CONTENTS
Art of India and Beyond
Preface 6
Copyright © Ashmolean Museum, University of Oxford, 2021 Andrew Topsfield has asserted his moral right to be identified as the author of this work.
Indian Art at the Ashmolean, 1683–2020 9
British Library Cataloguing in Publications Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
1 Early India, 2500 BC–500 AD 23
ISBN: 978–1–910807–50–7
2 Gandhara, Swat Valley and Central Asia, 1–700 AD 53
3 Northwest India:
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording or any storage and retrieval system, without the prior permission in writing of the publisher. Catalogue designed by Dalrymple Printed and bound in the UK by Gomer Press For further details of Ashmolean titles please visit: www.ashmolean.org/shop Frontispiece: detail of cat. 18.
Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh, 600–1500 87
4 Western and Central India: Gujarat, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh, 600–1500 111
5 South India and the Deccan, 800–1800 133
6 Eastern India: Bihar, Bengal and Orissa, 600–1600 161
7 Nepal and Tibet, 500–1800 185
8 Southeast Asia: Burma, Thailand, Cambodia and Java, 500–1800 207
9 The Mughal and Deccani courts: North India and the Deccan, 1550–1750 233
10 The Rajput Courts: Rajasthan, Central India and the Punjab Hills, 1600–1900 252
11 The Company Period and British India, 1600–1900 297
Notes and References 316
CONTENTS
Art of India and Beyond
Preface 6
Copyright © Ashmolean Museum, University of Oxford, 2021 Andrew Topsfield has asserted his moral right to be identified as the author of this work.
Indian Art at the Ashmolean, 1683–2020 9
British Library Cataloguing in Publications Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
1 Early India, 2500 BC–500 AD 23
ISBN: 978–1–910807–50–7
2 Gandhara, Swat Valley and Central Asia, 1–700 AD 53
3 Northwest India:
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording or any storage and retrieval system, without the prior permission in writing of the publisher. Catalogue designed by Dalrymple Printed and bound in the UK by Gomer Press For further details of Ashmolean titles please visit: www.ashmolean.org/shop Frontispiece: detail of cat. 18.
Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh, 600–1500 87
4 Western and Central India: Gujarat, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh, 600–1500 111
5 South India and the Deccan, 800–1800 133
6 Eastern India: Bihar, Bengal and Orissa, 600–1600 161
7 Nepal and Tibet, 500–1800 185
8 Southeast Asia: Burma, Thailand, Cambodia and Java, 500–1800 207
9 The Mughal and Deccani courts: North India and the Deccan, 1550–1750 233
10 The Rajput Courts: Rajasthan, Central India and the Punjab Hills, 1600–1900 252
11 The Company Period and British India, 1600–1900 297
Notes and References 316
1 Prism sealing Terracotta | Indus Valley Civilisation, Mohenjodaro, Sindh, c.2000 BC Length 3.9 cm | EAMd.13 Purchased with the help of the Max Müller Memorial Fund, 1941
The Indus Valley (or Harappan) Civilisation (2600–1750 BC) remains in many ways mysterious. Its written remains are few and in a script that is still undeciphered. Extending far beyond the Indus River region, from Sindh in Pakistan almost as far as modern Delhi, the brick-built cities of this highly developed urban culture reveal advanced systems of town planning, with grids of streets and lanes in standard widths. Civic life seems to have been highly organised and controlled. But in the absence of texts or clearer archaeological evidence, we have little sense of what gods the Indus Valley people may have revered or what stories they told. Apart from many accomplished decorative ceramics and a few intriguing small-scale sculptures, the most numerous Indus artefacts that survive are small square seals in glazed steatite, often bearing intaglio animal carvings and a few characters in Indus script. These were probably used to identify bales of trade goods and have been excavated as far away as Iraq. Surviving Indus clay seal impressions (or ‘sealings’) are rarer. This three-sided prism sealing depicts on one side an enigmatic male figure seated on a throne or dais in a type of yogic posture, with his legs folded and the soles of his feet brought together in front of him. His arms are outstretched and his hands rest on his knees. His throne has bowed, bovine-like legs and feet. Much of the shallow relief detail is now unclear, but what might have been a horn projection appears to the right of his head. This suggests he may have been a cult figure, possibly related to the seated deity depicted in several surviving seals with a horned headdress and accompanying animals. Some scholars have seen him as a forerunner of the ascetic god Shiva in the form of Pashupati (Lord of the Animals). However that may be, the seated figure here is flanked by 24 Early India, 2500 BC–500 AD
creatures of the water which would have been familiar to those dwelling near the Indus: a pair of fish, with a gharial (river crocodile) on the left and probably another (now damaged) on the right. The wavy bands either side of the composition could perhaps suggest the encompassing waters or banks of the great river. Another face of the prism has five characters in the Indus script, while the third shows a bull-like figure of elongated, sinuous form. Is this bovine beast an associate of the ‘yogic’ figure on his bull-hoofed throne, on the adjacent face? A general prevalence of bull imagery suggests it was a major cult animal, as it was in other early civilisations. In later Hindu culture the bull Nandi became closely associated with Shiva as his vahana (vehicle) and has remained an enduring symbol of fertility and strength.
1 Prism sealing Terracotta | Indus Valley Civilisation, Mohenjodaro, Sindh, c.2000 BC Length 3.9 cm | EAMd.13 Purchased with the help of the Max Müller Memorial Fund, 1941
The Indus Valley (or Harappan) Civilisation (2600–1750 BC) remains in many ways mysterious. Its written remains are few and in a script that is still undeciphered. Extending far beyond the Indus River region, from Sindh in Pakistan almost as far as modern Delhi, the brick-built cities of this highly developed urban culture reveal advanced systems of town planning, with grids of streets and lanes in standard widths. Civic life seems to have been highly organised and controlled. But in the absence of texts or clearer archaeological evidence, we have little sense of what gods the Indus Valley people may have revered or what stories they told. Apart from many accomplished decorative ceramics and a few intriguing small-scale sculptures, the most numerous Indus artefacts that survive are small square seals in glazed steatite, often bearing intaglio animal carvings and a few characters in Indus script. These were probably used to identify bales of trade goods and have been excavated as far away as Iraq. Surviving Indus clay seal impressions (or ‘sealings’) are rarer. This three-sided prism sealing depicts on one side an enigmatic male figure seated on a throne or dais in a type of yogic posture, with his legs folded and the soles of his feet brought together in front of him. His arms are outstretched and his hands rest on his knees. His throne has bowed, bovine-like legs and feet. Much of the shallow relief detail is now unclear, but what might have been a horn projection appears to the right of his head. This suggests he may have been a cult figure, possibly related to the seated deity depicted in several surviving seals with a horned headdress and accompanying animals. Some scholars have seen him as a forerunner of the ascetic god Shiva in the form of Pashupati (Lord of the Animals). However that may be, the seated figure here is flanked by 24 Early India, 2500 BC–500 AD
creatures of the water which would have been familiar to those dwelling near the Indus: a pair of fish, with a gharial (river crocodile) on the left and probably another (now damaged) on the right. The wavy bands either side of the composition could perhaps suggest the encompassing waters or banks of the great river. Another face of the prism has five characters in the Indus script, while the third shows a bull-like figure of elongated, sinuous form. Is this bovine beast an associate of the ‘yogic’ figure on his bull-hoofed throne, on the adjacent face? A general prevalence of bull imagery suggests it was a major cult animal, as it was in other early civilisations. In later Hindu culture the bull Nandi became closely associated with Shiva as his vahana (vehicle) and has remained an enduring symbol of fertility and strength.
14 Makara Terracotta plaque | Mathura region, possibly Ahichhatra, c.400 AD Height 19.7 cm, length 41.5 cm, d. 8.6 cm | EA1971.13
The makara, a mythical aquatic monster, is an ancient Indian symbol of the life-giving waters and the fertility of rivers or lakes. Wild and powerful by nature, it is often depicted with the curved snout of the gharial or river crocodile. Makaras commonly appear as an auspicious presence in the sculptural decoration of temples, or as the vahana (vehicle) of the river goddess Ganga. The makara is also the banner emblem of the seductive Kamadeva, god of love. This makara plaque originally belonged to a frieze on a brick and terracotta temple. It is modelled in high relief, with wonderful verve and fluency. The water-monster is shown surging with powerful élan in its native element, fleshy paws extended, head raised and jaws gaping wide, its protruding eyeball wildly staring. The rearing snout and paddling forefeet thrust into the tile border, with its linear striations. The artist skilfully conveys the slick slipperiness of the makara’s skin. Its rear part transforms into a riot of sinuous vegetal scrolls, coiling and looping in turbulent agitation, while the deep lateral cutting of the clay enhances their three-dimensional quality. There is a great bravura to the whole composition and a wild exuberance.
50 Early India, 2500 BC–500 AD
art of india and beyond 51
14 Makara Terracotta plaque | Mathura region, possibly Ahichhatra, c.400 AD Height 19.7 cm, length 41.5 cm, d. 8.6 cm | EA1971.13
The makara, a mythical aquatic monster, is an ancient Indian symbol of the life-giving waters and the fertility of rivers or lakes. Wild and powerful by nature, it is often depicted with the curved snout of the gharial or river crocodile. Makaras commonly appear as an auspicious presence in the sculptural decoration of temples, or as the vahana (vehicle) of the river goddess Ganga. The makara is also the banner emblem of the seductive Kamadeva, god of love. This makara plaque originally belonged to a frieze on a brick and terracotta temple. It is modelled in high relief, with wonderful verve and fluency. The water-monster is shown surging with powerful élan in its native element, fleshy paws extended, head raised and jaws gaping wide, its protruding eyeball wildly staring. The rearing snout and paddling forefeet thrust into the tile border, with its linear striations. The artist skilfully conveys the slick slipperiness of the makara’s skin. Its rear part transforms into a riot of sinuous vegetal scrolls, coiling and looping in turbulent agitation, while the deep lateral cutting of the clay enhances their three-dimensional quality. There is a great bravura to the whole composition and a wild exuberance.
50 Early India, 2500 BC–500 AD
art of india and beyond 51
28 Seated Tara Gilt bronze with silver inlays | Swat Valley, seventh century AD Height 8 cm | EA2013.66 Bequest of Douglas and Mary Barrett
The Mahayana cult of the compassionate goddess Tara began in the early centuries AD and flourishes today among Himalayan Buddhists. A feminine counterpart to the Bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara, Tara is said to have emanated from a tear that he shed when contemplating the sufferings of worldly beings. Her name in Sanskrit can mean ‘star’ and ‘she who ferries across’ (tarayati), as she helps beings to pass from the world of Samsara to Nirvana. A powerful saviouress, she removes fears, protects from dangers and brings good fortune. She is invoked through her mantra — Om tare tuttare ture svaha (Om, O Tara, I pray O Tara, O Swift One, So Be It!) — which ends the verses below: Om. You who are bright, of the beautiful eyes, Tara, joy of starlight, full of pity for all beings, Saviour of all beings, thousand-armed, thousand-eyed, Om. Homage to the Blessed Lady! Look down, look down on me, On all beings, and also me, phat svaha! Om tare tuttare ture svaha! The beneficent grace of Tara is finely evoked in this small Swat Valley bronze. Her head inclined, she gazes downward and extends her right hand in the varada gesture of generosity or granting of wishes. Her left hand holds the stem of a large lotus bloom with a (now indistinct) object upon it. Her hair is gathered in chignons and she wears a tubular earring. This image was originally gilded all over, with silver inlays for Tara’s eyes, forehead urna and necklace, and for the smaller alternating petals of the double lotus base.
78 Gandhar a, Swat Valley & Centr al Asia, 1–700 AD
28 Seated Tara Gilt bronze with silver inlays | Swat Valley, seventh century AD Height 8 cm | EA2013.66 Bequest of Douglas and Mary Barrett
The Mahayana cult of the compassionate goddess Tara began in the early centuries AD and flourishes today among Himalayan Buddhists. A feminine counterpart to the Bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara, Tara is said to have emanated from a tear that he shed when contemplating the sufferings of worldly beings. Her name in Sanskrit can mean ‘star’ and ‘she who ferries across’ (tarayati), as she helps beings to pass from the world of Samsara to Nirvana. A powerful saviouress, she removes fears, protects from dangers and brings good fortune. She is invoked through her mantra — Om tare tuttare ture svaha (Om, O Tara, I pray O Tara, O Swift One, So Be It!) — which ends the verses below: Om. You who are bright, of the beautiful eyes, Tara, joy of starlight, full of pity for all beings, Saviour of all beings, thousand-armed, thousand-eyed, Om. Homage to the Blessed Lady! Look down, look down on me, On all beings, and also me, phat svaha! Om tare tuttare ture svaha! The beneficent grace of Tara is finely evoked in this small Swat Valley bronze. Her head inclined, she gazes downward and extends her right hand in the varada gesture of generosity or granting of wishes. Her left hand holds the stem of a large lotus bloom with a (now indistinct) object upon it. Her hair is gathered in chignons and she wears a tubular earring. This image was originally gilded all over, with silver inlays for Tara’s eyes, forehead urna and necklace, and for the smaller alternating petals of the double lotus base.
78 Gandhar a, Swat Valley & Centr al Asia, 1–700 AD
52 Printed cotton fragment Cotton, block-printed with resist and dyed with indigo Gujarat, found in Egypt, Carbon-14 dated c.850–900 AD Height 33 cm, width 8.5 cm max. | EA1990.250 Gift of Professor Percy Newberry
India has long been a prolific producer of textiles and was exporting fine Bengal muslins to Rome 2,000 years ago. By the eighth century a flourishing trade in Gujarati printed cottons had developed with Egypt. Many fragments of these historic household textiles, preserved by Egypt’s dry climate, were unearthed and sold in Cairo’s souks in the early twentieth century. More than a thousand examples were acquired by the Egyptologist Percy Newberry and are now in the Ashmolean. Dating from the eighth to sixteenth centuries, the majority are block-printed and mainly indigo-blue or madder-red in colour, or a mixture of both. Their decorative repertoire is a rich anthology of semi-abstract vegetal, geometric and occasional figurative designs, often recalling the patterns found in Gujarati architectural carving in stone or wood. Some of these patterns and motifs still appear in Indian textiles today. This frayed strip of indigo-dyed, block-printed cotton is one such chance survival, probably gathered from the refuse heaps of ancient Fustat, near Cairo. More than a thousand years old, it may be the earliest surviving example of an Indian figurative-patterned textile. Between continuous bands of scrolling vines with stylised leaves, an upper band depicts the rear halves of two elephants walking away from each other, while a lower band shows what are probably horses and riders in pursuit. One wishes more of it had been preserved. But the design is crisp and the deep indigo colour remains peculiarly intense. Indigo — a word meaning ‘Indian’ (Greek indikon, Latin indicum) — remains in global use today in the production of blue jeans and designer denim.
130 Western & Centr al India, 600–1500
52 Printed cotton fragment Cotton, block-printed with resist and dyed with indigo Gujarat, found in Egypt, Carbon-14 dated c.850–900 AD Height 33 cm, width 8.5 cm max. | EA1990.250 Gift of Professor Percy Newberry
India has long been a prolific producer of textiles and was exporting fine Bengal muslins to Rome 2,000 years ago. By the eighth century a flourishing trade in Gujarati printed cottons had developed with Egypt. Many fragments of these historic household textiles, preserved by Egypt’s dry climate, were unearthed and sold in Cairo’s souks in the early twentieth century. More than a thousand examples were acquired by the Egyptologist Percy Newberry and are now in the Ashmolean. Dating from the eighth to sixteenth centuries, the majority are block-printed and mainly indigo-blue or madder-red in colour, or a mixture of both. Their decorative repertoire is a rich anthology of semi-abstract vegetal, geometric and occasional figurative designs, often recalling the patterns found in Gujarati architectural carving in stone or wood. Some of these patterns and motifs still appear in Indian textiles today. This frayed strip of indigo-dyed, block-printed cotton is one such chance survival, probably gathered from the refuse heaps of ancient Fustat, near Cairo. More than a thousand years old, it may be the earliest surviving example of an Indian figurative-patterned textile. Between continuous bands of scrolling vines with stylised leaves, an upper band depicts the rear halves of two elephants walking away from each other, while a lower band shows what are probably horses and riders in pursuit. One wishes more of it had been preserved. But the design is crisp and the deep indigo colour remains peculiarly intense. Indigo — a word meaning ‘Indian’ (Greek indikon, Latin indicum) — remains in global use today in the production of blue jeans and designer denim.
130 Western & Centr al India, 600–1500
63 Rama, Sita and Lakshmana Bronze | Eastern Deccan, fourteenth century Height 22.3 cm (Rama), 20 cm (Lakshmana), 18.5 cm (Sita) EA2013.98a–c Bequest of Douglas and Mary Barrett
In this trio of bronze images, Rama, seventh avatar of Vishnu and the hero of the Ramayana epic, is flanked by his ever loyal brother Lakshmana and faithful wife Sita. Rama personifies the ideal of the righteous ruler who steadfastly follows the path of duty. Sita too remains an enduring Indian cultural archetype of patient, wifely virtue. In the epic, Prince Rama is unjustly banished from the court of Ayodhya and withdraws into forest exile with Sita and Lakshmana. Sita is then abducted by Ravana, demon king of Lanka. After many adventures and battles, Rama and his allies defeat Ravana and win back Sita, returning in triumph to Ayodhya, where Rama is crowned king. Standing on lotus pedestals, Rama and his companions are elegantly modelled in a style that derives from earlier Chola traditions. All rest their weight on their right legs; their torsos incline gracefully to the left. Rama, the tallest figure, is customarily depicted as an archer, adept both in hunting and war. In the gestural language of dance, he raises his left hand—his fingers crooked as if holding a bow—while his right hand is half-closed, as if grasping an arrow. A commanding figure, he smiles gently and sways in a triple-flexed (tribhanga) posture, as does his brother and companion Lakshmana, who stands in the same archer pose and wears a similar tall crown and princely jewellery. The figure of Sita, proud in bearing yet modest in manner, stands in a more gently flexed posture and holds a longstemmed flower.
152 South India & the Deccan, 800–1800
63 Rama, Sita and Lakshmana Bronze | Eastern Deccan, fourteenth century Height 22.3 cm (Rama), 20 cm (Lakshmana), 18.5 cm (Sita) EA2013.98a–c Bequest of Douglas and Mary Barrett
In this trio of bronze images, Rama, seventh avatar of Vishnu and the hero of the Ramayana epic, is flanked by his ever loyal brother Lakshmana and faithful wife Sita. Rama personifies the ideal of the righteous ruler who steadfastly follows the path of duty. Sita too remains an enduring Indian cultural archetype of patient, wifely virtue. In the epic, Prince Rama is unjustly banished from the court of Ayodhya and withdraws into forest exile with Sita and Lakshmana. Sita is then abducted by Ravana, demon king of Lanka. After many adventures and battles, Rama and his allies defeat Ravana and win back Sita, returning in triumph to Ayodhya, where Rama is crowned king. Standing on lotus pedestals, Rama and his companions are elegantly modelled in a style that derives from earlier Chola traditions. All rest their weight on their right legs; their torsos incline gracefully to the left. Rama, the tallest figure, is customarily depicted as an archer, adept both in hunting and war. In the gestural language of dance, he raises his left hand—his fingers crooked as if holding a bow—while his right hand is half-closed, as if grasping an arrow. A commanding figure, he smiles gently and sways in a triple-flexed (tribhanga) posture, as does his brother and companion Lakshmana, who stands in the same archer pose and wears a similar tall crown and princely jewellery. The figure of Sita, proud in bearing yet modest in manner, stands in a more gently flexed posture and holds a longstemmed flower.
152 South India & the Deccan, 800–1800
88 Mandala of Guhyasamaja-Manjuvajra Gouache on cotton cloth | Tibet, early fifteenth century Height 50.7 cm, width 42.9 cm | EA2007.246 Purchased with the help of the Neil Kreitman Foundation in memory of Hyman and Irene Kreitman
The Tantric Buddhist art form of the mandala, a mystical diagram of the cosmos, is of Indian origin. After the decline of the Eastern Indian monasteries, the practice of painting mandalas on cloth or on temple walls continued in Tibet, where it gave rise to powerful esoteric images of great complexity and beauty. Many of these are now found in museum and private collections worldwide, though in former days — prior to the Chinese annexation of 1959 and the resulting Tibetan diaspora — they were revealed only to a few initiated monks, as aids to meditation and the inner visualisation of specific deities. This very finely executed mandala may have been painted by itinerant Newar artists from the Kathmandu Valley, famous for the delicacy of their art, who are known to have produced related works for the Ngor monastery, south-west of Lhasa. The composition of the mandala — a cosmic palace shown in plan form and peopled by Tantric deities — follows the iconographic prescriptions of liturgical texts concerning the rites for a monk’s higher spiritual initiations. The artist clearly delighted in embellishing it with a wealth of ornate scrollwork, enhanced by contrasting colour fields. The overall effect is a kaleidoscope of brilliant colour and refined pattern. This mandala is dedicated to GuhyasamajaManjuvajra, an esoteric aspect of Akshobhya, the ‘Imperturbable’ Buddha. Manjuvajra presides at the centre of the universe, embracing his prajna (wisdom goddess) and thus embodying the Secret Union (guhyasamaja) of Wisdom and Compassion as the means to Enlightenment. The central couple is surrounded by four more Buddhas, governing the four cardinal points, who are flanked by wisdom goddesses occupying the intermediary directions. Further auspicious goddesses and protective deities are seen beyond this inner circle and in the further regions of the mandala, while eminent lamas and monks of the Sakyapa order preside in a long row above it. 202 Nepal & Tibet, 500–1800
88 Mandala of Guhyasamaja-Manjuvajra Gouache on cotton cloth | Tibet, early fifteenth century Height 50.7 cm, width 42.9 cm | EA2007.246 Purchased with the help of the Neil Kreitman Foundation in memory of Hyman and Irene Kreitman
The Tantric Buddhist art form of the mandala, a mystical diagram of the cosmos, is of Indian origin. After the decline of the Eastern Indian monasteries, the practice of painting mandalas on cloth or on temple walls continued in Tibet, where it gave rise to powerful esoteric images of great complexity and beauty. Many of these are now found in museum and private collections worldwide, though in former days — prior to the Chinese annexation of 1959 and the resulting Tibetan diaspora — they were revealed only to a few initiated monks, as aids to meditation and the inner visualisation of specific deities. This very finely executed mandala may have been painted by itinerant Newar artists from the Kathmandu Valley, famous for the delicacy of their art, who are known to have produced related works for the Ngor monastery, south-west of Lhasa. The composition of the mandala — a cosmic palace shown in plan form and peopled by Tantric deities — follows the iconographic prescriptions of liturgical texts concerning the rites for a monk’s higher spiritual initiations. The artist clearly delighted in embellishing it with a wealth of ornate scrollwork, enhanced by contrasting colour fields. The overall effect is a kaleidoscope of brilliant colour and refined pattern. This mandala is dedicated to GuhyasamajaManjuvajra, an esoteric aspect of Akshobhya, the ‘Imperturbable’ Buddha. Manjuvajra presides at the centre of the universe, embracing his prajna (wisdom goddess) and thus embodying the Secret Union (guhyasamaja) of Wisdom and Compassion as the means to Enlightenment. The central couple is surrounded by four more Buddhas, governing the four cardinal points, who are flanked by wisdom goddesses occupying the intermediary directions. Further auspicious goddesses and protective deities are seen beyond this inner circle and in the further regions of the mandala, while eminent lamas and monks of the Sakyapa order preside in a long row above it. 202 Nepal & Tibet, 500–1800
101 Heaven and Hell: A Lesson for Judges Painted wood panel | Thailand, c.1850 Height 159 cm, width 45 cm | EAX.2002
Generally devoted to Buddhist subjects, later Thai painting attractively blends indigenous styles with Indian, Chinese and European elements. This unusual painted panel was perhaps intended for a judge’s chambers, as it bears a text exhorting members of that profession to conduct themselves with integrity, or face a hellish fate: All those who are judges in the courts, all of you take heed of the Law in considering cases. Enquire with care and due attention. Measure as with scales; scales which are correct in balance. In deciding any case do not lean to either side but create impartiality as between the accused and the accusers. Do not deviate out of the straight path as a result of trickery due to bribes … This will be of extreme danger to you, leading at once to your utter destruction. That punishment will fall upon you in this life, and in the next you will fall into the Great Hell and will suffer. You will become preta [hungry ghosts], those who have nails like spades dipped in the acid that is brewed in Hell, much to be pitied … The text then describes further gruesome sufferings that await bad judges. In the lower painting, three hell-dwellers are tormented by flames and savaged by birds and beasts. The wicked judge is now an agonised, skeletal preta with an instrument of torture fixed to his skull. Pathetically, he clutches his scales of justice, gravely skewed by the bribes he had received from his fellow sufferer, who holds a moneybag on the right. The hands of the preta on the left have become metal blades. Good judges, by contrast, will reap heavenly rewards through their accumulated merit: If your verdict be honest and true, given without prejudice or delay, what merit can be equal to this? … Such virtue will produce a good result and reward, better than any words can describe. Every god and heavenly being will bestow his blessings. In this life you will prosper with lasting good fortune, free from care … When your life has come to an end, you will go to Heaven, to great joy. In the upper painting the virtuous judge, arrayed in golden clothing, stands proudly on a pedestal, holding his perfectly balanced scales. An attendant holds a tiered royal parasol and two beautiful celestial maidens gaze admiringly up at him. One holds a flower bouquet and the other points upward, to his golden heavenly abode which floats on curling clouds. 230 Southeast Asia, 500–1800
101 Heaven and Hell: A Lesson for Judges Painted wood panel | Thailand, c.1850 Height 159 cm, width 45 cm | EAX.2002
Generally devoted to Buddhist subjects, later Thai painting attractively blends indigenous styles with Indian, Chinese and European elements. This unusual painted panel was perhaps intended for a judge’s chambers, as it bears a text exhorting members of that profession to conduct themselves with integrity, or face a hellish fate: All those who are judges in the courts, all of you take heed of the Law in considering cases. Enquire with care and due attention. Measure as with scales; scales which are correct in balance. In deciding any case do not lean to either side but create impartiality as between the accused and the accusers. Do not deviate out of the straight path as a result of trickery due to bribes … This will be of extreme danger to you, leading at once to your utter destruction. That punishment will fall upon you in this life, and in the next you will fall into the Great Hell and will suffer. You will become preta [hungry ghosts], those who have nails like spades dipped in the acid that is brewed in Hell, much to be pitied … The text then describes further gruesome sufferings that await bad judges. In the lower painting, three hell-dwellers are tormented by flames and savaged by birds and beasts. The wicked judge is now an agonised, skeletal preta with an instrument of torture fixed to his skull. Pathetically, he clutches his scales of justice, gravely skewed by the bribes he had received from his fellow sufferer, who holds a moneybag on the right. The hands of the preta on the left have become metal blades. Good judges, by contrast, will reap heavenly rewards through their accumulated merit: If your verdict be honest and true, given without prejudice or delay, what merit can be equal to this? … Such virtue will produce a good result and reward, better than any words can describe. Every god and heavenly being will bestow his blessings. In this life you will prosper with lasting good fortune, free from care … When your life has come to an end, you will go to Heaven, to great joy. In the upper painting the virtuous judge, arrayed in golden clothing, stands proudly on a pedestal, holding his perfectly balanced scales. An attendant holds a tiered royal parasol and two beautiful celestial maidens gaze admiringly up at him. One holds a flower bouquet and the other points upward, to his golden heavenly abode which floats on curling clouds. 230 Southeast Asia, 500–1800
107 Mughal carpet Pashmina wool pile, with silk warps and wefts | Kashmir or Lahore, 1650–1700 Length 211 cm, width 147 cm | EA1975.17 Purchased with the help of the MLA/V&A Fund and the Friends of the Ashmolean
The art of carpet-weaving developed among the nomadic peoples of Central Asia and was adopted in India by early Mughal emperors, especially Akbar, whose court weavers probably came from Herat in Afghanistan. Persian influence on Mughal carpet design remained strong during the seventeenth century, albeit overlaid by the characteristic Mughal taste for bold floral decoration. This richly coloured and very finely knotted carpet (780 knots to the square inch) is a superb example of the intricate millefleur (‘thousand-flower’) style of the later seventeenth century. The design derives partly from European influences on Mughal floral patterns and ornamental elements, which here become reduced in scale and more closely bunched. In the carpet’s main field, diverse floral sprays, blossoms, leaves and palmettes are connected by scrolling vines in repeating pattern units. The border, with its scrolling pattern of lush lotus buds and flowers, is more typically Indian.
242 The Mughal & Deccani Courts, 1550–1750
107 Mughal carpet Pashmina wool pile, with silk warps and wefts | Kashmir or Lahore, 1650–1700 Length 211 cm, width 147 cm | EA1975.17 Purchased with the help of the MLA/V&A Fund and the Friends of the Ashmolean
The art of carpet-weaving developed among the nomadic peoples of Central Asia and was adopted in India by early Mughal emperors, especially Akbar, whose court weavers probably came from Herat in Afghanistan. Persian influence on Mughal carpet design remained strong during the seventeenth century, albeit overlaid by the characteristic Mughal taste for bold floral decoration. This richly coloured and very finely knotted carpet (780 knots to the square inch) is a superb example of the intricate millefleur (‘thousand-flower’) style of the later seventeenth century. The design derives partly from European influences on Mughal floral patterns and ornamental elements, which here become reduced in scale and more closely bunched. In the carpet’s main field, diverse floral sprays, blossoms, leaves and palmettes are connected by scrolling vines in repeating pattern units. The border, with its scrolling pattern of lush lotus buds and flowers, is more typically Indian.
242 The Mughal & Deccani Courts, 1550–1750
120 Elephant study Brush drawing on paper | Kota, Rajasthan, c.1700–10 Height 23.5 cm, width 23.5 cm | EA2016.23 Gift of Sir Howard Hodgkin
The elephant is the traditional mount of Indian kings. While in its season of masti (‘drunkenness’, or rut), it was traditionally regarded as an auspicious manifestation of unbridled natural energy. According to the Matanga-Lila, an elephant treatise: From excess of joy, O prince, arises the must of elephants … Trees reach their seasonal growth at the sign of must, and other living things too are filled with joy at the thought of must. In a kingdom or a city if an elephant is in must, the earth will yield plentiful food … Dangerously excited bull elephants, seen at the formidable height of their vitality in their mast state, were a favourite subject for painters at the Kota court. This powerful drawing fragment shows the head and forequarters of a court elephant in rut, with his staring eye, flexing and curling trunk and a characteristic dark hormonal secretion seeping from his crescent-shaped temporal gland. The elephant’s wide, animated eye swims in a vortex of fluid, eddying lines and hatchings. Similar dynamic linear swirls appear around the mouth and ear. Such bravura passages are typical of this drawing tradition, first established by the seventeenth century masters working at the adjacent courts of Bundi and Kota in southeast Rajasthan. The elephant’s shoulders, neck and rope collar hung with bells are more summarily sketched. Comparably dynamic Kota drawings of elephants are found in the Jagdish and Kamla Mittal Museum, Hyderabad, and in the collection of the late Sir Howard Hodgkin.
270 The R ajput Courts, 1600–1900
120 Elephant study Brush drawing on paper | Kota, Rajasthan, c.1700–10 Height 23.5 cm, width 23.5 cm | EA2016.23 Gift of Sir Howard Hodgkin
The elephant is the traditional mount of Indian kings. While in its season of masti (‘drunkenness’, or rut), it was traditionally regarded as an auspicious manifestation of unbridled natural energy. According to the Matanga-Lila, an elephant treatise: From excess of joy, O prince, arises the must of elephants … Trees reach their seasonal growth at the sign of must, and other living things too are filled with joy at the thought of must. In a kingdom or a city if an elephant is in must, the earth will yield plentiful food … Dangerously excited bull elephants, seen at the formidable height of their vitality in their mast state, were a favourite subject for painters at the Kota court. This powerful drawing fragment shows the head and forequarters of a court elephant in rut, with his staring eye, flexing and curling trunk and a characteristic dark hormonal secretion seeping from his crescent-shaped temporal gland. The elephant’s wide, animated eye swims in a vortex of fluid, eddying lines and hatchings. Similar dynamic linear swirls appear around the mouth and ear. Such bravura passages are typical of this drawing tradition, first established by the seventeenth century masters working at the adjacent courts of Bundi and Kota in southeast Rajasthan. The elephant’s shoulders, neck and rope collar hung with bells are more summarily sketched. Comparably dynamic Kota drawings of elephants are found in the Jagdish and Kamla Mittal Museum, Hyderabad, and in the collection of the late Sir Howard Hodgkin.
270 The R ajput Courts, 1600–1900