PREFACE

The Yuan Dynasty 元朝

When the Song dynasty came to an end, there had been years of turmoil caused by the Jurchen–Song wars at the beginning of the 13th century in northern China. They pitted the Jurchen Jin dynasty 金朝 (1115–1234) against the Han Chinese Song dynasty. The Mongol–Jin Wars were subsequently fought between the Mongols, led by Genghis Khan (c.1162–1227), and the Jurchen Jin. They lasted over 23 years and gave the Mongols control of Manchuria and northern China. By the last quarter of the 13th century the Han Chinese Song dynasty was in turmoil after a quick succession of emperors – Gongzong 恭宗, who came and went in the same year, 1275, then Duanzong 端宗, who reigned between 1276–1277, and finally Di Bing 帝昺 from the period 1278–1279. As a result, the Mandate of Heaven was invoked (see p47) with Kublai Khan gaining the title of Great Khan in 1260 and declaring the Yuan dynasty in 1271, which was to last until 1368. However, it was not until 1279 that Khan managed to conquer and unite the whole of China. The Song imperial family surrendered in 1276 and the final strongholds capitulated in quick succession. A decisive naval battle at Yamen 厓門 in present-day Guangdong 廣東 was won by the Mongols in March 1279. Kublai ruled as Emperor of a united China from 1279 to 1294.

Kublai Khan continued to use the systems of administration put in place by previous generations and also those of the conquered Jin dynasty, which had itself adopted the centralised system of tax collection and control over the population. The scholars or literati who had filled the positions of court officials and administrators in the past lost their positions of power, and those who had held out the longest against the invading Mongols were actively discriminated against in what used to be Southern Song territory. This meant that many of the abandoned literati retreated from public life to paint and practise the art of calligraphy using their surroundings as inspiration. Landscapes, flower and bird paintings that referred back to the Song dynasty were popular. But some artists dared to use painting to make political comments under the guise of Buddhist or Daoist beliefs. Scholars would gather ostensibly to discuss poetry and to paint, but these meetings quickly became political.

TOP LEFT: Portrait of Kublai Khan, Emperor Yuan Taizong 元太宗 (1271–1294), Yuan dynasty

(1271–1368). Album leaf. By kind permission of the National Palace Museum.

BOTTOM LEFT: Yuan artist paints consort, departing for the frontier to marry Chanyu 單

于 Huhanye 呼韓邪 (Xiongnu 匈奴 Empire). In a version of the ‘Four Beauties’ legend it is said that Wang Zhaojun 王昭君 left her hometown on horseback to journey to the north. On her way she became very sad and played sad melodies on a stringed instrument, the pipa 琵琶. A flock of geese heard her playing and it is said that they forgot to flap their wings and fell out of the sky. Ever since, she has been known by her nickname ‘fallen geese’ (luoyan 落雁). By kind permission of the National Palace Museum.

TOP RIGHT & LOWER RIGHT: Portrait of Empress Yuan Shizu 元世祖 and Empress Yuan Shunzong 元順宗, Yuan dynasty (1271–1368). Album leaf. The head ornament is known as ‘an aunt crown’

(Mongolian pronunciation). The Mongol tribe was one of the largest ethnic minorities in China and the headdress, made of two pieces of birch bark and red silk was called a Gugu Guan 罟罟冠. It was popular at the inner Mongol court just as the liang batou 兩把頭 and the qitou 旗頭 were popular in the Qing dynasty under Manchurian rule. The headdress was restricted to the Mongol elite and no Han woman wore it. By kind permission of the National Palace Museum.

This was a period of tremendous creativity, with some of the literati becoming artisans to escape the purges, despite having previously had little regard for those who worked with their hands. In contrast, the Mongols had a high regard for the skill of craftsmen and encouraged artisanal work by exempting them from certain obligations to the state. It is thought that their admiration stems from their own lack of artisans within the Mongol culture. As a nomadic people, it wouldn’t have been possible for artisans to travel with all the materials and tools required to perform their craft. As a way to pass on their oral traditions, as well as a form of entertainment, the Mongols were great enthusiasts of the theatre and under the Yuan dynasty theatre flourished. A theatre was even built in the palace compound in the new capital Daidu 大都 (present-day Beijing 北京).

The Mongols’ traditional nomadic lifestyle was perhaps one of the reasons for their eventual downfall. There was indecision among many in their ranks about the type of life they wanted to lead – that of China’s Imperial Court or that of their forebears on the Steppes. It was only accentuated by Kublai Khan’s decision to make Beijing their capital, distancing them even further from their homeland.

The Mongols were a formidable people and, after conquering Russia in 1241, they reached Europe. However, for whatever reason, they did not stay long before returning to their homelands. On their way back, the Mongolic peoples dispersed, with some deciding to stay on in Russia and the Crimea. Setting up trading relationships with middlemen in Genoa, Pisa and Venice, they helped to complete the Silk Road, which ran from China through to Europe.

‘International trade in the early decades of the fourteenth century had become more regular, and proper merchants, not just adventurers, were making a living by frequenting the most remote market places in Beijing and Quanzhou 泉州 (Zaiton).’ Nicola di Cosmo

Slavery was rampant in China under the Mongols, which was exacerbated by collective punishment. If the head of a Chinese family was arrested or executed, all female members of his family – mother, wife and daughters – were sold into slavery, often as prostitutes. With trading routes established, many slaves found their way to Europe and it was not uncommon to find Chinese slaves in European cities in the 14th century. With the founding of the ensuing Ming dynasty, slavery was officially banned, although the laws proved greatly ineffective.

BELOW: A Tribute of a Mastiff Dog 貢獒圖, Yuan dynasty (1271–1368). By kind permission of the National Palace Museum.

TOP RIGHT: Kublai Khan Hunting by Liu Guandao 劉貫道, Yuan dynasty (1271–1368). Hanging scroll, ink and colours on silk.

The figure wearing a red coat in the centre on a black horse is probably Kublai Khan. By kind permission of National Palace Museum.

BOTTOM RIGHT: Painting of two horses by Zhao Mengfu 趙孟頫. Yuan dynasty (1271–1368). Scroll. By kind permission of the National

Palace Museum.