Contents
photographs and text by QAMOOS BUKHARI drawings by TA H A M U G H A L pen and ink, watercolour illustrations by S Y E D B A S H A R AT A L I
M S a l eem B e g
Foreword 7 Khanqah-i-Masood 131
hakim sameer ham d ani
Understanding Kashmir’s Islamic Religious Architecture in Continuity and Change 9
Akhund Mulla Shah Masjid 139 Dastgeer Sahab 145
Khanqah-i-Maula 21
Imambara Hassanabad 157
Mir Masjid 45
Kreeri Aastan 165
Jamia Masjid 53
Dadsar Aastan 177
Madin Sahab 65
Aishmuqam 185
Aali Masjid 77
Srigufwara 193
Makhdoom Sahab 83 Khanqah-i-Naqshband 97 Thag Bab Sahab 113 Pathar Masjid 119 F o z ia S . Q a z i
Patterns of Culture – Understanding Craft through Mathematics 125
Janbaaz Sahab 205 Q amoos B ukhari
Afterword 219 Credits 221 Acknowledgements 223
Contents
photographs and text by QAMOOS BUKHARI drawings by TA H A M U G H A L pen and ink, watercolour illustrations by S Y E D B A S H A R AT A L I
M S a l eem B e g
Foreword 7 Khanqah-i-Masood 131
hakim sameer ham d ani
Understanding Kashmir’s Islamic Religious Architecture in Continuity and Change 9
Akhund Mulla Shah Masjid 139 Dastgeer Sahab 145
Khanqah-i-Maula 21
Imambara Hassanabad 157
Mir Masjid 45
Kreeri Aastan 165
Jamia Masjid 53
Dadsar Aastan 177
Madin Sahab 65
Aishmuqam 185
Aali Masjid 77
Srigufwara 193
Makhdoom Sahab 83 Khanqah-i-Naqshband 97 Thag Bab Sahab 113 Pathar Masjid 119 F o z ia S . Q a z i
Patterns of Culture – Understanding Craft through Mathematics 125
Janbaaz Sahab 205 Q amoos B ukhari
Afterword 219 Credits 221 Acknowledgements 223
Foreword Islamic architecture in its elementary form arose out of the basic tenet of Islam, As-Salah (the prayer), a part of what is commonly known as the five pillars of Islam, the others being Kalima (assertion of faith), Roza (fasting), Zakat (almsgiving), and the Haj pilgrimage. It is, therefore, the prayer that is the prime precursor to other forms of worship that a believer is ordained to follow. Islam prescribes a precise way including Sajda (prostration) five times a day, in each prayer, to be offered preferably in a congregation and oriented towards Mecca, the first holy mosque constructed by Hazrat Ibrahim (Judaic Abraham), which forms the directional axis (qibla) for the prayer. Thus need for a principal place of worship, the mosque became essential to the matters of faith and religious practices. The first mosque by Prophet Muhammad was founded in Madina, distant from the city of Mecca, the birthplace of the prophet. The prophet was forced to migrate from Mecca because when he declared his prophethood, it invited a lot of hostility against his person and the faith. Initially, the mosque was an enclosure, a sacred space with a recess facing Al-Aqsa that later got oriented towards Mecca. The enclosure comprised a covered space and an appurtenant open space. Thus the architecture of the Muslim mosque providing shelter to the worshippers was set up with simplicity in design and all essentials required of the place of worship. With the spread of Islam in the lands beyond its birth, even with the introduction of some diversity to a form, primarily the spaces in enclosure remained the guiding factor. Therefore the main hall where a mihrab was enshrined remained the principal architectural feature with the veranda or courtyard leading up to it. In due course, the prayer hall was retained but open space, sehan came up within the enclosure of the mosque whose four sides were enclosed by pillared cloisters with a fountain and a tank in the centre for ablutions – this being key to the formalized prayer plan of rectangular or square form. Subsequently, other important elements were added on the exterior of the mosque. These included the facades constructed across the front and the imposing main entrance. With the spread of Islam across the orient, builders of mosques revealed their creativity and artistic finery along with the most cherished art form of calligraphy. Local influences and rich traditions of conquered territories influenced both the overall architectural form and embellishments in the constructed buildings. This also included the use of newer materials following similar usage by preceding building traditions in those territories. These architectural styles were designated as classical or imperial styles representing the monuments and marvels of Islamic architecture in mainlands where Muslim rule was established through conquests. Another style, equally widespread, emerged in territories beyond the mainlands and got designated as provincial. This style was a kind of spontaneous movement arising out of the aspirations of the newer adherents of the faith that contained the expression of their aesthetic ideals and feelings. The dominant factor in establishing provincial style was the character of the local arts that prevailed within the regions. In many areas where local artisans had produced in past fine temples, we find the most elegant mosques and shrines sprang up. This interaction of past practices, outside influences, creativity and transformation of building styles turned into community identities. These identities were preserved and expressed through the medium of architecture. The architecture of Muslim shrines and mosques in Kashmir is the result of this process of amalgamation of past building traditions with newer influences from major centres of Islam. This architecture evolved after the advent of Islam in the region in the fourteenth century. The advent also brought an influx of mystics and Sufis from Central Asia and Iran who engaged in the region through the propagation of the faith. We know from the historical records that they were also accompanied in large numbers by artisans and masters possessing skills of the arts that were prevalent in the countries of their origin, which at that time were major centres producing a fabulous mélange of arts and crafts. Thus Kashmir came to represent a unique synthetic architectural style integrating pre-Islamic features with elements introduced from Iran and Central Asia. The first biggest main mosque of Kashmir, Jamia Masjid in Srinagar was built in the fourteenth century. The construction of the mosque followed the basic layout as
7
described above, and has till date remained the finest example of the built heritage representative of integration of local traditions, materials as well as the universally accepted layout for a monumental sacred space. Though the building was damaged by fire at least on three occasions, however in its existing form it contains all the architectural elements that were its primary key features. The mosque has a square courtyard, 254 x 234 feet surrounded on all four sides with wide colonnades covering its lofty exterior. These sacred spaces have become an intrinsic part of the composite heritage of Kashmir. The buildings documented in this book have come to represent a tradition of ‘living monuments’ whose significance goes beyond their archaeological and architectural importance. In terms of its spread, the buildings associated with this architectural tradition can be found all across the Kashmir valley, though the city of Srinagar has the largest concentration. Unfortunately, these monuments have also been victims of various natural and manmade disasters. Many monuments like the Jamia Masjid and Khanqah-i-Maula in Srinagar have burnt and rebuilt a number of times. Yet in the preceding centuries, renovations, repairs, and reconstructions that were undertaken remained faithful to the original architectural tradition – a practice that has been somewhat dented at other places in recent past. A clear example of this negligence could be seen in the reconstruction of Chrar-i-Sharief in Budgam, Khanqah-i-Faiz-Panah in Tral, and Imambara at Zadibal in Srinagar, wherein the new constructions are at variance with the historic image of the buildings. In the case of Chrar-i-Sharief and Khanqah-iFaiz-Panah, an attempt at the reworking of a traditional image in a contemporary idiom has resulted in architectural kitsch marring historical character of the monument of faith. This can also be seen in the architecturally incoherent expansion of Makhdoom Sahab shrine in Srinagar (documented in this book). Similarly, alterations have been undertaken in many other shrines and mosques that have resulted in the architectural discontinuity. Also, the reconstruction of Chrar-iSharief and the Khanqah in Tral has brought to fore the vulnerability of these monuments to disasters such as a fire – given that most of these buildings are built almost entirely in wood. In 2012, Dastgeer Sahab shrine built in the eighteenth century in Srinagar caught blaze and was charred to its plinth level. Though nature of the loss can never be regained, it is a matter of satisfaction that through thorough technical support and supervision, INTACH Kashmir Chapter was able to help reconstruct the shrine in its previous form mirroring the same aesthetic. This was possible because of the timely documentation of shrines and mosques across Kashmir by INTACH Kashmir Chapter, which includes a detailed photo and drawing documentation, digitization of structures and craft elements in them. At INTACH, we have been looking at the whole gamut of issues involved in the conservation of monuments of outstanding cultural value. And for nearly past two decades, INTACH Kashmir Chapter has worked assiduously at creating, implementing conservation plans, and documenting and analyzing the built heritage of Kashmir – covering a large number of residences, religious buildings, institutional complexes, etc., to create an impressive set of listings and a cultural resource mapping. Alongside assemblage of photographs, drawings and sketches of the sacred places, the book draws together intensely researched essays to explicate the meaning, semblance, and significance of the representation, with a particular focus on the intersection of traditions with artistic, religious and cultural practices in the local and wider regions. Besides providing information and visual delight, the volume also analyzes the past/present condition of historic shrines and mosques through illustrated records. The purpose of this book is to appeal not only to subject experts but also to anyone looking for inspiration from these creations. For the benefit of succeeding generations, this work is the best insurance that can be offered for preserving the sacred form represented through our built heritage. M Saleem Beg Convener, INTACH J&K Chapter
Foreword Islamic architecture in its elementary form arose out of the basic tenet of Islam, As-Salah (the prayer), a part of what is commonly known as the five pillars of Islam, the others being Kalima (assertion of faith), Roza (fasting), Zakat (almsgiving), and the Haj pilgrimage. It is, therefore, the prayer that is the prime precursor to other forms of worship that a believer is ordained to follow. Islam prescribes a precise way including Sajda (prostration) five times a day, in each prayer, to be offered preferably in a congregation and oriented towards Mecca, the first holy mosque constructed by Hazrat Ibrahim (Judaic Abraham), which forms the directional axis (qibla) for the prayer. Thus need for a principal place of worship, the mosque became essential to the matters of faith and religious practices. The first mosque by Prophet Muhammad was founded in Madina, distant from the city of Mecca, the birthplace of the prophet. The prophet was forced to migrate from Mecca because when he declared his prophethood, it invited a lot of hostility against his person and the faith. Initially, the mosque was an enclosure, a sacred space with a recess facing Al-Aqsa that later got oriented towards Mecca. The enclosure comprised a covered space and an appurtenant open space. Thus the architecture of the Muslim mosque providing shelter to the worshippers was set up with simplicity in design and all essentials required of the place of worship. With the spread of Islam in the lands beyond its birth, even with the introduction of some diversity to a form, primarily the spaces in enclosure remained the guiding factor. Therefore the main hall where a mihrab was enshrined remained the principal architectural feature with the veranda or courtyard leading up to it. In due course, the prayer hall was retained but open space, sehan came up within the enclosure of the mosque whose four sides were enclosed by pillared cloisters with a fountain and a tank in the centre for ablutions – this being key to the formalized prayer plan of rectangular or square form. Subsequently, other important elements were added on the exterior of the mosque. These included the facades constructed across the front and the imposing main entrance. With the spread of Islam across the orient, builders of mosques revealed their creativity and artistic finery along with the most cherished art form of calligraphy. Local influences and rich traditions of conquered territories influenced both the overall architectural form and embellishments in the constructed buildings. This also included the use of newer materials following similar usage by preceding building traditions in those territories. These architectural styles were designated as classical or imperial styles representing the monuments and marvels of Islamic architecture in mainlands where Muslim rule was established through conquests. Another style, equally widespread, emerged in territories beyond the mainlands and got designated as provincial. This style was a kind of spontaneous movement arising out of the aspirations of the newer adherents of the faith that contained the expression of their aesthetic ideals and feelings. The dominant factor in establishing provincial style was the character of the local arts that prevailed within the regions. In many areas where local artisans had produced in past fine temples, we find the most elegant mosques and shrines sprang up. This interaction of past practices, outside influences, creativity and transformation of building styles turned into community identities. These identities were preserved and expressed through the medium of architecture. The architecture of Muslim shrines and mosques in Kashmir is the result of this process of amalgamation of past building traditions with newer influences from major centres of Islam. This architecture evolved after the advent of Islam in the region in the fourteenth century. The advent also brought an influx of mystics and Sufis from Central Asia and Iran who engaged in the region through the propagation of the faith. We know from the historical records that they were also accompanied in large numbers by artisans and masters possessing skills of the arts that were prevalent in the countries of their origin, which at that time were major centres producing a fabulous mélange of arts and crafts. Thus Kashmir came to represent a unique synthetic architectural style integrating pre-Islamic features with elements introduced from Iran and Central Asia. The first biggest main mosque of Kashmir, Jamia Masjid in Srinagar was built in the fourteenth century. The construction of the mosque followed the basic layout as
7
described above, and has till date remained the finest example of the built heritage representative of integration of local traditions, materials as well as the universally accepted layout for a monumental sacred space. Though the building was damaged by fire at least on three occasions, however in its existing form it contains all the architectural elements that were its primary key features. The mosque has a square courtyard, 254 x 234 feet surrounded on all four sides with wide colonnades covering its lofty exterior. These sacred spaces have become an intrinsic part of the composite heritage of Kashmir. The buildings documented in this book have come to represent a tradition of ‘living monuments’ whose significance goes beyond their archaeological and architectural importance. In terms of its spread, the buildings associated with this architectural tradition can be found all across the Kashmir valley, though the city of Srinagar has the largest concentration. Unfortunately, these monuments have also been victims of various natural and manmade disasters. Many monuments like the Jamia Masjid and Khanqah-i-Maula in Srinagar have burnt and rebuilt a number of times. Yet in the preceding centuries, renovations, repairs, and reconstructions that were undertaken remained faithful to the original architectural tradition – a practice that has been somewhat dented at other places in recent past. A clear example of this negligence could be seen in the reconstruction of Chrar-i-Sharief in Budgam, Khanqah-i-Faiz-Panah in Tral, and Imambara at Zadibal in Srinagar, wherein the new constructions are at variance with the historic image of the buildings. In the case of Chrar-i-Sharief and Khanqah-iFaiz-Panah, an attempt at the reworking of a traditional image in a contemporary idiom has resulted in architectural kitsch marring historical character of the monument of faith. This can also be seen in the architecturally incoherent expansion of Makhdoom Sahab shrine in Srinagar (documented in this book). Similarly, alterations have been undertaken in many other shrines and mosques that have resulted in the architectural discontinuity. Also, the reconstruction of Chrar-iSharief and the Khanqah in Tral has brought to fore the vulnerability of these monuments to disasters such as a fire – given that most of these buildings are built almost entirely in wood. In 2012, Dastgeer Sahab shrine built in the eighteenth century in Srinagar caught blaze and was charred to its plinth level. Though nature of the loss can never be regained, it is a matter of satisfaction that through thorough technical support and supervision, INTACH Kashmir Chapter was able to help reconstruct the shrine in its previous form mirroring the same aesthetic. This was possible because of the timely documentation of shrines and mosques across Kashmir by INTACH Kashmir Chapter, which includes a detailed photo and drawing documentation, digitization of structures and craft elements in them. At INTACH, we have been looking at the whole gamut of issues involved in the conservation of monuments of outstanding cultural value. And for nearly past two decades, INTACH Kashmir Chapter has worked assiduously at creating, implementing conservation plans, and documenting and analyzing the built heritage of Kashmir – covering a large number of residences, religious buildings, institutional complexes, etc., to create an impressive set of listings and a cultural resource mapping. Alongside assemblage of photographs, drawings and sketches of the sacred places, the book draws together intensely researched essays to explicate the meaning, semblance, and significance of the representation, with a particular focus on the intersection of traditions with artistic, religious and cultural practices in the local and wider regions. Besides providing information and visual delight, the volume also analyzes the past/present condition of historic shrines and mosques through illustrated records. The purpose of this book is to appeal not only to subject experts but also to anyone looking for inspiration from these creations. For the benefit of succeeding generations, this work is the best insurance that can be offered for preserving the sacred form represented through our built heritage. M Saleem Beg Convener, INTACH J&K Chapter
Understanding Kashmir’s Islamic Religious Architecture in Continuity and Change Introduction1
Somewhere in the latter part of the fifteenth century CE, a Persian Sufi, Shaykh Shams-ud Din‘Iraki (1424-1525 CE) arrived in the court of the Sultan of Kashmir as the emissary of Sultan Husayn Bayaqara (1470-1507 CE). In addition to representing the Timurid court of Herat, ‘Iraki was also a leading member of the Nurbakshiyā Sufi order and the first individual from this newly established order to visit Kashmir. On his arrival in Srinagar, the capital of Kashmir, ‘Iraki was received by the nobles of Kashmir on behalf of the Sultan and escorted to the khanqah (hospice) of Malik Ahmad.2 The khanqah which was located on the banks of river Jhelum in the mohalā (ward) of Didmar served not only as a hospice for Sufis but also as a rest house were the Sultans of Kashmir would lodge their guests.3 Additionally, it emerges from textual references relating to the period that the facility of free lodging and food at the khanqah was not limited to royal guests only but could be availed by ordinary travellers. At the time of ‘Iraki’s visit, the city of Srinagar had four such khanqahs, in addition to the one in which the Sufi-emissary was lodged. These included the Khanqah-i-Hamdaniyā (Ala-ud Dinpora), the khanqah of Shaykh Sultan Kubra (Drugjan), khanqah of Shaykh Baha-ud Din, and the khanqah of Maulana ‘Uthman Makhdum. The oldest khanqah in the city is located in the mohalā of Būlbūl Lanker though still standing, had at that time fallen in a state of disrepair. During the course of his stay in Kashmir, spread over two different visits, ‘Iraki was responsible for setting up another khanqah in the city, Khanqah-i-Nurbakshiyā at Zadibal. By the beginning of sixteenth century CE, almost all major Sufi orders with a
visible presence in the Persianate world including the Kubrawyā, Suharwardiyā, Qadriyā, and Chistiyā, had also established khanqahs in Srinagar, with the Nurbakshis adding another major khanqah on the eastern edge of the city.4
Four centuries after ‘Iraki’s visit, the Dogra ruler of Kashmir, Maharaja Ranbir Singh (r. 1857-1885 CE) commissioned a shawl map of Srinagar city (Fig. 1) to be presented to Queen Victoria (1819-1901 CE) on her jubilee celebrations.5 The khanqahs of Srinagar figured prominently on the map as major urban landmarks around which the cultural6 and physical contours of the city evolved. These khanqahs along with the various mosques, rawzas7 and imambaras8 mark the presence of Islam in the region, while also giving to the city of Srinagar its sense of place. A Saint and a Sultan: Making of a Muslim Community in Kashmir Writing in eleventh century CE, the Persian scholar and polymath Abu’ Rahyan Muhammad ibn Ahmad alBiruni (973-1048 CE) provides us with a critical appreciation of India, as well as a detailed and fairly accurate description of the isolated, mountainous land of Kashmir. For Biruni, Kashmir represented an abode of Indic learning as well a land marked inaccessible by its location, placing it outside of the reach of Ghanznavid Empire. Well informed about the land, which at this time was closed to outsiders, he writes: ‘Kashmir lies on a plateau surrounded by high inaccessible mountains […]. They are particularly anxious about the natural strength of their country, and therefore take always much care to keep a strong
9
H akim S ameer H am d ani is Design Director at INTACH Kashmir Chapter.
With his primary research focused on Islamic architecture, he has published his work in various journals and books. Among his major conservation projects is the Reconstruction of eighteenth-century Wooden Shrine of Peer Dastgeer Saheb (2020– 12) and Conservation of Aali Masjid (2007) — both of which were longlisted for the Aga Khan Award for Architecture. Others include the Conservation of the Khanqahi-Maula (2018); Restoration of Mughal Monument of Thag Bab Saheb (2011); and Conservation of Historic Mughal Gardens of Kashmir (2007–10). His book, The Syncretic Traditions of Islamic Religious Architecture of Kashmir (Early 14th Mid 18th Century), is published by Routledge.
hold upon the entrances and roads leading into it. In consequence it is very difficult to have any commerce with them. In former times they used to allow one or two foreigners to enter their country, particularly Jews, but at present they do not allow any Hindu whom they do not know personally to enter, much less other people’.9 Yet the land located as it was on one of the branches of the Silk route10 leading into the Indian subcontinent was never totally devoid of external influences. Kashmir was not only a recipient of traditions from the East, of China and Tibet but at various points of its history also formed a part of wider empires originating from mainland India, like that of the Mauryas under Ashoka, the Kushans under Kanīshkā, the White Huns11 or the Mughal in the medieval period. This resulted not only in the introduction of foreign elements in the overall cultural and social life of the inhabitants of the region, but a certain cross-fertilization of ideas, a cultural melting pot. The origin of Kashmiri art-architecture lies in this process of assimilation and selection from plurality of artistic traditions (Fig. 2). Less than a century after Biruni’s death we find the mention of the first Muslim community in Kashmir. 12 And almost a century after the founding of Delhi Sultanate, Kashmir emerged as the centre of Himalayan Sultanate which would open its borders to Sufis, artisans, poets and traders arriving from Persian-speaking world, marking the land as the northernmost outpost of Persianate culture. While the presence of a nascent Muslim community in Kashmir can be traced back to the eleventh century, it was only in the fourteenth century CE that Muslim rule
was established in this Himalayan region when a Buddhist chieftain from Ladakh, Rinchāna (r. 1320-23 CE)13 ascended the throne of Kashmir. Immediately afterwards, Rinchāna converted to Islam at the hands of a Sufi saint, Būlbūl Shah (d. 1327 CE). The accession of Rinchāna to the throne, his conversion and the establishment of Muslim rule in the region took place in the background of political instability and chaos that marked the closing period of Hindu rule in Kashmir – a period, ‘of progressive political disorganization and consequent economic decay’.14
F ig . 1 . Shawl map of Srinagar city. Courtesy: S P S M useum , S rinagar Image: S andeep S angaroo , 2 0 1 0
The conversion of Rinchāna does not mark a paradigm shift in the society; in fact, it marks a continuation of an older, established order. As a result of Rinchāna’s conversion we see no sudden social transformation or large scale import of foreign ideas – albeit of Islamic values, to replace local traditions. Rinchāna, though now a Muslim was presiding over
Understanding Kashmir’s Islamic Religious Architecture in Continuity and Change Introduction1
Somewhere in the latter part of the fifteenth century CE, a Persian Sufi, Shaykh Shams-ud Din‘Iraki (1424-1525 CE) arrived in the court of the Sultan of Kashmir as the emissary of Sultan Husayn Bayaqara (1470-1507 CE). In addition to representing the Timurid court of Herat, ‘Iraki was also a leading member of the Nurbakshiyā Sufi order and the first individual from this newly established order to visit Kashmir. On his arrival in Srinagar, the capital of Kashmir, ‘Iraki was received by the nobles of Kashmir on behalf of the Sultan and escorted to the khanqah (hospice) of Malik Ahmad.2 The khanqah which was located on the banks of river Jhelum in the mohalā (ward) of Didmar served not only as a hospice for Sufis but also as a rest house were the Sultans of Kashmir would lodge their guests.3 Additionally, it emerges from textual references relating to the period that the facility of free lodging and food at the khanqah was not limited to royal guests only but could be availed by ordinary travellers. At the time of ‘Iraki’s visit, the city of Srinagar had four such khanqahs, in addition to the one in which the Sufi-emissary was lodged. These included the Khanqah-i-Hamdaniyā (Ala-ud Dinpora), the khanqah of Shaykh Sultan Kubra (Drugjan), khanqah of Shaykh Baha-ud Din, and the khanqah of Maulana ‘Uthman Makhdum. The oldest khanqah in the city is located in the mohalā of Būlbūl Lanker though still standing, had at that time fallen in a state of disrepair. During the course of his stay in Kashmir, spread over two different visits, ‘Iraki was responsible for setting up another khanqah in the city, Khanqah-i-Nurbakshiyā at Zadibal. By the beginning of sixteenth century CE, almost all major Sufi orders with a
visible presence in the Persianate world including the Kubrawyā, Suharwardiyā, Qadriyā, and Chistiyā, had also established khanqahs in Srinagar, with the Nurbakshis adding another major khanqah on the eastern edge of the city.4
Four centuries after ‘Iraki’s visit, the Dogra ruler of Kashmir, Maharaja Ranbir Singh (r. 1857-1885 CE) commissioned a shawl map of Srinagar city (Fig. 1) to be presented to Queen Victoria (1819-1901 CE) on her jubilee celebrations.5 The khanqahs of Srinagar figured prominently on the map as major urban landmarks around which the cultural6 and physical contours of the city evolved. These khanqahs along with the various mosques, rawzas7 and imambaras8 mark the presence of Islam in the region, while also giving to the city of Srinagar its sense of place. A Saint and a Sultan: Making of a Muslim Community in Kashmir Writing in eleventh century CE, the Persian scholar and polymath Abu’ Rahyan Muhammad ibn Ahmad alBiruni (973-1048 CE) provides us with a critical appreciation of India, as well as a detailed and fairly accurate description of the isolated, mountainous land of Kashmir. For Biruni, Kashmir represented an abode of Indic learning as well a land marked inaccessible by its location, placing it outside of the reach of Ghanznavid Empire. Well informed about the land, which at this time was closed to outsiders, he writes: ‘Kashmir lies on a plateau surrounded by high inaccessible mountains […]. They are particularly anxious about the natural strength of their country, and therefore take always much care to keep a strong
9
H akim S ameer H am d ani is Design Director at INTACH Kashmir Chapter.
With his primary research focused on Islamic architecture, he has published his work in various journals and books. Among his major conservation projects is the Reconstruction of eighteenth-century Wooden Shrine of Peer Dastgeer Saheb (2020– 12) and Conservation of Aali Masjid (2007) — both of which were longlisted for the Aga Khan Award for Architecture. Others include the Conservation of the Khanqahi-Maula (2018); Restoration of Mughal Monument of Thag Bab Saheb (2011); and Conservation of Historic Mughal Gardens of Kashmir (2007–10). His book, The Syncretic Traditions of Islamic Religious Architecture of Kashmir (Early 14th Mid 18th Century), is published by Routledge.
hold upon the entrances and roads leading into it. In consequence it is very difficult to have any commerce with them. In former times they used to allow one or two foreigners to enter their country, particularly Jews, but at present they do not allow any Hindu whom they do not know personally to enter, much less other people’.9 Yet the land located as it was on one of the branches of the Silk route10 leading into the Indian subcontinent was never totally devoid of external influences. Kashmir was not only a recipient of traditions from the East, of China and Tibet but at various points of its history also formed a part of wider empires originating from mainland India, like that of the Mauryas under Ashoka, the Kushans under Kanīshkā, the White Huns11 or the Mughal in the medieval period. This resulted not only in the introduction of foreign elements in the overall cultural and social life of the inhabitants of the region, but a certain cross-fertilization of ideas, a cultural melting pot. The origin of Kashmiri art-architecture lies in this process of assimilation and selection from plurality of artistic traditions (Fig. 2). Less than a century after Biruni’s death we find the mention of the first Muslim community in Kashmir. 12 And almost a century after the founding of Delhi Sultanate, Kashmir emerged as the centre of Himalayan Sultanate which would open its borders to Sufis, artisans, poets and traders arriving from Persian-speaking world, marking the land as the northernmost outpost of Persianate culture. While the presence of a nascent Muslim community in Kashmir can be traced back to the eleventh century, it was only in the fourteenth century CE that Muslim rule
was established in this Himalayan region when a Buddhist chieftain from Ladakh, Rinchāna (r. 1320-23 CE)13 ascended the throne of Kashmir. Immediately afterwards, Rinchāna converted to Islam at the hands of a Sufi saint, Būlbūl Shah (d. 1327 CE). The accession of Rinchāna to the throne, his conversion and the establishment of Muslim rule in the region took place in the background of political instability and chaos that marked the closing period of Hindu rule in Kashmir – a period, ‘of progressive political disorganization and consequent economic decay’.14
F ig . 1 . Shawl map of Srinagar city. Courtesy: S P S M useum , S rinagar Image: S andeep S angaroo , 2 0 1 0
The conversion of Rinchāna does not mark a paradigm shift in the society; in fact, it marks a continuation of an older, established order. As a result of Rinchāna’s conversion we see no sudden social transformation or large scale import of foreign ideas – albeit of Islamic values, to replace local traditions. Rinchāna, though now a Muslim was presiding over
Architectur al Shrines
Ornamentation &
Mos q u e s
of
in
K as h m i r
31
Khanqah-iMa u l a
WOODEN CEILING PATTERNS INSIDE THE MAIN PR AYER HALL
Architectur al Shrines
Ornamentation &
Mos q u e s
of
in
K as h m i r
31
Khanqah-iMa u l a
WOODEN CEILING PATTERNS INSIDE THE MAIN PR AYER HALL
Patterns of Culture – Understanding Craft through Mathematics Throughout the history of material culture, humans have exhibited a preference for visual regularity. This preference is often revealed through a varied set of mediums and decorated forms that display the use of symmetry – especially in repeated geometric patterns. The earliest use of symmetry has been traced back to tear-drop shaped stone hand axes from Tanzania made some 1.4 million years ago (Washburn 2004). Ever since then the use of symmetry has been a tool of choice for artists and artisans alike in both history and culture. Furthermore, in many cultures, the dominant form of communication has, historically, been imagery, as opposed to the written word.1 In that context, the importance of symmetry as a language that conveys important cultural knowledge and preferences cannot be underestimated.
125
F o z ia S . Q a z i is a mathematician whose current research on patterns in the arts of Kashmir uses the mathematics of symmetry analysis to understand cultural order and interactions in the region. She holds a PhD in mathematics from Syracuse University, New York. She worked as an academic in the U.S. for many years before returning to Kashmir in 2009 where she teaches at Islamic University of Science & Technology.
Writing about carpentry in The Muqaddimah, he said: ‘It requires either a general or specialized knowledge of proportion and measurement in order to bring forms from potentiality into actuality…. Therefore, the leading Greek geometricians were all master carpenters’ [Quote from (Rosenthal 1989) translation]. Similarly, mathematician Andreas Speiser described an ancient Egyptian pattern (Fig. 1) as, ‘Mathematical achievement of the first rank’. He went further, arguing that the ability to create such a pattern pushed back the beginning of higher mathematics from Greeks to ancient Egyptians of around 1500 BCE. (Crowe 2010)
In this article, we will explore what symmetry is, and what and how cultural knowledge is conveyed by understanding patterns, proportion and form from a m at h e m at i c a l p e r s p ect i ve . T h e information will then be applied to patterns used in Kashmir to understand some of its cultural preferences. Why should one adopt a mathematical approach to understanding culture? In other words, what new knowledge, if any, is to be gained from such an exercise? The answer lies in the fact that mathematics has the advantage of describing a pattern ‘at its most fundamental level’ (Ball 1999). The symmetries in a pattern have a geometric structure. Understanding that structure though its mathematical classification allows us to expose certain consistencies in behaviour, which would otherwise not be possible. The process of creating symmetric patterns can be explained by mathematical tools that have a universality about them and as such give us a uniform measure of understanding patterns and comparing patterns from different cultures. The fundamental relationship between mathematics and material culture was understood by sociologist Ibn Khaldun.
F ig . 1
Why would mathematician describe a design as a mathematical achievement? This must be understood in the light of Ibn Khaldun’s statement that hints at the link that would allow us to translate the language of patterns into mathematics. We will focus on one and two-dimensional geometric plane patterns that occur frequently in Kashmiri material culture and lend themselves to being studied by using the geometric principles of crystallography and symmetry analysis. Although multicolour patterns in shawls and rugs are common, to apply symmetry analysis, we will ignore colours and treat the patterns as monochromatic (the term one-colour is used in literature). All patterns discussed here will thus be nonrepresentational (i.e. non-figurative) and repeated either in one direction (as a strip
or a border) or in two directions (as in a plane surface of a shawl, rug, window lattice, ceiling, etc.). The resulting mathematical classification of the patterns then allows for a systematic study of their cultural use and meaning. In order to do that, we have to first understand symmetry from a mathematical point of view. Symmetry, in the common parlance, is often understood to mean bilateral (or mirror) symmetry. It is commonly seen in nature. Humans and many animals and plants exhibit it e.g. our right half is a mirror image of the left half (barring birthmarks and other anomalies). As such this is the symmetry (called reflection) that is the most widely recognized. This bilateral symmetry allows animal kind to move in a straight path. The other recognizable symmetry is that of rotation. Many flower heads have this symmetry. There are two other symmetries that are relevant to our discussion – translation and glide reflection which are not always easily recognizable. We will discuss all four of them in detail. To begin with: consider a one-colour repeating pattern on a plane. Now imagine a transparent sheet on top of this plane on which you have traced the same pattern. If you move the transparent sheet to a different position in such a way that the tracing again matches the original pattern, then that motion is the symmetry of the pattern. For a one-colour repeating plane pattern, there are only four types of symmetries possible, which can be explained using the sheet analogy as follows. Translation: Slide the sheet in one direction by a fixed distance. In a pattern that has translation symmetry of that distance, the transparent sheet pattern will then match perfectly with the original pattern. Rotation: Fix a point on the pattern and rotate the sheet around the point by a fixed angle. Again if the original pattern has rotational symmetry of that angle around
that point, the two patterns will match.
foundational types.
Reflection: Fix a line on the pattern and flip the sheet around that line. This creates a mirror image. If the original pattern had reflection symmetry along the line the two patterns will match again.
This brings us to the question of constructing a pattern. What are the processes involved? When we look at a latticed window or a khatamband ceiling with repeated patterns (Fig. 3, Fig. 4) we recognize certain geometrical shapes like squares, hexagons, or triangles, or their combinations, that form an essential part of the design. For example in Fig. 3 one can see the hexagons and in Fig. 4 octagons and squares are recognizable.
Glide Reflection: This is simply a translation along a line followed by a reflection through that line. Again, in a pattern with glide symmetry along the line, the transparent sheet pattern and the original pattern will match after this action. Fig. 2 illustrates the action of the four symmetries. A pattern can have infinitely many symmetries but they will only be of the four types or their combinations. So a
These shapes repeat throughout the pattern. There may be other repeated patterns, especially in textiles, where such geometric shapes are absent (Fig. 5. Fig. 6). But in all these cases there is a basic motif – comprising of a single shape or a
Translation
Reflection Rotation
Glide Reflection F ig . 2
pattern can have reflections and rotations, translations, reflection and glide reflections or any such combinations of the four. Also, there can be different symmetries of the same type; e.g. if a pattern has a translation symmetry of say 3 cm in a particular direction, then it will also admit a translation of 6 cm, 9 cm, and so on, in that direction. Just imagine moving the transparent sheet repeatedly 3 cm of length along that direction. A pattern with say 60-degree rotational symmetry will also have 120-degree rotational symmetry or any multiple of 60. The reverse process (or inverse) of symmetry also produces symmetry of the above four types e.g. a rotation can be clockwise or anti-clockwise. Thus the possibilities for the symmetries are infinite although there are only four
F ig . 3 Image: Q amoos B ukhari
Patterns of Culture – Understanding Craft through Mathematics Throughout the history of material culture, humans have exhibited a preference for visual regularity. This preference is often revealed through a varied set of mediums and decorated forms that display the use of symmetry – especially in repeated geometric patterns. The earliest use of symmetry has been traced back to tear-drop shaped stone hand axes from Tanzania made some 1.4 million years ago (Washburn 2004). Ever since then the use of symmetry has been a tool of choice for artists and artisans alike in both history and culture. Furthermore, in many cultures, the dominant form of communication has, historically, been imagery, as opposed to the written word.1 In that context, the importance of symmetry as a language that conveys important cultural knowledge and preferences cannot be underestimated.
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F o z ia S . Q a z i is a mathematician whose current research on patterns in the arts of Kashmir uses the mathematics of symmetry analysis to understand cultural order and interactions in the region. She holds a PhD in mathematics from Syracuse University, New York. She worked as an academic in the U.S. for many years before returning to Kashmir in 2009 where she teaches at Islamic University of Science & Technology.
Writing about carpentry in The Muqaddimah, he said: ‘It requires either a general or specialized knowledge of proportion and measurement in order to bring forms from potentiality into actuality…. Therefore, the leading Greek geometricians were all master carpenters’ [Quote from (Rosenthal 1989) translation]. Similarly, mathematician Andreas Speiser described an ancient Egyptian pattern (Fig. 1) as, ‘Mathematical achievement of the first rank’. He went further, arguing that the ability to create such a pattern pushed back the beginning of higher mathematics from Greeks to ancient Egyptians of around 1500 BCE. (Crowe 2010)
In this article, we will explore what symmetry is, and what and how cultural knowledge is conveyed by understanding patterns, proportion and form from a m at h e m at i c a l p e r s p ect i ve . T h e information will then be applied to patterns used in Kashmir to understand some of its cultural preferences. Why should one adopt a mathematical approach to understanding culture? In other words, what new knowledge, if any, is to be gained from such an exercise? The answer lies in the fact that mathematics has the advantage of describing a pattern ‘at its most fundamental level’ (Ball 1999). The symmetries in a pattern have a geometric structure. Understanding that structure though its mathematical classification allows us to expose certain consistencies in behaviour, which would otherwise not be possible. The process of creating symmetric patterns can be explained by mathematical tools that have a universality about them and as such give us a uniform measure of understanding patterns and comparing patterns from different cultures. The fundamental relationship between mathematics and material culture was understood by sociologist Ibn Khaldun.
F ig . 1
Why would mathematician describe a design as a mathematical achievement? This must be understood in the light of Ibn Khaldun’s statement that hints at the link that would allow us to translate the language of patterns into mathematics. We will focus on one and two-dimensional geometric plane patterns that occur frequently in Kashmiri material culture and lend themselves to being studied by using the geometric principles of crystallography and symmetry analysis. Although multicolour patterns in shawls and rugs are common, to apply symmetry analysis, we will ignore colours and treat the patterns as monochromatic (the term one-colour is used in literature). All patterns discussed here will thus be nonrepresentational (i.e. non-figurative) and repeated either in one direction (as a strip
or a border) or in two directions (as in a plane surface of a shawl, rug, window lattice, ceiling, etc.). The resulting mathematical classification of the patterns then allows for a systematic study of their cultural use and meaning. In order to do that, we have to first understand symmetry from a mathematical point of view. Symmetry, in the common parlance, is often understood to mean bilateral (or mirror) symmetry. It is commonly seen in nature. Humans and many animals and plants exhibit it e.g. our right half is a mirror image of the left half (barring birthmarks and other anomalies). As such this is the symmetry (called reflection) that is the most widely recognized. This bilateral symmetry allows animal kind to move in a straight path. The other recognizable symmetry is that of rotation. Many flower heads have this symmetry. There are two other symmetries that are relevant to our discussion – translation and glide reflection which are not always easily recognizable. We will discuss all four of them in detail. To begin with: consider a one-colour repeating pattern on a plane. Now imagine a transparent sheet on top of this plane on which you have traced the same pattern. If you move the transparent sheet to a different position in such a way that the tracing again matches the original pattern, then that motion is the symmetry of the pattern. For a one-colour repeating plane pattern, there are only four types of symmetries possible, which can be explained using the sheet analogy as follows. Translation: Slide the sheet in one direction by a fixed distance. In a pattern that has translation symmetry of that distance, the transparent sheet pattern will then match perfectly with the original pattern. Rotation: Fix a point on the pattern and rotate the sheet around the point by a fixed angle. Again if the original pattern has rotational symmetry of that angle around
that point, the two patterns will match.
foundational types.
Reflection: Fix a line on the pattern and flip the sheet around that line. This creates a mirror image. If the original pattern had reflection symmetry along the line the two patterns will match again.
This brings us to the question of constructing a pattern. What are the processes involved? When we look at a latticed window or a khatamband ceiling with repeated patterns (Fig. 3, Fig. 4) we recognize certain geometrical shapes like squares, hexagons, or triangles, or their combinations, that form an essential part of the design. For example in Fig. 3 one can see the hexagons and in Fig. 4 octagons and squares are recognizable.
Glide Reflection: This is simply a translation along a line followed by a reflection through that line. Again, in a pattern with glide symmetry along the line, the transparent sheet pattern and the original pattern will match after this action. Fig. 2 illustrates the action of the four symmetries. A pattern can have infinitely many symmetries but they will only be of the four types or their combinations. So a
These shapes repeat throughout the pattern. There may be other repeated patterns, especially in textiles, where such geometric shapes are absent (Fig. 5. Fig. 6). But in all these cases there is a basic motif – comprising of a single shape or a
Translation
Reflection Rotation
Glide Reflection F ig . 2
pattern can have reflections and rotations, translations, reflection and glide reflections or any such combinations of the four. Also, there can be different symmetries of the same type; e.g. if a pattern has a translation symmetry of say 3 cm in a particular direction, then it will also admit a translation of 6 cm, 9 cm, and so on, in that direction. Just imagine moving the transparent sheet repeatedly 3 cm of length along that direction. A pattern with say 60-degree rotational symmetry will also have 120-degree rotational symmetry or any multiple of 60. The reverse process (or inverse) of symmetry also produces symmetry of the above four types e.g. a rotation can be clockwise or anti-clockwise. Thus the possibilities for the symmetries are infinite although there are only four
F ig . 3 Image: Q amoos B ukhari
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