Mountains and lowlands

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͉͇͆ ̷ A fertile valley within the southern Zagros Mountains © Wolfgang Kaehler/Corbis

This book is intended to provide students and the general reader with an introduction to the archaeological and political histories of Iran and Mesopotamia (modern Iraq and eastern Syria) in the period 6000 bc–ad 650, that is, from a time when the entire region had become the home to scattered farming, fishing, and herding communities to its conquest by Arab armies and the introduction of Islam. Many previous studies as well as museum exhibitions have tended to explore Mesopotamia’s achievements with an eye on the Mediterranean world, often as part of a search for the foundations of Western civilisation. This book, however, looks eastwards from the Mesopotamian lowlands and westwards from the plateau of Iran, using as its axis the great Zagros Mountain chain – stretching from the Taurus range in the north to the head of the Persian Gulf and then further to the south-east – that both connects and separates the two areas (fig.1). The aim is to shift the focus away from an emphasis on Mesopotamia as the source of all cultural developments and to acknowledge the active influence of Iran – and indeed to suggest that the extraordinary accomplishments of the ancient Near East would not have been possible without the long history of tension and collaboration between the inhabitants of the uplands and of the lowlands.

The essential differences between Iran and Mesopotamia are that the former was rich in a wide variety of resources such as stones, metals, and wood but the rugged nature of the landscape meant that only a limited number of areas were suitable for intensive settlement and these were irregularly distributed.

In contrast, Mesopotamia was rich in limited, but fundamental, resources with fertile soils, wide plains, and easy communication (fig.2). The story that unfolds here is the result of the complex interplay between the populations of these two regions and their utilisation of their different resources.

The Zagros was a permeable membrane rather than a barrier, but, even before modern political borders were imposed (the present border between Iraq and Iran has its origins in a treaty of 1639 between the Ottoman and Safavid Empires), invisible boundaries existed between the populations of the mountains and those of the plains in the form of cultural differences – languages, religions, forms of production, and lifestyles as well as social and political organisations. However, the routes through the mountains that brought materials such as lapis lazuli and copper, and animals such as horses, from Iran to Mesopotamia were also networks that facilitated the spread of meanings, values, ideas, technologies, and people in both directions.

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͉͇͆ ̸̹ Siltstone ‘Two-dog’ palette, from Hierakonpolis, Egypt, c.3200–3100 bc, ht. 42.5 cm, AN1896–1908 E.3924 © Ashmolean Museum, University of Oxford

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͉​͉ ͆͒͏͍ ͖͉͌​͇͌́ͅ ͔͏ ͉͔͙̓ ̶̼​̶​̶Ȳ̶̹​̶​̶ ͂̓

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͉​͉͖ ͖ )͒͏͍ .͉͎͇̈́͏͍ ͔͏ (͍͉͐͒ͅ ) ͒ ͏͍ . ͉͎͇̈́͏͍ ͔ ͏ (͍͉͐͒ͅ ̷​̷̶̻​̶Ȳ̶̻​̶ ͂̓ ̶̻​̶Ȳ Ȳ̶̻​̶ ͂ ̓ The fact fact that th hat the last last ruler ruler off the ‘Sealand’ ‘Seealand ’ went to Elam might suggest twoo sug gest thatt there were political iff not economic econnomic links links between the tw regions.. In the regions t second halff off the fifteenth century ccentury bc a new dynasty dynasty may have emerged ha ve emerg e in Elam – though as with thee rise off the Kassite ed Kassite dynasty dynasty at Babylon, our Bab ylon, ou ur knowledge knowledge off the end off the sukkalmahs s almahs and the origin off the sukk thhe they new Elamitee rulers rulers is extremely limited. Inn their Akkadian Akkadian inscriptions the ey Ansshan’ while are referred reffeerred to as the ‘king ‘king off Susa and Anshan’ while Elamite texts use the title ‘k inng off Anshan and Susa’. One off the first first Elamite kings kings off this ‘king leave period to lea ave evidence off significant building buildding work work is Tepti-ahar.

Tepti-ahar. He hadd sufficient wealth weealth and workforce workforce to have have an elaborate elaborate mudbrick mudbrick tomb and the t massiv massivee mud mudbrick dbrick terraces terraces off a temple precinct preccinct constructed constructed at Haft T Tepe epe Tepti-ahar about ten kilometres kilometres south-east off Susa. Onn his personal personal seal T epti-ahar describes him himself mselff as king king off Susa and Anzan Anzaan (Anshan) and the servant of Kirwashir Despite these titles it is unclear the gods gods Kir rwashir and Inshushinak.

Inshushinak. Despite unclear iff he was king king off a large large unified state or was instead insttead one ruler ruler among many in a politically fragmented frragmented landscape landscape with Haftt Tepe Tepe as his royal royal centre. One clay clay tablet from expelled tab let fr om the t site is dated to the ‘year ‘year when when the kking ing (Tepti-ahar) (T Tepti-ahar) expell ed Kadashman-KUR.GAL’ which refer K adashman--KUR.GAL’ w hich might ref fer e too the Kassite Kassite king king KadeshmanKadeshmanHarbe I (about (aboout 1410 1410 bc) and, iff correct, would would o suggest suggest that the Kassites Kassites had haad attempted too extend their authority into Susiana.

Suusiana.

By 1400 14 00 bc the K Kassites assites were in control controll off the whole whole off southern southern M Mesopotami Mesopotamia, iia, ruling ruling li from f om Babylon. fr B bylon.

Bab l They Th had h d effectively effectiv ff i ely l createdd a unified ifi d countr countryy which whiich can be described as Babylonia Babylonnia (ma (mapp 4, right) – they called

͉͇͆ ̻̼ ͉͇͆ ̻​̻̼ P Pale ale green limeston limestone ne cylinder seal and moder modernn impression wit with th mountain ggod, od, fish-men, and doub double-headed le-headedd eagles eagles,, c. c.1300 1300 bc,, ht. 4.9 cm, AN1949.899 bc AN1949.899 © Ashmolean Museum, Univ University ersity off Ox Oxford ford

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͍͏͕͎͔͉͎͓́ ͎́̈́ ͌͏͎͓͗͌́̈́ ͎͉͎͔́̓ͅ ͉͎͒́ ͎́̈́ ͍͓ͅ͏͐͏͔͍͉́́ ͍͏͕͎͔ ́ ͉ ͎͓ ͎́̈́ ͌ ͏ ͗͌ ͎͓́̈́ ͎́ ͉̓ͅ ͎͔ ͉ ͒́​͎́ ͎́̈́ ͍ ͅ ͓͏͐͏ ͔͍́ ͉ ́

thheir kingdom their kingdom Karduniash, Karduniash, which whicch is perhaps perhaps derived derived from from a Kassite Kassite a term. term.

A the Kassite As Kassite kings kings extended their thheir authority over over the cities andd tribal groups groups ooff the alluvium they championed, championedd, in the convention convention off all rulers rulerrs with a cclaim l laim to legitimacy, legitimacy, the culture of of Bab Babylonia. ylonia. Indeed, ancient SSumerian umerian and Akkadian A Ak kadian texts were copied in the thhe scribal schools. schools. It is possible possible that Kassite Kassite identity id dentity itselff was used to help establish establish the notion off a unique concept concept of kkingship i hi within ingship i hi southern souther h n Mesopotamia Mesoppotamia i andd this hi helped h l d to reduce reduc d ce the h natural naturall tendency te endency for the region to split into i competing urban centres. centres. The T kings kings allll used Kassite al Kassite names names but, although althoough distinct Kassite Kassite gods gods are referenced reefferenced e in rroyal oyal inscriptions, inscriptions, none off their deities were promoted promoted and all the t traditional traditional B Bab ylonian cults were maintained maintaineed and patronised, patronised, including including at Nippur where where Babylonian the th he abandoned temples were rebuilt rebbuilt on their old foundations. foundations. Among A the ea arliest known known examples off this Kassite Kassite piety is a small temple dedicated d earliest too In ana built at Uruk Uruk by

by King Kara-indash Kara-indash (c.1420 (c.1420 bc). bc). The outer ouuter wall of Inana the th he building was decorated decorated withh baked baked moulded bricks bricks depicting depictinng bearded ggods ods d holding h ldi in i clasped clasped l d hands h d vessels vessels e l from ffrom which whic hi h flow flflow streams t off water. water t .

Comparable C Compar able images images are known known from f om inlays and wall paintings as fr a well as cylinder cy ylinder seals. seals. This example (fig.56) (figg.56) carved carved on a pale green lim limestone mestone cylinder cy ylinder depicts depicts a mountain god, godd, as indicated by by the shape shape and pattern pattern ͉͖ ͉͖ ͆͒͏͍ ͉͎͇͋̈́͏͍ ͔͏ ͍͉͐͒ͅͅ ̷̶̻​̶Ȳ̶̻​̶ ͂̓ ͆͒ ͏͍ ͋ ͉ ͎͇̈́͏͍ ͔ ͏ ͅ ͍͐ ͉ ͒ ͅ ̷ ̶̻​̶Ȳ̶̻​̶ ͂̓

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͍͏͕͎͔͉͎͓́ ͎́̈́ ͌͏͎͓͗͌́̈́ ͎͉͎͔́̓ͅ ͉͎͒́ ͎́̈́ ͍͓ͅ͏͐͏͔͍͉́́

of a man nearly two metres high and measuring a good 66 centimetres across his broad shoulders (fig.98). The figure is completely preserved except for the arms. The head, which was cast separately from the body, depicts a fairly young man with fine moustache, and full hair held in place by a wide band around the head. These features, together with the torque around his neck and his elaborate clothes, suggest that he is an Iranian (perhaps Elymaean) noble.

The economic stability that followed the ending of serious conflicts between Rome and the Arsacids was also reflected in the flourishing transcontinental caravan trade along the Silk Route. Caravans travelling east could start in Roman Antioch, cross the Euphrates at Zeugma and either follow the river south to Seleucia-on-the-Tigris or traverse the Syrian steppe to the Tigris. From the lowlands the caravans followed the traditional routes through the Zagros passes to Ecbatana before crossing the Iranian Plateau and on through Central Asia to Han China. Another important route was by boat from Babylonian ports through the Persian Gulf to India. Trade was in both directions, driven by a growing demand for luxury goods especially silks and muslins, precious stones and pearls, bronzes and glassware, oils, perfumes, and spices.

The importance of this extensive exchange network is demonstrated by the revival of the ancient centres of Nineveh and Assur which flourished again in northern Mesopotamia. The city of Labbana was built on top of the ruins of Assur and included an extensive palace with a central courtyard, dominated on all four sides by a massive, vaulted iwan – a large living room for working and sleeping but also where guests were received. These are distinctive features of Arsacid period palace and temple architecture, as is apparent at Hatra, another rich trading city around 50 kilometres to the west of Assur. Here the architecture and art demonstrates a much clearer fusion of eastern and western traditions: indeed it lay on an important route to the west that ran through the Syrian desert-city of Palmyra. The princes of Hatra were Arabs who were loyal vassals of the Arsacid kings. Unlike the use of traditional mudbrick at Assur, the public buildings in Hatra were constructed in fine limestone masonry on a rubble core. The city lay behind massive outer walls with a circular plan and at its centre was an impressively proportioned rectangular enclosure. The main building inside is usually identified as the Temple of the Sun where the most prominent architectural features are two large central iwans flanked by smaller ones, their facades decorated with engaged columns with Corinthian capitals (fig.99). The arches were decorated with sculpted friezes of human figures while carved human heads adorned the inner walls of the iwans. These heads gaze out of the reliefs with an emphasis on frontality rather than naturalism – an ͖ ͆͒͏͍ ͉͎͉̈́́ ͔͏ ͇͙͔͐ͅ ̶̻​̶ ͂̓Ȳ́̈́ ̶̼̻

͉͇͆ ̿̾ Bronze of a noble from Shami, Iran, c.100 BC–AD 100, ht. 194 cm, © The Art Archive / Archaeological Museum Tehran / Gianni Dagli Orti

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͉͇͆ ̷̶̽ Glass vvessel ͉͇͆ ̷̶̽ essel with w wheel-cut heel-cut ffacets, aacets, c.ad c. ad 200–600, ht. 8.8 cm, AN1965.739 AN N1965.739 © Ashmolean Museum, Univ University e sity off Oxford er

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Kish alsoo produced produced examples off Sasanian Sasaniaan glass similar to the hemisphericcal bowl hemispherical bowl shown shown here (fig.107). (fig.107). Although A without provenance, provenance, it re represents presentss a widespread type off late Sasanian Sasaanian glass vessel, vessel, found in excavations ex cavations off Mesopotamian and Iranian Iranian sites s dating to the fifth, sixth, and annd seventh sev enth cent centuries turies ad – examples have have even evenn been found as far far a afield as Japan Japan p where w here they had h arrived arrived as trade trade items. items. Thee bowl, bowl, which which has lost much much off its i surface surf face a colo colour lour through thr h oughh weathering, h i was probably probab b bly l made d by by blowing blo l wing i molten molte l en glass into ann open mould; the facets facets were then thhen wheel-cut wheel-cut and polished.

Silv er vessels vessels e t most spectacular works works off art art Silver are undoubtedly among the from fr om the Sas Sasanian sanian period. Ancient authors authors describe how how Sasanian kings kings gave gaave silver silv er plate as a gifts to their nobles nobles and contemporary contemporary rulers. rulers. From From the time time off Sha Shapur pur III the motiff off the king king as hunterr became a standard design andd indeed, until untiil the sixth century century AD, AD, no human humaan figure other than the king king was waas re represented presented on Sasanian silver, silver, which which was probably p obably part off an official court pr courrt production. pr oduction. On this example, separate separate pieces piecces off silv silver er were inserted into the t plate l t to t provide provide vid high hi h relief li f (fig.108). (fi 8) It wass then th gilded ild d andd inlaid i l id with ith niello nie iello ll – an alloy alloy off sulphur and silver silver – to provide providde the dark contrasts. contrasts. The identity identtity off the Sasan Sasanian nian king king represented represented here is uncertain unncertain although the style off his his cr own sug gests e that he may be Peroz Peroz I (ad 459–48 4). crown suggests 459–484). ͍͏͕͎͔͉͎͓́ ͎́̈́ ͌͏͎͓͗͌́̈́ ͎͉͎͔́̓ͅ ͉͎͒́ ͎́̈́ ͍͓ͅ͏͐͏͔͍͉́́ ͍͏͕͎͔ ́ ͉ ͎͓ ͎́̈́ ͌ ͏ ͗͌ ͎͓́̈́ ͎́ ͉̓ͅ ͎͔ ͉ ͒́​͎́ ͎́̈́ ͍ ͅ ͓͏͐͏ ͔͍́ ͉ ́

By the end off the fourth century centtury a new threat had emerged emerged in the east.

Widespread Widespread id d movements movements off tribes tribe ibes in i Central C Centrall Asia A i led l d to their h i incursion iinncursion i into i Armenia, A menia, Syria, and northern Ar northern Iran.

Irran. In Bactria and eastern eastern Iran Iran the so-called Hephthalite H phthalite Huns had become the He thhe dominant dominant power power and the pressure preessure on the Sasanian Sasanian frontiers frontiers was immense. immense. On the death off Yazdegerd Yaazdegerd II (ad 439–457) his h son Peroz Peroz I only secured the throne throne with support from from the Hephthalites.

H phthalites.

He Despite D this early support from from the Huns much much off the reign off Peroz Peroz was devoted devoted to confronting confronting the Hephthalites Hephhthalites in battle in a vital tug-of-war tug--of-war over over territory teerritory and the crucial crucial east–west east–weest trade trade routes. routes. The effect off heavy h vy taxation hea too pay for these wars wars combined with w a seven seven year year famine famine a must have have caused terrib te ible l suffering ff i within ithi the th Empire.

E Emppire. i To To add dd to t the th misery miser i y Peroz Peroz was killed killed ill d terrible fighting fighting in the east, along with the thhe finest off the Sasanian cavalry, cavalry, in ad 484.

484.

T was followed followed by by a Hephthalite Hephthaalite invasion invasion off Iran Iran and the imposition im mposition of This ann annual tribute on the Sasanians.

Sasanianns. ͖​͖ ͆͒͏͍ ͉͎͉̈́́ ͔͏ ͇͙͔͐ͅ ̶̻​̶ ͂̓Ȳ́̈́ ̶̼̻ ͆͒ ͏͍ ͉͎̈́ ͉ ́ ͔ ͏ ͇ͅ ͙ ͔͐ ̶̻​̶ ͂̓Ȳ ́̈́ ̼ ̶̻

͉͇͆ ̷̶̾ Silver ͉͇͆ ̷̶̾ Silver e plate with an imag imagee off a S Sasanian i kking i g hunting ing h ti g rrams, ams, c.ad c.ad 460–530, 6 5 diam. 221.9 1.9 cm cm,, Fletc Fletcher her Fund, 19 1934 34 334.33.

4.33. © 2015 2015.. The Metr M Metropolitan opolitan Museum off Art/ Art R Resource/Scala, esource/ /Scala, Florence

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