Table 2: Frequencies and Percentages on Different Variables (N=216)

Statistical Analyses and Interpretation

Independent t-test

The hypothesis in this study was that:

H0: ADD-like behavior is the same in males and females.

H1: The mean ADD-like behavior scores between males and females are different.

While conducting the independent t-test, it is assumed that each data point in the sample is independent, the data in each of the two populations are normally distributed, and that the two populations have equal variances. In this study’s t-test analysis, it was identified that there was a statistically significant (t(214) = .261, p < .001) difference in ADD-like behaviors between males and females. This led to the rejection of the null hypothesis; ADD-like behavior is the same in males and females. Males (M= 56.09, SD = 10.00) had a higher ADD-like behavior score compared to females (M = 49.09, SD = 9.722). The results of the t-test showed without doubt that males differed significantly in ADD-like behaviors compared to females with males showing more ADD-like behaviors.

Another important finding from the t-test analyses was that there was no statistically significant difference (t(214) =3.559, p > .001) in ADD-like behaviors for persons who showed social adjustment problems in 9th Grade compared to those who did not have social adjustment problems. In the same manner, there was no statistically significant difference (t(214) = 3.228, p > .001) between those who had dropped out of high school and those who had not. It is therefore clear that having or lack of social adjustment problems as well as dropping/or not dropping out of high school are not significant determinants of existence of ADD-like behaviors. The mean ADD-like behavior score for those who showed social adjustment problems (M= 62.56, SD = 7.12) was however higher than that of those who had no social adjustment problems in 9th Grade (M = 51.57, SD= 10.16). The mean ADD-like behavior score for those who had dropped out of high school (M = 60.95, SD = 7.15) was also higher than for those who had not dropped out of high school (M = 52.02, SD = 10.39). The differences were, however, not statistically significant.

There was a large effect size of presence of social adjustment problems in 9th Grade given that η2 was .53. This is to indicate that 53% of the variance in ADD-like behavior was as a result of presence of social adjustment problems in 9th Grade. A substantially large effect size was also observed for whether one was a male or a female. This was indicated by η2 = .33, indicating that 33% of the variance in ADD-like behavior was accounted for by gender. A small effect size, though, was observed η2 =.04 by whether one dropped out of high school or not, thus 4% of variance in ADD-like behavior was accounted for by whether one dropped out of high school or not. From this, it is evident that gender and presence of social adjustment problems in 9th Grade are related to ADD-like behavior, where males have higher ADD-like behavior scores than females while existence of social adjustment problems in 9th Grade is related to more ADD-like behaviors.

Social adjustment problems in

The ANOVA test was conducted with the following hypothesis in mind: There is difference in ADD-like behavior depending on the level of 9th grade English for participants.

H0: The means for College Preparatory, General and Remedial 9th grade English level are equal.

H1: The means for College Preparatory, General and Remedial 9th Grade English level are not equal.

In this study, the ANOVA test was conducted with the following assumption in consideration: The samples were independent, there was normal distribution of the sample and that variances were equal. From the analysis, it was evident that the ANOVA test was significant, F(2, 213) = 18.500, p < .001. As such, the null hypothesis was rejected; the means for College Preparatory, General and Remedial 9th grade English level are equal.

A post-hoc analysis was conducted as a follow up to the ANOVA test. This was done using the Tukey test with the aim of looking at the pairwise differences. This is because the Levene statistic, L(2, 213)= 2.277, p> .001 was not significant, hence equal variances were assumed. Participants with Remedial 9th grade English level (M= 56.97, SD = 11.67) showed a higher ADD-like behavior score (mean of 3), compared to General (M= 53.81, SD = 9.54) and College preparatory (M= 43.07, SD= 7.84). There was a significant difference in ADD-like behavior scores between College Preparatory 9th grade English level participants and General and Remedial English level students. However, there was no significant difference in ADD-like behavior scores between Remedial and General 9th grade English level students.

The strength of the relationship between ADD-like behavior scores and 9th Grade English level as indexed by η2 = .57 was strong, with 9th Grade English Level accounting for 57% of the variance in ADD-like behavior score.

As such, it is correct to say that College Preparatory 9th grade English level students differed significantly in their ADD-like behavior scores compared to both Remedial and General English level students, with participants with Remedial 9th grade English level participants showing the greatest ADD-like behaviors than the other two groups.

Table 4: ANOVA Table showing ADD-Like Behavior Scores for College Prep, General and Remedial 9th Grade English Level

Three assumptions are taken when conducting a Pearson Correlation: (1) there is random distribution in the pair of samples under comparison (2) there is independence of samples in each case to be compared and (3) there is normal distribution of the two samples to be compared. In regard to this, the third assumption i.e. samples were randomly distributed was violated. This is in view of the fact that Howell, Huessy, and Hassuk (1985) clearly stated that the samples in their study were not obtained randomly. Otherwise, the first and second assumptions were met i.e. each case forming the pair to be compared were independent of each other and there was normal distribution of sample pairs to be compared from the fact that the samples were more than 30, i.e. the sample size was large.

In this study, three variables were used to perform a 2-tailed Pearson Correlation with significance being considered at the 0.01 level. The variables were: ADD-like behaviour score (mean of 3), IQ Score and GPA in 9th Grade.

Table 1: Intercorrelations between ADD-like Behaviour Score (Mean of 3), IQ Score and GPA in 9th Grade (N=216)

** p < .001, 2-tailed

1 = ADD-like behaviour score (mean of 3); 2 = IQ Score; 3 = GPA in 9th Grade

The first research question was: Does ADD-like behaviour relate with IQ score in a linear manner? The hypotheses were therefore as follows:

H0: ρ = 0 (a linear relationship exists between IQ Score and ADD-like behaviour).

H1: ρ ≠ 0 (there is no linear relationship between IQ Score and ADD-like behaviour).

The Pearson correlation between ADD-like behaviour and IQ Score was found to be statistically significant, r(216) = -.629, p < .001. This led to the rejection of the null hypothesis (a linear relationship exists between IQ Score and ADD-like behaviour). This relationship was found to be negative, indicating that an increase in the score of one led to a decrease in the score of the other.

The second research question was: Does GPA in 9th Grade relate with ADD-like behaviour in a linear manner?

The hypotheses generated from this research question were as follows:

H0: ρ = 0 (a linear relationship exists between GPA in 9th Grade and ADD-like behaviour).

H1: ρ ≠ 0 (there is no linear relationship between GPA in 9th Grade and ADD-like behaviour).

On conducting the Pearson Correlation, it was established that the relationship between GPA in 9th Grade and ADD-like behaviour relate in a statistically significant manner, r(216) = -.542, p <.001. This led to the rejection of the null hypothesis (a linear relationship exists between GPA in 9th Grade and ADD-like behaviour). Conclusively, an increase in one of the variables leads to a decrease in the other and vice versa.

The third research question was: Does IQ Score and GPA in 9th Grade relate in a linear manner?

The research hypotheses were as follows:

H0: ρ = 0 (a linear relationship exists between IQ score and GPA in 9th Grade).

H1: ρ ≠ 0 (there is no linear relationship between IQ Score and GPA in 9th Grade).

The Pearson correlation revealed that a statistically significant relationship existed between IQ Score and GPA in 9th Grade, r(216) = .446, p < .001. As such, the null hypothesis (a linear relationship exists between IQ Score and GPA in 9th Grade) was rejected.

Discussion

The purpose of this study was to establish whether there exists any relationship between the ADD-like behaviors and academic performance, and whether such behaviors can be used to predict future occurrence of ADD. When an examination of the relationship between the dependent and the independent variables was done, the two sets of variables proved positive. This meant that the students dropping out of school or performing poorly in their English examinations at the 9th grade had performed so largely because of their ADD-like behaviors. It was actually ascertained that students on the remedial English class at the 9th grade displayed more ADD-like characteristics than those who had proceeded to the college preparation class. The findings of this study were very much consistent with those of Howell, Huessy and Hassuk (1985). Howell, Huessy and Hassuk (1985) upon embarking on a similar study found out that academic performance for “normal” persons right from their elementary schooling was consistent with their ADD –like behaviors level; it was directly proportionate. Contrary to Howell, Huessy and Hassuk’s research, the study was limited to elementary schooling. Howell, Huessy and Hassuk’s (1985) had established a consistency of poor academic results related to ADD-like characteristics even in higher education. In addition there was no correlation between ADD-like characteristics and other kinds of life performances (e.g. performance in extra curriculum activities) in the current study, apart from that one of social non -adjustment at the elementary school.

Gender, an important factor, though not academically related displayed some difference: Female participants showed lesser ADD-like characteristics in comparison to their male counterparts. This observation is worth prompting novel research that will pin down the relationship gender has with ADD-like characteristics and academic performance. It was not a good idea, though, to have ADD-like behavior as a single measure (averaging on 3). Future studies should avoid such a situation as it constitutes a limitation to the study.

To conclude, this study should form the basis of pro-activeness to people affected by ADD, and by all organs of governance concerned with the wholesomeness of individuals. Indeed, the findings of the study that ADD-like characteristics may contribute to academic failure or may be a sign of development of ADD should aid in making sure that there is early intervention and treatment to those who display such warning signs at an early age, most likely in elementary schooling. Young persons with ADD-like behaviors would also benefit greatly by being encourage to join support groups such as “electronic support groups” found in social sites as indicated by Gajaria, Yeung and Goodale (2011).

References

Gajaria, A., Yeung, E., & Goodale, T. (2011). Beliefs about attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and response to stereotypes: Youths postings in facebook groups. Journal of Adolescent Health, 49, 15-20.

Howell, D. C., Huessy, H. R., & Hassuk, B. (1985). Fifteen-year follow-up of a behavioral history of attention deficit disorder. Pediatrics, 76(2), 185-190.

Table 1: Means (SD), Variances and Ranges for ADD-Like Behavior Score, IQ Score and GPA in 9th Grade (N=216)