Labels of Empire

C O N T EN TS

Preface

CHAPTER 5

CHAPTER 13

THE BRITISH RAJ

RAJA RAVI VARMA

264

468

CHAPTER 6

CHAPTER 14

Introduction

EVERYDAY LIFE

BANDS, BLANKS,

10

308

and FOILS

6

Notes to the Reader 8

482

✦ CHAPTER 7 CHAPTER 1

ENTERTAINMENT and

CHAPTER 15

CELEBRATIONS

INDIAN COTTON MILLS

338

492

CHAPTER 8

CHAPTER 16

VISHNU

SPORTS and

SWARAJ and

88

HUNTING

SWADESHI

SHIVA

3 74

508

GODS and GODDESSES 60

KRISHNA 62

112

OTHER GODS and GODDESSES 126

✦ CHAPTER 9

FLORA and FAUNA 386

Timeline 532

Glossary

✦

534

CHAPTER 2

CHAPTER 10

THE RAMAYANA

BEAUTIES

166

416

CHAPTER 3

CHAPTER 11

Selected Bibliography

THE MAHABHARATA

TRANSPORT

537

208

430

CHAPTER 4

CHAPTER 12

INDIAN ROYALTY

ARCHITECTURE

Credits and Acknowledgments

230

448

542

Deities and Other Celestial Beings 536

Company Index 538

C O N T EN TS

Preface

CHAPTER 5

CHAPTER 13

THE BRITISH RAJ

RAJA RAVI VARMA

264

468

CHAPTER 6

CHAPTER 14

Introduction

EVERYDAY LIFE

BANDS, BLANKS,

10

308

and FOILS

6

Notes to the Reader 8

482

✦ CHAPTER 7 CHAPTER 1

ENTERTAINMENT and

CHAPTER 15

CELEBRATIONS

INDIAN COTTON MILLS

338

492

CHAPTER 8

CHAPTER 16

VISHNU

SPORTS and

SWARAJ and

88

HUNTING

SWADESHI

SHIVA

3 74

508

GODS and GODDESSES 60

KRISHNA 62

112

OTHER GODS and GODDESSES 126

✦ CHAPTER 9

FLORA and FAUNA 386

Timeline 532

Glossary

✦

534

CHAPTER 2

CHAPTER 10

THE RAMAYANA

BEAUTIES

166

416

CHAPTER 3

CHAPTER 11

Selected Bibliography

THE MAHABHARATA

TRANSPORT

537

208

430

CHAPTER 4

CHAPTER 12

INDIAN ROYALTY

ARCHITECTURE

Credits and Acknowledgments

230

448

542

Deities and Other Celestial Beings 536

Company Index 538

6

pre fa c e

pre fa c e

PREFACE

YOU KNOW YOUR BOOK IS COMPLETED as soon as you realize it could go

on forever . . .

In July 2013, after more than forty years of collecting textiles, I came across something that I had never seen before: a small paper label pasted inside a sample booklet that once belonged to a Calcutta fabric merchant. The brightly colored picture of a man and woman riding a white bull captivated me. What was the story behind it? Where had it been printed? And who were the two Indian figures it depicted—a blue man with a snake wound around his neck and the lady he so tenderly held? Charmed by its stylized simplicity and intriguing image, the collector in me began a quest that, thousands of labels later, continues to beckon.

I soon learned that the white bull is Nandi, the sacred mount of the great Hindu god Shiva, who is shown with his consort, the beautiful goddess Parvati.

As I collected more and more labels, known in the textile trade as “shipper’s tickets,” the vast Hindu pantheon of gods and goddesses began to be revealed to me. The three supreme gods, Brahma the Creator, Vishnu the Preserver, and Shiva the Destroyer, and their consorts, the goddesses Saraswati, Lakshmi, and Parvati, were artistically rendered in glorious color, as were many of the other Hindu deities—Ganesha, Hanuman, Agni, Kali, Durga, Ganga, and more.

In fact, the labels depicted so many celestial beings that chapter 1, “Gods and Goddesses,” the largest chapter in this book, is devoted to them.

Hindu deities and two of their avatars, Rama and Krishna, are also featured in the great Indian epics the Ramayana and the Mahabharata, the subjects of the labels in chapters 2 and 3. I learned of Prince Rama’s search for his missing bride, Sita, who was abducted by Ravana, the demon king of Lanka. And of the valiant monkey god, Hanuman, who together with an army of monkeys and bears, succeeds in rescuing her. The Mahabharata, composed of almost 100,000 couplets, is probably best known for the smoldering rivalry between two sets of royal cousins, the Pandavas and the Kauravas, which culminates in a horrendous battle. Millions of soldiers die, yet neither side emerges victorious. The labels faithfully illustrate the battle scenes in all their gory detail. After weeks of working on this chapter, I was relieved to move on to the jeweled opulence of chapter 4, “Indian Royalty,” of whom Rudyard Kipling wrote, “Providence created the maharajas to offer mankind a spectacle.” The same could be said of the designers of these labels!

The maharajas ruled their earthly kingdoms like gods, only to be subjugated by distant rulers of a little island thousands of miles away. Chapter 5 offers a sampling of the many labels celebrating Queen Victoria, the first “Empress of India,” her family, and the durbars and jubilees held in their honor.

Even John Bull and his bulldog make an appearance. When World War I intervenes, patriotic labels with military officers, battleships, flags, and an armor-clad Britannia enter the scene—which closes with the personification of Victory and Peace.

Chapters 6 to 15 move from the royal realm to the world of everyday people— to chapter 16 and Indian independence. For the most part, the British artists who created these labels were quite accurate in depicting their subject matter. The majority of them had never traveled to India, instead they relied on materials produced by those who had. It was always gratifying to discover the source of a particular label—often a painting or engraving. Or perhaps a photograph or illustration from a book, such as Louis Rousselet’s India and Its Native Princes (1882). Whenever possible, I have shown both the label and the likely source on the same page. To put the labels in context, I have included period engravings, book illustrations, bazaar prints, postcards, and works of art from museum collections.

My original intention was to present these fascinating labels—the “shipper’s tickets” of a once-thriving textile industry—to a new audience. I acquired most of them from sources in India, mainly in Rajasthan, where the semiarid climate has helped to preserve the fragile paper on which they were printed. Salvaged from pieces of cloth or sample booklets, most show their age of a hundred years or more. Many are torn, stained, faded, and sometimes worm-eaten. Indeed, it is surprising that they have even survived at all. But thanks to two large stock ticket catalogs in my collection, I have been able to see what they looked like before they left the printers’ shops in Manchester, England, to make the long journey to India (see pp. 52–53). Designed to attract and entice prospective buyers in the marketplace, they were once crisp and bright, their colors enhanced by a coating of clear, shiny lacquer. Often metallic gold accents were added to the figures and gold borders framed the images. In order that these colorful details might be fully appreciated, I made the decision to digitally restore the damaged labels to their original condition—an exacting but gratifying process that was ongoing throughout the eight years I worked on this book.

A selection of “before and after” examples are shown in the introduction on pages 54 and 55.

Early on, it became clear to me that this book needed to be far more than a visual narrative, for each label has a story to tell. I wanted to identify the gods and goddesses, the scenes and characters from the Ramayana and the Mahabharata, and in fact, describe all of the images on every label or print.

Since space was limited, it was necessary to condense vast amounts of information into as few lines as possible, which presented quite a challenge.

I also felt it was important to recognize the textile manufacturers and agents whose names appear on the labels, along with the printers, publishers, and artists who produced the engravings and bazaar prints. Where space permitted, I have provided some background in this regard. Moreover, the “Company Index” at the end of the book enables readers to locate any firm whose product appears within its pages—though for the majority of them, the labels are all that remain.

In effect a company’s trademark, or its brand, the labels that were used for piece goods and yarn sold in the Indian market usually bear that firm’s name and location (and sometimes, too, the title of the label) in the languages of the regions where the goods were sold. The words on the examples that appear in this book are most often in Hindi, Bengali, and Gujarati—with some in Urdu, Tamil, and Mudia, an archaic script that was used primarily

by Marwari merchants. I was very fortunate to have a colleague in Jaipur, Dhir Kumar Nowlakha, who was willing and able to provide translations.

Included in the relevant captions, these impart important information.

The Hindi text on the borders of the “Dalal” label on page 312, for example, reveals the title of the label, the firm and its location, and the name of its agent “Babu Sheo Baksh,” who is depicted in his office surrounded by labels and fabric samples.

I conclude this preface by circling back to the small label depicting Shiva, Parvati, and Nandi. Without that serendipitous discovery, Labels of Empire would never have come about. For it led me to its source, Dhir Kumar Nowlakha, the proprieter of an antique shop in Jaipur, Rajasthan, who became my valued colleague and translator. For many years, he and his father before him had specialized in rare prints, accumulating many shipper’s tickets along the way. The majority of my Indian-themed labels came from their collection and from Dhir’s subsequent forays to Shekhawati—the ancestral home of the Marwari textile dealers. It was there that he discovered and photographed the remnants of old shipper’s tickets still pasted to the walls of the decaying Shekhawati havelis. His photographs may be the only record of these fabric labels before they are totally gone (see pp. 460–64). Though, sadly, Dhir passed away in March 2021, a large part of his legacy is contained within the pages of this book. Namaste, Dhir.

It will be almost a decade from the day I saw my first label to the publication of Labels of Empire, and it still remains a source of delight to come across another old label with a story to tell. I find it ironic that the fragile paper tickets shown in Labels of Empire are now considered “ephemera,” defined as “anything short-lived or transitory; not meant to be retained; of no lasting significance.” They are actually long-lived survivors, precisely because people did value and keep them. This book is a testament to that.

By showcasing these labels, Labels of Empire celebrates the mundane— and in so doing, celebrates the lives of everyone in this earthly world in some small way. ✦ Susan Meller Berkeley, California August 21, 2021

Sample Booklet Insert with Label. c. 1910–20. 10½ x 4½" (as shown). BTM/I Shiva and Parvati riding on Nandi. The first label in my collection.

Endpaper: Ganesha. c. 1900. Showcard, detail (see p. 131).

Title pages: M aharaja Procession. c. 1920s. Label, 7¼ x 5¾". I Elephant. Late 19th c. Label, detail (see p. 160).

Contents pages: A gent Ticket. c. 1910. Label, 6½ x 5¼". I (see p. 312).

Ganga. Late 19th c. Label, detail (see p. 140).

7

6

pre fa c e

pre fa c e

PREFACE

YOU KNOW YOUR BOOK IS COMPLETED as soon as you realize it could go

on forever . . .

In July 2013, after more than forty years of collecting textiles, I came across something that I had never seen before: a small paper label pasted inside a sample booklet that once belonged to a Calcutta fabric merchant. The brightly colored picture of a man and woman riding a white bull captivated me. What was the story behind it? Where had it been printed? And who were the two Indian figures it depicted—a blue man with a snake wound around his neck and the lady he so tenderly held? Charmed by its stylized simplicity and intriguing image, the collector in me began a quest that, thousands of labels later, continues to beckon.

I soon learned that the white bull is Nandi, the sacred mount of the great Hindu god Shiva, who is shown with his consort, the beautiful goddess Parvati.

As I collected more and more labels, known in the textile trade as “shipper’s tickets,” the vast Hindu pantheon of gods and goddesses began to be revealed to me. The three supreme gods, Brahma the Creator, Vishnu the Preserver, and Shiva the Destroyer, and their consorts, the goddesses Saraswati, Lakshmi, and Parvati, were artistically rendered in glorious color, as were many of the other Hindu deities—Ganesha, Hanuman, Agni, Kali, Durga, Ganga, and more.

In fact, the labels depicted so many celestial beings that chapter 1, “Gods and Goddesses,” the largest chapter in this book, is devoted to them.

Hindu deities and two of their avatars, Rama and Krishna, are also featured in the great Indian epics the Ramayana and the Mahabharata, the subjects of the labels in chapters 2 and 3. I learned of Prince Rama’s search for his missing bride, Sita, who was abducted by Ravana, the demon king of Lanka. And of the valiant monkey god, Hanuman, who together with an army of monkeys and bears, succeeds in rescuing her. The Mahabharata, composed of almost 100,000 couplets, is probably best known for the smoldering rivalry between two sets of royal cousins, the Pandavas and the Kauravas, which culminates in a horrendous battle. Millions of soldiers die, yet neither side emerges victorious. The labels faithfully illustrate the battle scenes in all their gory detail. After weeks of working on this chapter, I was relieved to move on to the jeweled opulence of chapter 4, “Indian Royalty,” of whom Rudyard Kipling wrote, “Providence created the maharajas to offer mankind a spectacle.” The same could be said of the designers of these labels!

The maharajas ruled their earthly kingdoms like gods, only to be subjugated by distant rulers of a little island thousands of miles away. Chapter 5 offers a sampling of the many labels celebrating Queen Victoria, the first “Empress of India,” her family, and the durbars and jubilees held in their honor.

Even John Bull and his bulldog make an appearance. When World War I intervenes, patriotic labels with military officers, battleships, flags, and an armor-clad Britannia enter the scene—which closes with the personification of Victory and Peace.

Chapters 6 to 15 move from the royal realm to the world of everyday people— to chapter 16 and Indian independence. For the most part, the British artists who created these labels were quite accurate in depicting their subject matter. The majority of them had never traveled to India, instead they relied on materials produced by those who had. It was always gratifying to discover the source of a particular label—often a painting or engraving. Or perhaps a photograph or illustration from a book, such as Louis Rousselet’s India and Its Native Princes (1882). Whenever possible, I have shown both the label and the likely source on the same page. To put the labels in context, I have included period engravings, book illustrations, bazaar prints, postcards, and works of art from museum collections.

My original intention was to present these fascinating labels—the “shipper’s tickets” of a once-thriving textile industry—to a new audience. I acquired most of them from sources in India, mainly in Rajasthan, where the semiarid climate has helped to preserve the fragile paper on which they were printed. Salvaged from pieces of cloth or sample booklets, most show their age of a hundred years or more. Many are torn, stained, faded, and sometimes worm-eaten. Indeed, it is surprising that they have even survived at all. But thanks to two large stock ticket catalogs in my collection, I have been able to see what they looked like before they left the printers’ shops in Manchester, England, to make the long journey to India (see pp. 52–53). Designed to attract and entice prospective buyers in the marketplace, they were once crisp and bright, their colors enhanced by a coating of clear, shiny lacquer. Often metallic gold accents were added to the figures and gold borders framed the images. In order that these colorful details might be fully appreciated, I made the decision to digitally restore the damaged labels to their original condition—an exacting but gratifying process that was ongoing throughout the eight years I worked on this book.

A selection of “before and after” examples are shown in the introduction on pages 54 and 55.

Early on, it became clear to me that this book needed to be far more than a visual narrative, for each label has a story to tell. I wanted to identify the gods and goddesses, the scenes and characters from the Ramayana and the Mahabharata, and in fact, describe all of the images on every label or print.

Since space was limited, it was necessary to condense vast amounts of information into as few lines as possible, which presented quite a challenge.

I also felt it was important to recognize the textile manufacturers and agents whose names appear on the labels, along with the printers, publishers, and artists who produced the engravings and bazaar prints. Where space permitted, I have provided some background in this regard. Moreover, the “Company Index” at the end of the book enables readers to locate any firm whose product appears within its pages—though for the majority of them, the labels are all that remain.

In effect a company’s trademark, or its brand, the labels that were used for piece goods and yarn sold in the Indian market usually bear that firm’s name and location (and sometimes, too, the title of the label) in the languages of the regions where the goods were sold. The words on the examples that appear in this book are most often in Hindi, Bengali, and Gujarati—with some in Urdu, Tamil, and Mudia, an archaic script that was used primarily

by Marwari merchants. I was very fortunate to have a colleague in Jaipur, Dhir Kumar Nowlakha, who was willing and able to provide translations.

Included in the relevant captions, these impart important information.

The Hindi text on the borders of the “Dalal” label on page 312, for example, reveals the title of the label, the firm and its location, and the name of its agent “Babu Sheo Baksh,” who is depicted in his office surrounded by labels and fabric samples.

I conclude this preface by circling back to the small label depicting Shiva, Parvati, and Nandi. Without that serendipitous discovery, Labels of Empire would never have come about. For it led me to its source, Dhir Kumar Nowlakha, the proprieter of an antique shop in Jaipur, Rajasthan, who became my valued colleague and translator. For many years, he and his father before him had specialized in rare prints, accumulating many shipper’s tickets along the way. The majority of my Indian-themed labels came from their collection and from Dhir’s subsequent forays to Shekhawati—the ancestral home of the Marwari textile dealers. It was there that he discovered and photographed the remnants of old shipper’s tickets still pasted to the walls of the decaying Shekhawati havelis. His photographs may be the only record of these fabric labels before they are totally gone (see pp. 460–64). Though, sadly, Dhir passed away in March 2021, a large part of his legacy is contained within the pages of this book. Namaste, Dhir.

It will be almost a decade from the day I saw my first label to the publication of Labels of Empire, and it still remains a source of delight to come across another old label with a story to tell. I find it ironic that the fragile paper tickets shown in Labels of Empire are now considered “ephemera,” defined as “anything short-lived or transitory; not meant to be retained; of no lasting significance.” They are actually long-lived survivors, precisely because people did value and keep them. This book is a testament to that.

By showcasing these labels, Labels of Empire celebrates the mundane— and in so doing, celebrates the lives of everyone in this earthly world in some small way. ✦ Susan Meller Berkeley, California August 21, 2021

Sample Booklet Insert with Label. c. 1910–20. 10½ x 4½" (as shown). BTM/I Shiva and Parvati riding on Nandi. The first label in my collection.

Endpaper: Ganesha. c. 1900. Showcard, detail (see p. 131).

Title pages: M aharaja Procession. c. 1920s. Label, 7¼ x 5¾". I Elephant. Late 19th c. Label, detail (see p. 160).

Contents pages: A gent Ticket. c. 1910. Label, 6½ x 5¼". I (see p. 312).

Ganga. Late 19th c. Label, detail (see p. 140).

7

50

introdu c tion

PATTERN CARDS 1.

Dhooties Pattern Booklet. c. 1900–1910. Cover with

silver embossing and applied label, 12¼ x 7". I

2. Dhootie Cloth Samples. c. 1900–1910. Cotton dobby

weave, 14 x 5". I. These samples are from the pattern booklet shown in fig. 1.

3. Sari Cloth Pattern Booklet. 1937. Cover with gold embossing and applied B. Taylor & Co. label; pages with roller-printed cotton fabric samples, each sample: 10 x 5½". I 4. “Fancy Prints” Pattern Card. c. 1920s. Roller-printed cotton fabric, 13 x 32" (as shown). I 5. B. Whalley Ashwell & Co. Pattern Booklet. c. 1910.

Printed cover, 14 x 9¼". I 6. Jainy Brothers & Co. Pattern Booklet. c. 1910. Printed cover, 13 x 9¼". I 7. Sari Cloth Pattern Booklet. c. 1910. Cover with applied labels and gold trim; pages with roller-printed cotton fabric samples, each sample: 13 x 7½". I

introdu c tion

were a costly but necessary part of merchandising. They were especially important for marketing printed cloth as merchants wanted to promote the latest styles—and their savvy clients expected to be offered them. Patterns might be presented in a simple folder with a few samples pasted inside and perhaps some additional promotional material (see, for example, pp. 494–95 and 516–17), or in an elaborate hardcover booklet like those shown here. B. Taylor & Co. and Norbury, Snow & Co. were two Manchester ticket printers that also specialized in pattern cards. Adding the samples to the cards was likely done in the making-up department of the packing house. Fancy pattern booklets required a lot of hand labor. In addition to affixing a label to the cover, the samples had to be cut to size and pasted neatly onto the pages, and as in figs. 2 and 4, set off with gold foil trim to conceal the edges. These sample booklets were given to or ordered by agents in India—whose names were prominently embossed on the covers, making for an impressive presentation to prospective customers.

FABRIC SAMPLES

Fig. 1–3, 7. Dhootie cotton cloth, which was used as a long loincloth (dhootie) by Indian men, and cotton fabrics printed specifically for saris were mainstays of Lancashire specialty export textiles.

Fig. 4. Roller-printed fabrics such as these were known as “fancy prints.”

Figs. 5, 6. B. Whalley, Ashwell was a textile manufacturer based in Manchester. The label of two girls (center right) displayed on the firm's cover was printed by Norbury Natzio & Co., Manchester. Jainy Brothers & Co., an importer of Manchester piece goods, was based in Cawnpore.

4.

1.

3.

5.

2.

7.

6.

51

50

introdu c tion

PATTERN CARDS 1.

Dhooties Pattern Booklet. c. 1900–1910. Cover with

silver embossing and applied label, 12¼ x 7". I

2. Dhootie Cloth Samples. c. 1900–1910. Cotton dobby

weave, 14 x 5". I. These samples are from the pattern booklet shown in fig. 1.

3. Sari Cloth Pattern Booklet. 1937. Cover with gold embossing and applied B. Taylor & Co. label; pages with roller-printed cotton fabric samples, each sample: 10 x 5½". I 4. “Fancy Prints” Pattern Card. c. 1920s. Roller-printed cotton fabric, 13 x 32" (as shown). I 5. B. Whalley Ashwell & Co. Pattern Booklet. c. 1910.

Printed cover, 14 x 9¼". I 6. Jainy Brothers & Co. Pattern Booklet. c. 1910. Printed cover, 13 x 9¼". I 7. Sari Cloth Pattern Booklet. c. 1910. Cover with applied labels and gold trim; pages with roller-printed cotton fabric samples, each sample: 13 x 7½". I

introdu c tion

were a costly but necessary part of merchandising. They were especially important for marketing printed cloth as merchants wanted to promote the latest styles—and their savvy clients expected to be offered them. Patterns might be presented in a simple folder with a few samples pasted inside and perhaps some additional promotional material (see, for example, pp. 494–95 and 516–17), or in an elaborate hardcover booklet like those shown here. B. Taylor & Co. and Norbury, Snow & Co. were two Manchester ticket printers that also specialized in pattern cards. Adding the samples to the cards was likely done in the making-up department of the packing house. Fancy pattern booklets required a lot of hand labor. In addition to affixing a label to the cover, the samples had to be cut to size and pasted neatly onto the pages, and as in figs. 2 and 4, set off with gold foil trim to conceal the edges. These sample booklets were given to or ordered by agents in India—whose names were prominently embossed on the covers, making for an impressive presentation to prospective customers.

FABRIC SAMPLES

Fig. 1–3, 7. Dhootie cotton cloth, which was used as a long loincloth (dhootie) by Indian men, and cotton fabrics printed specifically for saris were mainstays of Lancashire specialty export textiles.

Fig. 4. Roller-printed fabrics such as these were known as “fancy prints.”

Figs. 5, 6. B. Whalley, Ashwell was a textile manufacturer based in Manchester. The label of two girls (center right) displayed on the firm's cover was printed by Norbury Natzio & Co., Manchester. Jainy Brothers & Co., an importer of Manchester piece goods, was based in Cawnpore.

4.

1.

3.

5.

2.

7.

6.

51

CHAPTER 1

GODS and GODDESSES

of Hindu gods and goddesses provided valuable imagery for the designers of textile labels, who were inspired by the colorful, eye-catching “god-prints” popular in India from the late 19th century onward.

As portrayed by Indian artists, the Hindu deities were visually evocative and supremely spiritual—a powerful combination not lost on merchants selling goods in the Indian market. This chapter highlights the gods and goddesses “appropriated” from their lofty positions to be featured on paper labels for the cloth bazaars of India—and beyond.

THE VAST PANTHEON

In popular Hindu theology, the three principal gods Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva together form the Trimurti, or Trinity.

Brahma is the Creator; Vishnu, the Preserver; and Shiva, the Destroyer. Through this trio, the cycle of creation, preservation, and destruction continues in perpetuity. is depicted as an old man with a white beard, a red body, and four heads, each of which faces a cardinal direction. He holds various symbolic objects in his four hands, including the four sacred Vedas, as in the opposite label. Having sprung from the navel of Vishnu, Brahma sits on a lotus (see pp. 92–93). As time passed he assumed a secondary position to Vishnu and Shiva. This loss of stature is reflected in the relatively few labels devoted to him.

However, his consort, the beloved and worshipped figure of Saraswati, features in many iconic images, including labels. Representing power, intelligence, and all knowledge, especially of the arts and sciences, she is depicted playing a veena as her mount, a peacock or swan, waits nearby.

BRAHMA

SHIVA ,

covered in sacred white ashes, sits on a lotus. He has a third eye in the middle of his forehead and a blue throat. His hair is long and worn coiled on top of his head. The river Ganges, which flows from his hair, is symbolized in the opposite label by four waterpots, two of them spilling their contents over his head. Shiva and his consort, Parvati, the benevolent mother goddess; their children, the elephant-headed Ganesha, remover of obstacles and god of beginnings, and Skanda, god of war; and Parvati’s fierce aspects, dark Kali and Durga, are all illustrated in this chapter.

VISHNU ,

the four-armed blue god, who is as infinite as the Heavens, protects and maintains the Universe. He is usually shown holding a discus (emblematic of the mind), conch shell (from which “Om,” the sound of creation, emanates), and mace (strength); he often holds a lotus flower (purity and beauty) in his fourth hand. Vishnu and his beautiful consort, Lakshmi, were favorite label subjects, especially in the forms of their most popular avatars, Krishna and Radha and Rama and Sita.

While label artists created countless versions of Krishna/Radha and Rama/Sita, they also included deities such as Yama, god of death; his father, Surya, the sun god; Chandra, the moon god; Agni, the fire god; the monkey god Hanuman; Shashthi, goddesss of childbirth and protector of young children; Ganga, the river goddess; Bahuchara Mata, patron goddess of the Hijra (transgender or intersex) community; and many more. The gods were presented in both iconic “portraits,” which were often framed and hung in homes and temples for worship, and in heroic scenes, where they were shown battling demons and evil kings. Labels and god-prints placed the gods within easy reach, enabling people to choose their own deities—personified in full color.

Hindu Trinity. c. 1910. Label, 7½ x 9¾", t. Brahma Vishnu Mahesh (Shiva) Ticket [H], b. same as r. [H]. I Flying Pari with “Om” and Garland. c. 1930. Billhead (detail) from Hanuman Bux Modi, Calcutta, invoice for cotton yarns, 3 x 2" (as shown). I OPPOSITE: ABOVE:

CHAPTER 1

GODS and GODDESSES

of Hindu gods and goddesses provided valuable imagery for the designers of textile labels, who were inspired by the colorful, eye-catching “god-prints” popular in India from the late 19th century onward.

As portrayed by Indian artists, the Hindu deities were visually evocative and supremely spiritual—a powerful combination not lost on merchants selling goods in the Indian market. This chapter highlights the gods and goddesses “appropriated” from their lofty positions to be featured on paper labels for the cloth bazaars of India—and beyond.

THE VAST PANTHEON

In popular Hindu theology, the three principal gods Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva together form the Trimurti, or Trinity.

Brahma is the Creator; Vishnu, the Preserver; and Shiva, the Destroyer. Through this trio, the cycle of creation, preservation, and destruction continues in perpetuity. is depicted as an old man with a white beard, a red body, and four heads, each of which faces a cardinal direction. He holds various symbolic objects in his four hands, including the four sacred Vedas, as in the opposite label. Having sprung from the navel of Vishnu, Brahma sits on a lotus (see pp. 92–93). As time passed he assumed a secondary position to Vishnu and Shiva. This loss of stature is reflected in the relatively few labels devoted to him.

However, his consort, the beloved and worshipped figure of Saraswati, features in many iconic images, including labels. Representing power, intelligence, and all knowledge, especially of the arts and sciences, she is depicted playing a veena as her mount, a peacock or swan, waits nearby.

BRAHMA

SHIVA ,

covered in sacred white ashes, sits on a lotus. He has a third eye in the middle of his forehead and a blue throat. His hair is long and worn coiled on top of his head. The river Ganges, which flows from his hair, is symbolized in the opposite label by four waterpots, two of them spilling their contents over his head. Shiva and his consort, Parvati, the benevolent mother goddess; their children, the elephant-headed Ganesha, remover of obstacles and god of beginnings, and Skanda, god of war; and Parvati’s fierce aspects, dark Kali and Durga, are all illustrated in this chapter.

VISHNU ,

the four-armed blue god, who is as infinite as the Heavens, protects and maintains the Universe. He is usually shown holding a discus (emblematic of the mind), conch shell (from which “Om,” the sound of creation, emanates), and mace (strength); he often holds a lotus flower (purity and beauty) in his fourth hand. Vishnu and his beautiful consort, Lakshmi, were favorite label subjects, especially in the forms of their most popular avatars, Krishna and Radha and Rama and Sita.

While label artists created countless versions of Krishna/Radha and Rama/Sita, they also included deities such as Yama, god of death; his father, Surya, the sun god; Chandra, the moon god; Agni, the fire god; the monkey god Hanuman; Shashthi, goddesss of childbirth and protector of young children; Ganga, the river goddess; Bahuchara Mata, patron goddess of the Hijra (transgender or intersex) community; and many more. The gods were presented in both iconic “portraits,” which were often framed and hung in homes and temples for worship, and in heroic scenes, where they were shown battling demons and evil kings. Labels and god-prints placed the gods within easy reach, enabling people to choose their own deities—personified in full color.

Hindu Trinity. c. 1910. Label, 7½ x 9¾", t. Brahma Vishnu Mahesh (Shiva) Ticket [H], b. same as r. [H]. I Flying Pari with “Om” and Garland. c. 1930. Billhead (detail) from Hanuman Bux Modi, Calcutta, invoice for cotton yarns, 3 x 2" (as shown). I OPPOSITE: ABOVE:

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gods and goddesses

RADHA-KRISHNA 1.

Radha Krishna Ticket. c. 1900. Label, 9¾ x 8",

r. same as l. [H], b. Radha Shyam Ticket [H]. I 2. Radha-Krishna. c. 1900, 8¾ x 7¼", l. Lyall & Co., Glasgow [H], r. same as l. [M], b. same as t. [B]. I 3. Krishna Anoints Radha’s Foot. c. 1900. 9½ x 7", t. Kadam Lila Ticket [H], r. same as l. [H], b. same as l. [B]. I 4.

Krishna Selects Radha as His Favorite Gopi.

1750–51. Udaipur, Mewar Region, Rajasthan, India.

Gouache and gold on paper, 9½ x 15¼". PMA

gods and goddesses

THE GITA GOVINDA (Song of the Cowherd), a lyrical poem by the 12th-century Sanskrit poet Jayadeva,

celebrates the divine and passionate love of Radha-Krishna. Artists over the centuries have painted scenes based on the verses, including Krishna anointing Radha’s feet (figs. 3, 4).

Fig. 1. Krishna carries a spear rather than his usual flute. Radha’s and Krishna’s mounts wear elaborately decorated trappings. “Shyam” is another name for Krishna.

Fig. 2. It appears that Radha is offering Krishna something to eat. Since by now he has outgrown his childhood craving for butter, perhaps it is another tasty treat.

Fig. 3. Krishna pays deference to Radha by painting the soles of her lotus feet with alta (a red dye made from betel leaves). “Kadam” refers to Radha’s foot. The peacock in the foreground and the peacock feathers on the cows’ heads are symbols associated with Krishna.

Fig. 4. In this sequence, a group of gopis is gathered; Krishna chooses Radha from among them and carries her away on his shoulders; his footprints leave a trail behind him as he places Radha on a platform under a bower of flowers and anoints her feet with red dye.

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4.

3.

83

82

gods and goddesses

RADHA-KRISHNA 1.

Radha Krishna Ticket. c. 1900. Label, 9¾ x 8",

r. same as l. [H], b. Radha Shyam Ticket [H]. I 2. Radha-Krishna. c. 1900, 8¾ x 7¼", l. Lyall & Co., Glasgow [H], r. same as l. [M], b. same as t. [B]. I 3. Krishna Anoints Radha’s Foot. c. 1900. 9½ x 7", t. Kadam Lila Ticket [H], r. same as l. [H], b. same as l. [B]. I 4.

Krishna Selects Radha as His Favorite Gopi.

1750–51. Udaipur, Mewar Region, Rajasthan, India.

Gouache and gold on paper, 9½ x 15¼". PMA

gods and goddesses

THE GITA GOVINDA (Song of the Cowherd), a lyrical poem by the 12th-century Sanskrit poet Jayadeva,

celebrates the divine and passionate love of Radha-Krishna. Artists over the centuries have painted scenes based on the verses, including Krishna anointing Radha’s feet (figs. 3, 4).

Fig. 1. Krishna carries a spear rather than his usual flute. Radha’s and Krishna’s mounts wear elaborately decorated trappings. “Shyam” is another name for Krishna.

Fig. 2. It appears that Radha is offering Krishna something to eat. Since by now he has outgrown his childhood craving for butter, perhaps it is another tasty treat.

Fig. 3. Krishna pays deference to Radha by painting the soles of her lotus feet with alta (a red dye made from betel leaves). “Kadam” refers to Radha’s foot. The peacock in the foreground and the peacock feathers on the cows’ heads are symbols associated with Krishna.

Fig. 4. In this sequence, a group of gopis is gathered; Krishna chooses Radha from among them and carries her away on his shoulders; his footprints leave a trail behind him as he places Radha on a platform under a bower of flowers and anoints her feet with red dye.

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1.

4.

3.

83

1 4 6 gods and goddesses

INDRA 1.

Indra Consecrates Mahavira. c. 1900. Label with

added border, 10 x 12¼", l. same as t. and b. [H], r. same as l. [B]. I 2.

Battle Between Krishna and Indra. c. 1900. Label, 6 x 4¾". I. The same label was also printed with the name Finlay, Campbell & Co., Manchester.

3.

Indra and Sachi Riding the Divine Elephant Airavata. Folio from a Panchakalyanaka (Five Auspicious Events in the Life of Jina Rishabhanatha [Adinatha]). c. 1670–80. Amber, Rajasthan, India.

Gouache, gold, and silver on paper, 9 x 15". LACMA

gods and goddesses

INDRA, AN ANCIENT VEDIC DEITY ,

is god of the Heavens, thunder, lightning, storms, and rain. He is often accompanied by his consort, Shachi, and his mount, a multi-headed white elephant named Airavata, the king of elephants. Indra plays an important role in Jain tradition. In Jainism, revered enlightened teachers, called “Tirthankaras,” help to guide followers on their spiritual paths. It is said that twenty-four Tirthankaras have appeared on Earth in this present Jain time cycle. With each new Tirthankara birth, Indra decends to Earth and performs a ritual known as abhisheka (consecration).

Fig. 1. Indra places the newborn Mahavira, the twenty-fourth Tirthankara, atop Mount Meru (Indra’s abode at the center of the Universe), where the ceremonial bath is performed.

Fig. 2. Krishna steals the celestial flowering Parijata tree from Indra’s garden at the insistence of his third wife, Satyabhama, who wants its fragrant flowers for herself. When Indra discovers the theft, a fierce battle ensues— with Krishna mounted on Garuda, and Indra on Airavata. Krishna defeats Indra and plants the tree in his earthly garden at Dwarka.

Fig. 3. Jina Rishabhanatha is the first Tirthankara in the present cycle of Jain cosmology. Indra and Shachi sit in a tasseled howdah atop a beautifully caparisoned Airavata. Two winged apsaras holding white chauris hover over them.

2.

1.

3.

147

1 4 6 gods and goddesses

INDRA 1.

Indra Consecrates Mahavira. c. 1900. Label with

added border, 10 x 12¼", l. same as t. and b. [H], r. same as l. [B]. I 2.

Battle Between Krishna and Indra. c. 1900. Label, 6 x 4¾". I. The same label was also printed with the name Finlay, Campbell & Co., Manchester.

3.

Indra and Sachi Riding the Divine Elephant Airavata. Folio from a Panchakalyanaka (Five Auspicious Events in the Life of Jina Rishabhanatha [Adinatha]). c. 1670–80. Amber, Rajasthan, India.

Gouache, gold, and silver on paper, 9 x 15". LACMA

gods and goddesses

INDRA, AN ANCIENT VEDIC DEITY ,

is god of the Heavens, thunder, lightning, storms, and rain. He is often accompanied by his consort, Shachi, and his mount, a multi-headed white elephant named Airavata, the king of elephants. Indra plays an important role in Jain tradition. In Jainism, revered enlightened teachers, called “Tirthankaras,” help to guide followers on their spiritual paths. It is said that twenty-four Tirthankaras have appeared on Earth in this present Jain time cycle. With each new Tirthankara birth, Indra decends to Earth and performs a ritual known as abhisheka (consecration).

Fig. 1. Indra places the newborn Mahavira, the twenty-fourth Tirthankara, atop Mount Meru (Indra’s abode at the center of the Universe), where the ceremonial bath is performed.

Fig. 2. Krishna steals the celestial flowering Parijata tree from Indra’s garden at the insistence of his third wife, Satyabhama, who wants its fragrant flowers for herself. When Indra discovers the theft, a fierce battle ensues— with Krishna mounted on Garuda, and Indra on Airavata. Krishna defeats Indra and plants the tree in his earthly garden at Dwarka.

Fig. 3. Jina Rishabhanatha is the first Tirthankara in the present cycle of Jain cosmology. Indra and Shachi sit in a tasseled howdah atop a beautifully caparisoned Airavata. Two winged apsaras holding white chauris hover over them.

2.

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147

CHAPTER 2

THE RAMAYANA

is an epic tale comprising 24,000 slokas (Sanskrit couplets) said to have been composed in about 500–300 BCE by the Hindu sage and poet Valmiki. Told and retold by countless generations throughout India and beyond, it is the story of Rama, Prince of Ayodhya, who is exiled from the kingdom due to palace intrigue. Joined by his devoted younger brother Lakshmana and beloved wife, Sita, he and his companions wander in the wilderness for fourteen years, encountering sages, battling demons, and restoring dharma. The rishis and wild animals who live there befriend them, and the forest becomes their idyllic home—until Ravana, the evil and powerful demon king of Lanka, disrupts their tranquility. Hearing of Sita’s beauty, he plots to abduct her, and when he succeeds through trickery, carries her off to his island kingdom. The rest of the story tells of Rama’s search for his bride and her ultimate rescue. The journey is long and arduous. Along the way, Rama and his brother encounter the monkey god Hanuman, who offers to help them. Hanuman in turn introduces them to his clan of Vanaras, a race of extraordinary monkeys whose king, Sugriva, agrees to aid in the search. The bear king, Jambavana, and his followers also join them.

And so Rama, Lakshmana, and the legions of monkeys and bears set out to find Sita. Eventually they learn where she is held captive and they prepare to confront Ravana. Sita is freed after a fierce battle, but she must undergo a trial by fire to prove her virtue was not compromised by Ravana’s advances and threats. Upon returning to Ayodhya, Rama and Sita are restored to the throne (opposite) only to have Sita’s chastity questioned again. This version of Valmiki’s Ramayana does not end happily. In a later version, the Uttara-Rama-Charita (Later Story of Rama), a Sanskrit play written by Bhavabhuti (fl. c. 700 CE ), Sita gives birth to Rama’s twin sons, Lava and Kusha, and the family lives happily ever after (see p. 206).

THE RAMAYANA (JOURNEY OF RAMA)

The Ramayana is a story of good versus evil, of dharma versus adharma, of Rama the “Ideal Man” and Sita the “Ideal Woman.” It offers a spiritual message and provides a model by which to live. As Ramesh Menon writes in the introduction to his book The Ramayana: A Modern Retelling of the Great Indian Epic, “The Ramayana is an expression of a liberal and earthy tradition, one that deals with the realities of greed, lust and power, war and kingship, nobility, tolerance, heroism, and suffering, and with the magnificent, joyful, and tragic inevitability of fate—the human condition.”

Throughout the centuries, holy men, temple dancers, bards, itinerant storytellers, scholars, and artists have all done their part in relating the tale of the Ramayana. As did the label designers—albeit with a commercial agenda. They too found their audience and a place for their creations in people’s homes and shops.

OPPOSITE : Ram Assembly. c. 1920. Print, 14 x 10" (unframed), b. A. K. Joshi & Co., Ram Panchayatan (Assembly), Kalbadevi Road

Bombay [H]. Ravi Vaibhav F.A.L. Press, Ghatkopar. I Rama sits on the throne with Sita on his lap and the royal umbrella above. Rama’s brothers, Lakshmana, Bharata, and Shatrughna, are behind them. To their left, Hanuman stands with his hands held in devotion. As was often the case, this print was embellished with spangles, likely by its owner for display in the home.

ABOVE : Hanuman. c. 1920s–30s. Print (detail), 2½ x 2" (as shown), Mahavir Bajrangbali (another name for Hanuman) [H]. I This image is a detail of fig. 2 on page 197.

CHAPTER 2

THE RAMAYANA

is an epic tale comprising 24,000 slokas (Sanskrit couplets) said to have been composed in about 500–300 BCE by the Hindu sage and poet Valmiki. Told and retold by countless generations throughout India and beyond, it is the story of Rama, Prince of Ayodhya, who is exiled from the kingdom due to palace intrigue. Joined by his devoted younger brother Lakshmana and beloved wife, Sita, he and his companions wander in the wilderness for fourteen years, encountering sages, battling demons, and restoring dharma. The rishis and wild animals who live there befriend them, and the forest becomes their idyllic home—until Ravana, the evil and powerful demon king of Lanka, disrupts their tranquility. Hearing of Sita’s beauty, he plots to abduct her, and when he succeeds through trickery, carries her off to his island kingdom. The rest of the story tells of Rama’s search for his bride and her ultimate rescue. The journey is long and arduous. Along the way, Rama and his brother encounter the monkey god Hanuman, who offers to help them. Hanuman in turn introduces them to his clan of Vanaras, a race of extraordinary monkeys whose king, Sugriva, agrees to aid in the search. The bear king, Jambavana, and his followers also join them.

And so Rama, Lakshmana, and the legions of monkeys and bears set out to find Sita. Eventually they learn where she is held captive and they prepare to confront Ravana. Sita is freed after a fierce battle, but she must undergo a trial by fire to prove her virtue was not compromised by Ravana’s advances and threats. Upon returning to Ayodhya, Rama and Sita are restored to the throne (opposite) only to have Sita’s chastity questioned again. This version of Valmiki’s Ramayana does not end happily. In a later version, the Uttara-Rama-Charita (Later Story of Rama), a Sanskrit play written by Bhavabhuti (fl. c. 700 CE ), Sita gives birth to Rama’s twin sons, Lava and Kusha, and the family lives happily ever after (see p. 206).

THE RAMAYANA (JOURNEY OF RAMA)

The Ramayana is a story of good versus evil, of dharma versus adharma, of Rama the “Ideal Man” and Sita the “Ideal Woman.” It offers a spiritual message and provides a model by which to live. As Ramesh Menon writes in the introduction to his book The Ramayana: A Modern Retelling of the Great Indian Epic, “The Ramayana is an expression of a liberal and earthy tradition, one that deals with the realities of greed, lust and power, war and kingship, nobility, tolerance, heroism, and suffering, and with the magnificent, joyful, and tragic inevitability of fate—the human condition.”

Throughout the centuries, holy men, temple dancers, bards, itinerant storytellers, scholars, and artists have all done their part in relating the tale of the Ramayana. As did the label designers—albeit with a commercial agenda. They too found their audience and a place for their creations in people’s homes and shops.

OPPOSITE : Ram Assembly. c. 1920. Print, 14 x 10" (unframed), b. A. K. Joshi & Co., Ram Panchayatan (Assembly), Kalbadevi Road

Bombay [H]. Ravi Vaibhav F.A.L. Press, Ghatkopar. I Rama sits on the throne with Sita on his lap and the royal umbrella above. Rama’s brothers, Lakshmana, Bharata, and Shatrughna, are behind them. To their left, Hanuman stands with his hands held in devotion. As was often the case, this print was embellished with spangles, likely by its owner for display in the home.

ABOVE : Hanuman. c. 1920s–30s. Print (detail), 2½ x 2" (as shown), Mahavir Bajrangbali (another name for Hanuman) [H]. I This image is a detail of fig. 2 on page 197.

1 8 4 the ramayana

SITA IN LANKA 1.

Sugriva Sends Hanuman to Find Sita. c. 1820.

Himachal Pradesh, India. Gouache and gold on paper, 8 x 10½". PMA 2. Rama Gives Hanuman His Signet Ring. 1911.

Illustration, 6¼ x 5". Artist: Balasaheb Pant Pratinidhi. Chitra Ramayana (Illustrated Ramayana), 1916. I 3.

Hanuman Visits Sita in Lanka. c. 1775–1800.

Gujarat, India. Gouache and ink on paper, 6½ x 12½". LACMA 4. Hanuman Meets Sita in Ravana’s Garden. c. 1900.

Label, 9½ x 7¼", t. Sitaji Pravasan (Sita Journey) [H], r. same as l. [H], b. same as l. [B]. I

1.

3.

the ramayana

from far and wide until a hundred thousand have assembled.

He and his army set out in all directions to comb the land in search of Sita. Rama puts his faith in Hanuman. The prince takes his signet ring off his finger and gives it to the monkey god as a sign to Sita that her beloved has sent him. Hanuman joins the legion of monkeys heading south, which is led

by Angada, Sugriva’s nephew. After a month of fruitless wandering, the search party comes to the shore of a vast ocean. Unable to advance farther, they fall into despair. The old eagle Sampati, brother of Jatayu, spies them from his tall perch (Sampati can see all). He tells them that Sita is being held captive across the sea in Lanka. But how can they get there?

Fig. 1. Hanuman leaves the cave where Sugriva and his Vanaras are living.

Fig. 2. Rama gives his signet ring to Hanuman as Sugriva and Lakshmana look on.

Fig. 3. Hanuman flies over the ocean to Lanka and finds Sita.

Fig. 4. Sita is guarded by a Rakshasi demoness in Ravana’s garden. Hanuman shows Rama’s signet ring to Sita.

SUGRIVA SUMMONS HIS VANARAS

The Vanaras have been joined by Jambavana and his army of Rikshas (bears). The wise old bear king reminds the dispirited Hanuman, son of the wind god Vayu, of his divine powers. The time has come for the monkey god to shed his doubts and act. Hanuman makes himself enormous, climbs to the top of Mount Mahendra, and launches himself into the air. With his father, Vayu, by his side, he soars across the ocean and lands in Lanka. Now he must rescue Sita . . .

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4.

185

1 8 4 the ramayana

SITA IN LANKA 1.

Sugriva Sends Hanuman to Find Sita. c. 1820.

Himachal Pradesh, India. Gouache and gold on paper, 8 x 10½". PMA 2. Rama Gives Hanuman His Signet Ring. 1911.

Illustration, 6¼ x 5". Artist: Balasaheb Pant Pratinidhi. Chitra Ramayana (Illustrated Ramayana), 1916. I 3.

Hanuman Visits Sita in Lanka. c. 1775–1800.

Gujarat, India. Gouache and ink on paper, 6½ x 12½". LACMA 4. Hanuman Meets Sita in Ravana’s Garden. c. 1900.

Label, 9½ x 7¼", t. Sitaji Pravasan (Sita Journey) [H], r. same as l. [H], b. same as l. [B]. I

1.

3.

the ramayana

from far and wide until a hundred thousand have assembled.

He and his army set out in all directions to comb the land in search of Sita. Rama puts his faith in Hanuman. The prince takes his signet ring off his finger and gives it to the monkey god as a sign to Sita that her beloved has sent him. Hanuman joins the legion of monkeys heading south, which is led

by Angada, Sugriva’s nephew. After a month of fruitless wandering, the search party comes to the shore of a vast ocean. Unable to advance farther, they fall into despair. The old eagle Sampati, brother of Jatayu, spies them from his tall perch (Sampati can see all). He tells them that Sita is being held captive across the sea in Lanka. But how can they get there?

Fig. 1. Hanuman leaves the cave where Sugriva and his Vanaras are living.

Fig. 2. Rama gives his signet ring to Hanuman as Sugriva and Lakshmana look on.

Fig. 3. Hanuman flies over the ocean to Lanka and finds Sita.

Fig. 4. Sita is guarded by a Rakshasi demoness in Ravana’s garden. Hanuman shows Rama’s signet ring to Sita.

SUGRIVA SUMMONS HIS VANARAS

The Vanaras have been joined by Jambavana and his army of Rikshas (bears). The wise old bear king reminds the dispirited Hanuman, son of the wind god Vayu, of his divine powers. The time has come for the monkey god to shed his doubts and act. Hanuman makes himself enormous, climbs to the top of Mount Mahendra, and launches himself into the air. With his father, Vayu, by his side, he soars across the ocean and lands in Lanka. Now he must rescue Sita . . .

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4.

185

CHAPTER 3

THE MAHABHARATA

(Sanskrit: Maha [Great], Bharata [India]), one of the most important Hindu epics, is the longest poem ever composed. Approximately 100,000 slokas (Sanskrit couplets), it is four times the length of the Ramayana.

No firm dates exist for either work as both are rooted in oral tradition, however, most scholars agree that the present form of the Mahabharata was written after that of the Ramayana. According to legend, the sage Vyasa composed the poem, and at the suggestion of Brahma, asked Ganesha to transcribe it. The story centers on a rivalry between two sets of cousins of the ancient Bharata dynasty—the Pandavas, the five sons of King Pandu of Hastinapura, and the Kauravas, the one hundred sons of Dhritarashtra, the blind elder brother of Pandu. After Pandu renounces his throne, Dhritarashtra becomes king and raises the young Pandavas together with his own sons. But the Kauravas, especially the eldest, Duryodhana, envy their cousins, a resentment that smolders into murderous hatred. The Pandavas are forced into a thirteen-year exile that culminates in a horrific battle on the plains of Kurukshetra. The kings of all the clans are called upon to choose sides and send their armies to fight. The war between the Kauravas and the Pandavas rages for only eighteen days, but out of millions of warriors, only a few survive the carnage—and they lose those most dear to them. In this war between kinsmen, kings, princes, Brahmans, and Kshatriyas (warriors), there are no winners. In the end, even the agreed-upon rules of chivalrous warfare break down as both sides are consumed by revenge.

THE MAHABHARATA

The main characters in the epic are as follows: Vyasa: sage/poet/composer of the Mahabharata; grandfather of the Pandavas and the Kauravas Narada: immortal sage; son of Brahma; adviser to the Pandavas THE PANDAVA CAMP

Yudhishthira: eldest Pandava brother; rightful heir to the throne of Hastinapura; survives Bhima: second Pandava brother; mighty wielder of the mace; survives Arjuna: third Pandava brother; master archer; survives Sahadeva and Nakula: twin brothers and the youngest of the Pandavas; survive Draupadi: wife to all five Pandava brothers; daughter of King Draupada; survives King Pandu: father of the Pandavas; brother of King Dhritarashtra; dies before the war Queen Kunti: King Pandu’s wife; mother of the Pandava brothers; secret mother of Karna; survives Abhimanyu: sixteen-year-old warrior and son of Arjuna; father of Pariksit; killed by Ashwatthama Krishna: avatar of Vishnu; dear friend and brother-in-law of Arjuna; Pandava ally; survives Dhrishtadyumna: Supreme Commander of the Pandava armies; brother of Draupadi; killed by Karna Pariksit: son of Abhimanyu; grandson of Arjuna; ascends to the throne of Hastinapura; survives as an infant THE KAURAVA CAMP

King Dhritarashtra: blind king of Hastinapura; father of the Kauravas; uncle of the Pandavas; survives Queen Gandhari: King Dhritarashtra’s wife; mother of the Kauravas; sister of Shakuni; survives The Kauravas: the one hundred sons of King Dhritarashtra; cousins of the Pandavas; none survive Duryodhana: the eldest Kaurava brother; main instigator of the war; killed by Bhima Dushasana: brother of Duryodhana; humiliates Draupadi at the dice game; killed by Bhima Karna: powerful warrior ally of the Kauravas; half brother of the Pandavas; killed by Arjuna Drona: martial arts teacher of the Kauravas and the Pandavas; Kaurava ally; killed by Dhrishtadyumna Bhishma: wise teacher of the Pandavas and the Kauravas; Supreme Commander of the Kaurava armies; killed by Arjuna Shakuni: uncle of the Kauravas; uses loaded dice in the dice game with Yudhishthira; killed by Sahadeva Ashwatthama: son of Drona; commander of the sneak night attack on the Pandava camp; survives OPPOSITE : Pandu (Pandava) Ticket. c. 1910. Label, 8 x 6½", l. same as r. [H], t. Pandav Ticket [H], b. Pandu Ticket [M, U]. I Yudhishthira is on the throne with Draupadi standing next to him. Bhima is on the left, Arjuna is on the right, and the twins, Nakula and Sahadeva, are in front.

ABOVE : Bhima. 19th c. Gouache on paper (cropped), approx. 5¾ x 4" (as shown). WL This image is from an album of thirty-six paintings in the Wellcome Library.

CHAPTER 3

THE MAHABHARATA

(Sanskrit: Maha [Great], Bharata [India]), one of the most important Hindu epics, is the longest poem ever composed. Approximately 100,000 slokas (Sanskrit couplets), it is four times the length of the Ramayana.

No firm dates exist for either work as both are rooted in oral tradition, however, most scholars agree that the present form of the Mahabharata was written after that of the Ramayana. According to legend, the sage Vyasa composed the poem, and at the suggestion of Brahma, asked Ganesha to transcribe it. The story centers on a rivalry between two sets of cousins of the ancient Bharata dynasty—the Pandavas, the five sons of King Pandu of Hastinapura, and the Kauravas, the one hundred sons of Dhritarashtra, the blind elder brother of Pandu. After Pandu renounces his throne, Dhritarashtra becomes king and raises the young Pandavas together with his own sons. But the Kauravas, especially the eldest, Duryodhana, envy their cousins, a resentment that smolders into murderous hatred. The Pandavas are forced into a thirteen-year exile that culminates in a horrific battle on the plains of Kurukshetra. The kings of all the clans are called upon to choose sides and send their armies to fight. The war between the Kauravas and the Pandavas rages for only eighteen days, but out of millions of warriors, only a few survive the carnage—and they lose those most dear to them. In this war between kinsmen, kings, princes, Brahmans, and Kshatriyas (warriors), there are no winners. In the end, even the agreed-upon rules of chivalrous warfare break down as both sides are consumed by revenge.

THE MAHABHARATA

The main characters in the epic are as follows: Vyasa: sage/poet/composer of the Mahabharata; grandfather of the Pandavas and the Kauravas Narada: immortal sage; son of Brahma; adviser to the Pandavas THE PANDAVA CAMP

Yudhishthira: eldest Pandava brother; rightful heir to the throne of Hastinapura; survives Bhima: second Pandava brother; mighty wielder of the mace; survives Arjuna: third Pandava brother; master archer; survives Sahadeva and Nakula: twin brothers and the youngest of the Pandavas; survive Draupadi: wife to all five Pandava brothers; daughter of King Draupada; survives King Pandu: father of the Pandavas; brother of King Dhritarashtra; dies before the war Queen Kunti: King Pandu’s wife; mother of the Pandava brothers; secret mother of Karna; survives Abhimanyu: sixteen-year-old warrior and son of Arjuna; father of Pariksit; killed by Ashwatthama Krishna: avatar of Vishnu; dear friend and brother-in-law of Arjuna; Pandava ally; survives Dhrishtadyumna: Supreme Commander of the Pandava armies; brother of Draupadi; killed by Karna Pariksit: son of Abhimanyu; grandson of Arjuna; ascends to the throne of Hastinapura; survives as an infant THE KAURAVA CAMP

King Dhritarashtra: blind king of Hastinapura; father of the Kauravas; uncle of the Pandavas; survives Queen Gandhari: King Dhritarashtra’s wife; mother of the Kauravas; sister of Shakuni; survives The Kauravas: the one hundred sons of King Dhritarashtra; cousins of the Pandavas; none survive Duryodhana: the eldest Kaurava brother; main instigator of the war; killed by Bhima Dushasana: brother of Duryodhana; humiliates Draupadi at the dice game; killed by Bhima Karna: powerful warrior ally of the Kauravas; half brother of the Pandavas; killed by Arjuna Drona: martial arts teacher of the Kauravas and the Pandavas; Kaurava ally; killed by Dhrishtadyumna Bhishma: wise teacher of the Pandavas and the Kauravas; Supreme Commander of the Kaurava armies; killed by Arjuna Shakuni: uncle of the Kauravas; uses loaded dice in the dice game with Yudhishthira; killed by Sahadeva Ashwatthama: son of Drona; commander of the sneak night attack on the Pandava camp; survives OPPOSITE : Pandu (Pandava) Ticket. c. 1910. Label, 8 x 6½", l. same as r. [H], t. Pandav Ticket [H], b. Pandu Ticket [M, U]. I Yudhishthira is on the throne with Draupadi standing next to him. Bhima is on the left, Arjuna is on the right, and the twins, Nakula and Sahadeva, are in front.

ABOVE : Bhima. 19th c. Gouache on paper (cropped), approx. 5¾ x 4" (as shown). WL This image is from an album of thirty-six paintings in the Wellcome Library.

2 1 8 the mahabharata

the mahabharata

VISHVARUPA 1.

Vishvarupa (Virat Swaroop). c. 1920s(?). Print,

14 x 10", b. Anant Shivaji Desai, Virat Swaroop, Moti Bazaar, Bombay [H]. Ravi Udaya Vijay Press, Ghatkopar. I 2.

Vishnu-Krishna Manifests His Cosmic Form.

Mid-19th c. Rajasthan, India. Gouache and gold on paper, 11½ x 7½". PMA

moral, metaphysical, spiritual, and practical messages have resonated with people worldwide. Mahatma Gandhi expressed that he “found solace in the Bhagavad Gita.” Jawaharlal Nehru related to its “call for action to meet the obligations and duties of life.” Ralph Waldo Emerson called it “the voice of an old intelligence.” And Robert Oppenheimer, who was well-versed in Sanskrit and considered by many to be the father of the atomic bomb, recalled these descriptions of Vishvarupa when he saw the first detonation of a nuclear weapon, “If the radiance of a thousand suns were to burst at once into the sky, that would be like the splendor of the mighty one. . . . Now I am become Death, the destroyer of worlds.”

THE BHAGAVAD GITA’S

At the conclusion of the Bhagavad Gita, Krishna assumes the cosmic form of Vishvarupa, Vishnu as the Supreme Being. He is enormous and the entire Universe is contained within him. Arjuna can see the past, the present, and the future; all the gods and demons; all of mankind including the two armies about to fight to the death. Vishvarupa is infinite. He is terrifying and magnificent. With his inner conflict resolved, Arjuna prepares to lead his troops into battle . . .

Fig. 1. Arjuna sees Krishna as Vishvarupa in his terrible form. Weapons of war are in his infinite hands.

Vishnu, Lakshmi, Brahma, and Shiva reside in his chest.

Fig. 2. All the creatures of Earth and Heaven are contained in Vishvarupa.

1.

2.

219

2 1 8 the mahabharata

the mahabharata

VISHVARUPA 1.

Vishvarupa (Virat Swaroop). c. 1920s(?). Print,

14 x 10", b. Anant Shivaji Desai, Virat Swaroop, Moti Bazaar, Bombay [H]. Ravi Udaya Vijay Press, Ghatkopar. I 2.

Vishnu-Krishna Manifests His Cosmic Form.

Mid-19th c. Rajasthan, India. Gouache and gold on paper, 11½ x 7½". PMA

moral, metaphysical, spiritual, and practical messages have resonated with people worldwide. Mahatma Gandhi expressed that he “found solace in the Bhagavad Gita.” Jawaharlal Nehru related to its “call for action to meet the obligations and duties of life.” Ralph Waldo Emerson called it “the voice of an old intelligence.” And Robert Oppenheimer, who was well-versed in Sanskrit and considered by many to be the father of the atomic bomb, recalled these descriptions of Vishvarupa when he saw the first detonation of a nuclear weapon, “If the radiance of a thousand suns were to burst at once into the sky, that would be like the splendor of the mighty one. . . . Now I am become Death, the destroyer of worlds.”

THE BHAGAVAD GITA’S

At the conclusion of the Bhagavad Gita, Krishna assumes the cosmic form of Vishvarupa, Vishnu as the Supreme Being. He is enormous and the entire Universe is contained within him. Arjuna can see the past, the present, and the future; all the gods and demons; all of mankind including the two armies about to fight to the death. Vishvarupa is infinite. He is terrifying and magnificent. With his inner conflict resolved, Arjuna prepares to lead his troops into battle . . .

Fig. 1. Arjuna sees Krishna as Vishvarupa in his terrible form. Weapons of war are in his infinite hands.

Vishnu, Lakshmi, Brahma, and Shiva reside in his chest.

Fig. 2. All the creatures of Earth and Heaven are contained in Vishvarupa.

1.

2.

219