Suzani

SUZANI ART OF THE SILK ROAD

ERBER JACKETCOVER_FINAL_01122025.indd 1

17/12/2025 12:58

Contents

Suzani: Art of the Silk Road © 2025 Hali Publications Ltd. © for the texts Dietlinde and Christian Erber, Penny Oakley, Katja Schmitz-von Ledebur, Eleanor Sims, Markus Voigt All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or used in any form or by any means – photographic, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, taping or information storage and retrieval systems – without permission of the publishers.

Published and produced by Hali Publications Ltd., 6 Sylvester Path, London E8 1EN, United Kingdom www.hali-publications.com

On the Nature of Collecting Katja Schmitz-von Ledebur

6

Scenes in the Life of a Collecting Couple Dietlinde and Christian Erber

9

Acknowledgements Dietlinde and Christian Erber

13

History and Trade

14

Personal Reflections on Suzanis and Suzani Collectors Markus Voigt

16

A Brief History of the Suzani-producing Region Penny Oakley

28

Trade Routes and Potential Design Influences Penny Oakley

36

info@hali.com Design by Misha Anikst British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data: a catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library ISBN 9781898113898 Cover: Suzani border fragment, no. 65 The study of the textiles featured in this publication was based on high-resolution photographs

The Suzanis

44

Introduction to Suzanis Penny Oakley

46

A Note on Dating Markus Voigt

67

Catalogue Penny Oakley

68

Motifs and Stitches

356

Birds and Other Creatures Hidden in Flowering Gardens Eleanor Sims

358

To the Point Christian Erber

362

Bibliography

372

Appendix

378

Contents

Suzani: Art of the Silk Road © 2025 Hali Publications Ltd. © for the texts Dietlinde and Christian Erber, Penny Oakley, Katja Schmitz-von Ledebur, Eleanor Sims, Markus Voigt All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or used in any form or by any means – photographic, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, taping or information storage and retrieval systems – without permission of the publishers.

Published and produced by Hali Publications Ltd., 6 Sylvester Path, London E8 1EN, United Kingdom www.hali-publications.com

On the Nature of Collecting Katja Schmitz-von Ledebur

6

Scenes in the Life of a Collecting Couple Dietlinde and Christian Erber

9

Acknowledgements Dietlinde and Christian Erber

13

History and Trade

14

Personal Reflections on Suzanis and Suzani Collectors Markus Voigt

16

A Brief History of the Suzani-producing Region Penny Oakley

28

Trade Routes and Potential Design Influences Penny Oakley

36

info@hali.com Design by Misha Anikst British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data: a catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library ISBN 9781898113898 Cover: Suzani border fragment, no. 65 The study of the textiles featured in this publication was based on high-resolution photographs

The Suzanis

44

Introduction to Suzanis Penny Oakley

46

A Note on Dating Markus Voigt

67

Catalogue Penny Oakley

68

Motifs and Stitches

356

Birds and Other Creatures Hidden in Flowering Gardens Eleanor Sims

358

To the Point Christian Erber

362

Bibliography

372

Appendix

378

Rovnoye

Krasnyy Kut

Oral

Akhtubinsk

R u s s i a

Astrakhan'

Svetlograd

Nevinnomyssk

rokhladnyy

Nal'chik

Beslan

South Ossetia

Karaton

Kazalinsk

Nukus Khujayli

Stepan Razin

Khanaqin

Ilam

Kermanshah Borujerd

Arak

Kuhdasht

Aligudarz

Andimeshk Dezful

An Nasiriyah

Izeh

Sabzevar

Soltanabad

Fariman Kashmar

Kashan

I r a n

Faridan

Tagtabazar

Juymand

Tayyebat Qayen

Gorian

Herat

Afghanistan nd

Pul-i-Alam

a

Taiwara Ardakan

Kabul

Shindand Birjand

lm He

Ghazni

Hotan

Panj

Chah-e Ab

Khorog Mazar

Feyzabad

Kangxiwar

Gilgit Gilgit

Pakistan

Asadabad

Saidu

Jalalabad

Bamian Panjab

Yecheng Pishan

Pol-e Khomri

Charikar

Karokh

C h i n a

Shule

Tajikistan

Baghlan

Sar-e Pol

Qaleh-ye Now Chaghcharan

Kashi

Daroot-Korgon

Taloqan

Meymaneh

Torbat-e Heydariyeh

Fergana

Kunduz

Mazar-e Sharif

Mashhad

Tabas

Nain

Esfahan

Shaartuz

Torbat-e Jam

Ferdows Boshruyeh

Najafabad

Yoloten

Saragt

Andijon Osh

Kulob

Qurghonteppa

Aqchah

Aksu

Kyrgyzstan

Nau Ura Tyube

Bayramaly Andkhvoy

Neyshabur

Semnan

Varamin

Golpayegan

Shahr-e Kord

Gorgan

Kaakhka

im Tar

Mardan

Tangi

Peshawar Wah Hangu Rawalpindi

Gardiz

Khost

d In

us

Ind u

s

Skardo

Muzaffarabad

Srinagar Islamabad C Gujar Khan

Jhelum Gujrat

Rutog

Ind u

he

na

b

India

Jammu Pathankot

s

27 Shiquanhe

Su

gge

26 Shush

Sari

Farij Quchan

Mary Tedzhen

Kuqa

Sen

Iraq

Qom

Malayer

Khorramabad

Al Kut

Tehran

Robat Karim

Darreh Gaz

Minudasht

Babol

Karaj

a

Sanandaj

Bojnurd

Kokand Quqon

Dushanbe

Shahrisabz

Guzar

ary

Qazvin

uD

As Sulaymaniyah

Zanjan

Ashgabat

Karakol

Kochkorka

Dzhirgatal

Qarshi Kitab

Am

Chardzhou

Gonbad-e Kavus

ria

Kattakurgan

Kizyl-Arvat

Rasht

Khavast Jizzakh Khujand

Navoi

Bukhara Samarkand

Bandar-e Anzali Sowma eh Sara

Nurata

a

Tu r k m en i s ta n

Lankaran

Dargan-Ata

a rd Sy

Neftcala

Ysyk-Kol

Merke

Namangan

Piskent

Narynkol

Naryn

Tashkent

ary

Orumiyeh

Turkmenbashy

Astara

Ardabil

Dzhambul Shymkent

Khiva

uD

Tabriz

Kuytu

Kol'zhat

Almaty

Bishkek

Arys

Urganch

Tashauz

Ali-Bayramly

Masalli

Blagoveshchenka

Uzbeki stan

Takhiatash

Am

Khvoy

Ili

Kizil-Tal

Qyzylorda

Chimbay

Xankandi Yerevan Ganca NagornoAzerbaijan Sumqayit Karabakh Baku Agdam Imisli Fuzuli s ak Calilabad Ar

Bole

Yining

Kungrad

Oguz

Xankandi

Shihe

Usu

Chiili

Caspian Sea

Xacmaz

Druzhba

Lake Balkhash

Dzhusaly

Aral Sea

Aqtau

Karamay

Taldyqorghan

ria

Qusar

Lepsi

Novokazalinsk

Derbent

Rustavi

NaxcivanAzerb.

K a z a k h s t a n

a rd Sy

Tbilisi

Toli

Balqash

Saryshaghan

Makhachkala

Tacheng Emin

Zhezqazghan

Aral

Kaspiysk

Armenia Vanadzor Hrazdan

gdir

U

North Aral Sea

Kizlyar

Gori

Dmanisi

Kul'sary

Beyneu

Groznyy

K'ut'aisi

Georgia

Zhezqazghan

Kaspiyskiy

Mozdok

Taskesken

Shalqar

Makat

Atyrau

Kamyzyak

Pyatigorsk

Zaysan

Ayagoz Zhayrang

Dossor

Zyryanovsk

Oskemen

Kaynar

Emba

Kharabali

Elista Ipatovo

Semey

Georgiyevka

nj

Gigant

Rakhmanov Bulaqtary

Qaraghandy

Shakhtinsk

Turgay

Temir

s

Pa

Tselina

Saran

Arqalyq

Oktyabr'

Oktyabr'

Kotel'nikovo

Astana Temirtau

Oktyabr'

Leninogor

Irt y

t

a

Oktyabr'

Algha

Gornyak

Ekibastuz

Svetlyy

Dombarovskiy

Aqtobe l Ura

Vo lg

n Do Tsimlyansk

Atbasar Isim

Yasnyy

Orsk

Akbulak

Volzhskiy

Yesil'

Novotroitsk

Dubovka

Volgograd

Shakhty

Novouzensk

Nikolayevsk

Dzhetygara

Energetik

Gay

Sol'Iletsk

Zmeinogorsk

Zhetiqara

ka n

Don

Saraktash

Orenburg

Kamyshin

Log Millerovo Kamensk-Shakhtinskiy

hashuri

Perevolotskiy

Ya r

Mikhaylovka

Pervomaysk

Ozinki

Rovnoye

Krasnyy Kut

Oral

Akhtubinsk

R u s s i a

Astrakhan'

Svetlograd

Nevinnomyssk

rokhladnyy

Nal'chik

Beslan

South Ossetia

Karaton

Kazalinsk

Nukus Khujayli

Stepan Razin

Khanaqin

Ilam

Kermanshah Borujerd

Arak

Kuhdasht

Aligudarz

Andimeshk Dezful

An Nasiriyah

Izeh

Sabzevar

Soltanabad

Fariman Kashmar

Kashan

I r a n

Faridan

Tagtabazar

Juymand

Tayyebat Qayen

Gorian

Herat

Afghanistan nd

Pul-i-Alam

a

Taiwara Ardakan

Kabul

Shindand Birjand

lm He

Ghazni

Hotan

Panj

Chah-e Ab

Khorog Mazar

Feyzabad

Kangxiwar

Gilgit Gilgit

Pakistan

Asadabad

Saidu

Jalalabad

Bamian Panjab

Yecheng Pishan

Pol-e Khomri

Charikar

Karokh

C h i n a

Shule

Tajikistan

Baghlan

Sar-e Pol

Qaleh-ye Now Chaghcharan

Kashi

Daroot-Korgon

Taloqan

Meymaneh

Torbat-e Heydariyeh

Fergana

Kunduz

Mazar-e Sharif

Mashhad

Tabas

Nain

Esfahan

Shaartuz

Torbat-e Jam

Ferdows Boshruyeh

Najafabad

Yoloten

Saragt

Andijon Osh

Kulob

Qurghonteppa

Aqchah

Aksu

Kyrgyzstan

Nau Ura Tyube

Bayramaly Andkhvoy

Neyshabur

Semnan

Varamin

Golpayegan

Shahr-e Kord

Gorgan

Kaakhka

im Tar

Mardan

Tangi

Peshawar Wah Hangu Rawalpindi

Gardiz

Khost

d In

us

Ind u

s

Skardo

Muzaffarabad

Srinagar Islamabad C Gujar Khan

Jhelum Gujrat

Rutog

Ind u

he

na

b

India

Jammu Pathankot

s

27 Shiquanhe

Su

gge

26 Shush

Sari

Farij Quchan

Mary Tedzhen

Kuqa

Sen

Iraq

Qom

Malayer

Khorramabad

Al Kut

Tehran

Robat Karim

Darreh Gaz

Minudasht

Babol

Karaj

a

Sanandaj

Bojnurd

Kokand Quqon

Dushanbe

Shahrisabz

Guzar

ary

Qazvin

uD

As Sulaymaniyah

Zanjan

Ashgabat

Karakol

Kochkorka

Dzhirgatal

Qarshi Kitab

Am

Chardzhou

Gonbad-e Kavus

ria

Kattakurgan

Kizyl-Arvat

Rasht

Khavast Jizzakh Khujand

Navoi

Bukhara Samarkand

Bandar-e Anzali Sowma eh Sara

Nurata

a

Tu r k m en i s ta n

Lankaran

Dargan-Ata

a rd Sy

Neftcala

Ysyk-Kol

Merke

Namangan

Piskent

Narynkol

Naryn

Tashkent

ary

Orumiyeh

Turkmenbashy

Astara

Ardabil

Dzhambul Shymkent

Khiva

uD

Tabriz

Kuytu

Kol'zhat

Almaty

Bishkek

Arys

Urganch

Tashauz

Ali-Bayramly

Masalli

Blagoveshchenka

Uzbeki stan

Takhiatash

Am

Khvoy

Ili

Kizil-Tal

Qyzylorda

Chimbay

Xankandi Yerevan Ganca NagornoAzerbaijan Sumqayit Karabakh Baku Agdam Imisli Fuzuli s ak Calilabad Ar

Bole

Yining

Kungrad

Oguz

Xankandi

Shihe

Usu

Chiili

Caspian Sea

Xacmaz

Druzhba

Lake Balkhash

Dzhusaly

Aral Sea

Aqtau

Karamay

Taldyqorghan

ria

Qusar

Lepsi

Novokazalinsk

Derbent

Rustavi

NaxcivanAzerb.

K a z a k h s t a n

a rd Sy

Tbilisi

Toli

Balqash

Saryshaghan

Makhachkala

Tacheng Emin

Zhezqazghan

Aral

Kaspiysk

Armenia Vanadzor Hrazdan

gdir

U

North Aral Sea

Kizlyar

Gori

Dmanisi

Kul'sary

Beyneu

Groznyy

K'ut'aisi

Georgia

Zhezqazghan

Kaspiyskiy

Mozdok

Taskesken

Shalqar

Makat

Atyrau

Kamyzyak

Pyatigorsk

Zaysan

Ayagoz Zhayrang

Dossor

Zyryanovsk

Oskemen

Kaynar

Emba

Kharabali

Elista Ipatovo

Semey

Georgiyevka

nj

Gigant

Rakhmanov Bulaqtary

Qaraghandy

Shakhtinsk

Turgay

Temir

s

Pa

Tselina

Saran

Arqalyq

Oktyabr'

Oktyabr'

Kotel'nikovo

Astana Temirtau

Oktyabr'

Leninogor

Irt y

t

a

Oktyabr'

Algha

Gornyak

Ekibastuz

Svetlyy

Dombarovskiy

Aqtobe l Ura

Vo lg

n Do Tsimlyansk

Atbasar Isim

Yasnyy

Orsk

Akbulak

Volzhskiy

Yesil'

Novotroitsk

Dubovka

Volgograd

Shakhty

Novouzensk

Nikolayevsk

Dzhetygara

Energetik

Gay

Sol'Iletsk

Zmeinogorsk

Zhetiqara

ka n

Don

Saraktash

Orenburg

Kamyshin

Log Millerovo Kamensk-Shakhtinskiy

hashuri

Perevolotskiy

Ya r

Mikhaylovka

Pervomaysk

Ozinki

A Brief History of the Suzani-producing Region

have been little more than raiding expeditions. The Manghit emirs of Bukhara regularly attacked Shakhrisyabz, but were usually repulsed, so they just destroyed the crops and went away again, leaving a legacy of malnutrition in the area.9 It remains to be seen if this Manghit-Keneges contest has any relevance to the suzani story, but the high status of the Keneges leadership and their possible involvement in suzani production should perhaps be borne in mind.

The warring barons formed only the small but powerful nucleus of society, but they seemed able to whip up huge armies at short notice. But rather than actually vanquishing a foe, much of the conflict in the region seems to have run to little more than raids and skirmishes, with the prospect of profitable loot usually the prime stimulus.

However, the dominant event of the 19th century was the Russian conquest, which caught the rulers of Transoxiana unawares. The Russians had proceeded slowly at first, following a policy of advance, stop, consolidate, make a plausible excuse for the relevant misdemeanour, then advance again.

The Central Asian khans had little concept of the power of Tsarist Russia, nor the dangers posed by her disciplined modern armies. Their habitual adversaries were from their own world. These rulers could have offered a much more successful defence had they cooperated to form a united front. But, instead of supporting a neighbour-state in time of peril, they were far more likely to attack it while it was distracted by defending itself from the Russians. Even frontiers were not fully understood, in the sense of a finite border marked on a map, so they tended to be fluid. The natural barriers of desert and mountain range usually sufficed.

Initially, Russian ambitions in Transoxiana seem to have been limited to establishing a defined frontier bordering the steppe, and to expanding her trade in the area. It has been said that the conquest was propelled by Russian industrial capitalists eager to establish a wider market for their products, but this seems to

4 4 Main entrance into Shakh-i Zindeh mosque. Samarkand, photograph by Sergei Mikhailovich ProkudinGorskii, ca. 1905–1915. Library of Congress, Prints & Photographs Division, Prokudin-Gorskii Collection, LC-DIG-ppem-02129

their exile in Tashkent (on Bukharan pensions at the behest of the Russians), and thought highly of Jura Beg, but less of Baba Beg.12 James Pickett mentions that 500 Shakhrisyabz households were forcibly moved to Bukhara city and to Charjui by the emir of Bukhara, contrary to Russian orders.13 Might this be relevant to the movement of suzani designs and motifs from place to place?

Business apart, there was little interaction between the local population and the

have been Leninist propaganda. It appears to be more that ministers in St

Russians, whose new settlements were usually near the old cities, but separate. A

Petersburg, distanced from the situation, were encouraged by the war-hawks in

high proportion of the recent Russian arrivals were workers in the new factories or

the military high command. More importantly, successive tsars, with an eye to

on the railway. Given their lowly status, they would have been more susceptible to

imperial prestige, were very set on the idea and not to be deterred.10

the socialist, anti-monarchist doctrines of the Russian Revolution in 1917, which

Events moved fast after the fall of Tashkent in 1865. Bukhara surrendered in 1868 and by doing so was allowed to retain its local autonomy as a protectorate,

might explain the violence of the ensuing upheavals in Transoxiana.14 It was once thought that Russia conquered Central Asia only to get at its cotton

unlike those that resisted. Jizzakh and Ura Tube fell in 1866, and Kokand also

plantations, as American supplies dried up during the Civil War (1861–65).

became a protectorate, but was absorbed into the Russian empire in 1876. In 1873,

However, the Central Asian cotton of the day was unsuitable for Russian looms,

Khiva became a protectorate too.

and the quality improved sufficiently only following the introduction of American

11

The Keneges leaders Jura Beg and Baba Beg yielded to Russian troops and

seed long after the conquest.15

Shakhrisyabz was handed back to the emir of Bukhara in 1870. The American

Little changed in Central Asia until the coming of the railways—‘the Devil’s

scholar, diplomat and explorer Eugene Schuyler got to know them both during

carriage’, to use the local description. Goods could now be transported more

32

33

A Brief History of the Suzani-producing Region

have been little more than raiding expeditions. The Manghit emirs of Bukhara regularly attacked Shakhrisyabz, but were usually repulsed, so they just destroyed the crops and went away again, leaving a legacy of malnutrition in the area.9 It remains to be seen if this Manghit-Keneges contest has any relevance to the suzani story, but the high status of the Keneges leadership and their possible involvement in suzani production should perhaps be borne in mind.

The warring barons formed only the small but powerful nucleus of society, but they seemed able to whip up huge armies at short notice. But rather than actually vanquishing a foe, much of the conflict in the region seems to have run to little more than raids and skirmishes, with the prospect of profitable loot usually the prime stimulus.

However, the dominant event of the 19th century was the Russian conquest, which caught the rulers of Transoxiana unawares. The Russians had proceeded slowly at first, following a policy of advance, stop, consolidate, make a plausible excuse for the relevant misdemeanour, then advance again.

The Central Asian khans had little concept of the power of Tsarist Russia, nor the dangers posed by her disciplined modern armies. Their habitual adversaries were from their own world. These rulers could have offered a much more successful defence had they cooperated to form a united front. But, instead of supporting a neighbour-state in time of peril, they were far more likely to attack it while it was distracted by defending itself from the Russians. Even frontiers were not fully understood, in the sense of a finite border marked on a map, so they tended to be fluid. The natural barriers of desert and mountain range usually sufficed.

Initially, Russian ambitions in Transoxiana seem to have been limited to establishing a defined frontier bordering the steppe, and to expanding her trade in the area. It has been said that the conquest was propelled by Russian industrial capitalists eager to establish a wider market for their products, but this seems to

4 4 Main entrance into Shakh-i Zindeh mosque. Samarkand, photograph by Sergei Mikhailovich ProkudinGorskii, ca. 1905–1915. Library of Congress, Prints & Photographs Division, Prokudin-Gorskii Collection, LC-DIG-ppem-02129

their exile in Tashkent (on Bukharan pensions at the behest of the Russians), and thought highly of Jura Beg, but less of Baba Beg.12 James Pickett mentions that 500 Shakhrisyabz households were forcibly moved to Bukhara city and to Charjui by the emir of Bukhara, contrary to Russian orders.13 Might this be relevant to the movement of suzani designs and motifs from place to place?

Business apart, there was little interaction between the local population and the

have been Leninist propaganda. It appears to be more that ministers in St

Russians, whose new settlements were usually near the old cities, but separate. A

Petersburg, distanced from the situation, were encouraged by the war-hawks in

high proportion of the recent Russian arrivals were workers in the new factories or

the military high command. More importantly, successive tsars, with an eye to

on the railway. Given their lowly status, they would have been more susceptible to

imperial prestige, were very set on the idea and not to be deterred.10

the socialist, anti-monarchist doctrines of the Russian Revolution in 1917, which

Events moved fast after the fall of Tashkent in 1865. Bukhara surrendered in 1868 and by doing so was allowed to retain its local autonomy as a protectorate,

might explain the violence of the ensuing upheavals in Transoxiana.14 It was once thought that Russia conquered Central Asia only to get at its cotton

unlike those that resisted. Jizzakh and Ura Tube fell in 1866, and Kokand also

plantations, as American supplies dried up during the Civil War (1861–65).

became a protectorate, but was absorbed into the Russian empire in 1876. In 1873,

However, the Central Asian cotton of the day was unsuitable for Russian looms,

Khiva became a protectorate too.

and the quality improved sufficiently only following the introduction of American

11

The Keneges leaders Jura Beg and Baba Beg yielded to Russian troops and

seed long after the conquest.15

Shakhrisyabz was handed back to the emir of Bukhara in 1870. The American

Little changed in Central Asia until the coming of the railways—‘the Devil’s

scholar, diplomat and explorer Eugene Schuyler got to know them both during

carriage’, to use the local description. Goods could now be transported more

32

33

Introduction to Suzanis

between intentional symbolism and what might have become merely traditional decorative motifs. However, as fertility symbols and for protection against the Evil Eye, the talismanic and defensive elements of the designs appear to have retained their importance. Among a largely illiterate populace, the ‘magical’ aspects of the old superstitions seem still to have been well entrenched in Central Asian society.

The border of any carpet, suzani or other artefact signifies the Gate of Heaven, the portal to the Gardens of Paradise to which all Muslims aspire on their demise. The field represents these gardens, and often has a repeat that appears to continue endlessly beneath it, thus representing God’s limitless omnipotence. A frame, the border, appears to have been dropped randomly over an unending design and is often slightly asymmetrical, but this only enhances the sense of infinity.

Some suzanis, more often from the Shakhrisyabz area, have an inner and/or outer border guard repeat of small trefoils or spearheads alternating with tiny knops or buds. This is like a mystical protective palisade: facing outwards, it repels any evil, and looking inwards it keeps the goodness in. The in-and-out border, usually of flowers on undulating vines and leaves, is a variant of this

9 9 Embroidered floorspread, Mughal India, 18th century. LACMA, M.79.9.6, From the Nasli and Alice Heeramaneck Collection, Museum Associates Purchase

weave, which tended to wear away to leave the paler cotton lining showing through. The richness of the silk background made a striking foil for the vibrant colours of the embroidery.

Embroidery and stitches

concept. The Evil Eye was a very real danger in the eyes of the suzani world, and

All embroidery was in silk, apart from occasional small details in vermillion wool

even today it is still alive and well in many societies.

(shol). Apparently imported from India, this fine wool was used only sparingly,

The pomegranate, with its three identifying tufts, is a universal symbol of fertility, and thus appropriate for nuptial embroideries, and is depicted in many shapes

probably because it would have been expensive after all the transport costs and multiple taxes and customs dues it had accrued along the way.

and sizes. Some are highly visible, overt symbols of fertility, while others are more

The two stitches that differentiate the suzani family are basma and kanda khayöl.

discreet and harder to detect. It is shown in profile either complete or split open

Both are variants of single thread couching, and done in one operation, unlike the

to reveal the seeds within, thus emphasising the reference to fertility.

Turkish atma, which involved three separate stages.66 Basma was preferred in

Certain flower species also carry their own meanings, but they are usually

most suzani areas, but also occurs on the earliest Turkmen embroidered

stylised beyond recognition to comply with the Muslim ban on depicting living

asmalyks,67 which suggests some sort of link, either through geographical

things. This was observed more strictly by Sunnis, who predominated in

proximity, related local workshops, or just a shared preference. It was rarely used

Central Asia.

in Shakhrisyabz, where kanda khayöl predominated and is often cited as a clue to

It is thought that some designs represent the moon (the Tashkent palak) or the sun (the large medallion suzani), although some or all may have had other origins.

attribution. Kanda khayöl was used in other regions too, but only sparingly for details. A looser laid and couched stitch, more like atma, is found very occasionally on suzanis.68

Materials

With basma, a strand of silk is laid across a pattern section, and then couched

The background fabric of suzanis was usually a white cotton known as baz, boz or

down at regular intervals with the same thread, roughly at right angles, creating

karboz, which was handwoven locally in narrow strips about 12 in (30 cm) wide.

a textured effect not unlike basket work. On some examples it can be exquisitely

Latterly, Russian-manufactured cotton was often preferred—usually a twill

fine. Kanda khayöl is similarly worked, but the couching stiches are longer and lie

resembling modern curtain lining. All-silk ikat or silk-and-cotton ikat was used

almost parallel with the laid thread, creating a smoother, more lustrous surface.

occasionally, sometimes with spectacular results.65

Chain-stitch was also popular in its various forms, including tambour work (iroqi)

Some of the so-called ‘Lakai’ embroideries were worked on plain silk in a variety of colours, but often purple or yellow. This was usually a fine, lightweight tabby

62

which was done on a frame with a fine hook and was much quicker. Strangely, given that cross-stitch was used prolifically in the suzani region for caps, belts

63

Introduction to Suzanis

between intentional symbolism and what might have become merely traditional decorative motifs. However, as fertility symbols and for protection against the Evil Eye, the talismanic and defensive elements of the designs appear to have retained their importance. Among a largely illiterate populace, the ‘magical’ aspects of the old superstitions seem still to have been well entrenched in Central Asian society.

The border of any carpet, suzani or other artefact signifies the Gate of Heaven, the portal to the Gardens of Paradise to which all Muslims aspire on their demise. The field represents these gardens, and often has a repeat that appears to continue endlessly beneath it, thus representing God’s limitless omnipotence. A frame, the border, appears to have been dropped randomly over an unending design and is often slightly asymmetrical, but this only enhances the sense of infinity.

Some suzanis, more often from the Shakhrisyabz area, have an inner and/or outer border guard repeat of small trefoils or spearheads alternating with tiny knops or buds. This is like a mystical protective palisade: facing outwards, it repels any evil, and looking inwards it keeps the goodness in. The in-and-out border, usually of flowers on undulating vines and leaves, is a variant of this

9 9 Embroidered floorspread, Mughal India, 18th century. LACMA, M.79.9.6, From the Nasli and Alice Heeramaneck Collection, Museum Associates Purchase

weave, which tended to wear away to leave the paler cotton lining showing through. The richness of the silk background made a striking foil for the vibrant colours of the embroidery.

Embroidery and stitches

concept. The Evil Eye was a very real danger in the eyes of the suzani world, and

All embroidery was in silk, apart from occasional small details in vermillion wool

even today it is still alive and well in many societies.

(shol). Apparently imported from India, this fine wool was used only sparingly,

The pomegranate, with its three identifying tufts, is a universal symbol of fertility, and thus appropriate for nuptial embroideries, and is depicted in many shapes

probably because it would have been expensive after all the transport costs and multiple taxes and customs dues it had accrued along the way.

and sizes. Some are highly visible, overt symbols of fertility, while others are more

The two stitches that differentiate the suzani family are basma and kanda khayöl.

discreet and harder to detect. It is shown in profile either complete or split open

Both are variants of single thread couching, and done in one operation, unlike the

to reveal the seeds within, thus emphasising the reference to fertility.

Turkish atma, which involved three separate stages.66 Basma was preferred in

Certain flower species also carry their own meanings, but they are usually

most suzani areas, but also occurs on the earliest Turkmen embroidered

stylised beyond recognition to comply with the Muslim ban on depicting living

asmalyks,67 which suggests some sort of link, either through geographical

things. This was observed more strictly by Sunnis, who predominated in

proximity, related local workshops, or just a shared preference. It was rarely used

Central Asia.

in Shakhrisyabz, where kanda khayöl predominated and is often cited as a clue to

It is thought that some designs represent the moon (the Tashkent palak) or the sun (the large medallion suzani), although some or all may have had other origins.

attribution. Kanda khayöl was used in other regions too, but only sparingly for details. A looser laid and couched stitch, more like atma, is found very occasionally on suzanis.68

Materials

With basma, a strand of silk is laid across a pattern section, and then couched

The background fabric of suzanis was usually a white cotton known as baz, boz or

down at regular intervals with the same thread, roughly at right angles, creating

karboz, which was handwoven locally in narrow strips about 12 in (30 cm) wide.

a textured effect not unlike basket work. On some examples it can be exquisitely

Latterly, Russian-manufactured cotton was often preferred—usually a twill

fine. Kanda khayöl is similarly worked, but the couching stiches are longer and lie

resembling modern curtain lining. All-silk ikat or silk-and-cotton ikat was used

almost parallel with the laid thread, creating a smoother, more lustrous surface.

occasionally, sometimes with spectacular results.65

Chain-stitch was also popular in its various forms, including tambour work (iroqi)

Some of the so-called ‘Lakai’ embroideries were worked on plain silk in a variety of colours, but often purple or yellow. This was usually a fine, lightweight tabby

62

which was done on a frame with a fine hook and was much quicker. Strangely, given that cross-stitch was used prolifically in the suzani region for caps, belts

63

Circle in the Centre

6 Suzani Probably Bukhara area 196 × 287 cm Probably second half 19th century EDC 76

This suzani is a typical example of the so-called large-

descendant—probably at several removes from the

medallion type, a distinctive group with huge central

original—of a patchwork or of an appliqué panel?

lozenges and fiery, kaleidoscopic designs that have

The proposal that these bizarre suzanis were tomb

baffled art historians for decades. The sun and the

covers now makes more sense. Both the high cost of

moon have both been suggested as their inspiration,

the unusually thick silk embroidery thread, and its

as well as possible roots in the earlier arts of the steppe.

generous use, imply a special purpose for them,

However, there may be a more mundane solution to

perhaps for an important tomb, shrine or mausoleum.

the puzzle.

Valuable textiles were used in the Islamic world as

They divide roughly into ‘cool’ and ‘hot’ types. A lot of the white background is visible on the former, thus

sarcophagus covers for the elite, often in several layers.

Kashmir shawls were luxury items and status

cooling the heat from the medallion. The embroidery

symbols, so the remains of damaged pieces may well

on the latter covers most of the field so that, with its

have been reused on something as significant as a

layers of vivid oranges and reds, it seems to radiate

tomb cover. A large-medallion suzani in Berlin even has

heat, like a furnace. On the ‘cool’ type, the medallion is

a Kashmiri boteh in the upper left-hand field.1

always hexagonal, or nearly so, and this example and

If they were tomb covers, they were probably just one

some others have spiked finials that echo the designs of

stage in a series of replacements. This might explain

Ottoman velvet yastıks, and some rugs.

the evolution away from something long forgotten

The background of the medallion is of contiguous, cusped, concentric circles in alternate shades of cerise-

that was perhaps initially more conventional.

The central disc is the Axis Mundi in cross-section

pink and orange, as is the norm for the whole

so, in this form, the tiny middle spot represents the

large-medallion group. It creates a sense of blazing,

portal to Paradise through which the soul of the

pulsating colour. Laid over this, the skeleton of the

deceased would pass. Corroborating this theory, each

design is formed by one vertical and one horizontal

suzani is bristling with protective symbols, as if to

barber’s-pole stripe bordered by tiny urns or trefoils. Two

make sure that the soul was well guarded en route to

more bands, set diagonally, are edged either with pairs

the next world. Here, this roundel is surrounded by

of outward-facing leaves or with foliar kotchak, or ram’s

inward-facing protective ram’s horns, to keep the

horn, motifs—all protective devices. Each strip, like a

goodness in, and many of the motifs in the field are

patterned ribbon, runs from side to side beneath the

also defensive.

central disc. This combination forms an eight-point star,

The medallion itself is fringed by what appear to be

indicating the points of the compass, with a

vicious teeth—of wolves perhaps? These face outwards,

superimposed circle representing the world axis.

to repel any evil, and form a formidable barrier. The

Additional vertical bands resemble the bias-cut strips

corner flowers are microcosms of the main medallion,

of striped Kashmir or Kerman shawl-cloth that were

as back-up, and they too are surrounded by defences, in

used to bind the edges of decorative textile panels. They

the form of pointed trefoils and more teeth. Overall, the

might even be copied from the printed cotton

imagery presents quite a bastion of protection against

imitations sometimes seen on suzanis, which would put

any evils that might be targeting the departing soul.

this large-medallion type firmly in the second half of the 19th century. Many of the smaller sections are like scraps of differently patterned cloth, including a chequerboard repeat. So are we looking at a

86

1. Museum für Islamische Kunst, Berlin, BA (Leihgabe J.-R.-Becher Archiv Berlin) and Helmecke 2009, p. 19, no. 1.

87

Circle in the Centre

6 Suzani Probably Bukhara area 196 × 287 cm Probably second half 19th century EDC 76

This suzani is a typical example of the so-called large-

descendant—probably at several removes from the

medallion type, a distinctive group with huge central

original—of a patchwork or of an appliqué panel?

lozenges and fiery, kaleidoscopic designs that have

The proposal that these bizarre suzanis were tomb

baffled art historians for decades. The sun and the

covers now makes more sense. Both the high cost of

moon have both been suggested as their inspiration,

the unusually thick silk embroidery thread, and its

as well as possible roots in the earlier arts of the steppe.

generous use, imply a special purpose for them,

However, there may be a more mundane solution to

perhaps for an important tomb, shrine or mausoleum.

the puzzle.

Valuable textiles were used in the Islamic world as

They divide roughly into ‘cool’ and ‘hot’ types. A lot of the white background is visible on the former, thus

sarcophagus covers for the elite, often in several layers.

Kashmir shawls were luxury items and status

cooling the heat from the medallion. The embroidery

symbols, so the remains of damaged pieces may well

on the latter covers most of the field so that, with its

have been reused on something as significant as a

layers of vivid oranges and reds, it seems to radiate

tomb cover. A large-medallion suzani in Berlin even has

heat, like a furnace. On the ‘cool’ type, the medallion is

a Kashmiri boteh in the upper left-hand field.1

always hexagonal, or nearly so, and this example and

If they were tomb covers, they were probably just one

some others have spiked finials that echo the designs of

stage in a series of replacements. This might explain

Ottoman velvet yastıks, and some rugs.

the evolution away from something long forgotten

The background of the medallion is of contiguous, cusped, concentric circles in alternate shades of cerise-

that was perhaps initially more conventional.

The central disc is the Axis Mundi in cross-section

pink and orange, as is the norm for the whole

so, in this form, the tiny middle spot represents the

large-medallion group. It creates a sense of blazing,

portal to Paradise through which the soul of the

pulsating colour. Laid over this, the skeleton of the

deceased would pass. Corroborating this theory, each

design is formed by one vertical and one horizontal

suzani is bristling with protective symbols, as if to

barber’s-pole stripe bordered by tiny urns or trefoils. Two

make sure that the soul was well guarded en route to

more bands, set diagonally, are edged either with pairs

the next world. Here, this roundel is surrounded by

of outward-facing leaves or with foliar kotchak, or ram’s

inward-facing protective ram’s horns, to keep the

horn, motifs—all protective devices. Each strip, like a

goodness in, and many of the motifs in the field are

patterned ribbon, runs from side to side beneath the

also defensive.

central disc. This combination forms an eight-point star,

The medallion itself is fringed by what appear to be

indicating the points of the compass, with a

vicious teeth—of wolves perhaps? These face outwards,

superimposed circle representing the world axis.

to repel any evil, and form a formidable barrier. The

Additional vertical bands resemble the bias-cut strips

corner flowers are microcosms of the main medallion,

of striped Kashmir or Kerman shawl-cloth that were

as back-up, and they too are surrounded by defences, in

used to bind the edges of decorative textile panels. They

the form of pointed trefoils and more teeth. Overall, the

might even be copied from the printed cotton

imagery presents quite a bastion of protection against

imitations sometimes seen on suzanis, which would put

any evils that might be targeting the departing soul.

this large-medallion type firmly in the second half of the 19th century. Many of the smaller sections are like scraps of differently patterned cloth, including a chequerboard repeat. So are we looking at a

86

1. Museum für Islamische Kunst, Berlin, BA (Leihgabe J.-R.-Becher Archiv Berlin) and Helmecke 2009, p. 19, no. 1.

87

Lattices

33 Suzani Probably Shakhrisyabz 168 × 245 cm Late 19th–early 20th century EDC 10

The lattice has come a long way from the possibly court-inspired designs on earlier suzanis and, though recognisably from the same design sources as the classic Shakhrisyabz, the style has altered over the years. The leaves in the lattice, each with only one serrated side, enclose an interesting variety of floral and vegetal motifs, including the ubiquitous pomegranate which is depicted in several different ways.

The main borders carry the familiar floral roundels, each enclosed by a pair of foliar stems, alternating with the two types of quincunx, the so-called ‘four-and-one’ formation. One has the usual four flowers, and the other the quartet of small palmettes, which is sometimes likened to a lamp with four fire-bowls.

Hexagonal red stars—three in the border and one in the field—all have three pale-blue, lobed petals attached to the outer edges which alternate with others in purple or a pale-yellowish cream. The outlines of the stars and of the inner petals on a few of the flowers are in alternating black and white, or other contrasting combinations. These are often associated with the so-called ‘Lakai’ suzanis, and with the small nomadic embroideries which can be more confidently attributed to this community. The narrow guard stripes are in red and white, also in the ‘Lakai’ manner. These ‘Lakai’ suzanis are generally thought to have a connection with the Shakhrisyabz region.

182

183

Lattices

33 Suzani Probably Shakhrisyabz 168 × 245 cm Late 19th–early 20th century EDC 10

The lattice has come a long way from the possibly court-inspired designs on earlier suzanis and, though recognisably from the same design sources as the classic Shakhrisyabz, the style has altered over the years. The leaves in the lattice, each with only one serrated side, enclose an interesting variety of floral and vegetal motifs, including the ubiquitous pomegranate which is depicted in several different ways.

The main borders carry the familiar floral roundels, each enclosed by a pair of foliar stems, alternating with the two types of quincunx, the so-called ‘four-and-one’ formation. One has the usual four flowers, and the other the quartet of small palmettes, which is sometimes likened to a lamp with four fire-bowls.

Hexagonal red stars—three in the border and one in the field—all have three pale-blue, lobed petals attached to the outer edges which alternate with others in purple or a pale-yellowish cream. The outlines of the stars and of the inner petals on a few of the flowers are in alternating black and white, or other contrasting combinations. These are often associated with the so-called ‘Lakai’ suzanis, and with the small nomadic embroideries which can be more confidently attributed to this community. The narrow guard stripes are in red and white, also in the ‘Lakai’ manner. These ‘Lakai’ suzanis are generally thought to have a connection with the Shakhrisyabz region.

182

183

Endless Repeat

49 Suzani Ura Tube (?)

184 × 238 cm Second half 19th century EDC 26

Despite an even more complex pattern, there is more

Several stems from the field have erred into the

logic to the design of this second deconstructed trellis

border, giving a false sense of continuity. The border is,

than on no. 48. The concave diamond or lozenge from

in fact, more conventional than the field, with the

the Herati pattern has been turned sideways, so it

arachnoid flowers and cartwheel blossoms alternating

resembles a shaped square, which now has a spidery

on discernibly undulating vines and leaves. The corner

flower at each corner. The yellow and blue centre of each

solutions in the border are all the same, and well

one can be seen more clearly here to be a pomegranate in

executed, a feature more usually associated with

the style of the embroidered Jodhpur tentage.1

Persia, and quite rare on suzanis. As in no. 48, there are

Arranged in offset rows between these flowers are multicoloured floral candelabra reminiscent of fuchsia

no minor borders, just narrow red lines to separate the two areas.

blossoms, similar to those on no. 48, and also of Indian inspiration, as seen on the floor-spread in LACMA.2 Some of the spidery flowers have become cartwheels,

1. See footnotes for no. 48.

2. LACMA, M.79.9.6.

and act as fillers between the main motifs. The eccentric pirouettes of the leaves and stems add a feminine vivacity to an already hyperactive creation.

230

231

Endless Repeat

49 Suzani Ura Tube (?)

184 × 238 cm Second half 19th century EDC 26

Despite an even more complex pattern, there is more

Several stems from the field have erred into the

logic to the design of this second deconstructed trellis

border, giving a false sense of continuity. The border is,

than on no. 48. The concave diamond or lozenge from

in fact, more conventional than the field, with the

the Herati pattern has been turned sideways, so it

arachnoid flowers and cartwheel blossoms alternating

resembles a shaped square, which now has a spidery

on discernibly undulating vines and leaves. The corner

flower at each corner. The yellow and blue centre of each

solutions in the border are all the same, and well

one can be seen more clearly here to be a pomegranate in

executed, a feature more usually associated with

the style of the embroidered Jodhpur tentage.1

Persia, and quite rare on suzanis. As in no. 48, there are

Arranged in offset rows between these flowers are multicoloured floral candelabra reminiscent of fuchsia

no minor borders, just narrow red lines to separate the two areas.

blossoms, similar to those on no. 48, and also of Indian inspiration, as seen on the floor-spread in LACMA.2 Some of the spidery flowers have become cartwheels,

1. See footnotes for no. 48.

2. LACMA, M.79.9.6.

and act as fillers between the main motifs. The eccentric pirouettes of the leaves and stems add a feminine vivacity to an already hyperactive creation.

230

231

SUZANI ART OF THE SILK ROAD

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