Luther Rice Journal of Christian Studies, 2024

Fall 2024 Vol. 1

THE

LRCS LUTHER RICE JOURNAL OF

CHRISTIAN STUDIES

THE

LUTHER RICE JOURNAL OF CHRISTIAN STUDIES

Editorial Board General Editor Ann M. Kerlin, Ph.D. Associate Editors Thomas Mapes, Ph.D. Jenny Medlin, M.A. Book Review Editor Casey Hough, Ph.D.

Journal Advisory Board William Wilson, Ph.D. David Mapes, Ph.D. Davis Casas, Ph.D. Joshua Stewart, Ph. D.

Luther Rice Journal of Christian Studies

Contents Adopting Followerfirst Principles to Enhance Spiritual Formation by J.U. Johnson......... 1 Forbearance Supports Ethical Acculturation by Michelle Temple ................................... 24 The Koinonia Connection; ....................................................................................................

Clarence Jordan, Millard Fuller, And Jimmy Carter by M. J. Brooks .............................. 32 Augustine’s Anthropological Soteriology: ...........................................................................

How Manichean Teaching Jaded Augustine’s View of Man by Bill Jaggar .................... 39 Strategic Trauma and Abuse Recovery System (12STR®): .................................................

A Christian-Integrated Approach by M. Temple, A. Kerlin & D. Colson ....................... 70 Church-Based Trauma: Identifying the Essential Elements of a Curriculum for a ChurchBased Trauma Recovery Group…by…L. Temple………………………………………86 Special Section: Undergraduate Research: Poverty Mindset and the Obligation of Christian Ministries by D. Wyatt…..……..…..107 Addenda Submission Information………………………………………………………..………114

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Luther Rice Journal of Christian Studies

Adopting Followerfirst Principles to Enhance Spiritual Formation

By Jacqueline U. Johnson1 As Abraham Kuruvilla noted, “sanctification is an ongoing process, and vital to this process is the obedience of the believer: relationship with God demands responsibility toward God.”2 The indwelt Holy Spirit’s role and the believer’s reliance on his dynamic working is also vital to sanctification (Rom 8:12-16). The believer is to be intentional in pursuing progressive efforts toward spiritual growth and transformation. The church has been gifted by Christ himself with persons in varied positions tasked to equip His people for works of service (ministry) so members in the body of Christ can be edified in the unity of faith and knowledge of Him until all have attained the full measure of maturity in Him (Eph 4: 11- 13). Christians are thus to grow in faith and commit themselves to serve and follow Christ to spiritually mature in Him. Spiritual maturity is essential to a Christian’s life and identity.3 Leadership in the church is therefore important, only not from the perspective that the world views leadership, but rather from the standpoint of a follower, because our leader, Jesus Christ was a follower.

Purpose Statement The Sanctification process is to be continual in the life of the believer. As Rendel and Parks affirm “changed lives are both the product of our efforts and integral to the process of

1

Jacqueline U. Johnson, BS, MAM, MS, DMIN, VMD

2

Abraham Kuruvilla, A Vision for Preaching: Understanding the Heart of Pastoral Ministry, (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2015), 143.

3 E.D. Mbennah, “The Goal of Spiritual Maturity in Ephesians 4:1-16,” Acta Theologica 36, no. 1 (June 1, 2016), 110–132, EBSCO Host.

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Luther Rice Journal of Christian Studies accomplishing the Mission”4 (The Great Commission). The purpose of adapting and then adopting (implementing) a follower first perspective in the local church would be to gain the benefits derived from fruitful obedience, participation, generosity, spiritual maturity, evangelism, and heighten the understanding of what it means to follow Christ.5 It is our inherent nature and privilege to fulfill this duty.

Steps of Development and Implementation Step One: Discovering what a followerfirst perspective is. A followerfirst perspective is about (1) following the perfect follower (Jesus), (2) embracing the life and identity of a follower, (3) exercising follower influence and (4) development of a follower culture that permeates your being.

The call to follow Jesus Christ is a positive step of faith progressing toward God's exhortation, “you shall be holy (sanctified) for I am holy” (1 Pet 1:16). As an example, from the moment Philip responded to Jesus’ call to “follow me”, he influenced another (Nathaniel) to also become a follower. Before Jesus ascended into heaven, he commanded all his disciples to go and make more disciples (Matt 28:18-20) saying, “All authority in heaven and on earth has been given to me. Go therefore and make disciples of all nations, baptizing them in the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit, 20and teaching them to obey everything that I have commanded you.” Those instructions are also relevant for us today. Jesus gives us (those who believe) an imperative to follow Him. It is the same imperative He gave to the 12 disciples and to others who chose not to follow Him ( Matt 4: 19; John 1: 43; John 21:19; John 21: 22; and

4 Bart Rendel and Doug Parks, Intentional Churches: How implementing an Operating System Clarifies Vision, Improves Decision Making and Stimulates Growth. (Nashville, TN: Thomas Nelson, 2020), 25.

5 Rusty Ricketson, followerfirst: Rethinking Leading in the Church, 2nd Edition, (Cumming: Heartworks Publications, 2014), 101.

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Luther Rice Journal of Christian Studies Matthew 8:22, 9:9, 19:2; Mk 2:14; Lk 5:27). He made it clear when addressing Peter in Matthew 16: 24 that those who wished to join (come after, connect, unite with) Him, must deny themselves and take up their cross and follow Him. Ricketson explains that there is a clear progression in this command spoken in every occurrence, that signifies relationship, common proximity and becoming Jesus’ disciple, which warrants following Him first.6 As Tony Evans breaks it down further, Jesus’ plan for disciple making is three easy steps outlined in Matthew 28: 19-20: (1) go evangelize - win souls and bear witness to Christ and His good news; (2) Connect people (bridge them) from all nations to Christ and help them identify with Him; then (3) Teach individuals all that Christ has taught and commanded so they will obediently follow and give Him honor.

Step Two: Relationship Building: Follow Christ with Your Whole Heart. Ricketson has “defined the followerfirst perspective as a system of thought according to which one willingly follows the Lord Jesus Christ with all one's heart, mind, soul, and strength in every circumstance regardless of organizational position while submitting to fellow followers so that all might fulfill their God-given responsibilities.”7 As followers, Jesus Christ must be preeminent above all else.

He must be the priority and object of our affections and loyalty in our lives, church, and other organizations. In other words, in everything! And as we seek to cultivate holiness (1 Thess 4:7), Peter says that our lives must display our godliness (2 Pet 1:5-7), so that others will want to know him for themselves (2 Pet 3:18). The Old Testament emphasis was about rites and moral holiness while the New Testament places emphasis on inward (heart), transforming holiness.8 Those who lead in the local church ought to be followers of Christ, as he followed God the father

6

Ricketson, 33.

7

Ricketson, 198.

8

Joel R. Beeke, “Cultivating Holiness”, Reformation and Revival, RAR 04:2 (Spring 1995), 81-82.

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Luther Rice Journal of Christian Studies and as he was sent, so are we called to be sent. The follower first perspective maintains a unique concept in that both leader and follower “are always following Jesus.”9 Step Three: Restoration/Reconciliation/Identification. Choosing to follow Jesus restores our relationship and fellowship with God the father. It also allows others needing a savior to seek a mutual relationship with the believer that can steer them in the direction of Christ, who extends mercy, forgiveness, and deliverance. The premise of the follower first perspective is about the believer’s relationship with Jesus Christ and the mutual relationship of others that bears fruit because of it.

Rusaw and Swanson state, “the way we live either validates or undermines the teachings of Jesus. At all times we are living witnesses to what we believe. Others will base (draw) their conclusions upon what they see in us (observe).”10 Avolio asserts “… You must model what you want to see in their thinking, actions, and behavior. There is no credible source for development then a trusted and respected leader. What this means is that you must model what you expect to develop in others.”11 Role modeling in such an exemplary fashion is a powerful form of embedding organizational culture and establishing “learned behavior.”12 As Tony Evans reiterates that people should be able to observe your lifestyle and your speech and the character of your being and know that you are His (Christ’s) follower.13 Ultimately, Evans contends that, “the goal of discipleship is conformity to the savior, being transformed into the image or likeness

9

Ricketson, 198.

10

Rick Rusaw and Eric Swanson, The Externally Focused Life, (Loveland, CO: Group Publishing, 2009),

11

Bruce J. Avolio, The No People: Tribal Tales of Organizational Cliff Dwellers. (2001), 40.

12

Bruce J. Avolio, 40.

13

Tony Evans, Kingdom Disciples: Heaven’s Representatives on Earth, (Chicago, IL: Moody Publishers,

79.

2017), 28.

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Luther Rice Journal of Christian Studies of Christ (Romans 8: 29; 2 Cor 3: 17-18) in our character, conduct, attitudes, and actions.”14 This conformity occurs throughout the process of sanctification. Evans adds, discipleship also results in the exercise of His authority through us in the world.”15 To explain this point further, Tony Evans paraphrases Ephesians 6:6 which gives us a graphic depiction of discipleship: “Jesus is the master, and we are His slaves with the task of reflecting and replicating His character, conduct and rule in history.”16 In Matthew 10: 24-25, Jesus himself describes what a disciple should look like: “A disciple is not above his teacher, nor a slave above his master. It is enough for the disciple that he become as his teacher, and the slave as his master.” But as Evans admits “many Christians struggle in their daily life because they don't understand their new identity.”17 They are clueless about who they are in Christ. To this Evans asserts: Believers are now citizens of the new Kingdom (Col one: 13) and this identity and the reference point is to be aligned with that of their new king. They are to be trinitarians (of the father, son, Holy Spirit) reflecting the rule of God and all that they do.18 Evans echoing Ricketson’s assertion states, that “believers who received the gospel message and know their identity in Christ, need to observe all that he has commanded” (Matt 28: 20).19 In this case observed means the same as obey. To know, is to do (trust, obey and follow)!

From a follower first perspective, “a believer’s identity (who you are) is that of a follower of the personhood of Christ and His teachings in the word of God. He has assigned you as His

14

Evans, 28.

15

Ibid.

16

Ibid., 27.

17

Ibid., 31.

18

Ibid.

19

Ibid., 32.

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Luther Rice Journal of Christian Studies ambassador and witness and has prearranged for you “the ministry of reconciliation” which is carried out in the context of the church (the body of Christ).”20 Step Four: Commitment. Becoming a committed disciple, as Evans posits, allows you to experience Kingdom authority (Christ’s ambassador). Moreover, Jesus promised that He would be with us always throughout the implementation of this Great Commission (Matt 28: 20). Thus a “Kingdom disciple” (as Tony Evans mentions) or a “followerfirst” (as Ricketson distinguishes) must engage in a spiritual development process (sanctification) and progressively learn and mature in Christ, the Lord over our lives.21 Following all that Christ desires for us to accomplish as we walk this life with Him, empowered by the Holy Spirit, enables us to glorify Him as we become conformed to His likeness.22 The counterpart to commitment is surrender. Romans 12: 1-2 says, “Therefore, I urge you, brothers, and sisters, in view of God's mercy, to offer your bodies as a living sacrifice, holy and pleasing to God—this is your true and proper worship. Do not conform to the pattern of this world but be transformed by the renewing of your mind.”

Surrendering or submitting or yielding to God means a decision has been made to follow Christ.

These two things, commitment, and surrender to God, go hand in hand with placing God first and seeking His Kingdom and His righteousness.

Step Five: Ascertain Leader Development Needs in the Church Organization. In the church context, as well as in the Christian life, we must learn to be fully committed to Christ. That means being fully committed followers of Christ in all our doing. Committed followers can then become effective and courageous leaders. Robert H. Jerry asserted that

20

Ricketson, 109-118.

21

Evans, 37; Ricketson, 118.

22

Ricketson, 118, 119.

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Luther Rice Journal of Christian Studies “…any entity that organizes humans in some way… is perpetually in need of more individuals who can lead organizations effectively.”23 This is true even for the church as God Himself not only provides leaders for the church (Eph 4:11-13) and called the disciples (even in contemporary culture) to follow Him. Yet, being authentic in following Christ has been the challenging issue for many churches and its members today. Ricketson defines leadership as a process involving two persons; one person in the role of leader and one or more persons in the role of follower engaged in intentional, interdependent (yet influential), reciprocal, dynamic, relationships within the organization to attain a common purpose.24 Followership notably coined by Robert Kelley identified qualities considered quintessential to effective followerleader relationships and organizations. Kelley’s follower characteristics include (1) selfmanagement, (2) being committed, (3) competence and capable of focusing on high level skills and standards, and (4) courage, credible, honest, integrity25 (see page 9 details). Accordingly, if every believer in the church understood the leader follower relationship from these perspectives that any “follower may become a leader and any leader a follower,” then the church would function at its best, unified and glorifying God.26 Step Six: Why Consider Implementation of the follower first perspective? Ricketson reiterates persuasively that “Followers follow those whom they know follow the Lord Jesus Christ. A spirit of mutual respect is a universal distinctive of those possessing a followerfirst perspective.”27

Jerry H. Robert, “Leadership and Followership”, University of Toledo Law Review, Vol. 44 (Winter 2013), 347.

23

24

Ricketson,73.

25

Ibid., 56-58.

26

Ibid., 73-74.

27

Ibid., 44.

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Luther Rice Journal of Christian Studies The Bible speaks with intentional clarity that “Jesus came to follow, call followers and He followed the will of the father through his life, teaching, death, and resurrection.”28 Mark 13:32 basically informs us too that Jesus will follow the will of the father even in his second coming.29 Learning to lead from a follower perspective (like Jesus) , we follow the head of the church (Eph 5:23) and trust the Holy Spirit’s enabling and guidance.30 As Jesus himself told us, His purpose of being sent to earth was to follow the will of the father. Thus, the follower first perspective will allow appraisal of followers accountable in the church who truly depend on the Lord and glorify Him. Moreover, the follower first perspective progresses to becoming following leaders.31 As previously mentioned, a leader who pursues and knows their identity in Christ is one who courageously follows Christ in all they do for the glory of God. As Ricketson informs us, human beings were created by God to follow.32 Therefore, our total reliance is to be upon him, no matter what position or responsibility in the church we function in. The familiar metaphor which describes our dependence on Christ is that of sheep being tended to by [Christ] the Good Shepherd. At the time of the fall sin entered the world, resulting from one’s own desire to be in charge and refusal to follow God's will. Non-believers follow the tempter (devil), the world, or their own flesh in pursuit of personal fulfillment.33 However, as Ricketson explained, the capacity to follow the will of God is restored when we become born again believer’s. Christ, who knew no sin, demonstrated for us the divine intention

28

Ibid., 45.

29

Ibid.

30

Ibid.

31

Ibid., 47.

32

Ibid., 53.

33

Ibid., 50

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Luther Rice Journal of Christian Studies and purpose of following God's will and not our own. Being a follower of Christ “is fundamental to who we are.”34 Biblical Teaching and Contemporary Leader-Follower Models The biblical position on leadership is that “humans by nature are followers.” That role (follower) can lend itself to include satisfying the role of leader when called by God to become equipped with the skills and disciplines needed to function in that capacity to “lead others to follow Christ.”35 Ricketson says a believer’s “primary skill development is on follower skills.

Leader skills are secondary."36 A follower-centric organization admonishes all Christ followers to live and be guided by humility, sound judgment and a measure of faith (Phil 2:3-4; Roman 12:3). Thus, “in the follower-leader relationship, where Christ is the head, all others (pastors, teachers, members, deacons, ministry heads, et cetera) our subordinate. Everyone within the body of Christ is to submit to one another intentionally and mutually, in Christ’s authority and in obedience to God's word (His will).”37 The key to learning obedience is to practice submission as Christ himself did (Heb 5:8-10; Phil 2).

Pastors with a follower first mindset know that they too, are followers of Christ whose role (responsibility) in the church is to shepherd God's flock (the congregation-the body of Christ).38 Those who have a teaching ministry in the church also know that their role is to rightly

34

Ricketson, 50.

35

Ibid., 51.

36

Ibid.

37

Ibid., 53.

38 Ricketson, 99-100; Christoph W Stenschke, “Spiritual Formation and Leadership in Paul’s Address to the Ephesian Elders (Act 20:17-35),” Southeastern Theological Review, STR 05:1 (Summer 2014), 86.

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Luther Rice Journal of Christian Studies divide the word of God (2 Tim 2:15) and accurately teach it to the saints.39 A follower first perspective relies on the dynamic workings of the Holy Spirit and God's sovereignty to confront mindsets of those who would warm pews rather than engage in ministry, so those who are convicted of being committed followers of Christ, can seek to enhance their understanding of who they are in Him and the position and role (responsibility) they are to fulfill faithfully in the body of Christ.40 Hence, “the pastors teaching and equipping role will be to bring believers from selfsufficiency to Christ’s sufficiency, a state of total dependence upon the lord Jesus Christ.”41 This state of being Paul explains to us means that from a spiritual vantage point, we are made complete in Him, the head of all principalities and power (Col 2:10, NKJV). As John McArthur states, “Having the Lord Jesus Christ is to have everything needed in spiritual life for time and eternity. To have Him is to have everything, not to have Him is to have absolutely nothing at all.

All joy, peace, meaning, value, purpose, hope, fulfillment in life now and forever is bound up in Christ. And when a person receives Jesus Christ as Lord and Savior, they enter an all-sufficient relationship with an all-sufficient Christ.”42 The work of three major proponents of followership theories (Kelley, Chaleff and Rost) parallel the follower first perspective, and each provide further insight into the attributes of followers. As briefly mentioned previously, Robert Kelley proposed four features that exemplary followers personify: (1) self-management, (2) commitment, (3) competence and focus, and (4) courage. Self-management (independent action) of followers depends on reliance and 39

Ricketson, 100.

40

Ibid., 100-101.

41

Ibid., 53.

42 John McArthur, The Sufficiency of Christ, Grace to You.org, Sermon transcript, (February 22, 1987), https://www.gty.org/library/sermons-library/80-36/the-sufficiency-of-christ.

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Luther Rice Journal of Christian Studies empowerment by the Holy Spirit to fulfill Christ’s mandate and glorify God.43 Commitment is not to man, but to Christ, who is committed to God the father and glorifying Him (Matt 22:3738). Competence and focus come from seeking to know Christ and His word better. Followers become disciples (learners), who sharpen their skills and seek to be approved as a workman who need not be ashamed, handling accurately the word of truth (2 Tim 2:15) and making application of the word of God to their daily lives by diligent study, meditation, reading and other disciplines.44 A follower of Christ has courageous integrity. They speak the truth in love, even when accountability is required and faithfully follow God's word. Courageous followers according to Ira Chaleff, also have 5 notable characteristics which enable them to engage in the leadership process and achieve a common mission and purpose. Courageous follower attributes include the ability to (1) assume responsibility, (2) to serve others (3) to challenge a leader (4) participate in the transformational (change) process and (5) take moral action, standing firm in positions affirming higher standards.45 Joseph Rost focused on follower leader relationships in the postmodern culture and suggested 5 dynamics: (1) leaders are followers, (2) followers influence leaders, (3) follower reciprocally exists in (interdependent) relationship, (4) followers have flexibility and can flip roles becoming leaders and (5) followers do leadership.46 Followers and leaders are both essential to the leadership process and in leading others to Christ. Moreover, as followers and leaders form mutual relationships in the following-leader

43

Ricketson, 59.

44

Ibid., 60.

45

Ibid.

46

Ibid., 66-68.

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Luther Rice Journal of Christian Studies process and influence one another, the church organization, and society, they work and live in, benefit in the attainment of common goals. Training sessions to adopt follower first principles will allow genuine followers to dig deeper into each of these attributes of a follower, determine if they relate with any and take the opportunity to embody them.

“The followerfirst perspective aligns with the biblical perspective that the leader (head) of the church, Jesus Christ, is a follower to whom all things are under His authority or subjection” (Eph 1). Both followers and leaders have an interdependent relationship undergirded with humility and trust where both work from their respective level of giftedness and mutual benefit of honoring God.47 Further, followers according to Ricketson who do not manifest follower first perspectives are often typed as (1) angry, (2) whatever, (3) mediocre, (4) maintenance or (5) pseudo followers.48 They reveal followers who are hurt or have unmet desires, disengaged, perform minimally, lack dynamism, hypocrites.

Adopting a follower first perspective is consistent with the biblical understanding of how Christ’s church is to function in carrying out its divine intentional mission and purpose (The Great Commission) to make disciples of all nations and be united in strategizing and fulfilling the mission, adhering to core biblical values and vision for transformation (change) within the church, community, nations and globally.49 It is crucial that those who have leadership responsibility in the church know how to lead and serve from a follower first perspective.50 Second it also requires that followers be taught and learn to follow from a follower first

47

Ricketson, 68-69.

48

Ibid., 70-73.

49

Ibid., 277.

50

Ibid., 83, 86

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Luther Rice Journal of Christian Studies perspective.51 In doing so, the church fulfills its chief aim of glorifying God in everything she does. However, failure to lead from a followerfirst perspective can result in (1) church ineptness, (2) meager member engagement (participation), (3) division within the church, and (4) Pridefulness.52 Remember, a followerfirst mindset is that of a follower and the role of being a follower of Christ is to be fulfilled by every believer in the church.

The Bible is clear that Jesus exemplified servant leadership (Matt 20:28) and as disciples of Christ we are to follow His example in serving others and not ourselves. Failing to function in a manner that willingly submits to Christ first and then to those in position of responsibility in the church is not God honoring.53 Followers can learn from the master (follower) Jesus Christ and His relating to and interaction with people because his primary concern was to follow the will of the father (John 6: 38 ). Ricketson encourages “followers of Christ to interpret Jesus’ actions and words from the same perspective he held, the perspective of a follower.”54 Other biblical claimed examples of leaders who were followers include Abraham, Isaac, and Moses. “A followerfirst perspective places emphasis on the role and responsibility of every follower of Christ.”55 Before accepting any role of leader, however, understand that we are first, followers. Ricketson proposes that “good leaders (therefore) are good followers.56 Therefore, the church organizational culture ought to revolve around the followerfirst principle of role and responsibility (submission and obedience) rather than position and rank (power and control). The position of a follower is humility and submission. The biblical pattern

51

Ricketson, 83.

52

Ibid.

53

Ibid., 55.

54

Ibid., 94.

55

Ibid., 97.

56

Ibid.

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Luther Rice Journal of Christian Studies followers are to emulate (see Phil 3:4-16,17-19, Paul; Phil 2:19-24, Timothy; Phil 2:25-30 Epaphroditus; Phil 2:1-11, Jesus) is “an undiluted devotion to God and Christ and His commands.”57 Such submission results in influence whether one is a leader or follower.58 Ricketson says that titles of position are unnecessary for following-leaders to realize their identity or worth.59 They fully realize that “good leaders are good followers.”60 Especially those who have a relationship with Christ and devotedly follow Him, influencing others is a natural extension of being a “followerfirst.”61 Moreover, Ricketson asserts that given the “church’s unique organizational structure and purpose” the following-leader perspective fits best. This is because for human beings, “following and leading are ultimately not about following a leader or leading others. Following a leader and leading others is about knowing God.”62 In the church, the person leading must discern the direction God desires them to lead others in accomplishing His purposes, ultimately for His glory. God shapes, prepares, inaugurates those he calls to lead. Jesus Christ was the most dynamic leader ever, only doing and communicating what the father sent him to do (John 5:30) and say (John 12:49-50; 14:10-11). A test of spiritual leader obligation is to be a follower of Christ first.

It cannot be overemphasized enough that as believers, we are really followers of Christ.

This is the role humanity was created for and as Christ followed God the father, we are to follow him in obedience to God the father also. This may have us take on the responsibility of

57

Ricketson, 145.

58

Ibid., 51.

59

Ibid., 197.

60

Ibid.

61

Ibid.

62

Ibid., 202.

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Luther Rice Journal of Christian Studies leadership as opportunity and challenges arise.63 Ricketson said, “originally, we were all ‘wired’ to honor God and find fulfillment by following the will of our creator.”64 We must understand though that as believers, we can never be leaders, as we were designed to be followers, but we can develop secondary skills needed to lead.65 J Oswald Sanders emphasized that “spiritual leadership requires spirit filled people.”66 Although other qualities mentioned below are also important, he considers this an indispensable quality.67 Those obedient to the lordship of Jesus Christ are spiritual leaders and spiritual leaders do not operate on their own authority but rather the authority of the godhead. And if they walk according to the Holy Spirit (Gal 5: 16, 18, 25; Romans 8: 4) who dwells inside and teaches all truth (John 16: 13-15), spiritual leaders are empowered by the Holy Spirit to function in the leadership process for the glory of God. Sanders notes some conditions for spiritual leadership. First emphasizing that God endows the leader with gifts and abilities suited to the mission and task they were called to do.68 Additionally, the individuals are devoted, disciplined, visionary, seek God's wisdom, decisive, courageous, humble, have personal integrity and sincerity in leading.69 Further, spiritual leaders have a sense of humor, restrains anger, patience, cordial, inspiring, competent in task execution, skilled listeners, and great communicators.70 Notably spiritual leaders are also called by and dependent upon God, empowered by the Holy Spirit; approved by God (Isa 42:1; Ps 40:8),

63

Ricketson, 50-51.

64

Ibid., 50.

65

Ibid., 51.

66

Sanders, 49.

67

Ibid.

68

J. Oswald Sanders, Spiritual Leadership: Principles of Excellence for Every Believer, (Chicago, IL: Moody Publishing, 2007), 52.

69

Sanders, 52-64.

70

Ibid., 75-65.

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Luther Rice Journal of Christian Studies exhibits modesty, empathy, optimism, and anointed as His servant.71 Unquestionably, spiritual leaders are to “walk in”, be “led by” and keep in step with” the Spirit (Gal 5:16, 18, 25; Romans 8:4). A following-leader is determined to adhere to the standards that God has established for their life and role in leading as they are Christ’s ambassadors, whether in a secular environment or a sacred one. There is no separation of roles.

Ricketson clearly asserts that the “follower first perspective of following-leaders operates from a pan-cultural perspective. Following leaders are consistently who they are regardless of the situation. Their motivation, purpose and desire do not change from context to context.”72 Furthermore, Ricketson states that “following-leaders being followerfirst minded may still embrace other leader styles (contingent upon the personality, giftedness, training and spiritual maturity of the particular following-leader) that best brings glory to God.”73 Following-leaders accept their calling to serve Christ, seek God with intentionality to glorify Him and seek to influence others as they follow Christ in obedience to God’s word in every situation, circumstance or environment.74 Thus, following-leaders know that their identity is in Christ who gifted them with talents and abilities to influence “using the personality He has given and they function within the church with the capacity God has given them.”75 Though still growing (maturing emotionally, spiritually and intellectually), following-leaders “embrace and respond positively in obedience to Christ’s commands now”.76 Ricketson posits further that "when God

71

Sanders, 35-41.

72

Ricketson, 216.

73

Ibid.

74

Ricketson, 220, 222-225.

75

Ibid., 226.

76

Ibid.

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Luther Rice Journal of Christian Studies provides the opportunity," following-leaders respond to their calling to follow.77 It is an immediate response without reservation or hesitation and various leadership styles may be embraced to influence others. Although other leadership styles (such as transformational, LMX, situational, etc.) and theories do exist and may even be embraced, only servant leadership and no other form is clearly taught by Jesus Christ in Scripture. Luke 9:23 provides the illustrative support. And Jesus said to them all “if anyone wants to come after me, he must deny himself, take up his cross daily, and follow me.” This breaks down into 5 areas of responsibility: (1) enabled by the Holy Spirit, believers are to act in accordance to the desires of Christ, not our own desires; (2) believers are to align ourselves to follow Jesus’s leading and follow Him only; (3) believers are to deny self; (4) believers are to take up our cross (the Cross of Christ) and follow Him; (5) believers are called to follow Jesus as He commanded in Luke 9: 23, “follow me.”78 As followers of Jesus Christ die daily to self (empowered by the Holy Spirit), God is glorified. It is a relationship of mutual submission of the believer to God the Son to God the Father, where Christ is preeminent in all things.

The prototype of leadership in our church and parachurch organizations ought to reflect in this manner of servant leadership (Matt 20:26) differently from traditional and contemporary leadership because it is a functional role to be a follower of Jesus Christ who is our ultimate leader and our follower exemplar.79 Joseph Maciariello posits “Christ taught and demonstrated an approach to leadership and management that is considerably different than that found in most organizations, even church related organizations.” Similarly, William Lawrence asserts: Christian leadership is different from other kinds of leadership because no Christian leader can assume the position of being number one, that is the leader. This is true 77

Ricketson, 226.

78

Ibid., 115-118.

79

Ibid., 56.

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Luther Rice Journal of Christian Studies because those who believe in Christ know there is only one “number one,” namely, the Lord Jesus Christ. Therefore, a Christian leader must know who the leader is. He must know who is in control and that he is not in control.80 Organizationally, in the church says Ricketson, “we are all equal in that we are all followers.”81 Lawrence adds, “the chief characteristic of a Christian leader must be submission to Christ, and only those who have learned that submission is the key to power can be effective Christian leaders.”82 Responsibility, trust and influence are intertwined in the interdependent relationship; to which Ricketson adds, that “once trust is established, the leader takes on the characteristics of the follower and the follower takes on the characteristics of the leader in a reciprocating process.”83 Mary Ellen Drushal contends, that “the New Testament account of how Jesus effectively trained and endowed His disciples for leadership should be the model for long term management employed by the church.”84 Ephesians reiterates that Jesus’ disciples (all believers) in the church will be equipped to respond to the task He calls them to do and function as He intended and commanded.

The concept of servant leadership is credited to Robert Greenleaf who defined and coined the theory in 1977. 85 Further development and clarification of the Servant Leader theory [Spears,1998; Russell and Stone, 2002] fostered its impact. Northouse offers Greenleaf’s definition:

80

William D. Lawrence, Distinctives of Christian Leadership, Biblica Sacra, BSAC 144:575 (Jul 1987),

81

Ricketson, 29.

82

Lawrence, 318.

83

Ricketson, 130.

317.

Mary Ellen Drushal, “Implementing Theory Z in the Church: Managing People as Jesus Did,” Ashland Theological Journal, ATJ 20:1 (NA 1988), 47.

84

85

Peter Northouse, 227; Finley, Susan. “Servant Leadership: A Literature Review”, Review of Management Innovation and Creativity, Vol. 5, Issue 14 (2012): 135 – 144; Alicia, R. de Rubio, and Angelina Galvez-Kiser. “Gender and age differences in servant leadership.” Academy of Business Research Journal. 49-58.

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Luther Rice Journal of Christian Studies Servant leadership begins with the natural feeling that one wants to serve, to serve first. Then conscious choice brings one to aspire to lead… the difference manifests itself in the care taken by the servant-first to make sure that other people’s highest priority needs are being served. The best test… is: do those served grow as persons; do they while being served, become healthier, wiser, freer, more autonomous, more likely themselves to become servants? And what is the effect on the least privileged in society; will they benefit, or, at least, will they not be further deprived?86 According to Northouse, “servant leaders place the good of followers over their own selfinterests and emphasize follower development.87 Servant leaders reportedly are empathetic, good listeners, good stewards, have high moral and ethical values dedicated to the growth and development of others.88 Christ is preeminent with Servant leaders and what Christ exemplified, and taught more than two thousand years ago, SL models.89 Greenleaf and later Spears (2004) identified ten salient characteristics servant leaders possess: (1) listening, (2) empathy, (3) healing, (4) awareness, (5) persuasion, (6) conceptualization, (7) foresight, (8) stewardship, (9) commitment to growth of people, and (10) building community.90 Gandolfi and Stone concisely affirmed what “differentiates servant leadership from other leadership styles is its primary focus on the follower first.”91 Followers are keenly responsive to the Servant leader and the desire to serve. Exemplary follower characteristics parallel the 10 traits Sperry clarified and considers them significant in the leader. Northouse says, that servant leadership is “the only approach that frames the

86

Peter Northouse. 228.

87

Ibid.

88

Alicia, R. de Rubio, and Angelina Galvez-Kiser, 49-58; Finley, Susan, 135–144.

89

Gandolfi, Franco, Stone, Seth and Deno, Frank. “Servant leadership: An Ancient Style with 21st Century Relevance.” Review of International Comparative Management, 18:4 (2017), 350–361.

90

Gandolfi, Franco, Stone, Seth and Deno, Frank, 350–361; Gandolfini, Franco and Stone, Seth.

“Leadership, Leadership styles, and Servant Leadership,” Journal of Management Research, Vol. 18:4 (Oct-Dec 2018), 261-269.

91

Gandolfi, Franco, Stone, Seth and Deno, Frank, 261-269.

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Luther Rice Journal of Christian Studies leadership process around the principle of caring for others”92 Altruism is also a dominant component of the servant leadership process.93 Northouse likewise asserts that influence in the traditional sense is not part of the servant leadership influencing process.94 Selfless leadership and reciprocal self-sacrifice is the goal.95 Servant Leadership also draws concern of value from its title and a “idealistic sound” that contrasts with other traditional leadership approaches.96 For example, as Northouse explains, “being a servant leader implies following, and following is viewed as the opposite of leading.97 However, such concern is the overall aim of this paper, to place greater emphasis on the importance of followers of Christ operating in a following-leader context, rather than a leadercentric one .

Keifert Patrick affirms that “when the assessment of what needs to change and the strategy becomes clear as to how to implement the change, making space, nurturing a climate of discernment, remaining in the word, and sharing the journey can all lead to transformational missional results.”98 Therefore, to embed a followerfirst perspective (Step 7) into the existing culture of the local church will require wisdom, patience and understanding. Some primary embedding mechanisms by Edgar Schein on organizational culture and leadership which resonated with Ricketson begin by (1) identifying with followers [pay attention, measure activities; reward the

92

Northouse, 241.

93

Ibid., 241, 253.

94

Ibid., 241.

95

Ibid.

96

Northouse, 242, 254.

97

Ibid., 242.

98

Patrick Keifert, and Wesley Granberg-Michaelson, How Change Comes to Your Church: A Guidebook for Church Innovations, (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans Publishing Co., 2019), 51-136.

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Luther Rice Journal of Christian Studies activities; be consistent and aware of unconscious, unintended actions]; (2) begin incrementally to teach and provide information regarding a follower culture they can become knowledgeable in and embody; (3) their response to crisis will create new norms, values, methods and reveal underlying assumptions and heightened emotional intensity and involvement of learning; (4) Combine resources and accommodate dynamic guest speaker(s) such as Dr. Ricketson himself to help us launch the effort for change; (4) facilitate new learning (by reduction in anxiety; stimulate collective learning; repetitive behavior); (5) demonstrate and model how to live daily life effectively as a follower; (6) influence key individuals to embrace the follower mindset and allow others to see the followerfirst principles being exemplified (by me and others); (7) compliment, reward and task others as means to recognize and reward their participatory effort; (8) when course of study culminates, effectively identify those who are followers and cultivate and encourage them to grow spiritually via mentoring, fellowship, discipleship and enhancing their relationships and outreach to new people who can learn how to follow Christ; (9) by reinforcing what was taught to existing members, influencing others in the church, community, and the world as a means to recruit, and promote followers; (10) Secondary embedding mechanisms to consider include the organizational design and structure; systems and procedures; traditions and rituals of the organization; design of physical space; building facades; creating narratives on relevant events and people; and formed announcements made by the organization.99 To summarize James Schindler’s advice on Teamwork and being an exemplary follower, such action steps begin with: (1) sharing information on leadership and followership; (2) gain an understanding of what is required (immediate and future) of you;

99 Edgar Schein, Organizational Culture and Leadership, 5th Edition, (Hoboken NJ: Wiley, 2017), 183; Ricketson, 233-247. (See also Ricketson lecture PowerPoint).

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Luther Rice Journal of Christian Studies (3) be effective in communication; (4) display initiative; (5) maintain positivity; (6) be willing to accept responsibility; (7) problem-solve through critical thinking and teamwork; (8) define what success means to you.100 And this author adds two more: (9) pray to God about the task and let the Holy Spirit lead and empower you for doing what God has already prepared you to do; and (10) witness how God defines and views success. Selah!

Conclusion Both followerfirst principles and servant leadership theory are akin to one another.

Both models are biblically based, focus on followers and the needs of followers by cultivating their growth, relationship and commitment to Christ and His commandments.

Combining both sets of principles would seem to bolster (encourage, strengthen, reinforce) understanding, commitment, spiritual maturity, engagement, and reliance on God in fulfilling the mission that Christ urges believers to go, do and enlarge the Kingdom of God at hand. In other words, understanding followerfirst principles and acting as a servant leader can mutually form and impart mutual benefits from the combined perspectives to motivate the believer to act toward following Christ’s example and faithfully obeying all that He has commanded us to do.

The strategy (Step 8) to move forward will be to commence with a two day seminar series that will motivate and prepare church members to dig deeper, reflect and participate in future course offerings within the Institute of Biblical Studies curriculum utilizing Dr. Ricketson 's book entitled followerfirst: Rethinking leading in the church, to transform their thinking about leadership as they understand it from a worldly perspective and get them to fully comprehend

100

James Schindler, Followership: What it Takes to Lead, (New York, NY: Business Expert Press, 2014),

83.

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Luther Rice Journal of Christian Studies and embrace leading (others to Christ) from a followerfirst perspective and the biblical role of leadership that involves the mutual relationship between followers and leaders God’s way. The training, resources, accountability, and learning experiences will hopefully renew the minds of participants, increase their willingness to accept responsibility while submitting to one another in the work that God has already prepared and purposed for them to do; and to walk together in the fellowship, discipleship, and mission empowered by the Holy Spirit to be a wellspring of intentional, missional, and transformational results.

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Luther Rice Journal of Christian Studies

Forbearance Supports Ethical Acculturation

by Michell Temple1 The importance of preparing counselors, in practice and in training, to respond to religious and spiritual issues in counseling has surged since Bruff v. North Mississippi Health Services (44 F.3d 495 (5th Cir. 2001), when a licensed Christian counselor, working in an Employee Assistance Program, refused to offer relationship counseling to her Lesbian client, but continued to offer other services. Initially Bruff won, basing her claim on religious accommodation, but failed on appeal (United States Court of Appeals, Fifth Circuit. March 28, 2001).2 Additional concerns arose with Keeton v. Anderson-Wiley (664 F.3d 865 (11th Cir. 2011)3 and Ward v. Wilbanks (Case No. 09-CV-11237.(USDC, E.D. Michigan, S. Div, 2010).4,5,6 In the latter two cases, students in secular counselor education programs refused to

1

Michell Temple, EdD, PhD, LPC, Assistant Professor, Denver Seminary, Certified Rehabilitation Counselor, Nationally Certified Counselor, Certified Clinical Trauma Professional, Certified Telemental Health Provider, LPC (GA and CO), and Mental Health Service Provider (TN) M. Hermann and B. Herlihy, “Legal Implications Of Refusing To Counsel Homosexual Clients,” Journal of Counseling & Development, 84 (2006): 414-418, doi: https://doi.org/10.1002/j.1556-6678.2006.tb00425.x 2

B. Pritchard, “Schoolhouse Rock: Lessons Of Homosexual Tolerance In Keeton V. Anderson Wiley From The Classroom To The Constitution,” Mercer Law Review 62 no. 3 (2011): 1011-1029. Available at https://digitalcommons.law.mercer.edu/jour_mlr/vol62/iss3/12 3

D. Burkholder and S. F. Hall, “Ward v. Wilbanks: “Students Respond.” Journal of Counseling & Development, 92 no. 2 (2014): 232-240, https://doi.org/10.1002/j.1556-6676.2014.00152.x 4

5 D. Burkholder, S. F. Hall and J. Burkholder, “Ward v. Wilbanks: Counselor Educators Respond,” Counselor Education and Supervision, 53 no. 4 (2014): 267-283. First published: 01 December 2014 https://doi.org/10.1002/j.1556-6978.2014.00062.x 6

D. Kaplan, Ethical Implications Of A Critical Legal Case For The Counseling Profession: Ward v.

Wilbanks,“ Journal of Counseling & Development 92 (2014): 142-146. Kaplan, Ethical Implications Of A Critical Legal Case For The Counseling Profession: Ward v. Wilbanks,“ Journal of Counseling & Development 92 (2014): 142-146.

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Luther Rice Journal of Christian Studies counsel a person who identified as a sexual minority.7 These articles hold multiple perspectives and implications about the ethical and legal issues of the counselor's behaviors on the profession.

They highlight the role of accrediting bodies in approving faith-based institutions to train counselors, and counselor educators as gatekeepers, the importance of remediation when problematic behaviors are first observed in counseling students, and the need to improve the admissions process to counseling programs in general. Francis and Dugger8 suggest that the primary issue in these cases is the counselor's unwillingness to affirm the professions' values and beliefs which resulted in the subsequent dismissal from educational training, employment, and legal action. Sells and Hagedorn, in response to Smith and Okech9 noted an alternative issue, which is the lack of counselor education programs’ openness to engaging students in an intentional process to "integrate the identity of faith with the identity of professional counseling.”10 The American Counseling Association (ACA) has responded to these challenges from two essential perspectives. The first was the approval of the “Competencies to Address Spiritual and Religious Issues in Counseling,”11 developed by the Association for Spiritual, Ethical, and

L. Smith and J. Okech, “Ethical Issues Raised by CACREP Accreditation Of Programs Within Institutions That Disaffirm Or Disallow Diverse Sexual Orientations,” Journal of Counseling & Development, 94 (2016): 252- 264. DOI:10.1002/JCAD.12082 7

8 P. C. Francis and S. M. Dugger, S. M. “Professionalism, Ethics, and Value‐Based Conflicts in Counseling: An Introduction to The Special Section,” Journal of Counseling & Development, 92 no. 2 (2014): 131134. doi:10.1002/j.1556-6676.2014.00138.x 9

L. Smith and J. Okech, 2016.

J. Sells and W. Hagedorn, “CACREP accreditation, ethics, and the affirmation of both religious and sexual identities: A response to Smith and Okech,” Journal of Counseling & Development 94 (2016): 267. First published: 09 June 2016, https://doi.org/10.1002/jcad.12083.

10

“Competencies for Addressing Spiritual and Religious Issues in Counseling,” Association for Spiritual, Ethical, and Religious Issues in Counseling, Accessed November 26, 2022, http://www.aservic.org/resources/spiritual-competencies.

11

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Luther Rice Journal of Christian Studies Religious Values in Counseling, a division of ACA. The competencies provide counselors with guidelines to obtain the knowledge, skills, and abilities to meet the religious and spiritual needs of clients ethically and provide a framework for research, education, and practice.12 The second was through the revisions of the ACA Code of Ethics in 2014.13 The ACA Code of Ethics reaffirms and firmly state the profession's position regarding these ethical issues. The Code states explicitly the prohibition of "referring prospective and current clients based solely on the counselor's personally held values, attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors (ACA, 2014, Standard A.11.b)."14 The original statements within the preamble that espouse counselors to honor and embrace a multicultural approach, demonstrate awareness of values, attitudes, and beliefs as well as restrain from imposing their worldviews onto clients remain unchanged. The codes now infer that counselors should accept the values and beliefs of the profession or engage in the practice of ethical bracketing, which is the "intentional separation of a counselor's values from his or her professional values in order to provide ethical and appropriate counseling to all clients, especially those whose worldviews, values, belief systems, and decisions differ significantly from those of the counselor."15 The cases presented, however, suggest that counselors need other alternatives to manage ethical dilemmas related to their belief symptoms and create a professional identity specific to ethics. The purpose of this paper is to describe the use of

12 Barto, Heather H. "The Integration of Religious and Spiritual Issues in Clinical Supervision and Implications for Christian Supervisors," Journal of Psychology and Christianity 37, no. 3 (Fall, 2018): 235-46, https://www.proquest.com/scholarly-journals/integration-religious-spiritual-issues-clinical/docview/2131578599/se2.

13 American Counseling Association, “ACA 2014 Code of Ethics.” Accessed November 26, 2022, https://www.counseling.org/knowledge-center/ethics 14

Ibid., p. 6.

15 M. M. Kocet, and B. J. Herlihy, “Addressing Value-Based Conflicts Within the Counseling Relationship: A Decision-Making Model,” Journal of Counseling & Development, 92 no. 2 (2014): 182, . https://doi.org/10.1002/j.1556-6676.2014.00146.x

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Luther Rice Journal of Christian Studies forbearance, a biblical principle, to assist counseling students with religious and spiritual beliefs as they engage in the ethical acculturation process.

A Hermeneutical Understanding of Forbearance The Holy Bible is designed to provide Christians with direction and guidance on how to live on earth (2 Timothy 3:16). The way of knowing the meaning of the Bible is known as hermeneutics, "a science and art of interpreting the Bible" 16 According to Zuck, the three steps to understanding the Scripture include observation, interpretation, and application. Observation refers to probing, depicting what is there, e.g., exploring. Interpretation follows observation to explain, digest, and decide the meaning of the observation. The third step, application, transforms the interpretation from the lives of its initial readers to the living of present time followers of Christ through the understanding of expectation, dispensation, and principle relevance to believers. The biblical principle of forbearance, through this hermeneutical lens, can be a tool to help counseling students who are Christian to integrate their values and beliefs within the counseling profession.

Observation The triune God's example of forbearance in love undergirds the grand narrative of the Holy Bible. God's love toward His creation is displayed in the Old Testament. His example of restraint is noted in Genesis 2 – 3 when He chooses to banish Adam and Eve from the Garden of Eden. He also withheld judgment from the Amorites (Gen. 15:16). He also delayed punishment to allow those who have honored Him to escape such Lot and his family in Sodom (Gen. 18:23-

16

Roy B. Zuck, Basic Bible Interpretation: A Practical Guide to Discovering Biblical Truth. (Colorado Springs, CO: David C. Cook, 1991), 10.

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Luther Rice Journal of Christian Studies 32). God also sent His prophets to express the opportunity to avoid judgment if the people in the land would repent and turn to worship God (Moses, Joshua, Jeremiah, Samuel, Nathaniel). Those prophets were not always willing messengers. For example, Jonah tried to avoid sharing God's message of repentance to Nineveh and was swallowed by a big fish before he conceded to God's command. The people of Nineveh received God's offer to forebear judgment and lived.

The New Testament narrative of salvation also provides evidence of God's practice of forbearance. God sent His only begotten Son to die for all sinners because He loves humanity (John 3:16 -17; Romans 5: 7-10). The Creator of all things, who endowed human beings with His image, withholds final judgment, as another example of forbearance. Final judgment will occur when He returns to earth, and during this time, desires to allow all humankind to repent (2 Peter 3:9) and accept Jesus Christ, as Savior of the World (John 3:15-17). Paul also reminds readers that God has forborne punishment of the world so that no person is lost to sin (Romans 3:23-25).

The triune God delays or withholds the final judgment to extend grace and mercy toward His creation (Romans 5: 6 -11; Ephesians 4:2).

Interpretation Biblical forbearance illustrates God's love and exudes longsuffering (1 Corinthians 13:7 Colossians 1:11, 3:13; 2 Timothy 2:24; 1 Thessalians 3:1, 5). Longsuffering is a quality that involves self-restraint in the face of adversity and even overt provocation. Longsuffering means there is no quick retaliation or revenge or punishment; it is a quality of mercy. It has been called the opposite of anger, and longsuffering is an attribute of God. God demonstrates longsuffering by withholding final judgment to reveal His unyielding love toward sinful human beings.

In the Southern Baptist (Protestant) tradition, God’s ability to demonstrate forbearance appears central to the salvation process facilitated by the regenerative power of the Holy Spirit.

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Luther Rice Journal of Christian Studies Since Southern Baptists believe firmly in the inerrancy of the Scripture and the truth of its inspiration by God (1 Timothy 3:16), it is significant that forbearance is noted as a result of life in Christ. “But the fruit of the Spirit is love, joy, peace, forbearance, kindness, goodness, faithfulness, gentleness, and self-control. Against such things, there is no law. Those who belong to Christ Jesus have crucified the flesh with its passions and desires. Since we live by the Spirit, let us keep in step with the Spirit” (Gal 5: 22–25, New International Version).

Christians within the Southern Baptist tradition believe in sanctification; they are “set apart for God's purposes and are enabled to progress toward moral and spiritual maturity through the presence and power of the Holy Spirit dwelling with them.” God the Holy Spirit, within the southern Baptist tradition, guides believers to understand the truth and exalt Christ. He also nurtures every believer’s character. Baptist tradition proclaims God's Holy Spirit enables believers to love others as Christ loved humankind because they are under the obligation to seek to make the will of Christ supreme in their lives and society. Also, Baptists are called to "oppose racism, every form of greed, selfishness, and vice and all forms of sexual immorality, including adultery, homosexuality, and pornography.”17 This last statement provides a hurdle that many counseling students struggle with.

Ethical Acculturation Model Handelsman, Gottlieb, and Knapp proposed that instructors and supervisors of psychologists should facilitate an ethical acculturation process whereby trainees and professionals come to integrate the moral values of the profession while understanding and

17

Ibid., p. 19.

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Luther Rice Journal of Christian Studies maintaining their value tradition.18 Handelsman et al. reframed the Model of Acculturation developed by J.W. Berry. While this preceded the aforementioned court cases cited above, Sells and Hagedorn endorsed this model of ethical acculturation as a viable tool that could be used by counselor educators to support "a developmental process that assists students with blending their personal identities/cultures with the professional identities necessary to counseling in a multicultural pluralistic society.”19 The ethical acculturation model describes four possible adaptations a trainee or new professional may exhibit when exposure to the values and beliefs of the counseling profession: assimilation, separation, marginalization, and integration. Generally, assimilation refers to unquestioned acceptance of the profession's value system and the abandonment of personal value systems. Separation as a form of adaptation which means that the one's value system is deemed adequate whereby one disregards the professional value system. Marginalization implies that the trainee lacks a secure personal value system but also does not accept the professional value system. The fourth possible adaptation style is integration. Students who experience ethical integration may "look for areas of consistency between their personal notion of respect and the ways professionals show respect for clients and others. . . be aware of these strains and work to resolve them in ways that foster greater integration.”20

18 M. M. Handelsman, M. C. Gottlieb and S. Knapp (2005). Training Ethical Psychologists: An Acculturation Model. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice 36, no. 1 (2005): 59–65, ). Training Ethical Psychologists: An Acculturation Model. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice 36, no. 1 (2005).

19 J. Sells and W. Hagedorn, “CACREP Accreditation, Ethics, And The Affirmation Of Both Religious And Sexual Identities: A Response To Smith And Okech,” Journal of Counseling & Development, 94 (2016): 70, https://doi.org/10.1002/jcad.12083.

20

Ibid., pp. 60-61.

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Luther Rice Journal of Christian Studies Application of Forbearance to the Ethical Acculturation Model Of the four strategies outlined in the Handelsman et al. (2005) ethical acculturation model, the separation adaptation response is most likely lead to discord between the ACA Code of Ethics and the theological beliefs of students within the Southern Baptist tradition. Students may quickly align with the requirement for Baptists to oppose certain behaviors and not yield to the power of the Holy Spirit to help them exalt Christ through the act of love and other fruits of the Spirit. Longsuffering could be considered the supporting virtue of the biblical principle of forbearance. Together, longsuffering and forbearance suggest that human restraint is a demonstration of God's desire to extend mercy. Specifically, forbearance applied to the adaptation strategy of separation, would encourage students to rely on the Holy Spirit to cultivate Christian character. For example, an instructor might ask students a series of reflective questions related to patterns of forbearance, withholding of judgment, by God to demonstrate love toward another. The first question could be "What are examples of forbearance in the Bible and what seemed to be the reason for the withholding of judgment? How could those examples of forbearance act as a model in your personal life and professional practice? What religious and spiritual support would you need to demonstrate forbearance? How would practicing forbearance encourage or thwart your spiritual growth and ability to display the love of Christ?

As students answer these questions within a supportive and encouraging environment, they could experience the embrace between their ethical system and that of the profession. More importantly, they could develop a professional ethical identity that supports the profession without denying their own beliefs.

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Luther Rice Journal of Christian Studies

The Koinonia Connection Clarence Jordan, Millard Fuller, And Jimmy Carter

By Michael J. Brooks1 Former Carter White House chief-of-staff, Hamilton Jordan, wrote about his uncle, Clarence Jordan, in his 2000 book, No Such Thing as A Bad Day, whom he called “the black sheep of the family.” He explained, As I grew older, I learned to both understand and appreciate my unusual Uncle Clarence and began to visit him—without my parents’ knowledge—once or twice a year, starting with my junior year in high school. G.K. Chesterton one said, “The only problem with Christianity is that no one has ever tried it.” Chesterton obviously never met my Uncle Clarence.2 In 1942, while Martin Luther King Jr. was in the seventh grade, Clarence Jordan founded an interracial commune in rural South Georgia. It was eleven years before the Supreme Court declared the “separate but equal” doctrine unconstitutional and more than two decades before blacks could drink from a public water fountain or use a public bathroom. Strict segregation was not only prevalent in the South . . . it was legal.

Clarence Jordan founded Koinonia Farms in Americus, Georgia, wishing to demonstrate that people of different races could live and work together in harmony. Koinonia (coin-uh-NEEuh) is a Greek word used in the New Testament to describe relationship or fellowship.

Hamilton Jordan continued: “Clarence Jordan committed himself to living his faith— ironically the same Baptist faith that rationalized segregation and racism, the same faith that first tried to silence him, then tried to run him off and finally attempted to destroy him.”3 Jordan noted that his uncle was a great friend of King. He reports King said, 1 Michael J. Brooks, M.A., M.Div., D.Min. Adjunct Professor of Speech and Communication at Luther Rice College & Seminary. All photos in this article were taken by Dr. Brooks on 9.27.2024.

2

3

Hamilton Jordan, No Such Thing as a Bad Day (Marietta, Georgia: Longstreet Press, 2000), 119-121.

Ibid., p. 121.

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Luther Rice Journal of Christian Studies

When I first invited him to speak at Dexter Street [sic] Baptist Church (in the early 60s), Clarence told us about his interracial commune in rural South Georgia. It was shocking and inspiring . . . and sounded too good to be true. Here was a son of the old South, a white Baptist preacher doing what we were just talking about doing. I went to Koinonia later to see it for myself and couldn’t wait to leave because I was sure the Klan would show up and kill us.4 Former Atlanta mayor, Ambassador to the U.N., and King lieutenant Andrew Young agreed: When we first heard about Clarence Jordan and Koinonia, we considered it too radical, too dangerous. Martin and I were trying to get folks the right to ride on the bus and to shop where they wanted . . . huge challenges back then. But here was Clarence—smack dab in the middle of Ku Klux Klan country—going for the whole loaf. Clarence did not spend all his time telling others what to do or making a fuss about it . . . he just kept living his faith. And Clarence put all the rest of us to shame until we did something about it.5 Hamilton Jordan described several days of terror at Koinonia in January 1957: . . . the peace of Koinonia was interrupted by screams as a machine gun strafed several houses, miraculously missing the inhabitants. Several days later, two cars rode by the farm in the early evening and fired shotguns at the lighted playground where the children were playing volleyball. As the children ran for cover, Clarence erupted with anger and ran toward the cars shaking his fist and yelling, “Come back here and face me, you cowards! Come back!”6 Clarence Jordan also displayed indignation when he chided his fellow Baptist ministers for their reticence.

“Here you are,” he said, “sitting smugly on your hands while the greatest moral dilemma since the Civil War is ravaging your communities. What is your response, ye moral pillars of the South? I’m sorry, but I can’t afford to get involved.”

A pastor interrupted, insisting they were praying for Jordan.

“Save your prayers for each other,” Jordan responded. “You need them more than we do. Your silence in the face of this hate and violence makes you an active accomplice to the cowards who shoot up our homes, beat our children, and bomb our farms.”7

4

H. Jordan, p. 122.

5

Ibid., pp. 122-123.

6

Ibid., pp. 134-135.

7

Ibid., pp. 123-124.

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Luther Rice Journal of Christian Studies Clarence Jordan earned his college degree in agriculture, graduating in the same class as Sen. Herman Talmadge at the University of Georgia. He met and married his wife, Florence, while a student at the Southern Baptist Theological Seminary in Louisville where he earned his Ph.D. in New Testament Greek.

Jordan began to practice his radical faith on the streets of Louisville, working in the black neighborhoods and inviting families to dinner in his campus apartment. One seminary administrator told him, “Brother Jordan, you are supposed to minister to these unfortunate people, not entertain them in your home. It just is not done.”8 The Jordans and former American Baptist missionaries Martin and Mabel England moved to a 440-acre site outside Americus to begin their work. They cultivated a reverence for the soil, calling it “God’s holy earth,” and sought to pay fair wages to workers of all races.

The Koinonia partners lived in relative peace alongside their Sumter County neighbors initially, but as the civil rights movement heated up, some local white citizens increasingly perceived Koinonia, with its commitment to racial equality, a threat. In the 1950s and 60s Koinonia became the target of a stifling economic boycott and repeated violence.

When Jordan sought relief from President Eisenhower, the federal government refused to intervene, instead referring the matter to the governor of Georgia who ordered the Georgia Bureau of Investigation to examine Koinonia’s supporters and partners for purported Communist ties.

Through it all Jordan maintained a commitment to pacifism and non-violence.9

8

H. Jordan, p. 128-129

Kurt Struckmeyer, “Clarence Jordan,” Following Jesus: A Life of Faith in a Postmodern World, FollowingJesus.org/clarence-jordan, (n.d.).

9

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Luther Rice Journal of Christian Studies In the late 1960s Jordan turned his energies to speaking and writing. His best-known books are the four-volume “Cotton Patch” translation of the New Testament.10 Jordan believed it was necessary not only to translate individual words and phrases, but also the context of scripture. For example, he retitled Ephesians “The Letter to the Christians in Birmingham,” rendered Jew and Gentile as white man and Negro and referred to crucifixion as “lynching.”

According to the New Georgia Encyclopedia, Jordan had “John the Baptist conduct[ing] baptisms in the Chattahoochee River, the disciple Peter is given a ‘Yankee’ accent, and Jesus [was] born in Gainesville.”11 Jordan died in 1969 and is buried, as requested, in an unmarked grave on the Koinonia property. He had insisted funerals were “a waste of money on an empty shell,” and his nephew Hamilton regretted the quick burial. He wrote, “I was in Savannah organizing for Jimmy Carter’s campaign for governor when my mother called to tell me Clarence had died. I immediately asked about the funeral arrangements, but I was already too late.” Hamilton Jordan’s Uncle Frank said, after noting several family members died of cancer, “My little brother Clarence didn’t die of cancer…Clarence died of a broken heart.”12 Millard Fuller oversaw the simple burial on the property.

Millard Fuller of Lanett, Alabama, along with his wife, Linda, came to Koinonia to live in 1968 after experiencing life crises. Fuller earned a lot of money in construction but gave it away and looked for a greater cause. He worked for five years on a new project called

10

Clarence Jordan, The Cotton Patch Gospel: The Complete Collection (Macon, GA: Smith & Helwys Publishing, Inc., 2014).

11 A. J. L Waskey , "Cotton Patch Gospel," New Georgia Encyclopedia, last modified Mar 20, 2013. https://www.georgiaencyclopedia.org/articles/arts-culture/cotton-patch-gospel/ 12

H. Jordan, pp. 118, 141.

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Luther Rice Journal of Christian Studies “partnership housing,” then lived and worked for three years building houses in Zaire, now known as the Democratic Republic of Congo.13 The Fullers established “Habitat for Humanity” in Americus in 1976. Millard Fuller encouraged former President Jimmy Carter to affiliate with Habitat in 1984. Both Jimmy and Rosalynn Carter began to contribute and then volunteered their time for an annual Jimmy Carter Work Project somewhere in the world.14,15

According to CBS News, “More than 4,300 homes could be considered a ‘Carter House’ because the Carters have helped build that many homes with more than 100,000 volunteers in 14 countries over nearly 40 years …”16

13 Habitat for Humanity, “Co-Founder of Habitat for Humanity International,” 2024, accessed September 26, 2024, Habitat.org/about/history/habitat-for-humanity-co-founder-millard-fuller.

Caitlin O’Kane, “Jimmy Carter Has A Long History With Habitat For Humanity—Even Pitching In On Builds In His 90s,” CBS News: The Uplift, February 28, 2023, accessed September 26, 2024, CBSnews.com/news/jimmy-carter-habitat-for-humanity-history-the-carter-work-project.

14

15

Photos are courtesy of Michael Brooks, 9.27.2024.

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Luther Rice Journal of Christian Studies Hamilton Jordan added, It would bring a smile to his face to know that one of his followers—Millard Fuller— took his new vision and transformed it into Habitat for Humanity. Clarence would also find it a great and pleasant irony that his farmer-politician neighbor down the road, Jimmy Carter, was one of its main supporters.17 President Bill Clinton awarded Fuller the Presidential Medal of Freedom in 1996, and former President George H.W. Bush and the Points of Light Foundation honored both Fullers in 2005. The Fullers left Habitat in 2005 and established the Fuller Center for Housing, also in Americus. The first board meeting of the new organization was held at Koinonia Farms.18 Fuller died in 2009 and is buried, like Jordan, at Koinonia Farms. Linda Fuller remarried in 2011. The Fuller Center for Housing established the “Lind-A Hand” program in her honor in 2015 in which all-women teams of volunteers build and repair homes. Linda Fuller’s second husband, Paul Degelmann, died in 2021 at age 83.19 Hamilton Jordan served as Chief of Staff under President Carter, and Hamilton wrote quite a few books among other endeavors. He died in 2008, at age 63. A cancer survivor, it is believed his death was due to asbestos exposure during his time in Vietnam. His body was cremated.

Rosalynn Carter died Nov. 19, 2023, at age 96. President Jimmy Carter celebrated his 100th birthday on Oct. 1, 2024.

“The Extra Mile-The Points of Light Pathway,” Points of Light, (March 31, 2011), accessed September 26, 2024, pointsoflight.org/blog/extra-mile-points-light-volunteer-pathway.

16

17

H. Jordan, p. 142.

“Co-Founder of Habitat for Humanity International,” Habitat for Humanity, 2024, accessed September 26, 2024, Habitat.org/about/history/habitat-for-humanity-co-founder-millard-fuller.

18

“Linda Fuller, The First Lady of Affordable Housing” (2024), accessed September 26, 2024, https://fullercenter.org/lindafuller/ 19

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Luther Rice Journal of Christian Studies Visitors to Koinonia Farms today can buy peanuts, pecans, chocolate, coffee and other treats from the gift shop, as well as copies of the “Cotton Patch” New Testament. All profits support the farm community.

Koinonia is located on Georgia Highway 49 South, about eight miles from downtown Americus. The website is koinoniapartners.org. The Habitat headquarters complex in Americus was named the Clarence Jordan Building in 2018.

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Luther Rice Journal of Christian Studies

Augustine’s Anthropological Soteriology: How Manichean Teaching Jaded Augustine’s view of Man

by Bill Jaggar1 Preface List of Abbreviations ACCS ATA Conf.

De Civ De Trin DECB FEF LFHCC NPNF PL SEP WSA

Ancient Christian Commentary on Scripture Augustine Through the Ages Confessions, (WSA) The City of God, (WSA) On the Trinity, (WSA) A Dictionary of Early Christian Beliefs The Faith of the Fathers Library of the Fathers of the Holy Catholic Church Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, Series 1 J. P. Migne, Patrologiae Cursus Completus, Series Latina Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy Works of Saint Augustine, A New Translation for the 21st Century Introduction

Augustine of Hippo (354-430 A.D.) is perhaps the most quoted Church Father. Many invoke his name in favor of their theological position.2 Augustine is one of the mysteries of church history: How can a relative novice in theology, knowing philosophy better than the Bible, not trained in a monastery, never mastering Greek, having lived a life of dissolution, then be converted, soon ordained a bishop, and then a well-respected theologian from one of

1

Bill Jaggar, waiting for credentials….

J. K. Beilby, and P.R. Eddy, eds. Divine Foreknowledge: Four Views (Downer’s Grove, Ill.: InterVarsity Press, 2001). Three of the four contributors, G.A. Boyd, D. Hunt, W.L. Craig and P. Helm, quote Augustine in favor of their positions. Paul Helm defends the “Augustinian-Calvinist View” quoting Augustine freely. David Hunt quotes Augustine extensively in favor of the “Simple Foreknowledge View” in opposition to the supposed “Augustinian View”, 72-74, 79-82. Apparently, whatever one can parse out in favor of one position in Augustine, another can find a counter-point somewhere else. The sheer vastness of the Augustinian corpus over a lifespan as a “pastoral theologian” in contrast to a systematic theologian, adds to the challenge of pinpointing Augustine on the more puzzling issues. Strangely enough, Thomist such as Michael Dauphinais, et al, emphasize the connection between Aquinas and Augustine in Aquinas the Augustinian (Washington: Catholic University of America, 2007).

The most obvious is Augustine’s influence on Aquinas’ doctrine of the Trinity. No longer can it be said that the Roman Church is “marked by the progressive elimination of Augustinianism.”

2

39

Luther Rice Journal of Christian Studies the smaller sees in North Africa?3 Hippo Regius was a mid-sized, relatively obscure see at the time of Augustine’s assent. It lacked the stature of other churches such as Alexandria and Carthage, and even more when compared to Rome and Constantinople. Yet, it is this anomaly of church history that all of Christendom seeks to trace their heritage to Augustine of Hippo Regius. While the Roman Catholics point to him as one of four cardinal doctors of the Church, it’s not an overstatement to say that Augustine is “The Doctor of the Church” for Reformed/Calvinistic Protestants. He is equally admired among Evangelicals for his open confessions about his past licentious lifestyle, tracing his conversion to Christianity.4 Protestants seldom quote key doctors of the Catholic church such as Jerome, Gregory I5 and Thomas Aquinas. Even the great Athanasius, the Father of Nicene Orthodoxy, has never received the following like that of Augustine.

Augustine’s genius could be attributed to a number of factors. Perhaps his greatest acumen was his remarkable ability to analyze the human condition “with his extraordinary sense of the glory and misery of man.”6 However, Augustine’s diversity as a Christian philosopher, apologist, polemicist, theologian, as well as pastor and monastic leader, makes it difficult to systematize and finalize his opinions. This is especially true in his relation to the so-

3 Peter Brown, Augustine of Hippo (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1969; rev. ed, 2000), 138ff.

This is generally considered the finest biography of Augustine and was updated in 2000.

4

W. L. Jaggar, The Resurrected Jesus Christ and Historical Followers. Volume 1: From Christ through the Renaissance (A.D. 1517), (Meadville, PA: Christian Faith Publishing, 2018),376-82. Gregory I (540-604) is generally considered the first true Pope, and one of the four doctors of Roman Catholicism for that reason among others.

5 Luther and Calvin both agreed that the Church fell from orthodoxy with the pontificate of Gregory I in 590. They accepted the results of the first four major church councils: Nicaea (325), Constantinople (381), Ephesus (431) and Chalcedon (451). They most frequently quoted Augustine.

6

H. Chadwick. Augustine of Hippo: A Life (Oxford: University Press, 2010) 2; Peter Brown

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Luther Rice Journal of Christian Studies called Calvinistic “Doctrines of Grace,” i.e. the five points of Calvinism, or ‘Dortism.’7 By Dortism is meant the decision of the Council of Dort that firmly established five-point Calvinism.

The purpose of this research is to investigate the dimensions of Augustine’s soteriological anthropology, to indicate the philosophical influences on Augustine, to delineate the historical background in the Bible and Church Fathers, and to analyze the ambiguity in Augustine’s teaching through his career. Lastly, a comparison will be made between Augustine’s actual teaching and John Calvin/Dortian Calvinism. Some concluding remarks address the differences between Calvin and Luther’s interpretation of Augustine.

This article is published in two parts. The first part focuses on the philosophical background to Augustine’s anthropological soteriology in relation to Dortian Calvinism.

Augustine’s Anthropolocial Soteriology There are two poles in Augustine’s anthropology and soteriology as a result of his creative philosophical genius. One, he develops primarily vis-à-vis Neoplatonism,8 and the

7 F.L. Cross and E.A. Livingstone, eds. Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (Oxford: University Press, 1990) s.v. “Dort, Synod of”, 421; James L. Garrett. Baptist Theology: A Four-Century Study. (Macon, GA: Mercer University Press, 2009),666-68. “Dortism” or “Dortian Calvinism” is a short-cut word to designated the five points of Calvinism established at the Council of Dort in 1618-19 to refute Arminianism in the Dutch Reformed Church. The five points are represented in English by an acrostic. T-total depravity, U-unconditional election, L-limited atonement, I-irresistible grace, and P-perseverance of the saints. T.U.L.I.P. 8 The Confessions, while sharing his path to Christianity, also reveals that he has not fully adopted a biblical world-view. Over half of the confessions are extolling the Platonists, and advocating Neo-Platonic dogma.

More examples of Augustine’s adulations for the Platonists: they “hold the first rank in moral philosophy because they are “nearest to the Christian Faith.” City of God, VIII.8-9 (NPNF II:149-50). From Varro to Thales to Pythagoras to Anaximander to Diogenes to Socrates to Plato, whether the Ionic School of Plato or the Italic of Pythagoras, the concept of the “Supreme God” makes them close to Christianity, Ibid VIII.1-3 (144-46). “We prefer these to all philosophers, and confess that they approach nearest to us,” Ibid, VIIII.9 (146). Beginning in VIII.12, Augustine critiques the philosophers, but more of a “clover-leaf,” unlike the “sword” he offers the Pelagians. Cf. Eugene Te Selle. Augustine (Nashville: Abingdon, 2006). See the “Augustine the Platonist” chapter where he indicates the heavy influence of Platonism on Augustine throughout his life. However, Augustine’s faithfulness to the Scriptures in the end makes him distinctively Christian. It does seem however when Augustine refers to ideals such as Beauty, Justice, Truth, Good, that they should be capitalized, reflecting something of his idealism which he has syncretized into his Christianity (not “with” his Christianity). This is not unlike how John uses ‘Logos’ in his Prologue to his Gospel.

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Luther Rice Journal of Christian Studies other, vis-à-vis Manicheanism. There are Stoic elements of determinism that should also be considered in Augustine’s theology. However, the scope of this article does not include that negative influence.9 The Neo-Platonism influences his ‘Image of God’ (imago dei) and the Manichaean, his ‘Mass of Damnation’ (massa damma) anthropology. 10The first emphasizes the positive element which he calls a ‘divine spark’ that resides in all. Because man is in the image of God, he always has free choice and freedom of the will. The second emphasizes the negative element, that man is a ‘mass of damnation.’ Man does not have free will because he is by nature a sinner. Augustine seldom addresses them simultaneously. His image of God theology began much earlier than his mass of damnation theology, dating back to his Confessions. He continued to develop his ideas on the imago dei in his two other key works--On the Trinity and The City of God. The massa theology developed in the later part of his AntiPelagian corpus, which comprises less than five percent of his writings.

Philosophical Influences Augustine’s sojourn to Christianity included several prominent philosophies. Augustine studied Stoicism at an early age. However, the two major influences adapting to Christianity were first, Manicheanism, and then, Neo-Platonism. Augustine was a seeker-type, asking himself questions about ultimate reality. However, one question that plagued him was the problem of evil, and most particularly, why do men do evil--- what is its cause? 11He spent

9

Ken Wilson, The Foundations of Augustinian-Calvinism (Montgomery, TX: Regula Fidei, 2019) Wilson provides thorough analysis of Stoicism’s influence on Augustine as well as Neo-Platonism and Manicheanism.

10 S.v. “Massa” by P. Fredriksen in Augustine through the Ages: An Encyclopedia, A.D. Fitzgerald, gen. ed. (Grand Rapid: W. B. Eerdmans, 1999), 545-46. This dimension of original sin teaches total depravity and comes later in Augustine’s theology. Man is so full of depravity that he cannot chose God. 11

Brown, 46. Augustine, De Gratia et Libero Arb I, ii, 4 (WSA I/26: 42-43).

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Luther Rice Journal of Christian Studies nearly ten years among the Manichees, believing that he had found his answer. The Manichees traveled much like communes, or as Brown says “secret society” in “cells.” In converting to Manichaeism, he abandoned any thought that he once had of becoming a lawyer. Day and night for nearly ten years beginning in 373 Augustine studied Mani as a “Hearer.”12 The next few years he became well-known as an excellent lecturer on philosophy, which landed him a job as a professor of rhetoric in Milan.

Augustine headed to Milan in 384. The renowned orator Bishop Ambrose, known as the Father of Nicene Establishment in the Roman Empire, fascinated Augustine by his rhetorical skills. He attended services at Milan, mainly to listen to Ambrose’s oratory. As the result of hearing Ambrose preach as well as a solitary personal encounter with the Scriptures, Augustine was converted in 386. Ambrose baptized him.

Augustine then became an ascetic, living much as a monk on an estate. After his conversion in 397, he studied and espoused Neo-Platonism.13 It’s clear that his theology was an admixture of philosophy and Christian doctrine. Augustine was a ‘crypto-platonist’ even after his conversion.

By 395, Augustine served as the under-study to the bishop of Milan, Valerius. He shared preaching and other duties until Valerius’ death when he was then selected bishop in 397. Many knew of his rather dubious past. Augustine wrote his Confessions that year as a biography of his life, and to some degree a defense of his radical conversion. However, the last

12 Ibid. Brown has an excellent summary of Manichaeism, pp. 46-64. See also Rowan Williams, On Augustine (London: Bloomsbury, 2016).

13

Brown, 88-127, traces his passion for Platonist philosophy after his conversion.

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Luther Rice Journal of Christian Studies books of the work are devoted to Neo-Platonic/Christian discussion of time and creation, often quoting Plato.14 Augustine assumed the episcopate without any substantial theological or biblical training. He knew little of the original Greek Church Fathers because he didn’t know Greek.

The great early Church Fathers, known as the Apostolic and Patristic Fathers, wrote almost exclusively in Greek, and the Conciliar decisions and creeds were written in Greek.

In his first fifteen years as a believer and bishop, Augustine taught clearly the traditional view of original sin, free will, and predestination based on God’s foreknowledge of a man’s decision. He held the Sovereignty of God and the responsibility of man in balance. In his early years as a bishop, he taught the same as the Church Fathers. The Confessions indicate a traditional view of original sin, the Fall, and conversion.

Augustine studied the church Fathers. No church father advocated massa-theology that led to a deterministic view of predestination on unconditional election. The Fathers had no view of unconditional election resulting in predestination. They believed in God’s foreknowledge of man’s decisions as the basis of predestination.15 The Gospel that grew Christianity from twelve disciples to multi-millions up to that point bore no resemblance to the mass-theology before Augustine in 415. Augustine’s views were novel, unprecedented, and

14 Augustine, Confessions, Books XI-xiii (NPNF I:163-207). Plato, Plotinus and Platonism are referred to over a dozen times as well as other philosophers and movements. Manichaeism is mentioned dozens of times, mostly to criticize.

15

John Gill, a hyper-Calvinistic Baptist theologian, attempted to say otherwise by listing statements by the Fathers that are at least similar in The Cause of God and Truth (1738). However, Calvin himself made it clear that Augustine was attempted to say otherwise completely different than the Church Fathers. Dozens of quotes from the Fathers make it clear that Gill’s attempt to legitimize Augustine by using the Patristic Fathers is illegitimate. Not one patristic scholar has validated his list.

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Luther Rice Journal of Christian Studies aberrant. However, it will be demonstrated that Augustine fluctuated on his massa-theology, often refuting it in works not directly addressed to the Pelagians, What precipitated the change? What caused him to advocate doctrines that have inspired Calvinism?

The Teaching of Mani Mani (216-77) followed in the tradition of second and third century Gnostics, Basilides and Valentinus. Basilides had a libertine view of man. However, a new form of Gnosticism took root, Valentinianism. Valentinus taught that before creation, a few are predestined to good, everyone else to evil. However, by the mid third century, Valentianian Gnosticism was isolated mostly to North African hill country, not far from Hippo. Valentinian became a target of the great Church Fathers, including Justin Martyr, Irenaeus, and Tertullian.

In 252, Mani espoused a syncretism of Valentinian Gnosticism and Christianity.

Claiming inspiration from the Persian Magi (Gnostic element) and Jesus Christ (Christian element), he reshaped Valentinian teaching in a more Christianized form. It was so successful as to demand the apologetical work of Irenaeus in Against Heresies.16 Manicheanism taught typical Gnostic/Valentinian dualism. There are two eternals: Matter is evil, and spirit is good. As a result, man, being of matter, was evil. He is nothing more than a mass of fleshly, material damnation. Man is totally depraved and has no free will.

Since man cannot choose the good, a few ‘Elect’ are chosen to receive Light, against the Darkness in all human flesh. Predestination results from the evil of matter, and God choice to

16 Irenaeus, Against Heresies, (ANF) 1.324ff. DECB:306. “Valentinus adapted the principles of the heresy known as “Gnostic” to the distinctive character of his own school.” Irenaeus summarizes and condemns their teaching. See also 2.1 (LFHC: 7) for Irenaeus’ describes Gnostic view of Jesus as the “perfect emanation of the Aeons.”

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Luther Rice Journal of Christian Studies elect some without regard to any decision by them. This is the foundational cosmogony of Manicheaism.

Mani also taught that Satan is the god of Moses and the Prophets. Christ came to bring Light, and to redeem man from Satan, the dark, evil God. Mani himself is the Paraclete/Comforter, who is perfect. The remainder of his religion is a syncretistic hodgepodge of Gnosticism, Christianity, Judaism, along with traditional gnostic concepts of angels and aeons. Mani hoped to create the ultimate universal syncretistic religion. However, early on the Fathers condemned Manichaeism. Augustine was indoctrinated into that philosophy for nearly ten years of his life. Lactantius deemed these “doctrines of demons.” 17 It is very clear that Augustine could never release himself from Neo-Platonism and Manicheanism. Augustine’s ‘Crypto-Neo-Platonism’ shows up in his long discussions about the psychological relationship between the Trinity and the image of God in man18. And, it is also clear that Augustine’s ‘Crypto-Manicheanism’ manifests itself in his controversy with Pelagius.19

The Pelagian Controversy Pelagius (354-418) was a well-known British monk, who fled to Rome when the Gothic invasions over-ran the Western Roman Empire. Pelagius believed that man was inherently

17

Lactantius, Divine Institutes, (ANF) 4.30.

18

Augustine, De Trinitate, VIII,1 ff (WA I/5:301ff). On the Trinity is Augustine at his theological best, and the closest thing to a systematic theology. However, his Neo-Platonism shows in books 8-11 in which he speaks of the ideals of Truth, Beauty, Justice, Good, etc.

19 Johannes Oort, Mani and Augustine, Nag Hammadian Studies, vol. 97 (Brill: 2020), 133-432. Oort has perhaps the most extensive study of Augustine’s Manichaeism, analyzing key passages from his works. See also Paul R. Eddy, Can a Leopard Change his spots? Augustine and the Crypto-Manichaeism (Cambridge: University Press, 2009) Eddy notes that early on Julian of Eclanum (ca. 386-ca. 455) noted the “vestiges of Manichaeism” in Augustine’s determinism.

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Luther Rice Journal of Christian Studies good, denying original sin. Man had absolute free will to the extent that if he willed it so, he could live in sinless perfection. Therefore, he could earn his own salvation, and did not need grace. Pelagius believed that himself and other follows were close to that ideal. Aristocratic, though a monk, he drew to himself wealthy lay people in the church at Rome. The Bishop of Rome, one of four “Popes” at the time, soon fell among his sympathizers, if not one of his disciples. Part of that support centered around the problem with the lawless, immoral, and undisciplined lifestyle of many in the church at Rome. He noticed this also in the lack of effort by students in school. Man could live a better life by an act of his will.

Pelagius denied original sin, that man was born with depravity that bent him toward sin due to Adam’s fall. Christian anthropology established that from the Scriptures. But Pelagius rejected it. He believed man was born inherently good. Man’s unabated free will can live in a state of sinless perfection without the aid of God’s grace for salvation. Pelagius had a worksbased soteriology.

As an ancillary doctrine, Pelagius rejected paedo-baptism. There was no need for it since there is no original sin in infants. Infant baptism had crept into the church over the previous century whereby the guilt of original sin is washed away. If the infant died, very common in those days, the child went to heaven or limbo, depending on the authority. Many feared that their unbaptized babies would be cast into hell.

Augustine was across the Mediterranean in North Africa. Pelagius had a well-known disciple not far from Hippo in Carthage, Marcellinius, who rejected paedo-baptism. The Pelagian controversy broke out between Marcellinius and Augustine in 412 based on infant baptism. Augustine wrote Forgiveness and the Just Desert of Sins, and The Baptism of

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Luther Rice Journal of Christian Studies Infants.20 In three short works (books), Augustine uses the traditional doctrine of original sin, foreknowledge and predestination to refute Marcellinius. He reaffirms the need for infant baptism due to original sin so that they might not be condemned. “Those who maintain that a man can exist in this life without sin must not be immediately contradicted…for if we deny such a possibility we derogate both from the free choice of man, …and from the power of mercy of God.”21 Augustine adds, “But it is the work of God’s grace, which assists men’s wills….”22 Again, Augustine writes “Now this same Lord…will never refuse, this his healing to those whom, in His most pure foreknowledge and future loving-kindness, He has predestined to reign with Himself to life eternal.”23 Healing in the context is salvation. He foresees the request for salvation by man and does not refuse it, then he predestines. God does not first predestine, then foresees his predestination. There is no unconditional election here at this point in the debate. Absent is any reference to mass theology.

The first two books were ineffectual in redirecting Pelagius away from his heresy.

However, Pelagius responded negatively in expositions of Romans, especially 5:12. In book 3, written not long after the first two books, he names Pelagius directly for the first time. He was writing to “defend the faith delivered to us by our fathers, against the novel opinions of its opponents….I have read some writings by Pelagius….”24 Augustine deemed him a holy man, attempting to be diplomatic. However, he goes on to attack not only about his rejection of

20

Augustine, (Migne PL)4:12-79; 1,1,2ff (NPNF V:11-115)

21

Ibid, 2,6,7. William A. Jurgens, ed. The Fathers of the Church 3 vols. (Collegeville, MN. Liturgical Press,1979), 3:96. Augustine repeats the phrase “free choice.”

22

Ibid, 2.17,26, p. 92

23

Augustine, Forgiveness, 2,46 (NPNF V: 63f)

24

Ibid, 2.47.

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Luther Rice Journal of Christian Studies original sin but also that of infant baptism based on “the authority of the Holy Universal Church…. after the ancient and undoubted rule of faith.”25 He adds, “Certain persons are endeavoring to make us uncertain on a point which our forefathers used to bring forward as most certain….[We’re] disturbed by so novel opinions…”26 Soon Augustine himself with disturb the Church with “novel” opinions.

Augustine indicates a classical view of foreknowledge and predestination as well. It follows his doctrine of foreknowledge in other non-Pelagian related works. In The City of God Augustine, penned between 413-26, also emphasizes the traditional view of foreknowledge and predestination. “One who has not a foreknowledge of all future events is certainly not God. For which reason, too, our wills have just as much power as God willed and foreknew they should have… because He whose foreknowledge cannot fail foreknew what they should have the power to do and what they would do.” And again, “Because God foreknew what would in the future be in our will…” He foreknew the will/desire of the individual. “We are, therefore, in no way compelled, if we retain the foreknowledge of God, to discard our choice of will, or, if we retain choice of will, to deny, which were shocking, God’s foreknowledge of future events.

Rather, we embrace both, and both we faithfully and truthfully confess.27 (italics mine) The controversy continued through stages. In the initial stage, there were statements made by Pelagians that plainly were heretical to ALL bishops and believers. The Bishops of North Africa referred the teaching for condemnation by the Pope. However, the Pope acquiesced and did nothing mainly because of the “courtly influence” that Pelagius had with

25

Ibid, 3,2,1, p70; 3,11, p.73.

26 Ibid, 3,12, p. 73. Interestingly, Calvinist essentially ignore this work. It lays the foundation for rejection of Augustine’s “novel” view of mass-damma based on his own words regarding novel interpretations.

27

De Civ,9,4; 5,10,2 (NPNF II:90ff).

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Luther Rice Journal of Christian Studies many of the wealthy in Rome. The Empire was falling apart, and he needed to retain their support. However, the Bishop of Rome, Pope Innocent, realized that the doctrine was spurious.

He referred it back to a Synod of North African bishops, who promptly condemned Pelagius.

Two Councils in Carthage and Milevis condemned him in 416. Traditionalist who knew well the Church Fathers and the Scriptures easily refuted Pelagius without the use of massa theology.28 Augustine had used the term ‘free will’ and ‘free choice’ of man in the classical manner. He continues to use it early in his Anti-Manichean corpus. However, suddenly, Augustine finds an new way to refute Pelagianism by using the same anthropology of the Mani. He speaks of the total inability of man’s will to decide because he is totally depraved.

The conflict accelerated when Pelagius fled to Carthage in 410, after the Visigoths sacked Rome. Pelagius was no longer a threat across the ocean, he was now only one-hundred and eighty miles away to the West. He joined forces with one of his disciples, Bishop Aurelisus of Carthage. The situation moved from serious to dire. All attempts to thwart Pelagius and the spread of his dogma had been unsuccessful using the traditional anthropology.

The controversy had broken out over the Pelagian rejection of paedo-baptism. Now more and more churches in North Africa would be infected by this. A growing number of parents would be in an uproar. Pelagius continued to insist that there was no need to baptize infants because they were under grace with no original sin, and were not condemned.

Augustine felt challenged to put an end to Pelagianism. He reiterated the need for infant

28 S.v. “Pelagius” by Eugene TeSelle in ATA, 637. New Pope Zosimus refused to accept the rendering at first, but later acquiesced when an Imperial decree from Honorius condemned Pelagianism. Zosimus condemned Pelagius in 418. Other bishops supported Pelagius, such as Julian of Ecalanum, causing their excommunication along with Pelagius. Pelagius retreats to either a monastery in Egypt or makes his way back to Briton. There is no clarity concerning his death.

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Luther Rice Journal of Christian Studies baptism, advocating that the unbaptized infants who die go to hell. There is no limbo or heaven for unbaptized infants.

Some have suggested that Augustine’s began to change his views as early as 397 with a letter to Simplician.29 However, if that change began then, it’s not manifested again for nearly twenty years later until the Pelagian controversy. It’s nowhere to be found in his sermons, letters, and theological works, especially On the Trinity, during that time span. Some suggest that Augustine read a spurious commentary series, supposedly written by Ambrose, which effected his viewpoint. This set was proven to be erroneous and deemed “Ambrosiaster”, or a faux-Ambrose composition. Certainly, Augustine would have known if his own pastor, who baptized him, had ever written the set. Augustine wrongly believed they were written by Hilary.30 It seems improbable that Augustine changed his views because of Ambrosiaster. It seems highly probable that he changed reaching back to a worldview that he adopted as a tenyear Manichean. Everything he says in regard to massa-theology sounds exactly like Mani’s basic deterministic dualism. Man is inherently evil. He cannot change himself. God choses a certain few ‘Elect.’ But he resorts to this only because of the tremendous pressure that he felt he was as a new leader in the church of North Africa. Its as though he has a pair of glasses with several lenses as he reads the Bible. One is that of his traditional conversion. Another is that of Neo-Platonism, and the third is that of Manichaeism. In the controversy, the last lens colors his interpretation of the Bible.

29 S.v. “Massa” in Augustine Through the Ages: An Encyclopedia, p.545-46. Augustine changed either because of reading Ambrosiaster or reverting back to his Manicheaism. It seems that the latter is not only possible but probable, if not unequivocable.

S.v. “Ambrosiaster” in The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church, p44. There is no definitive word on the writer or writers, despite much speculation.

30

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Luther Rice Journal of Christian Studies Many of the traditionalists now question how far he had gone. As a result, he waffles on massa, still speaking of ‘free choice’ and ‘free will.’ Augustine responded to the Pelagian crisis as a philosophical thinker, and neither a systematic theologian, nor a biblical theologian.

Philip Schaff says it best, “The learning of Augustin was not equal to his genius…. He was rather a thinker than a scholar, and depended mainly own resources, which were always abundant,” 31 His own resources included his substantial indoctrination into Manichaeism years before the controversy. This ‘crypto-Manicheanism’ is readily noted by the Traditionalists such as John Cassian32 who believed Augustine clearly over-stated the point. He sounded much like the Gnostic Manicheans which the Church had battled for two centuries.

When Did Augustine Change His Views When can it be detected that Augustine rejected traditional views and advocated Dortian style theology? Some think that it is 412.33 It is certain that it fully unveiled by 417--the terminus ad quo is 412 and terminus ad quem is 417. For at least twenty-five years he taught the consensus, traditional view, but the Pelagian controversy sparked this change. Even then, his more radical statements about election and predestination do not occur for another five plus years. But despite his Dortian elements found in the Pelagian corpus, he apparently has some serious reservations. One centered around how he could still speak the traditional

31

NPNF 1:9.

Calvinists have attempted to paint Cassian, a thoroughgoing traditionalist, as a ‘semi-pelagian.’ It’s a Calvinistic term used to designate anyone who is not either Calvinistic or Pelagian. However, research continues to deny that applanation. In fact, the same Council of Orange in 529, that condemned semi-pelagianism, extolled John Cassian as a Saint.

32

33

Wilson, Foundations, p43ff, advocates that the change begins in 412. He sees intimations of this in On Free Will and Ad Simplician, 44-53. He notes numerous internal contradictions in teaching.

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Luther Rice Journal of Christian Studies language of ‘free will’ and ‘free choice’ so that I don’t appear outside of the traditional view, but also advocate massa?

Redefining ‘Free Will’ Augustine could not overtly deny free will without drawing the ire of classical theologians. So, he redefined the term. In his new, reworked theology, free will does not mean a genuine, classical free will. It means God’s grace gives certain individuals free will. In other words, it is not something inherent within him. This of course begs the question, ‘Do all men have free will?’ The answer to that is no. Only those who have been chosen by God in what has now been deemed unconditional election, have free will after they have received grace.

Now the Elect man, given grace, is free.

It’s a rather clever way to satisfy many, not fully analyzing his theology. The result is arbitrary unconditional election based on God’s capricious choice as the Sovereign of creation.

Now God fore-ordains human wills of the elect. All of the Fathers denied that foreknowledge was causative or a compulsion. However, Augustine’s new theology now is causative and compulsory based on predestination.

By the time Augustine writes The Predestination of the Saints, his deterministic system is more thoroughly laid out. Foreknowledge of man has nothing to do with predestination.

“When he predestined us, he foreknew his own works by which he makes us holy and

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Luther Rice Journal of Christian Studies spotless.”34 Predestination is defined as “God foreknew those things which he himself was going to do.”35 Another ancillary of this teaching is another novel view in The Perseverance of the Saints, a companion volume with Predestination, coming very late in his corpus. Augustine shockingly advocates a “second gift of grace necessary to the baptized believing Christian which gives him perseverance. Without this second grace, even a baptized believing Christian will not be saved.”36 Augustine explains that some who have the Holy Spirit by baptism, and regenerated as well do not have this “second gift.” As a result of this, a believer can never have certainty. No one knows if they are saved until they die. 37 Once again, he totally defies the history of biblical interpretation, advocating yet another novel, strange doctrine.

Augustine’s soteriology has no place for the eternal security of the believer. There is no assurance that you are the child of God. No external “fruits of the Spirit” can give assurance of salvation. No internal confirmation should give anyone assurance of salvation.

Massa-theology creates a domino effect that results in Dortism. Once it is established that man has no genuine free will, and is a mass of damnation, then the pendulum swings to an excessive emphasis on the Sovereignty of God. God must now rescue man and not through the remnants of the image of God within him responding to the Gospel of Christ in sincerity and

34 Augustine, The Predestination of the Saints, 19,38 (WA I/26:131). See also 10,19 where he attributes Faith as good works, in direct contradiction to the very passage in Ephesians 2:9-10 that he quotes. Clearly, Paul is talking about working your way to heaven with good works. He never attributes Faith as a good work. Daniel R. Creswell. St. Augustine’s Dilemma: Grace and Eternal Law in the Major Works of Augustine of Hippo (Peter Lang, 1997). Creswell sees a five-stage development, with increasing emphasis on Grace.

35

Ibid, 10,19, p. 165.

36

Wilson, Foundations, 63-64.

Augustine, The Gift of Perseverance 8.16 (WA I/26:200) “But from two believers, why is perseverance up to the end given to this one and not given to that one? These are judgments of God that are even more inscrutable,” (WA), 9.21, p.202.

37

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Luther Rice Journal of Christian Studies truth. God without any reference to the personhood of the individual, chooses this one and that one to salvation, and the billions of others to hell. This miniscule elect, then are unconditionally predestined to salvation. Grace now becomes a power to execute the decrees of God. The love of God in the cross of Christ is taken out of the center of the Christian faith.

38

This diminishes the atonement into a ‘limited atonement.’ Christ did not die for all men, but

only the elect. Augustine reinterpreted many passages, but none more than I Timothy 2:4 where God desires all men to be saved.39 And since man had nothing to do with the election, he is saved by compulsion, and the result of that is ‘irresistible grace.’ God has chosen you, compels you by forcing is grace upon you, then you have free will. Since God has elected and predestined you based on a capricious choice, then certainly you are going to persevere until the end. It’s all very logical, but all logically aberrant.

Augustine’s Angst After a span of nearly twenty years from some intimations of his massa view in Ad Simplician, Augustine never espouses this view. But during his entire local church ministry, through hundreds of writings, he proclaims the consensus biblical view. Even during the Pelagian controversy, little is said of massa in his preaching. Much of this had to do with his doctrine of the image of God, which is his more positive view of man. That divine spark within

WA I/26. In Augustine’s later four works against the Pelagians and to the monks, he seldom mentions love, and never that God loves the world or even the Elect. Love is what God puts into the Elect when he extends grace so that he might love him and others. Often more is said by what you do not say. John 3:16 stands in contradiction to this view of God: “For God so loved the world, that he sent his only begotten son, that whosoever believes in him, should not perish, but have everlasting life,” (NASB). “Irresistible Grace” is not based on man’s attraction to the cross because of God’s love, but man cannot resist God’s Grace, since he predetermined it.

38

39

Augustine, Spirit and the Letter, 37-38, Originally Augustine took the true meaning of the text against Pelagius. But after his massa, he repudiates that interpretation, waffling on his novel interpretation several times.

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Luther Rice Journal of Christian Studies means that he is not totally depraved, as massa theology advocates. But in the heat of the debate with Pelagius, there is a definite turn.

What then became of his view of the image of God when addressing Pelagius? It is obviously muted. But it has not gone away. It’s found in other writings and sermons. When one is torn between two opposing views, then it can great a great deal of angst and uncertainty.

This uncertainty can be seen in Augustine in several ways.

First, Augustine became quite defensive when he came under attack from those who saw his big change. In 418, Bishop Julian noted that Augustine had changed his views during the Pelagian controversy to a more radical response. The traditionalists who comprised the councils against Pelagius condemned him, but what they neither codified nor approved Augustine’s massa theology.

Second, and perhaps the most obvious indication was conflict among his monks.

Augustine admired Anthony of Thebes, the Father of Monasticism, and Athanasius, his biographer. He lived a somewhat monastic lifestyle for some years after conversion. He began what came to be known as the Augustinian monasteries. Through the medieval era, they seemed to be the only light of salvation by grace through faith. However, the more extreme elements of Augustine’s soteriology died out. It’s not an accident of history that Martin Luther, the Father of the Reformation, was an Augustinian monk.

Some monks began to preach and teach Augustine’s new radical doctrine of election and predestination based on massa-theology. The result was a great uproar. A letter was written

by Augustine instructing his monks to no longer preach and teach his views of massapredestination. After Pelagius is no longer on the scene, Augustine shows indications of inconsistencies and a lack of confidence in his extreme view. Four of his latter writings deal

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Luther Rice Journal of Christian Studies with all the problems his novel view created with monks in both Gaul and his area. These were men who were not so much sympathetic with Pelagius, as they were traditionalists.40 Third, he continued to expound on his image of God theology, but never reconciling it to his massa theology.

Very clearly, Augustine ignores his own concept of the Image of God in Man, to accent the extreme opposite, a distorted non-biblical, non-traditional view of original sin in which there is no “spark of the divine” within man. Man’s only a mass of damnation. Augustine now advocates an “absolute bondage of the will” whereby man can not so much as feel contrition for sin, encounter a brokenness over his sin, and open his heart to the love of God unless he is among the Elect. Original sin is no longer a proclivity to sin, and an inherent Sin nature. Man is so evil, ignoring the faint image of God that remains, that he cannot so much as chose God. This is the same pattern of thought at the foundation of Manicheanism.41 It is an echo of his Manichean past. The only way he could have advocated such dogma was by having been a Manichean. He could not have learned it any other way. No Father taught it, and no interpreter of the Bible taught it. The great Bonaventure, known affirming Augustine in most everything, said, “wanting to pull the Pelagians from their error, Augustine pushed to the other extreme.”42

40 Post-Reformation Dortians attempted to label these monks as ‘Semi-pelagians’ over a thousand years later. However, this label was “anachronistic and unjust.” “Answers to the Pelagians, IV: To the Monks of Hadrumetum and Provence” in WA I/21:11ff.

41

F. C. Burkitt, The Religion of the Manichees (Eugene, OR: WIPF and STOCK, 1925; reprint 2009) provides a reliable description of Manicheanism. Also Williston Walker, et al. A History of the Christian Church, 4th ed. (New York: Scribner, 1985), 206-11 for a summary of Augustine’s Pelagian controversy. Walker notes that Augustine never liberated himself from his philosophical past (301).

42 Bonaventure, Opera Omni 2.793-94. Bonaventure had great appreciation for most of Augustine’s theology, but admits that few followed his radical predestination theology because it was aberrant. J. C. Benson, “Augustine and Bonaventure” in T&T Clark Companion to Augustine and Modern Theology, C.C. Pecknold and Tarmo Toom, eds. (London: Bloomsbury T&T Clark, 2016), 147.

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Luther Rice Journal of Christian Studies However, on a regular basis, depending upon his audience, he continues to go back to the use of ‘free will.’ This point is noted by the Pelagians after the controversy was seemingly over and Pelagius had died. In fact, Augustine had to defend himself concerning this duplicity in his later work entitled Rectractions or Revisions. 43 His ambiguity on this issue created a lot of confusion about exactly what he believed. There is no doubt that Augustine lacked consistency in his thought, and therefore was more a philosopher than a solid biblical theologian. 44 What exactly was the classical/traditional view of Christian anthropology which Augustine rejected?

The Classical View of Christian Anthropology The Gospel preached by Paul, the disciples and the early Church was not that of Augustine’s Doctrines of Grace/Dortian Calvinism. That Gospel led Christianity from twelve faithful disciples to nearly 10% or more believers in the Roman Empire in the first three hundred years. This very fact is detrimental to the veracity of Dortian theology. Knowing this, at least one Calvinist attempted to rewind history, and claim that the Classical Church Fathers taught the same double-predestination doctrine of Augustinian Doctrines of Grace. However, this attempt by John Gill, an English Particular Baptist, was doomed from the start.45 Calvin

43 Augustine, Retractation II 66 (93), (WA I/26:70ff). Controversy over his novel teaching erupted among the monks of Hadrumetum. Augustine responded with Grace and Free Choice, and Rebuke and Grace.

44

Etienne Gilson. Augustine: The Christian Philosophy of St. Augustine (New York: Random House, 1960). The brilliant French scholar makes it clear that Augustine is much more the speculative philosopher than the biblical theologian.

45 John Gill. The Cause of God and Truth in 1738 claimed that the Early Church taught Dortism, TULIP. Essentially any time a Church father mentions the words “elect” or “predestination” that qualified for teaching Dortism. Not one Patristic scholar has validated that list. Gill, a hyper-calvinist, exhibits proof-testing and distortion as well as mistranslations in order to prove his point has a ‘trail’ back to the New Testament Church.

Calvin himself denied this. Instead, the most authoritative Patristic scholar, J.N.D. Kelly denies that any before Augustine taught his Doctrines of Grace. 45 Augustine, Retractation II 66 (93), (WA I/26:70ff). Controversy over

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Luther Rice Journal of Christian Studies himself noted that no one before Augustine preached or taught the Doctrines of Grace.46 J.N.D. Kelly, perhaps the most renowned Patristic scholar, makes it clear that none of the Church Fathers prior to Augustine taught the novel views of Augustine. 47 Below are examples of the classical teaching of the Church before Augustine. A collective consensus developed within the Church, or a “proto-Orthodox” consensus48 There are dozens upon dozens of times that the great Church Fathers advocate free will while also affirming original sin. In addition, they advocated divine foreknowledge of man’s actions as the basis of predestination.

his novel teaching erupted among the monks of Hadrumetum. Augustine responded with Grace and Free Choice, and Rebuke and Grace.

45 Etienne Gilson. Augustine: The Christian Philosophy of St. Augustine (New York: Random House, 1960). The brilliant French scholar makes it clear that Augustine is much more the speculative philosopher than the biblical theologian.

45

John Gill. The Cause of God and Truth in 1738 claimed that the Early Church taught Dortism, TULIP. Essentially any time a Church father mentions the words “elect” or “predestination” that qualified for teaching Dortism. Not one Patristic scholar has validated that list. Gill, a hyper-calvinist, exhibits proof-testing and distortion as well as mistranslations in order to prove his point has a ‘trail’ back to the New Testament Church.

Calvin himself denied this. Instead, the most authoritative Patristic scholar, J.N.D. Kelly denies that any before Augustine taught his Doctrines of Grace.

46 Noting that Augustine was the Father of the Doctrines of Grace indicates than none before him had said such things. See Ken Wilson, Foundations of Augustinian-Calvinism (Montgomery, TX: Regula Fidei Press, 2019)19-36. Wilson offers extensive quotes of the early Church Fathers indicating the traditional/classical view.

He also believes that Augustine was a Crypto-Manichean in that his past with Manichaeism has negatively affected his theology in the Pelagian controversy. “Augustine reverted to Manichaean Interpretations of Scripture” is addressed in chapter five, 69-80. Wilson demonstrates this by analyzing key biblical passages. The book is a summary of a Ph.D. dissertation from Oxford University, England.

47 J.N.D. Kelly, Early Christian Doctrines, rev. ed. (New York: Harper Collins, 1959) 344-78 provides an entire view.

48

Joseph H. Lynch, Early Christianity: A Brief History (Oxford: University Press, 2010), 62-78. Lynch includes the Bishops in synods and councils as well as creeds beginning with R, and then the canon of Scripture.

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Luther Rice Journal of Christian Studies Justin “The Martyr” (Ca. 100-165), Father Of Apologetics49 The following quotes are taken from Justin Martyr’s Apology in two books:50 1. “In the beginning, He made the human race with the power of thought and of choosing the truth and doing right, so that all men are without excuse before God,” (Apology 1.172).

2. “Lest some suppose, from what has been said by us, that we say that whatever occurs happens by a fatal necessity, because it is foretold as known beforehand, this too we explain.

We have learned from the prophets, and we hold it to be true … are rendered according to the merit of each man’s actions. Now, if this is not so, but all things happen by fate, then neither is anything at all in our own power. For if it is predetermined that this man will be good, and this man will be evil, neither is the first one meritorious, nor the latter man to be blamed. And again, unless the human race has the power of avoiding evil and choosing good by free choice, they are not accountable for their actions” (Ibid, 1.177).

3. “Neither do we maintain that it is by fate that men do what they do, or suffer what they suffer. Rather, we maintain that each man acts rightly or sins by his free choice… Since God in the beginning made the race of angels and man with free will, they will justly suffer in eternal fire the punishment of whatever sins they have committed,” (Ibid, 1.190).

4. “for the people foreknown to believe in Him were foreknown to pursue diligently the fear of the Lord,” (Ibid, 1.234).

5. Men are “endowed with free will” (Ibid 1.243),

49

Jaggar, 223-30.

S.v. “Free Will and Predestination” in D.W. Bercot, A Dictionary of Early Christian Beliefs (Peabody, MA: Hendrickson Press, 1998) 285-86. Hereafter DECB. All quotes are taken from The Ante-Nicene Fathers, eds.

Albert Roberts and James Donaldson. 10 vols. (Peabody, MA: Hendrickson Press,1885-87: rep. ed. 1994,) 50

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Luther Rice Journal of Christian Studies 6. “Foreknowledge is God’s knowing the actions of men,” (Ibid 1,250).

7. “If the Word of God foretells that some angels and men will be certainly punished, it did so because it foreknew that they would be unchangeable [i.e would remain wicked].

However, this is not because God had created them so. For all who wish for it can obtain mercy from God if they repent”( Ibid 1.270).

8. A man has the “exercise of his free choice” as Tatian said, (Ibid 2.67.68) Justin “Martyr,” who earned the name by giving his life for the Gospel, taught that “unless man is himself responsible for his ethical conduct, the entire ethical scheme of the universe collapses, and with it the very existence of God himself.”51 Henry Chadwick concurs, “Justin’s insistence on freedom and responsibility…are so frequently repeated that it is safe to assume that here he saw a distinctively Christian emphasis requiring special stress.”52 Irenaeus, Father of Incarnational Theology And Pre-Millenialism 1. “But man, being endowed with reason, and in this respect similar to God, having been made free in his will, and power over himself, is himself his own cause that sometimes he become wheat, and sometimes chaff.” (Against Heresies, 1.466) 2. “God has always preserved freedom and the power of self-government in man.” (Ibid 1.480).

3. “So, God knows the number of those who will not believe, since He foreknows all things. So, He has given them over to unbelief and turned His face away from men of this character, leaving them in the darkness that they have chosen for themselves.” (Ibid, 1.502) 51

Edwin Goodenough, The Theology of Justin Martyr (Jena: Verlag Frommannsche Bruchandlung, 1923), 219, quoted in Wilson, Foundations.

Henry Chadwick, “Justin Martyr’s Defense of Christianity,” Bulletin of the John Rylands Library 47.2 (1965); 291-92.

52

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Luther Rice Journal of Christian Studies 4. “[God]… set forth the ancient law of human liberty. For God made man free from the beginning, possessing his own power, even as he does his own soul, to obey the commandments of God voluntarily, and not by compulsion of God. For there is no coercion with God.” (Against Heresies 4.37.1). No “compulsion by God” is noted again in 4.37.4.

5. “And in man… He has placed the power of choice, so that those who had yielded obedience might justly possess what is good, given indeed by God, but preserved by themselves.” (Ibid PL 1.518).

6. “All such passages demonstrate the independent free will of man.” (Ibid, PL1.519).

7. “But because man is possessed of free will from the beginning, and God is possessed of free will (in whose likeness man was created), advice is always given to him to hold fast to the good, which is done through obedience to God, God has preserved the will of man free and under his own control. This is not merely in works, but also in Faith (Against Heresies, PL, 1.519).”

8. “By His foreknowledge, He knew the infirmity of human beings, and the consequences that would flow from it,” (Ibid, 1.522).

9. “God, foreknowing all things, prepared fit habitations for both,” (Ibid, 1.523).

10. “Nor, again, does God exercise compulsion upon anyone unwilling to accept the exercise of His skill… They have been created free agents53 and producing power over themselves.” (Ibid, 1.523).

11. “It is clear that His Father has made everyone in a like condition, each person having a choice of his own and a free understanding,” (Ibid, 1.556).

53 The term ‘free agents’ is used in the Baptist Faith and Message of the Southern Baptist Convention from its first adoption in 1925 with the same connotation indicated by Irenaeus. See Leon McBeth, A Sourcebook for Baptist Heritage (Nashville: Broadman Press,1990) 508-09.

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Luther Rice Journal of Christian Studies 12. “Christ predestined, according to the fore-knowledge of the Father, that we, who had as yet no existence, might come into being.” (Ibid, 1.527).

13. “Even before his birth, he was manifested to the Lord, who knew the martyr’s choice.” (Ibid, 2.411). Foreknowledge was of the “martyr’s choice,” which is a profound rejection of massa theology.

14. As typical of all the Church Fathers, Irenaeus, despite affirming free will, clearly affirms original sin: Because of Adam, “through the disobedience of that one man who was first formed out of the untilled earth, the many were made sinners and lost life,” (Against Heresies, 3.18.7)54 Clement Of Alexandria, Father Of The First Christian Academy 1. “We…have believed and are saved by voluntary choice.” (Exhortation to the Greeks, 2.217).55 2. “Neither …rewards or punishments, are right if the soul does not have the power of inclination and declinaton [rejection] and of evil is involuntary… In no respect is God the author of evil. But since free choice and inclination originate sins …. punishments are justly inflicted.” (Ibid, 2.319).

3. “We have heard by the Scriptures that self-determining choice and refusal have been given by the Lord to men. Therefore, we rest in the infallible criterion of faith, manifesting a willing spirit, since we have chosen life.” (Ibid, 2.349).

4. “Their estrangement is the result of free choice.” (Ibid, 2.426)

54

Kelly, 170-75. He summaries the doctrine of Original Sin among the Church Fathers which defies

massa.

55

Quotations of Clement of Alexandria (ca. 150-215) are from Exhortation to the Greeks, ECB, 287-88.

Adrian Fortescue, Hans von Campenhausen, The Fathers of the Greek Church (Peabody, MA: Hendrickson Press, 1998) 25-36. Truth is encountered in a personal experience from one witness to another, with free will acceptance.

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Luther Rice Journal of Christian Studies 5. “It is not possible to attain it without the free exercise of free choice.” (Ibid, 2.445) 6. “Wisdom, which is given by God, (being the power of the Father), rouses indeed our free will and allows faith.” (Ibid, 2.464).

7. Man has “self-determination.” (Ibid, 2.595).

8. “The teachings of the Old and the New Testaments are unnecessary if a person is saved by nature (as Valentinus would have it) and is a believer and an elect man by nature (as Basilides thinks). (Ibid 2.244-45).

9. Man is “also predestined himself by reason of what he knew and whom he loved.”

(Ibid, 2.497), 10. “For since God knew in virtue of His foreknowledge that this person would not believe, He nevertheless, in order that he might receive his own perfection, gave him philosophy. However, He gave it to him previous to faith.” (Ibid, 2.524).

11. “As God, He foresaw both what He would be asked and what each one would answer Him.” (Ibid, 2.593).

Tertullian, Father of Trinitarian Orthodoxy 1. “I find, then, that man was constituted free by God. He was master of his own will and power… For a law would not be imposed upon one who did not have it in his power to render that obedience which is due to law. Nor again, would the penalty of death he threatened against sin, if a contempt of the law were impossible to man in the liberty of his will …. Man is free, with a will either for obedience or resistance.” (PL 3.300-01)56 2. “As to fortune, it is man’s freedom of will.” (Ibid, 3.201)

56

ECB: 288.

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Luther Rice Journal of Christian Studies 3. “This is the power of the grace of God, more potent indeed than nature, exercising its sway over the faculty that underlies itself within us: even the freedom of our will… We define the soul as having sprung from the breath of God. It is immortal…free in its determination.” (PL 3.202).

Origen, Father of Systematic Theology Origen adds his name to those who died as a martyr for the Faith, as his father had done before him. “Let us observe how Paul, too, addresses us as having freedom of the will and as being ourselves the cause of ruin or salvation.” He says, ‘You are treasuring up for yourself wrath on the day of wrath and the revelation of the righteous judgment of God--- who will render to everyone according to his works.” The words are followed by a long discussion of the free will of man in opposition to Gnostic determinism. De principiis, (PL 4.331).

Diodorus of Tarsus (d. c. 390) In his Pauline Commentary from the Greek Church, Diodorus comments on the crucial verse in Romans 8:29 in which Paul offers a sequence of Predestination, which begins with God’s foreknowledge. “This text does not take away our free will. It uses the word ‘foreknowledge’ before ‘predestination.’ Now it is clear that foreknowledge does not by itself impose any particular kind of behavior.” 57 He goes on to say that the foreknowledge was of some kind of worthiness. Not one’s righteousness, but his humility, contrition and faith in Christ.

57

ACCS, New Testament VI: Romans, 235.

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Luther Rice Journal of Christian Studies Ambrosiaster concurs: “Those whom God foreknew would believe in him, he chose to receive the promises.”58 Observations on the Church Fathers First, the Church Fathers clearly denied predestination based on unconditional election, rejected irresistible grace, and denied total depravity. Second, they affirmed the free will of man to make choice of salvation. Third, predestination was based upon God’s foreknowledge of man’s actions. Forth, the Elect are those whose who chose to cooperate with the Holy Spirit for salvation. Fifth, they denied that man can work his way to heaven by his good works.

Augustine defensively justifies his excessive view, advocating that the Fathers did not have the necessity of dealing with Pelagius. Presumptuously, he says that if they had to deal with Pelagius as himself, they would have taught the same. Very clearly, Augustine paints himself into a corner that his teaching is captive in time to Pelagius59 In other words, if there had been no Pelagius, then there would be no Dortian theology. The biggest problem with his defense, among many, is that his contemporaries never felt that it was necessary to go beyond the classical teaching. His ‘doctrines of grace’ were never affirmed by councils that condemned Pelagius and affirmed original sin. Never did any church father attribute repentance and faith as a “work” in the sense of Ephesians 2:8-9.

The Paradoxical Element in Christian Theology The Church had many fundamental theological issues to address prior to Augustine.

Two major councils had convened comprising bishops from all over Christendom. The Council

58 Ibid. Likewise, Theodoret of Cyr: “Those whose intention God foreknew, he predestined from the beginning,” 237.

59

Augustine, Predestination, 14.27 (WA I/26:171-72), 2.4 (Ibid: 150-51). See the discussion in Jaroslav Pelikan, The Christian Tradition. 5 vols. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1971), I:280ff.

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Luther Rice Journal of Christian Studies of Nicaea in 325 settled the issue of the relationship between God the Son and God the Father.

Arius was condemned simply because he made Christ more human than Divine. He rejected the Trinity, saying that Christ was a “second God”, a “created God.” The Father of Nicene Orthodoxy, Athanasius, wrote the Nicene Creed which was adopted by the Council. He made it clear that the Truth of Christianity is paradoxical in its nature. The Incarnation which is the essence of Christianity is a paradoxical mystery. Jesus of Nazareth is not only the Christ, but He is the eternal Son of God, co-equal and co-substantial with the Father. He is no more Divine than he is human, no more human than he is Divine. He is the God-Man Christ Jesus. The Council affirmed that Christ was All-God, and All-Man, the God-Man, Christ Jesus. It sounds non-sensical, but rather it is paradoxical, or an apparent contradiction. Christ was no more human than he was divine, and no more divine than he was human. Arius, who was condemned, had overstated his Humanity, making him something less that the second person of the Holy Trinity. Remnants of this thought trickled down to Augustine’s era, precipitating a short work in opposition to it in 418.60 Another heretic arose who made Christ more Divine than Human. He erred on the other extreme. Apollinaris of Alexandria said that Christ had a human body was a Divine Soul, he was the Logos essentially encapsulated in a human body. The Council of Constantinople in 381 made it clear that Jesus was fully man, as well as fully God in regard to his soul. Once again, the Fathers confirmed the paradox of biblical theology. Jesus had a fully human, and fully divine soul.

The post-Augustinian Councils of Ephesus and Chalcedon follow the same pattern of balancing truth in a paradoxical manner.

60

Augustine, Contra sermonem Arianorum liber unus, (PL 42, 677-708).

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Luther Rice Journal of Christian Studies Christian theology follows this pattern. Is God three or one? If he is three, how can he be one? If he is one, how can he be three? It’s not either/or, but both/and. It’s a paradox. It’s a mystery.

Is Jesus Christ God or is he man? If he is God, how can he be man? If he is man, how can he be God. It’s a paradox. He is the God-Man Christ Jesus. Biblical truth is paradoxical.

The same can also be said of the Scriptures. Is the Bible human or is it divine? If it is human, how can it be divine? If it is divine, how can it be human? It is Divine in that it is inspired by God; it is human in that it is written by men. It’s a Divine-Human book that is truth without mixture of error.

Conclusion Augustine’s massa soteriology lacks the paradox between God’s Sovereignty and Man’s free will. The massa-theology opts for an over-emphasis on the divine. God’s Sovereignty over rules man’s free will. Man is total depraved, going one step further than the classic doctrine of original sin. In this way, Augustine is a ‘crypto-Manichean,’ synthesizing Christian concepts with a Manichean cosmogony.

Classical, traditional Christian anthropological soteriology maintains a relative freedom of the will. Man cannot merit salvation by good works. He is depraved in that he is a sinner and cannot save himself. Only God’s grace through faith in Christ can save him. Man however can respond to the Gospel with faith. The emphasis is upon an element intrinsic (imago dei/divine spark) that becomes a touchstone of receiving Christ. It balances God’s Sovereignty with man’s responsibility. God is Sovereign, and man is free. The paradox remains in soteriology as it had in the doctrines of the Trinity and the Person of Christ. Augustine believed this in that he espoused it before the Pelagian controversy and retained it in works outside of the controversy.

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Luther Rice Journal of Christian Studies In massa theology, the emphasis is on an extrinsic element of Grace, that comes from outside of man. It is a probability that it is a remnant of his Manicheanism.

The classical/traditional view focuses more on a personal relationship through Christ, and is more ‘Christocentric’. The massa view focuses more on a principle and power and is more ‘Gratian’ (more on the concept of Grace).

In the second installment of this topic will take a closer look at Augustine’s ‘Image of God’, as well as an investigation into the relationship between Augustine and Reformation thought. It will also demonstrate how traditional Protestant reformers stopped their Reformation with Augustine, and not the New Testament. It remained for the biblical Anabaptists to move the Reformation further back to the New Testament. It will explore Augustine’s duplicity on the imago dei vs. the massa. It will also examine Augustine’s duplicity on Dortian Calvinism. It will be shown that Calvin was a Quasi-Augustinian in that he only adopted a segment of Augustine’s teaching.

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Luther Rice Journal of Christian Studies

Strategic Trauma and Abuse Recovery System (12STR®): A Christian-Integrated Approach

By Dr. Michell Temple1 Dr. Ann Marie Kerlin2 Dr. Denice Colson3 Spirituality and religion, substance abuse disorders, and traumatic events are not typically conceptualized simultaneously in the field of mental health and the practice of psychotherapy in the United States (U.S.). However, a brief overview of statistics suggests that consumers’ lives entail experiences within these three areas. As of 2021, a Gallup poll indicates that about 75% identify with a particular religious identity; of those 69% of Americans identify with the Christian faith. And 49% of them stated that religion is very important and another 27% stated that religion is somewhat important in their lives.4 Comparatively, the use of illicit drugs and substance use disorders affects a large portion of society. The current overuse and overprescribing of opioids have led to a health crisis that has caused six times more deaths by overdose in 2017 compared to 1999.5 A report published in 2022 indicates sharply increased levels of drug overdose mortality in minority populations. Suggested causes include the current toxicity level of drugs available,

1 Michell Temple, EdD, PhD, LPC (GA and CO), CRC, NCC, ACS, LPC (CO, GA), LPC/MHSP (TN), Assistant Professor at Denver Seminary.

2

Ann Marie Kerlin, MDiv, PhD, LPC, CPCS, Associate Professor, Luther Rice College & Seminary.

3

Denice Colson, PhD, LPC, CPCS, Director of Eagle’s Landing Christian Counseling Center, Inc.

Jeffrey M. Jones, “How Religious Are Americans?” Gallup (December 21, 2021), https://news.gallup.com/poll/358364/religious-americans.aspx 4

5 SAMHSA, Key Substance Use And Mental Health Indicators In The United States: Results From The 2017 National Survey On Drug Use And Health (HHS, Center for Behavioral Health Statistics and Quality, 2018): 124.

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SPECIAL SECTION: Undergraduate Research polysubstance use, and social and economic inequalities which impact drug use in a variety of ways.6 And since 2020, US citizens have experienced a global pandemic, and a series of cascading traumatic events.7 Approximately 1,000,000 deaths occurred in the US, lengthy periods of isolation, separation from elderly relatives while illness and dying occurred, and as of the end of 2024, variants of COVID-19 continue to cause disease. Additionally, there has been an opioid crisis, racism, gun violence, political polarization, and inflation, to name just a few other traumatic events. And finally, according to a survey of 2,000 adults in the US, conducted by CNN and Kaiser Family Foundation in October 2022, 90% of those surveyed believe we are currently in a mental health crisis.8 All of these statistics support the need for spiritually integrated trauma and addictions therapy.

Description of the 12STR® Model In psychotherapy, the integration process refers to the way that various psychological theories are combined to treat a particular mental health disorder. These integrated approaches are generally classified as technical eclecticism, theoretical integration, common factors, and theoretical assimilation.9 Over the past several decades, the integration of various 6 J. R. Friedman and H. Hansen, “Evaluation of Increases in Drug Overdose Mortality Rates in the US by Race and Ethnicity Before and During the COVID-19 Pandemic,” JAMA Psychiatry 79 no. 4 (2022):379–381. doi:10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2022.0004 7

Silver, R.C., Holman, E.A. & Garfin, D.R. Coping With Cascading Collective Traumas In The United States. Nature Human Behavior 5 (2021): 4-6, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-020-00981-x Diedre Phillips, “90% of US adults say the United States is experiencing a mental health crisis, CNN/KFF poll finds,” CNN, (October 5, 2022), Accessed November 26, 2022, https://www.cnn.com/2022/10/05/health/cnn-kff-mental-health-poll-wellness 8

J. C. Norcross, M. Goldfield, & B. E. Zimmerman, B. E. “Integrative Psychotherapies in Historical Perspective,” In Comprehensive Textbook of Psychotherapy: 9

Theory And Practice, 2nd Ed., edited by A. J. Consoli, L. E. Beutler, and B. Bongar (Oxford University Press: London, 2017), 188-204.

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Luther Rice Journal of Christian Studies psychotherapies has been proven effective; examples include Interpersonal Psychotherapy, Schema Therapy, and Cognitive Analytic Therapy which are all helpful in a variety of disorders.10 Also, therapy models have been shown effective when integrated with religion and spirituality (R/S) according to a recent meta-analysis that included 97 outcome studies.11 Captari et al. found that approaches that accommodated client’s religious preferences were equally as effective as traditional psychotherapeutic approaches, but had the added benefit of increasing spiritual well-being.12 The Strategic Trauma and Abuse Recovery System 12STR® (formerly STARS) was developed by Denice Colson in 2012-2013 to provide the field with an integrative psychotherapeutic model that is also religiously/spiritually integrated and used to treat trauma and substance abuse. Anecdotal evidence of clients who have used the model suggested that 12STR® was successful in treating survivors of trauma and addiction from a Judeo-Christian perspective. One qualitative study examined the process of treatment from the perspective of clients, who reported decreases in the symptoms that brought them to seek counseling as well as a heightened sense of spirituality and/or faith in God.13 A description of the 12STR® model follows.

10 Zarbo, C., Tasca, G. A., Cattafi, F., & Compare, A. (2016). Integrative psychotherapy works. Frontiers in Psychology, 6, Article 2021. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.02021 11

Captari LE, Hook JN, Hoyt W, Davis DE, McElroy-Heltzel SE, Worthington EL Jr. Integrating clients' religion and spirituality within psychotherapy: A comprehensive meta-analysis. J Clin Psychol. 2018 Nov;74(11):1938-1951. doi: 10.1002/jclp.22681. Epub 2018 Sep 16. PMID: 30221353.

12 Ibid., 1958.

13

Temple, M., & Kerlin, A. M. (2022). A Qualitative Exploration of Strategic Trauma and Abuse Recovery: A Spiritually Integrated Treatment to Address Trauma. Journal of Psychology and Theology, 0(0). https://doi.org/10.1177/00916471221077248 72 | P a g e

SPECIAL SECTION: Undergraduate Research An Integrative Psychotherapeutic Approach to 12STR® (formerly STARS ) The integrative approach to 12STR® most aligns with the contextual model, an updated version of the common factors’ model.14 The contextual model is a “superordinate or metamodel of psychotherapy,"15 which postulates that all psychotherapy orientations are equivalent in their effectiveness because of shared factors. These include: 1) A healing setting; 2) A rational explanation for the problems the client is experiencing along with a specific method for resolving them; 3) A safe, emotionally charged relationship with a counselor; and 4) A structured procedure in which both the client and the counselor can participate.16 The contextual model suggests that change occurs in psychotherapy because there is a central theory that is understandable to both the healer and the client. The crucial elements are “(a) a set of techniques or rituals that are consistent with shared cultural beliefs, (b) a theory that is understood and accepted by the client, and (c) a treatment that is implemented in a way that promotes positive outcome.”17 Unlike other psychotherapy orientations, this model suggests that the success of psychotherapy treatment cannot be attributed to either technique or common relationship factors, but is successful because of their interaction. Developers of models for couple’s therapy as well as treatment of chronic abuse and PTSD have used the metaframework of the contextual model.18 The next section provides an overview of how the

14

B. E. Wampold, B. L. Duncan, S. D. Miller. The Heart and Soul of Change, Second Edition: Delivering What Works in Therapy (American Psychological Association. Kindle Edition, 2009).

15

Ibid., Location 3851.

16

Ibid.

17

Ibid., Location 3863.

Boris Drožđek (2015) Challenges in treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder in refugees: towards integration of evidence-based treatments with contextual and culture-sensitive perspectives, European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 6:1, 24750, DOI: 10.3402/ejpt.v6.24750 18

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Luther Rice Journal of Christian Studies 12STR® System was developed within this framework and incorporates the four elements of successful psychotherapies.

A Healing Setting (1) and a Safe, Emotionally Charged Relationship (3) A healing setting refers to the actual space and to the cultural context. The area must be designated for healing and maintained in a way that promotes a safe, emotionally charged relationship with the healer or counselor. It must be a place in which clinicians can safely conduct the structured procedure. As Wampold stated, the characteristics of a culturally acceptable healing setting includes being “meaningfully linked with shared communal beliefs.”19 A Christian integration offers many shared communal beliefs, such as the existence of God, that he created all things, and is a loving sovereign being. Based on a theological understanding of both His immanence and the providential care of His creation, many Christians understand that healing may come miraculously but mostly through relationships with other people, including medical specialists.20 Preliminary studies on the effect of religion during COVID-19 indicate that those with religious beliefs reported increased faith in response to anxiety experienced during this period.21 Older research showed that turning to religion through prayer or spiritual feelings was the second most common way that people coped following September 11th in the U.S., right behind talking to others.22

19

Wampold, 2007, Location 3901.

20

Millard Erickson, Christian Theology (Ada, MI: Baker Academic, 2013): 484

21

Rigoli, F. The Link Between COVID-19, Anxiety, and Religious Beliefs in the United States and the United Kingdom. J Relig Health 60, 2196–2208 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10943-021-01296-5 22 Schuster MA, Stein BD, Jaycox L, Collins RL, Marshall GN, Elliott MN, Zhou AJ, Kanouse DE, Morrison JL, Berry SH. A national survey of stress reactions after the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks. N Engl J Med. 2001 Nov 15;345(20):1507-12. doi: 10.1056/NEJM200111153452024. PMID: 11794216.

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SPECIAL SECTION: Undergraduate Research Reconciliation with God is a core doctrine of salvation,23 and evangelical Christians believe one may also have a relationship with God.24 In the research literature, this relationship is sometimes characterized as an attachment relationship, similar to those held with other human beings, following the work of Bowlby.25 A secure attachment with God has been positively correlated with psychological well-being, while an insecure attachment style exacerbates the effects of distressful events.26 Research generally links attachment insecurity with psychopathology and insecure attachment with God is associated with poorer mental health outcomes in a variety of studies.27,28,29 Through psychological trauma resolution, the 12STR® system hopes to practice the ministry of reconciliation, increasing one’s positive view of and attachment to God and other meaningful human relationships. Each phase of the model is associated with a spiritual virtue. Phase One is associated with faith and focuses on feeding faith in God; Phase Two is associated with hope, and Phase Three is with love, love for God, and love for other people.

23

Millard Erickson, pp. 1286-1290.

24

Joseph Leman, Will Hunter III, Thomas Fergus & Wade Rowatt (2018) Secure Attachment to God Uniquely Linked to Psychological Health in a National, Random Sample of American Adults, The International Journal for the Psychology of Religion, 28:3, 162-173, DOI: 10.1080/10508619.2018.1477401 Bowlby, J. (1958). The nature of the child’s tie to his mother. International Journal of Psychoanalysis, 39, 350-371.

25

26

Leman, J., Hunter III, W., Fergus, T., & Rowatt, W. (2018). Secure attachment to God uniquely linked to psychological health in a national, random sample of American adults. The International Journal for the Psychology of Religion, 28(3), 162-173.

27

Bradshaw, M., & Kent, B. V. (2018). Prayer, attachment to God, and changes in psychological wellbeing in later life. Journal of aging and health, 30(5), 667-691.

28 Ann Marie Kerlin (2017) Therapeutic Change in a Christian SUD Program: Mental Health, Attachment, and Attachment to God, Alcoholism Treatment Quarterly, 35:4, 395-411, DOI: 10.1080/073 29

Mikulincer M, Shaver PR. An attachment perspective on psychopathology. World Psychiatry. 2012 Feb;11(1):11-5. doi: 10.1016/j.wpsyc.2012.01.003. PMID: 22294997; PMCID: PMC3266769.

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Luther Rice Journal of Christian Studies A Rational Explanation for the Problems and Specific Method (2) This model provides a rational explanation for the problems the client is experiencing.

Dr. Colson was initially influenced by a model she had begun using in 1992, which was developed by addiction counselor Jessie Collins. He called this model Etiotropic Trauma Management/Trauma Resolution Therapy [ETM/TRT].30 The approach explained that addiction, as well as other behavioral health issues such as depression, anxiety, and suicidal behavior, are symptoms of trauma, a belief now more widely accepted and supported by research.31,32,33 The core theory of change in the model is that emotional healing necessarily involves grief and that clients have become stuck in this cycle and are not able to move forward to complete resolution. Repressed grief explains the overwhelming emotional reactions clients experience during current life events, which seem to be overreactions. On the surface, physical injuries can look alarming while healing. Similarly, grief is seen from the outside as the emotional wound is healing. These emotions can be frightening to both the client and the counselor. Because repressed grief is detached from the original events that triggered the

30

Collins, J. (1979). Etiotropic trauma management: Trauma resolution therapy. Angel Fire, NM: ETM TRT Publications LLC. http://etiotropic.com/duediligence1stsecularcurepts.pdf 31

Felitti, V. J., Anda, R. F., Nordenberg, D., Williamson, D. F., Spitz, A. M., Edwards, V., Koss, M. P., & Marks, J. S. (1998). Relationship of childhood abuse and household dysfunction to many of the leading causes of death in adults: The Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACE) Study.

American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 14(4), 245–258. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0749-3797(98)00017-8 32

Mate, Gabor, In the Realm of Hungry Ghosts: Close Encounters with Addiction (Berkely, CA: North Atlantic Books, 2010).

33

van der Kolk, B. A. (2015). The Body Keeps the Score: Brain, Mind, and Body in the Healing of Trauma. Penguin Books.

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SPECIAL SECTION: Undergraduate Research emotions, the 12STR® system reconnects the losses and the events to those repressed emotions so they can be processed in the context of therapy.

The Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACE) Study. The ACE study explains the links previously intuited between adult mental and physical health symptoms and childhood trauma, as noted above.34 The ACE study has been researched for years and linked to a variety of negative outcomes in childhood and has been linked to life-threatening health conditions later in life. Additionally, Dr. Vincent Felitti, one of the chief investigators, wrote, “Addiction is best viewed as an understandable, unconscious, compulsive use of psychoactive materials in response to abnormal prior life experiences, most of which are concealed by shame, secrecy, and social taboo.” 35 Neurophysiology and the Brain/Mind Link. Improvements in technology have led to an increased understanding of the brain and the mind. Dr. Bessel van der Kolk has been at the forefront in understanding the impact trauma has on the brain and how to approach treatment.

Similar to the three phases of treatment suggested by Herman,36 van der Kolk37 proposed three approaches to treatment, suggesting that most clients require a combination of all three. These include: 1) top down, by talking, (re-) connecting with others, and allowing ourselves to know and understand what is going on with us, while processing the memories of the trauma; 2) by taking medicines that shut down inappropriate alarm reactions, or by utilizing other technologies that change the way the brain organizes information,

34

Felitti et al., 1998.

35

Felitti, V. J. (2003). [Origins of addictive behavior: Evidence from a study of stressful childhood experiences]. Praxis Der Kinderpsychologie Und Kinderpsychiatrie, 52 no. 8 (2003): 555.

36 J. L. Herman, “Recovery From Psychological Trauma,” Psychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 52 no. S1(1998): S98–S103.

37

B. van der Kolk, The Body Keeps the Score: Brain, Mind, and Body in the Healing of Trauma, (Penguin Books, 2015).

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Luther Rice Journal of Christian Studies and 3) bottom up: by allowing the body to have experiences that deeply and viscerally contradict the helplessness, rage, or collapse that result from trauma.38 An essential component of Dr. Colson’s theory is the Trauma Survivor BluePrint,39 which references attachment theory described by Bowlby and incorporates the neurobehavioral and social-emotional developmental research by Tronick,40 The BluePrint explains how trauma develops intrapersonally and illustrates why the 12STR® system addresses the events of trauma first, and then continues to address the etiology of trauma in the order it developed, instead of in reverse order, as other models do.

The Trauma Survivor BluePrint suggests that when an event outside of one’s conscious control contradicts or wounds one’s identity, made up of basic expectations, values, beliefs, and needs, this creates losses. The grief response begins. It is at this point that the grief can be resolved with intervention from others, including the offender. When this doesn’t happen, the cycle moves forward such that the brain rallies to survive, activating survival responses. These new behaviors, thoughts, attitudes, etc., help with physical, emotional, or psychological survival At the time. Immediate responses may be instinctual, such as fighting, fleeing, or freezing, but some reactions are learned, such as fixing. Subsequently, people compare their survival responses to their expectations, values, beliefs, and needs. Finally, if contradictions exist, more losses occur, triggering the grief response. The client then circles back to activating survival responses to the survival responses and reenters a continuing cycle. This loop continues to repeat and eventually leads to the development of a trauma-survivor identity.

38

Van der Kolk, p. 3.

39 Denice Colson, The Strategic Trauma & Abuse Recovery System: A Comprehensive, ChristianIntegrated, 3-{hase Model for Individual and Group Counseling (McDonough, GA: Trauma Education.com, 2016), p. 46.

40

E. Tronick, The Neurobehavioral And Social-Emotional Development Of Infants And Children (New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 2007).

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SPECIAL SECTION: Undergraduate Research A Structured Procedure for both the Client and Counselor to Participate (4) The twelve stages of 12STR® serve as the method for resolving or healing trauma wounds. Phase 1 consists of four stages, Phase 2 of six stages, and Phase 3 of two stages.

These are described below.

Phase One. This phase aims to establish safety and stability before directly addressing and reprocessing trauma in Phase 2. The common factors of psychotherapy are recognized as integral components of healing in the four stages of this phase. The phase starts with establishing a therapeutic relationship, proceeds to complete a trauma-specific assessment, and then requires the therapist to provide the client with some psychoeducation about trauma’s impact. After evoking a commitment to sobriety from alcohol and drugs, as well as other emotion-numbing substances that interfere with grief, the protocol moves to assist the client in establishing a measure of support, including the therapist, faith in God, and friends or relatives.

Once support is established and the client indicates readiness, Phase Two is ready to begin.

Phase Two. Phase Two consists of structured writing assignments where the client chooses one source of trauma and writes about all of the remembered events related to this one source. The model uses a very structured form of narrative writing following seven rules to describe the event, feelings experienced at the time, contradicted values, beliefs, expectations, and losses. After completing the writing, the counselor leads the client through equally structured reading and emotional (re)processing. The counselor can use the structure in individual sessions or a group. This process continues for all of the stages except stage six.

Responses from the counselor and other group members (when present) are managed using pre-defined limits to keep the focus on the reader and keep the reader emotionally connected to

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Luther Rice Journal of Christian Studies their grief during the structured processing time. The structure facilitates alliance, cohesion, empathy, congruence, and incremental grief processing.

Once a client has completed all the stories related to a source of trauma in stage one, the client is ready to proceed to stage two, which involves writing about their interpretations of the event within the context of their lives. Stage three involves listing their survivor responses due to the trauma, their contradicted values, beliefs, and expectations, and resultant losses.

Stage four is a summary of all the losses incurred from this source of trauma, allowing the client to see both the enormity of the impact and the “edge” or limit of the impact. Stage five is an exercise in forgiveness for the perpetrator and themselves. Stage six is a spiritual or personal marker completed by the client as well as group members if they are participating in a group process. The theory behind the 12STR® System is that when the individual recognizes that certain behaviors and symptoms are merely survival responses that are no longer helpful, they are more easily discarded, sometimes without the need for direct attention.

Phase Three. Phase Three consists of two stages designed to integrate what the client has learned or realized during the first two phases and reconnect with themselves, others, and God in a healthier way. Stage one directs the client to identify other sources of trauma and go back through Phase Two with a focus on those sources. It also allows revisiting the same source if necessary. Phase Three is focused on reconnecting and integrating. Several structured exercises are provided to identify and resolve unwanted survival responses that have not already resolved on their own and to activate the love inside the person for self, others, and God.

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SPECIAL SECTION: Undergraduate Research Current Usage of 12STR® Since its inception, Dr. Colson has continued to improve and shape the model. Along with updating some of the original forms, adding new forms in Phase Three, and continuing to integrate Motivational Interviewing techniques in Phase 1, she has created a certification process designed to allow counselors at all levels to participate and offer 12STR® to their clients.

There are three certification tracks; Certified 12STR® Facilitator, Associate Facilitator, and Peer Coach. To earn the designation of Certified Facilitator, one must have a master’s degree in counseling, psychology, or a related field. A specified number of training and practice hours are required using the complete model with clients. Associate Certified 12STR® Facilitators must have a certification from a state or national organization in counseling, addiction counseling, pastoral counseling, or ministry. They must also complete the same amount of hours in training and practice. A Certified 12STR® Peer Coach is restricted to using 12STR® phases one and three with clients unless doing co-counseling with another Certified Facilitator or Associate Facilitator. No other certifications or training in counseling except those in 12STR®, including a Peer Counseling course, are required. This certification is limited to working with peers in a coaching capacity, not a counseling capacity.

By designing these three tracks, Dr. Colson helps to include everyone called into the ministry of counseling and encourages best practices for the safety of trauma survivors. Her vision is to see local churches offering trauma-recovery support groups led by Certified 12STR® Peer Coaches, who connect participants ready to move on to Phase Two to local Certified Facilitators or Associate Facilitators and then return them to the church as sponsors and teachers. By working together as the Body of Christ, each member has a purpose and role in healing trauma and reflecting God’s goodness, grace, and mercy. This will draw nonPage | 81

Luther Rice Journal of Christian Studies Christians to want the healing they see in participants’ lives, opening them up to hear the Holy Spirit calling to them and, as trauma healing progresses, hopefully, lead to complete spiritual healing as they choose a relationship with Jesus Christ if they don’t already have one. Spiritual growth has been a common outcome of completing the 12STR® process.

Dr. Colson has developed a Phase One curriculum, Break Every Stinking Chain®, Healing for Hidden Wounds to enhance this support group. The book and workbook are currently used in residential treatment centers, individual outpatient counseling, small church groups, and other ways to help educate survivors and caregivers about trauma and the importance of healing. This curriculum introduces 12STR® and walks the individual through Phase One of recovery. It is biblically integrated and reads much like a Bible Study Curriculum. Additional books are in progress to complete this series.

In her book, Trauma: 10 Reasons Why Christians Should be Talking About It,41 Dr. Colson provides the logic behind her passionate focus on trauma recovery. Our minds, bodies, and spirits are interrelated and interconnected aspects of life. When we have not been able to complete our recovery from trauma, it impacts not only our mental health, but can impact our physical well-being, and our spiritual well-being. By offering this training to churches, Dr. Colson hopes that the need for spiritual well-being is addressed in a holistic manner and that more people will find more of the healing they need through the body of Christ.

41 Denice Colson, Trauma: 10 Reasons Why Christians Should be Talking About It (McDonough, GA:

Trauma Education Group, 2022).

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Luther Rice Journal of Christian Studies

Church-Based Trauma: Identifying the Essential Elements of a Curriculum for a Church-Based Trauma Recovery Group

By Rev. Lewis H. Temple1 This qualitative study sought to identify the elements of a curriculum for a churchbased trauma recovery group that could restore hope through restored trust, renewing purpose, and offering the security of forgiveness from the perspective of church leadership. The study participants were eight pastors of Protestant churches in the Western and Southeastern parts of the United States. These pastors had lived experience of providing pastoral care and counseling to a community of Christians who reported a lived history of church-based trauma. The study's findings revealed numerous common themes in the pastor's approach as a counselor, including the use of other disciplines in the care of congregants. Additionally, the study revealed two major areas of concern: fear of vicarious trauma and avoidance. The findings contributed to the development of the curriculum.

1

Rev. Dr. Lewis H. Temple III, MAA, MDiv, DMin (Regent University) Chaplain, InnovAge PACE Colorado Adjunct Faculty Counseling, Denver Seminary 83

Luther Rice Journal of Christian Studies Introduction Trauma and traumatic events have a lengthy history. A recording of a traumatic event is observed in the book of Genesis, found in the entirety of The Fall narrative (Gen 3). Several components contributed to the Fall, such as immaturity and rebellion; this includes trauma originating from one’s actions. For example, the trauma that Adam and Eve experienced was due to their rebellious actions, which also negatively affected their relationship with God (Gen 3:1-19). The first human death was caused by a murder shortly afterward.

Different types of events may be traumatic to those who experience it. Sexual abuse, child molestation, and mental and physical abuse are just a few issues that many would identify as traumatic stressors. When the perpetrators of these abuses are clergy, trauma becomes church-based trauma. Unfortunately, the news is still filled with cover-ups by the church in the twenty-first century, where church members, particularly clergy, have caused church-based trauma, which extends beyond the sexual abuse of children. Events may occur that are related to violations of the church’s belief system and tenets. For instance, Lakeya Stewart referenced The House of God, Inc. (HOG) in her dissertation, Understanding the Difference in Impact of Leadership, as she wrote, This denomination sees itself as counter-cultural to this world. As it pertains to fashion, particularly in regard to women, the denomination only permits women to wear skirts.

The requirement of the length of the skirt varies by local church. In the statement of “What We Believe,” appears this, “We believe in wearing apparel that is conducive to Holy Living and endeavor to dress in line with the teaching of holiness as defined by the Apostles and the Holy Spirit within.” In addition to the ban against pants for women in the denomination, the church has taken a strict stance on body paint.2

Lakeya Stewart, “Understanding the Difference in Impact of Leadership Style on Ten Congregants in The House of God, Inc. Denomination Using Servant Leadership and Toxic Leadership as Models” (D.Min., Regent University, 2017), 67, accessed September 3, 2020, http://search.proquest.com/docview/1902220812/abstract/7FC28881021E427EPQ/1.

2

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SPECIAL SECTION: Undergraduate Research Comments and behaviors of church members themselves can cause relational wounds, and occasionally church discipline or even removing a person who violates church standards from the fellowship could be considered church-based trauma.

Stewart correctly identifies a socio-cultural observation that has ministry implications.

Socio-cultural ministry implications of trauma involve attempts to cover up or sweep churchbased trauma under the rug. As an example, Bishop Robert Barron, of the Catholic Church, described the result of the sexual abuse coverup with these words: It has corroded Catholic credibility so completely that the Church’s work in evangelization, catechesis, preaching, outreach to the poor, recruitment of vocations, and education has been crippled. And most terribly, members of the Church, especially its most vulnerable, have been forced to live through a nightmare from which it seems impossible to wake.3 Barron observed that ecclesiastical corruption extends back to the eleventh century, “when the papacy was so compromised, sexual abuse of young people by the clergy was also rampant.”4 Unfortunately, Barron observed, “There is, to be sure, a unique texture to the crisis we are presently enduring. Precisely because it involves, on such a massive scale, the abuse of young people by men meant by ordination to be distinctively configured to Christ, it is particularly twisted and sickening.”5 Church-based trauma differs from traditional trauma in that it originates within the church, rather than arising from outside sources, such as natural disaster, illness, or war. Over the years, the seriousness of church-based trauma has been reduced to what is referred to as “church hurt.” Reducing the harm done to those who have experienced church-based trauma to

3

Bishop Robert E. Barron, Letter to a Suffering Church: A Bishop Speaks on the Sexual Abuse Crisis (Park Ridge, IL 60068: Word on Fire, 2019), 3–4.

4

Ibid., 51.

5

Ibid., 41.

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Luther Rice Journal of Christian Studies church hurt is problematic as church hurt suggests that healing is as simple as applying a bandage on the pain. Those who report a history of church-based trauma are emotional “…scattered all over the living-room floor, with no one to put [them] together and no idea where to begin the healing process.”6 Healing will require much effort on behalf of the victims.

Church hurt often arises from problems in relationships within the church, and often is the result of immaturity. Many people suffer from it, and yet it is a topic that is often ignored.

The church is supposed to be a safe place, filled with loving relationships, and perhaps that is why church hurt is so painful.7 If the church hurt involves a relationship issue (not abuse), forgiveness and hopefully an apology can be offered to resolve the issue, by following guidelines in Scripture (see Matthew 18: 15-17). However, there is a distinction between church hurt and church-based trauma.

Various definitions often obscure general knowledge of trauma. There is medical trauma in addition to psychological trauma. Trauma is based on the Greek word for ‘wound.’ MerriamWebster defines trauma as a disordered psychic or behavioral state resulting from severe mental or emotional stress or physical injury.8 Medical News Today defines trauma as psychological trauma, a response to an event that a person finds highly stressful. Examples include a war zone, a natural disaster, or an accident. Trauma can cause a wide range of

John Baker, Life’s Healing Choices: Freedom from Your Hurts, Hang-Ups, and Habits, 10th Anniversary Edition. (New York, NY 10020: Howard Books, 2017), 1.

6

7 Linda K. Johnson, “When Members Hurt: A Congregational Care Model to Address Hurt and Forgiveness Leading to Healing and Spiritual Maturity” (D.Min., United Theological Seminary, 2018), accessed September 14, 2020, https://www.proquest.com/dissertations-theses/when-members-hurt-congregational-caremodel/docview/2090057527/se-2 .

8 Michael Agnes and David B. Guralnik, eds., Webster’s New World College Dictionary: Defining the English Language for the 21st Century, Fourth Edition. (Foster City, CA 94404: IDG Books Worldwide, Inc., 1999), 1523.

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SPECIAL SECTION: Undergraduate Research physical and emotional symptoms.9 However, the gold standard of defining trauma and listing qualifications for diagnosing disorders related to trauma are found in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Health Disorders, V-TR.10 A person may experience events that they consider to be traumatic, which is a subjective perception. And they may have many symptoms of trauma exposure, which may lead to a stress-related mental health disorder. But to be diagnosed with Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD), the criteria for the traumatic event exposure includes only exposure to actual or threatened death, serious injury, or sexual violence.

Symptoms of trauma exposure may include re-experiencing the traumatic event through flashbacks, dreams, distressing thoughts, and signs of physical stress. Avoidance symptoms are also common, and may include avoiding places, people or things that were present during the trauma exposure or trying to block out thoughts or memories related to it. Arousal symptoms include being constantly tense or on edge, being startled easily, having a hard time concentrating, difficulty with sleep, feeling irritable or aggressive, or even engaging in risky or destructive behavior. Cognitive and mood changes are also common reactions and include problems with remembering features of the event itself, negative thoughts about the world and self, exaggerated blame directed toward self or the world, fear, anger, guilt, shame, a loss of interest in activities that were previously enjoyed, feeling isolated from others, and generally having difficulty finding many positive emotions. Even though one may not be diagnosed with a full mental health disorder, all of these symptoms are distressing and may be long lasting

9 Jayne Leonard, “What Is Trauma? What to Know,” last modified June 3, 2020, accessed May 5, 2021, https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/what-doesnt-kill-us/201201/what-is-trauma.

9

American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (5th ed., text rev., 2022), 271, https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.books.9780890425787.

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Luther Rice Journal of Christian Studies (they can last for years). Some people may find that with time, symptoms pass away, but for many, treatment is necessary.11 Through this research study, the author introduced church-based trauma. Much like Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD), which is often associated with one’s military experience, church-based trauma occurs when one experiences a traumatic event related to or caused by a person or a worship service event that compromises spiritual values. For example, one participant provided an example of church-based trauma: I married an abusive man who was bipolar. At 18, I did not see the signs, and neither did anyone else who knew him before our marriage. I spent 15 years in an abusive relationship, and then he left; deserted [me]. We had two small children at the time.

This was when the church left me the first time. At that time, I did not recognize how traditional my upbringing had been, but I found out. You should not divorce and definitely never remarry. Women should be submissive to their husbands and do everything they could to keep them happy. So, I was left single and alone forever, or so the church said.12 A clinical definition of mental health conditions associated with traumatic events taken from the American Psychiatric Associations Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5-TR) include, “Trauma- and stressor-related disorders include disorders in which exposure to a traumatic or stressful event is listed explicitly as a diagnostic criterion.

These diagnoses include reactive attachment disorder, disinhibited social engagement disorder, posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), acute stress disorder, adjustment disorders, prolonged grief disorder, other specified trauma-and stressor-related disorder, and unspecified trauma and stressor related disorder.”13

11

Ibid., Chapter 7, “Trauma and Stressor-Related Disorders.”

12

Teresa B. Pasquale, Sacred Wounds: A Path to Healing from Spiritual Trauma (St. Louis, Missouri: Chalice Press, 2015), 68.

13

American Psychiatric Association, Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders-DSM-5, Fifth Edition, Text Revision. (Washington, DC, US; London, England

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SPECIAL SECTION: Undergraduate Research Effects of Church-Based Trauma The literature reveals that church-based trauma can change, damage, or reauthor one’s perspective, especially as this relates to the Christian. Heather Davediuk Gingrich and Fred C. Gingrich observed some of the effects of trauma and complications. One of the complications is the lasting effect of low self-esteem. Low self-esteem triggers inner feelings such as, “this was my fault.”14 Gingrich and Gingrich identified four areas related to low self-esteem (e.g., this was my fault, I am powerless, I did something wrong, I am a terrible person).15 These areas are important because they identify several adverse effects of church-based trauma. “It is important to help a client understand what happened and find a purpose for her existence and the struggle. A part of making meaning is finding a place for memories of the abuse where the person can access the experience through the lens of an adaptive, resilient survivor.”16 Grief and loss are primarily associated with the grieving process as one experiences the death of a loved one or the loss of a cherished thing. Similarly, the effects of church-based trauma mirror Kubler-Ross’ Five Stages of Grief, which include denial, anger, bargaining, depression, and finally acceptance. Concerning the innermost feelings associated with grief and loss, Chanda Myers-Elder writes, “The inner manifestations are described as one’s personal feelings and meaning of their loss and how they cope with it. These manifestations are not time-dependent and do not follow a pattern. Inner manifestations can range from relief to

14

Heather Davediuk Gingrich and Fred C. Gingrich, eds., Treating Trauma in Christian Counseling (Downers Grove, Illinois: IVP Academic, 2017), 202.

15

Ibid.

16

Ibid.

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Luther Rice Journal of Christian Studies regrets, to feeling at fault or resentment.”17 Inner manifestations of grief, loss, and guilt could feed an attitude of hopelessness.

Hope is something that, even if not realized, the whole of humanity needs,18 though, at times, hope can seem to flee. Just as hope is a component of faith, restoration is a partner.

There is interest in exploring hope as a component of mental health, instead of just viewing it as a component of religious teachings. Arnau explored hope in terms of personality, relationships, and mental health in his dissertation. Ezra Stotland proposed a model of hope that influenced the development of many of the early measures of hope and hopelessness.19 Stotland described hope as an action-oriented, motivational force and defined hope as an expectation of achieving a goal. He also proposed that for hope to be operative, there must be some minimum level of goal importance and some sense of what is possible.20 In the Bible, the book of Hebrews records the idea of hope in this fashion; “Now faith is confidence in what we hope for and assurance about what we do not see” (Hebrews 1:1, NIV); connecting one’s faith with hope.

Forgiveness Beyond the context of religion, forgiveness, in general, can be defined as satisfying a debt owed. McCullough et al. identify forgiveness as the restoration of a relationship.

Chanda Mayers-Elder, “On Grief and Grieving: Finding the Meaning of Grief through the Five Stages of Loss,” Journal of the National Medical Association; Washington 100, no. 7 (July 2008): 865–866.

17

18

The author observes that hope is something that all of humanity both has and needs. For example, the scriptures reveal that faith is the substance of things HOPED for. When one is being affected by a traumatic event, hope is often interpreted differently. Hope becomes the way out of a seemingly inescapable situation.

Randolph C. Arnau, “Hope: Its Measurement and Relationships with Personality and Mental Health” (Ph.D., Texas A&M University, 2002), 2, accessed September 30, 2020, https://www.proquest.com/dissertationstheses/hope-measurement-relationships-with-personality/docview/305497506/se-2 T 20 Stotland, The Psychology of Hope, (Hoboken, NJ: Jossey-Bass, 1969).

19

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SPECIAL SECTION: Undergraduate Research McCullough et al. also observe a healing component of forgiveness which allows one to rehearse “positive memories of the other person.”21 Thus, when forgiveness occurs, a thing has been satisfied. One may ask, what does forgiveness mean? McCullough et al. observe, “The facts. Empirical research reveals some surprising and important findings about forgiveness.”22 1. You can forgive without compromising your moral integrity 2. Your painful memories of being hurt by others can be changed more easily than you might think.

3. You can improve your ability to forgive by improving your ability to empathize with others.

4. You can increase the likelihood of being forgiven by someone you have hurt by providing an adequate and sincere apology.

5. Caring too much about what others think of you will inhibit you from seeking forgiveness when you hurt others.

6. You can improve your ability to forgive others in as little as one hour.

7. Resentment and hostility can affect your physical health.

8. You can improve your physical health, mental health, and relationships by maintaining a forgiving lifestyle.23 In the Book of James, one finds these words, “Confess your faults one to another, and pray one for another, that ye may be healed. The effectual fervent prayer of a righteous man availeth much” (James 5:16, KJV). Confessing our faults includes the forgiveness component.

With forgiveness comes the understanding that one does not forgive for the benefit of Christ, but one forgives for personal healing.

Addressing church-based trauma is essential. It will allow people to move forward without carrying the burden of what happened to them for the remainder of their lives. The process of addressing one’s trauma does not excuse the idea that prayer changes things; it does.

21

Michael E. McCullough, Steven J. Sandage, M.S., and Everett L. Worthington Jr., To Forgive Is Human: How to Put Your Past in the Past (Downers Grove, Illinois: InterVarsity Press, 1997), 21.

22

Ibid., 18.

23

Ibid.

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Luther Rice Journal of Christian Studies Neither does it suggest that prayer is the only hope. God still heals the wounds of His people.

Church-based trauma is not a new phenomenon. Trauma, whatever the source, has always hurt those with lived experiences. The research question for this work is, “What elements should be included in a solid curriculum designed for a Trauma Recovery Group to bring healing, hope, and purpose to Christians who report a history of church-based trauma?”

Method This qualitative study was approved by the Institutional Review Board at Regent University. All data was saved on password-protected devices for cleaning and analysis.

Purposeful sampling and snowballing were used to recruit pastors of Protestant churches in the United States, which was the only inclusion criterion. Nine pastors were recruited to participate in the study from the Western and Southeastern states from May 2021 – December 2021. All of the participants were male; Three were White Euro-American, and six were Black (African) Americans; their ages ranged from fifty to ninety years old, and their years as pastors ranged from two to forty-seven years. Several participants pastored two or more churches.

Data were collected in two phases for the research project. In phase one, the researcher conducted 45-minute semi-structured interviews through a videoconferencing platform or in person, depending upon the participants’ geographic location (See Appendix A for Semistructured Interview). Before participating in the interviews, the participants were given the Informed Consent document. The Informed Consent form was required as it provides protection for the institution, the researcher, and the participants. Semi-structured interviews were audio-recorded and automatically transcribed using a transcription application. The interviews were analyzed using open, selected, and axial coding to identify the essential

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SPECIAL SECTION: Undergraduate Research elements of a church-based trauma curriculum.24 The analysis of these data resulted in the preliminary findings for the study. The second phase consisted of the researcher emailing a PowerPoint presentation of the preliminary findings along with a questionnaire for participants to offer written feedback or in a semi-structured interview (see Appendix B). Of the eight participants, one completed a semi-structured interview, and seven completed the written questionnaire.

Results As anticipated, phase one produced the preliminary findings. The pastors described resources and elements that contributed to a solid curriculum based on the lived experience of these participants. Pastors were asked to describe their experiences with helping congregants who reported church-based trauma and the resources used to move toward recovery. Those elements included the Bible, prayer, life review explained as outlining one’s history of abuses and traumas, working with small groups of congregants that have had similar experiences, and professionals such as mental health counselors, law enforcement, and psychologists. During phase two of the study, pastors offered feedback and further insight into the curricular elements. The questionnaire, whether completed in writing or verbally, asked pastors to indicate whether they agreed or disagreed with the elements identified as beneficial and not beneficial and then explain. “Depends” and “n/a”, were two options added to the findings based on the pastors’ responses. Under the N/A heading, either no response was given or there was no observance made.

Coming not as a surprise, but overwhelmingly so, the Bible and prayer were consistently identified as the primary sources used when addressing church-based trauma.

24

Alan Bryman, Social Research Methods, 5TH Edition. (United Kingdom: Oxford University Press, 2016), 574.

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Luther Rice Journal of Christian Studies Numerous responses identified why the Bible and prayer are very important. One of the pastors responded, The Bible is the one and only Authority in print. This is God’s word which the preacher/Christian uses and/or should use to rightly divide the word of truth. The Bible is to be used to get guidance on how to address carnal and spiritual matters.

Everyone that the preacher (male/women) may communicate with may or may not have a thorough knowledge of the purpose of the Bible; therefore, he/she will need to know how to produce a workable method when using it. Studying the word and showing thyself approved unto God. (2 Timothy 2:15), equips the preacher and/or Christian to recall applicable scriptures and/or Bible stories in a time of need. When the scriptures are used correctly, this allows the person(s) to have a clearer view of the decision that will be made.

Another pastor responded, “Especially together, “the Bible” and “prayer” are primary gifts from God for any healing, hope, and purpose for people who’ve suffered church-based trauma. I’ve found the need with such folks to differentiate between a perfectly loving God himself and any institutional church too often led by unhealthy and even evil human beings.”

One hundred percent of the responses cited the Bible and prayer as the primary source that brought healing, hope, and restored purpose; however, it was never articulated how this was so. There were many references to scripture, such as Isaiah 41:10, Matthew 11:28, Ephesians 1:18, and Galatians 1:27, to name a few. Certainly, the Bible and prayer are, or should be, primary resources for all concerns involving Christians, but how so? The following is an example of a great reference that establishes scripture as primary from one of the participants; however, it falls short of and does not offer the how; “The Bible is God’s Word and offers us His timeless principles, instructions, and reveals much about Him and about us.

God’s Word gives descriptions, observations, and case studies of emotional situations and traumas.”

The Bible and prayer, as primary, are not stand-alone resources. A life review by the counselee was observed to be beneficial. Small group support is important, especially when the 94 | P a g e

SPECIAL SECTION: Undergraduate Research group consists of those with similar experiences. Lastly, the expertise that professionals, such as Christian counselors, psychiatrists, and psychologists, offer is invaluable. A pastor responds, “As far as mental health professionals, we like to say we believe in Jesus…AND counseling.”

Small Groups and Professional Counselors Twenty-nine percent of the pastors reported using professional counselors and utilizing small groups in addition to the Bible and prayer. The following quote encompasses the idea of how a thing brought healing, hope, and restored purpose.

The use of the Bible facilitated a return to the Source of healing and hope, to the giver of joy, God Himself. The focus of the person suffering the trauma had been moved from the strength of God and His faithfulness to the source of the trauma and to relying on the person’s own strength to cope. This brought real vulnerability and a shaken confidence, and fear of the future. Bible verses that focused on the assurances and the dependability of God were most helpful.

Several areas were cited as not beneficial. The responses did not recognize a particular thing as not beneficial, only the potential of a thing being so. For example, several pastors agreed on using authority but cited that authorities' involvement should only happen when there is a safety concern. However, the responses were consistently between forty-three percent and seventy-one percent in agreement with the findings.

Other people’s opinions were identified forty-three percent of the time as depending.

‘Depends,’ is identified with the idea that there are times when the opinion of others is helpful.

For example, I agree that, in general, people’s opinions are not helpful and, in many cases, not appropriate that they are shared. There may be exceptions to this, but I generally agree.

Many trusted people may also be uninformed people. Too often, people accept opinions and allow them to have greater influence than the thought should, simply because of their relationship with the person offering the opinion.

Thus, the opinions of others are sometimes beneficial, however, “I won’t say that it’s not beneficial, but it certainly needs to be scrutinized.”

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Luther Rice Journal of Christian Studies Several pastors referenced personal safety to avoid vicarious trauma and avoidance.

Pastors were asked to provide their feedback on two areas of concern, vicarious trauma, and avoidance. Twenty-nine percent of the pastors reported experiencing vicarious trauma and avoidance. They respond, “I agree with these findings and find them very interesting. I have experienced degrees of vicarious trauma in the experiences I have had as a pastor. At times, it has been very traumatic to walk with people through losses and tragedies”.

One hundred percent of the pastors agreed that vicarious trauma and avoidance are possibilities; however, their views differ on how these can occur. The theme of the pastors’ experience as a counselor revealed that pastors were affected by the trauma while caring for someone experiencing trauma and that they intentionally avoided hurtful experiences. For example, “I don’t give people the freedom to enter my personal space without an invitation; therefore, I am always looking to keep myself safe.” Another pastor responded, “at times, I must consciously take a ‘step back and reassess where I am on my journey, as some of my interactions with them have made me mentally revisit things of my church past.

The researcher expected the data to identify the elements of a solid curriculum; however, the researcher did not expect to observe unintended findings, especially those that would influence the research. The observations reflect an extreme left and an extreme right of a spectrum.

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SPECIAL SECTION: Undergraduate Research

Pas'tor's Role Pastor's Reputation Protecting the image of a pastor

Use all available resources Christian Counselors Psychologists Psychiatrists

The extreme left of the spectrum offers no help for those Christians who report a lived history of church-based trauma i on if the pastor is focused on protecting himself, his role, and reputation. The Pastor on the extreme left seems to reference themselves instead of those experiencing church-based trauma. Referencing themselves is observed as ‘protecting one’s reputation or position as pastor. The pastors on the extreme right side of the spectrum seem to offer all available help for those Christians who report a lived history of church-based trauma.

The right side of the spectrum seems to focus entirely on those experiencing church-based trauma.

Some pastors were unwilling to engage, recognize, and admit church-based trauma.

The researcher observed this to be consistent with pastors who are age-related. By age-related, the researcher is referring to pastors of a similar age, on the older end of the demographics in this study. Secondly, others offered a cautious acknowledgement and recognition of the church-based trauma with a tentative/hesitant engagement with the Christian who made the report. Ironically, their ‘being cautious’ seems to originate from the advice they received from other pastors who had experienced similar issues. Lastly, the preliminary findings observe that some pastors are willing to be open, fully engaging those who report a history of church-based Page | 97

Luther Rice Journal of Christian Studies trauma and using every available resource to bring healing, hope, and restoration to those Christians who report a lived history of church-based trauma. The data collected did provide the essential elements a pastor might use to provide help for those experiencing church-based trauma and the data identified resources that are beneficial and those that are not. Table 1 represents responses from the 8 pastors who completed the first round of interviews.

Of those pastors interviewed, 25% responded, focusing totally on the care of those Christians who had experienced church-based trauma.

Of those pastors interviewed, 87.5% appeared willing to counsel those Christians who reported a lived history of church-based trauma with reservations. The reservations seem to be consistent with the idea of self-preservation.

Of those pastors interviewed, 12.5% seemed unwilling to counsel those Christians who reported a lived history of church-based trauma that would include any resource other than the Bible and the Holy Spirit. The unwillingness seems to be a by-product of advice received from other pastors who mentored them.

One pastor (12.5%) stated that they would not counsel with church members because there is no such thing. The rest of the pastors stated that they would refer their people only to licensed therapists if they needed more care. Full results are presented in Table 1.

Responding to the preliminary findings, the researcher evaluated the initial questions to determine how to craft the second set of questions. The researcher concluded that the second set of questions reinforced the accuracy of the preliminary findings and further explicated their responses to the first set of questions (See Table 2).

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Table 1: Results from Phase 1-first round of interviews.

Hope

Small Groups

X X X X X X X X 8

X X X X X X X X 8

X X X X X X X X 8

X X X X X X X X 8

X X X X X X X X 8

Christian Counselor

• • • • • • •

Prayer

Law Enforcement

Pastor 1 Pastor 2 Pastor 3 Pastor 4 Pastor 5 Pastor 6 Pastor 7 Pastor 8 Total

Bible

Other Therapists

Ignore

Oher People With Similar Histories

X X X X X X X X 8

X X X X X X X X 8

X

X X X X X X X X 8

1

Table 2: Follow-up, based on 7 questionnaires and one interview (N=8).

X X X 6/8

X X X X X X X 8/8

Avoidance

X X X X X X X X 8/8

Denial of Church Trauma

Open to Resources

X X X X X X X X 8/8

Unwilling to Counsel

Vicarious Trauma

X X X

Willingness to Counsel with some reservations

Protective of Roles Pastor 1 Pastor 2 Pastor 3 Pastor 4 Pastor 5 Pastor 6 Pastor 7 Pastor 8 Total

X

X

1/8

1/8

X X X X X X X X 8/8

Discussion Discussing this research has its challenges, since there is little published literature to compare the results with. Much like the term “shell-shocked’, church-based trauma is often minimized to a lesser thing. It was not until after WWII that serious attention was given to service members returning home from the combat field with mental disorders. Those displaying non-normal behavior after returning from combat were labeled “shell-shocked.” The Page | 99

Luther Rice Journal of Christian Studies term “shell-shocked” significantly diminished the severity of the latter diagnosis of PostTraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD). Additionally, “shell-shocked” was used as an identifier that objectified the individual. In contrast, PTSD is a diagnosis that identifies a mental illness and does not objectify the person. Much of Western Culture, including Western Religions, joined in the objectification of the individual. Currently, church-based trauma is not a diagnosis; however, the research supports the opportunity for further investigation into avoidance and vicarious trauma as it relates to pastors. Sky Kershner and Jacob K. Farnsworth inform, “As we, the authors, have looked back on our lives thus far, it is easy to see how many decisions we have made along the way that were based on a strategy of avoidance. However, we can also see that the more we avoided difficult things, the less we were able to tolerate the feelings that we were trying to escape.”25 Church-based trauma may be more challenging to heal from if pastors of churches are not aware how to handle these issues, or fearful of being implicated in the traumatic events, or afraid to experience vicarious trauma. It seems obvious that a training workshop designed for pastors interested in becoming trauma-informed would be very helpful for the church body as well as its leaders.

There are several limitations related to this study. Because the sample was small and the methodology was qualitative, results may not apply universally to every pastor or church.

During the interviews, stories were shared about church members who claimed to have experienced traumatic experiences through the church, however, the number of events shared and reactions reported by the participants was small in number, reducing its applicability to all

25

Jason A. Nieuwema, Robyn D. Wasler, and Steven C. Hayes, Eds., ACT for Clergy and Pastoral Counselors: Using Acceptance and Commitment Therapy to Bridge Psychological and Spiritual Care (Oakland, CA 94609: New Harbinger Publications, Inc., 2016), 267.

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SPECIAL SECTION: Undergraduate Research situations. In addition, the denominations interviewed do not represent the variety of denominations found in the United States or abroad.

Additionally, more research needs to explore best practices related to church-based trauma and how best to help those who find themselves injured through relationships and events that happen amongst the body of Christ.

The unexpected findings suggest the need for pastors to receive additional training in caring for and counseling with those Christians who report a history of church-based trauma.

The unexpected findings benefit the research project, which was to develop a curriculum to help those suffering from church-based trauma. Results expanded the sphere of elements that should be included in a solid curriculum for a Trauma Recovery Group that could bring healing, hope, and purpose to Christians who report a history of church-based trauma.

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Luther Rice Journal of Christian Studies Appendix A SAY: Greetings and thank you for your willingness to participate in this study. I have a few preliminary questions to ask before the actual interview questions.

Demographics 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

Please tell me your age.

What’s your gender?

What’s your denomination?

How long have you been a pastor?

How many churches have you pastored?

How many years pastoring your current church?

What is your educational training?

General Questions 1. Briefly describe your knowledge or awareness of church-based trauma 2. What types of experiences have congregants described as traumatic in the church?

3. Please describe a direct experience you have had with responding to a report of churchbased trauma? The experience does not have to be a situation that occurred with a church you pastored, just one that you helped a congregant who had experienced a church-based trauma.

SAY: Now we will move into the semi-structured interview. Your participation is voluntary; therefore, you have the option to end this interview at any time.

1. Please describe what happened; please share as much detail as possible. How were you made aware of the church-based trauma?

2. Please describe your initial reaction.

3. Please describe your approach to addressing the church-based trauma. a. What resources did you use that were helpful? b. What resources did you use that were not helpful?

4. Tell me how, if at all, did this event impact your relationship with the congregants?

Please explain.

5. Tell me how, if at all, did this event impact your relationship with yourself? Please explain.

6. Tell me how, if at all, did this event impact your relationship with God. 7. In the event you observe future instances of church-based trauma, what would you do, if anything, differently? Please provide details.

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SPECIAL SECTION: Undergraduate Research Appendix B Semi-Structured Interview Questions #2 The data from the interviews has influenced the direction of the research. The researcher observes this influence as being positive. In the next slides, the researcher asks several questions that relate to the accuracy of the findings. Please be as detailed and thorough as possible with your responses, as the data from these questions will complete the research for this project. Please keep in mind the research question for this project as much of the data collected thus far does not identify the resources used that brought healing, hope, and restored purpose to those who experienced church-based trauma.

1. Slide number 5 observes several resources and elements that proved beneficial or not beneficial. Do you agree with the findings? Please give a detailed response to each observation in the slide detailing what was beneficial and why, and also what was not beneficial and why.

2. How did the resources aid in bringing healing, hope, and restored purpose? Please respond with as much detail as possible.

3. According to the data collected, the research identifies two areas of concern. Vicarious trauma (when the counselor or support person experiences trauma while caring for someone who is experiencing trauma), and Avoidance. This observance addresses the pastor as the care provider. Do you agree or disagree with these findings? Please provide details as to why you agree or disagree.

Preliminary Findings: Resources and Elements Identified PowerPoint

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Luther Rice Journal of Christian Studies

Poverty Mindset and the Obligation of Christian Ministries

By Deborah Wyatt26 Throughout the world, men and women, boys and girls, daily face an epidemic of poverty, leaving them vulnerable and disadvantaged. Within the context of the Bible, poverty is "the absence of material goods."27 Poverty "in its most abstract sense is to be less than the whole," isolating an individual from the community.28 According to the U.S. Census Bureau, poverty is on the rise, with 12.7 percent of the U.S. population, or 37 million persons, living in poverty.29 The far-reaching impact of poverty, from food insecurity to violence, substance abuse to mental health issues, impacts people of all ages, races, and genders. Especially vulnerable to these effects are children. When studying the pathology of death amongst children, the varying causes of death primarily trace back to poverty.30 Poverty, of varying levels, surrounds humankind; to ignore it does not make it vanish.

The effects of poverty create a poverty mindset within individuals that affects information processing and decision-making skills and hinders individuals' confidence to change their lives. For individuals with this mindset who are seeking spiritual growth, years spent in isolation and poverty make it challenging to transition into a religious community of equality and belonging. Christian ministries must embrace the broader society they are in and

26

Deborah Wyatt is an undergraduate student at Luther Rice College & Seminary.

27

William A. Galston and Peter H. Hoffenberg. Poverty and Morality: Religious and Secular Perspectives. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010): 63. ISBN-13: 978-0521127349 28

Ibid., p. 63.

29 Brady, Judith Ann. "Justice for the Poor in a Land of Plenty: A Place at the Table." Religious Education 101, no. 3 (January 1, 2006): 348. https://doi.org/10.1080/00344080600788324.

30

Ross, Kenneth R. "Christian Mission and the End of Poverty: Time for Eschatology, Mission Studies, 24(1), 80. https://doi.org/10.1163/157338307X191589

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SPECIAL SECTION: Undergraduate Research acknowledge the men, women, boys, and girls that makeup that society, and are all created in the image of God (Genesis 1:27).31 To ignore the impacts of the poverty mindset or assume that it has little influence on the spiritual life is to add harm to an already precarious situation.

Christian ministries should intentionally address the poverty mindset in those they serve as a scriptural extension of love for all image-bearers because it impacts individuals' ability to experience spiritual growth. At a base level, Christian ministries should care about poverty because it violates human dignity. Going without the core necessities of food, clothing, shelter, security, and medical care, a concept known as absolute poverty, limits an individual's ability to maintain physical health.32 When a person cannot meet the accepted standard of living of an area or people group because of a lack of economic resources, and an individual cannot participate in activities that are "expressive of their nature as human beings," relative poverty is present.33 The lack of access to shared resources further isolates an individual from the community, causing an affront to their human dignity. Further degrading the dignity of these image-bearers is the physical impact of poverty. In 1 Corinthians 6:19-20, the apostle Paul instructs believers that the body is a temple of the Holy Spirit and should be used to glorify God. Lack of medical care leads to preventable suffering and degradation of the body. Love for those suffering from inadequate healthcare and lack of healthy food should be believers' trademark. Additionally, poverty impacts the mental well-being of individuals, lowering their view of worth. Functioning daily in survival mode, constantly searching for resources while trying to protect themselves and family, increases anxiety and leads to a lack of hope for the

31

All biblical quotations were taken from the CSB unless otherwise noted.

32

H. P. P. Lötter, "The Moral Challenge of Poverty's Impact on Individuals." Koers: Bulletin for Christian Scholarship 72, no. 2 (July 1, 2007): 266. DOI:10.4102/koers.v72i2.202.

33

Ibid., p. 267.

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Luther Rice Journal of Christian Studies future. It also hinders the growth and maintenance of healthy relationships. The parent/child relationship may suffer due to the demanding work hours of the parent who seeks to provide economically for the family. The link between poverty and domestic violence, as noted by the researchers for the World Bank, further degrades one's dignity. The absence of shalom, or peace, in relationships contributes to the ongoing cycle of poverty.34 Throughout Scripture, the value of community is evident, so Christians should be sympathetic to the loss of relationships caused by poverty and understanding of the offense to human dignity that this is. (Proverbs 17:17, John 13:34, 1 John 1:7, & Galatians 6:2).

Christian ministries must acknowledge the unwritten rules of operation within their ministries to address the poverty mindset as an extension of love for all image-bearers. These unwritten rules govern how people view the world, assess others' capabilities, communicate, and perform daily tasks. American churches, education systems, and organizations typically operate from a middle-class mindset and, often unintentionally, "encourage the poor to progress economically by becoming "[like them]."35 Acknowledging this social illiteracy, those who are poor enter ministries at a disadvantage: they are powerless, vulnerable, physically weak, financially insolvent, socially isolated, and spiritually deprived.36 Rachel Muers,

34

Rachel Muers, "A Theology of Sin Related to Poverty." In Die Skriflig 50, no. 1 (August 1, 2016): 7. doi:10.4102/ids.v50i1.2033.

35 Michael Landon, "The Challenges of Poverty to the North American Church." Restoration Quarterly 47, no. 2/3 (2005): 113. Accessed September 27, 2024 at https://digitalcommons.acu.edu/restorationquarterly/vol47/iss2/3 36

Brandt, Donald P. "The Poor and the Lost: A Holistic View of Poverty." Missiology 23, no. 3 (July 1995): 260.

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SPECIAL SECTION: Undergraduate Research Professor of Theology at the University of Leeds, asks, "Who enters the room as a suspect and who enters as a judge?"37 The reality of this disparity acknowledges the unlevel playing field of life and the unwritten rules of operation. The middle class is not to be viewed as the standard of excellence or status quo; instead, God alone is to be the standard, with all striving to be like Him. In acknowledging the disadvantage of those in poverty who do not understand the rules of operation, Christian ministries can begin to "replace alienation with fellowship" and bridge the equality gap.38 The call for Christian ministries to address the poverty mindset is a scriptural command. First, ministries must distinguish the biblical view of poverty from the cultural view. In America, there is a cultural view that "categorize[s] poor people as either lazy or victims," placing the blame on the impoverished individual.39 This view impacts the desire to help others and how far a ministry will extend itself to offer aid. The biblical view of poverty is more complex and acknowledges the multi-faceted causation of poverty. In the Old Testament, in the book of Exodus, the people of Israel suffered because of their ethnicity. In Judges 6:1, they suffered because of their sin, and in Judges 6:6 because of foreign oppressors. The Bible also lists famine (Ruth 1:1), familial loss (Ruth 1:5, 2:2), war (Nehemiah 1:1-3), debt and taxes (Nehemiah 5), laziness (Proverbs 22:22), and alcoholism (Proverbs 21:17) as explanations for

37

Muers, Rachel. "Always with You: Questioning the Theological Construction of the Un/Deserving Poor." International Journal of Public Theology 15, no. 1 (January 2021): 42-60. https://doi.org/10.1163/15697320- 12341641.

38

Landon, 111.

39

Ibid., 106.

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Luther Rice Journal of Christian Studies poverty. The "exceptional tolerance" for poverty is being reasoned away by society, but ministries can respond with action rather than defense.40 In addition to having a biblical view of poverty, Christian ministries must have a biblical response to poverty. In the Old Testament, alleviating poverty was a covenantal law; in the New Testament, it is a moral imperative.41 Matthew 25:31-46 details the judgment Christians receive based on their service to others. As detailed in verse 40, when believers demonstrate the love of God by serving others, they serve the Lord. (Matthew 25:40). The account of the Good Samaritan in Luke 10:25-37 identifies a man in great need and the individual who took responsibility to offer aid. Both scriptural accounts teach the importance of providing emergency relief and helping poor people escape poverty.42 Scripture, as evidenced in the texts above, shows the importance of healthy relationships as a key to alleviating poverty.43 Impoverished people, operating on their own, struggle to recover from the effects of poverty and the daily struggles they encounter. While Christian ministries cannot prevent all issues, they can function as "shock absorbers" and alleviate some of the hardships individuals face.44 The mandate to address the poverty mindset is clear for Christian ministries, yet there is opposition to the calling. The questions arise regarding Christians' right to categorize the poor, if it is a socio-political or religious issue, and the effects poverty has on spiritual growth.

40

Marvin A. McMickle, "Preaching in the Face of Poverty," Homiletic (Online) 41, no. 1 (2016): accessed September 27, 2024, file:///C:/Users/annkerlin/Downloads/homiletic_admin,+Journal+manager,+Vol41No.1FULL.pdf 41

Galston and Hoffenberg, 69.

42

Lötter, 264

43

Kakwata, 9

44

Lötter, 276

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SPECIAL SECTION: Undergraduate Research Rachel Muers, in looking at Matthew 26:11 and the belief that the poor are always with us, and looking at the woman's judgment with the jar of oil in Matthew 26:6-13, surmises that the words of Jesus disrupt the "asymmetrical and naturalized 'right to categorize.'"45 The author concludes that the reader of the text is privileged and claims a right to categorize others and then justifies it by referencing Jesus. Opponents, such as Muers, believe that subjecting individuals to this categorization breeds inequality and passes moral judgment. However, Christian ministries are not the defining source of poverty. As noted at the beginning of this paper, poverty is identified and defined by societal norms. Therefore, Christian ministries are not categorizing the poor but responding to the needs of those in poverty. Recognizing individuals with a poverty mindset allows ministries to meet the individual's unique needs and closes the disparity gap that prevents spiritual growth. Opponents contend that poverty is a social-political issue, not a religious issue. It is accurate that poverty is a social issue. "Fifty-six percent of the world's population is currently poor," leaving billions of people worldwide suffering from the effects of poverty.46 It is a political issue because governments must create programs to aid and assist impoverished people. The state has access to many resources and reaches a larger population. Access to education, employment, and health care impacts one's ability to maintain a job and, therefore, maintain an income. However, government programs and aid meet resource needs, not relationship needs, which have proven to be the key to breaking the cycle of poverty. In his research on the development of social capital in secular versus faith-based programs, William Lockhart noted that faith-based programs focused on long-range methods that met emergency needs and provided an additional arena for developing

45

Muers, 43-4.

46

Lötter, 262

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Luther Rice Journal of Christian Studies social capital.47 Understanding the correlation between relationship and support, the Salvation Army, highly respected by government and faith-based organizations, implemented a "Pathway of Hope" initiative to solve intergenerational poverty through self-sufficiency and Hope.48 What Christians and ministries confidently know and opponents have failed to concede is that poverty is both "a crisis and an opportunity: a crisis in the lives of those suffering the effects of poverty and an opportunity for people to work together to provide charity."49 Limiting the involvement of churches and ministries further disadvantages a vulnerable people group. The argument arises that poverty is not a limiting factor that hinders one's ability to grow spiritually. As discussed earlier, every individual operates from a set of hidden rules, or unspoken mechanisms, developed by their economic group over their lifetime, and organizations typically use the hidden rules of the middle class. Suppose Christians fail to acknowledge this emotional and mental disadvantage. In that case, the individual with the poverty mindset might "view their status as being an image of God of no value," further hindering their ability to grow spiritually.50 However, many of these individuals have extraordinary God-given abilities that are undeveloped due to a lack of resources. A Christian ministry has the opportunity to help identify these gifts, provide opportunities for their development and growth, and encourage the individual to utilize their gifts. As individuals learn new biblical mandates for living, they need ministries to come alongside them to develop

47

William H. Lockhart, "Building Bridges and Bonds: Generating Social Capital in Secular and FaithBased Poverty-to-Work Programs." Sociology of Religion 66, no. 1 (Spring 2005): 55.

48 Maribeth Velazquez Swanson. "The Theology of Hope and Its Role in Personal Transformation: Pathway of Hope: An Approach To Solving Intergenerational Poverty." Word & Deed: A Journal of Salvation Army Theology & Ministry 24, no. 1 (November 2021): 5-27.

49

50

Brady, 353.

Lötter, 267

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SPECIAL SECTION: Undergraduate Research the life skills that will enable them to carry out the biblical mandates. For example, many in poverty live with a survival mindset. Each day is a struggle to acquire necessities such as food, clothing, and shelter. This predicament does not allow for the luxury of long-term planning or development of skills. Lacking this ability, an individual will struggle to commit to daily bible study, regular church attendance, tithing, and consistent prayer, all tenets of the faith that aid spiritual growth. Identifying the limitations of those with a poverty mindset and providing necessary support is a loving act Christians can offer for God's image-bearers. Seeing justice in action gives the poverty mindset a model to emulate, further diminishing the cycle of poverty.51 The belief that Christian ministries should intentionally address the poverty mindset in those they serve as a scriptural extension of love relies on the warrant that Christians want to obey Scripture. The opposition functions from the warrant that Christians should not attempt to "fix" people who are not broken but in need; ministries should focus on providing resources, not relationships. Christians submit to the Lordship of Jesus Christ in salvation and service.

The Bible serves as God's message to believers. Therefore, Christians should desire to obey the commands of Scripture. In the Bible, John 14:15 teaches, "If you love me, you will keep my commands." Second John 6 teaches, "This is love: that we walk according to his commands.

This is the command as you have heard it from the beginning: that you walk in love." As Christians who have surrendered to God, obedience to His Word means extending love as "an authentic expression of the kingdom of God" to His image bearers, especially those in poverty.52 In the e New Testament story of the good Samaritan, found in Matthew 25:31-46, "Jesus exhorts his followers to provide emergency relief to anyone in need," and those in

51

Brady, 365.

52

Ross, 90.

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Luther Rice Journal of Christian Studies poverty indeed fit this description.53 "Knowing God must result in doing God's will," and Scripture communicates God's desire for caring for the needy. The opposition's warrant that Christians should not attempt to "fix" people who are not broken sees poverty as a form of "grit" that strengthens the individual. In his research on grit and agency, author Anindya Kundu introduces new psychological research that identifies "grit" as a characteristic of a successful student. This philosophy places a high premium on the efforts of the individual rather than the systems in which they operate. Indeed, grit can develop agency within an individual and even elicit resilience that stimulates growth. Nevertheless, as Lötter acknowledges, resilience does not remove the harms poverty inflicts on them as they navigate trials.54 Christians and ministries do not attempt to "fix" people but to equip them to thrive in the systems they encounter.

There is a global crisis plaguing people of every race, language, and gender, leaving them poor in resources, health, and spirit. This affront to the dignity of humankind is so atrocious that it warrants the response of all, especially Christians. Believers uniquely understand the tension between hope and reality, longing for the peace of heaven while sympathetic to the hardships of earth. With an understanding of the divine calling to care for the poor and a belief in the equality of image-bearers, Christians and Christian ministries are perfectly positioned for lasting impact.

53 H. P. P. Lötter, “The Moral Challenge of Poverty’s Impact on Individuals.” Koers: Bulletin for Christian Scholarship 72, no. 2. (2007): 263. doi: 10.4102/koers.v72i2.202.

54

Ibid., 265.

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SPECIAL SECTION: Undergraduate Research

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Luther Rice Journal of Christian Studies 4

C. Arnold, Ephesians, Power and Magic: The Concept of Power in Ephesians in the Light of its Historical Setting (SNTSMS 63; Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989), 66– 68.

D. Reinhard, “Ephesians 6:10–18: A Call to Personal Piety or another Way of Describing Union with Christ,” JETS 48 (2005): 521–32.

M. Kitchen, The ἀνακεφαλαίωσις of All Things in Christ: Theology and Purpose in the Epistle to the Ephesians (Ph.D. thesis, University of Manchester, 1988), 74, 76–77.

6

Bibliography Examples Arnold, C. Ephesians, Power and Magic: The Concept of Power in Ephesians in the Light of its Historical Setting. Society for New Testament Studies Monograph Series 63. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989.

Barr, J. The Semantics of Biblical Language. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1961.

Kitchen, M. “The ἀνακεφαλαίωσις of All Things in Christ: Theology and Purpose in the Epistle to the Ephesians.” Ph.D. thesis, University of Manchester, 1988.

O’Brien, P. The Letter to the Ephesians. Pillar New Testament Commentary. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1999.

Reinhard, D. “Ephesians 6:10–18: A Call to Personal Piety or another Way of Describing Union with Christ.” Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society 48 (2005): 521–32.

Witherington, B. Paul’s Narrative Thought World: The Tapestry and Tragedy of Triumph.

Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 199

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SPECIAL SECTION: Undergraduate Research work. We cannot republish tables or figures from other published material without express and written permission from the author and/or publisher.

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B. Witherington, Paul’s Narrative Thought World: The Tapestry and Tragedy of Triumph (Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 1994), 3–5.

1

2

J. Barr, The Semantics of Biblical Language (London: Oxford University Press, 1961),

237–38.

3

P. O’Brien, The Letter to the Ephesians (PNTC; Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1999), 457,

490.

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Luther Rice Journal of Christian Studies

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