Sultanate of Oman

From the Foreword by His Highness as-Sayyid Haitham bin Tarik al-Said Minister of Heritage and Culture, Chairman of the Board of Trustees of the National Museum, Sultanate of Oman

THE NATIONAL MUSEUM SULTANATE OF OMAN

We strived to establish an institution par excellence for education and community outreach, and for scientific and historical research. Above all, we strived to create a memorable and authentic experience for Omanis, residents and visitors alike.

THE

NATIONAL MUSE UM SULTANATE OF OMAN

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CO N T EN TS

Text and photography unless otherwise credited © 2019 The National Museum, Sultanate of Oman

ROYAL ADDRESS

This edition © 2019 Scala Arts & Heritage Publishers Ltd

HIS MA JESTY SULTAN QABOOS BIN SAID

First published in 2019 by Scala Arts & Heritage Publishers Ltd 10 Lion Yard Tremadoc Road London SW4 7NQ, UK www.scalapublishers.com

PREFACE

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HIS HIGHNESS AS-SAYYID FAHD BIN MAHMOUD AL-SAID

In association with the National Museum, Sultanate of Oman This publication was made possible by the Board of Trustees of the National Museum

FOREWORD

With special thanks to His Highness as-Sayyid Haitham bin Tarik al-Said, Minister of Heritage and Culture – Chairman of the Board of Trustees of the National Museum

HIS HIGHNESS AS-SAYYID HAITHAM BIN TARIK AL-SAID

For the National Museum, Sultanate of Oman: Director-General: Jamal al-Moosawi Head of Publications Unit: Shurooq Najwani Head of Curatorial Unit: Mouza al-Wardi Head of Conservation Unit: Khoula al-Wahaibi Graphic Designer: Amna al-Bulushi Photographer: Saleh al-Ruzaiqi For Scala Arts & Heritage Publishers Ltd: Project Editor: Susan Millership Design: Matthew Wilson and Will Webb Printed and bound in China Hardback edition: ISBN 978-1-78551-084-7 Slipcased edition: ISBN 978-1-78551-230-8

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INTRODUCTION 14 MIKHAIL PIOTROVSKY, DIRECTOR, THE STATE HERMITAGE MUSEUM, MEMBER OF THE BOARD OF TRUSTEES OF THE NATIONAL MUSEUM

PART 1 / THE BUILDING

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the written permission of the National Museum, Sultanate of Oman and Scala Arts & Heritage Publishers Ltd. Every effort has been made to acknowledge correct copyright of images where applicable. Any errors or omissions are unintentional and should be notified to the Publisher, who will arrange for corrections to appear in any reprints.

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A TANGIBLE EXPRESSION OF 20 MODERN OMANI CHARACTER JAMAL AL-MOOSAWI, DIRECTOR-GENERAL OF THE NATIONAL MUSEUM EDITED BY TONY COYLE

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PART 2 / THE COLLECTIONS GALLERY №1: THE LAND AND THE PEOPLE 60 GALLERY №2:

MARITIME HISTORY 94

GALLERY №3:

ARMS AND ARMOUR 112

GALLERY №4:

CIVILISATION IN THE MAKING 134

GALLERY №5: AFLĀ J 158 GALLERY №6: CURRENCY 174 GALLERY №7:

BAT, AL-KHUTM AND AL-AYN 196

GALLERY №8: THE LAND OF FRANKINCENSE 204 GALLERY №9: PREHISTORY AND ANCIENT HISTORY 218 GALLERY №10: SPLENDOURS OF ISLAM 258 GALLERY №11: OMAN AND THE WORLD 296 GALLERY №12: THE RENAISSANCE 366 GALLERY №13: INTANGIBLE HERITAGE 388

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS AND PICTURE CREDITS

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ROYA L A D D RESS

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MAN, THROUGHOUT ITS LONG HISTORY, HAS CONTRIBUTED TO THE BUILDING OF HUMAN CIVILISATION, A CONTRIBUTION THAT IS UNIVERSALLY ACKNOWLEDGED AND RENOWNED. THE STRATEGIC LOCATION OF THIS COUNTRY, THE LIVELY SPIRIT THAT TOOK OMANIS TO ALL CORNERS OF THE WORLD – SAILING THE SEAS, FACING THE DANGERS, EXPLORING NEW HORIZONS AND REACHING OUT TO OTHER PEOPLES WITH THEIR TRADITIONS AND CULTURES – ALL THESE FACTORS HAD A LASTING EFFECT ON THE CIVILISATION THAT WAS BUILT BY OUR FOREFATHERS AND SUCCEEDING GENERATIONS. THIS CIVILISATION IS NOW A LIVING HERITAGE, EMBODYING AND REFLECTING THE SAGA OF OUR HISTORY AND THE DEEP-ROOTED

His Majesty Sultan Qaboos bin Said at the inauguration of the Omani Museum, 17 November 1974 CE.

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RICHNESS OF THE OMANI EXPERIENCE.

HIS MAJESTY SULTAN QABOOS BIN SAID OMAN’S 24TH NATIONAL DAY, 18 NOVEMBER 1994 CE

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PREFAC E

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MAN’S BRIGHT PRESENT IS INEXTRICABLY LINKED TO ITS MAJESTIC PAST, WHICH HAS WITNESSED ITS PIONEERING ROLE IN THE SPREADING OF KNOWLEDGE AND UNDERSTANDING AND BUILDING THE BRIDGES OF COMMUNICATION WITH ALL PAST HUMAN CIVILISATIONS. IT IS MY HONOUR TO PRESIDE OVER THE INAUGURATION OF THE NATIONAL MUSEUM. THIS INSTITUTION EMBODIES THE INTEREST HELD BY HIS MAJESTY SULTAN QABOOS BIN SAID – MAY ALLAH PRESERVE HIM – IN THE DISPLAY OF THE OMANI CIVILISATION’S MILESTONES AND ITS ETERNAL HERITAGE THAT HAS BEEN HANDED DOWN BY OUR FOREFATHERS ACROSS HISTORY AND ULTIMATELY CROWNED BY ALL OF THE ACHIEVEMENTS OF THE MODERN RENAISSANCE, BY VIRTUE OF THE ENLIGHTENED LEADERSHIP OF HIS MAJESTY.

THIS CULTURAL INSTITUTION WILL TAKE AN ACTIVE ROLE IN THE DISSEMINATION OF KNOWLEDGE ABOUT THE HISTORY OF THIS NATION AND ITS RENAISSANCE. FOR THIS WE MUST EXPRESS OUR GRATITUDE AND APPRECIATION TO HIS HIGHNESS AS-SAYYID HAITHAM BIN TARIK AL-SAID, MINISTER OF HERITAGE AND CULTURE, THOSE RESPONSIBLE WITHIN THAT MINISTRY, MEMBERS OF THE BOARD OF TRUSTEES, AND ALL THE GENEROUS CITIZENS WHO HAVE CONTRIBUTED BY DONATING ARTEFACTS IN ORDER TO PERFECT THIS GREAT ACHIEVEMENT. WE PRAY TO THE ALMIGHTY LORD TO BLESS ALL THOSE IN SERVICE OF THIS MAJESTIC NATION, FOR IT IS BY ALLAH’S GRACE THAT WE SUCCEED.

HIS HIGHNESS AS-SAYYID FAHD BIN MAHMOUD AL-SAID DEPUTY PRIME MINISTER FOR THE COUNCIL OF MINISTERS, ON THE OCCASION OF THE OFFICIAL INAUGURATION OF THE NATIONAL MUSEUM, 14 DECEMBER 2015 CE

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F O RE WO RD

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HE JOURNEY OF THE NATIONAL MUSEUM TOOK ITS FIRST STEPS IN THE EARLY 1970s CE, WHEN HIS MAJESTY SULTAN QABOOS BIN SAID EXPRESSED HIS VISION OF A FLAGSHIP REPOSITORY OF OMAN’S CULTURAL HERITAGE. DECADES OF PLANNING ENSUED, GROWING FROM TENTATIVE DISCUSSIONS TO DRAWN UP PLANS. GRADUALLY, THIS VISION TRANSFORMED INTO A REMARKABLE REALITY IN WHICH WE TAKE IMMENSE PRIDE.

THE PLANNING, DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF THE MUSEUM WE SEE TODAY INVOLVED AN ENORMOUS NUMBER OF MOVING PARTS. EXPERTS FROM OMAN AND AROUND THE WORLD CONVENED BOTH IN THE SULTANATE AND ABROAD TO BEGIN CREATING SOMETHING WE KNEW TO BE AMBITIOUS. WE STRIVED TO ESTABLISH AN INSTITUTION PAR EXCELLENCE FOR EDUCATION AND COMMUNITY OUTREACH, AND FOR SCIENTIFIC AND HISTORICAL RESEARCH. ABOVE ALL, WE STRIVED TO CREATE A MEMORABLE AND AUTHENTIC EXPERIENCE FOR OMANIS, RESIDENTS AND VISITORS ALIKE.

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That experience tells the story of our nation. It reaches far back into its prehistory, leading us seamlessly into the present day culminating in Oman’s glorious Renaissance. It explores the many facets of Oman: its illustrious maritime history, its glorious architectural heritage, the trade in frankincense, the ingenious aflāj irrigation systems and the indelible mark left by the blessed advent of Islam to our nation. Developed in line with the highest international museum practices, the National Museum is a manifestation of decades of archaeological discoveries and historical research, told from a uniquely Omani perspective. Oman, after all, is a synthesis of its rich cultural heritage of bold seafarers, enterprising merchants and grand visionaries. Each of these elements, and many more, form an enduring part of the fabric of Oman.

Similarly, the National Museum’s structure itself is enduring. Situated opposite the Qasr al-’Alam Palace in historic Muscat, the soul of our nation’s capital, its clean and bold lines convey that perfect blend of traditional and contemporary aesthetics that has become Oman’s hallmark. It is within these walls – and beyond – that we will continue to carry our vision, to become a leading Omani museum institution and to set a benchmark for the museums industry in the Sultanate.

The official opening of the National Museum took place on 14 December 2015 CE, as part of the nation’s celebration of the 45th National Day, under the auspices of His Highness as-Sayyid Fahd bin Mahmoud al-Said, Deputy Prime Minister for the Council of Ministers.

As Chairman of the Board of Trustees, I would like to express my heartfelt gratitude to my fellow members of the Board of Trustees, for their wisdom and guidance, and to the project team for their diligence and dedication, all of which has been invaluable in transforming this vision into a reality.

HAITHAM BIN TARIK AL-SAID MINISTER OF HERITAGE AND CULTURE, CHAIRMAN OF THE BOARD OF TRUSTEES OF THE NATIONAL MUSEUM, SULTANATE OF OMAN

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FO R E W O R D

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I N T RO D U C T I O N

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ITH ITS ROOTS IN ANCIENT HISTORY, THE PORT CITY OF MUSCAT IS THE CAPITAL OF THE SULTANATE OF OMAN. ONE OF THE KEY PIONEERING VISITORS TO MUSCAT, PRIOR TO THE PORTUGUESE AND OTHER EUROPEAN TRAVELLERS, WAS THE RENOWNED RUSSIAN MERCHANT AND ADVENTURER AFANASY NIKITIN. IN 1468 CE, NIKITIN CELEBRATED EASTER IN MUSCAT, SHOWING THE LEVEL OF RELIGIOUS TOLERANCE THAT PREVAILED IN OMAN AT THE TIME. NIKITIN WAS AN IMPORTANT FIGURE IN ESTABLISHING THE CITY IN TRADE BETWEEN HIS HOMELAND AND INDIA USING MUSCAT FOR WAREHOUSING AND STORAGE. THE PORT’S NAME FOUND ITS WAY INTO THE VOCABULARY OF RUSSIAN MERCHANT S WHO COINED THE WORD ‘MUSCATWARE’ TO GENERALLY DESCRIBE THE EXOTIC GOODS THAT FLOWED TO EUROPE FROM THE EAST THROUGH TRADE. LONG BEFORE THAT MUSCAT HAD EARNED A REPUTATION AS A TRADING HUB BETWEEN EAST AND WEST. A CRUCIAL AND RESPECTED MEDIATOR IN MIDDLE EAST CONFLICTS, OMAN ITSELF IS KNOWN IN THE GULF FOR ITS STABILITY. THE SULTANATE’S RICH AND EVENTFUL HISTORY IS SHOWCASED BY THE NATIONAL MUSEUM, HOUSED IN AN ELEGANT WHITE STONE BUILDING, WHOSE ARCHITECTURE IS A FUSION OF TRADITIONAL IBADI ISLAM AND BRITISH ACCURACY.

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In common with Muscat itself, the Museum promotes peaceful coexistence between diverse cultures and civilisations. It reminds the visitor that it was through Omani lands that the first travellers made their way from Africa to Asia. The copper mines of Oman’s ancient civilisation of Magan produced metal for Mesopotamian civilisations. The round towers and mausoleums of Oman became famous over the centuries. Omani incense and myrrh became known far and wide for its quality. Goods from India passed through Oman’s ports to Arabia, Persia and Egypt.

For centuries, Oman held a vital role in land and seaborne trade. Traditional Omani vessels, or dhows, became an emblem of the Arabian Gulf and its navigation. It was in Oman that the most sophisticated Arabian vessels were built and the legendary Sindbad the sailor was said to have been born there. There was much business rivalry, the Greeks made an attempt to take over the lucrative Arabian monopoly of seaborne trade. In the 16th century CE, the Portuguese tried to take over. After driving them out, Omani rulers created a maritime empire of their own, which in the 17th to 19th centuries CE expanded from the western coast of the Indian subcontinent to the Island of Zanzibar, spanning much of East and Central Africa, and the Gulf region.

Omanis were leaving traces of their cultural heritage everywhere: in architecture, clothing, customs and language.

This period of time is reflected in a remarkable gallery dedicated to the Land and the People of Oman, which is the heart of the Museum. Ancient exhibits include traditional jewellery and artefacts made of carved wood. Silver daggers, gunpowder horns, women’s and men’s jewellery all give an account of ancient and more recent times, of both former and current ruling dynasties which united Omani lands, protecting and liberating them from the domination of foreign powers.

Special emphasis is put on the al-Busa’id Dynasty that established the current state: a centre of stability and diplomacy not just in Arabia, but across the whole of the Middle East.

An early, rough sketch for the Museum, made on a scrap piece of paper by British designer Jasper Jacob on a visit to Muscat in July 2005 CE. It shows a quite different building than the one we see today. Here the ceremonial entrance is dominated by three arches of equal height, while the main body of the Museum is surmounted by a large hemispherical dome, recalling – unintentionally – the Beit al-Amaan Museum in Zanzibar.

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I N T RO D U C T I O N

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ABOVE The Qasr al-’Alam Palace

in the harbour of historical Muscat, surrounded by al-Jalali and al-Mirani (seen right) forts.

The Museum can just be seen on the far left of the photograph.

ABOVE RIGHT His Highness as-Sayyid Fahd bin Mahmoud al-Said, right, looks at artifacts displayed at the Museum during its inauguration ceremony, December 14, 2015 CE.

COMMON ABBREVIATIONS FOUND IN THE BOOK:

The story of this influence is narrated through everyday items and artworks from Arabia, Iran, India, Iraq, Syria, the African and European continents, and the Far East.

Founded in 2013 CE, the Museum opened to the public in 2016.

Using state-of-the-art technologies and techniques, the Museum offers its visitors an audio-visual theatre, discovery areas for children, a learning centre and conservation laboratories. The Museum was also the first in the Middle East to incorporate Arabic Braille into its texts.

The Land of Frankincense Gallery is fitted with a sensory device that diffuses the aroma of incense. The gallery dedicated to Intangible Heritage lets visitors examine traditional musical instruments whilst listening to musical genres and watching traditional dances on interactive screens.

The Sultanate of Oman takes immense pride in its magnificent National Museum, a flagship cultural institution that powerfully sets out the rich and exotic history of Oman as well as the Sultanate’s role in the Gulf today as peacemaker and a bastion of stability.

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MIKHAIL PIOTROVSKY DIRECTOR, THE STATE HERMITAGE MUSEUM MEMBER OF THE BOARD OF TRUSTEES OF THE NATIONAL MUSEUM

M I K H A I L P I OT RO VS KY

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PESTLE AND MORTAR Sumhuram (Dhofar Governorate) Limestone and granite 200–300 CE (Iron Age) Actual size

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AFLĀ J

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PICKAXES Diba (Musandam Governorate) Origin: Iran Bronze 1200–800 BCE (Iron Age)

HOES ‘Uqdat al-Bakrah, ar-Rub’ al-Khali (ad-Dhahirah Governorate) Bronze 1300–600 BCE (Iron Age)

T RA D I T I O N A L TO O LS A N D T E C H N I Q U E S

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– MANAGEMENT OF AFL A J SYSTEMS – FALA J ENGINEERING

Afla–j (singular falāj) systems of water management use gravity and gradient to convey water from a source to various points of use.

Depending on the terrain, a single falāj can run for many kilometres, requiring the construction of aqueducts, tunnels, ventilation shafts and other elaborate feats of engineering.

The first part of a falāj carries water from the mother well (u–mm al-falāj) to the first surface exit (shari’a), where drinking water is collected. The water then continues its journey onward to mosques, through residential sectors and finally to palm groves and cultivated fields.

The word falāj derives from an ancient Semitic root meaning ‘small river’, ‘running water’, ‘groove’ or ‘canal’. It also means ‘division’, which aptly describes the traditional sharing of precious water resources.

Oman’s falāj systems are categorised into three main types, depending on their source: fed by underground reservoirs (da–u–dī), spring-fed (‘ainī) and fed by surface water or wadi (valley) flows resulting from rain (ghailī).

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AFLĀ J

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MANUSCRIPT (AL-AZĪZI FALAJ LOG) Author: Rabi’ah bin Majid bin Suleiman al-Kindi Seiq Town, al-Jabal al-Akhdar (ad-Dakhiliyah Governorate) Ink on paper 8 Rajab 1308 AH/February 1891 CE

M A N AG E M E N T O F A F L Ā J SYST E M

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TR ADE EMPIRES 906–1214 AH/1500 –1800 CE THE PORTUGUESE EMPIRE 912–1059 AH/1507–1650 CE

In 912 AH/1507 CE, the Portuguese, under the command of General Afonso de Albuquerque, seized control of Muscat. They used their maritime skill and superior ships to dominate trade across the Arabian Sea. Significantly, they also introduced their own distinctive coinage.

The Portuguese soon took control of the main trade routes around the Arabian Gulf and established a presence in India. Despite competition from Persia and the Ottoman Turks, the Portuguese maintained control of Muscat and beyond for over a century and built a large number of forts to defend their possessions, including Fort al-Jalali and Fort al-Mirani in Muscat which can still be seen today.

THE INDIAN (ÍNDIO)

CRUZADO

al-Hallaniyah Island (Dhofar Governorate)

al-Hallaniyah Island (Dhofar Governorate)

Issued by Manuel I, the Fortunate

Issued by Dom Manuel I, the Fortunate

Minted in Lisbon, Kingdom of Portugal and the Algarves

Minted in Lisbon, Kingdom of Portugal and the Algarves

Silver

Gold

905 AH/1499 CE (Kathiri Sultanate)

900–907 AH/1495–1501 CE (Kathiri Sultanate)

Actual size

Actual size

Following the historic return of Vasco da Gama’s first voyage to India in 905 AH/1499 CE, King Manuel I of Portugal and the Algarves ordered the mintage of the Indian (índio) coin to support trade with India. There are only two recovered coins of this mintage in the world. The first is held in the National Historical Museum of Brazil in Rio de Janeiro. The second coin was recovered from the wreck of the Esmeralda off Oman. (The Esmeralda shipwreck had lain undisturbed at the bottom of the ocean since 909 AH/1503 CE until it was discovered in 1435 AH/2013 CE.) The índio coin salvaged from the Esmeralda was compared to the one in Brazil by using a CT scan, and then authenticated by João Pedro Vieira, Curator of Coins and Paper Money with the Bank of Portugal.

The reverse side of the coin bears the cross of the Military Order of Christ, the personal insignia of King Manuel I. The Latin legend inscribed is i hoc sig o vi ces, which means ‘In this sign you will conquer’.

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OTHER SILVER COINS MARIA THERESA THALER

Other silver currency circulated in Oman during the 12th–13th centuries AH/ 18th–19th centuries CE included Ottoman coins, Indian rupees and Charles VI thalers. However, none of these rivaled the Maria Theresa thaler for high silver content and trustworthiness.

Thalers of Emperor Charles VI, the predecessor of Maria Theresa, made their way to Oman and circulated on a much smaller scale. Silver coins issued by the Ottoman Turks and British Indian rupees were also used and incorporated into Omani jewellery. These were never considered as reliable as the Maria Theresa thaler, which incorporated an embossed motto on the edge that deterred ‘clipping’, a fraudulent practice where silver was shaved off the edges of coins. This ensured that the Maria Theresa thaler maintained its value.

MARIA THERESA THALERS Issued by Empress Maria Theresa Minted in Habsburg Empire (modern-day Austria and Hungary) Silver 1154 AH/1742 CE (al-Yarubi Dynasty) Actual size

Silver thalers bearing the portrait of the Habsburg Empress Maria Theresa were first struck in Austria in 1153 AH/1741 CE. Their consistently pure silver content and intricate design meant that they were highly valued and difficult to counterfeit.

Millions of thalers were issued with the same design long after the death of the Empress in 1193 AH/1780 CE. This trusted currency was used across the Middle East, from Egypt and the Red Sea to the Arabian Gulf, and remained in circulation in Oman until the 14th century AH/20th century CE.

LEOPOLD I THALER Issued by Emperor Leopold I Minted in Habsburg Empire (modern-day Austria and Hungary) Silver 1102–06 AH/1691–94 CE (al-Yarubi Dynasty) Actual size

OT H E R S I LV E R CO I N S

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OMAN AND THE MIDDLE EAST 1214–1400s AH/1800 –1900s CE IMPERIAL MONEY

European expansion was at its height during the 13th century AH/19th century CE when the British took control of India, followed a century later by the European scramble for Africa. The British East India Company had been established in 1009 AH/ 1600 CE to pursue trade with the Indian subcontinent and beyond. The company quickly evolved into larger colonies covering a significant part of the subcontinent with posts at Surat in 1020 AH/1612 CE, Madras (Chennai) in 1048 AH/1639 CE, Bombay (Mumbai) in 1078 AH/1668 CE and Calcutta (Kolkata) in 1101 AH/1690 CE. By the 13th century AH/19th century CE, the company accounted for half of the world’s trade particularly for basic commodities such as cotton, silk, salt and tea.

In 1250 AH/1835 CE, uniform coinage was introduced for the company’s Indian possessions. Later, the British Empire in India produced similar coins that were widely used in Oman.

When Germany and Britain started claiming territories in Africa, they signed a treaty in 1303 AH/1886 CE to agree which lands they would exclusively pursue.

Germany claimed the coast of modern-day Tanzania while Britain claimed the area that includes modern-day Kenya and Uganda. Both countries established trading companies, the British and German East Africa Companies respectively, which issued their own coins. The coins were widely used within the Sultanate of Zanzibar and many found their way to Sultanate of Muscat and Oman.

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1-RUPEE COIN Issued by King William IV Minted by the East India Company (British-India) Silver 1250 AH/1835 CE (Sultanate of Oman and Zanzibar) Actual size

1-RUPEE COIN Issued by Queen Victoria Minted by the East India Company (British-India) Silver 1255 AH/1840 CE (Sultanate of Oman and Zanzibar) Actual size

1-RUPEE COIN Issued by King Edward VII Imperial Issue (British-India) Silver 1320 AH/1903 CE (Sultanate of Muscat and Oman) Actual size

1-RUPEE COIN Issued by Emperor Wilhelm II (German Empire) Silver 1322–23 AH/1905 CE (Sultanate of Muscat and Oman) Actual size

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From the Foreword by His Highness as-Sayyid Haitham bin Tarik al-Said Minister of Heritage and Culture, Chairman of the Board of Trustees of the National Museum, Sultanate of Oman

THE NATIONAL MUSEUM SULTANATE OF OMAN

We strived to establish an institution par excellence for education and community outreach, and for scientific and historical research. Above all, we strived to create a memorable and authentic experience for Omanis, residents and visitors alike.

THE

NATIONAL MUSE UM SULTANATE OF OMAN