The Handmade carpet

THE HANDMADE CARPET A COMPREHENSIVE GUIDE TO CONTEMPORARY RUGS

FRITZ LANGAUER AND ERNST A. SWIETLY

SECTION 1

THE HANDMADE CARPET

1

2

PART TWO: MAKING CARPETS

PART THREE: A WORLD OF CARPETS

PART FOUR: BUYING, SELLING AND KEEPING

APPENDIX

17

61

141

235

290

249

293

259

294

265

298

269

301

PART ONE: CARPETS IN CONTEXT

11

Preface

13

About the Authors

Introduction: The Word ‘Carpet’

19

How Carpet Making and Trading Evolved

The Pazyryk, the World’s OldestKnown Carpet

75

25

93

33

97

45

103

49

109

55

121

The Naming of Carpets

Features, Functions and Meanings

Art and Aesthetics

Why Become a Carpet Collector?

Religion and Carpets

The Creation of an Oriental Carpet

Carpet Materials

From Sheep to Wool to Dyeing

Knots

Flat-weaves

Machine-made Carpets

125

The Sociology of Carpet Production

131

New Developments

6

Carpets in Context

3 4

Iran-Persia

151

Turkmenistan

157

Anatolia-Turkey

165

The Caucasus

173

Tibet and Nepal

189

India and Pakistan

201

China

Europe and the Western Migration of Oriental Carpets

Carpet Dynasties

Sales Strategies

Auctions

Identifying and Evaluating Carpets

120 Years of Carpet-Making – and a Glimpse of the Future

Record Carpets

Carpet Museums

Bibliography

Acknowledgements

275

Handling Carpets

286

Buying Advice

211

Afghanistan

219

Non-Oriental Carpets

7

SECTION 1

THE HANDMADE CARPET

1

2

PART TWO: MAKING CARPETS

PART THREE: A WORLD OF CARPETS

PART FOUR: BUYING, SELLING AND KEEPING

APPENDIX

17

61

141

235

290

249

293

259

294

265

298

269

301

PART ONE: CARPETS IN CONTEXT

11

Preface

13

About the Authors

Introduction: The Word ‘Carpet’

19

How Carpet Making and Trading Evolved

The Pazyryk, the World’s OldestKnown Carpet

75

25

93

33

97

45

103

49

109

55

121

The Naming of Carpets

Features, Functions and Meanings

Art and Aesthetics

Why Become a Carpet Collector?

Religion and Carpets

The Creation of an Oriental Carpet

Carpet Materials

From Sheep to Wool to Dyeing

Knots

Flat-weaves

Machine-made Carpets

125

The Sociology of Carpet Production

131

New Developments

6

Carpets in Context

3 4

Iran-Persia

151

Turkmenistan

157

Anatolia-Turkey

165

The Caucasus

173

Tibet and Nepal

189

India and Pakistan

201

China

Europe and the Western Migration of Oriental Carpets

Carpet Dynasties

Sales Strategies

Auctions

Identifying and Evaluating Carpets

120 Years of Carpet-Making – and a Glimpse of the Future

Record Carpets

Carpet Museums

Bibliography

Acknowledgements

275

Handling Carpets

286

Buying Advice

211

Afghanistan

219

Non-Oriental Carpets

7

PREFACE

Here is a richly illustrated, newly researched, critically written book for carpet collectors, lovers, consultants, consumers and all who are interested in the art form. It brings new light to carpet literature.

The last edition of the specialist book Das Grosse Orient-Teppich-Buch (‘The Great Oriental Carpet Book’) by J. G. Lettenmair appeared in German in 1978. Since then, there has been no comparable work to report on the dramatic upheavals of recent decades that have changed the international carpet world completely. Religious, economic, social and technological revolutions have changed designs, techniques, prices and trade routes of knotted and woven fine textiles so much that lay people and even experts are amazed.

Our knowledge of the Orient and its textile products has changed enormously since the Second World War. Today there are new insights and experiences into the carpet market which can no longer be compared with those from the middle of the 20th century.

Fritz Langauer has sixty years of experience in the wholesale and retail trade of new and antique carpets; he is a forensic expert, senior owner of Oritop GmbH and an importer. His co-author is carpet collector

10

and journalist Ernst A. Swietly; together they have analysed the contemporary world of carpets. They look at new designs and qualities as well as the latest trends; they investigate why some of the old producers of oriental carpets are pulling out of the market at the same time as many new producers are entering it. They examine the question of why old natural colours are experiencing a renaissance, while synthetically produced colours often fail to satisfy current environmental sensitivities.

They conclude that today there are better, much more tasteful carpets than twenty five years ago – and for a better price.

The book celebrates the bright, colourful, decorative character of the contemporary carpet world, but also uncovers suspect trade practices. The hidden language of oriental carpets is deciphered, the sociology of carpet production is explained, revered carpet dynasties are described and numerous new developments on the carpet market are traced.

What exactly is it that fascinates us when we admire wonderful weaving? Where in the world can you see the most beautiful carpets? Who are the winners and losers on the world carpet market at the beginning of the 21st century? How are carpets classified and evaluated? How do you care for them so that they give us infinite pleasure? What

are the finest, largest and most expensive carpets, and where can you find them?

From where do the thousands of old and new carpet names originate? All these questions are addressed. Also, the social and financial conditions of employees in the carpet industry are explored in depth.

We look at the connections between carpet lore and the great world religions, delving into the meanings of the inscriptions found on rugs. There are contributions from experts on such specialised subjects as flatweave and dyeing.

The book describes how to become a carpet collector, and why people make that choice. It also demonstrates that starting out can cost much less than some suggest!

Previous spread 01 The ‘flying carpet’ display showing items from the carpet collection in the Museum für Angewandte Kunst in Vienna Opposite page 02 Two contemporary silk carpets with interpretations of a classical Persian carpet; designed and made by Jürgen Dahlmanns of Rug Star. Seen in a residential apartment in Berlin circa 1880. Design: Isfahan Block Supreme No. 04. Photo: Rug Star

11

PREFACE

Here is a richly illustrated, newly researched, critically written book for carpet collectors, lovers, consultants, consumers and all who are interested in the art form. It brings new light to carpet literature.

The last edition of the specialist book Das Grosse Orient-Teppich-Buch (‘The Great Oriental Carpet Book’) by J. G. Lettenmair appeared in German in 1978. Since then, there has been no comparable work to report on the dramatic upheavals of recent decades that have changed the international carpet world completely. Religious, economic, social and technological revolutions have changed designs, techniques, prices and trade routes of knotted and woven fine textiles so much that lay people and even experts are amazed.

Our knowledge of the Orient and its textile products has changed enormously since the Second World War. Today there are new insights and experiences into the carpet market which can no longer be compared with those from the middle of the 20th century.

Fritz Langauer has sixty years of experience in the wholesale and retail trade of new and antique carpets; he is a forensic expert, senior owner of Oritop GmbH and an importer. His co-author is carpet collector

10

and journalist Ernst A. Swietly; together they have analysed the contemporary world of carpets. They look at new designs and qualities as well as the latest trends; they investigate why some of the old producers of oriental carpets are pulling out of the market at the same time as many new producers are entering it. They examine the question of why old natural colours are experiencing a renaissance, while synthetically produced colours often fail to satisfy current environmental sensitivities.

They conclude that today there are better, much more tasteful carpets than twenty five years ago – and for a better price.

The book celebrates the bright, colourful, decorative character of the contemporary carpet world, but also uncovers suspect trade practices. The hidden language of oriental carpets is deciphered, the sociology of carpet production is explained, revered carpet dynasties are described and numerous new developments on the carpet market are traced.

What exactly is it that fascinates us when we admire wonderful weaving? Where in the world can you see the most beautiful carpets? Who are the winners and losers on the world carpet market at the beginning of the 21st century? How are carpets classified and evaluated? How do you care for them so that they give us infinite pleasure? What

are the finest, largest and most expensive carpets, and where can you find them?

From where do the thousands of old and new carpet names originate? All these questions are addressed. Also, the social and financial conditions of employees in the carpet industry are explored in depth.

We look at the connections between carpet lore and the great world religions, delving into the meanings of the inscriptions found on rugs. There are contributions from experts on such specialised subjects as flatweave and dyeing.

The book describes how to become a carpet collector, and why people make that choice. It also demonstrates that starting out can cost much less than some suggest!

Previous spread 01 The ‘flying carpet’ display showing items from the carpet collection in the Museum für Angewandte Kunst in Vienna Opposite page 02 Two contemporary silk carpets with interpretations of a classical Persian carpet; designed and made by Jürgen Dahlmanns of Rug Star. Seen in a residential apartment in Berlin circa 1880. Design: Isfahan Block Supreme No. 04. Photo: Rug Star

11

THE HANDMADE CARPET

SECTION 1

Carpets in Context

THE PAZYRYK, THE WORLD’S OLDEST-KNOWN CARPET

In 1947, the Russian archaeologist Professor Sergei Ivanovich Rudenko discovered a knotted carpet during an ice excavation in the Central Asian Altai mountains in the far east of Russia on the border between Siberia, Mongolia and China. Found in a kurgan (burial mound with chambers), the carpet measured 1.83 x 1.98 metres – thus, almost a square. It is probably the most famous carpet on Earth.

A burial object from the Achaemenid period from around 2,500 years ago, it remains in a good state of preservation. It is estimated to have been made between the 5th and 4th centuries BC , i.e. about the time that the Greek philosopher Socrates was born in Athens. It may be the oldest carpet known but there may well be older carpets in existence that have yet to be found or securely dated.

The name Pazyryk derives from the Scythian culture of the 6th to 3rd centuries BC , identified by archaeological finds; the nomenclature has transferred to the associated burial sites and the artefacts found there. The warp, weft and pile of the so-called Pazyryk carpet are made of fine, silky wool in a wide range of rather restrained colours: dark red, yellow, green, blue and copper brown all feature.

According to experts, these are the exact colours of the endless steppe landscape

18

through which the carpet was transported to the site where it was found.

The pattern and the motifs of the Pazyryk are very similar to stone reliefs and statues seen at the Apadana (audience hall) in the ruined city of Persepolis in Iran. The carpet has 3,600 symmetric knots per square decimetre, just like carpets in the southern Caucasus today. The basic structure of the carpet has three, sometimes four wefts between each row of knots.

Experts believe that a long period of artistic development preceded the production of this elaborately knotted carpet; it is therefore the product of a very experienced workshop. In central Asia, the cultures of the ancient Altai encountered those of Iran and the Near East. It therefore cannot be ruled out that nomads made the Pazyryk in accordance with a Persian pattern.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE DESIGN In an expert analysis of the Pazyryk by Ulrich Schürmann one reads: Five braids, two wide and three narrow, frame a relatively small field: this is a chequered pattern of equally sized, narrow-framed squares, separated by a narrow gap. The ornamental filling is a

star-shaped, stylised four-leaf motif or a flower with four petals. The twentyfour squares, six vertical and four horizontal, make the carpet deceptively similar to a Turkmen product. The inner narrow border of the Pazyryk carpet is decorated with small cartouches, their jagged edge framing a standing griffin.

The following broad stripe shows deer, giving the appearance of a grazing flock.

The next narrow border repeats the starshaped flower motif of the squares in a small format. In the widest, main border, a procession of riders is shown, moving in the opposite direction to the deer. The outer narrow braided edge shows the small cartouches with the griffins. The richness and profusion of the borders are comparable to the style of modern products. The arrangement of the figures and motifs is probably based on ritual performances.

From Der Pazyryk, seine Deutung und Herkunft (1982)

DISPUTED ORIGINS OF THE PAZYRYK The find-site of the Pazyryk appears to be a traditional burial place of the members of an aristocratic society, probably the Scythians. Some researchers believe that the Pazyryk site was the burial place of

19

THE HANDMADE CARPET

SECTION 1

Carpets in Context

THE PAZYRYK, THE WORLD’S OLDEST-KNOWN CARPET

In 1947, the Russian archaeologist Professor Sergei Ivanovich Rudenko discovered a knotted carpet during an ice excavation in the Central Asian Altai mountains in the far east of Russia on the border between Siberia, Mongolia and China. Found in a kurgan (burial mound with chambers), the carpet measured 1.83 x 1.98 metres – thus, almost a square. It is probably the most famous carpet on Earth.

A burial object from the Achaemenid period from around 2,500 years ago, it remains in a good state of preservation. It is estimated to have been made between the 5th and 4th centuries BC , i.e. about the time that the Greek philosopher Socrates was born in Athens. It may be the oldest carpet known but there may well be older carpets in existence that have yet to be found or securely dated.

The name Pazyryk derives from the Scythian culture of the 6th to 3rd centuries BC , identified by archaeological finds; the nomenclature has transferred to the associated burial sites and the artefacts found there. The warp, weft and pile of the so-called Pazyryk carpet are made of fine, silky wool in a wide range of rather restrained colours: dark red, yellow, green, blue and copper brown all feature.

According to experts, these are the exact colours of the endless steppe landscape

18

through which the carpet was transported to the site where it was found.

The pattern and the motifs of the Pazyryk are very similar to stone reliefs and statues seen at the Apadana (audience hall) in the ruined city of Persepolis in Iran. The carpet has 3,600 symmetric knots per square decimetre, just like carpets in the southern Caucasus today. The basic structure of the carpet has three, sometimes four wefts between each row of knots.

Experts believe that a long period of artistic development preceded the production of this elaborately knotted carpet; it is therefore the product of a very experienced workshop. In central Asia, the cultures of the ancient Altai encountered those of Iran and the Near East. It therefore cannot be ruled out that nomads made the Pazyryk in accordance with a Persian pattern.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE DESIGN In an expert analysis of the Pazyryk by Ulrich Schürmann one reads: Five braids, two wide and three narrow, frame a relatively small field: this is a chequered pattern of equally sized, narrow-framed squares, separated by a narrow gap. The ornamental filling is a

star-shaped, stylised four-leaf motif or a flower with four petals. The twentyfour squares, six vertical and four horizontal, make the carpet deceptively similar to a Turkmen product. The inner narrow border of the Pazyryk carpet is decorated with small cartouches, their jagged edge framing a standing griffin.

The following broad stripe shows deer, giving the appearance of a grazing flock.

The next narrow border repeats the starshaped flower motif of the squares in a small format. In the widest, main border, a procession of riders is shown, moving in the opposite direction to the deer. The outer narrow braided edge shows the small cartouches with the griffins. The richness and profusion of the borders are comparable to the style of modern products. The arrangement of the figures and motifs is probably based on ritual performances.

From Der Pazyryk, seine Deutung und Herkunft (1982)

DISPUTED ORIGINS OF THE PAZYRYK The find-site of the Pazyryk appears to be a traditional burial place of the members of an aristocratic society, probably the Scythians. Some researchers believe that the Pazyryk site was the burial place of

19

THE HANDMADE CARPET

SECTION 1

Carpets in Context

THE NAMING OF CARPETS

Originally, most carpet names were designations of origin

To put it simply: prospective buyers should not pay too much attention to carpet names in displays or sales brochures. This is because there are hundreds of them, many of which are purely arbitrary inventions; moreover, each named carpet type encompasses very different qualities and colours. Names alone mean nothing!

It is only since the middle of the 18th century that carpets have been consistently categorised and named in circles according their places of origin or motifs, properties, formats, materials or manufacturers.

Unfortunately, non-specialists are often confused by these names. However, this problem is not insoluble. Lovers of woven and knotted carpets should familiarise themselves with the geographical and ethnographic environment of the carpet-producing countries, their culture and with the part-Arab, part-Persian and part-Turkish terminology.

ROOTS OF CARPET NAMES

12 Anatolian rug with a Lotto design, named after the numerous depictions of rugs with this pattern in paintings

by Italian artist Lorenzo Lotto (c.1480–1556/7). 1.69 x 1.17m (5' 7" x 3' 10"), west Anatolia, circa 1700.

Courtesy Austrian Auction Company

24

Originally, most carpet names were designations of origin. They were based on the people, the (nomadic) tribe, the region or location from which the pattern template for a carpet came, or where the carpet knotting was or is performed. Often, the name of the town in which the entire region's carpets are collected and traded is used to designate those carpets.

Numerous knotted works are named according to the use intended by their makers, and are mostly used by nomads as everyday objects. (Details can be found in the chapter ‘Features, Functions and Meanings’, p.33.)

Mosque dome carpets or Gonbad (this Farsi word means ‘dome’) produce an image that resembles the original interior view of mosque domes as closely as possible. The viewer of the carpet has the impression of being under the main dome of a mosque; they look to the top and see the colours of the ornaments above them and, at the same time, see how the architect achieved the transition from the towering, mostly square building walls into the round dome.

The fineness of the pattern of mosque dome carpets aims to imitate the true characteristics of a domed building as closely as is possible in a carpet.

There are also bird’s head, cemetery or vase carpets. All of these designations refer to the specific pattern of the relevant carpets.

Sometimes, designations of pattern and origin are combined, such as ‘Tree Kazak’.

Garden carpets have square or rectangular interior fields with various flower arrangements in between watercourses.

They give the viewer the impression of a bird’s-eye view of a well-kept Persian or Turkish garden. Garden carpets have

25

THE HANDMADE CARPET

SECTION 1

Carpets in Context

THE NAMING OF CARPETS

Originally, most carpet names were designations of origin

To put it simply: prospective buyers should not pay too much attention to carpet names in displays or sales brochures. This is because there are hundreds of them, many of which are purely arbitrary inventions; moreover, each named carpet type encompasses very different qualities and colours. Names alone mean nothing!

It is only since the middle of the 18th century that carpets have been consistently categorised and named in circles according their places of origin or motifs, properties, formats, materials or manufacturers.

Unfortunately, non-specialists are often confused by these names. However, this problem is not insoluble. Lovers of woven and knotted carpets should familiarise themselves with the geographical and ethnographic environment of the carpet-producing countries, their culture and with the part-Arab, part-Persian and part-Turkish terminology.

ROOTS OF CARPET NAMES

12 Anatolian rug with a Lotto design, named after the numerous depictions of rugs with this pattern in paintings

by Italian artist Lorenzo Lotto (c.1480–1556/7). 1.69 x 1.17m (5' 7" x 3' 10"), west Anatolia, circa 1700.

Courtesy Austrian Auction Company

24

Originally, most carpet names were designations of origin. They were based on the people, the (nomadic) tribe, the region or location from which the pattern template for a carpet came, or where the carpet knotting was or is performed. Often, the name of the town in which the entire region's carpets are collected and traded is used to designate those carpets.

Numerous knotted works are named according to the use intended by their makers, and are mostly used by nomads as everyday objects. (Details can be found in the chapter ‘Features, Functions and Meanings’, p.33.)

Mosque dome carpets or Gonbad (this Farsi word means ‘dome’) produce an image that resembles the original interior view of mosque domes as closely as possible. The viewer of the carpet has the impression of being under the main dome of a mosque; they look to the top and see the colours of the ornaments above them and, at the same time, see how the architect achieved the transition from the towering, mostly square building walls into the round dome.

The fineness of the pattern of mosque dome carpets aims to imitate the true characteristics of a domed building as closely as is possible in a carpet.

There are also bird’s head, cemetery or vase carpets. All of these designations refer to the specific pattern of the relevant carpets.

Sometimes, designations of pattern and origin are combined, such as ‘Tree Kazak’.

Garden carpets have square or rectangular interior fields with various flower arrangements in between watercourses.

They give the viewer the impression of a bird’s-eye view of a well-kept Persian or Turkish garden. Garden carpets have

25

SECTION 1

THE HANDMADE CARPET

Carpets in Context

INSCRIPTION CARPETS In numerous oriental rugs, especially in prayer carpets from manufacturers with high quality standards, finely knotted religious, carefully executed calligraphic inscriptions are usually contained in cartouches (= frame-like areas, mostly amulet-shaped or rectangular surrounds).

Sometimes they are short and concise, sometimes hidden between other motifs.

The inscription is an additional decorative element for a carpet; weavers form their inscriptions more beautifully than can be done by hand. Calligraphy has a special meaning in Islamic art, and these weavings are mainly found in religious buildings and palaces. Faithful Muslims value the possession of well-known Qur’an suras in elaborate handwriting with the description of the delights of paradise, the call to prayer and the remembrance of the Resurrection on Judgement Day. As for the lettering style in the carpet, there are eight different kinds: the old, the ‘strict kufi’, marked by high vertical square letters; the ‘kufi’ from Egypt with its serifs ending in leaves and palmettes; the ‘flourishing kufi’ with its arabesques and round serifs; the italic, vertically stressed ‘nakshi’; the strongly bound italic ‘thulut’; and the playful and elegant horizontally drawn ‘nastalik’ (= Persian italics).

17

17 This carpet from the second half of the 19th century has a rare inscription that relates it to an exact workshop: Order of his Highly Esteemed Excellency Hajji Mohammad Taki Aqa Kashani, workshop of Mohtasham.

2.23 x 3.22m (7' 4" x 10' 7"). Courtesy Austrian Auction Company

40

The inscriptions found on carpets can be deciphered by connoisseurs. They usually take the form of suras (loosely, ‘chapters’) or parts of suras from the Qur’an, the holy book of Islam, containing all the prophecies of Muhammad from the years 610 to 632, and collected by Sultan Osman after his death in 114 suras. According to tradition, Muhammad could not write. Just as Jesus Christ required the Evangelists, Islam also had ‘ambassadors’ who laid down the sayings of the Prophet in writing long after his death. Occasionally, the works of famous authors are knotted, such as the words of the Persian poets Hafiz and Saadi, as well as the sayings of philosophers or teachers of Sufi mysticism. However, there are also carpet inscriptions that have not been translated because they are poorly made imitations of older carpets, whose original text the weaver could not read; they were inserted as a decorative element.

A PARTICULARLY INTERESTING 1970 TAPESTRY FROM TABRIZ This fine carpet is a prime example of an inscribed piece. In the picture, the names of famous poets are described with numbers as follows: 1

17

1 Nizami

18

16

2 Saadi 3 Hafez-e Shirazi

7

4 Ferdowsi 5 Omar Khayyam 6 Baba Tahir Uryan 6

2

15

The cartouches (7-18) arranged 8

around the infield contain the following statements: This carpet, which once bore the footsteps of the kings of the world, makes the

14

9

2

birds sing: ‘Look, what splendour!’ It puts us in the Garden of Paradise, full of joy, happiness and pleasure. The colours of hundreds of tulips and countless flowers are combined in this work of art. Birds are

4 13

12

chirping, full of joie de vivre, about the

3 11

10

wonderful world that lies ahead of them.

Let us thank the Creator that we delight in this splendour.

It is interesting to speculate what this magnificent piece might be worth. The answer is: ‘All the gold and silver in the world would not be sufficient.’

In his book Morgenländische Teppiche (‘Oriental Carpets’), Heinrich Ropers quotes rich inscriptions on old carpets ‘knotted between the pillars of the niche or embedded in the angles of the pediment’. The lettering is ornamental, meaning that the layman hardly notices what is before him. One of the inscriptions is ‘The remembrance of God is the light of faith’; another ‘The best lies in what has

happened’. Another prayer carpet says: ‘Allah has ninety-nine names, whoever knows them by heart will enter Paradise.’

Symbolic representations, such as the tree of life, often accompany the inscriptions.

Inscriptions are, on the one hand, a representation of artistic craft, on the other, an expression of wisdom and lessons for life. Occasionally, love poems, esoteric,

encrypted messages or blessing proverbs are included, such as a mobarak bad (‘wedding song’), which are usually found on wedding carpets.

Weaver signatures can contain concrete information on the carpet: importantly its year of creation. The date is marked in old Arabic numerals, calculated in accordance with the Hegira (Islamic calendar). In

41

SECTION 1

THE HANDMADE CARPET

Carpets in Context

INSCRIPTION CARPETS In numerous oriental rugs, especially in prayer carpets from manufacturers with high quality standards, finely knotted religious, carefully executed calligraphic inscriptions are usually contained in cartouches (= frame-like areas, mostly amulet-shaped or rectangular surrounds).

Sometimes they are short and concise, sometimes hidden between other motifs.

The inscription is an additional decorative element for a carpet; weavers form their inscriptions more beautifully than can be done by hand. Calligraphy has a special meaning in Islamic art, and these weavings are mainly found in religious buildings and palaces. Faithful Muslims value the possession of well-known Qur’an suras in elaborate handwriting with the description of the delights of paradise, the call to prayer and the remembrance of the Resurrection on Judgement Day. As for the lettering style in the carpet, there are eight different kinds: the old, the ‘strict kufi’, marked by high vertical square letters; the ‘kufi’ from Egypt with its serifs ending in leaves and palmettes; the ‘flourishing kufi’ with its arabesques and round serifs; the italic, vertically stressed ‘nakshi’; the strongly bound italic ‘thulut’; and the playful and elegant horizontally drawn ‘nastalik’ (= Persian italics).

17

17 This carpet from the second half of the 19th century has a rare inscription that relates it to an exact workshop: Order of his Highly Esteemed Excellency Hajji Mohammad Taki Aqa Kashani, workshop of Mohtasham.

2.23 x 3.22m (7' 4" x 10' 7"). Courtesy Austrian Auction Company

40

The inscriptions found on carpets can be deciphered by connoisseurs. They usually take the form of suras (loosely, ‘chapters’) or parts of suras from the Qur’an, the holy book of Islam, containing all the prophecies of Muhammad from the years 610 to 632, and collected by Sultan Osman after his death in 114 suras. According to tradition, Muhammad could not write. Just as Jesus Christ required the Evangelists, Islam also had ‘ambassadors’ who laid down the sayings of the Prophet in writing long after his death. Occasionally, the works of famous authors are knotted, such as the words of the Persian poets Hafiz and Saadi, as well as the sayings of philosophers or teachers of Sufi mysticism. However, there are also carpet inscriptions that have not been translated because they are poorly made imitations of older carpets, whose original text the weaver could not read; they were inserted as a decorative element.

A PARTICULARLY INTERESTING 1970 TAPESTRY FROM TABRIZ This fine carpet is a prime example of an inscribed piece. In the picture, the names of famous poets are described with numbers as follows: 1

17

1 Nizami

18

16

2 Saadi 3 Hafez-e Shirazi

7

4 Ferdowsi 5 Omar Khayyam 6 Baba Tahir Uryan 6

2

15

The cartouches (7-18) arranged 8

around the infield contain the following statements: This carpet, which once bore the footsteps of the kings of the world, makes the

14

9

2

birds sing: ‘Look, what splendour!’ It puts us in the Garden of Paradise, full of joy, happiness and pleasure. The colours of hundreds of tulips and countless flowers are combined in this work of art. Birds are

4 13

12

chirping, full of joie de vivre, about the

3 11

10

wonderful world that lies ahead of them.

Let us thank the Creator that we delight in this splendour.

It is interesting to speculate what this magnificent piece might be worth. The answer is: ‘All the gold and silver in the world would not be sufficient.’

In his book Morgenländische Teppiche (‘Oriental Carpets’), Heinrich Ropers quotes rich inscriptions on old carpets ‘knotted between the pillars of the niche or embedded in the angles of the pediment’. The lettering is ornamental, meaning that the layman hardly notices what is before him. One of the inscriptions is ‘The remembrance of God is the light of faith’; another ‘The best lies in what has

happened’. Another prayer carpet says: ‘Allah has ninety-nine names, whoever knows them by heart will enter Paradise.’

Symbolic representations, such as the tree of life, often accompany the inscriptions.

Inscriptions are, on the one hand, a representation of artistic craft, on the other, an expression of wisdom and lessons for life. Occasionally, love poems, esoteric,

encrypted messages or blessing proverbs are included, such as a mobarak bad (‘wedding song’), which are usually found on wedding carpets.

Weaver signatures can contain concrete information on the carpet: importantly its year of creation. The date is marked in old Arabic numerals, calculated in accordance with the Hegira (Islamic calendar). In

41

SECTION 2

THE HANDMADE CARPET

2

58

Making Carpets

MAKING CARPETS

59

SECTION 2

THE HANDMADE CARPET

2

58

Making Carpets

MAKING CARPETS

59

THE HANDMADE CARPET

SECTION 2

Making Carpets

THE CREATION OF AN ORIENTAL CARPET Weaving takes up almost two thirds of the total production time, and is by far the longest process

16 The finer the carpet, the more colours are used in the design.

Here a workshop floor in Nepal shows the subtle varieties of colours that are used to create shading, detail and depth in the increasingly sophisticated designs made for contemporary interiors. Courtesy Label Step

74

When it comes to oriental carpets, their name and origin, their fineness and patterning, the creative work of the weaver, perhaps even the label sewn in by the seller can be the focal point. This usually means ignoring the complex production process undertaken for the carpet to one day delight owners and guests in a flat, an office, a collection or a museum. This is a great pity.

Weaving, which takes up almost two thirds of the total time, is by far the longest production process with carpets. From a cost perspective, things look different: the preparation of the yarns for warp, weft and pile are of primary importance, followed by the costs of dyes, while the wages for knotting come third. Dyeing with natural substances changes the relationship between knotting and residual costs to about 50:50.

The classic sequence of steps in the journey of creating an oriental carpet is this:

IN THE BEGINNING, THE IDEA

• Choice of fineness, colours, format, knotting, warp and weft material.

• Choice of pattern, designer, illustrator or copyist.

• The choice of loom as well as of the weaver.

• Preparation of the materials in the required quantities and qualities.

• Colouring of the yarns for warp, weft and pile.

• Rolling of the warp.

• Weaving process and laying of the weft threads.

• Cutting, burning, dusting, washing, finishing and stretching.

• Transport to the wholesalers, cooperative or factory.

• Analysis of export markets.

• Delivery to retail trade.

Carpet designs vary according to the type of producer. Nomads and peasant weavers usually use traditional geometric patterns employed by their ancestors; they are passed on from generation to generation, meaning that the knotting is mostly from memory and incorporates personal imagination. Here, there is the possibility that patterns will undergo further, individual development, particularly in the choice and combination of colours. Manufacturers making large quantities of carpets mostly use defined, mostly floral, patterns and formats, which they reproduce exactly according to the same templates. Individual variations are not allowed. The majority of today’s ‘manufacture carpets’ are knotted in household production, but according to the guidelines of a manufacturer or dealer.

75

THE HANDMADE CARPET

SECTION 2

Making Carpets

THE CREATION OF AN ORIENTAL CARPET Weaving takes up almost two thirds of the total production time, and is by far the longest process

16 The finer the carpet, the more colours are used in the design.

Here a workshop floor in Nepal shows the subtle varieties of colours that are used to create shading, detail and depth in the increasingly sophisticated designs made for contemporary interiors. Courtesy Label Step

74

When it comes to oriental carpets, their name and origin, their fineness and patterning, the creative work of the weaver, perhaps even the label sewn in by the seller can be the focal point. This usually means ignoring the complex production process undertaken for the carpet to one day delight owners and guests in a flat, an office, a collection or a museum. This is a great pity.

Weaving, which takes up almost two thirds of the total time, is by far the longest production process with carpets. From a cost perspective, things look different: the preparation of the yarns for warp, weft and pile are of primary importance, followed by the costs of dyes, while the wages for knotting come third. Dyeing with natural substances changes the relationship between knotting and residual costs to about 50:50.

The classic sequence of steps in the journey of creating an oriental carpet is this:

IN THE BEGINNING, THE IDEA

• Choice of fineness, colours, format, knotting, warp and weft material.

• Choice of pattern, designer, illustrator or copyist.

• The choice of loom as well as of the weaver.

• Preparation of the materials in the required quantities and qualities.

• Colouring of the yarns for warp, weft and pile.

• Rolling of the warp.

• Weaving process and laying of the weft threads.

• Cutting, burning, dusting, washing, finishing and stretching.

• Transport to the wholesalers, cooperative or factory.

• Analysis of export markets.

• Delivery to retail trade.

Carpet designs vary according to the type of producer. Nomads and peasant weavers usually use traditional geometric patterns employed by their ancestors; they are passed on from generation to generation, meaning that the knotting is mostly from memory and incorporates personal imagination. Here, there is the possibility that patterns will undergo further, individual development, particularly in the choice and combination of colours. Manufacturers making large quantities of carpets mostly use defined, mostly floral, patterns and formats, which they reproduce exactly according to the same templates. Individual variations are not allowed. The majority of today’s ‘manufacture carpets’ are knotted in household production, but according to the guidelines of a manufacturer or dealer.

75

SECTION 2

THE HANDMADE CARPET

Making Carpets

carpets was Tulga Tollu, a Turk who studied architecture in Stuttgart. In 1970, he returned from Europe to Istanbul and he and his wife, Feodora, experimented with natural dyes and mixtures of sheep wool for a long time, with the aim of developing a new quality of carpet. For months, the couple moved from one Turkish village to the next to source and produce traditional natural dyes with the help of established farmers.

28

27 A sample rug made by Oritop, showing the colour samples and their code for use by clients and weavers.

Such examples are rarely seen outside workshops 28 An original sample of the first chemical dye, mauvine, created by William Perkins in Britain in 1856 as a by-product of making coal gas. © ScienceMuseum/Science &Society Picture Library

27

economic, regional and social benefits are being pursued in producer countries. Their dependence on imports from industrialised countries is reduced, regional jobs and sources of income are saved, native plants are cherished, and the environment and resources in general are protected.

REDISCOVERY OF NATURAL DYES One of the fathers of the return to natural dyes has been the German chemist Dr Harald Böhmer from Bremen. He was employed at the Fine Arts Faculty of Marmara University in Istanbul. Under his management, the so-called DOBAG

project was developed in the 1980s. This focused on the re-use of natural dyes, as well as the preservation of traditional oriental patterns in carpet production.

This was successful in, for example, Yuruk settlements, where Böhmer’s initiative was taken up especially enthusiastically in the production of knotted rugs. From there, it was continued in Iran and Afghanistan. The cultivation of madder, which produces the typical oriental red, was also given a boost.

Three years after planting, the root can be used commercially; it grows wild in Asia.

Another pioneer of the renaissance of natural dyes for the colouring of oriental

29 This long-pile Turkish rug, called a tullu, was made in Central Anatolia near Karapınar. It shows perfectly the colour variation called abrash.

The burnt orange ground has various strengths or shades of the colour that occur through the dyeing process.

This can be due to changes that affect ingredients or environmental factors during dyeing. Rather than being a mistake, the variations in colour create depth and movement instead of a flat colour. Courtesy Austrian Auction Company

In 1975, after thorough research, Tollu began the production of natural dyes on a larger scale. At the same time, he mixed the winter fleece of highland sheep with that of angora sheep in a 50:50 ratio and had them manually spun. He mixed a very hard-wearing wool with a high-gloss finish and obtained a particularly sophisticated starting material for his new carpets, produced according to traditional patterns in the western Turkish city of Bergama.

Since Tollu’s death, his wife has continued this production. Experts consider these new Tollu carpets to be the descendants of the once-famous Persian Mirzai carpets; these were made in the workshops of the four Mirzai brothers in southern and western Persia, and were unrivalled on account of their design and colours.

CURRENT COLOUR MIXTURES Many carpet producers today select the colour type that suits their purpose best: chrome dyes for smaller areas, natural dyes for larger areas. With silk, which has no pores and thus does not absorb natural dyes well, only chemical dyes are used today. All experiments to make silkworms produce coloured cocoon threads through the use of modified fodder have so far been unsuccessful.

In the meantime, it has become clear that the type of colouring of the wool, be it with natural or synthetic colouring, has nothing to do with the durability of a carpet. There are, however, different colour harmonies.

A carpet dyed only with chemical colours is by no means inferior to one made entirely with natural dyes. Natural dyes are, however, relatively expensive. Nobody will make a cheap carpet and dye its wool with 29

84

85

SECTION 2

THE HANDMADE CARPET

Making Carpets

carpets was Tulga Tollu, a Turk who studied architecture in Stuttgart. In 1970, he returned from Europe to Istanbul and he and his wife, Feodora, experimented with natural dyes and mixtures of sheep wool for a long time, with the aim of developing a new quality of carpet. For months, the couple moved from one Turkish village to the next to source and produce traditional natural dyes with the help of established farmers.

28

27 A sample rug made by Oritop, showing the colour samples and their code for use by clients and weavers.

Such examples are rarely seen outside workshops 28 An original sample of the first chemical dye, mauvine, created by William Perkins in Britain in 1856 as a by-product of making coal gas. © ScienceMuseum/Science &Society Picture Library

27

economic, regional and social benefits are being pursued in producer countries. Their dependence on imports from industrialised countries is reduced, regional jobs and sources of income are saved, native plants are cherished, and the environment and resources in general are protected.

REDISCOVERY OF NATURAL DYES One of the fathers of the return to natural dyes has been the German chemist Dr Harald Böhmer from Bremen. He was employed at the Fine Arts Faculty of Marmara University in Istanbul. Under his management, the so-called DOBAG

project was developed in the 1980s. This focused on the re-use of natural dyes, as well as the preservation of traditional oriental patterns in carpet production.

This was successful in, for example, Yuruk settlements, where Böhmer’s initiative was taken up especially enthusiastically in the production of knotted rugs. From there, it was continued in Iran and Afghanistan. The cultivation of madder, which produces the typical oriental red, was also given a boost.

Three years after planting, the root can be used commercially; it grows wild in Asia.

Another pioneer of the renaissance of natural dyes for the colouring of oriental

29 This long-pile Turkish rug, called a tullu, was made in Central Anatolia near Karapınar. It shows perfectly the colour variation called abrash.

The burnt orange ground has various strengths or shades of the colour that occur through the dyeing process.

This can be due to changes that affect ingredients or environmental factors during dyeing. Rather than being a mistake, the variations in colour create depth and movement instead of a flat colour. Courtesy Austrian Auction Company

In 1975, after thorough research, Tollu began the production of natural dyes on a larger scale. At the same time, he mixed the winter fleece of highland sheep with that of angora sheep in a 50:50 ratio and had them manually spun. He mixed a very hard-wearing wool with a high-gloss finish and obtained a particularly sophisticated starting material for his new carpets, produced according to traditional patterns in the western Turkish city of Bergama.

Since Tollu’s death, his wife has continued this production. Experts consider these new Tollu carpets to be the descendants of the once-famous Persian Mirzai carpets; these were made in the workshops of the four Mirzai brothers in southern and western Persia, and were unrivalled on account of their design and colours.

CURRENT COLOUR MIXTURES Many carpet producers today select the colour type that suits their purpose best: chrome dyes for smaller areas, natural dyes for larger areas. With silk, which has no pores and thus does not absorb natural dyes well, only chemical dyes are used today. All experiments to make silkworms produce coloured cocoon threads through the use of modified fodder have so far been unsuccessful.

In the meantime, it has become clear that the type of colouring of the wool, be it with natural or synthetic colouring, has nothing to do with the durability of a carpet. There are, however, different colour harmonies.

A carpet dyed only with chemical colours is by no means inferior to one made entirely with natural dyes. Natural dyes are, however, relatively expensive. Nobody will make a cheap carpet and dye its wool with 29

84

85

THE HANDMADE CARPET

SECTION 2

Making Carpets

KNOTS

COUNTING KNOTS AND UNITS OF MEASUREMENT In the Orient, many old units for measuring the fineness of a carpet’s knotting are still in use today. Describing all of these would be beyond the scope of this book. However, we will discuss some in detail, as they are commonly applied.

For carpet enthusiasts, it is important to know how many knots a carpet has per square metre. For some products, the price depends greatly on the degree of fineness. Also, the following question must be considered: ‘What good is excellent knotting, if the object lacks many other qualities such as balanced colours and harmonious proportions, or aesthetic refinement?’ This remark might seem calculated to make the value and price of a carpet more difficult to understand and determine.

How do you count the knots that are – strictly speaking – only loops? You stick two needles in the back of the carpet ten centimetres apart, first horizontally, then vertically. Then you count the knots between these points. These figures are multiplied together, and then again by 100; this is the number of knots per square metre.

102

However, a problem can easily arise. You must carefully consider whether a carpet has been produced with symmetrical or asymmetrical knots. With symmetrical knots, two cusps usually count as a knot since, most of the time, the two warps around which the knot has been looped are next to each other.

With symmetrical knots, the warp is usually layered; this means that the warps are often located diagonally to each other, one visible, the second at an angle below.

This is why one often only sees one cusp that counts as a knot.

In the English-speaking world, the knot unit is given in square feet. For very fine manufactured carpets, in which the value depends to an extent on the fineness, one should count in several places to be certain, because these carpets are often woven more coarsely in the area of the margins.

as the maximum achievable fineness.

A small Mughal fragment from the 16th century, exhibited in the Metropolitan Museum in New York, was greatly admired, because no one could work out how the enormous knot-density of 20 times 20 knots per square centimetre (i.e. 4 million knots per square metre) could have been achieved at the time. Immense degrees of fineness were accomplished after 1980, especially by the Chinese, who produced fine silk carpets in the style of Hereke.

Now to the description of regional fineness units. To be frank, you should never fully trust knot measurements without meticulous recounting. They are usually exaggerated. Caution should be exercised with so-called ‘loop goods’. For some East Persian carpet types, but especially with the new ‘Herekes’ from China, parts of the pile are often only given a ‘U-loop’.

IRAN EXTREME FINENESS A million knots per square metre should be considered to be very fine. In the decades following the Second World War, a knot number of around 1.5 million was regarded

Here, first and foremost, there is the ‘raj’.

This is used as the knot unit for many types of carpet in Iran today. A raj is the length of a cigarette, i.e. 7 cm. Since cigarettes are shorter nowadays, use of this unit brings benefit to the owner!

103

THE HANDMADE CARPET

SECTION 2

Making Carpets

KNOTS

COUNTING KNOTS AND UNITS OF MEASUREMENT In the Orient, many old units for measuring the fineness of a carpet’s knotting are still in use today. Describing all of these would be beyond the scope of this book. However, we will discuss some in detail, as they are commonly applied.

For carpet enthusiasts, it is important to know how many knots a carpet has per square metre. For some products, the price depends greatly on the degree of fineness. Also, the following question must be considered: ‘What good is excellent knotting, if the object lacks many other qualities such as balanced colours and harmonious proportions, or aesthetic refinement?’ This remark might seem calculated to make the value and price of a carpet more difficult to understand and determine.

How do you count the knots that are – strictly speaking – only loops? You stick two needles in the back of the carpet ten centimetres apart, first horizontally, then vertically. Then you count the knots between these points. These figures are multiplied together, and then again by 100; this is the number of knots per square metre.

102

However, a problem can easily arise. You must carefully consider whether a carpet has been produced with symmetrical or asymmetrical knots. With symmetrical knots, two cusps usually count as a knot since, most of the time, the two warps around which the knot has been looped are next to each other.

With symmetrical knots, the warp is usually layered; this means that the warps are often located diagonally to each other, one visible, the second at an angle below.

This is why one often only sees one cusp that counts as a knot.

In the English-speaking world, the knot unit is given in square feet. For very fine manufactured carpets, in which the value depends to an extent on the fineness, one should count in several places to be certain, because these carpets are often woven more coarsely in the area of the margins.

as the maximum achievable fineness.

A small Mughal fragment from the 16th century, exhibited in the Metropolitan Museum in New York, was greatly admired, because no one could work out how the enormous knot-density of 20 times 20 knots per square centimetre (i.e. 4 million knots per square metre) could have been achieved at the time. Immense degrees of fineness were accomplished after 1980, especially by the Chinese, who produced fine silk carpets in the style of Hereke.

Now to the description of regional fineness units. To be frank, you should never fully trust knot measurements without meticulous recounting. They are usually exaggerated. Caution should be exercised with so-called ‘loop goods’. For some East Persian carpet types, but especially with the new ‘Herekes’ from China, parts of the pile are often only given a ‘U-loop’.

IRAN EXTREME FINENESS A million knots per square metre should be considered to be very fine. In the decades following the Second World War, a knot number of around 1.5 million was regarded

Here, first and foremost, there is the ‘raj’.

This is used as the knot unit for many types of carpet in Iran today. A raj is the length of a cigarette, i.e. 7 cm. Since cigarettes are shorter nowadays, use of this unit brings benefit to the owner!

103

THE HANDMADE CARPET

SECTION 3

A World of Carpets

IRAN-PERSIA

Persia is located in the Near East or West Asia, in the centre of what was, and still is, one of the world’s most intensive carpet-producing regions. From 1936, the country’s official name was Iran; since 1979, it has been the Islamic Republic of Iran. It has a population of over 80 million and a surface area of 1.63 million square kilometres, and is approximately twice as large as Turkey.

The formerly exalted reputation of the Persian carpet has suffered in the past few decades. As a result, the production and export of ‘Persians’ has noticeably declined. For a long time, the term ‘Persian’ has been a worldwide synonym for high-quality oriental carpets. Carpets from that country, in addition to Turkmen products, sit at the apex of the world’s textile art. The pre-eminent Persian carpet is an integral part of Persian/Iranian culture. According to researchers, Persian carpet production goes back to the Bronze Age, approximately 1,500 years before Christ.

The name Persia is derived from the region of Fars; and Iran from the people of the Aryans, the land between Inner Asia and Arabia, between India and Mesopotamia.

The monarchical will of the country’s rulers, its cultural wealth and its scenic beauty, all played an important role in the

140

refinement of carpet art and the soulful mixing of different oriental cultures.

With time the courtly art of carpet weaving flourished.

Historians and archaeologists are convinced that the Persians/Iranians were one of the earliest peoples to have made carpets. It is also true that this art goes back to the need to protect the nomadic and peasant strata of the population from the cold, the fierce wind and intense humidity in the mountainous regions of the country, or the harshness of its vast deserts.

In the Persian home, even in the early years, carpets replaced all the furnishings used daily in European households, such as chairs, boxes, beds or walls. So the adverse conditions of the outside habitat gradually made the Persian rug a domestic decoration and a sign of prosperity.

The fact that only a few ancient Persian carpets have survived is attributed to their having been made with simple, natural materials from the immediate surroundings. The early pieces have therefore gradually decomposed and their colours have been lost. The existence of ‘Ancient Persians’ is proved by witness reports from Sasanid times: 224 to 651 AD. The oldest preserved ‘Persian’ today, however, probably originates from the Safavid dynasty, from 1501 to 1736.

Approximately one third of all preserved antique carpets in the world originate from Persia.

HISTORY OF PERSIAN CARPETS Iran is a multi-ethnic state. To give a rough overview, there are the Turkic Azeri in the northwest; in the west, there are the Kurds; in the south are the Luri, Qashqai, Arabs, Afshari and Beludj; in the centre and east there are the Iranians and Kurds; in the northeast there are Turkmens and again Kurds. The national language is Farsi, part of the Indo-Germanic language family.

In addition, a number of other languages and dialects are used, such as Azeri, Turkish, Kurdish and Arabic. Azerbaijan is considered one of the cradles of the Iranian carpet industry. Documents testify that knotted Persian carpets and kilims are at least 1,200 years old.

01 Qashqai rug depicting ‘Persepolis’ and Xerxes I, southwest Persia, 19th century. The top border is inscribed ‘Jan-i Khan in the year 1234 [1819 AD] by order of Fath Ali Shah.’

However, the mirror-image French script beneath the throne is from a lithograph of a later date. 1.41 x 2.03 m (4' 7 " x 6' 8 "). Courtesy Austria Auction Company

141

THE HANDMADE CARPET

SECTION 3

A World of Carpets

IRAN-PERSIA

Persia is located in the Near East or West Asia, in the centre of what was, and still is, one of the world’s most intensive carpet-producing regions. From 1936, the country’s official name was Iran; since 1979, it has been the Islamic Republic of Iran. It has a population of over 80 million and a surface area of 1.63 million square kilometres, and is approximately twice as large as Turkey.

The formerly exalted reputation of the Persian carpet has suffered in the past few decades. As a result, the production and export of ‘Persians’ has noticeably declined. For a long time, the term ‘Persian’ has been a worldwide synonym for high-quality oriental carpets. Carpets from that country, in addition to Turkmen products, sit at the apex of the world’s textile art. The pre-eminent Persian carpet is an integral part of Persian/Iranian culture. According to researchers, Persian carpet production goes back to the Bronze Age, approximately 1,500 years before Christ.

The name Persia is derived from the region of Fars; and Iran from the people of the Aryans, the land between Inner Asia and Arabia, between India and Mesopotamia.

The monarchical will of the country’s rulers, its cultural wealth and its scenic beauty, all played an important role in the

140

refinement of carpet art and the soulful mixing of different oriental cultures.

With time the courtly art of carpet weaving flourished.

Historians and archaeologists are convinced that the Persians/Iranians were one of the earliest peoples to have made carpets. It is also true that this art goes back to the need to protect the nomadic and peasant strata of the population from the cold, the fierce wind and intense humidity in the mountainous regions of the country, or the harshness of its vast deserts.

In the Persian home, even in the early years, carpets replaced all the furnishings used daily in European households, such as chairs, boxes, beds or walls. So the adverse conditions of the outside habitat gradually made the Persian rug a domestic decoration and a sign of prosperity.

The fact that only a few ancient Persian carpets have survived is attributed to their having been made with simple, natural materials from the immediate surroundings. The early pieces have therefore gradually decomposed and their colours have been lost. The existence of ‘Ancient Persians’ is proved by witness reports from Sasanid times: 224 to 651 AD. The oldest preserved ‘Persian’ today, however, probably originates from the Safavid dynasty, from 1501 to 1736.

Approximately one third of all preserved antique carpets in the world originate from Persia.

HISTORY OF PERSIAN CARPETS Iran is a multi-ethnic state. To give a rough overview, there are the Turkic Azeri in the northwest; in the west, there are the Kurds; in the south are the Luri, Qashqai, Arabs, Afshari and Beludj; in the centre and east there are the Iranians and Kurds; in the northeast there are Turkmens and again Kurds. The national language is Farsi, part of the Indo-Germanic language family.

In addition, a number of other languages and dialects are used, such as Azeri, Turkish, Kurdish and Arabic. Azerbaijan is considered one of the cradles of the Iranian carpet industry. Documents testify that knotted Persian carpets and kilims are at least 1,200 years old.

01 Qashqai rug depicting ‘Persepolis’ and Xerxes I, southwest Persia, 19th century. The top border is inscribed ‘Jan-i Khan in the year 1234 [1819 AD] by order of Fath Ali Shah.’

However, the mirror-image French script beneath the throne is from a lithograph of a later date. 1.41 x 2.03 m (4' 7 " x 6' 8 "). Courtesy Austria Auction Company

141

SECTION 3

THE HANDMADE CARPET

Under the Seljuks, carpet weaving was well-known in Persia, Mesopotamia, a large part of Asia Minor, and Syria. The Seljuk Dynasty from Turkestan did not destroy the Arabic and Persian culture, far from it – the development of arts and crafts came on apace.

ra

Kurds

Tabriz

BAKU

Ardabil

Eup

BAGHDAD

El

Gorgan

rz

TEHRAN

ASHGABAT

rek ( At

Bojnurd Gonbad-e Kavus

ra

k)

Khorasan Kurds Quchan

Mashhad Janbeghi

Semnan

Timuri Varamin Kashmar Hamadan Saveh Baluch Afshar FERAHAN Kermanshah Salarkhani Saruk Qom Dasht-e Kavir Arak Nahavand Kashan Baluch Lilihan Natanz Doroksh Kurds Nain Nasirabad Meymey Birjand Isfahan Jaff Nadjafabad YALAMEH Mud Bakhtiari Yazd Baluch Luri Ahvaz Ravar Abadeh Z

Herat

AFGHANISTAN

a

g

r

o

s

Since that time, there has been a significant change of taste in the West.

bu

Qazvin

Basra

Shekarlu

Ainullah

KUWAIT Persian Gulf

Luri Qom Kashan FERAHAN

Arabi

Shiraz

Nafar Basiri

Baluch

He

lm

an

d

Afshar Sirjan

Dasht-e lut

Baharlu Neyriz Afscharen

PAKISTAN

Bandar-e-Abbas

SAUDI ARABIA

KEY Tribe Major town Weaving town Weaving districts

Kerman

Kashkuli

Qashqa’i

KUWAIT

Statistics compiled in 1992 indicated that there were 981,400 looms in the country, and well over 1.9 million weavers were producing around 5.4 million square metres of carpet.

If, until around 1960, the origin of a Persian carpet could be identified on the basis of its design and colour, there was still a migration of the pattern to other areas. Examples of this are Keshans from Ardekan in the south, silk Qoms from Maragheh in the west, Tabriz from EastIranian Mashhad; this is often only because the production costs were lower at other locations, and still are.

hr

At

Harirud

IRAQ

Goklan Yomut

Bijar Sanandaj

The sharply rising demand for Persian rugs in Europe during the 20th century (see 'Europe and the Western Migration of Oriental Carpets', p.235) brought a huge increase in production. At the same time, this necessitated standardisation, which damaged the cultural object. The high point of commercialisation was the 1990s, although it was occasionally possible to find excellent, beautiful carpets.

But the knotting and weaving of carpets and kilims in Iran has been in decline for years. People are increasingly turning their backs on this type of manual work; weavers no longer want to work for low wages. Persian carpet professionals have recently reported that, in Tabriz and its surroundings, only around 16,000 looms and about twice as many weavers are to be found. In Isfahan and the surroundings, around 700,000 people are employed as pattern designers and weavers.

Tekab

Bukhara

Kara Kum Caspian Sea

Mehravan

Shahsevan

CHANGES IN THE ‘PERSIAN’ DUE TO THE EXPORT BOOM

TURKMENISTAN

Shahsevan Meshkin

Rasht Kurds

UZBEKISTAN

s

Khvoy Ahar Marand Heriz

ris

Many of the finest courtly carpets come from the centre and the east of the country. Even today, rugs from Isfahan, Kerman, Nain, Keshan, Mashhad and other places are perfect testimonies to the highest achievements of Persian carpet making. In the rural areas, village carpets

A

TURKEY

Thanks to this enormous diversity of tribes, their different cultures and languages, Iran can still be described as the mother country of oriental carpets.

Tig

PERSIAN CARPET CENTRES An important Persian carpet centre is Tabriz in the northwest of the country, near to the border with Turkey, the capital city of Persian Azerbaijan. The colloquial language there is Azeri, which is related to Turkish. Here, both peasant folk art and the finest courtly work can be found to this day. In the west, it is primarily the Kurds in the harsh mountain climate who are known for their Bidjar carpets. In the south, to the Persian Gulf, the many multilingual nomadic tribes are the people who most influence carpet types.

Kağizman

es

02

Until the 15th century, almost all of the motifs were geometric. Then, natural plant motifs as well as sweeping arabesques were increasingly used. They were inspired by miniature painting, which in Persia was considered the highest form of art at the time. Since then, artistic carpet design has been clearly separated from the actual execution of the knotted work. This is because the new, more complex patterns could no longer be applied from memory.

Therefore, the artistically gifted made knotting templates on cardboard or paper, which then became strict templates for the knotters.

ARMENIA AZERBAIJAN YEREVAN

at

The high point of Persian carpets was the era of the Safavids, who specifically encouraged this art. In particular, Shah Abbas established and supported court manufacture. Under the Safavid dynasty, there was also a revolution in pattern design.

predominate. In the northeast we look to the Turkmens and the Kurds, who resettled here a long time ago.

A World of Carpets

BAHRAIN MANAMA

RIYADH

DOHA ABU DHABI QATAR UNITED ARAB EMIRATES

Gulf of Oman

OMAN

MUSCAT

Arabian Sea

04

The flowery, dense design carpet is ‘out’, particularly among young buyers although, in our fast-paced world, trend reversals are to be expected. It should be emphasised that wonderful carpets inspired by tradition have always been made in Iran. Knotting locations like Isfahan, Tabriz, Keshan, Qom and Mashhad have always produced rugs that can stand up to any criticism. Tradition and innovation have always gone hand in hand.

The renaissance of natural colours brought a shift, spreading from Turkey to all other carpet-producing countries. In Iran, carpets reminiscent of earlier times

were made. In addition, there were the initiatives of the artist Parviz Tanavoli. He reminded traders and producers in south Persia of the traditional nomadic carpets of yesteryear. People rediscovered handspun, natural-coloured wool. Apart from the outstanding products of this area, it is mainly the silk carpets from Qom that have risen to unprecedented heights of quality and artistic worth.

To sum up: the knotted carpets and kilims in Iran today are much better and more beautiful than the products at the time of the boom between 1960 and 1990.

02 Detail of ‘Shah Abbas’ style palmette carpet, probably Esfahan, central Persia, circa 1600. Presented

by Shah Abbas I to the Imam Reza Shrine. Asymmetric knot, wool pile, silk warps, cotton wefts, 3.35 x 5.55 m (10' 11" x 18' 3"). Courtesy Mashhad Carpet Museum 03 Esfahan carpet signed Serafian in the lower kilim end in a cartouche typical of the rugs made by this renowned family. Esfahan, central Iran, circa 1975. Courtesy Omar Besim 04 Map showing Iran’s major historic and contemporary weaving centres and tribal areas

03

142

143

SECTION 3

THE HANDMADE CARPET

Under the Seljuks, carpet weaving was well-known in Persia, Mesopotamia, a large part of Asia Minor, and Syria. The Seljuk Dynasty from Turkestan did not destroy the Arabic and Persian culture, far from it – the development of arts and crafts came on apace.

ra

Kurds

Tabriz

BAKU

Ardabil

Eup

BAGHDAD

El

Gorgan

rz

TEHRAN

ASHGABAT

rek ( At

Bojnurd Gonbad-e Kavus

ra

k)

Khorasan Kurds Quchan

Mashhad Janbeghi

Semnan

Timuri Varamin Kashmar Hamadan Saveh Baluch Afshar FERAHAN Kermanshah Salarkhani Saruk Qom Dasht-e Kavir Arak Nahavand Kashan Baluch Lilihan Natanz Doroksh Kurds Nain Nasirabad Meymey Birjand Isfahan Jaff Nadjafabad YALAMEH Mud Bakhtiari Yazd Baluch Luri Ahvaz Ravar Abadeh Z

Herat

AFGHANISTAN

a

g

r

o

s

Since that time, there has been a significant change of taste in the West.

bu

Qazvin

Basra

Shekarlu

Ainullah

KUWAIT Persian Gulf

Luri Qom Kashan FERAHAN

Arabi

Shiraz

Nafar Basiri

Baluch

He

lm

an

d

Afshar Sirjan

Dasht-e lut

Baharlu Neyriz Afscharen

PAKISTAN

Bandar-e-Abbas

SAUDI ARABIA

KEY Tribe Major town Weaving town Weaving districts

Kerman

Kashkuli

Qashqa’i

KUWAIT

Statistics compiled in 1992 indicated that there were 981,400 looms in the country, and well over 1.9 million weavers were producing around 5.4 million square metres of carpet.

If, until around 1960, the origin of a Persian carpet could be identified on the basis of its design and colour, there was still a migration of the pattern to other areas. Examples of this are Keshans from Ardekan in the south, silk Qoms from Maragheh in the west, Tabriz from EastIranian Mashhad; this is often only because the production costs were lower at other locations, and still are.

hr

At

Harirud

IRAQ

Goklan Yomut

Bijar Sanandaj

The sharply rising demand for Persian rugs in Europe during the 20th century (see 'Europe and the Western Migration of Oriental Carpets', p.235) brought a huge increase in production. At the same time, this necessitated standardisation, which damaged the cultural object. The high point of commercialisation was the 1990s, although it was occasionally possible to find excellent, beautiful carpets.

But the knotting and weaving of carpets and kilims in Iran has been in decline for years. People are increasingly turning their backs on this type of manual work; weavers no longer want to work for low wages. Persian carpet professionals have recently reported that, in Tabriz and its surroundings, only around 16,000 looms and about twice as many weavers are to be found. In Isfahan and the surroundings, around 700,000 people are employed as pattern designers and weavers.

Tekab

Bukhara

Kara Kum Caspian Sea

Mehravan

Shahsevan

CHANGES IN THE ‘PERSIAN’ DUE TO THE EXPORT BOOM

TURKMENISTAN

Shahsevan Meshkin

Rasht Kurds

UZBEKISTAN

s

Khvoy Ahar Marand Heriz

ris

Many of the finest courtly carpets come from the centre and the east of the country. Even today, rugs from Isfahan, Kerman, Nain, Keshan, Mashhad and other places are perfect testimonies to the highest achievements of Persian carpet making. In the rural areas, village carpets

A

TURKEY

Thanks to this enormous diversity of tribes, their different cultures and languages, Iran can still be described as the mother country of oriental carpets.

Tig

PERSIAN CARPET CENTRES An important Persian carpet centre is Tabriz in the northwest of the country, near to the border with Turkey, the capital city of Persian Azerbaijan. The colloquial language there is Azeri, which is related to Turkish. Here, both peasant folk art and the finest courtly work can be found to this day. In the west, it is primarily the Kurds in the harsh mountain climate who are known for their Bidjar carpets. In the south, to the Persian Gulf, the many multilingual nomadic tribes are the people who most influence carpet types.

Kağizman

es

02

Until the 15th century, almost all of the motifs were geometric. Then, natural plant motifs as well as sweeping arabesques were increasingly used. They were inspired by miniature painting, which in Persia was considered the highest form of art at the time. Since then, artistic carpet design has been clearly separated from the actual execution of the knotted work. This is because the new, more complex patterns could no longer be applied from memory.

Therefore, the artistically gifted made knotting templates on cardboard or paper, which then became strict templates for the knotters.

ARMENIA AZERBAIJAN YEREVAN

at

The high point of Persian carpets was the era of the Safavids, who specifically encouraged this art. In particular, Shah Abbas established and supported court manufacture. Under the Safavid dynasty, there was also a revolution in pattern design.

predominate. In the northeast we look to the Turkmens and the Kurds, who resettled here a long time ago.

A World of Carpets

BAHRAIN MANAMA

RIYADH

DOHA ABU DHABI QATAR UNITED ARAB EMIRATES

Gulf of Oman

OMAN

MUSCAT

Arabian Sea

04

The flowery, dense design carpet is ‘out’, particularly among young buyers although, in our fast-paced world, trend reversals are to be expected. It should be emphasised that wonderful carpets inspired by tradition have always been made in Iran. Knotting locations like Isfahan, Tabriz, Keshan, Qom and Mashhad have always produced rugs that can stand up to any criticism. Tradition and innovation have always gone hand in hand.

The renaissance of natural colours brought a shift, spreading from Turkey to all other carpet-producing countries. In Iran, carpets reminiscent of earlier times

were made. In addition, there were the initiatives of the artist Parviz Tanavoli. He reminded traders and producers in south Persia of the traditional nomadic carpets of yesteryear. People rediscovered handspun, natural-coloured wool. Apart from the outstanding products of this area, it is mainly the silk carpets from Qom that have risen to unprecedented heights of quality and artistic worth.

To sum up: the knotted carpets and kilims in Iran today are much better and more beautiful than the products at the time of the boom between 1960 and 1990.

02 Detail of ‘Shah Abbas’ style palmette carpet, probably Esfahan, central Persia, circa 1600. Presented

by Shah Abbas I to the Imam Reza Shrine. Asymmetric knot, wool pile, silk warps, cotton wefts, 3.35 x 5.55 m (10' 11" x 18' 3"). Courtesy Mashhad Carpet Museum 03 Esfahan carpet signed Serafian in the lower kilim end in a cartouche typical of the rugs made by this renowned family. Esfahan, central Iran, circa 1975. Courtesy Omar Besim 04 Map showing Iran’s major historic and contemporary weaving centres and tribal areas

03

142

143

SECTION 3

THE HANDMADE CARPET

A World of Carpets

Anatolia is difficult to answer. There is no evidence, in any case.’

Also, there is evidence of fine pure silk carpets from the workshops of the Ottoman rulers in Istanbul, which were provided solely for the ‘Sublime Porte’ (the government of the Ottoman Empire); rarely were individual silk pieces made outside the Sultan’s Palace.

‘Palace weavers’ were employed there; they produced designs in silk, according to the example of Chinese porcelain floral patterns, and brought these designs into carpet weaving. In this way, native carpets that were daily objects of use gradually became subtle courtly works of art. At the same time, the traditional craft of the Turkmen peoples gained in importance.

BULGARIA

Varna

Black Sea

Edirne

GREECE

MANASTIR SARKÖY

Ezine

Sea of Marmara

Yürük

21 The colours of this Arts & Crafts design kilim made in west Anatolia are naturally dyed; the background green/blue ground shows abrash or varying depths of colour typical of natural dyes. Courtesy Omar Besim 22 A yastik or small pillow made in west Anatolia around 1900 has a rare white ground but mixes flowers with spinning pinwheels, combining tribal designs with formal Ottoman floral designs. Courtesy Omar Besim 23 Yahyali rug, central Anatolia, circa 1980. Small commercial village-woven rug made with synthetic colours of this type were sold in great numbers in the 1980s. Courtesy Omar Besim 24 Map showing Turkey, its major rug production centres as well as areas associated with tribal groups

158

Evidence of elegant, fine carpets coming from the Central Anatolian cities of Konya or Sivas dates as far back as the Middle Ages. Whether they were made by the Turkmen women in the mountains and remote areas, or by the Greeks and the Armenians in urban workshops, is unclear. The only certainty is that they were produced in symmetrical Ghiordes knots with 120,000 knots per square metre – very fine, with warp and weft of sheep’s wool. The urban manufacturers apparently developed from the peasant-nomad tradition of the area; the traditional knot technique was refined in a targeted manner.

The 1983 book Antike Anatolische Teppiche aus Österreichischem Besitz (‘Antique Anatolian Carpets from Austrian Collections’) published by the Austrian TKF contains the following admission: ‘The question as to whether carpet knotting was actually brought from Central Asia in the context of the immigration of Seljuk Turkic tribes to

It is therefore thought by some experts experts that Turkish carpets are an example of an Asian-Oriental heritage.

But through European contact Anatolia became a highly productive carpetproducing region, mainly because Turkey has particularly favourable conditions for carpet-weaving: the breeding of sheep with good wool; good transport to the nearby export region of Europe; and the poverty of the people, which forced them into carpet weaving.

Carpet production became widespread in the Near East with the Seljuks, who left their Turkmen homelands in the 11th century and came to dominate Asia Minor. Primarily, it was the Turkish people, settling in Anatolia, who contributed to the development of a carpet style that came into full bloom at the time of the Sultanate of Konya.

Denizli

Eskisehir

Ortakӧy Ladik Konya

Dӧsemealti Fethiye

Antalya

Zara

Kars

Yürük Karaman

YAHYALI

Elazig

Malatya

Diyarbakir

Yürük

Adiyaman

Kahramanmaras

Tarsus

Adana

Iskenderun Reyhanli

CYPRUS Mediterranean Sea

BEIRUT

us

ARMENIA

YEREVAN

An

Kurds ti-

Ta

ur

Ar

Van

us

Batman

Sanliurfa

Kurds Mosul

Aleppo

as

Urmia

Hakkari

Gaziantep Irbil Kirkuk Hamah Homs

LEBANON

cas

ARARAT

N. CYPRUS NICOSIA

Cau

Kağizman

Kayseri

Karapinar

Bayburt Erzurum

Bünyan

TASPINAR

Ta u r u s

Mut

Mucur

Rize

ser

Kars

Sivas Kirsehir

Isparta

Trabzon

ic

Tokat

ANKARA

Bursa

Bandirma KARAKECILI

Milas

TURKEY

Pont

Les

SYRIA

DAMASCUS

Euphrat

e

s

ris

Turkish language today. The Turkmen origins of contemporary Turkish carpets are also unclear.

us

Tig

20 The designs of the classical carpets made in Ushak during the 16th–17th centuries reflect the designs produced in court workshops for book bindings. This to-scale copy detail was made in eastern Turkey, early 20th century, by Woven Legends, one of the leading makers of carpets in Turkey. 2.97 x 4.86 m (9’ 9” x 15’ 11”). Courtesy Woven Legends

cas

TBILISI

Samsun

Istanbul Hereke Izmit

Soma Balikesir Bergama Gӧrdes Demirci Agean Sea Kars Usak Kula Izmir Güney Aydin ATHENS

The manufacture of carpets in the vicinity of modern-day Turkey (the entire region is referred to as Anatolia) started with the immigration and settlement of Turkmen nomadic tribes from the Asian steppes. They taught the local population of Anatolia their knotting art. Several Turkmen tribes wandered through Iraq to Anatolia and thus also brought Persian influences into the local carpet culture.

Over time these were constantly refined to the point of their current state.

r C au

GEORGIA

ANATOLIAN CARPETS

23

ate

Plovdiv

Yürük

22

Gre

Sochi

IRAQ BAGHDAD

Haifa KEY Tribe Major town Weaving town Weaving districts

Kurds Konya Hereke FERAHAN

24

This assumption is supported by the account of Marco Polo, who visited the Seljuk Empire at the end of the 13th century and reported that the best and most beautiful carpets were made there. These carpets could be found, for example, in the columned hall of the Alâeddin Mosque in Konya; they are now in the Turkish and Islamic Arts Museum in Istanbul. In the 14th century, animal figures were introduced as a motif in Anatolian carpets, but in abstract representation.

Anatolian carpets were exported to Europe as early as the 16th century; they were thus trade goods, even if they remained the preserve of noblemen and extremely

wealthy citizens. Paintings from this period show examples hung on balustrades and lying on tables. The works of the German painter Hans Holbein are particularly well known; they form the basis for a carpet border design named after the artist.

The so-called ‘Transylvanian Saxons’ have caused confusion. Smaller carpets have hung in the churches around Brașov in Romanian Transylvania for centuries.

Present-day Siebenbürgen was thought to be their place of origin as recently as the 20th century. Today, however, we know that the true place of origin of these carpets is the area around the West Anatolian town of Ushak.

COMPETITION BETWEEN ANATOLIAN AND PERSIAN CARPETS As in Iran, carpets in Turkey can be put into two categories, from the bottom up.

On the one hand there are nomad and peasant carpets, as well as flat-weave carpets with warp and weft of wool; on the other hand, manufactured carpets with the same features, but made on cotton foundations. Both of these have a wool pile. A third group is high-quality silk carpets.

Famous carpet-producing locations in Turkey are Avanos, Bergama, Bursa, Çal, Dazgir, Demirci, Döşemealtı, Eskişehir, Ezine, Gördes, Hereke, Incesu, Isparta,

159

SECTION 3

THE HANDMADE CARPET

A World of Carpets

Anatolia is difficult to answer. There is no evidence, in any case.’

Also, there is evidence of fine pure silk carpets from the workshops of the Ottoman rulers in Istanbul, which were provided solely for the ‘Sublime Porte’ (the government of the Ottoman Empire); rarely were individual silk pieces made outside the Sultan’s Palace.

‘Palace weavers’ were employed there; they produced designs in silk, according to the example of Chinese porcelain floral patterns, and brought these designs into carpet weaving. In this way, native carpets that were daily objects of use gradually became subtle courtly works of art. At the same time, the traditional craft of the Turkmen peoples gained in importance.

BULGARIA

Varna

Black Sea

Edirne

GREECE

MANASTIR SARKÖY

Ezine

Sea of Marmara

Yürük

21 The colours of this Arts & Crafts design kilim made in west Anatolia are naturally dyed; the background green/blue ground shows abrash or varying depths of colour typical of natural dyes. Courtesy Omar Besim 22 A yastik or small pillow made in west Anatolia around 1900 has a rare white ground but mixes flowers with spinning pinwheels, combining tribal designs with formal Ottoman floral designs. Courtesy Omar Besim 23 Yahyali rug, central Anatolia, circa 1980. Small commercial village-woven rug made with synthetic colours of this type were sold in great numbers in the 1980s. Courtesy Omar Besim 24 Map showing Turkey, its major rug production centres as well as areas associated with tribal groups

158

Evidence of elegant, fine carpets coming from the Central Anatolian cities of Konya or Sivas dates as far back as the Middle Ages. Whether they were made by the Turkmen women in the mountains and remote areas, or by the Greeks and the Armenians in urban workshops, is unclear. The only certainty is that they were produced in symmetrical Ghiordes knots with 120,000 knots per square metre – very fine, with warp and weft of sheep’s wool. The urban manufacturers apparently developed from the peasant-nomad tradition of the area; the traditional knot technique was refined in a targeted manner.

The 1983 book Antike Anatolische Teppiche aus Österreichischem Besitz (‘Antique Anatolian Carpets from Austrian Collections’) published by the Austrian TKF contains the following admission: ‘The question as to whether carpet knotting was actually brought from Central Asia in the context of the immigration of Seljuk Turkic tribes to

It is therefore thought by some experts experts that Turkish carpets are an example of an Asian-Oriental heritage.

But through European contact Anatolia became a highly productive carpetproducing region, mainly because Turkey has particularly favourable conditions for carpet-weaving: the breeding of sheep with good wool; good transport to the nearby export region of Europe; and the poverty of the people, which forced them into carpet weaving.

Carpet production became widespread in the Near East with the Seljuks, who left their Turkmen homelands in the 11th century and came to dominate Asia Minor. Primarily, it was the Turkish people, settling in Anatolia, who contributed to the development of a carpet style that came into full bloom at the time of the Sultanate of Konya.

Denizli

Eskisehir

Ortakӧy Ladik Konya

Dӧsemealti Fethiye

Antalya

Zara

Kars

Yürük Karaman

YAHYALI

Elazig

Malatya

Diyarbakir

Yürük

Adiyaman

Kahramanmaras

Tarsus

Adana

Iskenderun Reyhanli

CYPRUS Mediterranean Sea

BEIRUT

us

ARMENIA

YEREVAN

An

Kurds ti-

Ta

ur

Ar

Van

us

Batman

Sanliurfa

Kurds Mosul

Aleppo

as

Urmia

Hakkari

Gaziantep Irbil Kirkuk Hamah Homs

LEBANON

cas

ARARAT

N. CYPRUS NICOSIA

Cau

Kağizman

Kayseri

Karapinar

Bayburt Erzurum

Bünyan

TASPINAR

Ta u r u s

Mut

Mucur

Rize

ser

Kars

Sivas Kirsehir

Isparta

Trabzon

ic

Tokat

ANKARA

Bursa

Bandirma KARAKECILI

Milas

TURKEY

Pont

Les

SYRIA

DAMASCUS

Euphrat

e

s

ris

Turkish language today. The Turkmen origins of contemporary Turkish carpets are also unclear.

us

Tig

20 The designs of the classical carpets made in Ushak during the 16th–17th centuries reflect the designs produced in court workshops for book bindings. This to-scale copy detail was made in eastern Turkey, early 20th century, by Woven Legends, one of the leading makers of carpets in Turkey. 2.97 x 4.86 m (9’ 9” x 15’ 11”). Courtesy Woven Legends

cas

TBILISI

Samsun

Istanbul Hereke Izmit

Soma Balikesir Bergama Gӧrdes Demirci Agean Sea Kars Usak Kula Izmir Güney Aydin ATHENS

The manufacture of carpets in the vicinity of modern-day Turkey (the entire region is referred to as Anatolia) started with the immigration and settlement of Turkmen nomadic tribes from the Asian steppes. They taught the local population of Anatolia their knotting art. Several Turkmen tribes wandered through Iraq to Anatolia and thus also brought Persian influences into the local carpet culture.

Over time these were constantly refined to the point of their current state.

r C au

GEORGIA

ANATOLIAN CARPETS

23

ate

Plovdiv

Yürük

22

Gre

Sochi

IRAQ BAGHDAD

Haifa KEY Tribe Major town Weaving town Weaving districts

Kurds Konya Hereke FERAHAN

24

This assumption is supported by the account of Marco Polo, who visited the Seljuk Empire at the end of the 13th century and reported that the best and most beautiful carpets were made there. These carpets could be found, for example, in the columned hall of the Alâeddin Mosque in Konya; they are now in the Turkish and Islamic Arts Museum in Istanbul. In the 14th century, animal figures were introduced as a motif in Anatolian carpets, but in abstract representation.

Anatolian carpets were exported to Europe as early as the 16th century; they were thus trade goods, even if they remained the preserve of noblemen and extremely

wealthy citizens. Paintings from this period show examples hung on balustrades and lying on tables. The works of the German painter Hans Holbein are particularly well known; they form the basis for a carpet border design named after the artist.

The so-called ‘Transylvanian Saxons’ have caused confusion. Smaller carpets have hung in the churches around Brașov in Romanian Transylvania for centuries.

Present-day Siebenbürgen was thought to be their place of origin as recently as the 20th century. Today, however, we know that the true place of origin of these carpets is the area around the West Anatolian town of Ushak.

COMPETITION BETWEEN ANATOLIAN AND PERSIAN CARPETS As in Iran, carpets in Turkey can be put into two categories, from the bottom up.

On the one hand there are nomad and peasant carpets, as well as flat-weave carpets with warp and weft of wool; on the other hand, manufactured carpets with the same features, but made on cotton foundations. Both of these have a wool pile. A third group is high-quality silk carpets.

Famous carpet-producing locations in Turkey are Avanos, Bergama, Bursa, Çal, Dazgir, Demirci, Döşemealtı, Eskişehir, Ezine, Gördes, Hereke, Incesu, Isparta,

159

THE HANDMADE CARPET

SECTION 3

A World of Carpets

TIBET AND NEPAL

Tibetans knew how to interpret the symbolic meaning of carpet motifs

With an average altitude of around 4,000 meters and stretching over an area of about 2 million square kilometres, Tibet is the largest mountainous region in the world. Here we find the towering ranges of the Himalayas and Trans-Himalayas, which reach up to 8,000 metres high, and deep valleys in which monumental rivers – such as the Tsangpo-Brahmaputra, the Indus and the Mekong – stretch to the distant sea. Tibet is a landlocked country like Nepal and culturally shaped by the deeply religious nature of its population.

Hardly any carpets have patterns so closely connected with the native religion as those of the Tibetans. Although many residents could neither write nor read, they knew how to interpret the symbolic meaning of the carpet motifs.

There have never been large-scale workshops in Tibet. In the global carpet market, the ‘Tibetan’ was as good as unknown for centuries. The carpets are from small workshops or peasant homes; carpet-making satisfies domestic requirements but is also a welcome sideline for the population.

42 Nepalese Kiwi carpet (detail), designed by Harald Geba.

Courtesy Geba, Graz

172

The merger of the various tribes of Tibet to form a nation began around the year 127 AD. The population today consists mainly of peasants, nomads and traders,

with a strong Mongolian streak. According to the 14th Dalai Lama, up to 5 million Tibetans have no ethnological connection to the other peoples of Asia. The religion of the Tibetans is Lamaism, a special form of Buddhism. In the middle of the 17th century, the first Dalai Lama won secular rule over Tibet as a god-king. Since the 18th century, Tibet has, almost constantly, been under strong political influence from China, despite several attempts to free itself of this. The traditional welcome greeting of the Tibetans, ‘Tashi delek’, has never influenced the Chinese.

For centuries, Tibet was largely inaccessible to foreigners. This was a deliberate geographical and political isolation: the ruling class had no interest in making contact with the outside world, and the dangerous climate at such altitude and the lack of roads isolated the country further. Only at the beginning of the 20th century, and shortly before the Second World War, did some foreigners – such as the Austrian mountaineer and researcher Heinrich Harrer – go to Tibet and spend several years studying the ‘forbidden land’.

Since the autumn of 1965, Tibet has been an autonomous western province of the People’s Republic of China. The counterpart and representative of the present Dalai Lama, the Panchen Lama,

173

THE HANDMADE CARPET

SECTION 3

A World of Carpets

TIBET AND NEPAL

Tibetans knew how to interpret the symbolic meaning of carpet motifs

With an average altitude of around 4,000 meters and stretching over an area of about 2 million square kilometres, Tibet is the largest mountainous region in the world. Here we find the towering ranges of the Himalayas and Trans-Himalayas, which reach up to 8,000 metres high, and deep valleys in which monumental rivers – such as the Tsangpo-Brahmaputra, the Indus and the Mekong – stretch to the distant sea. Tibet is a landlocked country like Nepal and culturally shaped by the deeply religious nature of its population.

Hardly any carpets have patterns so closely connected with the native religion as those of the Tibetans. Although many residents could neither write nor read, they knew how to interpret the symbolic meaning of the carpet motifs.

There have never been large-scale workshops in Tibet. In the global carpet market, the ‘Tibetan’ was as good as unknown for centuries. The carpets are from small workshops or peasant homes; carpet-making satisfies domestic requirements but is also a welcome sideline for the population.

42 Nepalese Kiwi carpet (detail), designed by Harald Geba.

Courtesy Geba, Graz

172

The merger of the various tribes of Tibet to form a nation began around the year 127 AD. The population today consists mainly of peasants, nomads and traders,

with a strong Mongolian streak. According to the 14th Dalai Lama, up to 5 million Tibetans have no ethnological connection to the other peoples of Asia. The religion of the Tibetans is Lamaism, a special form of Buddhism. In the middle of the 17th century, the first Dalai Lama won secular rule over Tibet as a god-king. Since the 18th century, Tibet has, almost constantly, been under strong political influence from China, despite several attempts to free itself of this. The traditional welcome greeting of the Tibetans, ‘Tashi delek’, has never influenced the Chinese.

For centuries, Tibet was largely inaccessible to foreigners. This was a deliberate geographical and political isolation: the ruling class had no interest in making contact with the outside world, and the dangerous climate at such altitude and the lack of roads isolated the country further. Only at the beginning of the 20th century, and shortly before the Second World War, did some foreigners – such as the Austrian mountaineer and researcher Heinrich Harrer – go to Tibet and spend several years studying the ‘forbidden land’.

Since the autumn of 1965, Tibet has been an autonomous western province of the People’s Republic of China. The counterpart and representative of the present Dalai Lama, the Panchen Lama,

173

SECTION 4

THE HANDMADE CARPET

Buying, Selling & Keeping

animals gnaw away at textile fibres so that they become brittle and frail, resulting in typical moth holes. Danger also lurks in the cotton-like yarns that insects form to protect their brood.

The best antidote to moths is painstaking cleanliness in the household, permanent checking of all textiles, frequent ventilation, brief hanging of carpets in the sun, light vacuuming and timely destruction of all discovered insects and their offspring. Moth sprays and fumigants should only be used in extreme cases.

PRECAUTIONS AGAINST MAJOR DAMAGE AND CRIME Caring for and maintaining carpets includes provisions against burglary, theft and fire. In many commercially available home and household insurance policies, compensation for stolen carpets, or carpets damaged in the event of a break-in, is on the basis of new value or re-acquisition value. You should check whether this is the case with your own home or household insurance!

47

Major restoration work is often performed in Turkey, for cost reasons. In principle, there are two motivations for a restoration.

One is if the value of the repaired piece and the effort required for the repair are in commercially reasonable proportion to each other. The other relates to personal, emotional reasons for the conservation of the piece, such as love for the heirloom or preserving memories.

THE BATTLE AGAINST INSECT INFESTATION The bitterest enemies of carpets are not chemicals, carpet beaters or vacuum cleaners, but tiny animals, especially carpet beetles (Anthrenus scrophulariae) and fur beetles (Attagenus pellio) as well as moths, such as the clothes moth

284

(Tineola bisselliella) and the fur moth (Tinea pellionella); less dangerous is the Indian meal moth (Plodia interpunctella), because it only infests food.

Carpet beetles are the lesser danger because they are rare, and there are effective remedies which are harmless to the carpets. More frequent and annoying are moths, which drop their eggs in carpets and damage them. Carpets in constantly heated homes are particularly at risk. Well-trodden carpets are less at risk because moth eggs prefer dark and quiet places, which are more likely to be found in wall carpets, where the eggs are undisturbed and thus protected.

Home remedies against moths include bird feathers placed openly in the room,

where moths can drop their eggs, as a risk-free alternative; or moth strips with a special aroma that attracts the male, which gets stuck on the strip. Female moths lay 100 to 200 eggs, by choice on the rough surfaces of wool, fur, feathers or hair; they prefer mixed wool textiles such as carpets, but only if the wool content is more than 20 per cent. Moths can also be enticed by grease stains in the carpet. Pure cotton and silk are usually safe from moths.

The development from moth eggs to larvae, pupae and worms takes sixty to 200 days, depending on the room temperature. Moth caterpillars grow from 1 to 10 millimetres in length after hatching from the eggs because they eat keratin contained in the wool fibres. The tiny

A special art insurance policy is worth considering for carpet collectors with extensive, highly valuable inventories.

Such insurance is based on prudent professional valuation advice and a detailed inventory list created by the insurance expert together with the owner. In the case of special collections, the opinions of experts on the replacement value of the insured works of art are included in the documentation.

CARPET DOCUMENTATION In every case – be it a normal household insurance policy or a special art insurance policy – carpet connoisseurs should keep an accurate and detailed list of their treasures, together with colour photos of all their pieces; and keep these safe.

It is advisable to store such documentation as a photo file on your own laptop or on a USB stick, and continually update it.

For every single piece, all data should be specified, such as seller, type of carpet,

48

format, fineness, date of purchase and purchase price (if possible, include the current purchase price), conservation status, certificate, origin, design, any label and other special features. Such documents do not only facilitate precise determination of the damage, but also shorten the wait for payment from the insurance company.

For high-quality art objects, the current value should be determined from time to time; market prices and values are always used as the basis for an insurance policy, but they change over time.

47 Stacks of carpets showing the variety of colours, designs and styles seen in a typical rug shop.

48 The 16th-century Persian Anhalt carpet being examined by Dr Walter Denny at the Metropolitan Museum of Art. The science of examining the structure of carpets and understanding what this means in terms of when, how and where a carpet was made is performed at all levels of the carpet industry. Courtesy Walter Denny

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SECTION 4

THE HANDMADE CARPET

Buying, Selling & Keeping

animals gnaw away at textile fibres so that they become brittle and frail, resulting in typical moth holes. Danger also lurks in the cotton-like yarns that insects form to protect their brood.

The best antidote to moths is painstaking cleanliness in the household, permanent checking of all textiles, frequent ventilation, brief hanging of carpets in the sun, light vacuuming and timely destruction of all discovered insects and their offspring. Moth sprays and fumigants should only be used in extreme cases.

PRECAUTIONS AGAINST MAJOR DAMAGE AND CRIME Caring for and maintaining carpets includes provisions against burglary, theft and fire. In many commercially available home and household insurance policies, compensation for stolen carpets, or carpets damaged in the event of a break-in, is on the basis of new value or re-acquisition value. You should check whether this is the case with your own home or household insurance!

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Major restoration work is often performed in Turkey, for cost reasons. In principle, there are two motivations for a restoration.

One is if the value of the repaired piece and the effort required for the repair are in commercially reasonable proportion to each other. The other relates to personal, emotional reasons for the conservation of the piece, such as love for the heirloom or preserving memories.

THE BATTLE AGAINST INSECT INFESTATION The bitterest enemies of carpets are not chemicals, carpet beaters or vacuum cleaners, but tiny animals, especially carpet beetles (Anthrenus scrophulariae) and fur beetles (Attagenus pellio) as well as moths, such as the clothes moth

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(Tineola bisselliella) and the fur moth (Tinea pellionella); less dangerous is the Indian meal moth (Plodia interpunctella), because it only infests food.

Carpet beetles are the lesser danger because they are rare, and there are effective remedies which are harmless to the carpets. More frequent and annoying are moths, which drop their eggs in carpets and damage them. Carpets in constantly heated homes are particularly at risk. Well-trodden carpets are less at risk because moth eggs prefer dark and quiet places, which are more likely to be found in wall carpets, where the eggs are undisturbed and thus protected.

Home remedies against moths include bird feathers placed openly in the room,

where moths can drop their eggs, as a risk-free alternative; or moth strips with a special aroma that attracts the male, which gets stuck on the strip. Female moths lay 100 to 200 eggs, by choice on the rough surfaces of wool, fur, feathers or hair; they prefer mixed wool textiles such as carpets, but only if the wool content is more than 20 per cent. Moths can also be enticed by grease stains in the carpet. Pure cotton and silk are usually safe from moths.

The development from moth eggs to larvae, pupae and worms takes sixty to 200 days, depending on the room temperature. Moth caterpillars grow from 1 to 10 millimetres in length after hatching from the eggs because they eat keratin contained in the wool fibres. The tiny

A special art insurance policy is worth considering for carpet collectors with extensive, highly valuable inventories.

Such insurance is based on prudent professional valuation advice and a detailed inventory list created by the insurance expert together with the owner. In the case of special collections, the opinions of experts on the replacement value of the insured works of art are included in the documentation.

CARPET DOCUMENTATION In every case – be it a normal household insurance policy or a special art insurance policy – carpet connoisseurs should keep an accurate and detailed list of their treasures, together with colour photos of all their pieces; and keep these safe.

It is advisable to store such documentation as a photo file on your own laptop or on a USB stick, and continually update it.

For every single piece, all data should be specified, such as seller, type of carpet,

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format, fineness, date of purchase and purchase price (if possible, include the current purchase price), conservation status, certificate, origin, design, any label and other special features. Such documents do not only facilitate precise determination of the damage, but also shorten the wait for payment from the insurance company.

For high-quality art objects, the current value should be determined from time to time; market prices and values are always used as the basis for an insurance policy, but they change over time.

47 Stacks of carpets showing the variety of colours, designs and styles seen in a typical rug shop.

48 The 16th-century Persian Anhalt carpet being examined by Dr Walter Denny at the Metropolitan Museum of Art. The science of examining the structure of carpets and understanding what this means in terms of when, how and where a carpet was made is performed at all levels of the carpet industry. Courtesy Walter Denny

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