Luther Rice Journal of Christian Studies, Summer 2021

Summer 2021

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Editorial Board General Editor

Ann M. Kerlin, Ph.D.

Associate Editors

Thomas Mapes, Ph.D. William Wilson, Ph.D. Casey Hough, Ph.D.

Book Review Editor

Joshua E. Stewart, Ph.D.

a.purpose of the Luther Rice Journal of Christian Studies is to edify Christian leaders through scholarly articles and practical essays relevant to Christian life and ministry.

Contents A Positive Case for the Primacy of an Evidential Apologetic Method .......................................... 1

by Douglas Taylor C. I. Scofield: Villain or Vilified? His Multifaceted Influence on American Culture.................. 16

by Tim Skinner What Makes a Church Inviting? ................................................................................................... 44

by Jeff Parker and Ann Kerlin Attachment Theory:Overview and Integration with Biblical Counseling .................................... 58

by Nicholas Shipley The Convincing Work of the Preacher ......................................................................................... 76

by Mark McElreath The Impact of COVID-19 and an EF-4 Tornado in Coweta County, Georgia ............................. 88

by Ann Kerlin Is Cadaveric Organ Donation an Implied Christian Duty? ......................................................... 101

by Marian Stewart Book Reviews: Joshua Stewart, Editor ....................................................................................... 120 Lucy Peppiatt. Rediscovering Scripture’s Vision for Women: Fresh Perspectives on Disputed Texts. Downers Grove: InterVarsity Press, 2019. Pp. 184. $22 (PB). ........................................ 121

by Laura Powell Robert W. Kellemen, PhD. Gospel-Centered Family Counseling. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Books of Baker Publishing Group, 2020. Pp 272. ISBN: 9780801094354. $29.99 (PB). ........ 125

by J. Brent Scot McKnight and Nijay K. Gupta. The State of New Testament Studies: A Survey of Recent Research. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2019. Pgs. 496. ISBN: 978-1-5409-6240-9. $44 (PB). ..................................................................................................................................................... 129

by Casey Hough Ben Witherington III and Jason A. Myers. Voices and Views on Paul: Exploring Scholarly Trends. Downers Grove, IL: IVP Academic, 2020. 234 pp. 978-0-8308-5231-4. $30 (Paperback) ..................................................................................................................................................... 132

by Casey Hough Submission Guidelines, Luther Rice Journal of Christian Studies ............................................. 135 Submission Guidelines for Book Reviews ................................................................................. 139

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Luther Rice Journal of Christian Studies

A Positive Case for the Primacy of an Evidential Apologetic Method1

By Douglas Taylor2 Introduction Since the days of the Apostles, there has been a call to provide a reason for the hope held

by Christians. The call has yielded multiple methods by which one might provide such a reason for hope, with the four primary methods including classical, presuppositional, cumulative case, and evidential apologetics. The point shall be conceded early that each of the four methods have value and each is capable of being employed more effectively in some situations, with the key factor being the needs of the hearer. However, such concession does not negate the thesis of this work. It is proffered that an evidential method has primacy over all other apologetic methods on the grounds that evidences are necessary for any apologetic method to function. This is not to say that an evidential method is the only apologetic method, or that an evidential method when used alone is always sufficient to make the case for Christianity, but it is an affirmation that evidences are necessary in establishing matters of truth.

Evidences are necessary for establishing matters of truth. What is important at this point is the recognition that while one may deny truth based on intellectual objections, it is equally plausible that one may reject a stated truth based on emotional reasons. In such cases it must be

1 2

This paper was presented at ETS in 2016.

Douglas Taylor is an assistant professor of theology and apologetics and is the coordinator of the Master of Arts in Apologetics program at Luther Rice College and Seminary.

His research interests include apologetics, church history, and the intersection of the two in the early church. He is the author of Why? A Believer's Introduction to Defending the Faith (2015) as well as Jesus Before Constantine: The Church, Her Beliefs, and Her Apologetics (2020).

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remembered that the individual does not need more proofs. Rather, he or she is likely in need of pastoral care. This acknowledgement does not minimize the importance of evidence; it simply recognizes the approach that will be most effective in a given circumstance.

Three of the four primary methods listed above readily admit evidences as part of the approach by their constituents. Depending on who specifically is asked, those holding to a presuppositional view may or may not allow for the introduction of evidence. Because the focus on evidence is the key driver in this paper, it shall be beneficial to define exactly what is meant when using the term. Evidence shall be defined in this work as a condition or event, objective in nature, knowable by those present, open to investigation by all others, that when rightly interpreted corresponds to reality. Using this definition, evidence may be either a noun or a verb, is not limited to a single person, is not subjective, and requires interpretation for correct understanding.

Establishing the Argument Evidence is Unavoidable One cannot avoid the reality that there are evidences for events that happened in the past and for conditions that exist in the present. This arguably is the very basis upon which forensic science was established. There are, therefore, rules associated with what might be understood as evidence. Plantinga may be interpreted as saying a minimal facts approach is to be preferred when attempting to understand evidence. McGrath cites Plantinga as follows, Criteria for proper basicality must be reached from below rather than above; they should not be presented as ex cathedra, but argued and tested by a relevant set of examples. But there is no reason to assume, in advance, that everyone will agree on the examples. The Christian will of course support that belief in God is entirely proper and rational.

Followers of Bertrand Russell and Madelyn Murray O’Haire may disagree, but how is that relevant? Must my criteria, or those of the Christian community, conform to their

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examples? Surely not. The Christian community is responsible to its set of examples, not to theirs.3 The issue as presented by Plantinga is not the individual points of data so much as the interpretive scheme used in understanding those points. Different examples will be used, which is to be expected given various worldviews, but that does not change the fact that data exists which must be both identified and interpreted. A significant benefit to the use of an evidential method is that it has the ability to be a positive apologetic that focuses on individual points, building from the data to the conclusion. One challenge that the presuppositional view must overcome is that one works from the desired conclusion backward to see what points of data may fit. This is not necessarily inappropriate, but it does need to be watched carefully to ensure that inappropriate biases do not admit data that in actuality do not fit. A second pitfall generally avoided by the use of evidential over other methods is that it can avoid polemical arguments and instead focuses on establishing a positive apologetic for the data and subsequent conclusion.

Of the four primary apologetic methods listed in the introduction, three would admit evidences, while the presuppositional view, depending on the individual asked, would not allow the introduction of evidence. There is simply no way to address all of the possible challenges to the evidential method in the space allotted, so the following is admittedly selective in nature. The desire is to begin to demonstrate the thesis, namely that an apologetic method cannot function without first introducing evidence. Because the presuppositional position has historically been the most condemning of introducing evidence, most of the focus shall be on this view.

3

Alister E. McGrath, A Scientific Theology (London: T & T Clark, 2006), 100.

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Gordon Clark and Presuppositionalism Suppose Jesus did rise from the grave. This only proves that his body resumed its activities for a while after his crucifixion; it does not prove that he died for our sins or that he was the Son of God. While this line of anti-Christian argument contains certain misstatements, none the less the inference in the last sentence is valid. The resurrection, viewed purely as an isolated historical event, does not prove that Christ died for our sins, not only because Lazarus also rose from the dead, but also because sin is a notion which requires a particular view about God and the universe, and on such questions archaeology and history are incompetent.4 Clark presents two related points that need to be addressed. First, the lesser challenge is found in the middle of his claim. Clark would point to the resurrection as an isolated event in history, but it is not possible to isolate any event in history such that it stands alone. To isolate a single event in history such that it stands alone is akin to taking a single word of Clark and examining it without the benefit of the others. In taking this approach one loses context, which leads to the loss of meaning. The second challenge is to be found in his claim that the resurrection does not prove the “why” behind Jesus’ death and resurrection. Restated, one cannot allegedly get from the event to the hand of God to demonstrate that the event was truly of God. Habermas disagrees, pointing to six contextual indicators that validate the orthodox Christian claim.5 When considering Jesus, one must examine the immediate context of an event, the resurrection, in conjunction with a broader context, namely his period of ministry, and finally

4

Gordon Haddon Clark, The Works of Gordon Haddon Clark, vol. 10, A Christian Philosophy of Education, 3rd ed. (Unicoi, TN: Trinity Foundation, 2000), 35.

Gary Habermas, “Miracles” (lecture, Liberty University, Lynchburg, VA), February 9, 2015. The six are: 1) Jesus is a miracle worker; 2) He predicted his resurrection; 3) He claimed deity; 4) He claimed to be the path to salvation; 5) He said he would give a sign of his resurrection; 6) All of this just happened to occur to the only man in the universe who seriously made the claim of who he was and that what you do with him determines what happens to you in eternity.

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within the context of what would have been understood to be Scripture in his day. Context provides the linkage between the isolated events, to use Clark’s term, and the right interpretation of those events.

Beyond Clark, the broader presuppositional position can be shown to need evidence in order to make its claim. In his introduction to presuppositional apologetics, John Frame initiates his position with an appeal to Scripture, claiming a strong view of Scripture, the biblical canon as God’s Word, infallibility, and inerrancy in the autographs.6 It is argued here that by making appeal to anyone or anything external to the individual, one has been affected by at least one stimulus. When Frame (or others) points to Scripture as authoritative, his presuppositions are arguably developed and defined based on evidence. There is every reason to believe that everyone operates with presuppositions, and that those presuppositions are defined and developed based on the particular worldview brought to the discussion. Frame accepts Scripture as the Word of God, and therefore he accepts a condition or event to have happened (the penning of Scripture). It is objectively true that the Bible exists today, Scripture is knowable to Christians today, it is open to investigation by non-Christians, and when rightly interpreted the resultant will correspond with reality. To be fair, Frame does not dismiss evidence as do others with his presuppositional view, but his philosophical position sees evidences as being lesser in importance than the grace of God in changing the hearts of rebellious mankind.

John M. Frame, “Presuppositional Apologetics,” in Five Views on Apologetics, ed.

Stanley N. Gundry and Steven B. Cowan (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2000), 208-9.

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The Challenges of Epistemology and Rationalism Frame, responding to Habermas, notes the difficulty of using the evidential method when reasoning with unbelievers. Citing Romans 1, Frame states that unbelievers suppress the truth and exchange the truth for a lie.7 What cannot be missed is that Frame’s very argument supports both the thesis of this paper and the proffered definition for evidence. More specifically, if evidence, rightly interpreted, corresponds to reality, then to know and be able to suppress truth indicates that one has epistemic access to evidence. Geisler appears to have picked up on the same point. “This is the apologetics system of the late Gordon Clark and his noted disciple Carl F. H. Henry. Like other presuppositionalists, the rational presuppositionalist begins with the Trinity revealed in the written Word of God.”8 Thus, one giving primacy to a presuppositional model must concede that the model first necessitates the existence of evidence, in this case the existence of God and then revelation from God, that affirms the stated presupposition. “The theology of revelation includes epistemic access to objective reality wherein the Logos in selfdisclosure and self-interpretation manifests a Truth to be acknowledged and a Word to be heard.

The way by which man is to know God includes the divine gift of mental judgment.”9 A second challenge to the evidential method may rest in the concept of rationalism, where the intent is to express that reason is the epitome of authority when discussing religious

John M. Frame, “A Presuppositionalist’s Response,” in Five Views on Apologetics, ed.

Stanley N. Gundry and Steven B. Cowan (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2000), 135.

7

8

Norman L. Geisler, Baker Encyclopedia of Christian Apologetics, Baker Reference Library (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Books, 1999), 607.

9

Carl F. H. Henry, God, Revelation, and Authority (Wheaton, IL: Crossway Books, 1999), 3:171.

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matters. “More broadly, rationalism is any philosophical position affirming the ability of thinking, apart from sensory experience, to discover fundamental truths about the world or reality.”10 Clearly one is not capable of thinking in a vacuum. Even if one were truly able to reach a position whereby one could think without any external sensory experience (this is argued to be an impossible state to achieve), thinking that is done in the present is influenced by both experiences and knowledge gained in the past. One can think rationally, but one cannot think where that thinking is not in some way influenced by external stimuli.

The problem of objectivity, a la C. Stephen Evans, poses another challenge to the evidential method.11 The difficulty here is that this challenge cuts in more than one direction.

First, it is not possible to come to the table as an unbiased or disinterested party. Jesus stated, in essence, that what one chooses to do with him determines what happens to that person in the next life, and thus there are implications for all. Second, biases are driven to a large degree by an individual’s worldview, meaning that a person’s conclusions will likely be influenced by how he or she sees the world. The bias challenge, however, fails to carry convincing weight as a challenge. Kuyper reportedly went so far as to state that evidence could not demonstrate the existence of God. Berkhof notes, “Dr. Kuyper speaks as follows of the attempt to do this: ‘The attempt to prove God’s existence is either useless or unsuccessful. It is useless if the searcher believes that God is a rewarder of those who seek Him. And it is unsuccessful if it is an attempt

Jörg Dierken and Robert F. Brown, “Rationalism,” ed. Erwin Fahlbusch et al., The Encyclopedia of Christianity (Grand Rapids, MI: Wm. B. Eerdmans, 2005), 484.

10

11

Kenneth D. Boa and Robert M. Bowman, Jr., Faith Has Its Reasons: Integrative Approaches to Defending the Christian Faith (Colorado Springs: Paternoster, 2005), 463.

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to force a person who does not have this pistis by means of argumentation to an acknowledgment in a logical sense.’”12 If Berkhof’s translation is accurate, then it would appear Kuyper would have challenged the second part of the definition of evidence given previously in this article, that “evidence shall be defined in this work as a condition or event, objective in nature.” The difficulty with Kuyper’s position is that he has based his position less on Scripture and more on his interpretation of Scripture. In making this move, it is suggested that what Kuyper has done is nothing short of confusing the issues within the proffered definition. The mere fact that the universe exists is objective information that any rational person may recognize. The real difficulty is not the ability to know objectively that God exists; rather, it is a challenge to how one interprets the objective data.

It has already been suggested that it is not possible to have a condition whereby one may think about anything without having any external influence. These stimuli influence past, present, and future decisions and ways of thinking. Because this is true, it is simply not possible for one to come to the table of discussion for anything without being guilty of bias. Kuyper’s position above was influenced heavily by Calvinistic teachings. A second, and stronger point is to be found in the way the term “evidence” has been defined in this paper. Because the definition states explicitly that evidence is objective in nature, the term bifurcates, albeit artificially, the

12

L. Berkhof, Systematic Theology (Grand Rapids, MI: Wm. B. Eerdmans, 1938), 21. It is important to note here that Berkhof points back to his own translation of Dictaten Dogmatiek, de Deo I, page 77 and his own translation of that text. Berkhof’s translation is accepted here since the original source was not able to be readily located, and the original appears to have been written in Dutch. Since this writer lacks training and knowledge necessary to interpret Dutch, further individual pursuit of the original text would not have added value at this point in the research.

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“this side” from the “other side” of life. When speaking of evidence, this method is speaking to those objective points of data that are open to investigation and can be known widely. Such a move is not done to avoid difficulties and questions that remain regarding what will happen in the future. Instead, it is a deliberate move to look at what pieces of information may be known and are open to investigation by any interested party now. The Holy Spirit may indeed speak to a person internally and bear witness, but this is not open to investigation by others and consequently is not considered as evidence with respect to an evidential method. Moving beyond this, a real key to properly understanding an evidential method is in the right interpretation of the data. When interpreted correctly, the conclusions drawn will correspond to reality.

Of importance here is not to claim future events as being evidential. John Hick proposed that eschatology could be used as part of an evidential argument. “The appeal to evidence as a means of verifying the truth of Christianity has been made to the past (history) as well as to present experience either internally (as in mysticism) or externally (in nature). But some have also appealed to the future as a source of evidence for the possible truth of Christianity. Such was the suggestion of John Hick in his eschatological verification.”13 In denying the use of what may be in the future and appealing only to that which exists now or in the past, an evidential method avoids challenges that the structure is logically fallacious. When speaking of an evidential method, Plantinga has criticized evidentialism in philosophy of religion by arguing that religious beliefs in some cases may be “properly basic.” This view is supported by an epistemology that sees knowledge as consisting of true beliefs that are the result of

13

92.

Norman L. Geisler, Christian Apologetics (Grand Rapids: Baker Book House, 1976),

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properly functioning faculties, operating according to their “design plan” in a way that is directed at truth, in the kind of environment in which they were intended to function.14 Based on the above, it is argued that the above challenges as brought by Kuyper and Evans specifically, and rationalism and Presuppositionalism in general, fail in their challenge with respect to an evidential method because they do not take into consideration properly functioning faculties or that these faculties simply do not operate in a vacuum. More specifically, man cannot think without the influence of external stimuli, and there would be no challenge to “properly functioning faculties” in a human for any other area of life––until one reaches the discussion of theology. Such a move appears to be a straw man at best.

Scripture While various apologetic methods are used, one must be able to tie the work back to Scripture. More specifically, if an evidential method has primacy, such a claim should be able to be demonstrated from the pages of Scripture.

With respect to the New Testament, a considerable example is provided in Matthew 11.

Clearly John the Baptist and his disciples believed in God, and they were anticipating the arrival of the Messiah based on this passage. When John’s disciples asked Jesus if he was the one, the response by Jesus was to point to the works that he had been doing as part of his ministry. Jesus pointed to the condition of people who were lame, sick, deaf, blind, and dead prior to an encounter with himself, and how those respective conditions were changed because of work he had done. Jesus pointed to the evidence that came from his ministry as the means for identifying

14

C. Stephen Evans, Pocket Dictionary of Apologetics & Philosophy of Religion (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 2002), 93.

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who he was. The key was the right interpretation of the data. This is not wholly inconsistent with what one sees in the Old Testament with respect to the use of evidence.

In Genesis 1 and 2 the story of creation is presented. Here there is commonality between the Christian and the atheist, as both agree that the universe had a beginning. As argued earlier, those whose faculties are functioning correctly perceive the universe; therefore, it is evidence that something exists rather than nothing. The evidence is not in question––the interpretation is.

In 1 Kings 18 the account of Elijah on Mt Carmel is told, and how he challenged the prophets of Baal. Of particular interest is verse 24, in which Elijah claims that the question of which deity was truly stronger, or real, would be answered by a visible demonstration where fire would be the evidence for the existence of the true God. Admittedly this event is difficult to investigate short of the text, but it is still an ancient appeal to evidence. A broader category of information that is perhaps easier to confirm, or at least demonstrate to be ancient practice, is to be found in the judicial practices of the Jewish people.

Leviticus 5:1 states that a person with knowledge who fails to speak regarding something she knows to be true is guilty. Lindsey suggests that the guilt was based on having a knowledge that was necessary in reaching a right interpretation of the data, and by not speaking out and sharing the information known, one could be guilty by way of negligence.15 In Deuteronomy 17 standards for carrying out capital punishment were outlined, requiring testimony of at least two

F. Duane Lindsey, “Leviticus,” in The Bible Knowledge Commentary: An Exposition of the Scriptures, vol. 1, ed. J. F. Walvoord and R. B. Zuck (Wheaton, IL: Victor Books, 1985), 182.

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or three witnesses who provided information during the investigation.16 Here one not only finds evidence as being necessary and proper, but also the appeal to multiple attestation in determining whether or not the testimony received was in correspondence with reality. Many more examples could be provided from the Torah and wisdom literature, but what can be seen here is that an appeal to evidence was not rejected by the early Jewish community. It may be argued that the Jewish community did presuppose the existence of God, and that they presupposed the writings now known as the Old Testament were communication from Him to humanity, but that did not prevent them from pursuing evidence in support of how they lived out what they believed.

Concluding Thoughts This paper has sought to argue for the primacy of an evidential method of apologetics.

Evidence was defined as a condition or event, objective in nature, knowable by those present, open to investigation, that when rightly interpreted corresponds to reality. What has been demonstrated is the overall strength of evidence in building a Christian apologetic.

First, an evidential argument may easily be framed as a minimal facts argument in that it builds from the bottom up, or it works from individual points of data up to the conclusion. Rather than attempting to prove the reliability of a view from an overarching perspective, the work is an attempt to follow the clues to the most plausible conclusion that also corresponds with reality.

Because history, unlike science, cannot be repeated, tools have been developed over time with

Jack S. Deere, “Deuteronomy,” in The Bible Knowledge Commentary: An Exposition of the Scriptures, vol. 1, ed. J. F. Walvoord and R. B. Zuck (Wheaton, IL: Victor Books, 1985), 294.

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which to investigate historical events and draw inferences and conclusions from those pieces of data. Such is the work and value of forensic science.

Next, an evidential apologetic method is to a very large degree a positive apologetic. It avoids the polemical positioning found in other methods that may claim no common ground exists between the unsaved and the saved. Beyond this, by arguing from the data to the conclusion, the arguments are inductive in nature and require the investigation to deal with specifics rather than generalizations. With the identification of these data points, the investigation examines these points in the context in which they were observed. Because the data is in context, there is an objective mechanism that allows for the tracing of the data to see if its origin was truly the hand of God. It was stated that both a Classical and a Cumulative Case method would allow for the introduction of evidence in making their respective cases, and that at least some who opt for a presuppositional starting point argue against introducing evidences. However, the very starting point for a presuppositional method is evidence that God exists and that the Bible is a communication from God to man. Any objection to objective knowable data is misplaced. There is no challenge in any other sphere of investigation besides theology where people do not believe in the existence of objective knowable data. The difficulty comes with the interpretation of the data, not the data itself. Such a view may be demonstrated as at least being highly plausible based on the fact that no individual can think in a vacuum, thus all thinking is influenced by external stimuli, either from the past or the present.

One might challenge the use of an evidential method as bearing a lack of objectivity.

Such a challenge falls far short of being convincing and is but a straw man since the challenge may be used against any position held. If evidence is objective and knowable, then the challenge

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is against the interpretation of the data and not the data itself. Therefore, the challenge is against a particular worldview and how it communicates across the boundaries with other worldviews.

How to communicate effectively across certain boundaries may be a valid concern, but is not capable of challenging the data itself. Even if one disagrees with the interpretation, the data still remains and needs interpreting.

It has been argued that the appeal to the future by scholars such as John Hick is inappropriate when using an evidential method. If the proffered definition is taken, then evidence has occurred in the past, for when the one investigating recognizes something as data, no matter how closely that recognition is to the actual occurrence, it is then history. One cannot appeal to future events as evidential if the definition for evidence is tied necessarily to the past.

Additionally, it is not clear how one could establish any objective criterion by which to judge future events that have yet to happen without employing a hard determinism.

To reiterate a point from the beginning of this work, it is not believed that one can appeal to “the” apologetic method. There is not a single evidential, classical, presuppositional, or cumulative case argument – there are multiple variations of each. This paper has not sought to argue for an evidential method to the exclusion of other methods, but that the evidential method is by necessity included in all other apologetic methods, and no apologetic method functions without the inclusion of evidence. Some in the line of Habermas have argued inductively from the data, while others have argued deductively to the evidence. No position has been found whereby an apologetic method has been used devoid of any evidence that is thought to support the claims being made. Because there is no way to eliminate all external stimuli such that none of the five senses are usable, and because there is no way to undo the impact external stimuli have had on an individual historically, there is no way conceivable whereby one could think without

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being affected by other, objectively knowable data. The evidence simply cannot be rationally denied or avoided.

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C. I. Scofield: Villain or Vilified?

His Multifaceted Influence on American Culture1 Introduction On the Acknowledgements page of the book Progressive Covenantalism, the authors write “‘Always reforming’ is necessary as we seek to bring all of our thoughts captive to God’s Word, but we also realize that when treasured theological systems are questioned, resistance is often experienced.”2 If one fast-tracks back in time to 1909, an ex-Confederate soldier, alcoholic, lawyerturned-minister-theologian by the name of Cyrus Scofield shook the theological world even to this very day by questioning the status quo of the Christian Church which had been held since the second century, even though it was not his intention to do so. The dominant consensus of the church was known as “supersessionism,” a belief that the Christian Church has “superseded” or replaced the Jews in God’s program. Supersessionism is in the DNA of church theology.

Cyrus Ingerson Scofield (1843-1921) is most recognized for the dissemination of dispensationalism in The Scofield Reference Bible.3 Anyone who undertakes to compile the life

1

Tim Skinner is Assistant Professor of Bible, Theology, and Apologetics at Luther Rice College & Seminary. Professor Skinner has been associated with Luther Rice College and Seminary since 1997. His area of interest is eschatology, Israel, and Jewish studies. Professor Skinner grew up in Atlanta, Georgia and has been teaching the Bible since 1991 in Atlanta-area colleges. He is currently enrolled at Liberty University and is a member of First Baptist Church Jonesboro.

2

Stephen J. Wellum, Brent E. Parker, Progressive Covenantalism (Nashville: B & H Academic, 2016), ix.

3

Originally published as The Scofield Reference Bible (New York: Oxford University Press, 1909, 1917), the title was changed to The Scofield Study Bible. “Except for this change of

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story of C. I. Scofield finds a lack of primary source material. The foremost biography of him was written by a close personal friend and does have the advantage of being written during Scofield’s lifetime, and checked by Scofield himself before its publication.4 On the other hand, Joseph Canfield’s The Incredible Scofield and His Book (independently published) was designed to destroy the reputation of Scofield and his Bible.5 That the story of Scofield’s life has only ever been told by those aiming to canonize him or demonize him “has further muddied the waters of our understanding, making the southern minister appear as a rather shadowy figure.”6 Many attacks on Scofield have focused on his personal life and foibles in an attempt to discredit his teachings on dispensationalism, prophecy, the Jews, Zionism etc. These ad hominem attacks are attacks on the person rather than addressing the substance of the teaching.

C. I. Scofield and The Scofield Reference Bible What C. I. Scofield published in 1909 as a Bible study tool to help the average layperson became an American cultural phenomenon. The Scofield Reference Bible’s influence on American culture cannot be denied, as it is listed in the top 100 most influential books in

title, the book remains as it was when Dr. C. I. Scofield finished his task. Not one word has been altered, added, or deleted” (The Scofield Study Bible, p. ii). All quotations in this article will be taken from The Scofield Study Bible.

William BeVier, “C.I. Scofield: Dedicated and Determined,” Fundamentalist Journal (October, 1983), 37-38. See Charles Trumbull, The Life Story of C. I. Scofield (New York: Oxford University Press, 1920).

4

5

Joseph M. Canfield, The Incredible Scofield and His Book (Asheville, N.C: 1984). This is the most quoted source for those attacking Scofield..

6

R. Todd Mangum, Mark S. Sweetnam, The Scofield Bible: Its History and Impact on the Evangelical Church (Colorado Springs, CO: Paternoster Publishing, 2009), 2-3.

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American history.7 Nothing quite like it had ever been offered to the Christian public as a study Bible with a commentary of the Bible interwoven with the text of Scripture itself. Scofield annotated many portions of Scripture, which made it the first Bible to include a commentary within the same book since The Geneva Bible in 1560.8 One critic of the Scofield Bible wrote: “It may fairly be called one of the most influential books – perhaps it is the most influential single work thrust into the religious life of America during the twentieth Century.”9 Notable British Bible teacher and evangelist Herbert Lockyer (author of over 100 books and pamphlets including the “All” series), once referred to The Scofield Reference Bible as the single greatest tool the Christian can possess.10 One critic of Scofield, dispensationalism, and the rapture notes that The Scofield Reference Bible is perhaps the most important single document in all of fundamentalist literature: “With sales in the millions, it became the version of the Bible through which Americans read their scriptures throughout much of the twentieth century. Scofield’s notes and headings were woven in with the biblical text itself, elevating dispensationalism to a level of biblical authority that no previous writing had.”11 The Scofield Reference Bible became the largest single force in spreading dispensational teaching.12 Ernest Sandeen adds: “His

7

William J. Petersen. Randy Petersen, 100 Christian Books that Changed the Century (Grand Rapids: Fleming H. Revell, 2000), 27-28.

8

Mangum and Sweetnam, The Scofield Bible, 54-58.

9

Albertus Pieters, The Scofield Bible (Swengal, PA: Reiner Publications, 1965), 4.

10

Herbert Lockyer, The Fascinating Study of Prophecy (Grand Rapids: Zondervan Publishing House, 1957), 15.

11

Barbara R. Rossing, The Rapture Exposed (New York: Basic Books, 2004), 23.

M. James Sawyer, “Dispensationalism,” in The Blackwell Encyclopedia of Modern Christian Thought, ed. Alister E. McGrath (Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishers, 1993), 108.

12

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Reference Bible is perhaps the most influential single publication in millenarian and fundamentalist historiography.”13 Within fifty years of its publication (1909), three million copies of The Scofield Reference Bible were printed in the United States.14 The Scofield Bible has never ceased to be in publication.

Mal Couch so aptly notes: “At the beginning of the twentieth century, dispensationalism was one of the most important forces in fundamentalism and evangelicalism.”15 John Hannah, Christian history professor at Dallas Theological Seminary commented: “The Reference Bible is widely recognized as the most important literary production of the Bible conference/institute movement. Scofield, by editing the text of the Bible with carefully placed notes, articulated the dispensational understanding of Scripture for the lay audience as never before accomplished.”16 Pastors and laypersons alike were studying The Scofield Reference Bible despite the resistance of their church associations and denominational leaders.17 One current source boldly affirms: “Dispensationalists belong to many denominations, and they often identify with the

13

Ernest R. Sandeen, The Roots of Fundamentalism: British & American Millenarianism 1800-1930 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1970), 222.

Robert G. Clouse, ed., The Meaning of the Millennium: Four Views (Downer’s Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 1977), 12.

14

Mal Couch, “Foreword,” in Dictionary of Premillennial Theology, ed. Mal Couch (Grand Rapids: Kregel Publications, 1996), 9.

15

John Hannah, “Cyrus Ingerson Scofield,” in Dictionary of Premillennial Theology, ed.

Mal Couch (Grand Rapids: Kregel Publications, 1996), 392.

16

Couch, “Foreword,” 9. Cf. Albertus Pieters, The Scofield Bible (Swengel, PA: Reiner Publications, 1965), 8, 9, 22.

17

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Scofield Reference Bible and generally interpret the Scriptures according to its notes and outlines.”18 Dispensationalism provided the impetus for the explosion of missionary activity in the twentieth century. It has been suggested that the striking success of the parachurch movements in the United States is due in measure to the de-institutionalization of grace which has characterized dispensationalism.19 The following schools and mission agencies have been traced to the driving force of dispensationalism: Moody Bible Institute; Biola University/Talbot School of Theology (originally The Bible Institute of Los Angeles); Dallas Theological Seminary; Grace Theological Seminary; Campus Crusade for Christ; Jews for Jesus; Friends of Israel; SIM (Sudan Interior Mission); Central American Mission (CAM) (founded by C. I. Scofield himself);20 Africa Inland Mission (AIM International); Africa Evangelical Fellowship; Baptist Mid-Missions; etc.21 It was the publication and popularity of The Scofield Reference Bible that brought recognition to the rise of a new parachurch movement and spawned the development of a distinctive systematic theology (even though that was not Scofield’s initial purpose).22 By the twentieth century, the

Elmer Towns, Thomas Ice, “Dispensationalism,” in The Harvest Handbook of Bible Prophecy, eds. Ed Hindson, Mark Hitchcock, Tim LaHaye (Eugene, OR: Harvest House Publishers, 2020), 96-97.

18

19

Sawyer, “Dispensationalism,” 111.

20

Charles Trumbull, The Life Story of C. I. Scofield, (New York: Oxford University Press, 1920), 71.

21

Sawyer, “Dispensationalism,” 108-109.

22

Mangum and Sweetnam, The Scofield Bible, 191.

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Bible conference movement, the Bible college movement, and Scofieldianism had become virtually synonymous.23 Scofield’s purpose was not to promote a distinctive theological system. As Scofield himself wrote, he wanted to summarize, arrange, and condense the mass of material from biblical scholarship of the last fifty years which had been inaccessible to most Christian workers.24 His purpose was to gather and make accessible existing teaching – not to produce doctrinal innovation. He wanted to represent the consensus of Bible-believing interpreters of Scripture and interact with all the major doctrines of Christianity.25 Mangum and Sweetnam suggested that Scofield did not seem to have regarded his dispensational scheme as out of the norm and does not seem to have anticipated these positions as becoming controversial. Rather, he seems to have regarded his work as reflecting the consensus of a broad coalition of Bible-believing interpreters of Scripture.26 However, of course, a theological perspective did come through. The level of eschatological detail has drawn more attention positively and negatively than any other feature of the Bible. The prophetical aspects, the rapture, tribulation, Armageddon are what many think of when they hear the term “dispensationalism.”27 But the emphasis in Scofield’s notes is mostly on

23

Mangum and Sweetnam, The Scofield Bible, 181.

24

C. I. Scofield, The Scofield Study Bible (New York: Oxford University Press, 1909,

1917), iv.

25

Mangum and Sweetnam, The Scofield Bible, 54.

26

Mangum and Sweetnam, The Scofield Bible, 85.

Mangum and Sweetnam, The Scofield Bible, 93, 189-190, 197. Under the term, “the new Christian Zionism,” there is an attempt to distance Zionism from association with dispensationalism with an emphasis on an end-times scenario, and to avoid date setting and other 27

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the distinction between the old and new dispensations, and that God has a plan and purpose for Old Testament Israel.28 C. I. Scofield’s Multifaceted Influence on American Culture His Influence on Dispensationalism “Historically speaking, The Scofield Reference Bible was to dispensationalism what Luther’s Ninety-Five Theses was to Lutheranism, or Calvin’s Institutes to Calvinism.”29 Mal Couch so aptly notes: “At the beginning of the twentieth century, dispensationalism was one of the most important forces in fundamentalism and evangelicalism.”30 According to anti-Zionist Stephen Sizer, “Dispensationalism is one of the most influential theological systems within the universal church today. Largely unrecognized and subliminal, it has increasingly shaped the presuppositions of fundamentalists, evangelicals, Pentecostal and charismatic thinking concerning Israel and Palestine over the past one hundred and fifty years.”31 As ordinary Christians made The Scofield Reference Bible their Bible of choice, dispensationalism came to have greater and greater influence on ground level populist Christianity. Its pragmatic usefulness

questionable teachings associated with classic dispensationalism. See Gerald McDermott, ed., The New Christian Zionism (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 2016), 11.

28

Mangum and Sweetnam, The Scofield Bible, 189-190.

29

Mangum and Sweetnam, The Scofield Bible, 195.

Couch, “Foreword,” 9. Even critical scholars as Barbara Rossing admit such. See Barbara Rossing, The Rapture Exposed (New York: Basic Books, 2004), 23.

30

Stephen Sizer, “Dispensational Approaches to the Land,” in The Land of Promise, ed., Philip Johnston, Peter Walker (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 2000), 142.

31

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made room for its dispensational distinctives to gain influence.32 Robert G. Clouse admits: “The extent of this influence has been so vast that in many evangelical circles today the dispensational interpretation prevails.”33 After the 1970s interest in dispensationalism began to decline within the mainstream of conservative evangelicalism.34 While not as popular as it was in its classical period, dispensationalism is still widely held and propagated through various authors, schools, colleges, seminaries, publishing houses, conferences, study Bibles, etc. The Bible institute movement historically was almost totally dispensational and many of the leading Bible institutes, Bible colleges and seminaries today still teach this system of interpretation. The writings of Dallas Theological Seminary presidents and professors have been more at the forefront of promoting dispensationalism in academia, and Charles Ryrie’s book Dispensationalism is without a doubt the premier defense of classic dispensationalism that silenced many of its critics.35 The movement has been popularized by Hal Lindsay’s Late Great Planet Earth, and more recently

by Tim LaHaye and Jerry Jenkins’s fictional Left Behind series. The scheme of the ages outlined in Scofield’s notes, has in fact, become an organic part of biblical exposition and prophetic interpretation.36 A plethora of books still on the market reveal that it is still alive and well.

32

Mangum and Sweetnam, The Scofield Bible, 133.

33

Clouse, The Meaning of the Millennium: Four Views, 12.

34

Couch, “Foreword,” 10.

Frank Gaebelein, “Foreword,” in Dispensationalism, Charles C. Ryrie (Chicago: Moody Publishers, 2007), 7-8.

35

36

Mangum and Sweetnam, The Scofield Bible, 150-151, (cf. p. 173).

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Dispensationalism has undergone revisions since the time of Scofield. Most theologians make a distinction between classical dispensationalism (also known as historic dispensationalism) as taught by Scofield, and progressive dispensationalism as modified by Darrell Bock, Craig Blaising and Robert L. Saucy.37 However, the sine qua non of dispensationalism as defined by Ryrie has been left intact.38 Dispensationalists of all stripes hold that there is a national future for a literal Israel in the eternal plan of God. Progressive dispensationalists distinguish between Israel and the Church, allowing that Israel means a particular national people in accordance with the early covenants and promises of Scripture that will be literally fulfilled.39 His Influence on Premillennialism The Scofield Reference Bible has been one of the greatest tools for promoting premillennial teaching. Prior to the Civil War evangelicals were largely postmillennialists. As such, they believed that human effort could help bring about a Christian society that would be

37

See Robert L. Saucy, The Case for Progressive Dispensationalism (Grand Rapids: Zondervan Publishing House, 1993) and Craig Blaising, Darrell L. Bock, Progressive Dispensationalism (Wheaton: Victor Books, 1993).

38

Charles Ryrie, Dispensationalism (Chicago: Moody Publishers, 2007), 45-48. The word sine qua non refers to the “absolutely indispensable part of the system.” The sine qua non of dispensationalism is a literal national Israel. Ryrie’s classic definition was missing the “absolutely indispensable part of the definition” originally, a restored literal nation. Even Reformed theologians acknowledge a difference between Israel and the church in Romans 11, so that in itself is not a distinguishing qualifier of dispensationalism. Ryrie comes closer to clarifying this on page 51 and his footnote #43 on page 50 of his book. Ryrie also notes that the millennial kingdom will be Jewish in character and nature so a literal nation is understood (p.

46).

39

Ryrie, Dispensationalism, 28-29, 193.

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followed by the return of Jesus Christ. This belief encouraged social activism. Michael Gerson explains: “Early evangelicals were an optimistic lot who thought that human effort could help hasten the arrival of the Second Coming.”40 However, fundamentalism (which Scofield and others advocated) saw the current age not as progressing, but as declining into moral decadence as secular theories of evolution and higher criticism undermined faith in the Bible. From an evangelical standpoint, a new and better age would not be ushered in through social progress and activism, but by the second coming of Jesus Christ. Scofield insisted that world renewal was not the responsibility or capability of the church.41 Craig Keener and Michael Brown suggest that World War I challenged postmillennialism which was prominent at the time and made premillennialism and dispensationalism more palatable in the early 20th Century, a belief they admit was popularized by The Scofield Reference Bible.42 While modernism was optimistic about social progress, dispensationalism was pessimistic. While modernists tended to emphasize evolutionary development, dispensationalists accentuated the supernatural and God’s intervention in the historical process.43 Scofield and other dispensationalists placed virtually no value on human achievement, stressing instead the

Michael Gerson, “The Last Temptation: How Evangelicals Lost Their Way,” The Atlantic (April 2018), 46-47.

40

41

C. I. Scofield, Addresses on Prophecy (Greenville: The Gospel Hour Inc., 1967), 38,

41.

42

Michael L. Brown, Craig S. Keener, Not Afraid of the Antichrist (Grand Rapids: Chosen Books, Baker Publishing Group, 2019), 62.

43

Edward L. Queen II, Stephen Prothro, Gardiner H. Shattuck Jr., eds., The Encyclopedia of American Religious History (New York: Facts on File Inc.,1996), 185.

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absolute sovereignty of God over history.44 Richard Mouw, a Reformed author and former president of Fuller Theological Seminary acknowledged that dispensationalists were right regarding their philosophy of history and that dispensationalism has been vindicated.45 Dispensationalism has proven to be tremendously influential in evangelical circles and is the most accepted teaching about Christ’s second coming in American fundamentalist churches today.46 The second coming of Jesus Christ is one of the fundamentals of the Christian faith and was vigorously held by Scofield. Daniel Fuller clarifies: “Postmillennialism made the event of the millennium the great object of hope; but Darby, by his insistence on the possibility of Christ’s coming at any moment, made Christ Himself, totally apart from any event, the great object of hope.”47 New Testament scholar George Eldon Ladd commented: “We must recognize our debt to dispensationalism . . . . To all intents and purposes it revived the doctrine of the second advent of Christ and made it meaningful in the churches.”48

44

Queen, Prothro, and Shattuck, The Encyclopedia of American Religious History, 184.

See Vern Poythress, Understanding Dispensationalists (Grand Rapids: Academie Books, 1987).

Poythress acknowledges that “… (Scofield’s) emphasis on the divine plan for all history would naturally harmonize with a high view of God’s sovereignty” (p. 20).

Richard Mouw, “What the Old Dispensationalists Taught Me,” Christianity Today (March 6, 1995), 34.

45

46

Queen II, Prothro, and Shattuck, The Encyclopedia of American Religious History,

185.

Daniel P. Fuller, “The Hermeneutics of Dispensationalism” (Th.D. Dissertation, Northern Baptist Theological Seminary, Chicago, 1957), 92-93.

47

48

Sawyer, “Dispensationalism,” 111.

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His Influence on Fundamentalism Noting the era and the theological climate in which The Scofield Reference Bible was produced, S. R. Spencer observes: Challenged by higher criticism, Darwinism, and the prevailing cultural optimism of modernist and liberal theologies, dispensational premillennialists rallied believers to biblical fidelity and world evangelization, impelled by the shadow of prophetic signs.49 The Scofield Reference Bible was published just as the fundamentalist-modernist battles were reaching the height of their intensity. In fundamentalist circles, Scofield’s reference Bible has been most revered because of its faithfulness to the Authorized King James Version.50 This loyalty to the King James Version won him a place dear to the heart of most fundamentalists.

The fundamentalist movement was boosted by Scofield and by the popularity of premillennialism and dispensationalism, both of which were popularized and spread throughout America by The Scofield Reference Bible. For over 100 years Scofield’s reference Bible has been a mighty force for fundamentalism because of its strong stance and belief in the inspiration and literal nature of the Bible and interpretation of the prophetical portions of Scripture consistent with a literal hermeneutical interpretation. Perhaps the popularity and influence of The Scofield

S. R. Spencer, “Cyrus I. Scofield: (1845-1921),” in Historical Handbook of Major Biblical Interpreters, ed. Donald K. McKim (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 1998), 610.

49

50

The editorial board of The New Scofield Reference Bible, like Scofield, originally rejected the inclusion of critical scholarship and modern textual criticism, choosing to stick with the King James Version instead of the more critical version at the time, the Revised Standard Version. See Raymond Surburg, “The New Scofield Reference Bible,” The Springfielder 31, no.

4 (1968), 17. While the scholarly world rejected Scofield’s teachings and notes, it became most popular with fundamentalists who revered the King James Version of the Bible. Scofield noted in his Bible, “Introduction: (To Be Read)” “After mature reflection it was determined to use the Authorized Version. None of the many Revisions have commended themselves to the people at large” (The Scofield Study Bible, p. iii).

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Reference Bible was due to the alignment of Scofield and his editors with fundamentalism, as these men were well-known in fundamentalist circles and exerted a great influence on American Christianity.51 However, according to George Dollar and a book published by the fundamentalist Bob Jones University, Scofield was never involved in the battles of fundamentalism though he supplied preaching materials for many militant fundamentalists.52 Authors Mangum and Sweetnam believe that perhaps it is too presumptuous to read much into a rigid distinction between fundamentalism and evangelicalism at the time Scofield lived and participated in Bible conferences and writing. While he certainly held the same beliefs as most fundamentalists, The Scofield Reference Bible could hardly be described as militant.53 The authors have made it a point to argue that Scofield was not interested in pressing for a militant theological position but providing a commentary and Bible that would find agreement among a broad range within orthodox Christianity. They clarify: “In the end, perhaps what Scofield illustrates is that fundamentalism and evangelicalism were part of one cut of cloth, not distinguishable at the time he ministered and wrote. . . . Rather, Scofield seems to have regarded his work as reflecting the consensus of a broad coalition of Bible-believing interpreters of Scripture.”54 Scofield wanted to

Raymond F. Surburg, “The New Scofield Reference Bible,” The Springfielder 31, no. 4 (1968), 6-8.

51

52

George W. Dollar, A History of Fundamentalism in America (Greenville: Bob Jones University Press, 1973), 359.

53 54

Mangum and Sweetnam, The Scofield Bible, 83-85.

Mangum and Sweetnam, The Scofield Bible, 85. See also their comments on pages 5354, 136-137, 209, etc.

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harmonize Christian orthodoxy in order to be utilized by a large swath of the church thus crossing denominational lines.55 Although his name was associated with fundamentalism, “he was not a prominent controversialist.”56 Reformed theologian Albertus Pieters praised Scofield for his commitment to doctrinal orthodoxy at a time when Protestant churches and denominations were abandoning the faith: Many Christian people have been profoundly disturbed during the last forty years over the growing denial of these things, on account of the increasing modernism in the churches. Often they fail to hear any clear testimony of the gospel from their own pastors, even in Presbyterian and Methodist churches. For such people it is a relief and a most welcome assurance to take up the Scofield Bible, and to find in its notes no suggestion that the old gospel is out of date or that the great doctrines are to be doubted. This is the most vital and valuable service that the Scofield Bible has rendered to the Christian faith and life of our country, and its importance cannot easily be over-estimated. It has undergirded the faith of God’s people in a remarkable manner, and from that point of view even we who see much fault in it, and seriously deprecate its influence in other respects, must thank God for it.57 Fundamentalist forces were formidable in the 1920’s because at the center of conservative Protestants were dispensational premillennialists who had been promoting dispensational teaching through prophecy conferences, Bible institutes, evangelistic campaigns, and The Scofield Reference Bible.58 Marsden confirms: “Dispensationalists emphasize that their views are

55

Mangum and Sweetnam, The Scofield Bible, 173. The authors have made a valid point in their observation that Scofield accomplished this by even bridging Pentecostalism despite the fact that Scofield’s notes do not support Pentecostal theology. See P. H. Alexander, “Scofield Reference Bible,” in Dictionary of Pentecostal and Charismatic Movements, eds. Stanley Burgess, Gary Mckee (Grand Rapids: Zondervan Publishing House, 1988), 771.

56

Spencer, “Cyrus I. Scofield: (1845-1921),” 611.

57

Pieters, The Scofield Bible, 5-6.

58

George F. Marsden, Understanding Fundamentalism and Evangelicalism (Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdman’s Publishing Company, 1991), 57.

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based on literal readings of Scripture, especially of biblical prophecies. For instance, they predicted the literal return of the Jews to Israel, as the Bible indicates.”59 The Scofield Reference Bible gave the American public hope that the Bible was in fact the Word of God during a critical period in American history.

His Influence on Christian Zionism What was also unique about The Scofield Reference Bible was its emphasis on the Jews and the nation of Israel, especially at a time before there even was a Jewish homeland in 1948.

Scofield taught a literal fulfillment of literal prophecies made to the Jewish nation in the Old Testament which would be fulfilled at a later time in the future, preceding and even pointing to the second coming of Christ. John Nelson Darby, who was most influential to Scofield in this area “Was also a pioneer in the development of a consistent Israelology, which today provides the theological basis for the majority of Christian Zionists.”60 In the context of prophetic enquiry in which Darby moved, there was a keen interest in the Jewish question and the exact status in the present age of God’s ancient people. Darby’s answer to the question of the Jews was vital to his interpretive system.61 Although Darby’s influence on Scofield cannot be denied, it is interesting to note that neither in the “Introduction” to The Scofield Reference Bible, nor in any of his writings does Scofield acknowledge his indebtedness to Darby.62 However, Miss Emily

59

Marsden, Understanding Fundamentalism and Evangelicalism, 40.

Thomas Ice, “Foreword,” in Paul Richard Wilkinson, For Zion’s Sake (Eugene, OR: Wipf and Stock Publishers, 2007), xvii.

60

61

Mangum and Sweetnam, The Scofield Bible, 70.

62

Sizer, “Dispensational Approaches to the Land,” 151.

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Farmer, who was assigned as Scofield’s assistant in his work on the Bible stated that the two sets of reference books on his desk to which he referred constantly were The Synopsis of the Books of the Bible by John Nelson Darby and The Numerical Bible by F. W. Grant.63 Scofield was also highly influenced by his pastor in St. Louis, James H. Brookes, as well as by A. C. Gaebelein.64 According to Samuel Goldman, it was not John Nelson Darby that influenced Christian Zionism originally, but centuries of belief preceding him with many American theologians and politicians who already accepted the beliefs of Zionism. Goldman does admit that it was The Scofield Reference Bible that found a receptive audience among American Christians who were already primed for a Jewish homeland.65 Scofield was writing as early as 1909 of a Jewish return

63

John Reid, F. W. Grant: His Life, Ministry, and Legacy (Plainfield, NJ: John Reid Book Fund, 1995), 27-28.

64

Dr. A. C. Gaebelein, although the youngest in years, was perhaps the most influential of all the consulting editors of the Scofield Bible as he was the last surviving member of the editorial staff of consulting editors. Dr. Scofield considered Gaebelein superior in knowledge to any other individual in the area of prophetic teaching. See A. C. Gaebelein, The History of the Scofield Reference Bible (Spokane: Living Words Foundation, 1991), 55-56. Gaebelein’s influence on Scofield is also noted by R. Todd Mangum, Mark S. Sweetnam, The Scofield Bible: Its History and Impact on the Evangelical Church (Colorado Springs: Paternoster Publishing, 2009), 86-88. Scofield credited his pastor, James H. Brookes, with influencing him in making plain, “dispensational truth.” See also Charles Trumbull, The Life Story of C. I. Scofield (New York: Oxford University Press, 1920), 35.

Samuel Goldman, “The Real Reason Americans Support Israel (Hint: It’s Not AIPAC),” Tablet Magazine, February 15, 2019, 4. https://www.questia.com/magazine/1G1580545210/the-real-reason-americans-support-israel-hint-it-s. See also Gerald McDermott, Israel Matters (Grand Rapids: Brazos Press, 2017), 33-41.

65

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to their land as promised in the Old Testament.66 He departed from the restorationist67 tradition in his account of the Jewish return to the land of Israel. Classic restorationists assumed that Jews would adopt Christianity before or in conjunction with that great event. Scofield pushed off conversion to the last minute before the second coming of Christ and taught that Jews would have returned to Palestine in unbelief. This modification made fundamentalism compatible with Zionism in a way that the old restoration theories did not.68 Even though support for the nation of Israel is declining among millennials, it is still a very strong tenet among evangelicals. Christians, particularly white evangelical Protestants who populate the Southern Baptist Convention are now the largest pro-Israel constituency in the United States.69 His Influence on Bible Study Mangum and Sweetnam observed: “That he conceived of, completed, and published a Bible study tool that millions across the world have testified to being a help in their understanding of the Scriptures and their Christian walk serves as a capstone accomplishment.”70

66

Scofield, Addresses on Prophecy, 97-98; Scofield, The Scofield Study Bible, 881. See also C. I. Scofield, Dr. C. I. Scofield’s Question Box (Chicago: The Bible Institute Colportage Association, 1917), 66.

The term “restorationist” was the term used before Zionism became a movement at the end of the 19th Century.

67

Samuel Goldman, God’s Country (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2018), 148. Cf. C. I. Scofield, The Scofield Study Bible (New York: Oxford University Press, 1909), 1337, 881. (Emphasis in original).

68

69

Walker Robins, Between Dixie and Zion (Tuscaloosa: The University of Alabama Press, 2020), front cover flap.

70

Mangum and Sweetnam, The Scofield Bible, 51.

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The marketing trend of study Bibles today is geared to find a study Bible that is most relevant for the public’s situation (e.g. The Women’s Ministry Bible, the Businessman’s Bible, the AfricanAmerican Study Bible etc.). This was the starting assumption and goal of The Scofield Reference Bible, and it was the first of its kind for American Bible readers. The Scofield Reference Bible started it all.71 Dispensationalism has asserted the primacy of the Scriptures and the ability of the layman to interpret and understand them.72 The Scofield Bible encouraged personal, individual study and Bible reading. Even Albertus Pieters, a Reformed scholar who was highly critical of Scofield gave him this fitting tribute: Those who use this work are, in other respects, among the best Christians in our churches, those with the deepest faith in the Holy Scriptures, and with the most sincere devotion to the Lord. . . . Through its influence there have arisen here and there ‘tabernacles’ and ‘undenominational’ churches, composed of people no longer at home in the established orthodox denominations, because they do not get there the sort of teaching they find in the Scofield Bible.73 The whole series of devotional Bibles offered by Christian publishing houses, dispensationalist or not, are rooted in the phenomenon of The Scofield Reference Bible as a Bible study tool.74 Todd Mangum suggests that its popularity was due to the fact that it made sense not only of

71

Mangum and Sweetnam, The Scofield Bible, 197 (cf. 171-173, 214).

72

Sawyer, “Dispensationalism,” 111.

73

Pieters, The Scofield Bible, 4, 5.

74

Mangum and Sweetnam, The Scofield Bible, 197-200.

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biblical teaching but also of current events at the time. Scofield provided exegetical rationales for a general belief that ethnic Israel would be revived in the last days. “It was only a matter of time before someone would come along seeking to correlate his general ideas more specifically with current events – Scofield Reference Bible in one hand, newspaper in the other.”75 Scofield was especially concerned about the sane and scriptural interpretation of prophecy.

Stephen Sizer notes how the course of history turned: “Darby’s dispensational views would probably have remained the exotic preserve of sectarian Brethren were it not for the energetic efforts of individuals such as William Blackstone and D. L. Moody. Above all, they were propagated by Scofield, who introduced them to a wider audience in America and the English-speaking world through his Scofield Reference Bible.”76 Albertus Pieters, who offered one of the first critiques of Scofield in 1938 made an interesting point along the same lines that had Scofield published his notes separately by themselves as a commentary, rather than being interspersed along with the biblical text itself, they would have long been forgotten.77 Whether this is true or not or if the divine plan of God meant otherwise may be up to the theology of the

75

Mangum and Sweetnam, The Scofield Bible, 169, 175-176.

76

Sizer, “Dispensational Approaches to the Land,” 151.

77

Pieters, The Scofield Bible, 7.

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individual reader.78 “Scofield’s greatest legacy is a host of Bible students, whether Scofieldians or not.”79 C. I. Scofield: Villain or Vilified?

The mention of the word “dispensation,” associated with C. I. Scofield usually evokes an immediate reaction. To most in the Reformed theological tradition, it is a dangerous teaching that borders on heresy and it is a primary threat to the Reformed theological system of interpretation known as covenant theology.80 Attacks on Scofield came vehemently and furiously, as if dispensationalism was the most dangerous heresy since the early days of the church. George Dollar observed some fifty years ago that “The Scofield Reference Bible is openly attacked as almost an enemy of men’s souls.”81 For example, one reviewer noted in 1938: This book must be pronounced from the standpoint of the Reformed theology, and with a view of the peace and prosperity of our churches, one of the most dangerous books on the market. Its circulation is no aid to sound Bible study and true Scriptural knowledge, but rather the contrary. Its use should be quietly and tactfully, but persistently and vigilantly

78

Vendyl Jones suggests that it was converts from Judaism (Gaebelein?) that insisted that the Scriptures should be taken literally, and that Israel was distinct from the church. It was the Jewish influence within the church which brought Christian theology out of the dark ages. See Vendyl Jones, Will the Real Jesus Please Stand? (Arlington, TX: Institute of Judaic-Christian Research, Inc., 1983), xi. The timing of these voices suggests that it may be more than coincidental if one does agree that dispensations are under the sovereign control of God as these authors have suggested and was the main point of Scofield’s belief.

79

Spencer, “Cyrus I. Scofield: (1845-1921),” 614.

80

Charles L. Feinberg, Millennialism: The Two Major Views (Winona Lake, IN: BMH Books, 2008), 79.

81

Dollar, The History of Fundamentalism in America, 268.

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opposed; and our congregation should be diligently instructed in a better interpretation of the Word of God.82 The faculty of the Louisville Presbyterian Theological Seminary saw it necessary to address Scofield in their book, The Church Faces the Isms, which they note is the most familiar, current source of dispensationalism. Professor W. D. Chamberlain wrote: “There are some good notes in The Scofield Reference Bible, but many that are false, even pernicious. They have become a menace to the faith of the Church.”83 The same author had praised dispensationalists earlier in the chapter for their intent to be completely loyal and faithful to the Scriptures.84 Chamberlain further adds: “We need badly to recover the biblical doctrine of the Church.

Dispensationalist error makes this imperative, unless we are to be carried away into an apostasy resulting from false teaching.”85 Reformed scholar Arthur W. Pink referred to dispensationalism as a “modern and pernicious error,” and “a device of the enemy.”86 One self-published author

82

Pieters, The Scofield Bible, 26.

W. D. Chamberlain, “Dispensationalism,” in The Church Faces the Isms, ed. Arnold Black Rhodes (Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1958), 109. What the author means here is that the Bible was so popular that it was forcing pastors and church officials to confront it head on as Pieters notes in his book, The Scofield Bible, 4-5.

83

W. D. Chamberlain, “Dispensationalism,” 97. What is somewhat ironic is that the professors listed dispensationalism in the section of the book they titled “Isms Predominantly Biblical!” (Part II, p. 7).

84

85 86

W. D. Chamberlain, “Dispensationalism,” 103.

Arthur W. Pink, The Application of the Scriptures (Canton, GA: Free Grace Publications, 1985), 2.

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ended his pamphlet with a prayer: “In the name of our Lord Jesus Christ we rebuke Cyrus Ingersall (not his real middle name) Scofield in the name of our Father and Kingdom.”87 John Wick Bowman of Union Theological Seminary wrote: “It (dispensationalism) represents the most dangerous heresy currently to be found within Christian circles.”88 Chamberlain further adds: “The very zeal of dispensationalism is a part of its danger because it is misdirected; it is bent to preserve a special status for the Jews for which the New Testament offers no hope.”89 “Dispensationalism has become increasingly in recent years a seriously divisive factor in evangelical circles.”90 Critics have labeled it a dangerous heresy, and Scofield has been labeled as a pawn of the Zionists, a swindler, an embezzler, a dubious character who abandoned his wife and children.91 “It seems like a harsh judgment, but in the interest of truth it must be uttered: Dr. Scofield in this was acting the part of an intellectual charlatan, a fraud who pretends to knowledge which he does not possess, like a quack doctor, who is ready with a

87

Nord Davis, Jr., Cyrus I. Scofield: Pope of Premillennialism (Mountain City, TN: Sacred Truth Ministries, n.d.), 16.

John Wick Bowman, “The Bible and Modern Religions: Dispensationalism,” Interpretation 10 (April 1956), 172.

88

Chamberlain, “Dispensationalism,” 97. What an incredible statement this is! Even if one did not believe in a national restoration of the Jews, there is still Romans 11:26 which almost all Reformed scholars admit now is a reference to ethnic Jews and cannot refer to the church. See John Goldingay, “The Jews, the Land, and the Kingdom,” Anvil 4, no. 1 (1987), 10.

89

90

Oswald T. Allis, Prophecy and the Church (Philadelphia: The Presbyterian and Reformed Publishing Company, 1945), vi.

91

Rossing, The Rapture Exposed, 23.

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confident diagnosis in many cases where a competent physician is unable to decide.”92 Clarence Bass, who wrote a distinguished history of dispensationalism adds: “Has not dispensationalism contributed largely to this default of the church’s mission [of taking the gospel to the world] and made of it a detached, withdrawn, inclusively introverted group, waiting to be raptured away from this evil world?”93 Bass does admit that Scofield’s synthesis of Darby’s principles form the guideline for dispensational hermeneutics.94 John Gerstner calls dispensationalists “false teachers” and is concerned about their souls.95 The late apologist R. C. Sproul confesses that dispensationalism should be discarded as being “a serious deviation from biblical Christianity.”96 Oswald Allis, a prominent Reformed author of yesteryear commented: “The result is a situation that is deplorable. It is more than deplorable; it is dangerous.”97 Texe Marrs advertises that C. I. Scofield “was a crooked, adulterous lawyer who abandoned his wife and was paid handsomely

by New York Jewish plotters to betray the Christian faith by promoting a Jewish kingdom and an earthly Zionist New World Order to be ruled over by a god-like Jewish race.”98

92

Pieters, The Scofield Bible, 9. The great irony is that Pieters had so praised Scofield in the very same book for his commitment to Christian orthodoxy in doctrine and was in agreement with Scofield in so many areas (see footnotes 57 and 73).

93

Clarence Bass, Backgrounds to Dispensationalism (Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdman’s Publishing Company, 1960), 149.

94

Bass, Backgrounds to Dispensationalism, 150.

95

John Gerstner, Wrongly Dividing the Word of Truth (Brentwood, TN: Wolgemuth & Hyatt Publishers Inc., 1991), 262-263.

96

R. C. Sproul, “Foreword,” in John Gerstner, Wrongly Dividing the Word of Truth, xi.

97

Allis, Prophecy and the Church, vii.

Texe Marrs, “The Shocking Truth about C. I. Scofield,” Jesus is Savior.com, www.jesus-is-savior.com/wolves/Scofield.htm (Accessed July 23, 2019).

98

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According to some critics, dispensational theology and the eschatological time frame that Scofield propagated justifies racism, supports an “ethnic” cleansing of Palestinians, advocates an exclusive Jewish political agenda, and advocates an apocalyptic eschatology likely to become a self-fulfilling prophecy.99 Author of the emergent church movement Brian McLaren accuses Christian Zionists and “deterministic dispensationalists” of using a discredited hermeneutic to imply that God shows favoritism and to create bigotry and prejudice against Muslims.100 McLaren equates dispensationalism and Zionist theology with the racism that was prominent in the United States during the 1950’s and 1960’s and urged those who held these views to “have the courage to differ when racism was acceptable and even justified in most American churches.”101 Philip A. F. Church wonders if Christian Zionism should not be labeled a heresy.102 Left Behind theology (to a large extent patterned after dispensationalism)103 has been labeled “a most dangerous fiction” and “promoting ‘right-wing’ politics” as Lutheran professor Barbara Rossing claims: “The political agenda driving the Left Behind storyline is the most dangerous aspect of the Left Behind phenomenon.”104 She further adds: “They

99

Sizer, “Dispensational Approaches to the Land,” 167.

Brian McLaren, “Four Points Toward Peace in the Middle East,” Sojourners Magazine, April 16, 2009. http://sojo.net/article/Four-points-toward-peace-Middle-East.com (Accessed March 24, 2020).

100

101

McLaren, “Four Points Toward Peace in the Middle East.”

Philip A. F. Church, “Dispensational Christian Zionism: A Strange but Acceptable Aberration or a Deviant Heresy?,” Westminster Theological Journal 71, no. 2 (Fall 2009).

102

103

Mangum and Sweetnam, The Scofield Bible, 179-180, 218-221.

104

Rossing, The Rapture Exposed, vii-xiii.

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(dispensationalists) are eager for events to precipitate Jesus’ second coming and set the prophetic end-times script in motion.”105 “With their warlike end-time script, dispensationalists have supported an all-or-nothing mentality of conquest for Israel, and they look forward to more violence in Israel as the so-called prophetic countdown to the end approaches.”106 Mangum and Sweetnam quip that Scofield could never have imagined that his study Bible and inferences would one day form a major plank of American foreign policy with his views on Israel!107 The explanation from those on the political and religious Left goes something like this: “Evangelicals believe that the rebirth of Israel is hastening not just the second coming of Christ, but a particular kind of second coming, one that includes fire, fury, and war that will consume the Jewish people.”108 In reality, the exact opposite is true. Romans Chapter 11 concludes with the promise not that all Israel will be burned up in the apocalypse, but rather with the statement that “all Israel will be saved.”109 Accusations of dispensationalist anti-Semitism are bizarre given that the very teaching of dispensationalism – which Scofield advocated – is the restoration and re-establishment of a Jewish nation in which Jews will be the elect people chosen by God and

105

Rossing, The Rapture Exposed, 61.

106

Rossing, The Rapture Exposed, 47.

107

Mangum and Sweetnam, The Scofield Bible, 196-197.

David French, “The Real Reasons American Evangelicals Support Israel,” National Review, March 22, 2019. https://www.nationalreview.com/2019/03/the-real-reasons-americanevangelicals-support- israel.

108

109

David French, “The Real Reasons American Evangelicals Support Israel,” 2.

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blessed above all nations in a future millennial kingdom. A charge of anti-Semitism would be the exact opposite of the teaching and beliefs of Christian Zionists who in fact love Jews.110 But in spite of all of the hype, hysteria, and horror stories, Fuller Theological Seminary president Richard Mouw, who grew up on a steady diet of dispensationalism and a Scofield Bible, is on record: “I was to hear many negative things said, especially by my Reformed colleagues, about dispensationalism’s ‘heresies.’ But the criticisms never quite rang true.”111 The dangers of dispensationalism so badly threatening the world and church have failed to materialize.

Social media coverage of C. I. Scofield is persistently antagonistic. Some caricatures are patently absurd, linking his ideas with Illuminati conspiracies and nefarious Jesuit plots. A search for “C.I. Scofield” on YouTube retrieves the following videos: “C. I. Scofield was a Racist;” “Scofield’s Hyper-Zionists: the Useful Idiots of Talmudic Judaism;” “Dispensationalism Debunked: C. I. Scofield is Burning in Hell;” “Was Satan Behind Scofield, Darby, and Dispensationalism?;” “C. I. Scofield, the Illuminati, and the Plymouth Brethren;” “C. I. Scofield and the Strange Woman;” “Exposing the Heretical Doctrines of C. I. Scofield;” “Scofield Attacks the Resurrection of Jesus Christ;” “C. I. Scofield: False Prophet;” “The Evil of Scofield;” “Scofield’s War on the King James Version;” “How Christians Were Hoodwinked by the Scofield Bible;” “Scofield was a Deceiver;” “The Perverted Scofield Study Bible;”

110

See Scofield’s Addresses on Prophecy, 55, 66-67, 94, and 42-67 for his views on the

111

Mouw, “What the Old Dispensationalists Taught Me,” 34.

Jews.

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“Dispensationalism Debunked 101: 100% Proof its Satanic;” “Was Scofield an Evil Man?;” “Scofield Study Bible and the Hijacking of American Evangelicals;” “Christian Zionism and How They Injected the Bible (with verses for Jews);” “The Roots of Christian Zionism: How Scofield Sowed Seeds of Apostasy;” “Was C.I. Scofield a Crypto-Jew?;” “C. I. Scofield was a Liar” ad infinitum.

Conclusion Mangum and Sweetnam address the accusations made against Scofield by concluding: “Someone once said, ‘God can draw a straight line with a crooked stick.’ How straight was the line drawn through the life of Scofield and how crooked the stick of Scofield the man are points that remain in dispute. But that the life and work of Scofield manifests the truth of this proverb no one really can dispute.”112 Scofield’s biographer, Charles Gallaudet Trumbull, wrote about the numerous struggles and health threats Scofield faced in the publication of The Scofield Reference Bible, a Bible that would be a major influence on pastors, missionaries, colleges, seminaries, and ordinary Christians and Bible students to this very day over 100 years of American history: Of course Satan tried desperately, over and over again, to block the work upon, and prevent the publishing of, a Reference Bible which he could see was going to mean regrettable inroads upon his domain in human lives.113 Biographer Edward Reese concludes: It is nothing short of amazing to realize that what has been the world’s most sought after study Bible was compiled by a man who was not converted until age 36, who never

112

Mangum and Sweetnam, The Scofield Bible, 51.

113

Trumbull, The Life Story of C. I. Scofield, 108.

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received a formal education in theology, yet won the respect of the greatest scholars of his time.114 As of April 2021, a fundamental, independent Baptist church in Florence, South Carolina is advertising and selling Scofield Bibles in their church bookstore for the price of $48, genuine leather. In this small South Carolina town, C. I. Scofield, “being dead, yet speaketh.”

114

Ed Reese, The Life and Ministry of Cyrus I. Scofield, 1843-1921 (Lansing, IL: Reese Publications, n. d.), 7.

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What Makes a Church Inviting?

By Jeff Parker1 and Ann Kerlin2 Introduction What do visitors to a new church notice? What factors lead to a return visit, and ultimately to new church membership? These are the questions that the elders of Webster Baptist Church (WBC) in Sylva, NC were asking themselves. The church was growing, but only a few of the people visiting each week would return and even fewer would ultimately desire membership. The elders were concerned that WBC was not doing enough to make visitors feel welcomed, loved, and ministered to during their first visit. These and similar questions ultimately led to this research project, which was part of a college assignment and a practical exercise meant to inform leadership at WBC. Literature Review According to Pew Research Center’s telephone research studies conducted in 2018 and 2019, only 65% of Americans identify as Christians while 26% describe themselves as atheist, agnostic, or “nothing in particular.”3 The influence of the global pande

mic on church

1

Jeff Parker, BAR, Luther Rice College & Seminary, 2021. The current investigation began as a research project submitted to Dr. Ann Kerlin in partial fulfillment of the requirements of PY 2703: Principles of Psychology.

2

Ann Kerlin, PhD, Liberty University, 2013. Dr. Kerlin has an M.Div. from Luther Rice College & Seminary, and an MA in Human Services from Liberty University. She is a Licensed Professional Counselor who also enjoys research on trauma and addictions. She is the coordinator of the MABC program at LRCS. 3

Gregory A. Smith, Alan Cooperman, Besheer Mohamed, Elizabeth Podrebarac Sciupac, Becka A. Alper, Kiana Cox, and Claire Gecewicz, “U.S. Decline of Christianity Continues at

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membership and religious affiliation that began in 2020 has not been fully measured yet, and whether the decline in attendance due to health reasons will be followed by a rebound in attendance levels has not yet been ascertained. The increase in live streaming options has helped to boost attendance and may be one way to think about appealing to first time visitors and to make it convenient for current members to stay connected even while traveling or ill. It has become a popular option.

However, according to Gallup, church membership fell to only 47% during 2020. Gallop researchers asked study participants whether they were members of a church, synagogue, or mosque. The response (47% “yes”) was the lowest in Gallup’s eighty-year history of research on the topic.4 However the statistics are interpreted, they are not very promising. Despite these low numbers, in a survey conducted by the Pew Research Center in March of 2021, 42% of survey respondents said they attended a live service and 65% reported watching a service online or on television.5 Time will tell whether trends in 2021 may indicate an increase in church attendance or a continued decline not only in church attendance, but religious affiliation overall.

Rapid Pace: An Update on America's Changing Religious Landscape,” Pew Research Center, October 17, 2019, https://www.pewforum.org/2019/10/17/in-u-s-decline-of-christianitycontinues-at-rapid-pace.

Jeffrey M. Jones, “U.S. Church Membership Falls Below Majority for First Time,” Gallup, March 29, 2021, https://news.gallup.com/poll/341963/church-membership-falls-belowmajority-first-time.aspx.

4

Gregory A. Smith, et al. “Life in U.S. Religious Congregations Slowly Edges Back Toward Normal, Pew Research Center, March 22, 2021, https://www.pewforum.org/2021/03/22/ life-in-u-s-religious-congregations-slowly-edges-back-toward-normal/.

5

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The concern of WBC is a concern of many churches and religious leaders. For most churches, the initial point of contact is usually a visit from someone who was invited by a friend, but some visitors come on their own initiative and are consequently unaccompanied by a church member. In his book, Becoming a Welcoming Church, Thom Rainer suggests, “Churches perceive they are a friendly church because the members are friendly to one another. But they don’t think about walking in the shoes of first-time guests. They don’t look at their facilities, their parking, their website, or their friendliness from a guest perspective.”6 “Love God and love people” is a familiar saying based on Matthew 22:34-40. The Scripture reads, Hearing that Jesus had silenced the Sadducees, the Pharisees got together. One of them, an expert in the law, tested him with this question: “Teacher, which is the greatest commandment in the Law?” Jesus replied: “‘Love the Lord your God with all your heart and with all your soul and with all your mind.’ This is the first and greatest commandment. And the second is like it: ‘Love your neighbor as yourself.’ All the Law and the Prophets hang on these two commandments.”7 Paul clearly demonstrated his love for the people in the churches he founded and ministered to in his epistles. However, the way that we provide and share that love may have evolved somewhat since the days of Paul nearly two centuries ago. We no longer greet one another with a “holy kiss” (Rom. 16:16) and in fact, since the pandemic, rarely even shake hands or touch. But since the days when many churches closed their doors to prevent the spread of COVID-19, a return to face-to-face fellowship is going to increase the need to determine what makes people feel welcomed and comfortable in a church. Since this survey occurred prior to the pandemic, several

6

Thom Rainer, Becoming a Welcoming Church (Nashville, TN: B&H Publishers, 2018),

7

All Scripture taken from the NIV unless otherwise noted.

8.

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post-pandemic concerns should be mentioned. These include cleanliness, social distancing options in seating, options for mask-wearing, availability of hand sanitizer, and limitations on the provision of shared food or drinks, including communion supplies. All of these issues related to health are certainly matters of interest in the current climate.

Nobody wants to feel like an outsider. Unfortunately, churches are prone to make visitors feel like outsiders without realizing that it is happening. This is not a problem unique to the church environment, of course. From infancy, people feel hesitant to attend a new school, move to a new neighborhood, begin a new job, or encounter new people in general. Such hesitancy can serve a protective function, but if the new organization does not find a way to bridge that natural hesitancy, visitors will feel isolated and unwelcome.

If the purpose of the church is to point people to Christ and bring glory to God, then believers should desire to see Jesus glorified by the worship of new believers. In the book Vertical Church, James McDonald reminds believers that “church has to be about helping people discover what they can’t get anywhere else.”8 This calling means that every church needs to be self-aware about the way they relate to church visitors in the modern age, and indeed, the way they relate to all individuals they might encounter elsewhere.

Communication is important, and churches do not always do a good job of communicating beyond the pulpit. As first-time visitors navigate a church, they are looking for simple information that members take for granted and assume is visible to all. Visitors may be looking for written material describing the times of services and groups for adults, teens, and

8

James McDonald, Vertical Church: What Every Heart Longs For. What Every Church Can Be. (Colorado Springs, CO: David C. Cook, 2015), 85.

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children. Some will gravitate toward a website while others prefer written documents. All visitors appreciate signage pointing to seating, restrooms, and registration for children’s classes.

But clutter, confusion, and a lack of information can be off-putting. Eric Geiger and Thom Rainer wrote an entire book devoted to the idea that churches need to simplify. Appropriately, the book is entitled Simple Church. As Geiger and Rainer observe, “Many of our churches have become cluttered. So cluttered that people have a difficult time encountering the simple and powerful message of Christ. So cluttered that many people are busy doing church instead of being the church.”9 Cluttered and improper communication is a silent killer of many churches.

Clutter and the busy-ness of too many programs can also cloak the church’s true mission.

Similar to the changes in welcoming people that may occur across time and cultures, feeling welcomed may also change based on the age of the visitor. Milennials are often characterized as missing from the church, but a recent survey by the Barna Group provides some key information about what milennials think about church and how they feel welcomed.10 While some churches traditionally use a visitor’s card or form to collect contact information, milennials apparently do not like to provide personal information to churches. In a survey of 843 millennials, 82% said they felt comfortable sharing their first name with a church, but only 53% were willing to share their last name. 33% were willing to provide an email address, 20% their physical address, 12% their phone number, and only 6% their Facebook or other social media identifier. For those who were not Christian, 28% did not want to share anything at all. This age

9

Thom S. Rainer and Eric Geiger, Simple Church (Nashville, TN: B&H Publishing, 2011), 15.

“Millennials at Church: What Millennials Want When They Visit Church,” Barna, 2015, https://www.barna.com/research/what-millennials-want-when-they-visit-church/.

10

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group is not generally uncomfortable sharing with organizations, but according to this survey, would prefer to stay anonymous until they are ready to share when visiting a new church. A clearly marked information kiosk might be more welcoming for this age group, rather than having someone stand over them while they fill out a visitor’s card.11 Additionally, families are attracted to churches and many times the children’s programs are crucial in determining whether the family returns or seeks to worship elsewhere. Safety is one of the most important things to any parent. Parents will not feel comfortable leaving their children in an unclean facility or with people who have not been properly screened. After having conducted his own research, Rainer also spoke to these issues involving children. He said, “The issue of unsafe and unclean children’s areas generated the most emotional comments. If your church does not have clear safety and security procedures, and if the children’s area does not appear to be clean and sanitary to the guests, do not expect young families to return to your church.”12 Even Jesus Himself cared very much about how His disciples treated children, stating, “Let the little children come to me and do not hinder them, for to such belongs the kindgom of heaven (Matt 19:14, ESV).” Clearly, the church is expected to remove any hindrances that prohibit children from connecting with Jesus, and this is a critical area of concern.

The purpose of this research project was to explore which areas are important to visitors of a church in order that the church itself may create a more welcoming environment. In order to

“Millennials at Church,” https://www.barna.com/research/what-millennials-wantwhen-they-visit-church/.

11

12

Rainer, Becoming a Welcoming Church, 9.

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disciple and baptize believers in the name of the Lord, one must first invite people to participate in the process, and that usually starts with church visitors.

Method The research project was conducted using an anonymous non-standard survey created by the primary investigator that contained 20 questions rated on a 6-point Likert scale. It is included in Appendix A. For participants, instructions stated: “Please circle the number that best describes how you feel about the statement regarding churches you’ve visited.” Answer choices on Likert scale included from lowest ranking to highest ranking: 0) Not at all 1) A little 2) Sort of 3) Somewhat 4) Mostly and 5) Completely.

This research project was conducted using a paid subscription to Survey Monkey. The participants were a convenience sample consisting of friends and acquaintainces of the primary investigator who were contacted in the hopes that they would describe their experiences when visiting a new church or looking for a new church to join.

The primary investigator sent out hundreds of survey links via personal email invitations; social media posts on Facebook, Twitter, and Messenger; multiple website links on various domains; church email lists and webpages; online classified ads; and in public events pages throughout western North Carolina. The targeted geographic areas included Asheville and Charlotte, North Carolina.

There were 3 unanswered questions out of the 2020 potential responses; means were substituted.

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Participants While the number of invitations to participate in the survey were not counted, there were 101 respondents. Demographic information was captured in questions 1 and 2 on the survey, and included age and gender only; 57 respondents were female (56.4%), and 44 were male (43.6%).

Age ranges are displayed in Table 1.

Table 1: Age of Participants Age 18-24 25-34 35-44 45-54 55 or older

Number 12 22 27 16 24

Percentage 11.88% 21.78% 26.73% 15.84% 23.76%

Results In question 3, participants were asked to describe whether they were an active member of a church (88 or 87.13%), currently looking for a home church (10 or 9.90%), or were no longer interested in finding a home church (3 or 2.97%). Responses to the rest of the survey questions are presented in Table 2. Because those who were no longer interested in finding a home church constituted such a small group (n = 3), their answers were not included in statistical analyses between groups.

However, when comparing the responses of those those looking for a new church (n = 10) and the rest of the participants, there were statistically significant differences using ANOVA. An alpha level of .05 was used for subsequent analyses, and we provided effect sizes using eta2.

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Table 2: Results of Survey Questions 4-20 When I visit a church….

1) Not at all

2) A little

3) Sort of

4) Somewhat

5) Mostly

6) Completely

Q4: The website prepares me for what to expect and I feel it should be up-to-date.

10 7 3 20 25 Q5: Special parking for visitors and parking attendants are imporant.

37 10 9 24 7 Q6: Clear signage (restrooms, buildings, sanctuary, etc.) is important to me.

0 6 5 17 25 Q7: I expect the facilities to be exceptionally clean.

2 0 3 13 36 Q8: I hope to see greeters that can answer questions and show me around as needed.

1 3 0 12 30 Q9: It’s important that there is coffee available in or near the worship services.

45 8 7 20 7 Q19: A vibrant children’s ministry and a safe check-in procedure is important to me.

0 3 3 9 15 Q11: I hope to connect with somebody and maybe even sit with a member.

18 11 9 22 26 Q12: I look for a church that takes special interest in people with disabilities.

12 9 19 28 14 Q13: The atmosphere (lighting, sound, décor) is important to the worship service 8 5 5 31 22 Q14: The music should be high quality, rehearsed, organized, and engaging.

5 3 6 12 35 Q15: I prefer a ‘stand and greet’ time during the service.

37 13 10 18 12 Q16: The preaching should be memorable and exciting.

1 4 7 16 39 Q17: The preaching should be solid, biblical, and practical.

1 4 7 16 39 Q18: I want to meet a pastor at some point during the visit.

1 4 7 16 39 Q19: I expect information about the church to be simple and easy to find.

1 1 2 8 23 Q20: I would like to be contacted at some point after my visit experience .

13 13 14 25 14

Mean Score (SD)

36

4.50 (1.63)

14

2.96 (1.83)

48

5.03 (1.18)

47

5.20 (1.00)

55

5.30 (1.01)

14

2.78 (1.89)

70

5.44 (1.00)

15

3.69 (1.70)

18

3.76 (1.56)

30

4.43 (1.49)

40

4.87 (1.35)

11

2.88 (1.80)

34

4.88 (1.13)

34

5.87 (0.46)

34

4.03 (1.52)

66

5.47 (0.92)

22

3.79 (1.68)

Using ANOVA, we found several questions had statistically significant differences between those seeking a church (n = 10) and current members of a church (n = 88) and these are described below.

•

Q6: “Clear signage (restrooms, buildings, sanctuary, etc.) is important to me.” Members (M = 5.11, SD = 1.09) rated this higher than Seekers (M = 4.20, SD = 1.69; F(1, 96) =

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5.60). This is was statistically significant (p = .020) and the effect size was quite small (η = .06).

•

Q8: “I hope to see greeters that can answer questions and show me around as needed.”

Seekers (M = 4.20, SD = 1.62) rated this lower than Members (M = 5.41, SD = 0.85; F(1, 96) = 14.50, p < .001). This is a statistically significant difference although the effect size was small (η2 = .13).

•

Q14: “The music should be high quality, rehearsed, organized, and engaging.” Members (M = 5.02, Sd = 1.12) rated this higher than Seekers (M = 3.50, SD = 2.32; F(1, 96) = 12.61). This finding was statistically significant (p = .001), although the effect size was small (η = .12).

•

Q15: “I prefer a ‘stand and greet’ time during the service.” Members (M = 3.02, SD = 1.84) also rated this higher than Seekers (M = 1.80, SD = 1.14; F(1, 96) = 4.22) This is a statistically signficant difference (p = .043) but with a small effect size (η = .04).

Discussion A visitor’s desire to return to a church will likely correlate with the church’s desire to

connect with visitors. This proposition was stated at the beginning of the project and results support its veracity at least in part. Looking at the raw data, participants marked quite a few responses as important to them. When there are people available to help them park, the welcoming process begins before they enter the building. While the results showed that 47 participants do not care much about parking, the other 54 do believe it is of some imporance.

Some extreme high scores worth mentioning include having greeters: 85 completely agreed or mostly agreed these were important, while 83 participants mostly or completely agreed that clean facilities were important. And another 85 mostly or completely agreed that a vibrant childrens’ ministry with safe check-in procedures was important. Professionally prepared music was also ranked high with 75 indicating they mostly or completely agreed with this statement. The three questions related to preaching and pastors were answered exactly the same: 73 people mostly or

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completely agreed that they wanted to meet a pastor, that the preaching should be exciting and solidly biblical. Another 73 also mostly or completely agreed that clear signage is important.

And 89 participants mostly or completely agreed that information should be easy to find. The responses to this survey may be helpful to those seeking to enhance visitor experiences in their own church, and provided interesting feedback to the leadership at WBC. However, there was relatively little difference in responses between those seeking a church and those who were already members, so it cannot be determined if those seeking a new church home looked at the visit through the same lens or perhaps had a completely different experience of the church compared to members. There were few differences.

In the statistically different responses between church members and those seeking a church, members rated clear signage, greeters, good music, and a stand and greet time more highly than seekers did. Despite these differences, all four of these analyses had very small effect sizes, meaning they were not very powerful differences in scope. No other statistically significant differences were found.

Limitations This project has a small sample size, especially for the group actively seeking a new church home. This sample is not representative of the general population; therefore results may not generalize iin every situation. Further research using a larger pool of participants may discover more differences between groups. And due to circumstances regarding COVID-19, health concerns may play a greater role in visitor comfort when joining a new group of people.

Future research should consider the web presence of churches as well as the welcome provided during face to face visits. Bringing new guests into a church via an online platform

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changes many variables but is a viable way of making that first time visit. Churches should carefully evaluate their website and social media presence to create a positive experience for new guests. Many of the same criteria apply whether visitors attend the church physically, watch a service online, or visit the church website. Is it easy for visitors to find their way around? Is anyone there to greet visitors during services, both in-person and online? Is there any way for visitors to make contact or be contacted after the service? And what is the sound and volume quality of the music and the sermon? What is the lighting and background like? Is the service streaming quality good, or does it keep breaking up? These and other questions related to online services, which have become popular during the era of COVID-19, could be helpful to churches hoping to grow numerically, but also hoping to retain members who may occasionally prefer online church services.

Research resulting from the effects of COVID-19 should include the impact of using social media, online live and recorded church services, and the impact of suspension of church services. Additionally, studies examining how communion has been delivered during this time will be helpful for future crises. Such information will aid the efforts of the church to connect with visitors, disciple new believers, and join together to participate in the mission of Christ and His Church.

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Appendix A The Survey 1. Age ____ 2. Gender: Circle one

Male Female

3. Which phrase best describes you? (Choose a. b. or c.) a. I am now an active member of a local church b. I am currently looking for a home church c. I am no longer interested in finding a home church Please circle the number that best describes how you feel about the following statements regarding churches you’ve visited.

When I visit a church….

4. The website prepares me for what to expect and I feel it should be up-to-date.

0 1 2 3 4 5 Not at all A little Sort of Somewhat Mostly Completely 5. Special parking for visitors and parking attendants are important.

0 1 2 3 4 Not at all A little Sort of Somewhat Mostly

5 Completely

6. Clear signage (restrooms, buildings, sanctuary, etc.) is important to me.

0 1 2 3 4 Not at all A little Sort of Somewhat Mostly

5 Completely

7. I expect the facilities to be exceptionally clean.

0 1 2 3 Not at all A little Sort of Somewhat

5 Completely

4 Mostly

8. I hope to see greeters that can answer questions and show me around if needed.

0 1 2 3 4 5 Not at all A little Sort of Somewhat Mostly Completely 9. It’s important that there is coffee available in or near the worship services.

0 1 2 3 4 5 Not at all A little Sort of Somewhat Mostly Completely 10. A vibrant children’s ministry and a safe check-in procedure is important to me.

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0 Not at all

1 A little

2 Sort of

3 Somewhat

4 Mostly

11. I hope to connect with somebody and maybe even sit with a member.

0 1 2 3 4 Not at all A little Sort of Somewhat Mostly

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5 Completely

5 Completely

12. I look for a church that takes special interest in people with disabilities.

0 1 2 3 4 5 Not at all A little Sort of Somewhat Mostly Completely 13. Atmosphere (lighting, sound, décor) is important to a worship service.

0 1 2 3 4 Not at all A little Sort of Somewhat Mostly

5 Completely

14. The music should be high-quality, rehearsed, organized, and engaging.

0 1 2 3 4 Not at all A little Sort of Somewhat Mostly

5 Completely

15. I prefer a “stand and greet” time during the service.

0 1 2 3 Not at all A little Sort of Somewhat

4 Mostly

5 Completely

16. The preaching should be memorable and exciting.

0 1 2 3 Not at all A little Sort of Somewhat

4 Mostly

5 Completely

17. The preaching should be solid, biblical and practical.

0 1 2 3 Not at all A little Sort of Somewhat

4 Mostly

5 Completely

18. I want to meet a pastor at some point in the visit.

0 1 2 3 Not at all A little Sort of Somewhat

4 Mostly

5 Completely

19. I expect information about the church to be simple and easy to find.

0 1 2 3 4 Not at all A little Sort of Somewhat Mostly

5 Completely

20. I would like to be contacted at some point after my visiting experience.

0 1 2 3 4 5 Not at all A little Sort of Somewhat Mostly Completely

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Attachment Theory: Overview and Integration with Biblical Counseling

By Nicholas Shipley1 Introduction The development of attachment theory can be traced back to British psychologist John Bowlby.2 Influenced by his own upbringing, and work in children’s homes, Bowlby sought to understand the anxiety and stress children may experience when separated from their primary caregiver.3 While Bowlby’s original focus was the parent-child attachment, his theories have been used and expanded to cover other attachment-based relationships including adults, religion, and organizational environments.

The purpose of this paper is three-fold. First, this paper will outline the major influences of Bowlby’s attachment theory, as well as the bonds of parent-child relationships and other attachment functions, the impact of early attachment, and psychophysiological considerations of the attachment system. This foundation is important to understanding the expansion of Bowlby’s theories to adult models of attachment.

Second, this paper will discuss the potential integration of attachment theory in a biblical counseling setting, specifically regarding an adult’s response to God’s as an attachment figure.

1

Nicholas Shipley is a student in the Master of Arts in Biblical Counseling program at Luther Rice College & Seminary.

2

John Bowlby, Attachment, vol. 1, Attachment and Loss, 2nd ed. (New York: Basic Books, 1982).

3

Richard Bowlby and Pearl King, Fifty Years of Attachment Theory (London: Karnac on behalf of the Winnicott Clinic of Psychotherapy, 2004), 12-13.

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This emphasis will involve comparison between and among Bowlby’s biological functions of the attachment system, Tan’s writing on counseling in a Christian setting, and Scripture.4 This section will cite and reference secular sources, but the Bible will be given primary consideration.

Third, this paper will conclude with recent attachment theory research from 2015-2020, and discuss areas of potential expanded research.

Influences on Attachment Theory Like many influential theories of psychoanalysis, Bowlby’s theory was shaped by his childhood environment (specifically his rearing by a nursemaid), the theories of his predecessors, and the works of Freud and Darwin.

Bowlby was the fourth of six children, and his father was a successful surgeon. As was typical of children in the upper-middle class in early twentieth-century England, Bowlby rarely saw his father, except for Sundays and holidays, and would see his mother only one hour a day.5 The majority of his waking hours were spent with a senior nanny and several nursemaids. When Bowlby was four years old, his nursemaid, Minnie, left her position with the family, effectively severing the primary caregiver bond she had established with Bowlby. Bowlby felt “sufficiently hurt” by the separation.6 Along with his childhood experience, Bowlby was influenced by the ethological work of Charles Darwin. Bowlby cited the Darwinian influence on his work, stating that

4

Siang-Yang Tan, Counseling and Psychotherapy: A Christian Perspective (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2011).

5

Richard Bowlby and King, 12.

6

Richard Bowlby and King, 13.

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Though a theoretical viewpoint of this kind has long been applied to the morphological and physiological equipment of animals, it is only in comparatively recent times that it has been applied also in a systematic way to their behavioral equipment. For this development we are indebted to the ethologists. Recognizing, as Darwin the founding father of ethology himself did, that the behavioral repertoire of each species is as unique as its morphological and physiological characteristics, ethologists have sought to understand behavioral equipment by reference to the contribution it makes to the survival of members of the species…A main thesis of this book is that the same principle must be followed equally consistently if we are to understand the instinctive behavior of man.7 Using the ethological foundation of Darwin, Bowlby also built on Freudian theories of human instinct and attempted to create systematic approaches that could be tested and reproduced.8 In doing so, he did diverge slightly from Freudian theory of inherent instinct, instead proposing the potential for the instinct.9 But arguably the most important factor in the development of modern attachment theory was the work of Mary Ainsworth. Ainsworth’s description of attachment as a “secure base from which to explore” became a theme in future work on attachment theory.10 Her studies in attachment theory, while discussed only briefly in this overview, should not be understated as she was integral to the development of modern attachment theory.11

7

John Bowlby, Attachment, 54-55.

Robert J. Ludwig and Martha G. Welch, "Darwin’s Other Dilemmas and the Theoretical Roots of Emotional Connection,” Frontiers in Psychology 10 (2019), n. pag., Discover.

8

9

Ludvig and Welch, n. pag.

Mary Ainsworth, “The Development of Infant-Mother Interaction among the Ghanda,” in Determinants of Infant Behavior, ed. B.M. Foss (NY: Wiley, 1961), 67.

10

For a more complete discussion of Ainsworth’s contributions to attachment theory, see Klaus E. Grossmann et al., "Maternal Sensitivity: Observational Studies Honoring Mary Ainsworth’s 100th Year," Attachment & Human Development 15, no. 5-6 (2013): 443-447, doi:10.1080/14616734.2013.841058.

11

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Parent-Child Bond and Attachment Behavioral System In A Secure Base: Parent-Child Attachment and Healthy Human Development, Bowlby concludes that infants inherently develop in a “socially cooperative way,” but this development is strongly influenced by the way the infant is treated.12 This cooperative bond is influenced by the parental involvement with the infant, specifically meeting the child’s physical and emotional needs. An infant may develop an attachment to a primary caregiver that consistently meets these needs and will seek to keep proximity with the primary attachment figure.13 If removed from the primary attachment figure, infants produce verbal and non-verbal cues of their anxiety, such as crying and looking around for the primary attachment figure.14 Taking Bowlby’s theory, Ainsworth developed the “strange situations” experiment to demonstrate the anxiety an infant feels when separated from the primary attachment figure.15 In the experiment, 12-month-old babies were brought into the laboratory and then separated and

12

John Bowlby, A Secure Base: Parent-Child Attachment and Healthy Human Development (New York: Basic Books, 1988), 9.

13

John Bowlby, Attachment, 267.

14

R. Chris Fraley, "A Brief Overview of Adult Attachment Theory and Research," University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign Department of Psychology, last modified 2018, http://labs.psychology.illinois.edu/~rcfraley/attachment.html.

15

Mary D. Salter Ainsworth et al., Patterns of Attachment: A Psychological Study of the Strange Situation (New York: Routledge, 2015).

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reunited with their mothers. The results of the experiment led to the description of three attachment descriptors: secure, anxious-resistant, and avoidant.16 Children with secure attachment will become upset when they are separated from the attachment figure, but can be comforted when the attachment figure returns, while a child with anxious-resistant attachment reacts in a way that seeks comfort from, and punishment of, the attached figure.17 Avoidant attachment children will show little distress when the attachment figure leaves and will avoid contact upon his or her return.

As Bowlby and Ainsworth describe, children with secure attachments will not only seek to maintain close proximity with their attachment figure, but will also use their attachment figure as “a secure base from which to explore.”18 Through this function of attachment, children feel safe to explore away from their primary attachment figure so long as they are assured that the attachment figure will not leave or abandon them.

The final function of the attachment system, for the purpose of integrating attachment theory with biblical counseling, is viewing the primary attachment figure as a “haven of safety.”19 When a child as young as three months is startled by a loud noise or unexpected commotion, she will look first to her primary attachment figure for comfort. At the age of eight

16

Ainsworth et al., Patterns of Attachment, 88-93.

17

Ainsworth et al., Patterns of Attachment, 88-93.

18

John Bowlby, Attachment, 302.

19

John Bowlby, Attachment, 303.

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months, similar stimuli will cause the child to retreat to the safety of her primary attachment figure “as fast as possible.”20

Impact of Early Attachment While Bowlby’s first volume of Attachment and Loss was released in 1969, his work into the impact of early attachment began much earlier. In 1946, Bowlby published Forty-four Juvenile Thieves, a case study of 44 juveniles with a history of thievery.21 Of the 44 juvenile delinquents included in the study, 17 had experienced separation, prolonged or permanent, from their primary caregiver before the age of five.22 Additional research has been conducted on this topic, with many pointing to the importance of secure attachment early in life. Young et al. concluded that children who were rated as secure in Ainsworth’s “Strange Situation” at 12 and 18 months scored higher in agreeableness and conscientiousness at age 32. They also scored lower on neuroticism.23

20

John Bowlby, Attachment, 303.

21

John Bowlby, Forty-Four Juvenile Thieves: Their Character and Home-Life (London: Bailliere, Tindall & Cox, 1946).

22 23

Richard Bowlby and King, 13.

Ethan S. Young et al., "Childhood Attachment and Adult Personality: A Life History Perspective," Self and Identity 18, no. 1 (2017): 34, Ebscohost.

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Conversely, participants who were rated insecure in the same experiment scored lower in agreeableness and conscientiousness at age 32. They also scored higher on neuroticism.24 Other studies have shown a correlation between insecure attachment as a child with neuroticism and anxiety as an adolescent and adult. Children who failed to establish a secure attachment were more likely to be rated as anxious and have social phobias, and Kerns and Brumariu concluded that insecure parent-child attachment was a risk factor for the development of anxiety.25 Another study looking at the importance of early secure attachment involved children raised on an Israeli kibbutz.26 In this environment, children participated in communal activities which included their sleeping arrangements. One longitudinal study suggests that the children in these communal sleeping arrangements failed to develop secure attachments, and the attachments they did develop were to the group rather than to caregivers.

This arrangement not only had an effect on the children but the parents as well. Another study of the kibbutz revealed that fathers were more involved with their children and had a

24

Young et al., 34-35.

25

Kathryn A. Kerns and Laura E. Brumariu, "Is Insecure Parent-Child Attachment a Risk Factor for the Development of Anxiety in Childhood or Adolescence?", Child Development Perspectives 8, no. 1 (2013): 12-17, doi:10.1111/cdep.12054.

26

Klaus E Grossmann, Karin Grossmann, and Everett Waters, Attachment from Infancy to Adulthood (New York: Guilford, 2007).

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higher level of satisfaction with fatherhood when the children were sleeping at home rather than in the communal arrangements of the kibbutz.27

Physiological and Psychophysiological Considerations of the Attachment System Much like Freud and Darwin, Bowlby combined the fields of biology and physiology with his interdisciplinary interest in attachment theory. As science advanced, Bowlby’s original description of the attachment domain was discovered to be the orbitofrontal cortex.28 The orbitofrontal cortex is responsible for some decision making functions such as choice behavior and recency judgment and emotion regulation. Damage to this area can have a negative impact on working memory, context memory, and learning from previous mistakes.29 This deficiency could inhibit attachment.

27

Rachel Lev-Wiesel, "The Effect of Children's Sleeping Arrangements (Communal vs.

Familial) on Fatherhood Among Men in an Israeli Kibbutz," The Journal of Social Psychology 140, no. 5 (2000): 580-588, doi:10.1080/00224540009600497.

28

Allan N. Schore, "Attachment and The Regulation of The Right Brain," Attachment & Human Development 2, no. 1 (2000): 23-47, doi:10.1080/146167300361309.

29

Anaïs Llorens et al., "Preservation of Interference Effects in Working Memory After Orbitofrontal Damage," Frontiers in Human Neuroscience 13 (2020), doi:10.3389/fnhum.2019.00445.

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Another psychophysiological consideration in attachment theory is that of children with autism. According to Bowlby, “Whereas an ordinary child [when frightened or in pain] will almost certainly go to his mother, neither a child who has become detached as a result of long deprivation of maternal care nor an autistic child is likely to do so.”30 Bowlby’s claim about autistic children has been challenged, however. Recent research suggests that autistic children with “sensitively responsive” mothers may form attachments that are similar to those of nonautistic children.31 This finding may further support the importance of the primary attachment figure’s disposition, involvement, and availability during the early formative months, particularly for autistic children.

Adult Models of Attachment Simply put, attachment in adults takes Bowlby’s principles of attachment and applies them to adult relationships. These relationships can include platonic and romantic relationships with other adults, and also attachment with children and the elderly.

In 1987, Cindy Hazan and Phillip Shaver were among the first to take the tenets of Bowlby’s attachment theory and apply it to adult romantic relationships.32 This was not to say that romantic love is attachment, but rather a biological response to facilitate it. In their attempt

30

John Bowlby, Attachment, 335.

31

Agata Rozga et al., "A Short-Term Longitudinal Study of Correlates and Sequelae of Attachment Security in Autism," Attachment & Human Development 20, no. 2 (2017): 162, doi:10.1080/14616734.2017.1383489.

32

Cindy Hazan and Phillip Shaver, "Romantic Love Conceptualized as an Attachment Process," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 52, no. 3 (1987): 511-524, doi:10.1037/0022-3514.52.3.511.

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to create a “coherent framework for understanding love,” Hazan and Shaver used Bowlby’s attachment theory to understand how love develops, how healthy and unhealthy forms of love develop, how love and loneliness are related, and how love fits in an evolutionary context.33 Hazan and Shaver encouraged the pursuit of additional research in adult attachment, thinking that future results could show “that adult love is more complex than infant-caretaker attachment.”34 In 1991, Bartholomew and Horowitz expanded the research of Hazan and Shaver by considering the role of attachment in shaping an individual’s self-view and view of others.

Bartholomew and Horowitz were the first to define four models of adult attachment: secure, preoccupied, dismissing, and fearful.35 Adults with secure attachment have a positive view of self and others. They are emotionally stable, being open to intimacy yet respectful of partners’ autonomy. By contrast, adults with preoccupied attachment have a negative view of self but a positive view of others.

The resulting sense of inferiority causes them to be clingy or “preoccupied” with friends, spouses, and significant others. Preoccupied attachment finds its mirror image in dismissive attachment. Dismissive adults have a positive view of self but a negative view of others. Their feelings of superiority make them prone to dismiss intimacy with others. The final attachment,

33

Hazan and Shaver, 511.

34

Hazan and Shaver, 511.

35

Kim Bartholomew and Leonard M. Horowitz, "Attachment Styles Among Young Adults: A Test af a Four-Category Model," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 61, no.

2 (1991): 226-244, doi:10.1037/0022-3514.61.2.226.

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fearful, features a negative view of self and others. An adult with this attachment is often fearful of intimacy and is socially avoidant.36 The expansion on Bowlby’s attachment model continues in adult studies. Recent research on adult models of attachment has studied topics such as volitional change in attachment type, suicide in the elderly, and social network addiction.37, 38, 39 The future of adult attachment research is seemingly without bounds so long as there is at least one adult in the relationship. For example, there have been numerous studies since 2019 of attachment theory and smart phone addiction.40, 41

Attachment Theory and God As Attachment Figure Theologian Gordon Kaufman was perhaps the first to apply Bowlby’s theory of attachment to a person’s relationship with God. In 1981, Kaufman stated, “the idea of God is the

36

Bartholomew and Horowitz, 226-244.

37

Nathan W. Hudson, William J. Chopik and Daniel A. Briley, "Volitional Change in Adult Attachment: Can People Who Want to Become Less Anxious and Avoidant Move Closer Towards Realizing Those Goals?", European Journal of Personality 34, no. 1 (2020): 93-114, doi:10.1002/per.2226.

38

Awirut Oon-arom et al., "Suicidality in the Elderly: Role of Adult Attachment," Asian Journal of Psychiatry 44 (2019): 8-12, doi:10.1016/j.ajp.2019.07.014.

39

Chang Liu and Jian-Ling Ma, "Adult Attachment Orientations and Social Networking Site Addiction: The Mediating Effects of Online Social Support and the Fear of Missing Out," Frontiers in Psychology 10 (2019), doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02629.

40

Natasha Parent and Jennifer Shapka, "Moving Beyond Addiction: An Attachment Theory Framework for Understanding Young Adults' Relationships With Their Smartphones," Human Behavior and Emerging Technologies 2, no. 2 (2019): 179-185, doi:10.1002/hbe2.180.

41

Jia Nie, Pengcheng Wang and Li Lei, "Why Can't We Be Separated from Our Smartphones? The Vital Roles Of Smartphone Activity in Smartphone Separation Anxiety," Computers in Human Behavior 109 (2020): 106351, doi:10.1016/j.chb.2020.106351.

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idea of an absolutely adequate attachment figure…God is thought of as a protective parent who is always reliable and always available to its children when they are in need.”42 Kaufman’s remark displayed a natural connection between Christian theology and attachment theory. There is a consistent reoccurrence of terminology in Bowlby’s works that will ring familiar in a Christian’s ears. Protection, safety, provision, and comfort are all key concepts in attachment and are also attributes of God. Referring to God as “Heavenly Father” further exemplifies the familial connection and expectation of secure attachment.

However, belief in God does not necessarily mean secure attachment for a child or adult.

Though there is benefit for many to think of God as a father figure, for some the thought of God being anything like their earthly father would bring discomfort. Exline et al. confirmed in a 2013 study that parental neglect or cruelty can result in the child being angry with God or fearful of His abandonment.43 Due to this hesitation to attach to God, there may be an important need for the implementation of attachment theory in a biblical setting. Counselors in this situation should be prepared (1 Pet. 3:15) to recognize in the counselee the four models of adult attachment, as

42

Kaufman, Gordon D., The Theological Imagination: Constructing the Concept of God (Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1981), 67.

43

Julie J. Exline, Steffany J. Homolka and Joshua B. Grubbs, "Negative Views of Parents and Struggles with God: An Exploration of Two Mediators," Journal of Psychology and Theology 41, no. 3 (2013): 200-212, doi:10.1177/009164711304100303.

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described by Bartholomew and Horowitz, and show God as a substitutionary primary attachment figure.44, 45 In the following discussion, the phrases “biblical counseling,” “counseling,” and “in a biblical setting” may be used interchangeably. Each describes a Christian approach to therapy that Tan describes as “Christ centered, biblically based, and Spirit filled.”46 Applying Bowlby’s three functions of attachment -- proximity, secure base, and haven of safety – can assist the Christian counselor in displaying God as a primary attachment figure and, most importantly, can be supported by Scripture. A counselor in a biblical setting, according to Adams, “must develop the ability to translate the principles of the Scriptures into concrete applications to specific life situations.”47 Fortunately, Scripture validates our need for proximity to God, for God as a secure base, and for God as a haven of safety. The discussion of Psalm 23, below, is by no means exhaustive but is a starting point for further research.

Proximity to God As Bowlby describes infants seeking “proximity” to the “primary attachment figure,” so Christians are called to “draw near” to God and “seek [His] face” (Hebrews 10:22, Psalm 27:8).

Furthermore, just as babies’ attachment to their parents stems from the provision of love,

44

All Scripture references are from the New American Standard Bible unless otherwise

45

Bartholomew and Horowitz, 226-244.

46

Tan, 15.

noted.

47

Jay E. Adams, The Christian Counselor's Manual: The Practice of Nouthetic Counseling (Zondervan, 2010), ch. 19, n. pag., Proquest.

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protection, and assurance, so the Christian’s attachment to God stems from the provision of the same or similar needs.

In the 23rd Psalm, David reflects on the many paternal attributes of God such as His loving discipline, comfort, protection, and provision. Beginning with verse one of the Psalm, David affirms the Lord’s role of protector and provider: “The Lord is my shepherd, I will not be in need.”

Another important facet of this verse is the imagery that it conveys. Describing God as a shepherd implies the idea of the author, and subsequently the reader, as being sheep. This comparison, while potentially a “cute” visual by modern perceptions, was not a flattering comparison. Sheep are thought as dumb and directionless, or, stated another way, in constant need of protection and direction. This is not unlike the infant child, and this understanding of dependence helps in the attachment process. Understanding the station of the person in the presence of an omniscient, omnipresent God would assist similarly in the attachment to God. David continues to outline the paternal aspect of God through the remainder of the 23rd Psalm. In verse three, he acknowledges God as a healer when he penned “(God) restores my soul,” and then again immediately in verse four as he describes the safety he feels knowing that God is with him. His apparent secure attachment is displayed in verse six as David has developed the faith that God’s “goodness and faithfulness will follow (David) all the days of (his) life” and that his dwelling will be “in the house of the Lord forever.”

The 23rd Psalm shows David as one that seeks and finds comfort in his proximity to God, as a sheep find comforts from the shepherd. David’s admission of complete dependence upon God for provision, protection, and direction is parallel to the dependence of an infant upon his or

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her parents. Seeing oneself in a state of dependence upon God, and more importantly recognizing when one has drifted from God’s protection, is an important factor in one seeing God as a primary attachment figure.

God as a Safe Haven When an infant is hurt or startled, she will look for her primary attachment figure to provide comfort. So, too, the Christian walk includes many hazards and trials, but the 23rd Psalm describes the safety found in being near to God: “Even though I walk through the valley of the shadow of death, I fear no evil, for you are with me; Your rod and your staff, they comfort me.”

As an infant develops security by learning to trust in the constant presence and protective nature of their primary attachment figure, the Christian can rest in the same protective and everpresent attributes of God. God as a Secure Base Infants use their primary attachment figure as a secure base from which they explore and to which they return. In verse six of the 23rd Psalm, David expresses his security in God as a secure base when he writes, “Certainly goodness and faithfulness will follow me all of the days of my life, and my dwelling will be in the house of the Lord forever.”

There are two implications from this verse that can be viewed through a lens of God as a secure base. First, when David says that “goodness and faithfulness” will follow him, it implies that David is not staying stagnant. This is not to say that David, or any Christian, has been given carte blanche and can live outside the will of God, but rather that as a Christian examines his faith (2 Cor. 13:5) and moves through sanctification, God will be ever present.

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Second, David implies the permanence of God’s goodness and faithfulness. This security of knowing that God, as a secure base, will be there today, tomorrow, and a thousand years from now (Heb. 13:8) underscores the security in his attachment to God. The 23rd Psalm is not an exhaustive reference for God as a primary attachment figure, but it is succinctly thorough as a basis for demonstrating the benefit of proximity to God, God as a safe haven, and God as a secure base in a biblical counseling setting.

Recent Research on Attachment Theory As attachment theory has gained recognition, the amount and diversity of research has increased apace. Below is a summary of some recent noteworthy research in regard to attachment theory, adult attachment, and religious attachment.

Heidi Keller published her findings of the universality of attachment theory, specifically applying the WEIRD (western, educated, industrialized, rich, democratic) framework to attachment theory as it is viewed in the rest of the world.48 She concluded that in order for researchers to evaluate parent-child relationships accurately, researchers must first understand the practices of the specific culture in question. This conclusion echoes the assertion made by Tan that effective Christian counseling requires “cultural sensitivity and cross-cultural or multicultural counseling skills.”49

Heidi Keller, "Universality Claim of Attachment Theory: Children’s Socioemotional Development Across Cultures," Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 115, no. 45 (2018): 11414-11419, doi:10.1073/pnas.1720325115.

48

49

Tan, 337.

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Guy Bosmans attempted to integrate attachment theory with cognitive behavior therapy (CBT). Bosmans admitted that practitioners of CBT often feel hesitant to acknowledge attachment theory, but postulated that restoring a child’s insecure attachment could be integrated with CBT for the benefit of the child.50 According to Tan, the most popular therapeutic model self-reported by mental health professional is an eclectic/integrative therapy.51 Bosmans’ research may result in an increase of the integration of attachment theory and CBT. Much of the recent research on adult attachment examines attachment style relative to secondary variables such as living with HIV/AIDS, professional burnout, and online dating. One research project of note is from Melissa McNelis and Chris Segrin. In 2019, they published their findings on insecure attachment as a predictor for divorce.52 This correlation may have an impact on biblical counselors, especially those in family and marriage counseling.

With attachment in religious context, a recent study by Leman et al. found that secure attachment to God correlated to psychological health.53 Their findings underscore the necessity for biblical counselors to have a basic understanding of attachment theory, specifically of adult attachment styles.

50

Guy Bosmans, "Cognitive Behaviour Therapy for Children and Adolescents: Can Attachment Theory Contribute to Its Efficacy?", Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review 19, no. 4 (2016): 310-328, doi:10.1007/s10567-016-0212-3.

51

Tan, 8.

52

Melissa McNelis and Chris Segrin, "Insecure Attachment Predicts History of Divorce, Marriage, and Current Relationship Status," Journal of Divorce & Remarriage 60, no. 5 (2019): 404-417, doi:10.1080/10502556.2018.1558856.

53

Joseph Leman et al., "Secure Attachment to God Uniquely Linked to Psychological Health in a National, Random Sample of American Adults," The International Journal for the Psychology of Religion 28, no. 3 (2018): 162-173, doi:10.1080/10508619.2018.1477401.

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Conclusion In sum, the depth and potential implementation of attachment theory in secular and biblical counseling is seemingly boundless. Continued research on the topic may create a new paradigm in biblical counseling as opportunities for integration grow. Christian counselors will benefit from knowing the basic tenets of attachment theory and should use God-given discernment to recognize attachment styles and their potential effect in the life of the counselee.

Conversely, they should recognize their limitations and be willing to refer if necessary.

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The Convincing Work of the Preacher

by Mark McElreath1 Introduction As Paul reached the end of his earthly life and ministry, he strove to leave behind a series of exhortations to Christians. All Christians may glean from his writings, but no one group will benefit more than preachers—in particular Paul’s preachers, Timothy and Titus. Paul’s final charge to Titus encompassed everything that Paul had taught him. Paul left Titus in Crete to “set in order the things that are wanting,” or had not met the mark of what a church should be (Titus 1:5). Titus was charged to care for these things and bring them up to the level of expectation Paul had for them.

In the book of Titus, Paul lists a number of principles related to the work of pastoring, and one of these lists appears in chapter one. The list includes principles both domestic and personal, but at the end of the list comes a charge to Titus to “convince.” The convincing work of a preacher is one of the most important works the preacher has been given to do in his ministry.

What Does It Mean to Convince?

The word translated convince is the Greek word elencho (ἐλέγχω). Elencho is used eighteen times in the New Testament but is translated “convince” only four times. The word

1

Mark McElreath is a current D.Min. student at Luther Rice College and Seminary. He serves as an adjunct professor of Bible and Church Ministry at The Crown College of the Bible in Powell, Tennessee. Mark has served in ministry for eleven years--three of those as a church planter in Ethiopia. He is planting City Baptist Church in inner-city Atlanta in November 2021.

His research interests include contemporary issues and their effect on world evangelism.

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means “to convict, confute, refute.” According to Vine, it is used in varying situations including telling one their fault (Matthew 18:15) and speaking of convicting of sin (John 8:46).2 The uses of the word are helpful in determining what Paul is trying to convey to Titus concerning the convincing work of the preacher.

At first, the reader may surmise that the convincing work of a pastor has to do with winsomeness and charm. It may be that the attitude of the pastor toward his listeners can win them over in some convincing way. One may even consider the convincing work a pastor does while carrying out an altar call or a gospel appeal. One could connect the pastor’s convincing work with the “new measures” of the 19th century codified by Charles Finney and other contemporary preachers. Historians Walker, Norris, Lotz, and Hand remark that these “new measures” focused on the projected outcome a preacher could produce by carrying out specific actions in a religious meeting. These tactics could include, but were not limited to, “unseasonable hours,” the use of long or “protracted” meetings, a seeker’s or “anxious” bench located at the front of the auditorium, and even using harsh language in one’s preaching. Though these measures were not necessarily new, they had come into fashion with many revival preachers of the time. The tactics were used to produce the goal of seeing sinners converted in public meetings.3 Though it may seem that this is what Paul is telling Titus to do, it is not what

W. E. Vine, Vine’s Complete Expository Dictionary of Old and New Testament Words (Nashville: Thomas Nelson, 1996), 128-129.

2

3

Williston Walker, Richard A. Norris, David W. Lotz, and Robert T. Hand; A History of the Christian Church, Fourth Edition (New York City: Pearson, 1985), 653-655.

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Paul is talking about in Titus 1:9. The principle of convincing has more to it than mere showmanship.

Upon careful study and close comparison with other passages where the word elencho is used, it becomes clear that the convincing work of a preacher has to do with pastoring more than it has to do with preaching alone. The convincing work of a pastor is out of a concern and love for his flock. In the context of Titus 1:9, it becomes clear that this convincing work is aimed at “gainsayers.” These “gainsayers” are literally “those who contradict.”4 The first reference to the gainsayer gives a clear understanding to its usage and is given in Luke 2:34 when Simeon gives his prophetical record that Christ is given “for a sign which shall be spoken against.” From the time of His birth, it was clear that there were those who would seek to contradict the work that the Lord Jesus Christ had been given to do and the things of God in general. Those who oppose God and His work have existed in every age, and the New Testament was no different. John Phillips drives the point home that it was Titus’ responsibility to call out those who stood in opposition to God’s work and convict (or convince) them of their sin. A pastor who has been properly trained should be ready to stand against these gainsayers.5 The idea of “convincing” may still be unclear to the reader. Titus 2:9, just one chapter later, sheds some light on the matter. Titus 2:9 reads, “Exhort servants to be obedient unto their own masters, and to please them well in all things; not answering again.” Paul’s message to Titus is that servants were to be obedient to the commands of their masters as good followers of Christ,

W. E. Vine, Vine’s Complete Expository Dictionary of Old and New Testament Words (Nashville: Thomas Nelson, 1996), 260.

4

5

John Phillips, Exploring the Pastoral Epistles (Grand Rapids: Kregel, 2003), 244.

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but there is something more given to us concerning the matter of convincing. The word translated for the phrase “not answering again” is the Greek word antilego (ἀντιλέγω). This is the same word used in Titus 1:9 for the word “gainsayers.” The connection between these two usages is that the pastor is to answer those who oppose the Word of God with such veracity that they cannot speak against it. Just as the servant is “not answering again” toward his master, so the “gainsayer” has nothing to say against the message which the pastor has proclaimed.

Who Does the Convincing?

Now that the word has been defined, one must ask, “Who does the convincing?” It may be apparent at first that it is the pastor’s responsibility to convince, but context makes it clear otherwise. The beginning of Titus 1:9 gives clarity in that it points Titus to his source material for the convincing work he is supposed to carry out. The beginning of verse nine says, “Holding fast the faithful word as he hath been taught.” So, Titus is to “hold” to the “faithful word.” This is, of course, God’s Word. It is a “faithful word” because it is true in its record, and it has been faithfully passed down to each generation—specifically here from Paul to Titus. It was the “faithful word” because Titus had been taught it by Paul. The beginning of the next clause shows us why Titus was to hold to this “faithful word.” Paul says in the second half of verse nine, “that he may be able by sound doctrine both to exhort and to convince the gainsayers.” He is holding to the “faithful word” because he needs it so “that” he can “exhort” and “convince.” He is not holding to winsomeness or charm. Titus is to hold to the “faithful word” because it alone is what will bring true conviction.

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Calvin explains it in this way: “The pastor needs two voices, one for gathering the sheep and the other for driving away wolves and thieves.”6 Calvin writes these words in reference to the words “exhort” and “convince” given in Titus 1:9. The “two voices” of the pastor have very different functions. “Exhort” speaks of him building up his people while “convince” speaks of him tearing down the false work of the gainsayers. “Exhort” is connected to his strengthening those things which remain while “convince” is connected to the scattering of those things which we should reject. The word translated “exhort” in verse nine is the Greek word parakaleo (παρακαλέω). It is used well over one hundred times in the New Testament and gives the sense of “calling or inviting to one’s side” in order to comfort, entreat, or pray with. This is entirely different from the ministry of convincing. In light of these two pastoral duties, the only strategy the pastor has is to properly wield the light of God’s Word to expose the darkness that is represented by those who oppose the Lord and oppose His work in this world.

Progressing through the passage further, it becomes clear why the pastor must be ready to “convince.” At this time in Crete, there were many who claimed to be teachers and followers of Christianity, but in reality, they were false believers. They claimed to be Christian, but they were not. Many, if not all of them, were Jews. This is clear from the reference in Titus 1:10 that these false teachers were “of the circumcision.” Circumcision here refers to the religious rite of circumcising a child as part of the Jewish system of the law. These Jews may have believed they were accepted in the sight of God because of their beliefs or because of their lineage as Jews, but they were not true Christians. They were not true Christians because they had not had a true

6

John Calvin, The Crossway Classic Commentaries (Wheaton: Crossway, 1998), n. pag., Ebscohost.

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conversion experience in which they accepted Christ as their Savior. Verse sixteen tells us that “They profess that they know God; but in works they deny him.” Their words express one thing—that they know God—while their works prove to those watching that they never truly had a salvation experience.

Since these “gainsayers” are not Christians, how should they be dealt with? It has been established that they are to be dealt with from God’s Word as the “faithful word,” but they also have to be approached carefully in regard to their understanding. Dr. Martyn Lloyd Jones comments that the pastor wants to reach the heart, but the heart is rarely engaged directly.7 Rather, the heart is engaged through the understanding. Jones states that the biblical order is mind, then heart, then will. The mind is the faculty which receives and analyzes truth. One may say, “Will not the unbeliever refuse truth outright in their fallen state?” This may be true. The unbeliever may turn a hardened neck or a closed ear toward the truth presented, but that is not the issue. The issue, Jones reasons, is that the pastor is faithfully wielding the truth and, when truth is wielded, the hardest neck is broken, and the tightest ear that once was closed is opened.8 God works in this way to reach the heart of man.

The Competency in Use Today The convincing work of the pastor is very needed today. In evaluating the use of the work today and how it fits within the church, one must consider its use initially. As Thomas Lea and

7

D. Martyn Lloyd-Jones, Spiritual Depression (London: Marshall Pickering, 1965), 62,

8

Loyd-Jones, 62.

Kindle.

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Hayne P. Griffin write, the competency of conviction has an “educative dimension.”9 The competency is to be used for restoration as opposed to demolition. Lee and Griffin argue that the pastor should seek to bring the false teacher into the flock by showing him his error and then winning him to the Lord. This approach relies upon the fact that the false teaching is going on in the church and that is why the pastor must face it with restoration in mind. Those who are teaching “profess that they know God” (Titus 1:16) but have made it clear by their actions that they do not know Him. Lea and Griffin’s approach goes hand in hand with that of Belleville, Laansma and Michaels in that this convincing work is a part of church discipline.10 Belleville, Laansma, and Michaels see discipline as coming from the church and being implemented within the church.

They cite Matthew 18:15, in which those in the church are charged to approach those who are at fault. Those who have done wrong are like the “gainsayers” of Titus 1:9 in that they have opposed the believer who is in the right. Personal wrongdoing becomes a matter of church discipline because, if the one at fault does not make amends with the one he has wronged, then more believers within the church are to be brought into the issue. The matter should be brought to “the church” as a last resort to make things right.

Both of the preceding examples rightly keep the church involved but seem to overlook the fact that, though the teaching in respect to Titus 1 is being done in the church, it is not being done by believers. The teaching is being done by false believers, and the false believers must be

9

Thomas Lea and Hayne P. Griffin, 1, 2 Timothy, Titus: An Exegetical and Theological Exposition of Holy Scripture (Nashville: B&H Publishing, 1992), 271, Ebscohost.

10

Linda Belleville, Jon Laansma and J. Ramsey Michaels, 1-2 Timothy, Titus, Hebrews (Carol Stream: Tyndale House Publishers, 2009), n. pag., Ebscohost.

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dealt with. They are not part of the body of Christ and, therefore, not under the care of the church. They are to be dealt with as false teachers. It can be assumed from Scripture that these are false believers (Titus 1:16). Though Paul does not describe the precise nature of the gainsayer’s teaching here in the book of Titus, it seems to be different than the false teaching that he combats in other epistles. As Paul states in Titus 1:11, the Cretan gainsayers seem particularly motivated by “filthy lucre’s sake.” These false believers are teaching “what they ought not” and are doing so for gain. R.E. Howard suggests that these teachers must be stopped for this very reason.11 The Bible makes abundantly clear that false teachers must be exposed. This is true of today as much as it was of the early church. But how should false teachers be dealt with? The preaching of God’s Word is not the course of action called for by many in Christianity today. For example, an article in Christianity Today from February 1997 entitled “Why Our Friends Won’t Stop, Look, and Listen” pushes for what it calls “corollary apologetics.”12 A number of secular and social concerns are mentioned from teaching English on the mission field to having successful people in society give a testimony in public meetings. The idea behind this is to show people that Christianity is plausible in the first place before trying to get someone saved. One preacher, John Wesley, is mentioned in the article. His contribution to “corollary apologetics” is that “He devoted enormous energy to structuring a variety of groups to lead people into the

11

R.E. Howard, Galatians through Philemon (Kansas City: Nazarene Publishing House, 1965), n. pag., Ebscohost.

John G. Stackhouse, Jr., 1997. “Why Our Friends Won’t Stop, Look, and Listen” Christianity Today (February 3, 1997): 49-51, ATLA. 12

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Christian faith and to help them mature” and that he would not preach anywhere he could not leave behind these groups.13 In the context of the article, it is made to seem that these groups are nothing more than social gatherings for the betterment of humanity. The author of the article fails to see that these “groups” were churches. John Wesley was a fiery preacher of personal holiness, and he made his greatest contribution to the idea of personal holiness within the Methodist church. He was not a crusader against the ills of society. Instead, he was a crusader for right living because he knew that is what would ultimately change society. Samuel Chadwick helps to shed some light on Wesley’s approach to preaching and society when he says of him, “Wesley did not give himself to academic discussion, but to the preaching of the Word of God.”14 Furthermore, the Christianity Today article does give a glimpse of true conviction in that it calls for dependence upon the Holy Spirit to “shine out through all the various lamps of good works” while it fails to understand the true nature of the church itself.15 In summary, it gives this charge in light of convincing our friends, “these created environments [churches, parachurch organizations, etc.], are places in which people can consider the Christian claims if those claims really might be true.”16 The error which could very easily creep into a church with this outlook is the idea that the church exists for the lost. The church does not exist for the lost. The church exists for the saved. The church is never told to bring sinners in so that they can “consider the

13

Stackhouse, 50.

14

Samuel Chadwick, The Call to Christian Perfection (Kansas City: Beacon Hill Press,

1943), 4.

15

Stackhouse, 51.

16

Stackhouse, 51.

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Christian claims.” Praise God when a sinner does come into a church service, but the church service should never be crafted around an attempt to win over the lost. The church is commanded to “go and tell.” The great work of the church is done outside the four walls of a building. The church and believers also do not exist just to carry out good works. The Christianity Today article has it backward. Whether the church or its message seems plausible or not or whether it comes across as intellectually stimulating, the church and the preacher will always have the responsibility to present the Word of God in clear terms for all people. That is where the power is. A pastor can convince by using the Word of God whether he is skilled in debate or argument or not. The power comes from God’s Word and the Holy Spirit. The convincing work of the preacher is carried out in just that way. The preacher goes to God’s Word, preaches it faithfully, and depends upon the Holy Spirit for the results.

Paul makes it clear how these “gainsayers” are to be dealt with—“through preaching” (Titus 1:3). He makes it clear that it is “through preaching” that God has “manifested his word” and that is exactly how false teaching should be dealt with. John Broadus gives a number of reasons why argument should be an element in preaching when dealing with “gainsayers.”17 He affirms that the offender may decide out of hand that they will not accept the premise of the Bible preacher but that changing their mind is not the goal. Rather, the goal of the Bible preacher is to “fill the mind with the evidence” and allow it to overcome the listener.18

17

John Broadus, On the Preparation and Delivery of Sermons (New York: Harper & Row Publishers, 1944), 168.

18

Broadus, 179.

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Broadus says that “Every preacher, then, ought to develop and discipline his powers in respect to argument.”19 He goes on to give several warnings to preachers who are to engage in argument from the pulpit. First, to those who by nature and temperament are disinclined to argue, Broadus encourages them to train in the discipline conscientiously. Broadus states that argument is a skill that may be perfected over time through diligent practice. By the same token, to those who naturally excel in debate, Broadus urges them not to rely on eloquence or force of personality. Overconfidence may lead to laziness and slipshod arguments, leaving a door open to opposition.

Second, Broadus exhorts to argue for truth rather than victory. Because of the old adage, “preachers are never replied to,” the preacher should be sure that he is expressing truth. He does not have to “win” with every statement because it is the Word of God which is accomplishing the work of convincing. Broadus states, “We must keep uppermost in our minds the desire to establish truth, and let refutation be strictly and manifestly subordinate.”20 Third, Broadus advises to keep arguments simple. The preacher does not have to act in such a way that every statement must be an argument nor that every statement must be complex.

The preacher can rest in the truth of Scripture alone to do the convincing work.

Fourth, Broadus warns not to seek to refute an objection that cannot be refuted fully or satisfactorily. To leave an objection with an incomplete refutation is to leave an opportunity for the gainsayer to sneak in and bring doubt or overthrow the entire argument. Approach arguments with sound and sufficient answers.

19

Broadus, 186.

20

Broadus, 187.

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Fifth, Broadus states that the preacher should prefer those arguments which are “plain and unquestionable.”21 This type of argumentation prioritizes common sense and enables the people listening to understand what is presented without being overwhelmed by an enormous corpus of material.

Conclusion In summary, the spiritual competency of convincing is just as needed today as it was in the first-century church. The preacher must be ready to answer the gainsayers and to do so with the Word of God in hand and with dependence upon the Holy Spirit.

21

Broadus, 194.

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The Impact of COVID-19 and an EF-4 Tornado in Coweta County, Georgia

By Ann Kerlin, Ph.D1 Introduction This paper describes the results of a study created to explore the impact of COVID-19 on clients at One Roof Ecumenical Alliance Outreach, a faith-based charity located in Coweta County, Georgia. About halfway through the data collection process, this county was struck by an EF-4 tornado during the night of March 25-26, 2021. Many public buildings as well as 1,726 homes were damaged; of these, 99 homes were destroyed, and 174 received major damage. The tornado struck an area that included many lower-income residents, displacing both renters and homeowners, many of whom were without insurance. In fact, the Coweta County School System declared that an additional 119 students were classified as homeless according to the McKinneyVento Homeless Assistance Act, 42 U.S.C. §11431 et seq. due to the tornado. The area was declared a federal disaster site by President Biden. It is estimated that it will require 3 years to physically recover from all the damage. Having experienced both a global pandemic and a very destructive tornado, the implications for the mental health of the community are a concern..2,3

1

Ann Kerlin, PhD, Liberty University, 2013. Dr. Kerlin has an M.Div. from Luther Rice College & Seminary, and an MA in Human Services from Liberty University. She is a Licensed Professional Counselor who also enjoys research on trauma and addictions. She is the coordinator of the MABC program at LRCS. Wei Shi and Brian J. Hall, “What Can We Do for People Exposed to Multiple Traumatic Events during the Coronavirus Pandemic?,” Asian Journal of Psychiatry 51 (June 1, 2020): 102-165, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajp.2020.102065.

2

Harris Hyun-Soo Kim and James Laurence, “COVID-19 Restrictions and Mental Distress among American Adults: Evidence from Corona Impact Survey (W1 and W2),” Journal 3

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The Study Location Coweta County, Georgia is situated in the west central portion of Georgia and is considered part of Metro Atlanta. Per the 2019 U. S. Census data, the population is 148,509. The median income in 2019 was $75,913, with 9.0% of the population living in poverty.

Demographic information indicates that 70.5% of the population is White, 18.4% is Black, 7.3% is Hispanic or Latino, 2.2% is Asian, and 1.6% is other.4 This study began in January 2021 when several interns from the Human Services department at the University of West Georgia joined One Roof for the semester. Designing a survey project seemed in line with their work. The executive director of One Roof, who is also the primary investigator of this project, is a Licensed Professional Counselor in Georgia. It seemed that if there was a need for additional mental health support, One Roof should step up to offer such care or advocate the need for it. One Roof’s clients typically are people living below the federal poverty level, which tends to put them at higher risk for mental distress in times of emergencies. COVID-19 impacted everyone, but those at the lowest economic levels were at highest risk of losing jobs and wages, with the least financial margin.5

of Public Health 42, no. 4 (November 23, 2020): 704–711, https://doi.org/10.1093/pubmed/ fdaa148.

“U.S. Census Bureau QuickFacts: Coweta County, Georgia,” U.S. Census Bureau, last modified 2019, accessed June 1, 2021, https://www.census.gov/quickfacts/cowetacountygeorgia.

4

Michael Karpman et al., “The COVID-19 Pandemic Is Straining Families’ Abilities to Afford Basic Needs: Low-Income and Hispanic Families the Hardest Hit,” The Urban Institute, April 28, 2020, https://www.urban.org/research/publication/covid-19-pandemic-strainingfamilies-abilities-afford-basic-needs.

5

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Multiple researchers in a variety of disciplines have explored the impact of COVID-19.

Much was published in 2020 about the initial impact of social and health policies on current mental health symptoms,6,7 and possible trajectories for an increase in mental health distress over the long term.8 Much more research on the impact of COVID-19 is needed as new variants of the virus enter communities and nations continue to adjust to changing health and economic concerns.

Additionally, the United States has been through divisive political changes9 and civic unrest due to racial strife.10 Multiple factors have been influential in the mental distress of our citizens, in addition to the global pandemic and the local tornado. It is impossible to isolate one source of stress and link it to one particular outcome.

Calliope Holingue et al., “Mental Distress during the COVID-19 Pandemic among US Adults without a Pre-Existing Mental Health Condition: Findings from American Trend Panel Survey,” Preventive Medicine 139 (October 1, 2020): 106-231, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ypmed.

2020.106231.

6

Emma E. McGinty et al., “Psychological Distress and COVID-19–Related Stressors Reported in a Longitudinal Cohort of US Adults in April and July 2020,” Journal of the American Medical Association 324, no. 24 (December 22, 2020): 2555-2557, https://doi.org/ 10.1001/jama.2020.21231.

7

Kira E. Riehm et al., “Trajectories of Mental Distress Among U.S. Adults During the COVID-19 Pandemic,” Annals of Behavioral Medicine 55, no. 2 (February 1, 2021): 93–102, https://doi.org/10.1093/abm/kaaa126.

8

Sameera S. Nayak et al., “Is Divisive Politics Making Americans Sick? Associations of Perceived Partisan Polarization with Physical and Mental Health Outcomes Among Adults in the United States,” Social Science & Medicine 284 (May 4, 2021): 113976, https://doi.org/10.1016/ j.socscimed.2021.113976.

9

Leonard E. Egede and Rebekah J. Walker, “Structural Racism, Social Risk Factors, and Covid-19 — A Dangerous Convergence for Black Americans,” New England Journal of Medicine 383, no. 12 (September 17, 2020): e77(1-3), https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMp2023616.

10

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Purposes and Goals of the Study The primary investigator sought to determine whether the mental health symptoms reported by participants visiting One Roof’s offices were higher than in prior years. To make such a determination, the Kessler-6 screening assessment for serious mental health issues (SMI) was selected.11 This instrument has been used in multiple epidemiological studies such as the National Health Interview Study,12 the National Survey of Midlife Development,13 and the World Health Organization.14 Because there are numerous analyses in large scale data collections, some comparisons with this small study population were deemed feasible.

The purpose of the project was to learn more about One Roof’s clients and the impact of COVID-19 in their lives. The hypothesis was that mental health distress is higher now in 2021 than in previous years.

R. C. Kessler et al., “Short Screening Scales to Monitor Population Prevalences and Trends in Non-Specific Psychological Distress,” Psychological Medicine 32, no. 6 (August 2002): 959–976, https://doi.org/10.1017/s0033291702006074.

11

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, “Early Release of Selected Estimates Based on Data From the 2018 National Health Interview Survey,” May 30, 2019, https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/nhis/releases/released201905.htm#13.

12

Shinichiro Tomitaka et al., “Pattern Analysis of Total Item Score and Item Response of the Kessler Screening Scale for Psychological Distress (K6) in a Nationally Representative Sample of US Adults,” PeerJ 5, no. e2987 (February 9, 2017): 1-15, https://peerj.com/articles/ 2987/.

13

Ronald C. Kessler et al., “Screening for Serious Mental Illness in the General Population with the K6 Screening Scale: Results from the WHO World Mental Health (WMH) Survey Initiative,” International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research 19, no. Suppl 1 (May 31, 2010): 4-22, https://doi.org/10.1002/mpr.310.

14

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Method Study participants completed a survey prepared by the primary investigator, and manually distributed to visitors at One Roof Ecumenical Alliance Outreach. The survey was designed for manual self-administration, although some interns canvassed clients and helped them complete it. Participation was voluntary, and no names were captured or tied to any request made to our organization. The project was approved by the Institutional Review Board at Luther Rice College and Seminary.

Measures The Kessler-6 (K-6) is a short six-question survey rated on a 5-point Likert scale.

Responses are rated from 0 (None of the time) to 4 (All of the time), and total scores range from 0 to 24. Moderate mental distress is indicated when the K-6 ≥5; severe mental illness (SMI) is indicated when the K-6 ≥ 13. Questions include: “During the past 30 days, about how often did you feel… 1) nervous? 2) hopeless? 3) restless or fidgety? 4) so depressed that nothing could cheer you up? 5) that everything was an effort? 6) worthless?” Cronbach’s alpha was .89 in the original research15 and .90 in this study.

Several non-standard questions were included. The first was: “Thinking back to January 2020 and comparing it to today, what is true of your financial situation?” This was rated on a 5point Likert scale, rated from 0 to 4, beginning with 0 = “It’s much better”, “It’s a little better”, “It’s about the same”, “It’s a little worse”, ending with 4 = “It’s much worse.”

15

Kessler et al., 969.

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Participants were asked to check all the events related to COVID-19 that occurred in their lives. Included on this list were “You had COVID-19”, “A family member had COVID-19”, “A friend died from COVID-19”, “A family member died from COVID-19”, “You were quarantined”, “You lost a job because of COVID-19”, and “Your hours were cut due to COVID19.”

A question about faith was included, and participants could select more than one answer: “How would you describe your faith in God these days?” Answer choices were 1) I have drawn closer to God lately, 2) I am praying and attending church more often 3) I am beginning to wonder if God even hears my prayers, 4) I am angry at God and 5) I don’t really believe in God. Basic demographic information was also collected which included gender, ethnicity, date of birth, zip code, and income levels. Participants had to select an income level which were ranked as follows 1) $0-$12,880, 2) $12,881-$18,000 3) $18,001-$30,000 or 4) $30,000 and up.

All statistical analyses were performed using SPSS Version 27.0 (IBM Corp., 2020).

Participants Researchers collected 110 surveys from participants; 101 of them were completed and available for use in the study. Results of the demographic information are displayed in Table 1.

Table 1: Demographics N (%)

Mean

SD*

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Female

68 (67.3%)

White

43 (42.6%)

Black

49 (48.5%)

Hispanic

1 (1.0%)

Other

8 (7.9%)

Coweta County Resident

81 (80.2%)

From another county or not specified

20 (19.8%)

Age range

18-88

Income Levels** 1) $0-$12,880

55 (54.5%)

2) $12,881 to $18000

15 (14.9%)

3) $18,001 to $30,000

13 (12.9%)

4) $30,000 and up

11 (10.9%)

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50.3

15.6

1.79

1.08

* SD = standard deviation. ** Seven participants provided no response (7.3%).

The mean score and frequencies from the K-6 assessment were rated on a 5-point Likert scale and results are displayed in Table 2. The mean score (the average of scores from all six questions shown below) was equal to 7.22 (SD = 6.7), which falls into the moderate mental distress category. A total of 54 participants (53.4%) indicated they were experiencing moderate or severe mental distress (K-6 ≥ 5). Overall, 34.7% (n = 35) indicated moderate psychological distress, falling between 5 and 13 on the K-6. An individual is deemed likely to have severe mental illness (SMI) when their K-6 score is greater than or equal to 13; 19 people met this criterion (18.8%).

Table 2: Results from the K-6 Nervous Mean (SD)

1.55 (1.40)

Hopeless 0.95 (1.24)

Restless 1.43 (1.43)

Depressed 0.95 (1.28)

Effort 1.54 (1.50)

Worthless 0.79 (1.25)

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Frequencies n (%) 0 = None of the time 1 = A Little of the time 2 = Some of the time 3 = Most of the time 4 = All of the time

32 (31.7%) 21 (20.8%) 21 (20.8%) 14 (13.9%) 13 (12.9%)

53 (52.5%) 19 (18.8%) 18 (17.8%) 3 (3.0%) 8 (8.0%)

38 (37.6%) 20 (19.8%) 19 (18.8%) 9 (9.0%) 15 (14.9%)

54 (53.5%) 18 (17.8%) 15 (14.9%) 5 (5.0%) 8 (8.0%)

39 (38.6%) 14 (13.9%) 19 (18.8%) 13 (12.9%) 16 (15.8%)

62 (61.4%) 18 (17.8%) 9 (9.0%) 4 (4.0%) 8 (8.0%)

For the question comparing one’s financial situation in 2021 to 2020, the mean score was 3.37 (SD = 1.36). This score is closest to the choice indicating “It’s about the same.”

When participants were asked about their experiences with COVID-19 (Yes = 1; No = 0), the mean score for all participants was 1.55 (SD = 1.38), with 25 indicating none of these items occurred in their lives (24.8%). Other frequencies worthy of note: 33 (32.7%) indicated 1 of these categories impacted them, 19 checked 2 categories (18.8%), 15 checked 3 categories (14.9%), 5 participants chose 4 categories (5%), while only 4 indicated that 6 or more events impacted them (4%). Table 3 displays individual responses to this question.

Table 3: Effects of COVID-19 on Participants Had COVID-19

Yes (n = 10)

9.9%

Family had COVID-19

Yes (n = 27)

26.7%

Friend died from COVID-19

Yes (n = 23)

22.8%

Family died from COVID-19

Yes (n = 13)

12.9%

Quarantined

Yes (n = 28)

27.7%

Lost a job due to COVID-19

Yes (n = 27)

26.7%

Hours cut due to COVID-19

Yes (n = 29)

28.7%

Participants responded to the question “How would you describe your faith in God these days?” as follows. 79 (78.2%) selected “I have drawn closer to God lately;” 32 (31.7%) selected

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“I am praying and attending church more often;” 8 (7.9%) selected “I am beginning to wonder if God even hears my prayers;” 2 (2.0%) selected “I am angry at God,” and 3 (3.0%) selected “I don’t really believe in God.” A chi-squared test of independence was performed to examine the relationship between K-6 scores and the factors on the COVID-19 checklist. The relationship between “worthless” and the “Had COVID-19” was statistically significant. X2(8, N = 101) =19.389, p = .000. Those who developed COVID-19 were more likely to select feeling “worthless” on the K-6. A second set of chi-squared tests of independence was performed to examine the relationship between the questions related to faith, the K-6, and the COVID-19 factors. The relationship between those marking “worthless” and the selection, “I am beginning to wonder if God even hears my prayers” was significant; X2(8, N = 101) =26.148, p = .001. Those feeling worthless were more likely to question the efficacy of their prayers. And the choice, “I am beginning to wonder if God even hears my prayers” was also related to the K-6 selection, “everything is an effort” in a statistically significant manner; X2(6, N = 101) = 13.738, p = .033. Those who were questioning the efficacy of their prayers were indicating more negative valence on this measure of emotion.

Discussion An analysis of results using the K-6 in the National Health Interview Study (NHIS) from 2006 through 2018 indicates that between 2.7% and 3.9% of the general population scored 13 or greater on the K-6 in nationally representative samples.16 Clearly, the small sample in this study,

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, “Early Release of Selected Estimates Based on Data From the 2018 National Health Interview Survey,” Figure 13.1, May 30, 2019, https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/nhis/releases/released201905.htm#13.

16

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which was conducted in 2021, has an elevated level of stress with 18.8% (n = 19) indicating SMI compared to results from NHIS of 3.9% as the highest score in the 12 year period reported. The percentage of participants suffering from SMI in this study is 4.8 times greater than the percentage reported by the NIHS in 2018.

During 2020, Twenge and Joiner compared a sample of 2,032 adults to the 2018 results of the NHIS study and reported that 27.7% of their participants scored 13 or higher on the K-6 during the initial months of the pandemic.17 They also reported that 70.4% of their study population indicated moderate or severe distress in 2020, while the 2018 NHIS sample was 22%.

In this study, by way of comparison, the results are higher than 2018, but lower than the findings from 2020: a total of 44 participants (43.6%) reported moderate or severe mental distress in this study.

In this study, the financial status of participants averaged somewhere between “it’s about the same” and “it’s a little worse” on the question comparing their situation between 2019 and 2020. Despite the participants being in the lower income categories, and more likely to have felt negative economic impact due to COVID-19 restrictions, federal financial stimulus programs may have been supportive to this group.

Only 9.9% of participants reported having COVID-19 (n = 10), compared to statistics from the Worldometer, which indicate 13.12% of Georgia’s population has tested positive.18 The

Jean Twenge and Thomas E. Joiner, “Mental Distress Among U.S. Adults During the COVID-19 Pandemic,” Journal of Clinical Psychology 76 (October 2020): 2170-2182, doi:10.

31234/osf.io/wc8ud.

17

“United States COVID: 39,957,521 Cases and 656,488 Deaths," Worldometer, accessed August 31, 2021, https://www.worldometers.info/coronavirus/country/us/.

18

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demographics in this study are not representative of the entire state, making them less comparable.

Results from the non-standardized question about religious beliefs and practices somewhat align with findings by Pew Research conducted in 2020.19 Evangelical Protestants in the U.S. were most likely to report stronger faith due to COVID-19 (49%), and 43% of them say that the faith of Americans in general has grown: about one third of Catholics also report their faith has grown. In this study, 78.2% of participants selected the option, “I have drawn closer to God lately.” In times of crisis, people rely on religious and spiritual beliefs.

The relationship between selecting “worthless” on the K-6 and having had COVID-19 is unclear. Having COVID-19 could include some feelings of stigma or have led to job loss or income reductions, affecting one’s feelings of efficacy. Lingering side effects such as respiratory symptoms, particularly after COVID-19 pneumonia 20 and other long-term health concerns, may have impacted participants’ health and wellbeing. 21

“How COVID-19 Has Strengthened Religious Faith,” Pew Research Center’s Religion & Public Life Project (blog), January 27, 2021, https://www.pewforum.org/2021/01/27/moreamericans-than-people-in-other-advanced-economies-say-covid-19-has-strengthened-religiousfaith/.

19

Piero L Olliaro, “An Integrated Understanding of Long-Term Sequelae after Acute COVID-19,” The Lancet Respiratory Medicine 9, no. 7 (July 2021): 679–80, https://doi.org/10.1016/S2213-2600(21)00206-X. 20

Sandra Lopez-Leon et al., “More than 50 Long-Term Effects of COVID-19: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis,” Scientific Reports 11, no. 1 (August 9, 2021): 16144, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-95565-8.

21

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Religious practices and beliefs are often helpful to those coping with various forms of stressors, but there are positive and negative aspects of religious belief.22 Those who selected “I am beginning to wonder if God even hears my prayers” were more likely to select “worthless” or “everything is an effort” on the K-6. This finding aligns with other research indicating that religious struggles are often correlated with negative mental health symptoms.23 Those who are already experiencing many stressors or traumatic experiences may suffer even more when they also begin to question long-held religious beliefs. For Christians, perhaps the passage from James 1:5-8 is most relevant: “If any of you lacks wisdom, let him ask God, who gives generously to all without reproach, and it will be given him. But let him ask in faith, with no doubting, for the one who doubts is like a wave of the sea that is driven and tossed by the wind.

For that person must not suppose that he will receive anything from the Lord; he is a doubleminded man, unstable in all his ways” (ESV).

Limitations There are several limitations to this study. Our sample was small, the ethnicity and socioeconomic status of participants do not mirror the general population of the United States, and the tornado damage was unique. Consequently, results of this study may not generalize to the

K Pargament, M. Feuille, and D. Burdzy, “The Brief RCOPE: Current Psychometric Status of a Short Measure of Religious Coping,” Religions 2, no. 1 (2011): 51–76, https://doi.org/10.3390/rel2010051.

22

Julie J. Exline et al., “The Religious and Spiritual Struggles Scale: Development and Initial Validation,” Psychology of Religion and Spirituality 6, no. 3 (2014): 208–22, https://doi.org/10.1037/a0036465.

23

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broader U. S. population. Furthermore, several non-standard measures were used in the survey.

These measures require validation in further studies.

Implications to Practice With the demonstrable increase in levels of anxiety and depression found in this study and others, communities need to evaluate the availability of mental health care, perhaps specifically targeting those in the lower income brackets. Providing mental health support is a crucial part of the disaster recovery process being addressed in Coweta County.

Future Research Many studies have examined the mental health outcomes related to COVID-19, and more are needed. However, studies exploring ways to help ameliorate symptoms of depression, anxiety, and social isolation, especially during health crises, may benefit society for the future.

One way that people cope with stressors is by turning to religious and spiritual beliefs and practices. Further studies related to the impact of the restriction of church services during COVID-19 are needed.

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Is Cadaveric Organ Donation an Implied Christian Duty?

By Marian Stewart, D.Min.1 Introduction The common rationale proffered in favor of cadaver organ donation and transplantation

by Christians for Christians suggests that this practice is in line with the biblical principle of selfsacrifice as reflected in God Himself showing the extent of His love by sending His Son to die on behalf of humankind (Rom. 5:8).2 David VanDrunen writes that organ donation instantiates the love of Christ by demonstrating the Christian’s willingness “to suffer dissolution of the body and soul” for his neighbor.3 VanDrunen links organ donation to Mark 12:30-31, “’And you shall love the Lord your God with all your heart, with all your soul, with all your mind, and with all your strength.’ This is the first commandment. And the second, like it, is this: ‘You shall love your neighbor as yourself.’ There is no other commandment greater than these.”4 VanDrunen also cites 1 John 3:16, arguing that just as Jesus laid down His life for His brothers, Christians, in the

1

Marian Stewart is an alumnus of Luther Rice Seminary, having earned her Master of Arts in Christian Studies, Master of Arts in Ministry, Master of Divinity, and Doctor of Ministry degrees at the institution. Dr. Stewart has served full-time in missions ministry for 14 years in Liberia, West Africa, and is currently a missions and ministry consultant working with non-profit Christian organizations with a focus on international missions and ministry. Dr. Stewart has previously published in The Luther Rice Journal of Christian Studies and in the Evangelical Mission Quarterly, Missio Nexus.

For the purposes of this article, the terms ‘organ donation’ and ‘transplantation’ will be used interchangeably.

2

3

David VanDrunen, Bioethics and The Christian Life: A Guide to Making Difficult Decisions (Wheaton: Crossway, 2009), 84.

4

All Scriptures taken from the New King James translation.

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context of cadaveric organ donation, should be willing to do the same.5 Even though VanDrunen advises careful consideration when contemplating post-mortem organ donation, the argument presented is “Christians should generally be eager to give such consent [to donate nonreplaceable organs after death]” as an act of godly charity.6 This paper will point out that the scriptural validations offered by VanDrunen, while being prima facie true, may be taken out of context and do not adequately support the argument.

In response to the counter-argument for organ donation, which states that it violates the integrity of the body and therefore has an impact on the bodily resurrection, Ben C. Mitchell and Joy D. Riley suggest that since the resurrection body will be completely different from the organic, natural body, organ donation will not eternally mar the resurrected body. They refer to 1 Corinthians 15:12-58 to underscore this point.7 This writer will suggest that while the heavenly body will indeed be different from the organic, natural body, once again the scriptural passage used to endorse organ donation is treated improperly. Finally, while the Christian proponents of organ donation provide caveats with respect to the practice of cadaveric organ donation, this paper will suggest that the caveats proposed are insufficient to safeguard against the risk of inhumane death and the dehumanization of the human body.

5

VanDrunen, 84.

6

VanDrunen, 84.

7

Ben C. Mitchell and Joy D. Riley, Christian Bioethics: A Guide for Pastors, Healthcare Professionals and Families. (Nashville: B and H Academic, 2014), 147.

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The State of Organ Donation in the United States In 2018, the United States Department of Health and Human Services Organ Procurement and Transplantation Network reported that 36,527 organ transplants were performed, with approximately 81 percent (29,680) involving organs from deceased donors.8 “Nearly 20 percent of donors in 2018 donated after circulatory [or cardiac] death as opposed to brain death.”9 In other words, the vast majority of donors were persons who had been deemed “brain dead.” In the United States, the practice of procuring organs for transplantation from cadavers is guided by the “dead donor rule” (DDR), which is defined as “a deontic constraint that categorically prohibits causing death by organ removal.”10 Given that the DDR has steered the practice of organ donation since its inception in the United States, the common assumption is that all organ donors in the United States were dead prior to their donation, and the process of donation in no way occasioned their death. However, a proper definition of death is necessary to

“Organ Transplants in the United States Set Sixth Consecutive Record in 2018,” United Network for Organ Sharing (UNOS), January 07, 2019, https://optn.transplant.hrsa.gov/news/ organ-transplants-in-united-states-set-sixth-consecutive-record-in-2018/.

8

9

“Organ Transplants,” n.pag.

Michael Nair-Collins, Sydney R. Green, and Angelina R. Sutin, “Abandoning the Dead Donor Rule? A National Survey of Public Views on Death and Organ Donation,” Journal of Medical Ethics 41, no. 4 (2014): 297.

10

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evaluate this claim, as well as to inform the Christian position with respect to cadaveric organ donation.

The Definition of Death and the Practice of Organ Donation Traditionally, death has been associated with cardiac death which is described as “the cessation of the functioning of the heart and lungs, and consequently the loss of breathing and blood flow…”11 However in 1982, the Uniform Determination of Death Act (UDDA) expanded the legal definition of death and provided that a legal determination of death must be inferred in cases of “an individual who has sustained either (1) irreversible cessation of circulatory and respiratory functions, or (2) irreversible cessation of all functions of the entire brain, including the brain stem…”12 The former provision refers to what is commonly called “cardiac or respiratory death” and the latter “brain death.” Jordon Potter suggests that the concept of “brain death” has gained greater currency in recent times due to increased scientific knowledge regarding the brain’s functioning and the impact of the irreversible cessation of these functions.

Brain death, the irreversible cessation of all brain function, is therefore considered equivalent to death.13 In general, two reasons have been offered as to why UDDA’s redefinition of death was necessary, and both are with respect to organ donation and transplantation. The first relates to the

Jordon Potter. “Imminent Death Donation: Ethical and Practical Policy Considerations,” Journal of Law, Medicine and Ethics 46, no. 2 (2018): 525.

11

12 13

Potter, 525.

Thaddeus Mason Pope suggests that although the UDDA standard for brain death has gained legal traction for more than forty years, “brain death, while widely accepted has never universally been supported.” There have recently been several legal challenges to the concept of brain death which generally revolve around the following concerns: “1) prevailing medical

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deontological requirement that provides clear and distinguishable limits for when organs can be removed from the donor’s body – particularly after the person has been declared dead.14 Ostensibly, UDDA limits the practice of organ donation to ensure that it is morally and ethically justified.15 The second reason for amending the definition of death is based on the supposed “gold standard” for the quality of organs procured after brain death. Brain death allows for “the removal of virtually every abdominal and thoracic organ in a controlled environment before removing the cadaver from the mechanical life or oxygen support that is continuing respiration and consequently blood flow.”16 In this instance, the organs are kept in the best possible condition as lack of blood flow damages organs very quickly and makes them unsuitable for transplantation.

Donation after cardiac or respiratory death is possible, but typically affects the quality of the organs procured. The process of confirming cardiac or respiratory death requires that the attending physician monitor the patient for five minutes or more, during which time the organs rapidly deteriorate from a lack of oxygen and are frequently rendered unsuitable for transplantation. In general, the longer the time span between death and transplantation, the less

criteria fail to measure what the law requires, 2) clinicians need family consent to administer the apnea test, and 3) clinicians must accommodate religious objections.” Thaddeus Mason Pope, “Brain Death Forsaken: Growing Conflict and New Legal Challenges,” Journal of Legal Medicine 37, nos. 3-4 (2017): 294.

14

Potter, 525.

15

Potter, 525.

16

Potter, 525.

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useful the organs. Diagnosing “brain death,” however, enables a physician to keep the patient on life support until – and even during – the harvesting of organs. As a result, organs undergo significantly less oxygen deprivation and are much more suitable for transplantation. Ultimately, UDDA’s definition of “brain death” as a satisfactory fulfillment of the DDR greatly increases the number and quality of organs available for transplantation.17 Common bioethical principles of bodily autonomy, beneficence, non-maleficence, and justice, which traditionally relate to the obligations of medical practitioners, apply in organ donation and transplantation practice. Organ donation after either cardiac or brain death rests on the capacity of the donor, which is related to informed consent. This is reflected in the prospective donor having the capacity to appreciate the information related to the procuring of the organ to be donated and making a free and non-causal decision. It is expected that organ donors can “consistently use their values and preferences to make logical, and reasonable healthcare decisions,” one of which is organ donation.18 Organ donation in general is thought to provide several benefits for both the donor, the donor family, and the recipient of the donor organs. These include the sense of benevolence experienced by the donor family as they receive the joy of doing an altruistic act. Potter suggests that the positive effects on the remaining family include gratitude for keeping the deceased one ‘alive’ as well as a sense of good will, knowing that the organ donated has aided in preventing the death of someone else who is critically ill.19 A sense of gratitude is also generally

17

Nair-Collins, 297.

18

Potter, 527.

19

Potter, 528.

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experienced by the recipient and recipient family as this is seen as an opportunity to put off impending death for the time being.

There is always a greater need for organs than donors and increasing public pressure is brought to bear to secure more organs for donation and transplantation from qualified donors.

Gilbert Meilaender states that public rhetoric surrounding organ donations “almost always lauds organ donation, the better to stimulate potential donors.”20 Indeed, identifying qualified donors from whom organs can be procured has resulted in different systems of organ donation as well as modified policies to facilitate an “opt-out” system of organ donation rather than an “opt-in” approach. According to Mitchell et al. the “opt-out” system gives the government “control over one’s organs after death, unless the person has completed the necessary measures for ‘opting out,’ defined by [the] country’s laws.”21 Additionally, health care providers are mandated by law to solicit “advance directives” from critically ill patients. As Mitchell et al. note, advance directives typically request patients to stipulate whether their organs should be donated in the event of their demise.22 Yet another procurement methodology is based on the so-called “required request” policy. This demands that “hospitals notify organ recovery agencies of all patient deaths, and properly trained persons must speak with the families of the deceased about organ donation.”

These prescribed actions are tied to hospital reimbursement from Medicare and Medicaid:

20

Gilbert Meilaender, Bioethics: A Primer for Christians, 3rd ed. (Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2013), 91.

21

Mitchell and Riley, 138.

22

Mitchell and Riley, 138.

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According to a 1998 policy of the US Department of Health and Human Services, a hospital must contact the [Organ Procurement Organization] by telephone as soon as possible after an individual has died, has been placed on a ventilator due to severe brain injury, or has been declared brain dead (ideally within 1 hour). That is, a hospital must notify the OPO while a brain dead or severely brain-damaged, ventilator-dependent individual is still attached to the ventilator and as soon as possible after death of any other individual, including a potential non-heart-beating donor. Even if the hospital does not consider an individual who is not on a ventilator to be a potential donor, the hospital must call the OPO as soon as possible after the death of that individual has occurred.23 Theological Considerations Complications regarding the legal definition of death arise when considered from the perspective of the Christian faith. In the context of cardiac or respiratory death, the criteria pertaining to the cessation of bodily functions is straightforward as referenced earlier in this article. However, with regards to brain death, the bodily functions of the major organs, such as heart and lungs, can be maintained while the organs are being removed. In this sense, the bodily functions have not ceased and the question arises as to whether the person is dead. This question is particularly perplexing given that death per se cannot be observed. Only the signs of death may be observed, namely the cessation of the heart, lungs, and brain, and the onset of rigor mortis and necrosis. Given that life supports masks the signs of death, and that “a ventilated brain-dead body” expresses “activity identical or similar to a living body,” questions persist regarding the accuracy of death diagnoses for patients on life support.24 E. Christian Brugger suggests that where there is reasonable doubt, such doubt “suffices to justify a prohibition from all interventions that would be unethical to perform on living human beings.”25 Mitchell and

23

Mitchell and Riley, 139.

24

Brugger, 331.

25

Brugger, 331.

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Riley agree that from the Christian perspective, removing the life-sustaining organs from a person before he or she is dead is considered a form of homicide, which is a grave offense (Ex 20:13).26 Yet this is an activity that takes place within the ‘normal’ context of organ procurement from a person who has been defined as “brain dead.”

David VanDrunen argues that Christlike love for one’s neighbor includes a “willingness to suffer the dissolution of body and soul.”27 VanDrunen suggests that just as Jesus laid down His life for His brothers, so Christians, in the context of cadaveric organ donation, should be willing to do the same (1 John 3:16).28 Even though careful consideration when contemplating post-mortem organ donation is advised, VanDrunen maintains the view that “Christians should generally be eager to give such consent [to donate non-replaceable organs after death]” as an act of godly charity.29 Mitchell et al agree – if one can save the life or improve the quality of life of another person, especially since after death the organs are no longer needed, donating them is considered “an act of Christian charity” (cf. Mark 12:30-31).30 VanDrunen and Mitchell et al. favor organ donation in principle and variously suggest that organ donation is in line with the biblical principle of self-sacrifice as reflected in God Himself sending His Son to die on behalf of humankind, thereby demonstrating the extent of His love (Rom. 5:8).

26

Mitchell and Riley, 135.

27

VanDrunen, 84.

28

VanDrunen, 84.

29

VanDrunen, 84.

30

Mitchell and Riley, 144.

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In addressing the views of VanDrunen and Mitchell et al., consideration should be given to the increasing public pressure behind the effort to secure more organs for transplantation.

According to Meilaender, this push “threatens to dehumanize the dying process which belies the glowing talk about the ‘gift of life.’”31 Death becomes a part of a commodity procurement process for body organs, with humankind at risk of losing the concept of a “humane death.”32 J. Budziszewski, in discussing the value of the human body, identifies the body as the visible sign by which the invisible self is made present.33 In general, Christians agree that the body is “the place of personal presence [and] has its own integrity, which ought to be respected.”34 VanDrunen states that after death, the body of a person remains their body, with “corpses …still named.”35 VanDrunen further refers to Joseph of Arimathea who asked for the body of Jesus so that he might bury him (Luke 23:52). Even in death, the person is still identified with the body.

VanDrunen suggests that the human body ought not be used as “a warehouse of spare parts for use by others.”36 Nevertheless, VanDrunen states that Christian theology teaches that Christian love ought to extend beyond the point of death and should include a “willingness to suffer the dissolution of body and soul,” suggesting that Christians, in giving organs post-mortem, are

31

Meilaender, 91.

32

Meilaender, 91.

33

J. Budziszewski, On the Meaning of Sex (Wilmington: ISI Books, 2009), loc. 415.

34

Budziszewski, loc. 93.

35

VanDrunen, 84.

36

VanDrunen, 84.

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demonstrating the “greatest token of self-giving love imaginable.”37 One may agree that Christian love for others should prompt self-sacrifice, even unto death. However, one should also consider that the proponents of organ donation who reference these Scriptures are stretching the ordinary meaning of the text to fit their agenda. For example, consider Romans 5:8 – “But God demonstrates His own love for us in this: while we were still sinners, Christ died for us.” This passage refers to the atoning work of Christ on the cross, and the provision of an opportunity for humankind to be reconciled to God. In this context, one could say “Christ died so that we may live.” To draw a metaphorical parallel between Christ’s atoning sacrifice on behalf of humankind and organ donation may be considered disingenuous. Another scripture passage is 1 John 3:16 – “This is how we know what love is: Jesus Christ laid down His life for us. And we ought to lay down our lives for our brothers.” The context is the extent to which Christians should demonstrate love and care for others, in comparison to hate, which is akin to murder (1 John 3:15). Additionally, even as God can restore and raise mutilated bodies from the grave, the love and self-sacrifice that are referenced above refer to the distinctive identity of Christians and how they are to live in and relate to the world – doing good to all in ways that demonstrate and proclaim Jesus Christ (Gal. 6:10).

The Scriptures do not address the practice of organ donation or transplantation directly, but the image-bearing nature of human beings and the stewardship entrusted to humans for the care of the body are clear. From this perspective, one may conclude that Christians do not have the right or authority to purposely give of their bodies post-mortem as they see fit because they

37

VanDrunen, 84.

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do not “own” them. The Apostle Paul indicates the value that Creator God places on the physical bodies of His people: “Do you not know that you are the temple of God and that the Spirit of God dwells in you? If anyone defiles the temple of God, God will destroy him. For the temple of God is holy, which temple you are” (1 Cor. 3:16).38 Paul further refers to Christians, stating “For you were bought at a price; therefore, glorify God in your body and in your spirit, which are God’s” (1 Cor. 6:20). It can be argued that these passages apply to the body in life. The question arises, do they apply to the body in death?

Philippians 3:21 speaks to the eternal destiny of the physical body and its transformation in that the “lowly body…may be conformed to His glorious body.” It is clear from Scripture that the resurrected body is not the organic, natural body but a glorified body, for “the body is sown in corruption, it is raised in incorruption…it is sown a natural body but raised a spiritual body” (I Cor. 15:42-44). Nor is bodily integrity permanent, during life or after death. Indeed, after death the body and all its organs will ultimately disintegrate. However, this is in line with the natural process of “dissolution” (Gen. 3:19). Admittedly, scientific knowledge has made it possible to facilitate the transplantation of organs to stave off death for a time and to help fulfil one of the goals of medicine, which is to extend life for as long as possible. Therein lies the challenge for Christians not to succumb to the “tyranny of the possible” and acquiesce to “the pressure to suppose we ought to do whatever we are able to do.”39

38

All Scriptures are quoted from the New King James Version of the Holy Bible unless otherwise indicated.

39

Meilaender, 95.

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The temptation to do whatever can be done to preserve or save the life of another, particularly a loved one, through organ transplantation is one which could understandably cause anyone to exert every energy. However, Christians should consider the unadvertised consequences of organ donation. If organ donation inflicts harm -- whether on many, or some, or even few – is the practice justifiable?

The case against organic donation may be classified as a wedge argument as Kenneth Gardoski defines the term in his article “Right to Life, Right to Death.”40 According to the Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy, the terms “wedge argument” and “slippery slope argument” are synonymous in that both designate “an argument that an action apparently unobjectionable in itself would set in motion a train of events leading ultimately to an undesirable outcome.”41 Kenneth Gardoski proposes a distinction, however. According to Gardoski, slippery slope arguments apply to actions and predict a necessary train of cause-andeffect following the formula if this, then that. To quote Gardoski directly, slippery slope arguments “predict that certain practices will follow from others.”42 Contrarily, Gardoski treats wedge arguments as applicable not to actions per se but to “the logic of moral justification for

Kenneth Gardoski, “Right to Life, Right to Death,” Journal of Ministry and Theology 15, no. 2 (2011): 73-74.

40

Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy, s.v. “slippery slope argument,” (Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1995), 852, accessed August 5, 2021.

41

42

Gardoski, 74.

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actions.”43 Notably, wedge arguments do not predict actions that will happen. Rather, they identify intellectual problems that arise when one moral value is exchanged for another.

Gardoski particularly addresses intellectual problems that arise when moral absolutes are exchanged for relative standards. Gardoski observes that if the moral absolute “you shall not murder” is abandoned to make room for assisted suicide, then it becomes increasingly difficult to establish standards distinguishing the mercy killing of a terminally-ill cancer patient from the mercy killing of an elderly person or a homeless person. Gardoski summarizes the case as follows: “Once it is decided that certain people are to die, it is difficult to find any logical grounds for keeping other people alive. The wedge argument reveals that there is no logical reason why the range of euthanasia cases should be restricted at all.”44 A similar wedge argument may be applied to organ donation. The logic of procuring organs post-mortem for use in prolonging the lives of others may be innocuous to begin with.

However, the opening of this door of altruistic endeavor can lead to a redefinition of death (as has been seen with UDDA and the DDR) to have a greater chance of obviating the shortage of organs. The wedge argument need not predict that certain practices will naturally follow others, as is the case with the slippery slope argument. However, the wedge argument does illustrate that if organ donation is moral, then it becomes increasingly difficult to maintain standards restricting the procurement of organs.

In 1994, the American Medical Association’s Council on Ethical and Judicial Affairs reversed its 1988 conclusion “that it was not permissible to remove organs for transplantation

43

Gardoski, 74.

44

Gardoski, 74.

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from anencephalic infants while they were still alive, even though it is harder to maintain organs in suitable condition if one waits until the infant has sustained brain death.”45 In view of the shortage of organs for pediatric cases, the long waiting lists for the organs, and the reality that many children are not on the waiting list because they are not considered a priority case or because some do not live long enough to have their names entered on the waiting list, the Council chose to approve “donations” from anencephalic infants.46 This involved taking the lives of these infants in order to procure organs for transplant to other children who are considered to have better prospects for life. This decision was lauded as an opportunity to “allow some good to come from a truly tragic situation, sustaining the lives of other children and providing psychological relief for those parents who wish to give meaning to the short life of the anencephalic neonate.”47 In 1995, the AMA Council reversed this decision on technical grounds, as it was disputed “whether all anencephalic infants lack consciousness and whether an assured diagnosis of anencephaly is always possible.”48 Meilaender indicates that if it were possible to demonstrate that anencephalic infants actually lack consciousness and that their condition can be reliably diagnosed, “the council would have no reason not to change direction again and approve

45

Meilaender, 101. According to Meilaender, anencephalic infants are defined as those born with a fully or partially functioning brain stem but without any cerebral hemispheres (higher brain).

46

Meilaender, 101.

47

Meilaender, 101.

48

Meilaender, 102.

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the use of living anencephalic infants as organ donors.”49 Here, one observes that respect for the human body, the idea of a humane death, and the dignity of humanity have become moveable goalposts.

Meilaender articulates the extent to which organ procurement policy and practice has been normalized, such that if there is a refusal of a dead person’s family to acquiesce to a request to take the organs for transplant, such refusal is generally thought to be a thoughtless act, morally wrong or selfish, and self-regarding.50 The largest Protestant denomination in the United States, the Southern Baptist Convention, passed a resolution in 1988 which stated “we encourage voluntarism regarding organ donations in the spirit of stewardship, compassion for the needs of others and alleviating suffering.”51 Even with this endorsement, according to a study by Kimberly Arriola, Jennie Perryman, Michelle Doldren, Carmen Warren and Dana Robinson, some Christian leaders within the African American community believe that a major barrier to organ donation and transplantation among some congregants is the view that people wanted to return to heaven as they were created and “as God created us, that’s how we should remain.”52 According to the researchers, the vast majority of the clergy denounced this view, attributing it to a lack of full understanding of Scripture, since death is generally viewed as a spiritual

49

Meilaender, 102.

50

Meilaender, 90.

51

Mitchell and Riley, 145.

52

Kimberly R. Jacob Arriola, Jennie P. Perryman, Michelle A. Doldren, Carmen M. Warren, and Dana H. Z. Robinson. “Understanding the Role of Clergy in African American Organ and Tissue Donation Decision-Making,” Ethnicity and Health 12, no. 5 (2007): 473.

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transformation and hence donating an organ would not interfere with the after-life.53 Even so, the clergy admitted that there was a dissonance between the laity’s belief that the body would eventually return to dust and their equally-held belief that the physical body will not go to heaven – stating that in general, congregants tended not to critically analyze the two inconsistent beliefs.54 Once again, the clergy tended to champion the cause of saving lives and improving health as the motive for organ donation and referenced biblical teaching related to helping others.55 The researchers found that the clergy believed the church could play a greater role in “teaching the spiritual aspects of death and the resurrection in order to dispel some of the ‘religious myths’ that keep parishioners from wanting to serve as donors.”56 The use of the term ‘religious myths’ by these researchers gives the reader some insight as to their views regarding the religious questions that arise with respect to organ donation and may indicate a bias towards this practice. In addition, one questions whether the ethical principle of autonomy, which involves freedom and choice, and ostensibly prohibits coercion is undermined in favor of influencing congregants’ views on donation to supply the increasing need for donor organs.

The language used to encourage organ donation includes terms such as “having an opportunity to give the gift of life.” This implies that one individual can exercise a form of lordship over the life of another, through the supply or withholding of a life-sustaining organ.

53

Arriola et al., 473.

54

Arriola et al., 473.

55

Arriola et al., 474.

56

Arriola et al., 473.

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David Gushee suggests that the theological motif underlying the danger of this mode of thinking is the fear of human sin in the form of hubris or overreaching.57 Human beings, while created with great potential and capabilities, have limits and boundaries and ought not to seek to have an equivalent standing with the Sovereign Lord God, who in fact is the One who gives the “gift of life” (cf. Gen. 3, 11). Indeed, the Christian view of life hinges on the understanding that God alone is the Sovereign Lord and Giver of life and one ought to ensure that one does not overstep the boundaries that relate to one’s view of oneself in relation to God and how one sees the extent of one’s own autonomy.

Conclusion The perspectives and attitudes of human beings towards the world are tainted by Adamic sin. While biotechnology has been helpful in sustaining, restoring, and improving humanity and the rest of the physical world, the Enlightenment and Age of Reason have demonstrated the proclivity of human beings to be overtaken by hubris and a sense of self-sufficiency. The initial phases of research and development may be well-balanced with biotechnological advances aligned with an understanding that knowledge is a result of the spiritual and physical gifts of God. However, over time humanity has taken on the title of “god” and sought to exercise a level of autonomy that disregards the existence of a Sovereign Lord who alone is able to effect fundamental transformation in lives. Christians who know that death is an evil that is contrary to the will of God for His creation, but which will ultimately be overcome, need to develop the trust and courage to decline to do what medical technology makes possible when it appears that the

57

David Gushee. The Sacredness of Human Life (Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 2013), 362.

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unanticipated, yet inevitable consequences of these innovations undermine and distort Christian ethics. Christians are not martyrs against biotechnology and the scientific and medical efforts that seek to offer healing and help to others. Indeed, in determining whether to acquiesce to the social and cultural imperative to donate organs postmortem, Christians are faced with the reality that this practice rather than being forbidden is encouraged by law, and the vast majority of the Christian community has endorsed organ donation and transplantation as an act of Christian love.

Is cadaveric organ donation an implied Christian duty? The scriptural validations proffered by Christian proponents of organ donation are frequently taken out of context and consequently do not apply to the argument made. In addition, safeguards established to prevent medical abuses are insufficient to ensure that values such as the dignity of the human body, the sanctity of human life, and the expectation of a humane death are not treated as moveable goalposts. In consideration of this question, Christians may do well to observe the words of the Apostle Paul: “All things are lawful for me, but not all things are helpful; all things are for me, but not all things edify” (1 Cor. 10:23).

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Book Reviews Joshua Stewart, Editor Welcome to the book review section of The Luther Rice Journal of Christian Studies. In the future, the editorial board would love to see this section of the journal grow in its offerings.

In order for this to come to fruition, I would like to invite readers to contact me about the possibility of reviewing books for the journal.

At this point in time, I am working toward growing the list of publishers willing to provide review copies of new releases. I am also working toward building a database of prospective reviewers. If you see a recent release or upcoming release that you would like to review, please contact me. In either case, please include in your email a curriculum vitae and a list of your areas of interest. At this time, we are only considering potential reviewers in a graduate program or higher.

Shalom lekha,

JE Stewart Joshua E. Stewart, PhD Book Review Editor bookreviews@LutherRice.edu

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Lucy Peppiatt. Rediscovering Scripture’s Vision for Women: Fresh Perspectives on Disputed Texts. Downers Grove: InterVarsity Press, 2019. Pp. 184. $22 paperback.

Lucy Peppiatt is the Principal of Wesminster Theological Centre, professor of Christian doctrine and spiritual formation and author of several books primarily focused on women.

Peppiatt has written another reflective work to add to her repertoire. Composed of eight chapters, Rediscovering Scripture’s Vision for Women explores various topics about women and male dominance and attempts to debunk the belief of Scripture prescribed patriarchal order – all while still addressing how Scripture supports “the idea of women serving in all capacities alongside men.”1 Profoundly academic, Peppiatt writes in a manner that I found required one to step away, periodically, for the information to be absorbed. She focuses on redefining complementarian and egalitarian roles as she observes that “both are applied somewhat erroneously.” 2 Instead, Peppiatt finds it more useful to use labels that describe these roles, rather than what they are limited to or what they are permitted to be. Therefore, she chooses to use the terms hierarchicalists and mutualists. In the hierarchicalistic view “power and authority are not identified with the essence of a person’s being, “but rather their output or function.3 Mutualists,

Lucy Peppiatt, Rediscovering Scripture’s Vision for Women: Fresh Perspectives on Disputed Texts (Downer’s Grove: InterVarsity Press, 2019), p. 5.

1

2

Ibid., p. 6.

3

Ibid., p. 7.

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on the other hand, equally share all interactions in the church and the home – “subverting patriarchal patterns in all spheres.” 4 A second topic Peppiatt discusses at length is headship. In her opinion, the natural place to begin the conversation is in Gen 2. She writes extensively about what the creation accounts might tell us of male-female relations from various points of view. Peppiatt also incorporates 1 Corinthians 11:2-10 and Ephesians 5 into the discussion and dissects the use of ezer and kephale and the numerous translations and implications.

Rediscovering Scripture’s Vision for Women begins with a Foreword by Scot McKnight and an informative introduction that maps out the entirety of the book. Chapter one begins by asking the question “how do we understand an androcentric (male-centered) and patricentric (father-centered) story?” 5 Peppiatt offers alternative readings to answer this question and continues with a pattern of questioning that segues into chapter two. Here the reader finds “the place of women in God’s great plan”6 through the stories of women in Scripture. Chapter three completes the focus on women and their place by evaluating several passages (Gen 2-3; 1 Cor 11:2-10; Eph 5) pertaining to women and men in the Bible and the differences in interpretation and their effects.

Chapter four primarily continues the discussion on headship, based on Genesis 2 and 1 Corinthians 11, and “specific problems associated with a hierarchicalist interpretation.” 7

4

Ibid., p. 8.

5

Ibid.

6

Ibid., p. 28.

7

Ibid., p. 58.

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Chapters five and six cover marriage from a hierarchicalist view followed by a mutualist one. Continuing with Paul’s “theology of the husband as the head of the wife,” Peppiatt directs the reader to the household codes and the possibility that these codes spoke a radical message of “mutual love, honor and submission between husbands and wives.”8 In Chapter seven, Peppiatt examines women’s roles in the early church and relies heavily on Paul’s letters as evidence of their roles as leaders, pastors, teachers, prophets and apostles.

Through Paul’s epistles and other biblical data, Peppiatt simultaneously exposes the harm a “dominant narrative of male bias” can have on women and translations.9 The final chapter is an in-depth look at 1 Timothy 2:8-15. Peppiatt focuses on the issue of translation and in turn, the solutions to this problem. She agrees with Richard and Catherine Clark Kroeger in that the “fundamental argument is that Paul was clearly addressing a specific situation, and that this text, therefore, cannot be read as a universal injunction for all women in all churches for all time.”10 A thoughtful Conclusion and an extensive Bibliography and Scripture Index complete the book. Lucy Peppiatt successfully disputes clobber passages, while still giving ample time to the rest of Scripture. The primary tenets of the book, although not exhaustive, are the evaluation of God as male, women’s crucial role in the salvation story, the early church’s radical redefining of roles in the home and the many positions women held within the church. While a challenging

8

Ibid., p. 79.

9

Ibid., p. 139.

10

Ibid., p. 145.

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read at times, I believe Rediscovering Scripture’s Vision for Women would serve well in a Bible study, small group, personal reading or in a New Testament higher education course.

Laura Powell MABC, Luther Rice College and Seminary

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Robert W. Kellemen, PhD. Gospel-Centered Family Counseling. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Books of Baker Publishing Group, 2020. Pp 272. ISBN 9780801094354. $29.99 (paperback).

The book Gospel-Centered Family Counseling is part of a short series developed to supply pastors and counselors with a practical way to connect their theology to marital and family challenges.1 The other book in the series is Gospel-Centered Marriage Counseling.

In the introduction of Gospel-Centered Family Counseling, Dr. Kellemen says the book’s central premise is that “children need good, godly parenting more than they need good, godly counseling.”2 His conviction is that biblical family counselors counsel parents “to be their children’s best biblical counselors and parental shepherds.”3 Family interactions in front of the counselor is a practice that enables this outcome.

Divided into two parts, the book gives readers a theological primer for biblical family counseling as well as practical training for biblical counselors who support families. It was written in a workbook format, and it includes questions, sample dialogues, exercises, and roleplay guidance to aid in competency development and build confidence in family counselors.4 Figure 2.2 is an especially useful tool for family counseling. It is a concise table with

1

Robert W. Kellemen, Gospel-Centered Family Counseling: An Equipping Guide for Pastors and

Counselors (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Books, a division of Baker Publishing Group, 2020), 10.

2

Ibid, 14.

3

Ibid, 15.

4

Ibid, 11.

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descriptions of various styles of parenting and their relation to love and holiness.5 It offers clear ways to recognize godly parenting versus pharisaical parenting, neglectful parenting, and permissive or possessive parenting. The author also provides biblical examples to further expound upon each parenting dynamic.

Further help in family counseling is found in a prescribed parental prayer that is an excellent reminder of the need for dependency on God and not self in fulfilling parenting responsibilities.6 In chapter three, Dr. Kellemen teaches that parents can improve family life by learning how to parent their children with grace and truth.

In the discussion of practical training for biblical family counselors, part two of the book, readers learn strategies for infusing hope in hurting families. The author uses the letters in the word hope to explain elements of hope that have utility in the counseling experience. H is having hope as a counselor, O is offering hope to families in need, P is prompting parents to use God-given resources, and E is encouraging the family to recognize Christ in action.7 To assist parents in connecting with their child’s suffering and soul, family counselors are admonished to help parents nurture core elements of empathy for their children. Those elements include deepening levels of involvement with their child, listening past what their child says, entering their child’s pain, putting their child’s feelings into words, and inviting their child to hold to comfort that is found in Christ.8

5

Ibid, 46.

6

Ibid., 57-58.

7

Ibid, 96.

8

Ibid, 136-140.

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Gospel-centered strategies to offer hope, healing, and reconciliation for hurting families fill the pages of this book, enabling pastoral counselors to be better equipped to serve. It specifically addresses counseling from the perspective of using and applying God’s Word, which help families learn and practice godly principles in their households. The book is intended by the author to be an equipping guide for counselors and pastors, and the author accomplishes that.

The concepts in this book will not just help a pastor or counselor in his or her work with troubled families; it will also support the pastor or counselor in his or her personal family life.

For example, some of the questions asked throughout the book focus on the counselor’s family, which builds awareness and empathy and provides an opportunity for personal growth.

If a counselor prefers to offer a list of action items to hurting families in family counseling, this book will not support that method. Instead, it lends itself to promoting dependence on God as a means to a healthier family. Because the book is Scripture-based and Scripture-laced, one can sense God’s presence through the pages.

The strength of this book is its helpful, well-organized content. One area that had less appeal was the illustration of putting on the family armor of God as spiritual workout gear and equating God-dependency to a spiritual workout room in chapter one.9 I do agree with the author’s point that the armor of God and dependence on God is needed in family life.

The author of Gospel-Centered Family Counseling is a dean of students, academic dean, and professor of biblical counseling at Faith Bible Seminary in Indiana. He is the founding

9

Ibid., 34.

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executive director of the Biblical Counseling Coalition, has written more than 20 books and has served as a pastor at four churches. Dr. Kellemen is well-qualified to educate others about family counseling based on God’s Word. The prescribed counseling techniques in his book are gospel-centered and support the development and discipling of hurting families. Therefore, this book will benefit all counselors and pastors who work with families willing to increasingly submit to lifestyles that please the Lord.

I recommend that pastors and counselors read this book, answer the questions in it, and keep it as a reference for future family counseling.

J. Brent

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Scot McKnight and Nijay K. Gupta. The State of New Testament Studies: A Survey of Recent Research. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2019. Pgs. 496.

978-1-5409-6240-9. $44 (PB).

In The State of New Testament Studies, Scot McKnight and Nijay Gupta have provided a fresh successor to The Face of New Testament Studies, co-edited by Scot McKnight and Grant Osborne. In keeping with the intent to give insight into the “landscape of NT studies” in the preceding book, The State of New Testament Studies offers an update for readers who are interested in similar questions about issues involving New Testament studies but who recognize that things have changed since the initial publication on McKnight and Osborne’s work. On page 1, McKnight and Gupta describe the objective of their work as an attempt “to orient readers to the field of NT studies today.”

The volume features various biblical scholars covering a host of issues related to the study of the New Testament. The book is divided into four parts: 1) Ancient Context, 2) Interpretation, 3) Jesus, Paul, and New Testament Theology, and 4) New Testament Texts. Each part consists of several essays that explore pertinent issues in New Testament studies. This review would be far too long if I attempted to summarize each chapter in each part. For those interested, I would encourage them to see the Baker Academic website for the table of contents in each of these sections.

Admittedly, I am tempted to engage the issues in the book that are of particular interest to my research. Still, instead, I want to conclude this brief review with a few suggestions regarding how this volume could be used by students, pastors, and professors alike.

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For students, especially those in Ph.D. studies, The State of New Testament Studies provides you with a reliable overview of the essential resources you need to be familiar with as you attempt to research and write a dissertation on a particular section of the New Testament.

McKnight and Gupta chose experts in their respective fields to write the chapters in the sections mentioned above. Given the number of books written on the New Testament, it is likely impossible for a student to read every available resource. However, it is not only likely but necessary that a student read every important resource available to them. With The State of New Testament Studies, students will learn the difference between the latest published work in New Testament studies and the enduring, influential seminal works that have shifted and formed paradigms over several decades. From here, the student will be able to dig deeper into the scholarship they encounter and possibly even find the research question they will need to begin their Ph.D. work.

I believe a work like this allows pastors to stay current on the scholarship that impacts their preaching and teaching in the local church. Not only will this sharpen the pastor’s mind, but it will also allow them to choose and use better, more reliable commentaries in their weekly preparation. For pastors that want to keep growing, I commend McKnight and Gupta’s work.

Finally, for the busy professor who once spent hours researching and writing but now struggles to remember the title of their dissertation, McKnight and Gupta’s work provides you with a scholarly multi-vitamin to reinvigorate and refresh your love for research without overwhelming you. Furthermore, it allows you to explore research outside of your discipline, which will result in a more balanced, more profound appreciation for the New Testament. As the authors noted, in recent years, New Testament studies have become narrow and focused on particular issues that many have “lost the forest in the trees.” McKnight and Gupta’s work guides

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us out of the narrow path we started on when we were Ph.D. students and reminds us of the forest.

I thoroughly commend this book to the serious student, pastor, and professor who wants to stay up to date on the studies of the New Testament. McKnight and Gupta have done us all a tremendous benefit by bringing together a group of world-class scholars in one affordable, accessible volume.

Casey B. Hough Luther Rice College & Seminary

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Ben Witherington III and Jason A. Myers. Voices and Views on Paul: Exploring Scholarly Trends. Downers Grove, IL: IVP Academic, 2020. 234 pp. 978-0-8308-5231-4. $30 (Paperback) In Voices and Views, Ben Witherington and Jason Myers provide a helpful survey of the seminal works of several Pauline scholars. The book begins with a reflection on how the study of Paul has developed over the last few decades. Specifically, the so-called “new perspective is no longer new,” having been “coined by James Dunn in 1983” (1). At this point, it would be inaccurate to act as if there is only one “new” perspective on the apostle Paul and his theology.

Instead, scholars would be better served to speak of “new perspectives,” which have developed out of the scholarship of men like Krister Stendahl. The first chapter previews where Witherington and Myers intend to cover throughout the rest of the book, giving summaries of the significant works in Paul with anticipation of greater interaction in future chapters.

In chapter 2, Witherington and Myers consider the impact of E. P. Sanders and his work, Paul and Palestinian Judaism, explaining the background to the text and providing a helpful, introductory summary of Sanders’ argument. In addition to their engagement with Sanders’ seminal work, Witherington and Myers also address and critique his more recent work, Paul: The Apostle’s Life, Letters, and Thought. While they both have issues with some of Sanders’ conclusions, they encourage the reader to evaluate the worth of his contribution to Pauline scholarship not in terms of agreement but in terms of “whether one is stimulated to think deeper about the subject” (50).

In chapter 3, Witherington and Myers tackle the work of N. T. Wright, who has, as one of my doctoral supervisors put it, “hardly ever had an unpublished thought about the apostle Paul.”

But this is no knock to Wright’s contribution to the study of the apostle Paul. Given the amount

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of writing that Wright has done on Paul, Witherington and Myers delimited his most significant work, Paul and the Faithfulness of God, as the focus of their chapter, which does a wonderful job summarizing over 1500 pages of argumentation. The authors appreciate Wright’s contribution, even where they disagree with him. Though, it is clear that they find more right about Wright than with Sanders.

Chapter 4 considers the work of James D. G. Dunn, who is often credited with coining the phrase “the new perspective on Paul.” As with previous chapters, Witherington and Myers focus on a particular work, which in this case, is Dunn’s Theology of Paul the Apostle. Of Dunn’s contributions to the study of Paul, Witherington and Myers rightly note his analysis of the phrase “the works of the law” as referring to “boundary markers” like circumcision that perpetuated division within the community of Christians in the first century.

In chapter 5, Witherington and Myers turn their attention to apocalyptic readings of the apostle Paul. The authors helpfully discuss the debate that swirls around the study of all things apocalyptic, noting that the confusion and perspectives that have flooded the market of Pauline studies in the last few decades have not made the issue much clearer. After catching the reading up on the history of the apocalyptic in New Testament studies, the authors consider the contributions of J. Christaan Beker, J. Louis Martyn, Martinus de Boer, and Beverly Gaventa.

While recognizing some benefit in these scholars’ works, Witherington and Myers rightly point out problems that must be overcome before the apocalyptic readings can be justified.

In chapter 6, Witherington and Myers introduce the reader to the work of John Barclay and Stephen Chester. Barclay’s work is highlighted for its potential to represent a “landmark” work in Pauline studies. In Paul and the Gift, Barclay argues that to understand “grace” as taught

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by Paul, one must understand something about gift-giving in antiquity. Contrary to the idea that grace does not entail an obligation of response, Barclay shows that gift-giving established “social ties,” which entailed “an obligation to respond” (184). After engaging Barclay, Chester’s work, Reading Paul with the Reformers, is considered by Witherington and Myers. Chester’s work chiefly represents a “corrective” to misreadings among advocates of the new perspectives regarding how the reformers understood Paul. While Chester’s work will likely not have the impact of Barclay’s, it is still deemed an important work for students of the apostle Paul.

In the final chapter, Witherington and Myers recap their assessments from the preceding chapters, making suggestions for future studies in Pauline scholarship. For those that might be considering reading this book, I would heartedly recommend it if you were looking for an entrylevel survey of the landscape of Pauline studies, especially one that covers the last few decades concerning the “new perspectives.” If I were to mention one potential shortcoming with the book, it would be that the so-called “radical new perspective” on Paul does not receive enough attention. To be sure, this is not because I believe this perspective has had a strong influence on Pauline studies (yet), but because, if someone were coming to this book to find a more comprehensive survey of Pauline studies, they would be disappointed by the absence.

Nonetheless, it is quality work worthy of commendation to students who want to get acclimated to the water of Pauline studies.

Casey B. Hough Luther Rice College & Seminar

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Implications for Ministry (3rd level)

Specific Guidelines • • • • • • • • • • •

The title should appear in bold type at the beginning of the manuscript. Begin the text of the manuscript on the next line. Do not make an “Introduction” subheading.

Make every effort to keep subheadings simple and straightforward. On average, manuscripts should contain no more than one subheading for every four pages of text.

Before a subheading, insert a triple space, or two blank single-spaced lines. After a subheading, double space as usual.

Single space footnotes internally, but insert a blank single-spaced line between footnotes.

Single space block quotations internally, but insert a blank single-spaced line before and after the block quotation.

Abbreviate books of the Bible according to pages 339-343 of the 8th-edition Turabian manual.

Indent paragraphs by pressing the “Tab” key. Do not indent paragraphs with the “Space” bar.

Position page numbers at the bottom middle of the page.

Manuscript submissions should make use of the oxford comma (e.g., “Jack, Jill, and Harry”).

Manuscripts should avoid idioms and contractions.

Include a space between all initials (e.g., F. F. Bruce).

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Manuscripts should make appropriate use of hyphens, en dashes, and em dashes.

The titles of books of the Bible should not be italicized.

Manuscripts should make use of the supplied abbreviations (see below) when citing ancient texts.

When including a table, use the Insert function and create your tables using Word. Label them as follows: Table 1: Analyses of the Themes in Joshua 1-4. Follow the same format for labeling figures. Be certain that all tables and artwork are your own original work. We cannot republish tables or figures from other published material without express and written permission from the author and/or publisher.

Quotations

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All quotations should carefully reproduce the original, even if they differ from the requirements of this journal.

Any mistakes within the quotation may be indicated through the use of [sic].

Commas and periods should be placed within quotation marks.

Colons, semicolons, dashes, and parentheses should be placed outside quotation marks.

Footnotes and Bibliographical References

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All footnotes should be in 10pt font.

Avoid placing several footnotes in a single sentence within the body of the manuscript.

If a bibliographical reference occurs in a sentence within a footnote, the bibliographic reference should be placed within parentheses For example, “See J. Adewyua (“The Spiritual Powers of Ephesians 6:10–18 in the Light of African Pentecostal Spirituality,” BBR 22 [2012]: 254–256) for a recent summary of hermeneutical approaches to interpreting and appropriating Paul’s discussion of cosmic evil in Eph. 6:10–18.”

The bibliographic information included inside parentheses within a footnote should be written in the following order: editor; translator; number of volumes; edition; series; city; publisher; date.

Full bibliographic information should be provided when a work in first cited in the manuscript. Subsequent references should then use the author’s last name, an abbreviated form of the title, and then provide the appropriate page numbers (i.e., a short citation).

Avoid the use of abbreviations, such as “p.” and “pp.” when citing page numbers.

Avoid the use of “Publisher” in bibliographic references.

The noun “Press” should only be included when citing works published by university presses (e.g., Cambridge University Press).

Footnote Examples

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B. Witherington, Paul’s Narrative Thought World: The Tapestry and Tragedy of Triumph (Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 1994), 3–5.

1

2

J. Barr, The Semantics of Biblical Language (London: Oxford University Press, 1961),

237–38.

3

P. O’Brien, The Letter to the Ephesians (PNTC; Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1999), 457,

490.

4

C. Arnold, Ephesians, Power and Magic: The Concept of Power in Ephesians in the Light of its Historical Setting (SNTSMS 63; Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989), 66– 68.

D. Reinhard, “Ephesians 6:10–18: A Call to Personal Piety or another Way of Describing Union with Christ,” JETS 48 (2005): 521–32.

M. Kitchen, The ἀνακεφαλαίωσις of All Things in Christ: Theology and Purpose in the Epistle to the Ephesians (Ph.D. thesis, University of Manchester, 1988), 74, 76–77.

6

Bibliography Examples Arnold, C. Ephesians, Power and Magic: The Concept of Power in Ephesians in the Light of its Historical Setting. Society for New Testament Studies Monograph Series 63. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989.

Barr, J. The Semantics of Biblical Language. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1961.

Kitchen, M. “The ἀνακεφαλαίωσις of All Things in Christ: Theology and Purpose in the Epistle to the Ephesians.” Ph.D. thesis, University of Manchester, 1988.

O’Brien, P. The Letter to the Ephesians. Pillar New Testament Commentary. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1999.

Reinhard, D. “Ephesians 6:10–18: A Call to Personal Piety or another Way of Describing Union with Christ.” Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society 48 (2005): 521–32.

Witherington, B. Paul’s Narrative Thought World: The Tapestry and Tragedy of Triumph.

Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 199

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Submission Guidelines for Book Reviews Thank you for submitting a book review for LRJCS. Please note the following matters.

The book review editor reserves the right to return a review for rewriting, to shorten it, or even to reject it if it departs substantially from these guidelines.

Format Please use the following format for the heading of the review: Author. Title. Place of publication: Publisher, date of publication. Number of pages. ISBN. Retail price (cloth/paper).

Please type your name as you wish it to appear at the review, along with the name of your institution or place of ministry or city and state. For references to formatting please follow the latest edition of the Turabian Manual. Generally, we ask our reviewers to stay within a word count of 800-1000 words per review. In rare cases, when reviewing key volumes or reference works, we may allow a higher word count. However, this should be discussed with the book review editor prior to final submission. If you must use Hebrew, Aramaic, or Greek we ask that you use a Unicode font.

Policies Our goal is to publish reviews that are critical, creative, and courteous. In general, a review should include an exposition of the positions taken, the methodology employed, and a critical evaluation (positive or negative) of these. The work may be related to other literature in the field. Personal polemics should be avoided, and reviews should not be used to promote one’s favorite idea.

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Submission Please submit your document as a .doc or .docx file. Also submit a .pdf version of the file. These files should be submitted to the book review editor as an email attachment.