the key to economic recovery, as well as opening up to the outside world. Between the end of the 70s and the beginning of the 80s, the reform of the “Open Doors” involved the decollectivization of agriculture, the opening of the country to foreign investments and the authorization of private companies. Farmers were granted the rights to use countryside land, promoting agricultural productivity. In 1978, the “Third Plenary Session of the 11th Central Committee of the Communist Party of China” officially launched the reform of the rural economy, which drastically increased agricultural productivity and solved the problem of food shortages in a few years. When the pressure for food production eased, large numbers of rural workers were “liberated” and joined the non-agricultural industries and the new urbanization process. Consequently, the development of collective enterprises in cities or rural areas (TVE) and growing trade have encouraged the growth of non-agricultural sectors, accelerating cities’ urbanization. Rural reform has successfully encouraged agricultural production and foreign investment, but state-owned enterprises (SOEs) have not been as successful.

The mass pressure on urban occupation has suddenly increased and thus the focus of reform has shifted from rural areas to cities. The number of cities increased from 193 in 1978 to 479 in 1991 and the level of urbanization increased by 26.4%. In this period there was an almost uncontrolled construction of buildings, in order to guarantee housing for a constantly growing population and pursuing the ideal of infinite development, which however led to strong building speculation.

Residential buildings built in the 1980s in Xia Xiu Village,

Guangzhou,

Guangdong

Province,

China. In the 1980s, when the Chinese government began investing in building mid-rise for

workers,

apartments residents

demanded that windows and balconies be fitted with metal bars to prevent thieves from entering.

40

Xi’an University of Architecture and Technology

Master Thesis

Since the 1980s, new policies and administrative reforms have been adopted, which have promoted the process of urbanization in China, while the policy of openness has encouraged a large amount of government investment in the coastal region to launch new economic and technical development zones. The “industrialized areas” were developed mainly in the coastal areas during this period to attract the greatest number of foreign capital and investors. In 1979, Special Economic Zones were established in Shenzhen, Zhuhai, Shantou and Xiamen, in Fujian province; while in 1984, 14 coastal cities were opened for foreign investment. Export-led industrialization was fundamental, fueled by a combination of state-owned investment in infrastructure as well as foreign investment that has increased dramatically, making the coastal region once again the growth center of China’s urban development.

Since 1984 China’s economic reform has spread from rural to urban areas, promoting the economy of cities and the rural population was initially allowed to work in private industries in cities, such as in fruit and vegetable markets or in retail. In 1986 the seventh Five-year plan (1986-1990) was approved and the plan initiated a policy to “avoid the excessive growth of large cities and selectively develop some small and medium-sized cities”. An urban development strategy was therefore implemented to control the growth of metropolitan areas, develop medium-sized cities and actively promote the growth of small urban areas. To attract foreign investment and encourage multinationals industries to set up manufacturing facilities, the central government has loosened its control over hukou-based rural/ urban migration, creating an abundant and low-cost labour supply in coastal areas. The government has increased investment in urban maintenance and infrastructure construction, as well as using special funds such as housing allowances, to drive urban construction.

The number of cities increased from 2,968 in 1983 to more than 10,000 in 1991. These changes met the need for urbanization in rural areas and promoted the development of Chinese cities.

41

Chapter 03.

The protection of historic urban areas in China

Economic globalization and economic urbanization of the territory (1996 - ongoing) Finally, the fourth phase of urbanization concerns the most recent urban development processes, relating to the last twenty years and still in progress. In this period, although the number of cities remained stable, the population and built-up urban areas increased from an extension of 12,856 km 2 in 1990 to 40,058 km 2 in 2010, while the metropolises increased their population by merging with the suburban counties, forming real “satellite cities”. These major changes have introduced new social groups especially in large cities, where a rapidly growing middle class has taken over and, together with the “new rich” and the creative class that advocates innovation, marketing and culture, has become the basis for economic success of the country.

Since 2008 many cities, especially medium and small ones, have grown rapidly with the expansion of the urban economy and population; a large number of non-state enterprises formed and became active in the internal market, following a gradual phase of privatization of small and medium-sized enterprises in the late 20th and early 21st centuries.

At the same time, many already important and large cities have continued to develop and expand in the peripheral areas, forming real megalopolises. It is worth noting that three trends of globalization are affecting China’s urban development. The first trend is the emergence of numerous mega-cities: these Chinese development “hotspots” are mainly located in the Pearl River Delta region, the Yangtze Delta region, the Beijing-Tianjin-Tangshan region and the southern province of the Liaoning region. The second trend is linked to the attempt to reconstruct a closer link between the Chinese urban system and the global urban one through the development of “global” and international cities. Indeed, metropolises such as Beijing and Shanghai are now among the world’s leading capitals, known around the world for their enormous urban landscape changes and international influences. The third trend, finally, is the uneven development in the hinterland, in the countryside and in the peripheries around advanced economic regions, which should be protected and regenerated to achieve a good degree of self-sufficiency and in which rapid and effective links should be established with the centers of large cities.

42

Xi’an University of Architecture and Technology

Master Thesis

Still on this last point, another aspect must also be considered, which concerns the large number of people who “float” from one city to another or from the countryside to the city in search of a better paid job.

These people, due to the residence permissions based on the Hukou system, which regulates internal migration in the country, could not permanently reside in cities other than their own, so many of them work as commuters or settle inside the so-called “urban villages”, that is legally autonomous small and medium-sized urban spaces characterized by an informal design, within which it is possible to live at low cost in unhealthy living conditions. To the floating workers must be added university students, who can move to other cities for study purposes.

As can be seen in the table below (Table 3.1) China’s floating population reached its peak in 2011 and continues to remain at very high values, as demonstrated by a 2015 report from the National Statistics Bureau of China, which found that the total number of floating people reached 17.96% of the country ’s total population.

Tab. 3.1 Increase of the floating population in China from 1982 to 2015.

In 2015, China’s level of urbanization reached a remarkable level of 56.10% with an urban population exceeding half of the country’s total inhabitants.

However, China’s level of urbanization is still below the average level in developed countries, where 80% of the population is urban, and it is also

43

below the average level of 60% in developing countries that have a per capita income similar to that of China.

Chapter 03.

The protection of historic urban areas in China

The Chinese government has stepped up efforts to promote urbanization nationwide, however future developments are unknown.

According to statistics, by 2035 China will be an urbanized society with an urban population percentage above 70% and by 2050 an equitable development between urban and rural areas should form.

The following table (Tab.3.2) shows the future forecasts.

Tab. 3.2 Forecast of future urbanization level between 2020-2050.

44

3 .3 The ne e d fo r cons er va ti on of the histo r ica l p a r ts of the ci ti es

Xi’an University of Architecture and Technology

Master Thesis

In ancient cities one can often see areas or neighborhoods with a well-preserved ancient style. This happens both in Europe, where different phases of history and urban evolution can be distinguished in historic cities, and in ancient Chinese cities of the imperial era, such as in the hutongs of Beijing. However, while in Europe urban evolution has been more gradual over the centuries, allowing for the survival of many historical artefacts, in China urban transformations have been incredibly faster and more destructive, causing the loss of an enormous historical and cultural heritage. The historical areas within the cities were very numerous until the beginning of the second half of the twentieth century; such as in Xi’an, with its high millenary walls and the traditional residential courtyard houses that characterized the city until a few decades ago. Unfortunately the people of the time did not consider these areas of great historical value, probably negatively associating them with an age of poverty and social inequality. Most of these historic blocks have therefore almost completely disappeared following major urban planning and “ blind” modernization interventions. What has not yet been fully understood is that these urban areas, even if degraded, are part of the history and memory of a city, without which a cultural loss that cannot be recovered in the future would be created.

This

historical

aerial

photo of Xi’an (from the 1950s) shows the Bell Tower

surrounded

by

the traditional courtyard dwellings

of

the

city

before their demolition.

In the background the demolitions of the historic city have already begun and also to the right of the Tower it can be seen the newly built “Bell Tower Hotel”.

45

Chapter 03.

The protection of historic urban areas in China

The photo shows the same view of the previous one nowadays. The Bell Tower is completely surrounded by tall, modern buildings, the

only

element

unchanged in the context is the still existing Bell Tower Hotel.

It is essential to try to sensitize the local governments of the cities to the issue of architectural and urban conservation and to develop intervention strategies to redevelop the historic areas within the city districts, often neglected and ignored, leaving them in a state of more or less advanced decay. Quite often the isolated ancient buildings within these historic areas are not qualified for special protection such as “relic protection units”, and therefore are usually neglected or worse demolished. However, when the buildings are seen as a whole, within a larger built context, defined not only by the buildings themselves but also by the streets, squares and age-old vegetation of tree-lined avenues and parks, they constitute an “urban landscape complex”, which shows the essence of a city in a specific historical period and giving them a greater value.

In some Western countries, the concept of protecting historic urban areas was born in the 1960s, when the economy began to recover after the Second World War and the industrialization process led to an increase in urban areas, mainly thanks to the migration of people who moved from the countryside to the cities in search of better living conditions. Huge numbers of people poured into cities and new residential neighborhoods had to be built to meet the housing needs of a rapidly growing population.

46

Xi’an University of Architecture and Technology

Master Thesis

In that historical period it was thought that the simplest and fastest solution was to demolish the old blocks, widen the streets and build tall residential buildings to concentrate a large number of people in limited spaces.

However, with the passage of time it was realized that these interventions destroyed not only the materiality of the old neighborhoods, but also the continuity of the history and traditions that made up the uniqueness of the city. Thus, in addition to the older buildings and historical relics, people have begun to recognize the importance of preserving some typical historic city blocks to protect elements of the city’s past.

In 1962 the “Law on the protection of historic urban areas” was promulgated in France also known as the “Malraux law”, which represents the first legislation for the protection of historic blocks. According to this law, the most important historical city blocks, defined as “historic urban areas”, must be protected and preserved. Furthermore, buildings within protected areas cannot be demolished and can only be refurbished under the guidance of national architects. Shortly after, in 1967 England promulgated the “Civic Amenity Act”, which provided for the protection of urban areas with unique artistic and historical values, in consideration of their “collective value”. This rule specifies that buildings within historic urban areas must not be demolished and external spaces, road structures and ancient trees must be protected; furthermore, the restoration of these areas is only allowed on the basis of detailed architectural plans.

Therefore, urban development projects are encouraged to avoid these protected areas, not least because they are often already highly built-up.

The “Law on the protection of cultural heritage”, promulgated in Japan in 1975, defines and protects the “protected areas of the traditional building complex”; therefore, construction, expansion, reconstruction and other activities that can modify the landscape within these protected areas must be approved in advance by the competent governing bodies.

In October 1987 the “Washington Charter for the protection of historic cities and other historic landscapes” was approved, according to which the territorial structure and the relationship between the historic block and its context must be the subject of particular attention and specific protection tools. The Washington Charter also encourages the active participation of residents in historic urban areas and the improvement of

47

local infrastructure and housing conditions, without however damaging the cultural heritage of the area.

Chapter 03.

Heritage protection has a long tradition in China. Several laws were passed between 1928 and 1938, before the outbreak of the Sino- Japanese War, including the “Act on Preservation of Articles of Historical, Cultural and Artistic Value”, provisional regulations governing the types and forms of articles of historical, cultural and artistic value, directives on the prohibition of shipping objects of historical value and the Statute for the conservation of scenic sites and points of historical importance; also introducing sanctions and offenses. These laws were clearly influenced by Western countries.

The Third Revolutionary War broke out in 1946 and ended with the founding of the People’s Republic of China in 1949. Since the same year, the Chinese government has taken various measures to define the treatment of historic buildings and national cultural heritage.

In

1951,

the

Communist

government

issued

several

political

directives in order to protect historical interests. These laws mandated the different local governments of cities to protect major historic structures or buildings, including the sites of the ancient city walls, palaces, tombs, towers, temples, gardens, ruins, dwellings, statues and stone inscriptions.

3 .4 T he p r o te cti on of ur b a n a r ea s i n C hi na

The protection of historic urban areas in China

Mogao Caves, Dunhuang, Gansu Province. UNESCO World Heritage Site with numerous ancient Buddhist murals and statues.

48

Xi’an University of Architecture and Technology

Master Thesis

Any demolition would have had to be approved by the competent authority at regional or national level. Subsequent documentation classified historical interests into two categories, the most important under the control of the central government and the less important ones under the control of the local government. During large-scale industrial development over the period covered by the First Five Year Plan (195357), special political instructions were given to protect historical interests. A number of historic cities, including Xi’an, for which major developments have been planned, have received specific attention.

In these cities, developers were required to consult the Ministry of Culture before undertaking construction in historic areas. In 1956, the State Council also issued policies to protect the ruins of historic cities that were located in rural areas. In 1961 the State Council issued the first list of 180 major national historical sites. In the same period the provincial ordinance for the protection and management of historical interest was also issued. This ordinance specified several areas of protection and mandated local authorities to establish special organizations for the management and maintenance of important cultural sites. The following year, a survey of the listed buildings and sites was conducted. At the time of the survey, 123 of the 180 key sites had dedicated management modes and 18 were operated as museums. The rest was under the control of various authorities.

These political developments were interrupted by the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution from 1966 to 1976, which certainly can be seen as one of the darkest chapters in Chinese history and a disaster for China’s cultural life. During this period many historical buildings and sites were deliberately destroyed, especially religious temples and other interests not protected by the national government, anything suspected of being elitist, bourgeois or even academic was threatened during this period. Even where the buildings have not been damaged or demolished completely, in some cases the internal decorations, traditional materials and typical characters have been lost. All existing protection mechanisms were abandoned, as were most of the legal system and laws enacted up to that point. Due to rapid population growth in the 1960s, privately owned courtyard houses were seized by the government as part of the

49

“Jingzu” policy, introduced in the late 1950s, and adapted for multifamily occupation.

Chapter 03.

The protection of historic urban areas in China

In just 10 years, the Cultural Revolution built a social ideology that devalued historical traditions and the millennial classical Chinese education. The situation finally changed with the introduction of the “Open Door Policy ” in 1978 and the adoption of the fourth constitution since the founding of the People’s Republic of China.

Only in 1980 effective policies were reintroduced on the protection of cultural heritage and historical areas. New measures were first proposed in 1981 by the State Bureau of Historic Interests Management.

The report published by the Bureau unearthed severe damage to important historical interests, such as the Great Wall, and later led to new protection and conservation policies. In 1982 the new Constitution of the People’s Republic of China (Constitution of 1982) was adopted to incorporate the new policy after the end of the Cultural Revolution, which is still in force. Following the adoption of the Open Door Policy, the People’s Republic of China has made extraordinary efforts to introduce legislation for all social, economic and other sectors. However, due to the rapid development of law, some legal areas are more developed than others. The Law on the Protection and Preservation of Historical and Cultural Heritage is clearly one of the areas that still need further efforts to provide adequate protection for China’s great cultural heritage.

Restoration work on the Great Wall of China (on the left), portions of the wall degraded and in a state of neglect (on the right).

50

Xi’an University of Architecture and Technology

Master Thesis

In 1982 there were a number of important developments. A second group of 62 major national historic sites was added by the central government to the list of 180 key historic sites created in 1961(a further 258 were listed at the end of 1988, bringing the total list to 499 sites nationwide). Furthermore, there was also an important change in the protection policy of historical areas, which moved from the protection of individual buildings and sites towards a more comprehensive approach at the territorial and urban level. When, in 1982, the State Council released the first list of 24 “Historic and Cultural Towns and Villages”, the legislative protection of historic urban areas in China was born.

These historic cities included famous national capitals such as Xi’an, Kaifeng, Nanjing, and Beijing.

The historic city of Nanjing, with its ancient walls and temple.

Also in 1982, the first significant legislative act for the protection of urban areas was enacted, known as the “Law on the Protection of Historical Interests of the People’s Republic of China”. This law formalized the approval procedures for the designation of historic towns and villages and also required that historic buildings in the surrounding areas to be subject to stricter town planning control. In historic cities and towns it was necessary for planning and development proposals to meet special needs. For these cities, a historical city protection plan had to be produced and approved together with a general plan. These plans were needed to emphasize the unique features of each city, to reflect local

51

distinctive natural and historical features, and to preserve existing land use patterns.

Chapter 03.

The protection of historic urban areas in China

In December 1986, a second group of 38 historic cities and towns was designated including large industrial cities such as Shanghai, Tianjin, Shenyang, Chongqing and some small cities such as Pingyao which was later declared a United Nations World Heritage Site.

The ancient city of Pingyao, Shanxi province. It is one of the best preserved historical cities in China and a UNESCO World Cultural Heritage Site.

In the documents issued it was stated that: blocks, building complexes, towns and villages with historical or local characteristics must be protected and local governments should declare these areas as “protected historical and cultural areas”. In 1998, a total of 99 cities and towns in China had been designated as Historic Towns and Villages. Further measures known as the Implementation Details of the Law on Protection of Historical Interests were enacted by the Council of State in 1992, which formalized the official role of historical interests authorities in urban planning and development.

Within the surrounding areas of historic buildings and sites, the design aspects of development

projects had to be approved by

the historic authority before passing to the planning one. This practice of protecting historic urban areas was strengthened by the enactment of the Law on the Protection of Cultural Relics in 2002. The 2008 “Regulation for the protection of cities, towns and historic villages” specified that “historic urban centers” can be defined as areas that present historical and cultural evidence of particular importance, as they are characterized by the presence of historic buildings. Historic urban areas, along with cultural relics and historic cities, are important elements of China’s built heritage.

52

Xi’an University of Architecture and Technology

Master Thesis

Historic relics within historic areas should be protected, promptly restored and preserved. The dismantling and complete reconstruction of old buildings has to be avoided; in fact, in some cases, the historical areas are replaced with a completely new replica of the original, which undermines their authenticity, leads to the loss of essential information and peculiarities and consequently to the decrease in the historical value of the assets. In this sense, the protection of historic urban areas is similar to that of cultural artefacts. Secondly, the protection of ancient urban areas should be focused on the protection of the whole historical context / landscape. The external parts of the buildings must be kept in their original style, while the interiors can be furnished in a modern style and with the necessary technological systems. In this sense, however, the protection of historic urban areas is different from that of cultural relics, which must be preserved intact in their original form and characteristics. Furthermore, elements of the context, including streets, alleys, squares, walls and trees, should also be protected and preserved within historic urban areas and the continuity of traditional functions (services) and cultural traditions should be safeguarded. As historical urban areas host a large number of residents, in addition to buildings and physical / material elements in general, the intangible cultural heritage connected to them must also be safeguarded. Normal social life and cultural diversity should be carefully preserved and protected.

The living environment, the local economy and the culture of historic urban areas should be protected, improved and promoted, so as to guarantee residents also all the necessary services of modern life.

53

The protection of historic urban areas in China

In 1997, the Ministry of Construction specified that the principles for the protection of historic urban areas are different from those established for the protection of cultural finds and measures should be taken to improve the infrastructures and improve the standard of living for residents. Furthermore, the authenticity of historic areas should be preserved in its original features, instead of constructing replicas of buildings or entire ancient urban blocks. The 2005 Historic City Conservation Planning Code still specifies that the historical appearance and spatial arrangement of buildings in historic neighborhoods should be protected, as well as the configuration of internal streets and alleys and the environment outside the protected areas. Planning for the protection of historic urban areas should also improve the living conditions of local residents and maintain community traditions. According to the “Regulations for the Protection of Historic Urban Areas” issued by the Ministry of Construction and the State Administration for Cultural Heritage, measures should be taken to protect the authenticity, integrity and functional continuity of historic urban areas. The government should play a leading role in improving local infrastructure and the living environment, including the participation of local residents. In order to meet the requirement of authenticity of ancient areas, royal historical features should be protected, restored and renewed, rather than preserving or promoting the making of modern replicas. The integrity requirement therefore implies that historic buildings and all other elements of the urban landscape, including streets, alleys, courtyards, etc. they must

3 .5 M e tho d s fo r p r otecti ng hi s tor i c ur b a n a r ea s

Chapter 03.

not be altered or destroyed, but preserved, and at the most renewed, maintaining their traditional qualities. Finally, whenever possible the original social, commercial and cultural function of the historic urban areas should remain unchanged and the local vitality should instead be strengthened so as not to affect the traditional lifestyle of the residents, who should never be forced less encouraged to move to make room for tourists.

54

Master Thesis

3.6 So me p r o b le m s wi th the p r otecti on o f histo r ic u r ba n a r ea s i n C hi na

Xi’an University of Architecture and Technology

• In many historic urban areas of China the city government has often commissioned or allowed some real estate and commercial companies to demolish all buildings in a district (often including historic

buildings)

and

replace

them

with

skyscrapers

for

speculative purposes, to solve problems of degradation and lack of infrastructures in some city districts and to provide new housing to an ever-growing urban population.

• In some cities, in order to quickly solve social and environmental problems and for commercial reasons, entire historic urban areas have been demolished and replaced with worthless replacements; which,

adopting

a

sterile

superimposition

of

traditional

architectural elements on modern buildings, try in vain to repropose historical settings that have long since been lost.

• As the value of land has increased in some historic urban areas due to their strategic location and proximity to major city services, the government has sought to exploit their commercial potential for speculative purposes. As a result, land and building functions have changed in many areas from residential to commercial use.

Local residents have often been relocated to make room for tourist shops and restaurants, transforming the streets into veritable luxury shopping places. As a result, the traditional environment and intangible heritage of these places has been erased for commercial benefits. The historical atmosphere has been lost, as the authenticity, to make room for fiction and contemporary fashions.

• Finally, since in many historical areas the high number of resident population is considered an obstacle to the protection of the urban texture, many inhabitants have been forced to leave their homes to be relocated to new residential areas, completely altering the culture and social traditions of these places.

55

The protection of historic urban areas in China

Baitasi historical District, Beijing Baitasi historical District is one of the most important historical and cultural protection areas within the old city of Beijing, bordered by the second ring road of the city. The district covers an area of​​ approximately 0.37 km 2 and is surrounded by the important financial and administrative districts of Beijing. The area is bounded by “West Gongjiang Hutong” and “Dachaye Hutong” to the north, Fuchengmen Inner Street to the south, Zhao Dengyu Road to the east and North Fuchengmen Shuncheng Street to the west. Following the rapid urban development around the historic Baitasi district, many planners have begun to recognize its cultural heritage value, mainly due to the loss of hundreds of Beijing’s historic urban areas that have already been razed to the ground. Therefore, today the district is preserved as a cultural oasis in the heart of the city, along with some other hutong areas that have remained intact. Beijing became the capital of China for the first time in the year 1272 AD, during the Yuan dynasty (1271 AD - 1368 AD) and Baitasi, which literally means “the Temple of the White Pagoda”, was built between 1271 and 1279; therefore today it represents the only still existing heritage dating back to that historical period, although it has undergone several interventions of partial destruction, reconstruction and repair during the Ming (1368 AD - 1644 AD) and Qing (1616 AD - 1912 AD) dynasties. Baitasi District was therefore officially recognized as a “Cultural Relic” and placed under the protection of the state. There are several historic buildings in the area, such as the former Lu Xun residence and museum, the Fusuijing building, built in 1958 and a symbol of communism, six historic temples and seventeen traditional courtyard houses (siheyuan). As for intangible heritage, from the end of

3.7 Case s o f r e ne w al of hi s tor i c ur b a n a r ea s i n C hi na

Chapter 03.

the Qing dynasty to the establishment of the Republic of China (1912 AD - 1949 AD), the “Baitasi Temple Fair” was one of the five largest city festivals in Beijing.

Most of the existing buildings are one-story courtyard houses, built during the Ming and Qing dynasty, but there are also a small number of multi-storey residential buildings built after the 1950s. The alleys between the houses are generally 5 to 8 meters wide, only some main streets are wider (10-15 meters). A regeneration project called “Baitasi Remade” has been underway in the Baitasi historic District since 2013.

56

Xi’an University of Architecture and Technology

Master Thesis

The initiator of the project, Beijing Huarong

Jinying

Investment

and

Development Co., is a subsidiary of Financial Street Holdings Co., Ltd., a state-owned investment firm in Xicheng District, Beijing. The regeneration plan consists of four phases: relocation of residents, improvement of the public

environment,

introduction

of cultural catalysts and planning and creation of community services.

In particular, resident relocation is

Baitasi historic district’s location within the municipality of Beijing.UNESCO World Cultural Heritage Site.

based on negotiation, which means that residents can choose to stay in the historic district or move outside.

There are some rules for the transfer: • All families living in a court house must agree to move; in case some want to move while others want to stay it is not possible to reach a compromise.

Baitasi district’s location within the 2° Ring Road of

• The original plan offered three

the ancient part of the city.

options for residents who wanted to relocate: new apartments in government-awarded

high-rise

buildings, government subsidy for the purchase of homes selected by residents and upgrading to other courtyard homes with the same value as their original homes.

• The subsidy amount is based on the market value of their courtyard houses in the historic District of Baitasi. Only homeowners can

57

get

the

government

subsidy,

while renters are not eligible.

Residential buildings and alleys (hutong) in Baitasi Historic District.

Chapter 03.

The protection of historic urban areas in China

At the end of 2018, 20% of the residents had been relocated. Now the relocation has been suspended due to a lack of government funding and new housing units. As society progresses, people have come to realize that large-scale demolition and construction, which have been carried out in many parts of Beijing’s inner city in the past, are no longer viable.

Conversely, small-scale organic regeneration models are attracting more and more attention and use.

The main objective of the “Baitasi Remade” project,

The ancient White Pagoda Temple inside Baitasi historical district.

promoted and financed by the Beijing Huarong Jinying Investment & Development Company, is to establish a new model of urban renewal of the historic District of Baitasi by exploiting the public participation of local residents and businesses under the leadership of the government authority. The objectives are to establish a sustainable population, revitalize physical spaces, switch to sustainable and efficient energy sources and redesign the public environment; thus promoting

The narrow alleys of the hutongs of the district with

a cultural revitalization of the area as a whole.

the entrance gates to the residential courtyards.

The streets of the district during the Beijing Design Week in 2016.

58

Xi’an University of Architecture and Technology

Master Thesis

While maintaining the unique character of the hutong neighborhoods and

the

Remade”

residential wants

to

functions use

and

of

traditional exploit

new

courtyards, design

“Baitasi elements,

combined with new cultural and creative services, to create a new district that fully integrates tradition, innovation and style.

As part of the “Baitasi Remade Plan” project, a plan was launched to redevelop the three main public roads in the district, namely Shoubi Street, Funei Street and Funei North Street. By carrying out a series of transformations, such as the reclamation of road conditions, landscape improvement, road planning and building renovation, the style and characteristics of old streets can finally be recovered and adapted to contemporary urban life and perform commercial and residential functions. Projects include new architectural structures, water supply and storm water drainage systems, lighting, plant elements and lighting systems. In addition, in some cases, underground car parks for residents have also been introduced, in order to alleviate the lack of parking spaces and traffic within the district. The facades of the buildings along the streets have been redeveloped and restored, renewing old businesses and introducing new ones.

North Fuchengmen Street renovation project.

59

Chapter 03.

The protection of historic urban areas in China

Inner Fuchengmen Street was redeveloped through the retraining of the pavement and the consequent transformation into a pedestrian area, with the addition of new urban furniture, lighting systems and vegetation. In order to redevelop the cultural and commercial qualities of the district, new shops and brands were introduced to make the area more attractive for external visitors, without compromising the layout and local cultural characteristics.

In

addition,

new

collective

projects

and

activities for local residents are introduced in

Courtyard n ° 36 built by Standard architecture studio.

order to foster interaction, sharing and mutual support within the community, as well as to promote

the

active

participation

of

residents

in the protection and renewal of the old city.

The Baitasi District historic area is one of the few within the city of Beijing that still retains examples of traditional courtyard residences, which preserve and share the architectural and cultural qualities of the past. In this context, numerous architects and designers have started a series of study and renovation activities of some residential courtyards.

Some examples of architectural projects are: • courtyard n ° 36 built by Standard architecture

Courtyard n ° 22 built by Vector architects studio.

studio; • courtyard n ° 24 built by Trace Architecture Office; • courtyard n ° 22 built by Vector architects studio; • courtyard n ° 32 built by DnA studio (Design and Architecture).

Courtyard n ° 32 built by DnA studio.

60

Xi’an University of Architecture and Technology

Master Thesis

Finally, the Baitasi District was the headquarters of Beijing Design Week from 2015 to 2019, the main stage for experimenting with urban practices and conservation projects (in the following years the event was cancelled due to the COVID-19 pandemic) .

The same concept of the “Baitasi Remade” project was born as part of this event in 2015, as an urban renewal program led by Professor

Beijing Design Week 2017: “Baitasi Remade”, temporary project.

Zhang Li of Beijing Tsinghua University and a team led by World Architecture magazine. Thanks to the success received, the event continued to be held within the Baitasi District also in subsequent years, giving young Chinese and European architects and designers with offices in Beijing the opportunity to rethink different areas of the district with temporary installations.

The projects are carried out with the participation of the local inhabitants, who provide suggestions and highlight the most critical aspects to work on.

Beijing

Design

Week

2017, “One Day at

61

The

Sea”

installation.

temporary

Beijing Design Week 2017, installation by Politecnico of Turin.

Chapter 03.

The protection of historic urban areas in China

Tianzi Fang historical District, Shanghai Shanghai was one of the first trading ports in 1840, after the Sino-British Opium War, and was also called the “Paris of the East”, integrating Eastern and Western cultures. Following China’s “Open and Reform” policy of the 1980s, Shanghai has become China’s most important economic center and a popular tourist destination. However, economic growth and urbanization have had a violent impact on Shanghai’s lifestyle, urban image and historical culture. In the 20th century, as a major global economic center, Shanghai became a modern metropolis, and since then the city ’s uncontrolled urban sprawl has begun to erase the historic urban texture and the values ​​of traditional culture.

In Shanghai the two most significant historical elements of the urban texture are the “Shikumen” and the “Nontang”, which constitute a traditional form of residential settlement within the city born around 1860 during the period of the International Concession (1863-1945 ), during which areas of international control (including American, British and French) were established within the city.

Map of Shanghai French concession. International settlement and Chinese city in 1931.

62

Xi’an University of Architecture and Technology

Master Thesis

The term “Shikumen” indicates the individual historic buildings of the city, with a traditional architectural style, built during the historical period

of

the

concessions

and

characterized by a combination of western and eastern elements, a two or three storey structure reminiscent of a western row, characterized by high brick walls and wooden doors

Photo of a historical Shikumen.

that enclose a narrow front courtyard.

At the peak of their popularity, there were 9,000 shikumen-style buildings in Shanghai, comprising 60% of the city’s total housing stock; today many of these buildings have

been

demolished

and

replaced by large condominiums.

On the other hand, “Nontang”, also called “Lilong”, is the collective term used to refer specifically to

New Lilong building typology.

historic neighborhoods made up of rows of Shikumen buildings and narrow alleys; similarly to the term “hutong”, used to indicate the historic districts of the city of Beijing, consisting of siheyuan residences and

narrow

public

distribution

streets. A Lilong / Nontang is a typical residential neighborhood of the urban texture of Shanghai and represents a rich concept that refers not only to the materiality of the housing form, but also to the vivid social life in and around it, which

63

can be characterized in at least three ways:

Modern Shikunmen configuration.

Chapter 03.

The protection of historic urban areas in China

(i) the physical forms of the residential buildings shared a similar neighborhood structure, being organized along narrow streets; (ii) the local community; (iii) a particular housing culture created by the inhabitants.

Nongtang

and

Shikumen

reflect

the

concept

of

integration between Western and Eastern culture and, at the same time, carry forward the culture and tradition of Shanghai’s historic houses.

Tianzi Fang is a historical district located in the city center (Luwan district) of Shanghai, characterized by the typical Nongtang and Shikumen architecture. The total area of​​ Tianzhifang is 7.2 hectares. Tianzi Fang is an important Nongtang district with distinctive traditional features.

The district was built in the 1930s, during the last phase of the construction of the Nongtangs and was part of the French concession. The area consists of a cluster of small three-story buildings made of gray and red brick and a dozen two- and three-story Shikumen houses. Initially, its size was reduced with only one row of houses, but since 2010 the perimeter has expanded to the west, incorporating more Nongtangs under the “TZF” area label.

From the very beginning, a variety of residents have lived in TZF. After 1950, some of the Shikumen in the TZF were destroyed to make room for six small factories; the

remainder

were

subdivided

and

transformed

into apartments with a fair rent, which were then redivided, creating very small apartments with an average of 3 square meters per capita of living space.

The six small factories built at TZF in the 1950s went bankrupt in the 1990s and were subsequently abandoned. With the rapid economic growth and

Development of the urban texture of the district from 1997 to 2009.

urbanization of the city of Shanghai, many traditional neighborhoods such as Tianzi Fang were demolished and made way for modern skyscrapers.

64

Xi’an University of Architecture and Technology

Master Thesis

However, after realizing that the district represented a significant tourist attraction and an important historical record of the past, the municipal government began to preserve the traditional neighborhoods of Shikumen and Linong and redevelop them for tourism purposes. Tianzi Fang is one such neighborhood and its redevelopment process could generally be divided into three stages. The urban regeneration movement was initially stimulated by industrial restructuring. Most of the factories located in the center have been relocated or closed and in the meantime the abandoned industrial buildings have become the focus of the redevelopment. In this process, on the one hand, some vacant factories were demolished and replaced by modern buildings; others have been refurbished and leased to small businesses. In 1990, the abandoned factories of Nongtang were in danger of being demolished; however, a businessman recognized the cultural and historical value of the area and used the relatively low rents of these industrial buildings to set up his art workshop and promote them to other artist groups. Between the end of the 90s and the early 2000s, step by step, the artists took the opportunity to rent these former industrial sites at very low prices, where they installed their workshops. A community of painters, sculptors, photographers and designers has slowly developed. Some shops have been converted into galleries and artists’ studios and gradually some restaurants and souvenir shops have moved within the district. In March 1998, a neighborhood administrative committee was established to manage these buildings and provide community services.

65

Map of the functions of the buildings within the district.

Chapter 03.

The protection of historic urban areas in China

Tianzi Fang became a well-known place of the creative industry and attracted the attention of both foreign and domestic artists.

In a sense, this phase could be seen as a gentrification process through a “bottom-up” regeneration approach, ie driven by private citizens without the financial support of the municipal government. However, in this process, the cultural value of the residential buildings, Shikumen was not recognized or even overlooked, so the government still tried to demolish the neighborhoods of the district and build new buildings. In response, a city campaign called “Save the Tianzi Fang” was organized to try to prevent the demolition of these Shikumen-Nongtang residential buildings. Some research institutes were

A district alley after the Tianzi fang renovation

also involved, such as Tongji University College of Architecture and Urban Planning, which conducted research

to

investigate

architectural

features

and

highlight the historical significance of the Tianzi Fang area. With the efforts of businessmen and researchers, the government was finally convinced and agreed to preserve the whole area and enhance the creative industry.

Following this victory, Tianzi Fang became even more popular than before and developed into a major creative industrial hub in Shanghai. More than 200 shops, cafes and galleries were opened, which attracted both tourists and other artists from abroad as well. However, Nongtang’s limited factories were not sufficient for the development of the creative industry. Therefore, since 2004 the residents, given the economic advantage, began to rent their houses to artists and designers. Some houses were not large enough to house studios or exhibition halls and were therefore rented out to commercial businesses,

An alley renovated in the pavement and with commercial activities.

such as restaurants, bars, shops and tourist cafes. At this stage, thanks to the effort of businessmen, artists and research institutes, the traditional Shikumen residential buildings have been preserved and renovated, although their function has been extensively changed.

66

Xi’an University of Architecture and Technology

Master Thesis

In terms of conservation of traditional historical architecture, the intervention can be considered a good example of a “bottom-up” approach; however, in the process, many residents have moved for profit, fragmenting the district’s intangible cultural heritage.

The third phase of redevelopment began in 2009, when the local government took over the development of the Tianzi Fang district, which continued to develop and expand. Based on this situation, the local government’s intention was to develop this area as a tourist destination on the occasion of the Shanghai Expo 2010. Therefore, the government invested to renovate the traditional buildings and upgrade the infrastructure. However, in this process, through the “top-down” approach, some residents were forcibly relocated. Today only a small part of the original inhabitants remain, who live in a corner of Tianzi Fang and their lives are strongly characterized by the activities of tourists. Objectively, the historic architectures and urban landscapes have been rigorously preserved and redeveloped through government regulations and investments to improve the physical environment. For example, public roads have been repaved, the facades have been restructured and regulated and new services and elements of street furniture have been installed, such as public toilets, benches, vegetation, new lighting systems and others. However, due to the neglect of Tianzi Fang’s intangible historical value, the top-down approach promoted by the government broke the social structure of the neighborhood, resulting in the loss of the original culture of Tianzi Fang.

Renovation of the Tianzi fang historical district.

Restaurants and shops.

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Chapter 03.

The protection of historic urban areas in China

Renovation of the Tianzi fang historical district.

Artistic

studios

and

workshops.

Yongqing Fang historical District, Guangzhou In recent years, urban development practice in China has begun to shift its focus from city expansion to urban renewal. City governments and planners are rediscovering the potential of historic city districts as incubators for new urban life and highly valuable differentiation spaces for city branding and marketing. The urban renewal of Yongqing Fang, a district of the old city of Guangzhou, an important port that connected eastern and western China during the Qing dynasty, represents a new point of reference as an emblematic example for a different approach to renewal of the historic city centers. Leaving behind the streets explored by the redevelopment projects of traditional neighborhoods, implemented from top to bottom and focused exclusively on tourism and commerce, erasing the traditional daily life of residents, the new model opts instead for a series of micro interventions of transformation and aims to combine tradition and modernity without having to relocate residents to external areas. As one of the best preserved and protected ancient districts in Guangzhou, the area has always been famous for its beautiful streets and historic attractions, such as the Cantonese Opera Museum. However, since the 1950s, the entire district has experienced a significant recession; urban decay and lack of development have turned Yongqing Fang Alleyway into a grim collection of neglected buildings.

68

Xi’an University of Architecture and Technology

Master Thesis

At the beginning of the renovations in 2015, Yonqing Fang was in a state of general decay, most of the houses had been abandoned and only 43 buildings were still intact, 30 badly damaged and some had already collapsed. Furthermore, the prospect of urban regeneration was greeted with great scepticism and apprehension by the remaining residents.

For this reason VANKE Real Estate Development, in collaboration with local stakeholders, has launched a micro-transformation strategy.

In a first phase, all the remaining buildings were carefully examined for their structural soundness, state of conservation and historical value. A general inventory was drawn up and discussed intensively with all interested parties involved, leading to a final classification, in five different categories of refurbishment of all buildings: restoration, facade redesign, structural reinforcement, partial reconstruction and new construction.

Two-phase historic district renovation plan.

This classification provided the basis for a micro-refurbishment approach: a catalog of case-by-case measurements, carefully executed in collaboration with local restoration specialists and construction teams. Instead of uniform measures, a holistic approach to renewal has been adopted. Lab D&H led the

69

landscape design effort. Here, too, the accent has been placed on modernity, while maintaining the project anchored to respect for the identity of the place.

Chapter 03.

The protection of historic urban areas in China

Unlike the architectural renewal which enriched and benefited from the variety of architectural styles, the renewal of the public space faced the challenge of creating an aesthetic unity in the district and at the same time designing an area suitable and comfortable for all users of the community and commercial activities. As one of the most complex examples of urban transformation within a Chinese historical district, the Yongqing Fang redevelopment project was developed in two phases, which contain multiple programs and themes of intervention, including the renovation of the residential space, the redevelopment and addition of retail shops, the enhancement of historical monuments and others. The first phase of the intervention focuses on the Yongqing Avenue

Criticality and deterioration before the intervention.

area and two small side alleys. The objectives of the urban design were to solve the problems encountered in the analysis phase and therefore included the improvement of the living conditions of the residents, the recovery of traditional city life, the redesign of the streets through new pavements and new elements of urban furniture (including also adding waste recycling bins) and linking the different historical elements located in the area.

In the district there were some historic buildings in fair condition but also some informal (illegal) houses. After being carefully inspected, several damaged buildings and some abusive or temporary structures were demolished to provide additional open

connecting

space

between

the

narrow

alleys and the recycled tiles from the demolitions were reused in an effort to minimize the overall environmental impact of the project. The “Grand Wooden Steps”, the “Water Feature Garden” and the “Roof Garden” were designed as multifunctional public spaces.

Entrance gate to the historic area of the district after the interventions.

70

Xi’an University of Architecture and Technology

Master Thesis

During the day, the Grand Wooden Steps are used as a rest and exhibition area, while at night they are used for film screening and thus provide entertainment for both residents and visitors. Located not far away, the Water Feature Garden is set back from the main road and shaded

by

existing

century-old

trees. The Roof Garden located in the middle of two rows of buildings

“Grand Wooden Steps” designed by the architetcts.

was created to connect the rear of the buildings and also provide a semi-private recreation area.

The original alleys of Yongqing Fang, due to the insufficient slope for road drains, had suffered from flooding problems; moreover, old electric cables were hung over the alleys creating a dangerous and unpleasant situation to see.

To solve all the problems of drainage, lighting and exposed cables, the redevelopment project designed an ingenious and multifunctional new system. Inspired by the stones of the entrance steps of the original buildings,

which

approximately

150

are mm

located above

street level, the project designed a system of continuous stone borders on each side of the alleys. The recycled stone slabs were placed on arched concrete bases and serve both as a drainage and disposal

71

system for rainwater, and to hide and

organize

electrical

cables.

The “Roof Garden” space.

Chapter 03.

Demolition

waste,

The protection of historic urban areas in China

including

tiles,

bricks

and

natural stone, was treated with care and effectively reused as materials for new landscaping elements; using

traditional

construction

methods,

those

recycled materials have been used to create a unique historical atmosphere that brings both residents and local visitors back to the memory of the ancient district. The project has successfully recovered traditional street life through a series of

micro-transformations

and

the

addition

of

new on-site services, which allow local residents to enjoy modern life while remaining within their district and their own houses and maintaining their original traditions and community activities within

Restructuring of the streets through a particular

a renewed urban context.

rainwater disposal system that also hides the first uncovered electrical cables.

Streets and buildings renovated within the district to perform new public functions.

72

Summing up Historic urban areas are key elements for the protection of the history and culture of cities, therefore particular attention should be paid to the methods and policies of protection of these places. Their protection does not only concern planning at the territorial level, but also the protection of historical evidence in general, whether they are material, such as buildings, streets, squares, courtyards, archaeological remains and ancient trees, whether they are intangible, such as cultural and religious traditions, traditional lifestyles, typical crafts and more. In addition to physical structures, cultural diversity in historic urban areas should therefore also be protected.

Conservation of historic urban areas includes protecting the exterior, transforming the interior to meet the needs of modern people, and improving local infrastructure and the environment through gradual steps. In this process, local administrations should play a leading role and promote the participation of residents. Conservation of historic urban areas should not be confused with real estate development and investment returns should not be the primary concern. In recent years there have been cases of successful protection of historic urban areas, which have several aspects in common, including: the protection of the urban landscape, as well as traditional functions and culture; the implementation of gradual and delicate intervention plans to avoid possible conflicts in the community, meet the real needs of local residents and reduce government interference; and finally the preservation of the historical and cultural heritage through projects for the restoration and renewal of the urban context, in order to preserve and at the same time improve the standard of living and the environment of local residents.

73

74

04.

The conservation of historical Heritage in Europe

75

76

4. 1 Intr od ucti on

Xi’an University of Architecture and Technology

Master Thesis

The identity of European society is strongly linked to the architectural heritage; it represents an irreplaceable resource for its inhabitants, in terms of psychological, economic, social and cultural well-being.

During the twentieth century, various international charters and conventions were adopted, developing and evolving conservation principles and methods. In the meantime, the object of protection has changed, passing from the archaeological and artistic heritage to historical centers, which require conservation integrated into society, in order to reconcile urban renewal actions with the protection of the historical and architectural values ​​of each site. This means making delicate choices and difficult operations, which change from country to country depending on the attitude adopted towards conservation.

The protection of cultural heritage is a complex discipline, which concerns both movable and immovable property, as well as tangible and intangible assets. The need for its conservation to defend the current human identity and social well-being is not a recent achievement. In the 19th century W. Morris and his mentor J. Ruskin grasped the social dimension of monuments, the rights that men have over their historical and natural heritage and the consequent duty of conservation. In “The Seven Lamps of Architecture” Ruskin writes: “We have no right to touch them (the monuments). They are not ours. They belong partly to those who built them, and partly to all the generations of humanity that will follow us”. The culture of collective heritage and the methods to protect it have grown over the last century. The First International Congress of Architects and Technicians of Historical Monuments, held in Athens in 1931, represented the start of an international debate that saw the concept of protection expand its area of influence ​​ by moving from the single monument to its neighborhood.

In 1964 this was clearly defined by the Venice Charter: “the concept of historical monument embraces (…) the urban or rural environment in which the evidence of a specific civilization, a significant development or a historical event are found”. In 1972 the Convention adopted in Paris established that each country participating in this Convention should involve the sites of cultural and natural heritage in the life

77

of the community, integrating the protection into global planning programs.

Chapter 04.

The conservation of historical Heritage in Europe

Similarly, the European Charter of Architectural Heritage (1975) introduced the concept of integrated conservation, as “obtained through the application of sensitive restoration techniques and the correct choice of suitable functions”, and represented the way to prevent decay of assets []. The most recent urbanization, generated by industrial society, led to the Charter for the conservation of historic centers and urban areas (1987), where the object of protection included entire historic centers. More recently, the Krakow Charter (2000) mentioned the role of individual European countries in recognizing their fundamental values ​​ linked to their heritage. Furthermore, referring to the Venice Charter, he provided the methodological principles on the restoration project. All these documents, and others as well, have driven the European conservation agenda and have led to different regulations in different countries.

78

4 .2 T he co nce p t of cul tur a l her i ta g e

Xi’an University of Architecture and Technology

Master Thesis

Nowadays there is no univocal definition of cultural heritage among the different national regulations. In Italy, the Franceschini Study Commission, held in 1967, adopted the use of the term “cultural heritage” which was incorporated in the Urban Code, which is the current legislation: “Cultural heritage consists of cultural and cultural heritage landscaped.

Cultural assets are immovable and movable assets which, pursuant to articles 10 and 11, have artistic, historical, archaeological, ethno anthropological, archival and bibliographic interest, and any other asset identified by law or under the law as attesting to the values of civilization (...)”.

According to this definition, cultural heritage is not only a “res”, but also an expression of intangible values ​​which are demonstrated in the social and historical context. “Historic England” is the public body that cares for the historical environment of England. It defines “cultural heritage” as “assets that people identify and value as a reflection and expression of their evolving knowledge, beliefs and traditions and their understanding of the beliefs and traditions of others”. On an international level, the various Charters signed over the years relating to the Rights of the Environment and Cultural Heritage, starting with the declarations of UNESCO in 1972 and the Council of Europe in 1975 up to the latest European resolutions, have considered cultural heritage as “heritage”, that is the wealth of a nation and its constituent element, highlighting its role in the formation of the concept of nation and in the definition of social and cultural forms. Cultural heritage, therefore, translates time, space, historical stratifications into tangible signs, and offers an image of immortal memory. The traces of the past (archaeological and ethno-anthropological assets, monuments, historic centers, border territories, cities, rural settlements and more) constitute the supports of collective memory and increase the sense of belonging to built places and contexts.

79

Chapter 04.

The conservation of historical Heritage in Europe

Giovanni Paolo Pannini - Fantasy view with the Pantheon and other Ancient Rome Monuments. The cultural artistic heritage of the Roman Empire served as the basis for subsequent Western culture, particularly through the Renaissance and Neoclassicism.

80

4.3 The “landsca p e a p p r o ach”: fr om a s i ng l e mo nu me nt to he ri ta g e a s a contex t

Xi’an University of Architecture and Technology

Master Thesis

The protection and management of cultural heritage assets, also called “management of cultural resources” in the United States, was in the past mainly concerned with the conservation or restoration of monuments. This “object” centered approach was focused on preserving the tangible component of cultural heritage assets, such as cladding and building materials, facades, load-bearing structures and building complexes as a whole. The architect was primarily concerned with protecting the surviving remains of ancient buildings, helping to preserve many historic buildings and sites according to their original appearance. However, this approach made it difficult to attribute a value to the intangible (immaterial) dimension of both individual buildings and the larger scale of urban areas as a whole, risking to overlook fundamental aspects, such as evolutionary processes, cultural traditions and local religious and practices. Over time this approach has changed and today the management of cultural heritage has developed towards a more inclusive approach which also includes concepts such as “immaterial”, “environment / urban context” and “sustainable development”, all accompanied by a greater consideration of the cultural, social and economic function of historic urban areas.

This approach is now known as the “landscape-based approach”, the main objective of which is to promote conservation, but at the same time reduce the negative impacts of modern socio-economic development, which often aims at monetary gain rather than defense of cultural heritage, thus integrating the urban development and renewal that many historic areas today need with the management of historic areas. The landscape approach theory was born in the 90s, since then various organizations, governmental and non-governmental, of all nations have defined methods and strategies to apply it, leading to the publication of numerous documents, including the European Landscape Convention, the Memorandum of Vienna and also the Xi’an Declaration, and have contributed to the recent worldwide promotion of the Historic Urban Landscape approach (HUL) by UNESCO as a tool for defining global standards for the conservation of historic urban areas.

This approach specifies that, even when an intervention aims at the restoration of individual buildings, the attention must be placed on the

81

entire urban context, not only on the scale of the building, including both the spatial and cultural qualities of the place.

Chapter 04.

The conservation of historical Heritage in Europe

Hence the protection of historic monuments should be integrated into a broader sustainable urban management strategy, and should also be more aware of how individual buildings, monuments and historic areas relate to each other and are part of a process of inevitable change.

Urban Heritage: a dynamic and evolving concept.

The

HUL

approach

provides

a

series

of

indications

on

the

implementation of an intervention method based on the urban landscape; therefore it is now up to governments to put into practice, adapt and facilitate the implementation of these recommendations, as well as to protect, preserve and manage the historic areas of cities.

Recent research shows that the “conflicts between historical and cultural heritage needs and development needs” represent the main problem and concern both in the field of conservation and urban management; in fact, heritage is often seen as an obstacle to the development of historic cities and local communities that need change to develop, given that little can be changed in these urban areas. Investor development pressures and management failures are commonly recognized as the main factors affecting the protection of cultural heritage. To reconcile both urban development and conservation needs, it is therefore necessary to develop specific tools and implement a landscape approach, which considers the urban context as a whole, both nationally and locally.

82

4 . 4 A b r ie f hi s tor y of the theor y of ur b a n her i ta g e

Xi’an University of Architecture and Technology

Master Thesis

John Ruskin Although the landscape approach was adopted with greater regularity only from the 90s, already from the 19th century some theories began to be formulated with a broader look on the meaning and management of historical heritage. For example, John Ruskin was an international pioneer in the protection of monuments and historical heritage, as he was one of the first to highlight the need to develop a wider field of study and intervention in heritage protection, which went beyond the assessment of the qualities of individual architectural buildings. In the book “The memory lamp”, Ruskin emphasizes that the beauty and interest aroused by the most beautiful historic cities does not depend only on “the isolated wealth of the palaces”, but also and above all on the “exquisite decoration of even the smallest palaces” Ruskin therefore argues that every building in the urban texture has a value, but his attention focuses on the individual character of the buildings and not on the urban context as a whole, which also includes squares, streets, bridges, ancient trees and much more.

Arguing that even the smallest houses can be as important as the largest buildings, Ruskin recognizes the value of residential domestic architecture, as a fundamental and essential element of all the most beautiful cities.

Furthermore, this denotes Ruskin’s conviction according to which social processes and the spatial form of cities are closely related elements.

Basically Ruskin did not highlight the value of the context urban as a whole, but he has taken a step forward with respect to the conservation practice of the past by identifying the value and the need for preservation of all buildings of the urban texture and not just some specific ones.

Camillo Sitte The Viennese architect and urban planner Camillo Sitte (1843 - 1903) was the first to introduce an urban approach to the conservation of existing historical heritage, clearly expressing the importance of the urban fabric as a whole for the understanding of historical cities. His ground breaking 1889 book “Der Städtebau nach seinen künstlerischen Grundsätzen” (Artistic City Planning) was pivotal to

83

many professionals in the field, who used his theories to formulate a new practice of conservation and planning of historic urban areas.

Chapter 04.

The conservation of historical Heritage in Europe

Already from the first chapter Sitte underlines the importance of the relationship between buildings, monuments and places of the city, in which he argues that the conservation of the same must go hand in hand with good and correct planning at the urban level, condemning the “modern disease of isolated construction ”and instead promoting the idea that monuments should be built and protected within the existing urban texture.

Giambattista

Nolli,

fragment from the Rome Charter (1748). Camillo Sitte

was

among

the

first

to

systematically

analyze the city not as a set of individual building masses but rather as a series of figure-ground relationships

that

form

a larger whole. In his book “The Art of Building Cities” Sitte analyzed the relationships

between

squares and the buildings that frame them. Solids and voids played a central role in Sitte’s vocabulary for the analysis of cities.

While Ruskin promoted the conservation of individual architectural elements that pass on historical, cultural and social values, Sitte instead considered and supported the sum of all elements within the urban context in terms of historical and aesthetic values. In 1899, on the basis of Sitte’s theories, Otto Schlüter coined the term “cultural landscape”, which was then taken up by Carl O. Sauer in 1925 and later became, in the 90s of the last century, a fundamental concept to world-class in the practice of managing “landscape” heritage. Francoise Choay defined Sitte as the first of a generation of urban morphologists and architects who really focused on the existing city and its tangible elements. Furthermore, Charles Buls, a contemporary scholar and supporter of Sitte’s ideas, argued that the demolition of any structure, even the smallest one, must always be preceded by a careful analysis of the landscape as a whole and must be placed both inside of the broader picture of the city context, than of the immediate surroundings, since they could have a value that is not understood if treated separately from these areas.

84

Xi’an University of Architecture and Technology

Master Thesis

Together Sitte and Buls were two key figures for the development of contemporary urban planning and the management of historical heritage, highlighting the need for conservation of the urban structure and texture, as well as that of individual buildings. Sitte’s theories were then also applied to the practice of preserving the picturesque and historical qualities of pre-industrial cities.

Patrick Geddes This landscape approach was subsequently developed and consolidated by the theories of the Scottish architect and landscape architect Patrick Geddes (1854 - 1932), who, in his 1915 book “Cities in Evolution”, explains how the historical heritage of a city is closely connected to urban development. In fact, if urban planning serves to advance and grow a city, in addition to satisfying the life needs of the community, knowing its history, its structure and the heritage it contains is of fundamental importance.

Geddes’ synoptic vision outlines the inseparable link between cultural tradition, ecological concerns and city development. Geddes compares a city-region to a living organism in which each part is related to the others; understanding the relationships between the city and its region, the past, the present and the future, the rich

85

and intricate relationships between culture and the built environment, is the prerequisite for undertaking any urban project.

Chapter 04.

The conservation of historical Heritage in Europe

The approach promoted by Geddes is based on a balanced and sustainable relationship between the urban and the natural environment, between the innovation needs of present and future generations and the historical legacy of the past. Geddes was an undisputed source of inspiration for the drafting of the recommendations contained in the modern HUL approach, which in fact aim to combine the conservation objectives of the existing urban heritage and those of future social and economic development. Geddes used an investigation approach based on knowledge and understanding of both the historic city and the landscape as a whole, in order to find its essential characteristics.

This type of approach is essential for planning the evolution of a city.

Geddes therefore introduced a new method of urban analysis, which is based on the study of the settlements and natural, cultural and human resources of cities in relation to their cultural heritage, thus influencing once again the contemporary HUL approach. Geddes meticulously analyzed the conditions of existing buildings and placed them in relation to their historical and cultural context and local traditions.

Before carrying out the demolitions, Geddes promoted a detailed investigation of past, present and future alternatives, according to what is now called “evaluation of the cultural significance” of existing heritage. Furthermore, Geddes aimed to stimulate the participation of local communities in the conservation process of the city, sensitizing people to the issue of the protection of historical and cultural heritage and trying to promote their participation, according to what is now called the “ bottom-up” approach. . This concept was then taken up by UNESCO in 1972, which stated that citizens should be closely involved in the actions taken to protect cultural heritage, be informed about intervention strategies and called to actively participate by providing useful suggestions and advice to the government. and to organizations involved in urban renewal projects. Geddes analyzes the city from the point of view of future development, not focusing so much on the conservation of cultural heritage as such, but on the possible solutions of integration between new and old. Geddes’s theories were fundamental in defining the foundations of an “integrated” approach, oriented to urban transformation processes, which today continues to be developed and investigated. His approach can still be traced back to his city: Edinburgh.

86

Xi’an University of Architecture and Technology

Master Thesis Outlook

Tower

Edinburgh,

in

Scotland.

“Once citizens have seen Edinburgh through the lens of the Outlook Tower, they are able to understand the value and beauty of their ancient city. With that comes the realization that improving the city incrementally

is

much

better than demolition and summary redevelopment of

city

districts,

which

destroys precious resources and social relations” - P. Geddes.

Gustavo Giovannoni Gustavo Giovannoni, one of the most important theorists and professionals of the first half of the twentieth century, deserves the credit for having invented the current term “urban heritage”, using it for the first time in the 1913 publication “Old cities and new buildings”. Giovannoni supported and promoted the protection of heritage on an urban scale, without however excluding the importance of development and renewal, defining a historic city both as a monument and as a constantly changing “living organism”.

Giovannoni also introduced the concept of “harmonious coexistence”, according to which conflict must be avoided and the respect between the historical heritage and the need for evolution of the urban fabric must be allowed, leaving them the freedom to evolve in a free and creative way. Both the monuments and the small architectures in their surroundings are to be considered as inseparable parts, as one would be incomplete without the other. Therefore, there should be no differences between the different buildings and landscape elements in the protection criteria during the urban planning and design process at different scales of intervention. As for urban renewal, Giovannoni proposes to combine the new intervention with respect for the elements of the historical urban fabric and local traditions.

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Giovannoni was also involved in drafting the Athens Charter of 1931 for the restoration of historical monuments.

Chapter 04.

The conservation of historical Heritage in Europe

Giovannoni’s ideas were rather in contrast with those of the modernist architects and urban planners of the CIAM (Congrès International d’Architecture Moderne), who were instead centered on the notion of “functional city ”. Indeed, Giovannoni’s ideas on the integration of urban heritage in city planning were for a long time overshadowed by the ideas of the modernists, who rejected the notion of historical city in favor of functionalism and rationality. An obvious example of this modernist attitude is Le Corbusier ’s Plan Voisin (Paris, 1925), which proposed to demolish the old districts of Paris to make way for new skyscrapers and to preserve only a few monuments of particular importance, such as Notre Dame. This is the time when urban development and historic urban heritage management really went their separate ways; in fact, one was mainly focused on the need for expansion and development due to population growth in the cities, while the other emphasized the defense of monuments. The Athens Charters, dated 1931 and 1933, are the documents that will definitively sanction this separation between the two disciplines. Both Geddes and Giovannoni integrated historical heritage management into the general practice of territorial planning and urban development and both saw people as an active part of the city.

Model of the Plan Voisin created by Le Corbusier for the city of Paris. The plan is clearly in contrast with Giovannoni’s vision of the city and the nativity of the historic areas.

88

Xi’an University of Architecture and Technology

Master Thesis

The Athens Charter of 1931 Regardless of the concern for the fate of the historical environment as a whole, expressed by isolated thinkers such as Wolfgang Goethe and John Ruskin, in relation to the results of industrialization, which caused destruction and alienation processes, only in the first decades of the 1900s the international community began to show a certain sensitivity towards the problem of the conservation of historical, artistic and cultural heritage. In 1931 a conference of experts was organized in Athens for the protection and conservation of monuments of art and history, promoted by the Institute for Intellectual Cooperation of the League of Nations.

Thanks to Gustavo Giovannoni, but also to Victor Horta and Giorgio Nicodemi, who spoke as speakers in the section of the congress reserved for the “environment of monuments”, in the concluding document known as the Athens Restoration Charter, in art. VII, recommendations were dictated for the respect and protection of the environment, even if “timid” and with a reductive meaning, understood as “around” episodes of significant artistic and historical value. The extension to the environment (urban and landscape) was conceived, first of all, as a concern for the dangers arising from atmospheric agents, which can cause damage to monuments. Victor Horta, in order to avert further environmental disasters, suggested fixing, in the urban plans, the height ratios of the “surroundings” (surrounding buildings), based on the monuments present, in order to ensure a good relationship between the ancient and the new. The architects who participated in the C.I.A .M. of 1933, who drafted the Urban Planning Charter, published by Le Corbusier in 1941.

The two Charters, dated 1931 and 1933, exerted a strong influence on the regulatory plans approved in Italy during the Thirties and Forties, resulting in the drastic downsizing of the plans for the gutting of the historic urban centers that had characterized the previous years.

89

Chapter 04.

The conservation of historical Heritage in Europe

The International Charter of Venice of 1964 The Venice Charter, still in force today, was drawn up on the occasion of the “II International Congress of Architects and Restoration Technicians”, held in 1964 in the Italian lagoon city. With regard to environmental problems, the unpublished experiences illustrated by Francois Sorlin, regarding the urban restoration that was being planned in France in the so-called safeguard sectors, and the critical insights on the new concept of monument, including, in addition to historical-artistic values, all other cultural meanings. Precisely in consideration of the latter experience, the replacement of the term “monument”, linked to an outdated definition, with the expression “cultural property ” was proposed. Compared to the Athens Charter of 1931, the greatest novelty consisted precisely in the emphasis placed on the environment, no longer conceived as “around”, “frame” of architectural needs, but by extending to it, that is the choral nature of environmental assets, the attribute itself of a monument. These concepts are clearly defined in art. 1 of the Charter, which reads: “The notion of historical monument includes both the creation of isolated architecture and the urban or landscape environment that constitutes the testimony of a particular civilization, a significant evolution or a historical event. This notion applies not only to great works but also to modest works which, over time, have acquired a cultural significance”.

Venice canal, Italy, in 1960s.

90

Xi’an University of Architecture and Technology

Master Thesis

The concept of historical heritage is therefore to be understood as the totality of the artefacts of each civilization and not only the highest manifestations of them. By defining these fundamental principles for the first time, the Charter of Venice has contributed to the development of a vast international movement, in the activity of ICOM and UNESCO, and in the creation, by UNESCO itself, of the International Study Center for the Conservation and Restoration of Cultural Heritage.

The 1972 Italian Restoration Charter Since 1964, a month before the Venetian congress took place, the Italian Parliament had approved the establishment of a commission of inquiry for the protection and enhancement of the “historical, archaeological, artistic and landscape” heritage, chaired by the Honorable Francesco Franceschini, in order to investigate the conditions of the aforementioned assets and formulate proposals for the adaptation of current legislation. In order to underline some fundamental results of the activity carried out by the Franceschini commission, it is useful to remember, first of all, the replacement of the old term of monument, as a movable or immovable thing of historical and artistic interest, in favor of that of cultural property, with the meaning of material testimony having the value of civilization, relating to the following five categories: archaeological, historical, artistic, environmental and landscape, archival and book.

The new concept formulated intended to extend the safeguard to everything in the territory represents a concrete sign of values of ​​ civilization: “Environmental cultural heritage is considered to be the chorographic areas constituting landscapes, natural or transformed by the work of man, and the delimitable areas constituting structures urban and non-urban settlements, which, having particular value for their values ​​of civilization, must be preserved for the enjoyment of the community ”.

Specifically considered environmental assets are those assets that have geological, faunal, ecological, agricultural, land infrastructural singularity,

91

and those settlement structures, even minor or isolated, that are integrated with the natural environment in order to form a representative unit.

Chapter 04.

The conservation of historical Heritage in Europe

Even if these articles present a remarkable initial opening, they are always accompanied by selective criteria, which limit and define the field of study and interest. In fact, the testimonies of civilizations that should be preserved are not all, but only those of “particular value”.

Furthermore, since there are no urban centers or inhabited areas that are not to some extent “integrated with the natural environment ”, specifying that they must form a “representative unit ” is once again a choice based on artistic, historical and cultural values.

Furthermore, the Franceschini commission did not fail to underline the need for a close connection between conservation and planning, at least for the categories of archaeological, artistic and historical, environmental assets.

In 1972, the Italian Minister of Education, who was entrusted with the protection of cultural heritage, issued new rules for the conservation and restoration of monuments, developed by the Higher Council of Antiquities and Fine Arts. They were given the title of Charter of the 1972 restoration, in the hope that they could acquire the form of law.

The Charter is made up of 12 articles and is accompanied, unlike the other similar documents that preceded it, by an introductory report and 4 instructions, respectively for: safeguarding and restoring antiquities, carrying out architectural restorations, execution of pictorial and sculptural restorations and the protection of historic centers.

Instructions for the protection of Historical Centers “For the purpose of identifying the Historical Centers, not only the old urban centers traditionally understood, but - more generally - all human settlements whose structures, unitary or fragmentary, even if partially transformed over time, must be taken into consideration been established in the past or, among the subsequent ones, any those having particular value of historical testimony or marked urban or architectural qualities. The historical character refers to the interest that these settlements present as evidence of past civilizations and as documents of urban culture, even independently of the intrinsic artistic or formal value or their particular environmental aspect, which can further enrich or enhance their value as not only the architecture, but also the urban structure possesses, in itself, meaning and value.

92

Xi’an University of Architecture and Technology

Master Thesis

The restoration interventions in the Historical Centers have the aim of guaranteeing - with ordinary and extraordinary means and tools - the persistence over time of the values ​​ that characterize these complexes. Therefore, the restoration should not be limited to operations intended to preserve only the formal characteristics of single architectures or single environments that contribute to defining said characteristics”.

Historic Center of San Gimignano,

Tuscany

(Italy). UNESCO heritage site. The site is a cultural place

of

exceptional

value for its architectural homogeneity and for the original

urban

layout.

At the municipal level, the Master plan (2007) establish detailed rules for public and private interventions

regarding

the historic center and the landscape of San Gimignano,

aimed

at

protecting and enhancing the historical urban texture and the original urban settlement.

“With regard to the individual elements through which the protection of the organism as a whole is implemented, both the building elements and the other elements constituting the external spaces (streets, squares, etc.) and internal (courtyards, gardens, free spaces, etc.), to other significant structures (walls, doors, rocks, etc.), as well as any natural elements that accompany the whole, characterizing it more or less accentuatedly ”.

“The building elements that are part of it must be preserved not only in their formal aspects that qualify their architectural or environmental

93

expression, but also in their typological characteristics as an expression of functions that have characterized the use of the elements over time.

Chapter 04.

The conservation of historical Heritage in Europe

Each restoration intervention must be preceded, in order to ascertain all urban, architectural, environmental, typological, constructive values, etc., by a careful historical-critical reading operation: the results of which are not so much aimed at determining an operational differentiation - since on the whole complex defined as the historic center it will be necessary to operate with homogeneous criteria - but rather the identification of the various degrees of intervention, at urban and building level, qualifying the necessary conservative rehabilitation”.

From

the

Amsterdam

Charter

(1975)

to

the

Integrated

Approach (2020) In the 1960s, the global opening of historical assets as well as the anxiety for the achievement of new economic and political performance objectives changed the approach to protection, resulting in a series of phenomena that changed the image and structure of entire contexts. territories with a high architectural, landscape and cultural value. Faced with these contexts of international change, the scientific community went on to perfect its legislative instruments to better respond to the renewed needs for a balance between urban development, quality of life and the achievements of tradition.

In 1975 the expression “Integrated Conservation” was coined in Amsterdam, a real watershed in the discipline of conservation and enhancement of monuments, cities and historic centers. Widely recognized worldwide (UNESCO, ICOMOS, ICCROM, etc.), the Amsterdam Charter highlights all the multiple values ​​ linked to cultural heritage, united in their complexity and protected in their identity, in a single methodological and operational approach.

The definition of “Integrated Conservation” refers to sustainable development processes in historical areas, integrating conservation with planning and management tools. “Safeguard” means measures aimed at ensuring the long-term viability of tangible and intangible cultural heritage, including identification, documentation, research, conservation, protection, promotion, improvement, transmission, as well as the revitalization of the various aspects of this heritage” (UNESCO Convention of 2003).

94

Xi’an University of Architecture and Technology

Master Thesis

Integrated conservation, if referred to historical centers, constituted one of the preliminary moments of urban planning and by no means excluded the possibility of inserting a contemporary architectural language within ancient contexts as long as the value of the existing environment was taken into account its proportions, its forms and traditional materials.

Together with the Amsterdam Declaration, the salient moments of European conservation culture between the 20th and 21st centuries are represented by the Venice Charter (1964), the Nara Document on Authenticity (1994), the Krakow Charter (2000). After the Venice Charter and especially with the Amsterdam Declaration of 1975, particular attention was paid to the conservation of entire historical contexts. Integrated Conservation is a theoretical and practical act that not only guarantees the protection of buildings of architectural and environmental value, but extends it to cities and territories of high architectural, landscape and cultural value. The adjective “Integrated” translates a joint action of conservation techniques and the search for the most appropriate functions in possible reuse interventions, within the objectives of urban planning and land use (Amsterdam Declaration, 1975).

Starting from these assumptions, ICOMOS drafted in 1987 in Toledo, then ratified in Washington, the “International Charter for the Protection of Historic Cities” with the aim of safeguarding historic cities and districts, an integral part of a coherent economic, social and territorial development policy, aimed at protecting values ​​such as the historical character of the city and the set of material and spiritual elements that tell its image (Washington Charter, 1987). This Charter states for the first time the specific urban value of the centers of ancient foundation and the qualities of the historical, artistic and environmental tradition, dignitaries of preventive and protective measures aimed at safeguarding their heritage, ensuring the protection of authenticity (art. 14). The Washington Charter considered the historic center as the city itself as a whole and introduced the concept of “safeguarding the historical whole” which, in order to be effective, must be an integral part of a coherent economic development policy in spatial planning and urban planning at all levels. Furthermore, a multidisciplinary methodological approach and the involvement of the inhabitants are considered indispensable in

95

order to foster awareness on the part of current and future generations.

Chapter 04.

The conservation of historical Heritage in Europe

Capitol District,

Hill

Historic

Washington

(USA).

Today’s concepts of Integrated Conservation have paid great attention to the implementation of active conservation, based primarily on the knowledge and participation of an increasingly vast and heterogeneous public, made possible thanks to the promotion and knowledge of heritage as an immortal value, not only for the inhabitants but also for tourists or occasional visitors.

Faced with the search for new balances that contemplate the needs of modernity with those of safeguarding, it is possible to trace two different theoretical and operational attitudes: 1. “protectionist” approach, which considers the cultural system as a heritage to be defended from the assaults and threats of the widest aesthetic, artistic, social or economic use, with the risk of an excess of “intellectualization” of cultural heritage (Besset, 1963); 2. “prospective” approach, which considers the cultural system as a heritage to invest in, facilitated by an open, international and multi-meaning circuit, considered as an opportunity for development, with the risk of an excess of utilitarianism.

Looking closely at reality, it seems that the progressive forces are certainly more forward than the protectionist ones, just consider the historical heritage engulfed by development interests (erroneously defined as sustainable), economic investment and return of image and fame, relative, to for example, the great phenomenon of mass tourism in historical sites that involves not only the administrations but all those who care about the symbols of entire civilizations.

96

Xi’an University of Architecture and Technology

Master Thesis

In 2011, the Paris Declaration on Cultural Heritage attempted to bring about a synthesis between the demands of protection and those of development.

It proposes guidelines for the conservation and protection of historical heritage including: • preserve open spaces as non-renewable assets; keep rural landscapes alive and reorganize their agriculture on a local scale; • protect the geological and archaeological heritage, groundwater and ecosystems; • maintain local communication paths (railway lines, roads, navigable routes) and promote alternative modes of transport; • preserve the vernacular heritage, ensuring its appropriate reuse while maintaining the integrity of the space; • limit urban expansion and create the conditions for development to respect the historical landscape and traditional settlements; • adapt new uses and functions to the existing heritage, adapting expectations to modern living standards; • know and recover the skills of traditional construction and the best practices of architectural making.

The use of these guidelines can represent a valid attempt to remedy a substantial gap between the fulfillment of objectives aimed at the development of a country and the protection of the architectural and landscape heritage, a set of unique and unrepeatable works, values and ​​ qualities.

These considerations translate into current terms the notion of Integrated Conservation as expressed in 1975 - when the threats of the globalization of Western values ​​were glimpsed but still were not so close as to worry.

Therefore, the term “Integrated Conservation” involves culturally and environmentally sustainable development processes in historical areas, integrating conservation with planning and management tools. It depends on the legal, administrative, financial and technical support and informed involvement of the heritage community as a whole.

These concepts then found further confirmation in the 2000 Krakow Charter which states that the restoration project of historic cities and villages must include the management of transformations and a verification of the

97

sustainability of the choices, considering the patrimonial aspects together with the social and economic aspects.

Chapter 04.

The conservation of historical Heritage in Europe

It therefore follows that the study aimed at the knowledge of both urban architecture and individual artefacts cannot be separated from a preliminary and fundamental study for understanding social changes and economic and political management processes determined precisely by a safeguard and enhancement of highly historicized contexts. What was promulgated by the Krakow Charter is extended to the recent Charter for the protection of the historic centers of Palestine and the urban landscape, known as the “Bethlehem Charter” and signed by UNESCO.

Alleys within the historic center

of

Bethlehem,

Palestine.

Furthermore, the Charter also reviews and confirms many innovative principles that have begun to emerge especially since the Amsterdam Convention of 1975, preferring the enhancement of places in close relationship with the social, cultural, environmental and economic resources of the place of reference. In recent years, numerous conventions and charters have been drawn up for sustainable development in vulnerable countries, so that the historical approach to the natural and built environment is that of multimeaning integration, leading to the notion of “Integrated Approach” capable of improve overall capacity and understanding of heritage requirements. In this context, the Integrated Approach to cultural Heritage programmatic document drawn up starting from 2018 is fundamental, through which the Council of Europe in the field of cultural heritage has emphasized an integrated approach to combine the promotion and protection of cultural diversity, democratic governance and innovation, in the three main perspectives of (i) monuments and sites, (ii) cities and (iii) historical territories.

98

4 .5 T he H UL a p p r oa ch

Xi’an University of Architecture and Technology

Master Thesis

The HUL approach, established as a management approach in the Vienna Memorandum document and officially adopted by UNESCO in 2011, is a cultural heritage management tool that provides guidelines for the urban development of historic cities. An Urban Heritage Landscape is an area formed as a result of a historical stratification of cultural and natural values, which extends beyond the traditional notion of the historic center to include the wider urban context and its geographical location. This approach is based on the assumption that, “when an urban settlement is managed correctly, initiatives, opportunities and development can combine to contribute both to the quality of life of residents and to the conservation of cultural heritage as a whole” .

To promote this approach, it is advisable to take into account the following fundamental points, adapting them critically within the specific context in which you want to intervene: • realize detailed maps and surveys of the natural, cultural and human resources of the city, in order to understand the deep relationships that exist between the various elements; • gaining

citizen

consensus

through

“participatory

planning”,

consultation and dialogue with interested parties, promoting the participation of residents in the renewal phases, respecting the various needs and traditional lifestyles and taking into consideration any advice; • the risks and socio-economic pressures to which historic urban areas are subject must be assessed, together with the impacts of climate change; • integrate the results of the previous points into a broader picture of the development of the city; • prioritize conservation and development actions, without one overriding the other; • establish appropriate local management structures for each of the interventions.

In these few points it is possible to recognize some of the ideas and theories of past scholars, in particular those of Geddes, which have

99

proved to be truly fundamental in defining the modern HUL approach.

Chapter 04.

Aldo van Eyck’s playgrounds in Amsterdan Between 1947 and 1978, architect Aldo van Eyck was involved in the design of hundreds of playgrounds in the city of Amsterdam. Although only

17

of

his

playgrounds

remain today, van Eyck’s project continues to have an impact on the thinking of cities, architecture, playgrounds and children. Over the past two decades, van Eyck’s playgrounds have been honored and studied by several academic

Aldo van Eyck, Bertelmanplein playground, 1947.

disciplines, including sociology, art, architecture and psychology. These public playgrounds were located in abandoned parks, squares and sites, empty spaces generated by the destructions of war, and consisted of minimalist aesthetic play equipment that should, on the one hand,

4 . 6 Ca se s o f r enewa l of hi s tor i c u r b a n a r ea s i n E ur op e

The conservation of historical Heritage in Europe

stimulate children’s creativity and, on the other hand, redevelop the urban areas of the city centers damaged by the bombing of the war. Taking an ecological approach to the human environment, it is argued that the abstract shapes of van Eyck’s playful sculptures really stimulate children’s creativity. While

Aldo van Eyck, Saffierstraat playground, 1950.

a slide or swing almost dictates what a child should do, van Eyck’s play equipment invites the child to actively explore the many action possibilities available to him.

100

Xi’an University of Architecture and Technology

Master Thesis

In 1946, a year after the end of World War II in the Netherlands, Aldo Van Eyck was appointed architectural

designer

in

the

urban planning section of the Amsterdam Department of Public Works. Among his first tasks in this department was the design of a public playground at the Bertelmanplein

in

Amsterdam.

For this square van Eyck designed a climbing arch, three rolling bars and a rectangular sandpit with an edge that lowers in two places for small children to enter.

In addition, a couple of benches have been placed in the square, which allow parents to look after the playing children. The urban planning section of the city of Amsterdam wanted to have a playground in every district of Amsterdam, a city whose parts were destroyed during the war.

In the period between 1947 and 1978, he designed no less than 734 playgrounds in Amsterdam.

In addition to the impact that van Eyck’s playgrounds had on Amsterdam’s

social

life,

they

were also of great architectural significance.

Aldo

van

Eyck

rebelled against the program of the CIAM (Congrès Internationaux d’Architecture Moderne), founded

101

in 1928 and flourished in the 1930s and 1940s.

Aldo van Eyck playground in Dijkstraat, 1954. Before and after the renovation.

Chapter 04.

The conservation of historical Heritage in Europe

In the Charter of Athens, Le Corbusier opted for a massive reconstruction of cities in which the functions of work, life and leisure are spatially separated and street life has been reduced to traffic flows. Although Aldo van Eyck attended several meetings, he severely criticized CIAM’s practices and sought to replace it with human architecture. Aldo van Eyck’s human architecture aimed to create places that foster dialogue and stimulate community life in which children take part. Although CIAM members recognized the importance of children’s leisure and play, they aimed to make it happen in a completely different way than van Eyck. Le Corbusier, for example, imagined free time in “idealized environments”, often at a serious distance from children’s homes. Van Eyck, on the other hand, has designed and built playgrounds in the neighborhoods of an already existing city, accepting and exploiting all the resulting constraints. In fact, he followed Theo van Doesburg’s saying that all parts of the city are equally important and should be used. Therefore, contrary to the CIAM program which called for a massive reconstruction of the city, van Eyck adopted a “tamponade” strategy, using the existing and ignored points of the city to create places of social gathering. During the Second World War, many houses were destroyed and therefore there were large abandoned sites that could serve this purpose.

An innovative feature of van Eyck’s playgrounds is that, although located in the city, they have never been fenced as the architect’s intent was to unite these rest and entertainment spaces with the city and not separate them.

The playground he created in Amsterdam’s Buskenblaserstraat provides a beautiful illustration of this design attitude.

Aldo van Eyck’s playground at the Buskenblaserstraat, 1955-56.

102

Xi’an University of Architecture and Technology

Master Thesis

There were no clear boundaries separating the playground from the rest of the city. As mentioned above, van Eyck created playgrounds in existing parks, squares and other empty places in the city, taking into account the constraints provided by these places. As a result, each playground was sitespecific and unique. Over the years, van Eyck has thus been able to finetune the constitutive elements of his poetics of the “intermediate” space, in-between. He radically questions the idea that the city is built through architecture and artefacts (the full ones) and re-evaluates the representation of urban voids, which the regulatory urban system imposed from above tends not to consider. According to the experiments developed in the Playgrounds, the city appears as an artefact composed of fragments, in which the void accesses the relational potential, placing itself in the middle, between different populations, between different areas of the city, between full and empty.

Working on the marginal space means working on the threshold that belongs to the house, which at the same time is almost an extension of the road.

The gaps between the buildings are not anonymous abandoned spaces, but rather areas capable of stimulating the interaction of individuals on a social level. The Amsterdam experience, if revisited today and in the light of new questions about the quality and habitability of urban space, still appears generative. It is the play space that is conceived outside the containers designed by the welfare state - spaces defined and designed for specific and targeted activities aimed at children or for sports and play activities - in its “integrated” dimension and connected with other dimensions urban.

Aldo

103

van

Eyck’s

playground at the Laagte Kadijk, 1954.

Chapter 04.

The conservation of historical Heritage in Europe

Conservation and renovation of the ancient city of Guimarães, Portugal The city of Guimarães, usually designated as the Cradle of Portuguese Nationality, has a historic center that houses a set of historic buildings that illustrate the evolution of the different construction types from the Middle Ages to the 19th century. This historical, cultural, artistic and architectural heritage is part of the world heritage, recognized all over the world, and has been undergoing renovation since the 1980s. Guimarães is a city that initially took care to stop the process of decay it had suffered and then decided to work on urban regeneration. The Municipality of Guimarães has focused this theme with greater interest after the creation of an association in defense of the city ’s heritage and after being cited by architects and urban planners as a site of great architectural and archaeological interest.

In 1980 the launch, with the architect Fernando Távora, of the General Urban Plan of Guimarães was kicked off, and it was in 1981 that Nuno Portas, a famous Portuguese architect, suggested the establishment of a “Local Historical Center Office”, the future GTL (Local Technical Office) of the Municipality of Guimarães. This office will have its structure completed only in 1985, but from the beginning it has had a broad concept of cultural heritage. The creation of this office marks the beginning of concerns for the conservation and transformation of the contemporary city, as well as the renewal of the Historic Center of the city.

GTL, after its creation, began its work, with design practices for the adaptation of the historic urban core to the current lifestyle, taking into account the concern for the new needs of comfort and safety of buildings, while preserving the identity architectural and keeping the resident population in their homes. The GTL uses some principles for urban regeneration, among them the three main ones are: (i) urban renewal for the needs of people, (ii) conservation of the values of ​​ identity and authenticity, in order to preserve the referential qualities of the architecture of the historic city and (iii) guarantee the continuity of the essential heritage in the long term, preserving its already consolidated formal qualities.

104

Master Thesis

Xi’an University of Architecture and Technology

These principles, together with a clear management rule, have tried to intervene in the public spaces within

the

competence

of

the

Municipality, acting as an example and promoting action initiatives. At the same time, the Municipality has provided

technical

and

financial

support to individuals, enhancing and

encouraging

renovate Among

the the

initiatives

housing

activities

to

stock.

undertaken

by the Municipality, it was intended to

recover

(investments

the and

housing

stock

rehabilitation),

Rua Nova’s house, the former seat of Guimarães GTL.

revitalize public spaces (equipment and infrastructures) and promote the quality of its architectural and urban spaces, with the interest of hosting activities that can provide encounters of people, with a closer relationship between the historic center and its surroundings.

The

rehabilitated

spaces have been modified, exploiting their reuse, both for the old activities and for the new one in order to avoid

The renovated “Praça de Santiago” seen from Rua de Santa Maria.

the abandonment of the structures and their own degradation. The urban redevelopment actions, in Guimarães, took place and are carried out in compliance with the principle of minimum intervention, instilled in the Venice Charter (1964), and the principles and objectives of the Toledo Charter (1986), which

105

refers to the safeguarding of historic cities.

“Praça de Santiago” at night.

Chapter 04.

The conservation of historical Heritage in Europe

In addition to this, traditional construction paths have been created, with the use of local materials and labor, ensuring that the restoration follows the original construction technique, obtaining its peculiar character. The ideals and attitudes of the GTL were revealed with visible results in the late 1980s, first with the “Europa Nostra” award (1985) by adapting the GTL headquarters, and shortly after with the project of “Praça de Santiago” of 1989. The studio received the 1st prize of the Portuguese Architects Association, in 1993, for the best conservation work and the prize of the Real Fundación de Toledo in 1996. The renovation of the historic city center of Guimarães has become a landmark in terms of conservation of the urban heritage.

“The interventions in the historic center should include functional (and financial) reanimation linked to the redevelopment process of the remaining urban area. That is, the renewal of historic urban nuclei should lead to a formal and functional rehabilitation of the overall urban space, trying to spread quality and induce by “contagion” similar processes also in the suburbs, and making the historic city (again) the central point of reference”.

This thought demonstrates the political concern that the Municipality of Guimarães, through the GTL, has engaged in its interventions. It is thought that the idea was to first take care of the historic center, which would serve as a model, and then redevelop the surrounding areas.

In addition, the city was included in 2001 as a World Heritage Site by UNESCO and was chosen as the European Capital of Culture in 2012.

These numerous awards have made the city known to the world population, transforming it into a famous tourist destination and cultural destination.

No concerns relating to sustainability were identified in the urban interventions undertaken by the municipality of Guimarães, but it can be said that this was implicit in the actions carried out.

It is interesting to note that urban renewal is responsible for the transformation of the public spaces of historic urban districts, understood as a continuity of domestic spaces, where the population coexists and socializes and therefore makes these places alive; this shows a “sustainable” concern regarding the social and cultural factor, which has not occurred in many other projects.

Furthermore, the use of traditional materials and the local recovery of the housing stock demonstrate environmental concerns. Therefore it is possible to reach all the important aspects of sustainable development, in which the city has grown economically over the years.

106

Xi’an University of Architecture and Technology

Master Thesis

The latest interventions, on which not many publications exist, are known as the Urban Redevelopment Project at “Largo do Toural” (2009-2011). Here we perceive the initiative to use sustainability as an element of reformulation of the space. In this project, local materials and labour were used, the existing was respected, and high technology was used to the advantage of reducing energy costs, as in the case of the public lighting system.

“Largo do Toural” after the renovation.

107

“Largo do Toural” at night.

Chapter 04.

The conservation of historical Heritage in Europe

Urban renewal of the historic “Chiado” district, Lisbon, Portugal In August 1988, a few days after the fire that destroyed eighteen buildings in the center of Lisbon, the Municipality commissioned Álvaro Siza to draw up a detailed plan for the reconstruction of the damaged area, which affected four blocks of Chiado. The architect’s office is supported by a specially prepared municipal technical office, under the guidance of Victor Manuel Pessanha Viegas. If the intervention strategy with respect to the volumetric structure of the buildings towards the street, the alignments and the relative design of the building elevations, the choice is that of substantial maintenance and restoration, instead the interpretation of the public land constitutes the fundamental element for the

Plan of the Baixa with the reconstruction of route

redefinition of the identity of the place. Thus the new

buildings destroyed by the earthquake of 1755.

design, through a sort of archeology of memory, works on the margins, on the transition areas where time has

n° 5 of 1780 superimposed on the drawing of the The lots affected by the Chiado reconstruction project following the fire of 1988 are highlighted.

accumulated different historical testimonies and where one can also find the spatial values ​​of the medieval city that had been cancelled by the earthquake of 1755 and rebuilt in just four years in a fully enlightened style, in which the urban blocks are arranged in a checkerboard pattern. It was in fact inevitable that the fire of the Chiado in 1988, considered the second great calamity to strike the Portuguese capital, would bring the collective memory back to that traumatic event and it is of particular interest to look at the plan of the area

Plan of the Chiado blocks affected by Alvaro Siza’s reconstruction plan. The system of open

to re-read certain aspects of the historical project.

spaces of the 1990 project is highlighted, which

Chiado occupies a transitional position between the

include private areas given to the public.

Baixa altitude and the Bairro Alto hill and has long been the hub of an intense social, cultural and economic life.

In the years preceding the 1988 fire, this neighborhood also suffered from the transformations that affected the entire city center: progressive depopulation and a crisis of commercial establishments.

108

Xi’an University of Architecture and Technology

Master Thesis

The strong reaction of the entire citizenry to the fire demonstrates on the one hand the permanence of its identity role, but at the same time also the collective awareness of the need for its transformation.

For this reason, the guidelines established

by

the

municipality

immediately manifest the intent to reconstruct the totally destroyed or also

severely to

damaged

engage

the

lots,

but

physical

reconstruction in a more general

Urban renewal of the Chiado district by Álvaro Siza: ramp system.

regeneration process of the area.

The reconstruction plan that Siza will define as “a regulation on the use of space” provides for three essential

elements:

revitalization

of the urban block, connection to the underground network and the reconfiguration of open spaces and public routes. For the buildings, the destinations of use most compatible with the old quarter are chosen: commerce, offices and residence.

Urban renewal of the Chiado district: Carmo Convent’s connections.

The connection to the metro network, already foreseen by the Lisbon Plan, will be realized thanks to the construction of the Baixa Station located inside one of the recovered buildings. The Plan also defines new alignments to appropriately space the buildings and characters for the reconfiguration of open spaces and public paths that can also be created

109

by private individuals in compliance with strictly defined guidelines.

Project stairs and connection between the various levels of the terraces.

Chapter 04.

The conservation of historical Heritage in Europe

The terraços do Carmo represent the last piece of the long recovery plan of the center of Lisbon set up by Álvaro Siza Vieira and create a new pedestrian path which, integrating with the delicate context, connects what remains of the suggestive do Carmo complex to the underlying and homonymous complex Street. Siza’s restoration project for the pedestrian walkways linking one of the courtyards of the Convent del Carmo (Patio B), piazza Largo do Carmo and the Terrazze del Carmo was completed in 2015. Consisting of a church and convent, the do Carmo complex is come to us as a suggestive ruin overlooking the central Chiado district, of which it is one of the most important and visited places. The project is carried out through a careful and minute intervention of urban mending and “mending”, through which a succession of stairs, ramps and panoramic terraces partially greened by meadows branches off from Rua do Carmo up in front of the apse of the church which, facing towards the “lower city”, it offers an excellent observation point both of the underlying Baixa and of the opposite hill, the highest in the city, dominated by the Castelo de São Jorge. At the top, there is a new terrace, an urban, public and collective space that incorporates the local tradition of Portuguese outdoor flooring in the materials and techniques. In this project, Siza solves the theme of the connection between physical height differences and temporal differences, allowing the visitor to walk through the different layers of the memory of the place, where the traces of the fire interpenetrate with those of the earthquake.

A web of perceptual and mental connections that confirms an idea of a ​​ city based on relationships, where the fabric is understood as a three-dimensional mesh of different geometries and historical times.

The

connection

of

Patio B to the ruins of Carmo Church, Largo do Carmo.

110

Xi’an University of Architecture and Technology

Macrolotto

0

District,

Master Thesis

Prato

(Tuscany), Italy Macrolotto Zero (ML0) is probably the portion of the city that best lends itself to describing the phenomenon of urban mixité: it is an area with a very high industrial concentration, developed on one of the city’s expansion axes, the one to the west, and which therefore involves a portion of the urban fabric adjacent to the city center. The analysis of this area was carried out in the fabric between the railway, the historic center (starting from Porta Pistoiese), the ring road and via Galcianese: in this strip of city there are different types of settlements, built in periods different historical and economic. Starting from the oldest buildings along the main axis of expansion, up to those present in 1954, the mode of occupation of the land characterized by a high density of industrial buildings, factories and warehouses, which has generated an extremely dense urban context, appears to be predominant; in which the voids are reduced to squares and functional courtyards belonging to the same production buildings. On a functional level, the mix between industry, residence and commercial centers is immediately evident, due to factors of cost-effectiveness and

111

comfort linked to the proximity of the house to the workplace.

The medieval historic center of the city of Prato.

Chapter 04.

The conservation of historical Heritage in Europe

Between the seventies and eighties residential neighborhoods developed, grown above all to cope with the massive immigration of workers from Southern Italy. The more recent buildings, on the other hand, are characterized by small scattered and isolated interventions or demolition projects of degraded buildings and replacement with new residential buildings, especially in the area closest to the historic center.

The analysis maps of Macrolotto Zero confirm the presence of a very dense built fabric, composed of an alternation of industrial buildings, warehouses and factories, and residential buildings, often located in the immediate vicinity

The location of the Macrolotto 0 with respect to

or even annexed to the production ones. Having been the

the historic center.

first industrial district to have been created and developed in the second half of the 1900s, Macrolotto Zero is unique for its mixture of buildings, considering also the extreme proximity to the historic center of the city it is surprising that its configuration has remained intact in the last seventy years. The city of Prato has been the subject of strong immigration by the Chinese population since the 70s and 80s of the last century, who found in the Macrolotto Zero the ideal conditions to establish their own settlement and start a profitable economic growth. Nowadays, half of the

Geosatellite photo of Macrolotto 0.

industries and warehouses in this district are owned by first or second generation Chinese. It is no coincidence, in fact, that the district has been nicknamed by citizens and the media: the “Chinatown” of Prato. Today this district is an area of the ​​ city where the problems related to coexistence and social inclusion between the city communities are very evident and difficult to solve, and therefore the area needs major urban regeneration interventions in the area.

The coexistence of houses and productive settlements, the particular social composition, the urban configuration characterized by a high density of buildings and the

Relationship between industrial and residential

absence of public spaces, have all contributed to making

buildings.

the development of integration processes particularly complex and requiring an urban and social regeneration of the territory.

112

Master Thesis

Xi’an University of Architecture and Technology

The absence of squares and public places

dedicated

extremely

to

necessary

meeting, for

the

development of civil coexistence and

for

the

creation

of

social

networks, has led some associations to plan and implement a series of interventions. The interventions of the urban innovation project (Piu) of the Municipality of Prato “Più Prato”

Aerial

photo

of

the

district.

Warehouses,

factories and residences.

are located in Macrolotto Zero and cover an area of 43.5 ​​ hectares and is in a particularly delicate context from a social point of view.

By returning services, meeting and exchange places to the various inhabitants

of

Macrolotto

Zero,

the interventions aim to overcome the most clearly perceived social criticalities.

By

strengthening

the public space and collective services of the neighborhood and supporting the emergence of new

A

Chinese

“ready-to-wear”

warehouse

in

Macrolotto Zero, 2013.

points of interest, the aim is to generate positive effects in terms of sustainability (such as greater use of public transport) and social cohesion.

Projects include: (i)

Recovery

production

of

former

buildings

disused to

host

meeting spaces and new functions (a metropolitan market, and services

Parade during the Chinese New Year in front of

such as the media library and co-

the church in the historic center of Prato.

working);

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(ii) construction of a large square and green spaces;

Chapter 04.

The conservation of historical Heritage in Europe

(iii) interventions for sustainable mobility (such as the creation of privileged routes for pedestrians and bicycles).

• Piazza dell’Immaginario (Square of the imaginary) In 2015, a small private car park, attached to a supermarket, was redeveloped by the ECÒL architecture firm, cleaning walls, planting flowers, placing benches. The space was renamed “Piazza dell’Immaginario” and has become an indispensable public space for organizing many initiatives. The intervention constitutes an important example of active citizenship, achieved thanks to the union between the planning and dialogue skills, the cultural and social sensitivity of the Associations operating in the area and the funding of the local authority. Piazza dell’Immaginario was, to all intents and purposes, the first public space of Macrolotto 0. In general, the first reactions were positive, of great enthusiasm. The neighborhood associations have made it the privileged place to host their activities: film screenings, live performances, guided tours with the presentation of the works of art on site. More generally, all the residents have appropriated the square, even if only to let the children play away from the cars or to enjoy a sunny day.

However, in 2018, with the arrival of new executives in the offices of the private company that owned the space and some complaints from citizens, the square was dismantled, putting an end to the experiment.

“Piazza dell’immaginario” renovation

project

by

ECÒL architecture studio, 2015.

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Master Thesis

• MacroLotto Zero Prato playground The MacroLotto Zero Prato Playground, built in 2020 by the Public Spaces Bakery Office of the Municipality of Prato, is one of the main reuse interventions envisaged in the larger “PIU Prato” urban redevelopment project. The Playground is the largest public space of the entire project, built on a site previously used as an illegal parking and storage area for the abandoned industrial complex. The area itself represented a unique opportunity, despite its lack of functionality, with the exception of the water storage silo, the space represents a strategic hub for a wider urban redevelopment in addition to its connections with the new system of public spaces in course in the area.

The project consisted in combining a reuse approach with respect for the consolidated structure and the complex essence of the area, transforming the existing environmental and planimetric characteristics and limits into resources, with the aim of converting an anonymous and isolated space into a new urban landmark, uniquely recognizable in its artistic and architectural features, capable of stimulating a sense of community and belonging in the population, creating a place of social aggregation and free expression.

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“MacroLotto Zero playground” project, aerial view. The project defines a new urban aggregation space in a district lacking public areas for leisure and physical activity.

Chapter 04.

The conservation of historical Heritage in Europe

The entire square is characterized by a strong presence of colors, divided into segments for each functional area, which give dynamism and character to the paved surface. The visual zoning aims to create a contrast with the adjacent green areas of the garden, thus implementing two different integrated functional subsystems. The characteristic colours of the area also become the artistic component of the new work created

by Zed1, a well-known street artist who intervened on the surface of the silo, which recalls the multi-ethnicity of the neighborhood and the city, launching a message of solidarity and unity to face the future. The opening of the area to the public gave important feedback on the planned transformation. The high rate of participation and satisfaction among users in different age groups indicates that the project has achieved the urban and social redevelopment objectives set by the Municipality in the initial planning phase.

Detail of street furniture, sports

equipment

and

flooring in the playground.

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Master Thesis

• Urban Jungle - The Covered Market project Prato Urban Jungle is an innovative urban forestation, greening and efficiency plan in Prato, created with the aim of reconfiguring the relationship between the city, the environment, resources and inhabitants. Winner in 2019 of the fourth edition of the 2019 UIA - Urban innovative action call, the program provides for the redevelopment of abandoned or degraded areas, the planting of trees and plants in strategic areas, the creation of productive gardens, the conversion of mineral surfaces into plant walls and phyto-depuration of contaminated areas. Within the Prato Urban Jungle masterplan, PNAT is carrying out interventions in two pilot areas: the Farm Park in via delle Pleiadi and Macrolotto 0. In Macrolotto Zero, a city market will be created inside a former industrial building, whose facades will be covered with plants and the air of which will be purified by the largest Air Factory (not yet built). Inside, local products can be consumed and the benefits of a space regenerated by plants can be enjoyed. The project for the city market in Macrolotto Zero, which began in 2020, is divided into various plant-based solutions. The external surfaces of the former industrial warehouse will be covered with plants managed with low-maintenance technologies, and the open spaces will be re-naturalized. These interventions will generate benefits

in

terms

of

environmental

micro-climate

regulation,

temperature mitigation, air quality, thermal and acoustic insulation and rainwater regulation. The conversion of the former industrial warehouse in which the market was created will be a model of reuse of the abandoned industrial heritage of Prato. Plants will be the technological and vital fulcrum of the space, the first Prato example of highly innovative ecological design. The interior spaces will host a market for local agricultural products and a large Air Factory, a system designed and developed by the PNAT studio to completely remove air pollutants through plants. In this way the whole building will enjoy a healthy and comfortable environment, you can buy vegetables grown at km 0, consume local foods and spend time in a real Urban Jungle, enjoying the psycho-physical benefits of a full

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immersion in the nature.

Chapter 04.

The conservation of historical Heritage in Europe

The “Covered Market” project inside Macrolotto 0. Redevelopment of an abandoned industrial complex.

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Summing up The future objective for the management and protection of the historicalcultural heritage is based on the development of a global approach, which considers the urban landscape in the totality of its material and intangible elements, which embraces change and renewal without putting aside respect for tradition and the past. On the one hand, the heritage of historical urban contexts includes physical objects and social and cultural characteristics that are often appreciated by the community in general, on the other hand, in the future financial investments for historical city centers will be increasingly directed towards the management of a transition process within these areas; a process of gradual renewal of the urban fabric through innovation, integration and co-evolution, possibly accompanied by an active participation of the people residing in these places, in order to respect the needs of the community. When urban conservation is defined as “transition management” then it is possible to pursue common goals, which are likely to benefit both the redevelopment of historic areas and residents.

The HUL approach, providing operational indications and intervention strategies, seeks to accompany local and national governments in the modern processes of economic, cultural and social transformation of historic urban areas, without neglecting the historical and artistic value of these areas, as collective heritage to be preserved.

Some ideas and theories of the past are still current and can be inspiring, however today ’s challenges lie mainly in the practice of renewal and management of historical areas, not so much in the theoretical assumptions. These challenges become even more urgent and important when we consider the future impacts of climate change and population growth on urban areas. Consequently, the management and protection of cultural heritage must be approached with attention, like other contemporary issues, such as climate change.

Today, one of the major risks associated with the conservation of cultural sites and heritage is that of the “mass market”, i.e. the contemporary transformations that have taken place in the historical fabrics of European cities due to the development of the tourism industry in the 21st century.

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These trends have led to the appropriation and transformation of cultural heritage, resulting in the manipulation or destruction of historic urban areas in favour of the tourist and commercial industry, through the construction of luxury residences, businesses, tourist villages, hotels or other profitable businesses that destroy the material and intangible heritage of these places, erasing traditions and secular lifestyles and obscuring the values​​ of naturalness and authenticity of sites and architectural complexes. We have already seen in the previous chapter how this practice has been implemented in many circumstances by local governments, leading to the creation of replicas of entire historic urban areas. It is therefore necessary to avoid the spectacle of the historical heritage, and to intervene in these contexts with targeted and studied interventions, so that the existing cultural heritage can integrate with the needs of renewal and the needs of contemporary life of the residents.

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05.

Xi’an: an ancient city in modern China

121

122

5. 1 Intr od ucti on

Xi’an University of Architecture and Technology

Master Thesis

Xi’an is the capital of Shaanxi Province and is the oldest of the four great imperial capitals of China. The first inhabited settlements appeared already more than 3000 years ago in the Guanzhong plain area and in particular in the Weihe River area, where today the city of Xi’an stands.

Geographic location of the city of Xi’an: a map of China with the subdivision into provinces and main cities.

From the first national capital in Chinese history, consisting of the twin cities of Feng and Hao, during the Western Zhou dynasty (1046-771 BC), to the Xianyang capital of the Qin dynasty (221-206 BC), the Chang’an capital of Han dynasty (206 BC - 220 AD) and up to the capital of Daxing of the Sui dynasty (581-618 AD), cities were systemically destroyed, moved and rebuilt with each change of dynasty. For this reason, when it is said that the history of Xi’an is 3000 years old, it actually refers to a succession of “scattered cities” around the banks of the Weihe River. This happened at least until the construction of the city of Chang’an during the Tang dynasty, in fact, when the city was abandoned and destroyed, the next capital was rebuilt exactly on the ruins of the previous one, using the same models and symbolic schemes, consisting of two axes main orthogonal and a rectangular wall. In the past, the city of Chang’an was also the eastern terminus of the Silk Road, one of the longest and most

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important communication routes in the ancient world, allowing trade between the Roman and Chinese empires.

Chapter 05.

Xi’an: an ancient city in modern China

The modern city of Xi’an has nearly a thousand years of history, as it was founded during the Ming dynasty (1368 - 1644 AD) over the ruins of the capital of the Tang dynasty (618-907 AD): the ancient capital of Chang ‘ an.

Xi’an is one of the four great ancient capitals of China, having held office under several of the most important Chinese dynasties. Among these dynasties, the Tang dynasty (618 - 907 AD) is the period when Chang’an was the most populous city in the world and was generally regarded as the point of greatest development of Chinese civilization, a golden age of cosmopolitan culture. At that time, Chang’an was famous as an economic, political and cultural center and also had a profound impact on the rest of the world. Through the use of land trade along the Silk Road and trade by sea, the Tang dynasty was able to develop and learn many

Geographic location of the city of Xi’an: Shaanxi

new technologies and cultural customs from other

Province map.

countries. From the Middle East, India, Persia and Central Asia the Tangs were able to acquire new ideas in fashion, new types of pottery and better silver working. At the same time, more and more scholars, visitors and merchants from all over the world have visited, studied and lived in Chang’an for a long time. Currently the city is in its phase of greatest urban development in history, the scale and spatial structure of Xi’an are changing faster and faster, incorporating ever larger peripheral areas and distorting the appearance and texture of the ancient city inside of the walls.

The problem of the relationship between new and old, between contemporary urban construction and the protection of historic sites is becoming

Historical

evolution

of

the

settlements around the banks of the Weihe River. (Image made by the author)

more and more important and urgent due to ever greater large-scale demolitions.

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Xi’an University of Architecture and Technology

Master Thesis

As Xi’an is one of the oldest cities in China, it is possible to trace a large number of historical sites; in addition, due to the long construction time of the capitals and the large number of cities that were built and then demolished in this area, there are numerous archaeological remains and many large areas of ruins are protected (more than 10 square kilometres. These large archaeological areas include the ruins of cities, the ruins of palaces and the remains of tombs and burial sites, all of which have survived the current urban development of the city. Unlike the stone ruins of Rome, the historical sites of ancient Xi’an are mostly soil relics: foundations and excavations, as in ancient times the main building materials were wood and rammed earth, easily subject to the degraded or reused for other purposes. Nowadays, the numerous heritage sites of Xi’an enjoy a high rank in the national list of archaeological parks of China and some have recently been included in the world heritage list of “Silk Roads: the network of routes of the Chang’an-Tianshan corridor ”.

In addition to the city walls, there are hundreds of ancient buildings and sites throughout the city, including towers, palaces, mausoleums, courtyards and other building styles; among these some of the most important are: the ruins of the city of Chang’an during the Han dynasty, the Guangren Temple, the Epang Palace, the remains of the Tang Chang’an, the remains of the Daming Palace, the Terracotta Army, the Drum and Bell Towers, the Steles’ Forest, the Small and Big Wild Goose Pagodas, the Qinglong Temple, the Great Mosque, the Du Mausoleum and others.

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Xi’an: an ancient city in modern China

China is a country located east of the Asian continent and exhibits both maritime and continental topography, consisting of mountains, plateaus, plains, reservoirs, lakes and hills. The climate is very varied in the country, combining temperate, warm and subtropical zones with a generally mild temperature range and four distinct seasons. Most precipitation falls during the summer, although they show regional variations due to topographical features.

The Guanzhong plain, where the city of Xi’an is located, is an area in which in the past many Chinese emperors settled their capitals, due to its favourable climatic conditions, with warm and humid temperatures and geographical features, linked in particular to the orography of the soil and the hydrography of its numerous watercourses. The city of Xi’an, which was the first ancient capital of the empire, is located exactly in the center of this flat area, in the middle of the Shaanxi Province. The city is located near the banks of the Weihe River, which is bordered to the south by Mount Qinling, to the north by a hilly area, to the east by the Ling River and the Bayuan Mountains and to the west by Mount Taibai and the hilly area of Qinghua. ​​ The location of the city reflects the ancient indications of the Feng-shui doctrine

5 .2 Ge og r a p hi ca l contex t

Chapter 05.

for choosing the ideal place for settlements. The western part of the Guanzhong plain has higher altitudes, while the eastern part is lower and hilly, formed by the continuous excavation and sedimentation of the Weihe River.

Topography and geographical context of the city of Xi’an.

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Xi’an University of Architecture and Technology

Master Thesis

The city of Xi’an, like other areas of the Central Plains, is part of the climate zone of the warm belt and semi-humid monsoons; this means that the climate is traditionally moderate with not too high rainfall, which occurs mainly in the summer months of July, August and September. The geographical features of the area mean that Xi’an has a temperate climate, with hot and humid summers, cold and dry winters and dry springs and autumns. The direction of the wind is mainly influenced by the local geographical conditions, which in winter blows mainly in the north-east direction, while in summer it moves in the south-east direction. As Xi’an is enclosed by the Qinling mountain range to the south, there are predominantly westbound winds in winter and eastbound winds in summer. The climate overall is very favourable for agricultural activities, with very fertile soils, also due to the presence of numerous waterways, which make the province an important economic center for the production of agricultural products. According to tradition and common saying, in the past there were eight rivers that surrounded the city of Xi’an, although in reality this expression also meant that there were numerous rivers that crossed the city districts, since the main watercourse is only that of the Weihe River, from which numerous streams and minor tributary rivers branch out, such as the Jinghe, Bahe, Chanhe, Fenghe, Haohe, Yuhe and Liaohe rivers.

Therefore, the Xi’an area had excellent communication routes both by land and by river, thanks to which it was able to establish excellent economic relations both between the different provinces of the empire and beyond its borders through the well-known Silk Road, which started from the ancient city of Chang’an and arrived to Europe. In addition to the presence of numerous waterways, in the past there were also numerous lakes and ponds, such as: the Lin Lake of the Western Zhou dynasty, the “Ten ponds” of the Qin and Western Han dynasties, the Lan Lake, the Mei Pond and the Kunming Lake. These bodies of water not only provided the water needed for domestic use and for agricultural production, but also ensured the safety of the city in case of attacks. These elements were fundamental and played a very important role in the formation and evolution of the

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city of Xi’an, since lakes and ponds, as major water resources, have changed more than rivers over the past centuries.

Chapter 05.

Xi’an: an ancient city in modern China

Referring to historical documents, in the past there were three lakes distributed in the Guanzhong area, namely Jiaohuo Lake, Xianpu Lake and Yangyu Lake. However, since the time of the Tang dynasty the number of natural lakes and ponds in the vicinity of Xi’an has decreased, while that of artificial water bodies has increased, in fact, at least ten ponds were mentioned in the historical documents of the Qin and Han dynasty, many of which have now disappeared to make way for streets and buildings. This phenomenon has also caused frequent environmental problems and disasters, such as floods and floods, as natural lakes and ponds played an important role in lamination and control of river waters during floods.

The geographical feature of Xi’an. Hydrographic map and land topography.

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5 . 3 H istor i ca l b a ckg r ound

Xi’an University of Architecture and Technology

Master Thesis

Since ancient times, the small flat area of ​​Xi’an has been the place chosen by the rulers of the ancient dynasties to found their cities, mainly due to the centrality of the area within the Chinese empire and the favourable geographical features. Since the Western Zhou dynasty, more than 3,000 years ago, this has become the first area chosen by the emperors to build their capitals. In history, there have been thirteen dynasties, such as the Western Zhou, Qin, Western Han, Sui and Tang dynasties that have built their capital in Xi’an for about 1100 years. Therefore, in the historical period of nearly three thousand years, for more than a third of the time, Xi’an has been at the center of Chinese culture and politics. Especially during the Han and Tang dynasties, the territory of the empire was extremely vast, the economy was developed, scientific and technological progress continued unabated and there was cultural prosperity; the capital of Chang’an was not only the largest and most prosperous city in the country but also an international metropolis.

Since the Tang Dynasty, although it had lost its status as the state capital, Xi’an has been regarded as a key city to protect the northwest and control the south-west. Sui-Tang Chang’an began its more than 3,000 years of glorious history in 582 BC. during the Sui dynasty, when Emperor Sui Wendi decided that he needed a new capital in preparation for his unification of China. The previous year, he had usurped the throne after the untimely death of a skilled Northern Zhou ruler who united Northern China in 577 by conquering the Northern Qi Kingdom and laying the groundwork for the unification of China. Although Sui Wendi abandoned the 800-year-old Han capital of Chang’an that he inherited from his Northern Zhou predecessors, he chose to remain where his power base was and placed his capital nearby on a higher piece of land in the southeast.

A site about 10 km south of the Wei River, washed by the Chan and Ba Rivers in the east and the Zao and Feng Rivers in the west, was chosen. The terrain sloped north-west towards the Weihe River and was partially traversed by a series of six smaller buttresses. The capital was therefore strategically located, protected by deserts to the north and west, mountains to the south and the fortified pass of

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Donggua to the east. Construction began in the sixth month of 582 BC. with the construction of the Palace City.

Chapter 05.

Xi’an: an ancient city in modern China

While the construction of the palace took only nine months, the construction of the capital took much longer. The emperor called this city Daxingcheng (Walled City of Daxing). The city measured 9,721 km by 8,652 km, covering an area of approximately ​​ 84.1 square kilometres larger than any city ever built before in the modern world.

The walls of the palace city were erected first, followed by those of the imperial city. A perimeter wall of beaten earth, 36.7 km long, was built around the city. During Gaozong’s reign in 654, when the outer city walls were reinforced, the nine city gates along the south, east, and west city walls were each crowded with an entrance tower.

Further protection was offered by a 9 meter wide moat located 3-4 meters outside the walls. Some scholars have attributed the palace’s northern location within the city to Confucian political philosophy, which likens a benevolent ruler to the North Star around which all stars orbit. The capital’s four major cardinal gates were named to commemorate their cosmological counterparts while helping to make the city the psychological equivalent of the Chinese kingdom in the minds of its contemporaries. Its political symbolism was made even more evident by the nomenclature of the main southern gate of the city located directly on axis with the palace.

Chang’an

city

layout

during Sui-Tang dynasties.

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Xi’an University of Architecture and Technology

Master Thesis

When Emperor Taizu later took power during a popular uprising in 618 AD. and founded the Tang dynasty, he was pleased to continue to use Daxingcheng as his imperial capital. He renamed it Chang’an, the city of Eternal Peace.

Little was changed, with the exception of the subsequent addition in 634 of another palatial complex, Daminggong (Daming Palace), on the north-eastern border, the city remained within the limits set by the city walls built during the Sui period. Indeed there was little need to expand beyond the city walls, as much of the southern sections remained sparsely populated during the Tang period, even when the population numbered around 1 million, they remained empty with vast fields and gardens.

In 904 A.D. Zhu Wen forced Emperor Zhao Zong of the Tang Dynasty to move the capital to LuoYang, and thereafter the city of Chang’an was dismantled and gradually lost its capital position. At the end of the Tang Dynasty, Chang’an was demolished by the rebels and the region lost its position as the national capital. Palaces, officers’ residences and civilian homes were demolished, and the population dropped dramatically. Faced with this disastrous situation, Han Jian rebuilt the city for defensive purposes. He ordered that the city of Gong Cheng (the palace city) and the outer walls of the city be torn down and rebuilt: thus the “City of Zi” was born. The shape of the new city had double walls and four gates, each with three entrances. Hence, a much smaller “Xin Cheng” (new city) was built on the foundations of the old imperial city.

According to historical records of the Jin and Qing dynasties, the city of Zi Cheng referred to the northern part and some areas of the southern part of today ’s Bell Tower district. In addition, the city of Zi Cheng was divided into five parts by different roads. As we know, the Jin dynasty government never built the city walls of Xi’an; hence, the city of Zi Cheng was the original city left by the late Tang dynasty. The city had double walls, and the east to west length was somewhat longer than the north to south width. The city made up only about one sixth of the entire city of Chang’an; hence, it was smaller than the original city at the time of the burgeoning Tang dynasty and there was no comparison between them. Zi Cheng was located approximately between the Bell Tower, the Drum Tower and Xidajie Street in today ’s Xi’an. Within the city, an east-

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west wall divided the city into two parts and three gates were opened in the south, east and west walls according to the ancient map of the city.

Chapter 05.

Xi’an: an ancient city in modern China

During the Yuan dynasty (1271-1368) the city underwent some changes and was renamed Fengyuancheng to serve as the capital of Feng Yuan Lu province. Except for the officials’ houses, there were many schools, markets, temples, and civilian homes within the new city. The city included the houses of the officials located in the center, the Ancestral Temple was located in the southeast, the altar of the Gods of Earth and Grain was located in the southwest of the city, and the market was in the north. Although the city was small, it still suited the ancient rites that were recorded in Zhou Li Kao Gong Ji. Civilian homes were located throughout the city and were often located near government offices or city gates.

Fengyuan

cheng

city

compared to the city modern

layout

and

extension.

During the Ming dynasty (1368 - 1644) this city was enlarged and strengthened. As the Ming capital was located in the east, the city was eventually renamed Xi’an which means “peace in the west ”. Xi’an became the military stronghold of the Northwest and Southwest, and its walls were taller and thicker than those of other similar sized settlements and were strengthened several times during the Ming period. During the Ming and Qing dynasties, the city of Xi’an became more splendid and stronger than it had been during the Song and Yuan periods. It became a very important city in Northwest China and was in the finished form that we can see today.

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Xi’an University of Architecture and Technology

Master Thesis

The perimeter of the city was 40 Li (one Li equals 500 meters), its height was 3 Zhang (one Zhang was about 3.3 meters), and it had four city gates, with four corner towers on the walls and ninety-eight rampant towers.

According to the measurements, after the enlargement, the walls had a height of 10-12 meters, it was 12-14 meters wide at the top and 15-18 meters thick below, and thus was more durable than the city walls during the Tang dynasty. Around it was a deep moat 13.7 km long, 6.6 meters deep and about 27 meters wide. At the four corners of the wall there were watchtowers, the one at the southwest corner was round in shape, probably influenced by the style of the city walls of the Yuan dynasty, but the other three were square in shape. It was during the middle or late Ming dynasty that the eastern outer city of Xi’an was built. The wall was built of earth, layer upon layer of beaten earth, and there were bridges connecting it to the outer city through the moat. Eleven streets divided the eastern outer city into twelve lanes. Some Buddhist or Taoist temples, government offices and educational institutions settled there, making the area very popular and prestigious. Also during the Ming period, another large wall was built along the inner bank of the moat to strengthen the defences in fact, although Xi’an was no longer the capital of China during the Ming period, it still retained a double wall, within which there was a small city called “Qin Wang fu cheng” (the Prefecture of Qin).

Large-scale expansion at the beginning of the Ming dynasty laid the foundation for subsequent development. In 1582, the relocation of the Bell Tower caused a series of changes in Xi’an, and thus this project was an important milestone in the history of the city. From that point on, the Bell Tower became the central point of the city and from there four main streets extended in four directions, dividing the city into four main sectors.

Compared to the city of the Yuan dynasty, the city of Xi’an progressively became clearer during the Ming dynasty. Offices, cultural organizations or commercial markets were no longer mixed, also affecting today ’s internal structure in Xi’an. During the Qing dynasty (1644-1911), the entire north-eastern part of the city was used exclusively by the rulers of Manchuria and their military forces. In fact, the city of Xi’an could be considered a double city under the Qing and under the Ming. During the Qing period, two smaller cities were built within the big city: the city

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of Man Cheng and another small city located in the southeast called Nan Cheng city.

Chapter 05.

Xi’an: an ancient city in modern China

The latter was a camp for Han soldiers, so the city of Xi’an as a whole

Structure of the city of Xi’an

consisted of three cities. Since the Qing dynasty was a minor regime, the

during the Qing dynasty,

government had to control the city of Xi’an to conquer north-western and central China. As soon as the Qing army conquered Xi’an in 1645, work

compared with the city of Chang’an during the Tang dynasty.

began to build the city of Man Cheng in the southeast of the city, from the Bell Tower to the north and east gates, and it took nearly four years to complete. After founding the city of Man Cheng, the city of Nan Cheng (meaning southern city) was built to the south of it in 1683. Then the troops remained stationed there until 1780 when they moved and thereafter the city was abandoned.

The urban structure of Xi’an city in the Qing Dynasty.

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Xi’an University of Architecture and Technology

Master Thesis

The structure of the city changed a lot due to the foundation of the two small urban centers, which also changed the communication and layout of the streets; in fact, the new emerging cities have destroyed the original transport system of Xi’an making some roads unusable. In this period the city was made up of a residential district, a commercial district, a cultural and educational district and a military district. In the north-west of Xi’an there were four roads running from east to west and three roads from north to south that made up the district of the Hui people (an ethnic minority). During the Qing Dynasty, business in Xi’an was more prosperous than ever. In the city there were more than ten markets, sometimes the commercial and office districts coincided and the shops belonged to different trades that were often kept together.

The century between 1840 and 1949, marked by the emergence of the first modern industries, was an important period of transition. It signalled the end of an agricultural society that had lasted for a long time. Furthermore, the ownership of the company began to change during this period. The hundred years following the Opium Wars of 1840 saw the essential production factors of the mechanical industry gradually develop, but the initial stages of industrialization of the city of Xi’an were a very slow process and appear to have been hampered in their development progress from wars, forced labour and natural disasters. After the destruction of the city at the end of the Tang dynasty and the loss of its role as the capital of the empire, the city was rebuilt at the beginning of the Ming dynasty as a military defence in order to make it the bulwark of the territories of northeastern China. Between 1840 and 1949, from the late Qing dynasty to the dawn of the birth of the People’s Republic of China, Xi’an experienced a transition period in which it gradually developed from a pre-industrial to an industrialized society. Development during this period was very slow as it was repeatedly subject to the emergence of armed conflicts such as the Westernization Movement, the 1911 revolution and the anti-Japanese war, as well as the numerous peasant revolts that occurred during this process.

After the 1911 Revolution, a deep and lasting phase of development gave rise to the modernization of Xi’an and the political system was changed from a feudal monarchy to a national parliament. The character of the spatial form of the city has been correspondingly modified, in order to transform it into a city of diversity, humanity and openness as required for

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the character of a modern city with modern activities, such as industrial enterprises, commerce, finance and the Press.

Chapter 05.

Xi’an: an ancient city in modern China

Rail links between Xi’an and the eastern part of the country were developed in 1934 and this led to the introduction of modern industries. Before the Communist takeover in 1949, Xi’an was a city of about 380,000 inhabitants with few specialized textile and small-scale manufacturing factories. The built-up area was less than 14 square kilometres. The public facilities were very poor, with no water supply or public transport system. Ordinary housing standards were low, and many residents lived in simple one-story structures made of earth, brick and wood. There was severe overcrowding resulting from the influx of refugees from the eastern part of the country, particularly from Henan province, during the Japanese invasion from 1937 to 1945. Despite these conditions, the built environment of the city contained many structures and sites. of historical interest, including the city wall and associated gates, the Bell Tower, the Drum Tower, the Big Goose Pagoda, the Little Goose Pagoda, the Forest of Steles and the Great Mosque. In 1949 there were no modern skyscrapers and as a result these larger traditional structures dominated the skyline and were important elements of the urban landscape.

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5 .4 T he Cha ng ’ an s tr uctur e d ur i ng the Ta ng Dy na s ty

Xi’an University of Architecture and Technology

Master Thesis

Within the boundaries of the perimeter wall was a severe grid plan that organized the city into clear functional zones. To begin with, twelve gates, three on each side, provided access to the city. During the Tang period, a timber-framed tower crowded each of these gates. The grid plan of Chang’an consisted of 14 latitudinal (East-West) and 11 longitudinal (North-South) streets that divided the city into an axially symmetrical plan of over 100 neighborhoods, large and small. Of these roads, the three N-S and three E-W roads leading to the gates were the main roads and were commonly referred to as “The Six Streets”. Among them, the main NS boulevard, which led from Mingde Gate, the main gate to the south wall, to the sumptuous complex in the north center was the most important, commonly referred to as Tianjie (Hevenly Road) was between 150 and 155 meters wide and constituted the main axis of the city.

On both sides of the roads there were ditches about 3 meters wide which helped not only drain water from slightly elevated carriageways, but also irrigation. Carob, willows or elms and fruit trees lined the main avenues.

Behind the tree trunks, the earth walls delimited the sides of the rectangular residential wards.

In the north center was a large fortified complex consisting of the Palace and the imperial cities, which accounted for one ninth of the total area of​​ Chang’an. The fortified city of the palace contained the numerous halls where the emperor conducted his business and the imperial families lived.

To the south, an immense imperial square of similar width separated the palace and the imperial cities. Within the walls of the Imperial City was the administrative heart of the empire, where the government officials, the headquarters of the imperial guards and the residences were located.

The rest of the city was divided into 108 walled residential neighborhoods and two fortified markets. Residential wards included homes, religious institutes, and occasional government offices. Residents living in the wards were subject to strict supervision and were prohibited from leaving the wards during curfew hours. Chang’an resembled a collection of semi-autonomous walled cities or urban “villages” separated by wide boulevards within a fortified enclosure.

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Commercial activities were limited to two large eastern and western markets, known respectively as Duhui and Liren, which each occupied an area of ​​two neighborhoods, and trade was only allowed at certain times of the day. The city also had two large gardens: the Leyou garden and the Furong garden in the south-eastern quarter of the city. Further south, a large park occupied the south-eastern corner of the walled city, it was so popular at the Tang court that during the reign of Emperor Xuanzong, a walled imperial path was built along the eastern wall to connect the Daming Palace and the Xingqing Palace to the park to facilitate the emperor ’s frequent visits. In the park was a famous Qujiang Lake that extended south beyond the city limits. However, despite the capital’s size and physical resources, the city was destroyed by the prolonged period of instability and war that ended the Tang dynasty. Chang’an was eventually destroyed in the counterattack and subsequent usurpation of power by Zhu Wen. When Sui Wendi decided to establish his capital in Chang’an, Yuwen Kai had to invent a city for a new empire with new ambitions as well as a political symbol. When he designed Chang’an, he must have been aware of the long tradition of urban planning that preceded the Sui period, and he was also immersed in classical learning and therefore certainly was aware of the requirement recorded in the Kaogongji or “Register of the architects”.

The Kaogongji (Kao Gong Ji) was an official guide who set the standards to be followed in various trades, including those for the structure of a capital for a prince. The document dates back to late spring and autumn of 500 BC. approximately, but the oldest surviving copy dates back to 1235 AD. According to the Kaogongji: “When the builder builds the capital, the city should be a tusk (an orthogonal shape with four sides) nine li on each side with three doors each. Within the city there are nine longitudinal and nine latitudinal streets, each 9 carriages wide. On the left (ie east) there is the Ancestral Temple, on the right (west) there are the Altars of the Earth and of the Wheat, in front there is the Audience Hall and behind the markets”.

The Kaogongji, which interrupts movement within the city by having a large gated administrative district in the center (the palace), was used by the early states particularly in southern China and owes much of its spatial arrangement to the 3x3 grid system.

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Starting from the indications of the tradition it is possible to reconstruct the scheme previously prescribed in the Kaogongji. One could start with the basic unit of land division practiced in the Jingtian system. in this system eight families shared a base unit or square of land of one li (300 steps per side). This square

is

divided

equally

into

Chang’an basic configuration and measures.

nine smaller squares, resulting in a simple nine-part mandala. The central square where the “well” was located was state-owned land, cultivated by all eight families and whose products went to the state.

With the same system you could build a square larger than nine li per side. The square configuration C would comprise 81 of those basic

ground

units

Basic unit and configuration C.

described

above. This diagram once again brings the basic units together into groups of nine, each nested within a 3-li square. This way there is once again a mandala larger than nine squares. To have the nine latitudinal and nine longitudinal roads as prescribed in the classical text, the scheme would have to be modified to resemble one of the two cases, C1 and C2, shown in the figure alongside, with the gates, in both cases, located along the main axes NS and EW. In the first case,

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C1, the central section is divided into two rows in both directions.

Three possible layout configurations.

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The peripheral streets (8 along the borders that used to be the city walls) are included to account for the nine streets in both directions.

The second case, C2, on the other hand, divides the central sections into four rows and the peripheral roads are not included in the count. Both cases are valid although the historical evidence shows a bias towards the second example. To reconcile the Kaogongji tradition with the other tradition of having the palace in the north center, Yuwen Kai must have moved the central square, i.e. the palace, together with the central sections in both longitudinal and latitudinal directions to the north, as shown in the C3 configuration .

City planning is modular in nature, Chinese planning, in fact, both in architecture and in urban construction, usually uses a module and / or simple multiples of the module. It is therefore assumed that a modulus and simple multiples of basic units were used in the invention of the new paradigm for Chang’an.

Configuration

C3

superimposed

on

Chang’an imperial city.

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5 .5 T he u r b ani z a ti on p ha s es of Xi’ a n fr om 1949 to 2020

Xi’an University of Architecture and Technology

Master Thesis

Towards a socialist industrial base: the 1953-1972 Master Plan The years from 1949 to the period of the First Five-Year Plan (195357) were characterized by national policies aimed at urban industrial reconstruction and development, particularly in inland areas. In 1953 Xi’an was designated as an important center of internal development, the key sectors for industrial growth were the textile industry and electronic tools. The expansion of educational and research institutions was planned and financed by the central government along with industrial initiatives. The first official Master plan for Xi’an was prepared in 1953 and it was developed in line with the prevailing Soviet ideology which held that “urbanism is the continuity of national economic planning”.

Approved by the central government in 1954, the 20-year plan (195372) defined the future of Xi’an as “a light and precision city for the production of machinery and focused on the textile industry ”.

The contour lines of the site superimposed on the Master Plan of 1953: that certainly explains the inflexion of the grid and the more irregular design of the plan in the southeast, due to the general slope from the contour line of 425m.

The projected population was to have reached 1.22 million by 1972. The whole area was then divided into several functional zones for industry, administration and commerce, residence, culture and education. The ancient walled city was protected from industrial activities and therefore

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new industrial developments were grouped and located to the east and west of the city about four kilometres from the walls.

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Tree belts were proposed between the industrial districts and major residential areas and the southern suburb was designed as a “cultural area” to combine residential, educational and cultural uses.

In order to protect the important archaeological site of the Han capital, no major development has been planned for the northern suburbs. Within the central area, the planned road layout provided for harmonious continuity with the regular grid pattern of the ancient city of Tang Chang’an. However, the key emphasis of the plan was on industrial development and the intention was to transform the historic city into a metropolis of “socialist production”. This first Master Plan played an important role in providing the framework for urban expansion and it was regarded as one of the most successful plans prepared by Chinese planners prior to 1980. As the largest city in Shaanxi, Xi’an has attracted not only local investment, but also planning and funding expertise from the central government.

The effective coordination of economic investments and territorial planning has allowed the city to develop fully. Although the Great Leap Forward and the Cultural Revolution disrupted the effectiveness of the planning practice, the basic plan for land use had been well established.

In 1980 the city had a built-up area of 129 ​​ square kilometres (over nine times its size in 1949) and a population of nearly 1.5 million.

Industrial districts formed an important part of the economic base, and the higher education sector consisted of many well-established universities and colleges. Although the development of Xi’an was well planned for the outer suburbs, the plan did not provide clear guidance on protecting historical interests. The historic center was to be gradually integrated with the new areas, but most of the historic areas of the walled center were left aside, including traditional private homes.

The historic buildings and their surroundings were designed as urban open spaces, but detailed protection and conservation policies were not included in the plan. A few years later, after the plan was officially adopted, many important buildings and structures were listed for protection by both central and local governments. The city walls and its moat were among the first groups of national historic buildings listed by the central government in 1961.

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However, lack of funds and neglect led to ruin and a lack of necessary maintenance. Parts of the outer wall were destroyed by the new road development or by local residents who removed the bricks to build their own houses. The outer moat had become a landfill and some parts of it had been completely buried. Furthermore, there was no comprehensive policy to preserve the historical features of the entire city. Although the plan was successful in forming the main functional zones of the city, according to a functional zoning process, it was far less effective in controlling small changes in the central historical area. For example, most government departments and key public organizations were housed in the central area, which led to the replacement of older homes with office buildings.

With very limited public investment from the government, housing conditions in the central area have dramatically degenerated. Weak planning and development control powers have led to many poor quality temporary additions and infill development within the already overcrowded residential areas. As a result, the historical settings of important structures such as the city walls, the Bell Tower and the Drum Tower were significantly altered. The large-scale increase in industrial land use and population also served to destroy the historic atmosphere of the city. The magnificent city walls could no longer be seen from afar on the outskirts and has now become a small ring that encloses the internal areas.

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The Bell Tower and surrounding city buildings in 1964. Many traditional courtyard buildings have not yet been destroyed and the tower is the main landmark in the area.

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A post-office and telecommunications building under construction on the east side of the Bell Tower in Xi’an, 1958.

View from the Bell Tower. The historical building context of the Ming cheng area (the city within the Ming dynasty walls) has been completely altered; in the background the South Gate of the city.

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Master Thesis

The rediscovery of historical values: the 1980-2000 Mater Plan Since 1976, China has initiated a series of policy changes related to city planning and development. The Third National City Council of State Labour Conference, held in Beijing in March 1978, ushered in a new era in urban development and planning. After this conference most cities started making new plans or revising old ones. A new planning authority was established in Xi’an to prepare an updated plan for the city in 1980. The revised Master Plan (1980-2000) was approved by the State Council in 1983, it incorporated some of the main features of the 1953 plan and aimed at consolidating the existing functional areas. The future of Xi’an has been defined as “a city of advanced sciences, culture and education with textile and mechanical manufacturing industries as its main sectors and tourism trade based on the protection of the historical features of the city ”. The most interesting additions were the tourist function and the protection of historical features. However, the stated purpose of protecting historical features was directly related to the promotion of tourism.

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Master Plan 1980-2000. (Ref. : Xi’anshi Zongti Guihua tuji 1980-2000, plate 3.)

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The emphasis on historical values was ​​ also linked to the 1974 discovery of the Emperor ’s Terracotta Warriors in the eastern suburbs.

This discovery has increased Xi’an’s importance as an important international tourist center. In 1980 the base population of the city was 1.49 million and the figures predicted in the plan were 1.59 million by 1985 and 1.8 million by 2000. The average urban area available per person has been reduced from 108 square meters in the 1953 plan to 90 square meters in the 1980 plan. The living area per person was kept at nine square meters while the level of density in terms of lots increased. The plan called for the new residential buildings to be at least three stories high. The standard distance between buildings was significantly reduced from 2.0-2.5 times the building height to 1.1-1.3 times. Transportation and the road system were also important issues in the revised plan. New avenues have been proposed for the enlarged areas. Three ring roads were designed to reduce traffic volumes within the city: the internal ring road immediately outside the ancient city walls had to be enlarged; the new external ring road has been aligned with the limit of the enlarged built-up area; and the intermediate ring road was between the two. The result was a plan for a compact urban development grid that filled the gaps then existing between the walled city and industrial areas. Greater attention has been given to specific mechanisms for the protection of historic buildings and more resources have been allocated for their maintenance. The revised plan included a comprehensive conservation policy as required by national legislation.

The protection was extended beyond the building itself. Three spatial zones have been proposed for each large protected building: absolute protection zone, impact zone and environmental coordination zone.

The absolute protection zone included the historic building itself and the open spaces within its original boundary, such as a temple and its courtyard and original wall. Within this area, the existing landscape and structure were totally protected. No new development was allowed except for improvement works by the historic building authority itself. Controls were also imposed on the external appearance of the surrounding buildings.

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Tall structures that could have blocked important views were prohibited.

A special thematic plan was created for the development of the walls, the external protection moat and the related open space to form an integrated public park. The Plan also proposed special control of the height of buildings in the vicinity of the wall; on the inner side of the wall, no new buildings higher than 12 meters were allowed within a distance of 50 meters from the inner edge, while on the outer side of the wall, no buildings higher than 24 meters were allowed.

Updated protection plan for Ming cheng area, 1986. (Ref.: Xi’anshi Shizhongxingqu Guihua, plate 7.)

City Wall Ring Park is now a major local attraction for tourists. The authority used this special structure to promote the city; the activities carried out include an annual cultural historical festival and a traditional lantern festival. The plan in question also proposed a 20% reduction in the population of the historic center which required the transfer and relocation of 70,000 residents in the area outside the city walls. Most of the old residential areas within the city walls have been proposed for redevelopment as 90% of the homes in question were classified as uninhabitable. Many of these areas were humid and dangerous in the rainy season and lacking sanitary facilities. The simple structures and poor quality of the residences resulted in the demolition and replacement of housing with new multi-storey buildings, and there was also

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a change in the land use pattern as much of the housing had to be replaced by public buildings, offices and commercial establishments.

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These proposals were perceived as a modernization strategy by planners. In terms of urban development, a number of large publicly funded projects were organized, including the completion of the City-Wall Ring Park, a new international airport, a new railway station, the improvement of transport links and the construction of the new Museum of Shaanxi Province. Despite these results, there have been significant negative impacts on the historic city. Given the goal of keeping a compact city,

Outline of the extents of Xi’an: in 1974 and from

only a moderate increase in land supply was allowed

the 1980 Master plan.

to cope with population growth. The consolidation and renewal of the central area became key elements of the policies of this period. The high-density approach with skyscrapers resulted in many new residential and office buildings in the central area which gradually changed the historic urban texture and landscape within the city walls.

Although the plan aimed to emphasize historical values, the implementation actually served to further erode the remaining historical features. This can be demonstrated with reference to one of the most important renovation projects: Nandajie (South Great Street), which involved a 750m street from the city center to the south gate

Plan of the visual corridors.

of the city walls. Before the redevelopment, the street was about 15 meters wide and was one of the busiest streets for both traffic and shopping. It occupied a privileged position with respect to the historical features of the city, with the South Gate and the Bell Tower at the ends. Unfortunately the whole street was demolished to create a wider street with modern commercial and office buildings on both sides. The most controversial new building was the modern Bell Tower Hotel, built next to the Tower itself. The new structure blocks visitors’ view of the old bell tower, but offers affluent hotel visitors a

Visual corridor between the Bell Tower and Big Goose pagoda.

bird’s eye view of the ancient monument. The treatment of historical interests has therefore been characterized by renewal and redevelopment rather than conservation and protection.

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Xi’an moat reconstruction, 1983.

In 2006, outside the west gate of Xi’an, all the shops along the moat were demolished, and a park around the city will be built.

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The city walls, the ring garden

and

nowadays.

its

moat

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City walls and the external high buildings.

The Bell Tower under repair in Xi’an during the 1980s.

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Master Thesis

The Master Plan of 1995-2010 In 1993, the planning authority initiated the revision and updating of the Xi’an Comprehensive Urban Plan. A rough proposal was made in July 1993 and the development of a new plan followed in 1994. The plan was intended to have a 15-year time span: from 1995 to 2010. The most important elements were: the Comprehensive Plan (or Master Plan) and the Program Declaration. In the 1995 Plan, the goal is to make Xi’an a world famous historic city; an important base for scientific research, higher education and high-tech industries in China and the largest city in central China. The specific objectives of the 1995 Plan were: to protect the historic center; lower building density; improve the central area; apply the idea of ​​the compact city; develop peripheral satellite cities; and improve the urban environment.

The overall long-term goal was to develop Xi’an as an open, modern, economically prosperous city characterized by its own unique historical relics.

The planning objectives incorporated several major changes from previous plans, and the protection of historical features became the top priority. This policy was supported by the introduction of the compact city idea and the proposed expansion of satellite cities; the future shape of the city would have been that of an urban agglomeration with 11 satellite cities around the city core and the central area was to be contained within the third ring road.

General Overall Master Plan 1995 : plan of cities and towns in municipality area system.

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The dominant industries in the new plan therefore had to be based on high technology. The new High Tech Zone was promoted as an emerging Silicon Valley in the central and western regions of the country. The plan led to the planning of two development zones, one in the north and one in the south.

Instead of emphasizing the east-west axis, the 1995 plan also shifted the emphasis to the north-south axis to respect traditional Feng-shui that pays special attention to the direction of the sun. This proposal was found to be justifiable as the central area was already overcrowded and the need to preserve the remaining historical features was recognized. The economic development of the city was to be accompanied by the expansion of the population. Contrary to previous plans, population growth had to be tightly controlled in the central city with growth directed to the satellite cities. In the historic center, in addition to consolidating the structures built in the 1980s, greater attention was paid to controlling the height and density of the buildings, particularly within the walls. An important study on the walled city was conducted in 1989 by the Planning Office and some maps with different height parameters of the building were proposed to preserve the historic skyline. The height of the buildings could gradually increase from the city walls and other historic buildings. New homes or traditional style buildings have been designed in some areas around the main gates and the Bell and Drum Towers. The height of the building was controlled from 9 to 24 meters in most areas, with a maximum of 36 meters in some cases. However, by the first half of the 1990s the development had already made significant changes to the historic landscape, with the inclusion of many skyscrapers, some of them poorly designed. In 1995, due to pressure from real estate developers, the decision was made to allow buildings of 50 meters in some areas of the historic center. The new plan has therefore moved from preserving the entire historic center towards a policy of protecting a few areas, such as several visual corridors. In order to restore some of the historical features the new plan proposed to develop some streets following the Tang dynasty model and to restore the western-style market on the old airport site. In recent years, more attention has been given to other important historical sites in the region, including the ruins of the city of Han Changan, which are located in the northwestern suburb. This site, which covers an area of ​​36 square kilometers of rural land with around 20,000 rural residents, has been on the national list since the 1950s. With the loss of most of the historical features of the Ming city, Xi’an planners would like this site to be preserved.

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Xi’an University of Architecture and Technology

Master Thesis

The fourth Master Plan of Xi’an (2008-2020) - The Xixian new international district It has been noted that Chinese cities have changed more in the period 1945-1995 than in the previous five hundred years and that, in many ways, they have changed more in the five years since 1995 than in the previous fifty. The intensity and accelerated pace of development increased in the second half of the 1990s, continuing and intensifying until 2015, when the first signs of an economic recession appeared.

Shaanxi’s prolonged economic competitiveness crisis has created a strong impetus for metropolitan development and new development zones. With the fourth Master-plan, in the name of the new international metropolis project, Xi’an will be unified with the neighboring city of Xianyang by a new zone, further eroding the surrounding landscape and surrounding the archaeological site of the Western Zhou dynasty, the Han tombs and their mausoleums. As the State Council designated the wider Guanzhong region as a special economic area in 2009, plans were approved to accelerate the integration of Xi’an-Xianyang and build Greater Xi’an.

Under the “Xixian Regional Plan”, Xi’an would become larger than the capital of Chang’an during the Tang dynasty, reaching a historic turning point as a new international metropolis with a population of ten million people. An area of ​​882 square kilometers between Xi’an, Xianyang and Shaanxi province was approved in 2012 to become the planning area for the new Xixian district, intended as a new engine to accelerate the city’s economy. In 2014, the new area was officially qualified as a “state-level economic development zone” supported by the central government and benefiting from economic policies and preferential privileges to encourage and attract new developments. In January 2014, the new Xixian district entrusted Singapore master planner Liu Taige with the design of the new Xixian “Energy and Finance Business Zone”.

During a conference to discuss the draft plan, architect Liu Kecheng recalled the legacy of Xi’an’s great urban tradition, relaunching the concept of a new “grand axis” capable of structuring development. Along the southern section of the new axis, in fact, are the remains of the original settlement of Xi’an from 3000 years ago (1059 BC), when the twin capitals of the

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Western Zhou period laid the foundations for the founding of Chinese civilization and built the first of Xi’an’s thirteen ancient capitals.

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Now, after 3,000 years of urban development, Xi’an appears to be back to basics, waiting for a new take-off. Unfortunately, an infrastructure network will cross the heart of the new axis, while a new high-speed loop will separate the new district from the city of Xi’an. The usual driveway design, together with the zoning, will seriously affect the quality of the urban morphology of the axis, reducing it to an abstract rhetorical sign. In the same way, the “sudoku diagrams” of the Fourth Master-plan of Xi’an recall the persisting primacy of an abstract vision of the territory and envisage a static geometrising urban

A map of the new expansion area of the Xixian district.

The area is highlighted with a red perimeter.

layout based on a functional zoning that inhibits the establishment of morphological relationships. The city will continue to be designed by independent blocks. Recently, the competition for the extension of the Belin Museum, designed to the detriment of a rare ancient fabric consisting of a courtyard placed in a hypothetical “protection zone”, perfectly reflects the problematic approach to the “minor ” historical space and the traditional urban texture.

Likewise, the urban regeneration process in the block around Xiaoyan Ta has become a threat to the Tang Pagoda’s history, memory and character.

While the entire layering of the block will be razed to the ground by the usual clean sweep of preexisting buildings and topographical markings, Jianfu Temple will be marred by a standardized strategy of commodification of heritage. Clearly, if such a disaster can still happen today, despite the status of a protection area or even a UNESCO site, the instruments of the Chinese Charters and Principles are clearly ineffective, being generic and

Main zoning map of Xi’an.

detached from urban transformations, as already stated in the Preliminary Report on the “UNESCO Proposal for a Recommendation on Historic Urban Areas” (2010).

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It is also evident that the problems of urban conservation and regeneration cannot be tackled separately and without an investigation of the historical stratification of the context in relation to the urban form and its morphological evolution.

LEGEND:

Land use planning map of Xi’an.

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5 .6 M a p p i ng Xi ’a n: a ci ty b y l a y er s

Chapter 05.

Ancient capitals and the city of Xi’an, from 1134 BC to 1644 AD.

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Map of Chang’an City in Sui-Tang Dynasty (581-906 AD.)

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Map of Xi’an City in Yuan

Dynasty

(1279-

1368 AD.)

Map of Xi’an City in Ming

Dynasty

(1368-

1644 AD.)

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Xi’an University of Architecture and Technology

Xi’an map (16th century) under the Ming dynasty.

Map of Xi’an City in Qing Dynasty (1644-1912 AD.)

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Master Thesis

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Above: map of Xi’an City in 1933. On the left: Xi’an in 1933 and urban sprawl in 2002.

In 1933, the urban development is restrained inside the city rampart and suburban walls. In the northeast of the city, the new urban grid pattern in the deserted Manchu district of 1911 (like the deserted southeast district) prefigures the redevelopment of this area, due to the site of the future railway station in the north (1935). The N-W corner has also been abandoned. The main EastWest trade route still continues into the suburbs through the gates.

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Master Thesis

Map of Xi’an City in 1949. The plan shows the density of the urban fabric inside the ramparts, except in the north-west and south-west corners.

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Summing up The city of Xi’an has undergone many changes since the Communists came to power in 1949. It has grown from a small traditional city of 380,000 people into one of the most important industrial, commercial, administrative and cultural centers in the Chinese hinterland. . At the end of 1996, Xi’an had a built-up area of 150 ​​ square kilometers with a total population of 3 million excluding the rural counties under its administration. Urban planning has played a very important role in this dramatic expansion. Planning has been particularly successful in defining functional areas of the city and managing large publicly funded projects such as public works, roads and other infrastructure during the period of increased investment. However, with regard to the protection of the historical landscape, the case study highlighted many shortcomings. After nearly 50 years of expansion and development, the historic city has changed dramatically. Many of the city’s historic and urban landscape features have disappeared, so much so that in many ways Xi’an is no longer a historic city.

What remains are a series of historic sites and buildings scattered among modern structures. The city skyline has become dominated by modern tourist hotels, offices and shopping malls rather than ancient towers or pagodas. Unless a visitor stands close to the city walls or one of the major historic buildings, it is hard to imagine this was once a great capital of the past. The ongoing urban renewal process will further reduce the historical fabric, particularly in relation to the old houses located within the city walls. The main reasons for the erosion of the historical landscape were the following.

The protection of historical interests had been a major concern of the central government since 1949, but there was no specific legislation in this area before 1980. The central government only issued informal instructions through circulars or speeches from leaders. These instructions focused on the protection of individual buildings and structures of national importance. Little attention has been given to preserving the surrounding environment of important buildings and the historic urban landscape as a whole. During the Cultural Revolution (1966-76) the protection of historical interests was considered reactionary; many listed buildings have been neglected or damaged. The uncontrolled adaptation to the old housing stock has altered the spatial model of traditional courtyard houses.

More comprehensive protective measures have been introduced since 1980, but they have come too late to prevent the effects of economic development and modernization.

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Economic development has been responsible for the loss of many historical features in Chinese cities. In relation to economic objectives, the protection of historical interests was a matter of lesser priority.

Low investments in consumer structures have led to a decline in the quality and conditions of the historical fabric. Development activities were concentrated in the central areas. The greater land values of ​​ the central area have attracted major investments for urban renewal which have led to the demolition of most of the traditional houses. The destruction of the historic built environment was not entirely the fault of market forces. A key factor was also the perceptions and ideas of local politicians and planners. The old houses were seen as symbols of backwardness and poverty that had no place in a “modern city”. The building height limits have been modified from time to time to meet the needs of real estate developers and the Master Plan has also been influenced by changes in national political and economic objectives. When the national government called for industrialization, historic cities were pushed to become industrial centers; when the government decided to promote business and commerce, historic cities were required to adapt to the emerging market system. A further reason for the disappearance of the historic urban landscape was the pressure of the expansion of the main administrative centers. The experience of Xi’an is not unique to China, the push for “modernization” and the emerging land market have affected most of the major historical cities, including Beijing, the national capital. Many Chinese planners and officials today have begun to question the wisdom of this approach. If this process continues, many historic Chinese cities will lose their uniqueness. If the city of Xi’an had been preserved as it was in 1949 with some improvements, it would most likely be considered an important achievement in urban conservation, of considerable historical value to the nation and a much more attractive destination for tourists. Unfortunately, this opportunity was missed. When the local authority asked UNESCO to grant the status of World Heritage Site to the walled historic center, after due consideration, the application was rejected. The Xi’an case study is important because, although it is impossible to restore the historical landscape of the city, the lessons from the past are important in understanding the mistakes made and improving the future protection of many small historic towns and villages in China that have remained undisturbed.

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06.

The Muslim historical District of Xi’an

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6. 1 Intr od ucti on

Xi’an University of Architecture and Technology

Master Thesis

In addition to individual buildings or historical sites, there are also some ancient urban areas within the walls of Xi’an, which allow us to understand how people lived in the past, gathered in cohesive communities, each with its own characteristics and peculiarities.

Although these areas in recent decades have been affected by numerous changes on an architectural scale due to the urbanization process, which have changed their original historical aspect, it is still possible to recognize the original urban texture characterized by narrow streets, large building blocks and a human scale that we can hardly find in other parts of the city. Furthermore, in addition to ancient urban planning, these areas maintain a feature that is perhaps even more important than material preservation, that is the immaterial culture of the past, characterized by customs and lifestyles handed down from generation to generation. There are two main historical communities within the ancient city of Xi’an. One of these is the community next to the Steles’ Forest, which was the most important university education area of the past; the other is the Muslim “Hui” District (from which the Chinese name of the quarter also derives, or “Huifang”), which represents a significant testimony of the way in which the religious community was formed and transformed in the past centuries. In addition, the Muslim District of Xi’an is the area within the ancient walls of the city with the highest density of protected cultural buildings, for a total of 7 cultural relics units.

Although the Hui population is not large, it is also the largest ethnic minority in the city. According to the Fifth National Census, there are 49 ethnic minorities in Xi’an, totalling 85.300 people. Among them, the Hui ethnic group has the largest population with 64,216 inhabitants, equal to 75% of all ethnic minorities, most of which are concentrated within the Muslim District of the city. In fact, the Hui ethnic minority population in the district has more than 35.000 inhabitants and is equivalent to about 60% of the total population of the area.

The Muslim community is located within the urban center of Xi’an, very close to the Bell Tower, where the main axes of the ancient city intersect, more precisely in the north-west portion formed by this intersection and bounded to the south by the Drum Tower. From this central and

167

strategic position it is possible to understand the importance that this area has played in the history of the ancient Chinese capital.

Chapter 06.

The Muslim historical District of Xi’an

The Muslim District area could be dated as far back as the Tang Dynasty, when many visitors and merchants came to visit and lived in Chang’an.

This area was in fact designated by the emperor as the main community for foreign visitors. This area is often referred to by visitors, but also by some citizens of Xi’an, as “Xi’an Muslim Street”; however it is not just a street, but refers to a collective name given to several streets in the Muslim quarter. It consists of

several

streets

including:

Beiguangji

Muslim District: Beiyuanmen street.

Street,

Beiyuanmen, Xiyang City, Dapiyuan, Huajue Alley and Sajinqiao. At the moment many Hui Muslims live in this area and many streets in the neighborhood are characterized by a strong Muslim style, both in terms of decorations and houses, but above all in reference to the food and snacks prepared and sold in the street stalls. Nowadays the area has a strong tourist character and every year attracts many tourists visiting the city from all over the country and from abroad, mainly attracted by the streets of typical Muslim food, ethnic shops and ancient mosques. However, there

Temporary entrance arch in Huimin Street with written in Chinese and English.

is not only food here, but also ancient architectural sites such as the courtyard of the Gao family, the former residence of Nian Gengyao, the Drum Tower and the Capital City God’s Temple; there are also folk customs and activities such as the Capital City God’s Temple Fair and the Xicang Market, held every Sunday morning in the streets of the district.

Entrance portal to the district, written in Chinese and Arabic.

168

Xi’an University of Architecture and Technology

Master Thesis

The iconic entrance to Xiyangshi Street in the Muslim District.

Men of Hui ethnicity walking the streets with the

traditional

white

headdress.

Hui men praying inside a mosque.

169

The Muslim historical District of Xi’an

The Drum Tower Muslim District is located in the area that was once the site of the administrative blocks of the Tang dynasty, in what used to be the city of Chang’an, in the center of the historical area of the ​​ urban core of Xi’an. In the south-east corner, the Ming dynasty Drum Tower forms a monumental cornerstone of the area, while Society Road borders the area to the east, Sajin

Aerial view of Drum Tower square (Bell Tower in the distance).

Bridge to the west, West Street to the south and Lianhu Road to the north.

Covering an area of ​​ about 54 hectares, the Drum Tower Muslim District area is occupied by about 60.000 people, more than half of whom are Muslims. Within the district there are ten mosques, including the Great Mosque of the Song dynasty, around which the religious and social

View of the Drum Tower and adjacent square.

life of Muslim citizens revolves.

Due to the need to participate in worship ceremonies, Muslims tend to live around mosques. This type of life pattern is also observed in the Muslim

6.2 T he Dr u m To w er M us l i m Di s tr i ct

Chapter 06.

District of Xi’an. Like Muslims in other Chinese cities, most Muslim residents in the Drum Tower Muslim District conduct family-run businesses; in fact, as one of the busiest markets within the historic urban core of Xi’an, this place is conducive to local

Interior view of the pavilions of the Great Mosque,

business people, but also generates

within the Muslim District.

many

traffic

and

environmental

problems, such as traffic jams and exhaust fumes in the narrow streets.

170

Xi’an University of Architecture and Technology

Master Thesis

These problems have now seriously compromised the reputation and value of this historic district, making it a fairly run-down area.

The entire Drum Tower Muslim District, along with the Bei Lin Area, was declared a historic urban area in the conservation regulations of the historic city of Xi’an, and furthermore, the conservation of this area was a significant part of the conservation Master-Plan of the city.

However, the extension of several streets within the Drum Tower District, proposed by the master-plan, constituted a severe challenge to the meaning of “Protection Area”.

Map of the Ming cheng area: location and perimeter of the Muslim District and main axes of the imperial city. (Image made by the author)

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Chapter 06.

The Muslim historical District of Xi’an

2.

1.

Map of the Muslim District: location of mosques in the area. 1- Great Mosque 2- Dapiyuan Mosque.

(Image made by the author)

172

6 .3 T he H ui ethni c m i nor i ty

Xi’an University of Architecture and Technology

Master Thesis

The Hui ethnic group is one of the largest ethnic minorities in China, with a population of over 8 million people, spread across most of the country ’s counties and cities. The name of this ethnic group, Hui, is short for “Huihui”, a term used for the first time in the literature of the Northern Song dynasty (960-1127), which was used to indicate the Huihe people who resided in the city of Anxi , in present-day Xinjiang, since the Tang dynasty (618-907).

Religion, culture and economy The Islamic religion has had a profound influence on the lifestyle and traditions of the Hui people. Religion is present in every area of ​​the life of this people, from birth, when a child is given a Huihui name by an imam, who must attend and preside over the wedding ceremonies. Men are used to wearing black or white hats, especially during religious services, while women wear black, white or green scarves on their heads, a habit that stemmed from religious practices that require women to cover their heads.

The Hui, as Muslims, never eat pork or the blood of dead animals on their own and are also forbidden to drink alcohol; all practices that originate in the Koran. Before attending religious services, the Huis must practice either a “minor cleansing”, which consists of washing their face, mouth, nose, hands and feet, or a “major cleansing” which requires a washing of the whole body.

Islam has also had a great impact on the political and economic systems of the Hui society; in fact, the “Jiaofang” or “religious community” was a social and administrative system as well as an economic one. According to this system, a mosque was to be built in every place inhabited by Huis and an imam was to be invited to preside over the religious affairs of the community, as well as to take responsibility for all aspects of the social, economic and religious support of the people and to collect religious and other taxes from them. A mosque functioned not only as a place of religious activity, but also as a meeting place where the community gathered to discuss matters of common interest. As the different religious communities operated quite independently of each other, they soon became the basic social units for the widely dispersed Hui people across the country. Following the development of the agricultural economy of the Hui and the increase in religious taxes imposed, some chief imams began

173

to accumulate a great personal wealth, which was used to invest in land on which to build new houses.

Chapter 06.

The Muslim historical District of Xi’an

The imams thus gradually transformed themselves into landowners thanks to the power attributed to them by religious communities, over which they strictly maintained a strict control, and they left the routine religious affairs of mosques to low-ranking imams.

Between the last phase of the Ming dynasty and the early years of the Qing dynasty (1644-1911) a new system of religious aristocracy emerged among the Hui, which transformed some imams into real Islamic aristocrats, rulers of entire religious communities. Their office was considered hereditary and they enjoyed a series of feudal privileges and absolute authority over their faithful. The system

Muslim women in the district with the typical

existed, however, only in some of the Hui areas of

colorful dresses and veils.

Gansu, Ningxia and Qinghai, while the Hui in the Chinese hinterland, therefore also in the area of ​​the Guanzhong plain where Xi’an is located, have always used the simple system of religious communities.

With the founding of the Communist Party, after 1949, the Chinese government pursued a policy of regional ethnic and religious autonomy in the areas populated by the Hui. The right to equality and ethnic autonomy was thus realized among the Hui people.

A woman prepares a typical Muslim food.

Since 1979, the integration and protection policies of ethnic and religious minorities have continued in the Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region and in other parts of the country after the disruptions caused by the Cultural Revolution. As the Huis differ from place to place, this autonomy has taken various forms. Together with the autonomous Hui region of Ningxia, the various autonomous prefectures in the province of Gansu, Qinghai and Hebei were born.

The Huis who live throughout the country, as members

Muslim women sell ready meals on the street.

of an established ethnic group, have the same right to enjoy ethnic, religious and economic equality; moreover, their religious freedom, customs and traditions are respected and guaranteed.

174

Xi’an University of Architecture and Technology

Master Thesis

In recent years, prominent figures of

the

Islamic

participated the

at

various

Chinese

Consultative

community

have

levels

People’s

in

Political

Conferences

and

People’s Congresses. An adequate number of representatives have been elected by the Huis to attend National People’s Congresses, Hui officials work in government departments at both central and local levels and some

An owner in front of his shop across the street.

of them have held senior positions.

The social and economic situation of the Hui people has undergone fundamental changes in the last three decades, in particular starting from the Democratic Reform that took place in the early 1950s and then with the subsequent socialist transformation, the system of class oppression

has

within

ranks

the

been of

eliminated the

Huis.

Since the founding of the People’s

Hui imams pray before the main Friday prayers during the holy fasting month of Ramadan.

Republic of China in 1949, primary education has on the whole been made universal among the Huis. In the areas populated by Hui, communities have set up their own primary and secondary

schools

so

that

their

children can study close to home.

In some of the areas populated by Hui, secondary and primary schools have been established for female students and an increasing number of Hui women are attending evening

175

schools or schools organized during the winter season.

A courtyard inside Xiaopiyuan Street Mosque.

Chapter 06.

The Muslim historical District of Xi’an

Having acquired various levels of education, many Hui people are now skilled workers; within these communities there are professors, engineers, doctors, scientists, writers, artists, civil servants of various levels and specialists of all kinds. Public medical and health facilities have been extensively set up in Hui populated areas and health workers have been trained in large numbers. In large cities such as Beijing and Tientsin, where the concentration of Huis is relatively higher, hospitals have been designed specifically for them and, in some places, mobile medical teams have been organized to visit the countryside and mountainous areas where some small communities live.

Hui worshipper strolling through the courtyard of

Daqingzhen

Si

(Great Mosque).

Current situation in the Muslim District of Xi’an The Hui people living within the district practice the cult of Islam, which, as already mentioned, was introduced to Xi’an in the past by means of merchants who came from the Middle East to sell and buy objects and spices. The Muslim religion was formally accepted starting with the Tang dynasty, when Emperor Gaozong officially allowed it to be worshipped in 651 BC. From that moment the Muslim District became the center of the Muslim community, within which the culture and customs of Islam could develop independently from the Han culture.

176

Xi’an University of Architecture and Technology

Master Thesis

Religion played a decisive role in bringing people together in a solid and compact community, detached from negative conditioning but intertwined with the customs and traditions of other local cultures.

The need to organize themselves into a compact community was mainly due to the need to carry out daily religious rituals, which are carried out inside the mosques, the focal centers, around which the spiritual life of Muslim people revolves. The mosque thus becomes the point of reference around which the community and the buildings are organized and developed, which guard the relics and religious sacred texts that allow to transmit knowledge to the faithful. Many mosques in China resemble pagodas in structure and materials (buildings of Buddhist origin, usually with a central plan and with a modest vertical development) with green ceramic tile roofs. Within the district it is possible to find twelve mosques, ten of which are historic old buildings and two are modern ones. Historical mosques have different shapes and sizes, characterized by different planimetric and volumetric space systems. The most important mosque, in terms of size and architectural quality, is certainly the Great Mosque, located along the road parallel to Beiyuanmen Street, it represents the emblem and the spiritual center of the Hui Muslim community and is composed of numerous buildings of various sizes, organized around a central cohort rich in vegetation.

Walking through the streets of the district it is also possible to see people in traditional Muslim clothing, many women wear the traditional veil to cover the head (the hijab), while the men often wear the traditional prayer headdress (the Kufi). It is no coincidence that mosques are among the few perfectly preserved historic buildings within the district; in fact buildings of worship can not be demolished, as it would be sacrilegious and a sin towards God (Allah). Unfortunately, at the opposite, courtyard traditional

houses have almost all been demolished and rebuilt or

expanded in height, distorted in the structure and internal distribution.

The mosques in the district represent an important tangible testimony of China’s historical cultural heritage and a means through which to come into contact with Muslim history and culture. In addition to religion, there are two other important elements that characterize the Muslim community of the district: trade and traditional Muslim food; in fact, as

177

well as in the mosque, the Hui community spends a good part of the day carrying out commercial activities along the streets.

Chapter 06.

The Muslim historical District of Xi’an

Almost all families own, in addition to their homes, commercial premises, which represent a major source of economic livelihood, together with the renting of rooms and apartments to workers from outside the city.

The commercial activities located along the sides of the narrow streets of the district include retail shops (spices, traditional clothes, objects, antiques, various handicrafts, etc.), shops for the sale and processing of food products (fruit and vegetables, meat, fish, dairy products), restaurants and itinerant stalls for the preparation and sale of ready-toeat foods (restaurants, kiosks and stands), markets and supermarkets and some commercial activities such as hairdressers and crafts such as shops. Food in particular represents an important intangible testimony of the culture and traditions of the district, the preparation of which is handed down from generation to generation. Today the district owes its fame to commercial activities and typical traditional foods, which attract thousands of tourists every year who come from all over China and other foreign countries. The Muslim Street, or rather the set of streets that include Beiyuanmen Street and the side streets, represent the tourist, historical and cultural heart of the district, where it is possible to find Islamic foods and antique and calligraphy shops, historic buildings such as the Drum Tower and well-preserved traditional courtyard buildings such as Courtyard No. 144 and the finest historic mosques, such as the Great Mosque.

178

6 . 4 H istor i ca l Ba ckg r ound

Xi’an University of Architecture and Technology

Master Thesis

The birth of the Hui community during the Tang dynasty The history of the settlement begins during the Song and Tang dynasty in the ancient city of Chang’an. The origin of the Hui people in Xi’an can be traced back to the 7th-8th centuries AD; in fact, the Tang court had established friendly relations with countries such as Persia (today Iran) and Da Shi (ancient Arab empire, modern Arabia) causing a large number of merchants, diplomats and religious figures from Arabia, Persia and from Central Asia they traveled the “Silk Road” to reach the Chinese Empire. Commercial exchanges became more and more frequent and a large number of Muslims, engaged in commercial activities, took up permanent residence in Chang’an, forming the communities of predecessors of the Hui people in Xi’an. Emperor Gaozong of the Tang Dynasty officially permitted the practice of Islam in 651 AD. The open diplomacy and immigration policies of the Tang dynasty laid an important foundation for the Hui ancestors and the affirmation of their ethnic identity in the major cities of Han culture.

As for the origin of the Muslim community, reference is often made to the “Four Sources Theory ” proposed by scholar Ma Shinian, as it is based on four different historical sources to trace the origins of the Hui minority in Xi’an. The first source refers to what is reported in the ancient text of “Zi Zhi Tong Jian”, according to which Muslims who came to Chang’an for commercial activities were often referred to as: “Hu business”, “Fan business” and “Jiahu “. In the third year of Tang Zhenyuan (787 AD.), Hu businessmen accumulated wealth in Chang’an, borrowed money for profit, bought land, married Chinese wives, and had numerous children. The second source refers to the historical event of the Shiite Muslims who fled to Chang’an. In fact, starting from the 70s-80s of the 7th century AD, after the failure of the armed struggle against the Umayyad dynasty within the Arab empire, a group of rebel Shiite Muslims was forced to move east to northern China. Some people settled in Chang’an, learned the local language and integrated with the population by marrying and having children; these people were called the “yak” (ie the mediators) of Chinese trade and foreign trade.

The third testimony refers to Muslim soldiers who, to help Chinese

179

officers and soldiers, remained in the Chang’an area after the historic Tang Ping’an rebellion.

Chapter 06.

The Muslim historical District of Xi’an

From 755 to 763 AD, the Tang dynasty used the forces of the Huihe population (Muslim population residing in ancient Xinjiang and from which the current Hui ethnicity derives) and other countries to recover the capitals of Chang’an and Luoyang and quell the rebellion. The Tang government allowed some of these Huihe officers and soldiers to remain in Chang’an and other places in Guanzhong, allowed them to marry Tang women, and built a mosque for them in AD 762. However, although this temple has documents, there is no trace of it. Finally, the fourth source concerns the “Nine Zhaowu”, the Hu families of nine small Central Asian countries, including Wudi, Huoxun, An, Kang, Cao, Shi, Shi, Mi and Ho, who, starting from the dynasty Tang, they came to Chang’an to engage in business and commerce. Later, these families gradually converted to Islam and started families. Today, there are in fact many people in Xi’an who pass down the surnames of these families.

The Drum Tower Muslim District is located in the area that was once the site of the administrative blocks

of

the

Tang

dynasty.

180

Xi’an University of Architecture and Technology

Master Thesis

The birth of the Huifang district prototype during the Song dynasty According to existing data, the embryonic form of the Huifang district in Xi’an was formed approximately during the Song dynasty. Some scholars have also verified that the formation of the embryonic space of the district is closely related to the temporary transfer of the capital of Chang’an, reduced to rubble at the end of the Tang dynasty (907 AD), in the city of Luoyang. Subsequently, the Yu Guojun Jiedu had the capital rebuilt on the foundations of the original imperial city of Chang’an and rebuilt a city with high walls on all four sides, with considerably smaller dimensions than the original city of Chang’an (1/16 of the capital of the Tang dynasty), but basically based on the same grid of checkerboard axes that defined the streets of the city and the large urban blocks of square and rectangular shape.

Until the establishment of the Northern Song Dynasty, residents gradually moved again from Luoyang to the new capital, and the living environment was gradually restored in the desolate imperial city. In the early days of Xi’an, the Hui people also moved

to

the

new

city

called

Han

Jian,

and

they

initially

gathered to live in the area south of the northern city walls.

At the beginning of the Song dynasty (960 AD), with the restoration of the regional economy and culture, trade relations with the East also restarted, so Islam and businessmen began to spread again in the Xi’an area and joined the Muslim Hui community that had already existed for generations. Around the end of the Northern Song Dynasty and the beginning of the Jin Dynasty, the embryonic form of the Hui people in Xi’an began to live in groups in the northwest corner of the new city, similar to the current area of ​​the Huifang district. These events determined the spatial and historical conditions for the formation of the present Muslim district.

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Chapter 06.

The Muslim historical District of Xi’an

The

current

Drum

Tower Muslim District compared to the map of the city during the Song dynasty.

The Hui people during the Yuan dynasty During the Yuan Dynasty, Genghis Khan and his descendants carried out three large-scale Western expeditions and the territory expanded unprecedentedly and large areas of Islam in Western Asia and Central Asia were included in the territory of the Yuan Dynasty. As a result, Muslims from Central Asia and West Asia continued to come to China through incursions by the Mongol army and founded the Tuntian district on the Guanzhong plain. At that time there were many Mongolian Muslim garrisons in Xi’an as well, which allowed the city’s Hui community to incorporate many new members. Soldiers, merchants, women and children from Persia, Central Asia, and Western Asia were moved to the north-west and even across the country. During this period the population was divided into four classes: Mongols, Semu, Han and Nanren. Among them, the Mongols had the highest status, and the status of the other three classes decreased in order.

Among them, the Semu people included more than 20 ethnic groups such as Tangwu, Asu and Huihui. After the middle of the Yuan dynasty, many people who worshipped Islam were collectively identified as “Huihui” and, due to the increasingly high status conferred on this class during the Yuan dynasty, second only to the Mongols, the number of “Huihui” during this period it grew incessantly.

182

Xi’an University of Architecture and Technology

Master Thesis

From this time on, the Hui Muslim community truly became an important ethnic group in China and, under the common leadership of Islamic beliefs, it became a powerful community, characterized by common belief and lifestyle. From this time, and even after the great development of the Ming and Qing dynasties, many Hui villages were formed in the Guanzhong area; in fact, even today, the counties of Chang’an, Xianning, Zhouzhi, Huxian, Lintong and Gaoling that belong to the Xi’an area are all densely populated by Hui people.

The period of development and decline of the Hui during the Ming and Qing dynasties At the beginning of the Ming dynasty, the rulers adopted a policy of political tolerance and high commercial interests, therefore, the Muslim community continued to develop and grow further. At the beginning of the Ming dynasty, the various ethnic groups of the Hui gradually developed a strong cohesion thanks to their common beliefs. Due to mixed marriages and economic reasons, a considerable number of Han and Mongols gradually began to believe in Islam and became members of the Muslim community.

Before the middle of the Qing dynasty, the Hui people of Xi’an continued to grow, forming a densely populated urban area. In the mid-Ming dynasty, due to the border protection problem, large numbers of Huihui located in Gansu and other places moved inland and many Hui settlements formed in urban and rural areas of Shaanxi province and Xi’an. At the end of the Ming Dynasty, the development of Jingtang education (a form of Islamic education) further attracted Muslims from other provinces to relocate to Xi’an. After the development of the Ming dynasty and the beginning of the Qing dynasty, the Hui population grew further. In 1781, the population of Hui nationality of Xi’an, which occupied the north-western area of the ​​ city, numbered about 30,000 people and in the district there were 13 public squares, space around which, together with the mosque, life revolved of people of the Muslim religion. At the same time, the Hui economy, which is characterized by agriculture and commercial affairs, also achieved remarkable development and growth in Shaanxi. Numerous specialized markets were born for fur, slaughtering and food processing.

183

Large and small leather yards became the center of the leather goods trade.

Chapter 06.

The Muslim historical District of Xi’an

The city of Xi’an, dominated by livestock trading and agriculture, developed rapidly. The “sifang” (ie the urban block, bordered by streets on all four sides) of the Muslim district, with the mosque in the center, grew in size and became more and more characteristic, forming seven temples and thirteen squares. In the first year of Tongzhi (1861) of the Qing dynasty, the Hui population in Shaanxi province represented nearly one third of the total population. Also around the same time, a large-scale ethnic revolt broke out in the Shaanxi region among the Hui community. After the war, the Hui population dropped dramatically. Fortunately, the Hui population in Xi’an survived (less than 20,000) and returned to growth from the end of the Qing dynasty and the beginning of the People’s Republic of China.

The

Drum

Tower

Muslim District location and perimeter during the Ming and Qing dynasty.

The further development of the Hui nationality in modern times After the founding of the People’s Republic of China in 1949, part of the Hui population from other provinces moved to the city of Xi’an. Especially after the War of Resistance against Japan, large numbers of Hui from Henan, Shandong and other places moved and settled in eastern Xi’an to escape the war, becoming an important part of the city’s Muslim community.

184

Xi’an University of Architecture and Technology

Master Thesis

In the early years of the Republic of China, the district market was greatly developed and grew in size. However, during the period of the Social Revolution (1966-76) market activities were considered the “tail of capitalism”, leading to the suspension of the individual economic activities of sellers, and the district market was suspended until 1978 when commercial activities they were gradually resumed.

With the development of free market demand, in addition to flowers, birds, insects and fish, cultural and play objects, ancient paintings and calligraphy, clothing accessories, articles of daily necessities, second-hand transactions, and other products were gradually introduced. After the Republic period, the increase in the number of Hui people in Xi’an was basically due to the natural growth of the inhabitants and there was no considerable migration phenomenon.

Current situation of the population of the Muslim District Currently, Xi’an has a total Hui population of approximately 60,000 and the Hui population residing in the Muslim historical district, which is the subject of this study, reaches 35,000 residents. The population density reaches 11,000 inhabitants per square kilometre.

From the point of view of the ethnic structure, the proportion of Hui-Han in the historic district is about 3 to 2. Among them, the majority of the Hui population is the resident population, while the Han population consists mainly of migrant workers living here for a long time renting houses. From the point of view of the age structure, the permanent population in Muslim historical districts tends to age: the percentage of Muslims under the age of 30 and between 30-40 years are respectively 25% and 10% and the percentage of Muslims aged between 40-50 and over 50 are respectively 50% and 15%. The elderly population represents 20.7%, highlighting a more pronounced aging of the population in the area than in other districts of the city. In combination with the spatial data analysis, the residential population density in each area is very high. The excessive population density has led to an excessive use of the urban land of the district: the surface per capita in the study area is only 15

185

square meters per inhabitant and the increasing number of tourists has made the streets more crowded.

Chapter 06.

The Muslim historical District of Xi’an

In particular, the Beiyuanmen street historical area is in urgent need of protection due to its rich historical and cultural values. Therefore, it has become an important issue in the protection and renewal process to relieve the population and decrease the pressure on land use. The family is the most basic unit that forms the structure of human society and currently, the traditional three-generation family in the Muslim historical district still occupies some importance, allowing for close family ties. The “Hui” family model is of great importance for the cultural heritage of the Muslim historic quarter, but at the same time the new family model, characterized by smaller families, is also having an impact on the way of residing in the historic district; its influence is increasing day by day, altering the traditional social structure of the neighborhood and entailing a challenge to the traditional structure of the living space.

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6 .5 A nalys is o f the p hysica l s p a ti a l el em ents o f t he histo r ica l a r ea of Bei y ua nm en

Xi’an University of Architecture and Technology

Master Thesis

Spatial form and architectural style The spatial texture and architectural style of historic urban areas are usually an important symbol of urban features and an important part of the urban style. The texture of the urban space is made up of the spatial relations and shapes of the various levels of the city, the state of the various spaces in the texture of the urban space, the state of urban life and the activities it contains. The architectural style is the most important feature of the appearance of the historical area of ​​the city and has a very strong spatial recognition. In the process of protecting and renovating historic urban areas, the spatial texture should be better preserved, key open spaces in some areas can be suitably expanded, and architectural styles on important streets should be renewed.

The most typical and characteristic spatial form in the historical area of​​ Beiyuanmen is the “sifang” form (寺 坊), characterized by the presence of a mosque around which the houses and small town squares develop. The spatial development of the area can be divided into two phases: the first phase dates back to the Tang and Song dynasties, when the shape of the settlement was based on the development of trade; the area was divided into urban blocks with a square shape and differentiated according to the function. Around a square block, used as a market, other residential blocks developed, each bordered by walls closed on the street. This square market system was also known as: “lifang”. The second phase, on the other hand, dates back to the Ming and Qing dynasties, during which the spatial form of the building began to rotate around the mosques, the residential blocks opened towards the street and commercial activities, instead of being concentrated in a single area, they began to develop on the street fronts of the residential blocks. The earliest embryonic form of the sifang form appeared during the Northern Song dynasty, but began to sprout during the Tang dynasty. During the Northern Song Dynasty, when the diffuse market system replaced the square market system, a new form of urban layout developed and commercial space moved from point to linear development. With the continuous development of commercial exchanges, commercial activities were no longer limited to the fixed model of the lifang. The original area for the gathering of the Hui people

187

changed from a cheaper, market-based setting to a more religious one centered around the mosque.

Chapter 06.

The Muslim historical District of Xi’an

On this basis, the mosque became the nucleus, the squares were the branches and the streets the borders. The overall space of the historical area of ​​Beiyuanmen was then reorganized and the spatial characteristics changed in the configuration that we still find today. Although the sifang morphology is still the most important spatial form in the historical area of ​​Beiyuanmen, with the continuous integration of national cultures, the morphological characteristics typical of the Guanzhong court residences also appear in this area. The overall spatial structure of the district is extremely narrow, presenting a pattern of narrow alleys and deep residential courtyards, which penetrate the blocks from all four sides of the street, forming very narrow passages between a building and the top ( sometimes even a few tens of centimetres. This situation, also caused by the building speculation of recent decades and by informal abusive housing, has led to an ever greater degradation of the area, in particular within the residential blocks, where the hygienic and housing conditions are often of low level, with problems with lighting, ventilation and high risk of fires.

Architectural style analysis

Right:

“sifang”

form

during

the

Tang

dynasty. Left: “sifang” form during the Ming

According to the “Protection Planning Rules for Famous Historic and Cultural

and Qing dynasty.

Cities”, building styles are divided into two categories: those that do not conflict with historical styles and those that conflict with historical styles.

In evaluating the architectural style, the protection units of cultural relics, protected buildings and historic buildings are obviously considered as not in conflict, while those with morphological characteristics that are too distant from the original district building are considered to be in conflict.

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Master Thesis

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We are talking about those buildings that have a large number of floors above ground (more than four floors) and those buildings with a floor plan and orientation that differ from the original layout of the area, i.e. characterized by a development in length from the street front towards the center of the urban block, with a width that varies approximately between 8 and 16 meters. With the exception of the buildings of cultural heritage and historical sites, the buildings along the main streets and alleys have been the most subject to special renovations, so they are generally considered to be more in line with traditional historical characteristics, but it should nevertheless be considered that they are often interventions of imitation and copying of traditional styles and architectural elements that have nothing historical. Furthermore, the lack of style guides, which regulate for example the conformation of the openings of the facades or the shapes of the roofs, has led to a great mix of styles, shapes and materials.

Buildings - General situation Except for a small number of public buildings, most of the fabrics turn out to be private homes. This creates some obstacles to the large-scale protection of the district and to the implementation of a renewal plan in the future. In order to maintain the intangible culture of the place, linked to the customs and traditions (religious and otherwise) of the district, measures such as the collective relocation of the inhabitants or the mandatory transformation should

not

be

adopted,

but,

in

consideration

of

property

rights, they should be define appropriate guidelines for the transformation and proposals for overall protection and renewal strategies, which do not damage local residents and their habits.

The construction materials for the buildings in the district are varied, although the most used is certainly reinforced concrete. The main cultural finds and historical sites are instead built with brick masonry, wood and beaten earth.

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Building height analysis The typology of buildings in the area is mainly made up of low-rise residential buildings with a number of floors ranging from 1 to 4. However, due to the excessive population density, due to an ever increasing housing demand and the lack of free land , many buildings in the area have been enlarged and raised in height.

Almost all the traditional courtyard houses, one storey above ground, have been demolished and rebuilt or

Modern buildings with “traditional” style facades.

enlarged in order to create new residences, almost always illegal, which do not respect the town planning rules of the city. This “informal” building responds, on the one hand, to the housing needs of a growing Muslim community in the district and, on the other hand, to the speculative needs of building owners, to rent rooms and apartments, especially to people and workers from outside the city, who want to spend little on rent and do not have a residence permit (Hukou) to live in other areas of the city. The building extensions have led to a high population density in the district, more than double that

Modern “informal” buildings along the Muslim District’s streets.

of many other more modern areas of the city, which is also partly responsible for the poor sanitation conditions of many houses. It is therefore essential to define how to reasonably control the height of the new building in the renovation plans of the future.

Building quality analysis The quality of the buildings in the research area is divided into three grades: poor, fair and good. Most buildings have an average build quality, but they also need to be properly repaired in subsequent protection and renovation. Other low-quality buildings need to be repaired immediately, otherwise they will no longer be able to occupy their space and perform their functions.

Street in the district with informal buildings (3/4 floors).

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Given the informal characteristics of the building, it is difficult to

accurately

construction

establish

quality

of

the many

buildings, especially those within residential blocks, where access is

often

only

guaranteed

to

residents. These buildings are often the result of processing by unskilled

workers,

usually

the

owners of the land themselves, who,

with

the

help

of

Traditional

style

buildings

and

tall

informal

buildings.

other

residents, carry out extensions to existing buildings or even new constructions. Due to the lack of skilled labour and the need for economic savings, the buildings in question are usually careless of the aesthetic appearance of the external facades, which have no finishes or decorations, and

A dilapidated building probably used as a warehouse.

of the quality of the materials used. A more detailed analysis of the state of residential buildings, both

from

an

aesthetic

and

static point of view, is therefore necessary

to

understand

the

real state of conservation in the district.

The system of roads and streets The streets are very busy both during the day and

The system of roads and streets in the historic section of the North

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Yard Gate can be traced back to the Tang Dynasty.

in the evening.

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Since the city at that time strictly followed the “Lifang” system the road network was distributed in an orthogonal checkerboard pattern, and the location of the historical area of Beiyuanmen ​​ was in this era located within the imperial city, hence the roads they were more regular. The subsequent Five Dynasties and Yuan Dynasty basically followed horizontal and vertical patterns for the streets, but the density of the network gradually increased. In the Ming and Qing dynasties, with the expansion of the city, the road network began to develop differently from the original configuration

There are formal shops and street vendors in the area.

and inclined lanes and branches were added. Finally, during the period of the Republic of China the road system was almost in line with the current configuration.

The connection relationship between the main and secondary roads in the historical part of Beiyuanmen is relatively clear: among these, the main roads connecting the area at the city level are Beiyuanmen, Dapiyuan and Beiguangji Street, and the secondary roads in the area are Xiaopiyuan, West Yangshi, Huajue Alley and Social Road, while some remaining streets connect the main roads to the inner streets of the district. There are

The contrast between the architectural styles of the buildings in Beiyuanmen Street.

obvious differences in the functions of the streets and alleys; in fact, with the gradual increase in the tourist popularity of the area, especially the famous Muslim Street has attracted tourists from all over the country and even foreigners, and the tourist development and commercialization of the historical area of ​​Beiyuanmen has accelerated. The four streets of Beiyuanmen, Xiyang City, Huajue Alley and Dapiyuan gradually became commercial streets; while Beiguangji Street, Xiaopiyuan and Maichang Street are limited by their location and the degree of commercial development is slightly less.

Road around the Drum Tower.

The main function of North Road and Social Road is still transport and connection inside and outside the Muslim district, thus allowing the connection of the area with the other parts of the city.

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Environmental and social problems There are two main environmental problems in the historical section of Beiyuanmen: first, the sanitation conditions of the main commercial streets are poor; in fact, although the density of the garbage cans is relatively high, the cleaning frequency is low. Secondly, the lack of open public space and urban green along the road, due to the high commercial and tourist value that is attributed to the area, means that most of the public outdoor spaces are all occupied by commercial activities and some vendors also place tables, chairs and benches directly in the streets and alleys. The green spaces and rest areas for residents and tourists are very few within the district, in fact in the area you can only find an urban park, while the other green areas are represented by some rows of trees along the main roads, which are however often neglected and lacking in parking spaces. After investigating the road scale in the historical area of ​​Beiyuanmen, although between the width of the streets and the height of the surrounding building is generally well controlled, from the thermal maps showing the daily flows of people and road conditions, one can find that too many tourists and shops occupy the street space, causing a great pedestrian crowding. Furthermore, the scale of some internal streets is extremely narrow, and there are many “buildings hugging” phenomena, taking away lighting and ventilation from many residential homes.

Regarding the problem of population pressure in the district, according to surveys carried out by Chinese undergraduates, 54.44% of the respondents, residing in the district, believe that the problem should be solved on the spot, by improving the layout of the buildings, while 39.92 % of people think it is possible to choose another location nearby to allow some residents to move collectively. Regarding the future positioning of the Beiyuanmen historical area, 41.13% of the respondents believe it should be a mixed commercial and residential area with traditional characteristics, 31.45% believe it should be a traditional cultural area and the remaining 27.42% believe it should be a commercial area characterized by historical elements.

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The Muslim historical District of Xi’an

Intangible cultural heritage In addition to the numerous material cultural heritages in the historical area of ​​ Beiyuanmen, the amount of intangible cultural heritage is also considerable. According to the classification standards, the intangible cultural heritage in the historical area of Beiyuanmen ​​ can be roughly divided into three main categories, namely: traditional and meeting events, such as daily prayer in the mosque or the Ramadan period, craft and cultural activities traditional, such as Chinese shadow shows and traditional restaurant businesses. However, their respective protection statuses are not the same.

The categories that transform and adapt more easily are those that are best protected, such as shops and commercial activities, but also religious customs, due to the beliefs that have been rooted for centuries and handed down from generation to generation among the residents; while traditional craftsmanship is suffering a loss due to the lack of effective protection and the process of globalization and standardization that undermine these ancient manual activities.

The most precious intangible cultural heritage in the historical area of​​ Beiyuanmen is the way of life, handed down from ancient times to the present day; a way of life so traditional that it is extremely rare and precious in modern cities.

6.6 Analysis of the social and humanistic elements of the historical area of Beiyuanmen

Chapter 06.

Chinese shadow play.

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If we say that tangible elements such as historic buildings, the distribution of streets and alleys, spatial structure and architectural style are the material carriers of the characteristics of urban historical places, then local customs, the essence of popular culture, and Traditional crafts that have been handed down from ancient times to the present represent the intangible elements. Social and human elements, such as those linked to business and commerce, and traditional lifestyles are the intangible elements, linked to these material vectors, which pass on “living” urban memories. Although the physical space has been damaged for a long time due to decay, its historical value has not been completely lost, and it is still a historical and cultural heritage worthy of protection. However, without a legacy and adequate protection of these material elements, the cultural and social characteristics of the historic area of ​​the city will also disappear. Even if the material space is artificially protected by man, if the intangible cultural heritage is lost, then this urban historical area will become just an “empty shell” without a soul, and its overall value will be severely damaged. The protection of the intangible elements is mainly based on the protection of the material elements, however, in many practical cases, the protectors often do a good job in protecting and renovating the physical space, thinking less about the problems of the Aborigines and the conservation of the culture and traditional customs. This attitude has led to the loss of local cultural memory in many historical areas of the cities.

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Business Beiyuanmen

historical

area

considers

catering,

commerce, tourism, culture and rental accommodation as the main economic and livelihood activities, focusing in particular on the development of local products, antiques and handicrafts, hotel accommodation, accessories of clothing, food, catering and other industries. In the area there are about 150 families of various types of traders, about 2000 employees and a commercial sales area of ​​about 22,000 square

Two Hui Muslim men use wooden clubs to prepare a typical dessert.

meters; the annual turnover is 227 million yuan, an increase of 15% year on year and the number of tourists has reached 15.7 million.

There are about 40 restaurants and hotels, 28 antique, calligraphy and painting shops, 20 families engaged in daily food production, 37 food retailers and 13 families engaged in the sale of clothing accessories.

Currently, a large part of the tourists is represented by

people

from

of

Shaanxi

(over

other

areas

50%),

of

while

the

the

province

number

of

foreign tourists, coming from other provinces of China or from foreign countries, is increasing.

A Muslim man stretches the pasta along the road to prepare some sort of noodle.

For the future economic development of the area it will be necessary to deepen the advantages linked to the traditional culture of the district, focusing on the typical characteristics of the local Hui community.

It will therefore be essential to strengthen Muslim commercial

and

food

activities,

restoring

and

expanding the sales premises, organizing evening events and creating new meeting points. It will also be important to strengthen the craft activities, expanding and renovating the craft workshops and promoting

A cobbler working along the road.

the spread of the craft to the new generations.

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6 .7 Pr o te ctio n a nd r enova ti on of the Be iyu a nmen hi s tor i ca l a r ea

Xi’an University of Architecture and Technology

Master Thesis

Existing protection and renovation measures In 1986, the Xi’an Municipal People’s Government planned to transform and restore the historic area of ​​Beiyuanmen to make it an “ancient street” again, at least in appearance. The historical area of the ​​ Muslim district by that time had become the hub of trade in Xi’an and its popularity had even spread to foreign countries; therefore, in 1991, the Beiyuanmen Historic District protection project officially began, in order to make the area more attractive for tourists. The appearance of the buildings along the main road was restored to the architectural style of the houses of the Ming and Qing dynasty, and the main occupation was changed from selling antiques to calligraphy and painting. The street became the first major “calligraphy and painting area” in Xi’an, even more famous than the Academy Gate historical area, which brings together the Xi’an Chinese Painting Academy and the Painting and Calligraphy Society of Chang’an.

The possible traditional configuration of the buildings around the Drum Tower before the demolitions.

In 1993, the protection and renovation of the historic part of Beiyuanmen was included in the scientific research plan of the Xi’an Municipal

197

Committee, including the project to protect and repair some ancient buildings in the block.

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In 1995, construction of the Bell Tower and Drum Tower Square began, announcing that the historical area of​​ Beiyuanmen had begun to look for countermeasures to combine the historical context with modern life.

In 2001, with the implementation of the entire West Street expansion and reconstruction project, the calligraphy and painting shops in the historic section of Beiyuanmen were moved to Shu Yen Gate, thus beginning the transformation of the area into what today it is known as: the “street of food”. In 2005,

The Drum Tower’s square after the renovation.

the Xi’an City People’s Government once again improved the historic area and proposed forming a pedestrian shopping street centered around Muslim antiques and signature snacks, now also known as “Muslim food street”. In 2009, the Xi’an Municipal People’s Government issued the “Notification on the Implementation of the Beiyuanmen Area Restructuring and Improvement Project”, which states that the scope of the restructuring. The content of the rectification includes the demolition of illegal housing and random construction, the restoration and repair of the facades and roofs of houses on both sides of the streets, and the implementation of the demolition and relocation

Traditional courtyard under restoration, Xi Yang Shi road.

of some residential units and households. At different times, the effects of protecting and renovating the historic area of ​​Beiyuanmen have been uneven. On the one hand, there are some measures that have focused only on the general appearance and style of the buildings, and also the practice of “restoring” the architectural style of the Ming and Qing dynasties; other measures, on the other hand, focused mainly on the adaptation and transformation of local business activities. However, with the efforts of professional

Beiyuanmen street after the renovation to try to recover the style of the past.

design groups and national and foreign university experts, some ancient buildings and traditional residential courtyards in the area have been saved and beautifully restored.

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Xi’an University of Architecture and Technology

Master Thesis

Cultural relics, historical sites and buildings There are 7 cultural relics and historical sites in the historical area of the Muslim district, of which 2 are national key cultural relic protection units, 4 are provincial level cultural relic protection units and 1 is an asset protection unit higher cultural level.

Tab. 6.1 List of cultural relics in the historical area of the Muslim District.

Landscape style Beiyuanmen Historical Area is located in the central area of ​​Xi’an’s Mingcheng District. In addition to the historic buildings within the area, there are also other important relics in the surrounding area of t​​ he district. For example, the famous and ancient Drum Tower, which has been affected by numerous restoration and conservation works in recent years, while the square and the surrounding buildings have been affected by embellishment projects, also to make them more compatible with the traditional style of the ancient capital. The surrounding Bell Tower and Drum Square, the Municipal Public Security Office, the Provincial Hospital of Traditional Chinese Medicine and the large, modern commercial buildings along West Street have all been

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renovated and built in full compliance with the city coordination plan of the landscape.

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However, it should be emphasized that these “renewal” interventions often tend only to imitate the architectural style of the past, while a true process of reinterpreting the past should not be limited to juxtaposing traditional architectural elements, such as curved roofs, traditional tiles, cornices and wooden columns to multi-storey buildings built with modern construction technologies.

A true process of reinterpretation should go beyond the architectural element or construction material and look at the fundamental characteristics of the built space, should focus on traditional housing types, such as the residential type with internal courtyard, and on the quality of the internal and external space. Traditional elements, such as columns, arcades, and roofs, can be reinterpreted and abstracted in a modern way, just as traditional materials (wood, stone, beaten earth, ceramic ...) can be used in conjunction with more modern materials such as glass, reinforced concrete and metal. The style and appearance of some of the main streets in the area (such as Beiyuanmen street) have also been remodelled the shop signs have been improved and regulated, as well as the pavement, which has been replaced with stone slabs to recall the imperial age.

Modern building under construction

in

the

district using traditional roofs and tiles.

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Xi’an University of Architecture and Technology

Master Thesis

In the area of ​​the Muslim district it also presents numerous landscape points of reference, which can be divided into three categories according to their relevance. The first are cultural relics and historical sites that serve as a reference for visitors, such as the Great Mosque of Xi’an and the Drum Tower. Such nodes are often important signs for tourists to identify the Beiyuanmen historical area. The second reference element is the “arch”, understood as that architectural element, of various shapes and types, which signals an entrance or a path in a defined area of ​​the urban fabric; this type of node is usually placed at the intersection of roads and lanes and has a strong signalling value of a direction. Finally, the third element is represented by the public space and the green space at the side of the road, which are often limited within the district due to the relatively narrow streets and alleys and lacking in places to rest and relax.

Residential buildings Within the historic district, in addition to the mosques, there are also some historic residential buildings with an internal courtyard, dating back to the Ming and Qing dynasty. Until a few decades ago, the Muslim district, as well as the rest of the building texture within the Ming-cheng area, were characterized by courtyard residential buildings mainly on one floor above ground, but, starting as early as the 1950s, with the beginning of the industrialization phase of China and the consequent process of urbanization and demographic growth, almost all of these traditional historic houses have been destroyed or altered in structure and appearance.

Today the few remaining historical residences need to be protected from demolition, as every year, more and more historical areas are affected by total demolitions, regardless of the existing historical relics. In the Muslim district there will now be only a dozen historic residential buildings, of which only some have been placed under protection and restored, while others, still privately owned, are in precarious states and are not subject to any legislative protection. As the occupancy pattern and family structure changed over time, many local residents have carried out some extension work on existing buildings to create more space for the extended family.

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Due to the reconstruction, there is a clear distinction between the historic courtyards and those that have been extended.

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The Muslim historical District of Xi’an

One of the best-preserved courtyard residential buildings is Courtyard No. 144, which has been converted into a museum, where visitors can learn about Chinese culture and the way of living of the past. Visitors can experience traditional Chinese culture, including information on the imperial age, the local architectural and decorative style, and the use of traditional building materials, such as wood, ceramic and brick.

This courtyard was the home of Gao Yuesong, a scholar who won third place in the imperial examination of the Ming dynasty and was therefore built about 400 years ago. Courtyard No. 144 is a typical paradigm representing the style of traditional buildings and courtyards in the Guanzhong plain area, where the courtyard buildings are called “Guanzhong courtyards”.

Gao’s ancient courtyard located at No. 144 Beiyuanmen Street.

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6.8 The ho u sing mo d e l wi thi n the M us l i m Dist rict: be tw e e n co nstants a nd evol uti ons

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Master Thesis

Changes in the traditional housing model The traditional way of life involved all members of a family living together in a single courtyard residential unit, which defined a residential block that extended from the street longitudinally to the center of the urban block.

Due to the demographic increase following the urbanization process, which took place starting from 1949, the family structure began to change. With the increase in the size of families, the traditional model of life, based on a “vertical” model of parenteral relationships in which the elderly played the role of patriarchs, has progressively transformed from a large compact family into a structure with smaller and separated nuclei, where each smaller family unit, made up of adult parents, children and possibly grandparents, lived individually in a portion of the courtyard building. This model, based on family relationships of a more “horizontal” type, is characterized by an increasing number of adults who go to live alone and create their own small families.

This change has had a very strong impact on traditional culture and on the model of occupancy of the residential space. The transformation of the form of the courtyard buildings and the use of space mainly follows the change of the family structure on the one hand and the demographic development on the other. The population density inside the buildings began to increase due to the enlargement of the size of each family, leading to the construction of new buildings, even illegal ones, and the consequent real estate speculation to rent rooms to workers from other cities or from the countryside. With the increase in density, traditional single-storey houses were no longer able to meet modern housing needs and were therefore transformed or rebuilt by increasing the height of the buildings and using every available space of land within the urban blocks.

Chapter 06.

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Layout and Space: the traditional Courtyard block The basic unit in the traditional dwellings of the Guanzhong region is the courtyard block which in the past was generally occupied by a single extended family. There are several small courtyards enclosed by buildings on the block and the layout reflects the basic layout of the traditional Chinese courtyard.

The courtyard and residential buildings are arranged along the longitudinal direction, while the public premises are arranged transversely, dividing the entire block into several sections, which are traditionally called “steps”, which usually reach a maximum of 3. More steps had a courtyard residence, the more wealth the family possessed; for a general household with standard income the 1-step courtyard block was the most common. Since the circulation inside the block is longitudinal and unidirectional, the privacy for each step of the court increases along the axis from the entrance to the center of the urban block and this also determines the specific intended use of the different rooms in the various steps of the courtyard residences. Generally there are two different directions of orientation of the residential units inside the courtyard, the units with transverse orientation and openings along the longitudinal direction are called “main rooms”, while the units that have longitudinal orientation and openings in the transverse direction are called “side rooms”. These two different types determine not only the different uses of space, but also the various levels of the family, which reflect the feudal hierarchical order in traditional Chinese culture. Generally the main rooms have a higher level than the side rooms and those closest to the entrance have a lower level due to less privacy.

The owners, who are always the elderly parents, lived in the last main room which enjoys maximum privacy and respect, while the rest of the main rooms was used mainly as public premises, which could be understood as modern living and dining rooms. The side rooms were generally used as bedrooms for subsequent generations, i.e. the owners’ children and their families. The kitchen, the servants’ room and the store-rooms were usually located in the first step of the residence, which is the most public space. All the rooms and spaces were organized around the central courtyard in each passage, so it is not difficult to understand how the courtyard played a significant role in the daily life of the family; according to the way the courtyard and rooms are organized in each phase, the courtyard could be classified as Sanhe Yuan (the buildings enclose the courtyard on three sides) and Siheyuan (the buildings enclose the courtyard on four sides).

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Xi’an University of Architecture and Technology

Master Thesis

Changes in the shape and layout of buildings There are not many well-preserved historic buildings within the neighborhood; in fact, in addition to the mosques and some residential buildings scattered around the building blocks, including the famous courtyard No. 144 now used as a museum, all the others are the result of changes or replacements that took place in the last 60 years. By analyzing the maps of the existing building, it can be seen that most of the new buildings are all narrow rectangular in shape, which means that these buildings are built within the previous property boundaries, following the configuration of the old traditional buildings a court. So even though most modern buildings are being rebuilt with new contemporary materials and construction methods, we can still see the ancient structure and urban density typical of the imperial period. To be clearer about the specific living conditions of local residents, we need to focus on the smaller scale of the urban blocks and then on the individual buildings. The shape of the new buildings is typically characterized by three to five floors above ground, with orientation on two fronts (north-south or east-west) and made with a mixed technique in concrete and brick. Many buildings follow the orientation of traditional Chinese buildings, compact and long, but with much denser living space and less interior courtyard space than in the past.

Analyzing the buildings it is evident the feeling that the internal space is rather narrow and dark; even if some of them have several small zenith openings, such as skylights, it can be assumed that, in addition to lighting, ventilation and therefore the exchange of air inside domestic environments is also insufficient. To make a clearer comparison we can analyze threedimensional representations and physical models of a typical three-step courtyard from the Guanzhong region and a modern building with the same size and number of internal steps.

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A traditional and a modern three-step courtyard model.

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The transformation of the form of the building and of the use of space mainly follows the change of the structure and of the family scale; therefore, in order to have sufficient space for extended family members, the height of the building must be elevated. Since the commercial and service activities are located at the beginning of the sequences of the courtyards (along the public roads), this section of the courtyard will be the most varied but also the least inhabited and consequently it will also be the easiest and the first to be transformed. Starting from the commercial section of the courtyard facing the street, the changes continue towards the center of the building block, where the family’s living areas are concentrated. Then, by modelling and drawing the sequences of the transformation, we can not only understand how the shape of the building and the courtyard space change, but also learn how the relationship between the floor area and the inner courtyard area changes during the entire process. It is sad that the courtyard, the central space of local life in antiquity, has almost disappeared in such a short time.

Stages of the transformation process of traditional buildings.

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Xi’an University of Architecture and Technology

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In addition to the disappearing courtyard, the conditions of solar radiation and ventilation also worsen; in fact, due to the extreme density, neither sunlight nor ventilation can pass through such a dense volume. Poor living conditions are certainly a major threat to local culture, as residents may leave this area to find a place with better housing conditions. This would entail a serious loss as regards the immaterial culture of the place, which is mainly based on the characteristics and customs of the entire community; therefore, if the families of the community are dispersed, the cultural value of the territory will also decrease. To preserve the cultural value of this historical area, the main objective is therefore to ensure that the population (mainly of the Hui ethnic group) continues to reside in this area and to do this the new buildings will have to have better housing conditions while maintaining a high population density, they will have to follow the original urban texture of the neighborhood and integrate with the existing built space, also trying, as far as possible, to reinterpret the traditional model with internal courtyard, so as to define collective spaces where it is possible to facilitate relations between the various residents.

Many existing buildings within the district have problems with sunlight and ventilation due to the small internal courtyards and high elevations.

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The Muslim historical District of Xi’an

The historical area of ​​ the Muslim District is located under the jurisdiction of the Lianhu District, in the main urban area of the ​​ city of Xi’an, in the center of the old city (Ming-cheng District) and north-west of the Bell Tower. The fourth edition of the Xi’an City Master Plan (2008-2020) also delineates the boundaries of the main protection area of the ​​ Muslim district, also known as: Beiyuanmen historical area. This area corresponds to the main section of the district and includes the set of streets that include Beiyuanmen Street, the main street that leads from the Drum Tower to the interior of the district, and the side streets. It represents the tourist, historical and cultural heart of the district. As can be read from the Master Plan: “Society Road delimits the area to the east, Sajin Bridge to the west, West Street to the south and Lianhu Road to the north, including Bell and Drum Tower Square and Lianhu Park”. The study and project area is located within the historic area of​​ Beiyuanmen, starting from the Drum Tower, it is located at the end of Beiyuanmen Street, also known as the street of snacks, since here there are numerous stalls selling traditional Muslim food, in particular, the urban block in question is bordered to the north by Dapiyuan

6.9 Location of the project area

Chapter 06.

Street, to the south by W. Yangshi Street, to the east

by N. Guangji Street and to the west by Beiyuanmen street. As the Beiyuanmen Historical Area is located in the central area of Mingcheng District, the transport and connection infrastructure in this part of the city is highly developed. There are many bus lines running on both sides of West Street and North Street, and it only takes a ten-minute walk to get to the Zhonglou Station of Metro Line 2. Thanks to the city’s convenient public transport system, it is also possible to quickly reach various external transport hubs, such as the railway station, just outside the historic walls, or the airport outside the city using the metro line.

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Xi’an University of Architecture and Technology

Master Thesis

Identification of the urban project block within the Muslim District. (Image made by the author)

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Summing up While no longer retaining the traditional courtyard buildings typical of the ancient imperial dynasties, the Muslim District represents the most important and best preserved historical area within the city walls of Xi’an. In fact, even if the residences within the blocks have been destroyed, modified or enlarged to the point that today only a few dozen historic buildings have survived, the district still maintains its traditional urban layout, with the typical orthogonal streets that enclose large blocks rectangular closed on themselves. This checkerboard configuration is typical of the urban design of Chinese cities of the past, when society was divided into classes, depending on the trades and ethnicities, which resided in specific points of the city within large neighborhoods made up of rectangular blocks distributed by small streets and closed to the outside by walls. The Muslim District has existed since the founding of modern Xi’an in 1370 AD. during the Ming dynasty and the urban layout has remained relatively unchanged ever since. The buildings, on the other hand, have undergone numerous changes in recent decades due to changes due to the family structure and the building speculation of landowners in the area; in fact, unlike the other parts of the city where the land is state-owned, the Muslim District maintains a certain administrative autonomy by virtue of a high percentage of the population belonging to the Hui ethnic minority. Due to this autonomy, the land is owned by individual householders and the normal building regulations do not apply in the area; for this reason the landowners are free to demolish and modify the old courtyard houses to build the current informal buildings. These changes have led to a sharp increase in the population density in the area and consequently to some housing problems, such as the excessive proximity between buildings and the presence of numerous housing with insufficient lighting and ventilation, problems of urban decay, such as the presence of numerous abandoned houses, the insufficient cleaning of the streets and areas inside the blocks, the presence of exposed electrical cables running near the facades of the houses, etc. To try to redevelop the area and at the same time preserve the historical features still present in the neighborhood, it is necessary to develop an intervention plan designed in collaboration with local residents, who should be involved in the decision-making aspects and encouraged to express opinions and needs. Since the district preserves a cultural heritage not only material but also intangible, linked to religious and cultural traditions, it is essential to preserve the resident population without relocating.

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07.

General Conclusions

211

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Xi’an University of Architecture and Technology

Master Thesis

The theme of the conservation and renewal of historic urban areas in China is becoming increasingly urgent due to the ever fewer architectural testimonies present in the country ’s large cities and megalopolises, which are often arbitrarily demolished according to the typical strategy of the “clean slate”, even because they are not recognized by local government authorities as relevant elements of the historical and cultural heritage, to make way for redevelopment interventions that propose false historical copies of a now distant and lost past or more contemporary speculative interventions, where small traditional houses give way to tall skyscrapers that also obliterate the immaterial culture and human scale of these areas.

From this perspective, it becomes of fundamental importance to sensitize local governments and people on the theme of conservation of the historical urban environment generally understood, where protection must not stop at individual relics or buildings of great importance or with evident artistic and architectural qualities, but must include, according to what is generally defined in the West as an “environmental” (or “integrated”) approach and taken up by the UN in the formulation of the HUL approach, also the entire urban context (streets, squares, existing minor buildings, alleys, courtyards, vegetation, etc.). The urban environment must be subjected to scrupulous analyses before undertaking any intervention, in order to understand the relationships between the different elements of the landscape, the local traditions and habits, the state of conservation of the existing buildings and infrastructures and the needs of the residents. Too often in China attention has been paid exclusively to individual monuments, neglecting the importance of the urban fabric, traditional “common” homes and traditions strictly connected to urban environments in favour of a faster and less expensive urbanization process of the cities; therefore, it is essential to make a change of direction in the approach to the conservation of historic areas and apply constraints and rules to better protect these areas from the growing interests of real estate developers who are almost always interested only in economic gain. The ancient city of Xi’an, founded during the Ming dynasty (1368 - 1644) and an important

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capital of the empire under numerous dynasties, today retains very little historical evidence of its glorious past. Inside the ancient city

Chapter 07.

General conclusions

walls, once entirely occupied by large quarters of traditional courtyard residences on one or two floors, today only high skyscrapers, multi-storey residential buildings and wide driveways that connect the interior of the “historic city ”with an even more modern and urbanized exterior. Although the walls and some internal monuments such as the Bell and Drum Tower have been effectively preserved and protected, today they appear as isolated historical elements deprived of their original context and consequently their value (historical, architectural and cultural) is seriously damaged and it will never be restored. Within the walls there are today only two main historical urban areas, respectively represented by the Muslim District and by the area known as “Steles’ Forest ”, which, at the beginning of 2020, was affected by numerous total demolition of the buildings and of the existing alleys to “embellish” and make the area more decent. The Muslim District, so called because of a high percentage (about 60%) of residents belonging to the Hui ethnic minority of Muslim religion, is an area with autonomous administration (due to its cultural and religious characteristics) historically located in the inside the walls since the foundation of the city, north-west of the transverse axis that divides the area in an east-west direction passing through the Bell Tower. Although the traditional narrow courtyard buildings (typical of the Guanzhong region) have been replaced, in recent decades, by modern informal buildings with 3-5 floors above ground, the district still retains the checkerboard urban configuration of the ancient imperial dynasties, characterized by the presence of large rectangular urban blocks delimited by narrow streets that cross perpendicularly to form an orderly and regular scan. Furthermore, even if the historical architectural style of the residences has changed due to the demolitions and the elevations carried out for speculative purposes, often the layout of the courtyards and traditional buildings, consisting of narrow and long plots of land that develop from the street front towards the center of the block, is still conceptually identifiable and recognizable from the floor plans and aerial views of the place. In addition to physical and material qualities, the district also retains numerous intangible characteristics linked to culture, religion, traditions and crafts handed down from generation to generation by local residents.

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Master Thesis

Answers to initial questions 1. What were the characteristics and design rules of ancient urban settlements in China?

The planning and the choice of the place of the cities, villages and temples was governed by the rules of Feng shui. It was based on a regular and precise geometry and on numbers considered magical.

This rationality and geometry is still found within the historical area of Xi’an and in particular within the Muslim District, with its perpendicular streets and large rectangular urban blocks.

2. What is the current state of preservation and redevelopment of historic urban areas in China and Europe? Are there any emblematic case studies that can be used as a model?

The conservation status of the historic areas is very different between Europe and China. Due to the very rapid process of urbanization and development in China, much fewer historical areas have been preserved than in Europe, where the urbanization process has been in the longest time, has allowed a stratification of the different historical periods and a better conservation of both places and buildings. Furthermore, the landscape approach (now developed in the so-called HUL approach) should be better applied in China; in fact, preserving individual historical monuments without their context is a loss of value and culture. A recent evidence of this incorrect attitude is the demolition of buildings in the historic Steles Forest area of Xi’an in 2020. In the thesis some case studies were presented both in Europe and in China, which identify good and bad attitudes to follow in the process of renovating historic urban areas.

3. What urban and historical processes have led to the present state of the historic city of Xi’an enclosed by the walls?

In the thesis the historical development of the city was examined, in particular from the Tang dynasty to the Qing dynasty and then

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from the birth of the People’s Republic of China, through the various masterplans, up to today.

Chapter 07.

General conclusions

The demolitions within the historic city began in the 1950s with the first master plan and the traditional courtyard buildings were gradually replaced. Very few monuments have been properly protected and preserved and today appear as isolated landmarks in a modern context.

The Muslim District is perhaps the most historic area of the city because, even if the buildings have changed, it still preserves the urban layout of the imperial era and its human scale.

4. What are the characteristics, criticalities and possible opportunities currently present within the Muslim Historic District of Xi’an?

The Muslim District is characterized by a high percentage of people of Hui ethnicity who practice Islam and who have a number of commercial activities and restaurants that develop along the streets, making the area extremely characteristic and lively. There are also numerous historic mosques, museums and some examples of traditional courtyard buildings still preserved in the area. The area is very touristy and busy but the living conditions of the residents are not the best due to the numerous informal buildings attached to each other and the lack of public meeting spaces. The district therefore needs redevelopment and improvement interventions, firstly for residents and secondly for tourism as well.

5. What intervention strategy should be used to renew and at the same time preserve the tangible and intangible characteristics within the Muslim District of Xi’an?

A district renewal project should certainly take into account the characteristics of the place, in order to preserve the tangible and intangible cultural heritage of the place. To this end, the traditional urban structure should be preserved, redeveloping existing streets and buildings, creating new urban connections and public spaces for the community and controlling the demolitions to be carried out and avoiding the relocation of residents outside the district. Large urban blocks should be open to the community to avoid the spread of new informal abusive buildings, to redevelop existing internal buildings and design new services, such as: commercial activities, workshops and public spaces (closed and open) for tourists and residents.

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08.

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