Instructor Manual Modern Systems Analysis and Design Global Edition 9th Edition By Joseph Valacich,

Instructor

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Chapter 1 The Systems Development Environment Chapter Overview Chapter 1 is an overview of the systems development process, as well as an overview of the textbook.

This chapter introduces students to the modern approach to systems analysis and design using various methodologies. Students are introduced to several systems development components, including the process and data-oriented approaches to systems development, different types of information systems, and the systems development life cycle.

This textbook is intended primarily for juniors taking a core course in the information systems major, although the book can be adapted for a similar course at the junior college level or for a two-course sequence on analysis and design. Often students are not familiar with the systems development process, different organizational components, or how these components work together. This chapter provides the general organizational context in which systems development takes place.

The text uses the Systems Development Life Cycle (S D L C) methodology (including its associated problems with the traditional waterfall approach) to introduce students to the structured approach in creating new systems. The student is also introduced to other methodologies such as the Agile Methodologies, eXtreme Programming, Object-Oriented Analysis and Design (O O A D), and the Rational Unified Process (R U P). The text compares and contrasts the new with more traditional methods in an effort to show both the advantages and limitations of these methods.

Chapter 1 introduces students to visual and emerging development tools. C A S E tools are used to apply an engineering approach to systems development and can support each phase of the SDLC.

Instructional Objectives Specific student learning objectives are included at the beginning From an instructor’s point of view, the objectives of this chapter are to:

of

the

chapter.

1. Define and discuss the modern approach to systems analysis and design from an organizational perspective incorporating techniques, tools, and methodologies.

2. Explain how an organization’s objectives, structure, and processes are essential in the development of systems to meet their needs.

3. Explain that the SDLC process is not sequential but cyclical and that the order is adaptable as required for different projects; also, to emphasize that often analysts and designers may go backwards to the previous step to complete unfinished products or to correct errors or omissions discovered in the next phase.

4. Explain the difference between the logical design and the physical design as it relates to systems development.

5. Discuss the problems with the waterfall SDLC and explain the different approaches analysts, designers and developers have developed to improve the Systems Analysis and Design process.

6. Discuss Agile methodologies and eXtreme programming and how these compare to the traditional Systems Development Life Cycle (SDLC).

7. Explain and disDcouwsnsloaodbedjebcy:t-moorrriiesmnwteadngnagnigai@lygsmiasil.ac onmd design (OOAD) and the Rational UWna nift to iedearn $1,500 Distribution of this document is illegal extra per year?

Process (RUP).

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8. Show students that the life cycle is a flexible basis for systems analysis and design and that it can support many different tools and techniques, such as Agile methodologies and eXtreme Programming.

9. Compare and contrast the various development approaches introduced in Chapter 1 and depict how they all use an iterative approach.

10. Finally explain that the boundaries and divisions of the 5 steps in Figure 1-2 when imposed to explain the steps are neither hard nor fast and that in many real-world situations phases or sub-phases may be combined to improve efficiency and understanding. The cycle is an organizing and guiding principle; however, in companies and software development teams will adapt it to suit their needs for specific projects.

Classroom Ideas 1. Figure 1-1 depicts that methodologies, techniques, and tools drive organizational approaches to systems analysis and design. Ask students to identify the names of methodologies, techniques, and tools. List them on the board under the heading that they suggest; then after they have identified 5 or 6 in each heading, review and emphasize the differences among the three and move any from an incorrect category to the correct one and explain why it is one and not the other.

2. When introducing the systems development life cycle model featured in the textbook, discuss other life cycle models using actual ones from existing organizations. Show that the basic model presented (Planning, Analysis, Design, Implementation, and Maintenance) are broken down into smaller phases by many companies but that in the end they could be categorized into one of the basic five explained. This reinforces to students that no one standard life cycle model exists and the model they will use as a systems analyst will likely differ from the textbook’s life cycle model. The point is that the life cycle represents activities that must be done; and the phases are a way to introduce, in an organized way, the methods, techniques, tools, and skills necessary for successful systems analysis and design.

3. Provide a brief overview of the activities and outputs from each of the five life cycle phases, based on your own experience or from reading the rest of the textbook. Table 1-1 summarizes the products, outputs or deliverables of each phase based on the in-text descriptions.

4. Figure 1-9 illustrates the R U P life cycle. Discuss R U P, and its benefits and drawbacks as it relates to O O A D. Discuss the differences between R U P and the traditional S D L C. Table 1-2 presents the Agile Manifesto.

5. Ask students to compare Agile methodologies to traditional S DL C (see Table 1-3 Five Critical Factors that Distinguish Agile and Traditional Approaches to Systems Development). Introduce a case study project where Agile methodologies were employed. Ask students to identify problems that the project ran into using Agile methodologies as well as any benefits gained by this approach.

6. This chapter introduces eXtreme programming. If your students have sufficient background, assign students to programming pairs and have them work on a small programming problem, including testing. Ask students to report upon their experience.

7. Discuss IBM’s Rational Unified Process (RUP) shown in Figure 1-9. This Web site https://www.ibm.com/search?q=rup&lnk=mhsrch&v=18&en=utf&lang=en&cc=us should help with background information.

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Answers to Key Terms Suggested answers are provided below. These answers are presented top-down, left to right 1.5. Information systems analysis and design 1.2. Application software 1.15. Systems analyst 1.17. Systems development methodology 1.16. Systems development life cycle 1.13. Planning 1.1. Analysis 1.3. Design 1.7. Logical design 1.12. Physical design 1.4. Implementation 1.8. Maintenance 1.11. Object-oriented analysis and design (OOAD) (RAD) 1.9. Object 1.6. Inheritance 1.10. Object class 1.14. Rational Unified Process (RUP)

Answers to Review Questions 1.18. The role of the systems analyst is to study the problems and needs of an organization to determine how people, methods, and information technology can best be combined to bring about improvements in the organization.

1.19. Software designed to support a specific organizational function or process, such as payroll, market analysis, or inventory management, is known as application software.

1.20. Logical design is the part of the design phase of the SDLC in which all the functional features of the system chosen for development are described independent of any platform. Physical design is the part of the design phase in which the logical specifications are transformed into technology-specific details, based on which all programming and system construction is accomplished. In other words, logical design is high-level design of a proposed information system that does not delve into the details of the system. For example, if an organization wants to implement a human resource information system, then logical design provides an abstract representation of the flow of human resource data as well as the inputs and outputs of the proposed human resource system. Meanwhile, physical design is more detailed – it must specify databases, the programming language, and technologies. Considering the example of the human resource information system, physical design mentions the programming language to be used to design the system. Most importantly, the physical design specifies the database that is to be used to store the data, that is, the analyst also includes entities like the date and attributes of the date entity, such as the year and week.

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1.21. The early 1980s marked the breakthrough of personal (desktop) computers, such as the IBM PC. Many more employees had access to a computer, so they had the option to work with ordinary applications/office software.

1.22. According to Fowler, Agile methodologies share three key principles: (1) a focus on adaptive rather than predictive methodologies, (2) a focus on people rather than roles, and (3) a focus on self-adaptive software development processes. Together, these principles try to establish a more realistic approach of looking at the end users and the system rather than a more abstract approach.

1.23. eXtreme programming is an approach to software development distinguished by short development cycles, an incremental planning approach, a focus on automated tests written by programmers and customers to monitor the development process, and reliance on an evolutionary approach to development that lasts throughout the lifetime of the system. This methodology uses an evolutionary approach to software development. Coding and testing are part of the same process and are done by a two-person programming team. Code is tested shortly after it is written and integrated into the system within a few hours of being written. All phases of the life cycle converge into a series of activities based on coding, testing, listening, and designing.

1.24. Rational Unified Process (RUP) is an object-oriented systems development methodology. It is one of the most popular realizations of the iterative approach to object-oriented development.

RUP establishes four phases of development –– inception, elaboration, construction, and transition. Each phase is organized into several separate parts.

1.25. Although theoretically the SDLC approach is the benchmark for designing an information system, when applied practically, it is not possible to arrive at a clear-cut segmentation of the activities into different phases. The exact sequencing of steps may vary from one project to the next. Hence, instead of requesting segmenting in the analysis stage, system specifications in design, and coding and testing in the implementation phase, currently, all these activities are combined into the analysis–design–code–test process. This is considered the base of Agile methodologies and the heart of the system development process.

1.26. Object-oriented analysis and design (OOAD) is a structure that encapsulates (or packages) attributes and the methods that operate on those attributes. It is an abstraction of a real-world thing, where data and processes are placed together to model the structure and behavior of the real-world object.

1.27. Compared to traditional coding practices, the advantages of pair programming include: (1) more and better communication among developers, (2) higher levels of productivity, (3) higherquality code, and (4) reinforcement of the other practices such as the code-and-test discipline.

Answers to Problems and Exercises 1.28. Speed is an important factor for two reasons: (1) By undertaking a systems development process, the client organization hopes for economic or other benefits. The sooner the new system is in place, the better. (2) Especially when working according to the SDLC model, it is difficult to change preconditions late in the process. Thus, if the time allotted for the development process is short, there is less risk of the system being built according to an outdated specification. When working in an agile fashion, it is somewhat easier to alter the system according to new requirements, but it is still a costly process.

1.29. A methodology is an acclaimed, comprehensive, and multi-step approach to creating or developing somethingD;i sftor i brutiionnsotaf tnhicsed,ocduemvenetliospilliengagl an information system using the SDLC or oexntrea per year?

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of the Agile methodologies. Techniques are ways to perform certain tasks. With respect to the development of information systems, this could mean diagramming how data flow within the system using a data flow diagram. In the context of systems development, tools are the software used to plan and develop the system; for example, Visual Studio to develop an administrative system. Methodologies, techniques, and tools are related to each other—a technique is carried out using a tool, and a methodology consists of many steps, each in need of applying several techniques.

1.30. If you look at Figures 1–7, you will find that there is a greater emphasis on feedback from users than on the SDLC. In fact, there are two phases that are entirely devoted to internal and external feedback: verification (feedback from in-house testers) and response (feedback from users).

These activities are implied in the SDLC but are not clearly stated in the five-phase model.

1.31. The problem of changing behaviors and requirements is still present in Agile methodologies, but to a lesser extent. This is because of the built-in “iterative development” idea, in which a system grows larger, but a visible result is shown to the client for each iteration. This means that the client can, at all times, see where the development is heading and if something does not align with the organization’s goal.

1.32. The inception phase relates to the initiation and planning phase, and the elaboration phase relates to the analysis phase as well as the implementation phase, as code is also written during the elaboration phase. The construction phase relates to the implementation phase, and the transition phase to the installation part of the implementation phase. Note that RUP is highly code-centric, which means that production code is written throughout the lifetime of the development project. Consequently, the phases do not map well between the two, highly different, development methodologies.

Guidelines for Using the Field Exercises 1.33. Exactly what the tax authorities offer probably differs widely between countries, but in many countries, more and more can be done over the Internet. This is not unusual, since the more people sort out issues on their own, lesser is the work for the authorities.

1.34. It is usually hard to find good programmers and, as a result, there are often many ads looking for people with programming skills that are used in the implementation phase of the SDLC. 1.35. Often, ads from international consultancy firms targeting trainees or similar personnel related to marketing or project management tend to resemble each other. The ads also display what kinds of personalities they prefer—people who like to work in a team according to set rules and those who appreciate a good income. Other ads vary a lot, both in terms of what they offer and how they market the organization behind them.

1.36. It is quite possible that we will see a convergence in the future when more and more software development environments use the same standards, such as UML (Unified Modeling Language).

At the same time, these environments started out with no CASE visualization and added such features to later versions; Visual Studio is an example of this. Consequently, it is now easier to write CASE tools that can serve many purposes. At the same time, programming environments have more CASE functionality than they did before. Only time will tell where the two types of software development environments will meet.

1.37. After completing a course, you might be surprised by how much information you have. Indeed, systems development is a field that involves a lot of people and which often costs (and saves) a great deal of money. You can determine whether or not there is a theme connecting the news

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items you found interesting. Maybe this information can steer you toward the part of the systems development field that you may consider working in in the future.

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Chapter 2 The Origins of Software Chapter Overview The primary purposes of Chapter 2 are to show students that not all the software associated with a systems development project is developed in-house, and to emphasize that analysts should consider several design strategies based on the organization’s resources before choosing one to pursue for further development in design. The secondary purpose is to emphasize that the consideration of a packaged software solution should be done after the analysis efforts are complete, not as a substitute for analysis.

The chapter discusses six sources for software: Information Technology Services Firms, packaged software producers, enterprise-wide solutions (E R P), cloud computing, open-source and in-house development. In addition, this chapter describes the reasoning that should be followed when choosing among the many options available to an analysis team for developing design strategies. The point is that the “make-versus-buy” decision is not a choice of one or the other, but is in reality a spectrum of choices ranging from make at one end and buy at the other. Just as important, more choices these days are made toward the buy end of the scale. The request for proposal (R F P) is shown as an important element to understanding how analysis and design requirements must be translated into a document that external source organizations can review for bid. The chapter includes a discussion of outsourcing, an option for systems development and management that may not occur to many students in their first systems development course. The chapter explains reuse and the four different approaches to reuse.

Instructional Objectives Specific student learning objectives are included at the beginning of the chapter. From an instructor’s point of view, the objectives of this chapter are to: 1. Show students that in-house developed systems are not the only source for software.

2.

Six sources for software need to be understood: information technology services firms, packaged software producers, enterprise-wide solutions (E R P), cloud computing services, open-source, and in-house developers. An understanding of the advantages and disadvantages of each must be shown.

3.

Cloud computing is likely to be new to students and even though they may have heard the term, it is important to ensure that they understand what it is and what its advantages are.

Emphasize that it enables customers (firms) to use hardware and software that is not installed on their computers, but rather is accessed over the Internet of a virtual private network (V P N) on a pay-for-use basis. Emphasize the three key advantages of cloud computing: (1) freeing internal I T staff, (2) gaining access to applications faster than via internal development, and (3) achieving lower-cost access to corporate-quality applications.

Also mention that cost savings are achieved from elastic leasing of pooled resources dynamically resulting in lower costs by paying only for the resources actually used. This is referred to as scalability. Be sure to mention the security concerns associated with cloud computing.

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4. Show students how to evaluate off-the-shelf software and why it is important to do thorough analysis first. Review the criteria to consider when purchasing off-the-shelf software (p.31).

Also explain that the claims made by software and hardware vendors need to be validated by someone outside the vendor organization, such as current users and independent software testing centers. Emphasize that vendor information may be biased and even trade publication articles may describe software in a more than realistic positive light. When in doubt, check the information out.

5. Discuss the importance of software reuse and how object-oriented and component-based development are the two most common reuse methods. Also emphasize that reuse must be aligned with the organization’s overall strategic goals. Explain the four levels of adoption currently being seen in the industry: ad hoc, facilitated, managed, and designed (Table 2-3 lists the four approaches).

Classroom Ideas 1. Use Table 2-1 and an updated version of the same information from the most recent Software Magazine survey to begin a discussion of the many, varied sources of software in the marketplace.

2. Use Table 2-2 to summarize the six alternative sources for software and how to choose among them for specific software needs. This table can serve as the basis for a discussion of the makeversus-buy decision and can be expanded to include the “not invented here” syndrome.

Additionally, invite a guest speaker who is currently responsible for software procurement and have him or her discuss the advantages and disadvantages of the sources of software.

3. Have students research the proper format and contents for requests for proposals and have them create and/or present an RFP (see Problems and Exercises 1.13). RFP preparation should include discussion of the hardware, software, and organizational issues presented in this chapter.

4. Find a local guest speaker (from your alumni base or a recruiter coming to your campus) from an organization that employs object-oriented design to come in and discuss the level of reuse and the real-world issues involved in their organization with promoting the concept, given some of the startup costs and constraints.

Answers to Key Terms Suggested answers are provided below. These answers are presented top-down, left-to-right.

2.3. Outsourcing 2.2. Enterprise resource planning (ERP) systems 2.4. Request for proposal (RFP) 2.5. Reuse 2.1. Cloud computing

Answers to Review Questions 2.6. Outsourcing is the practice of turning over the responsibility of some or all of an organization’s information system applications and operations to an outside firm. A company may hire a third party to develop and run its applications on the latter’s computers. Another option is for the third party to run the applications on-site on the organization’s computers. Reasons for outsourcing include that it is cost effective and that the company’s core mission does not wasngunn giigti@ include managing an iDnofwonrl omadaetdiob yn: msoyrsristemm . gmail.com

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2.7. These include: (1) information technology services firms, (2) packaged software producers, (3) enterprise-wide solution software, (4) cloud computing, (5) open source, and (6) in-house development software.

2.8. Analysts need to be aware of outsourcing as an option. When generating alternative system development strategies, an analyst should consult with organizations in the area that provide outsourcing services. Outsourcing the replacement system could be one of the options.

Knowing the system requirements before considering outsourcing enables the analyst to carefully assess how well the suppliers of outsourcing services can respond to the organization’s needs. However, should the analyst decide against outsourcing, they need to determine whether some software components of the replacement system should be purchased rather than built in-house.

2.9. Outsourcing may be cost effective. If a company specializes in running payroll for other companies, it can leverage economies of scale by running one stable computer application for many organizations for very low prices. Outsourcing also provides a way for firms to leapfrog their current level in information systems development and to turn over development and operations to outside staff who possess knowledge and skills that internal staff do not. Other reasons for outsourcing include freeing up internal resources, increasing the revenue potential of the organization, reducing the time to market, and improving processes.

2.10. There was a time, not too long ago, when there were no systems analysts or symbolic computer programming languages. But people still wrote and programmed applications for computers.

Even though today’s systems analysts have dozens of programming languages and development tools to work with, systems development is even more difficult than it was 60 years ago. Then, and even more recently, certain issues were pre-decided; application software were written in-house and from scratch. Today, there are many different sources of software.

Moreover, the focus is no longer exclusively on in-house development but on where to obtain the many pieces and components that are combined in the application system. Code is primarily written to ensure that all the different pieces work together.

2.11. Enterprise resource planning (ERP) systems integrate a series of modules, each of which focus on individual business functions. This ensures that transactions occurs seamlessly within a single information system rather than across several separate systems. ERP modules focus on business processes rather than on business functional areas. SAP AG, Oracle, and PeopleSoft, Inc. are three ERP vendors.

2.12. Here are some development specializations and their leading software firms: IT services (Accenture, CSC, IBM, and HP); packaged software providers (Intuit, Microsoft, Oracle, SAP AG, and Symantec); enterprise software solutions (Oracle, SAP AG); cloud computing (Amazon, Google, IBM, Microsoft, Salesforce); and open source (SourceForge).

Answers to Problems and Exercises 2.13. In this service, a third party vendor provides a cloud platform to the business, which can be used to develop and run applications. This model, to a certain extent, is identical to the SaaS model except that instead of delivering software over the Internet, PaaS provides a platform to its users so that they can create software on their own. Therefore, PaaS eradicates the need for the client to install and buy the required hardware and software. As such, the client can focus on building the software without experiencing the hassles of in-house installation. This means that the client just has to concentrate on maintaining control over the deployed applications. g ig i @ g m ai l.c o m to earn $1,500 This service modeDl ohwansloaDistribution vdaerdiboyu:ofms othis arrdisdocument vmawnatnaisgngillegal e s; f o r e x a mple, it is cost effective because thereWiasntnextra o per year? need to buy any special hardware or software as the platform to deploy any application can

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easily be accessed over the Internet. The most significant feature of PaaS is that it provides numerous services that help in the development, testing, and deployment of applications.

Additionally, it integrates Web services and databases and is accessible to various users via the same development application. Popular examples include Google App Engine and Microsoft Azure.

2.14. Other reasons for opting for outsourcing: (1) Outsourcing incurs lower operational costs. At present, instead of developing in-house applications, various organizations choose to outsource development. The primary reason is its cost effectiveness. Once it is outsourced, the organization does not need to spend money on operating the application and maintaining the information system.

(2) Outsourcing helps the organization utilize the services of those organizations that specialize in a particular field or in handling a particular application.

(3) Companies decide to outsource with the aim of focusing on their central business concerns while assigning everyday tedious procedures to external offices.

(4) By assigning the development and management of a software to external organizations, the organization can wash its hands of capacities that are hard to oversee and control while reaping the benefits of the outsourced software.

(5) Outsourcing empowers organizations to reap the benefits of rebuilding, modifying, and overhauling the venture according to the customer’s prerequisites.

2.15. The shortlisted DBMS tools are popular in the market but have some specific features which differentiate them from one another. These are some of the tools and their key features: Oracle • Oracle is known for uninterrupted data availability and robust data security.

• Oracle provides the highest levels of availability and the most flexible scalability. If a clustered server fails, the Oracle database continues to run on the surviving servers.

• Oracle Data Guard provides a comprehensive set of services that create, maintain, manage, and monitor one or more standby databases to enable production Oracle databases to survive failures, disasters, errors, and data corruption.

• Oracle Flashback Technology provides a set of features to view and rewind data back and forth in time. The flashback features offer the capability to query historical data and past versions of schema objects and perform change analysis and a self-service repair to recover from logic corruption while the database is online.

MySQL • MySQL is a relational database, which means that it can store huge amounts of data based on relational modeling.

• MySQL has a client–server structure, which means that a single server can support numerous clients.

• It works on SQL language, which is the standard language while communicating with databases.

• The user interface of MySQL is interactive in nature.

• It supports a w parnoggngrai gm languages – such as C, C++, Java, aWnadnt to earn $1,500 D oh wo nlloeadegdabm y: umtor o r isfmw i@m gmianilg . com D is tr ib u ti on o f this document is illegal extra per year?

Python – on the cli e n t ’ s e n d .

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Microsoft SQL Server • One of the pioneering features of SQL Server is SQL Server Analysis Services, which provides a complete list of analytical features to users.

• Another important feature of the SQL Server is that it supports Android, Windows, and iOS mobile devices, which means that the user can send analytical reports to any mobile device.

2.16. The two open-source software can be Apache OpenOffice and LibreOffice. On downloading both software, you will find that they do not appear very different.

• LibreOffice, provided by The Document Foundation, is one of the most popular opensource office suites.

• Apache OpenOffice, referred to as AOO, is another popular open-source office suite. It works on all types of operating systems – Linux, macOS, and Windows.

Students are advised to download both open-source office suites and select the most suitable one for their work requirements.

Guidelines for Using the Field Exercises 2.17. Business people are likely to use this list of criteria in some formal or informal way. Have your students present their findings to the class so that they can learn about a variety of companies.

It is useful for students to see how companies actually use these criteria and methods in purchasing off-the-shelf software. Encourage students to understand why their interviewees prioritized the criterion list in such a manner as different companies will have different lists of priorities.

2.18. Obtaining RFPs may be difficult for your students. It may be necessary for you to obtain copies of RFPs either from business contacts or from the university. You may have to file a Freedom of Information Act (FOIA) request in order to obtain RFPs from public organizations. It is very useful for students to see real RFPs. Students are amazed at how lengthy and detailed these are for larger, more complex systems and at how complicated RFPs can become for governmental agencies. Help students understand that government agencies are subject to federal laws that do not always apply to private organizations.

2.19. Start by contacting larger organizations (as they are more likely to employ ERP) where alumni from your university or college are now employed and help your students “break the ice.” Also, most if not all universities now have comprehensive ERP instillations that the IT folks would be willing to talk about. Chances are any organization that a student contacts about its E R P implementation will have a lot to say, provided the IT staff is willing to share the information.

Typically, ERP implementations take several years and cost quite a bit in terms of consultant fees. There are many reasons to move to an ERP system, just as there are many reasons not to move to an ERP system. The organization was probably attracted to the promise of uniformity and consistency made by E R P vendors, although the exact reasons differ from firm to firm.

Chances are good that the organization has made some internal changes, such as realigning departments internally to take advantage of the opportunities ERP systems offer, as well as to meet the demands ERP systems make in order to operate effectively. The chances are also good that most of the implementation work has been done by outside consultants, so for firms not used to managing Dlaorwgneloand uedmbyb: emrosrriosmf wcaonngntrgaigci@togrmsa,il.aconmERP implementation is a new and difWfearnet tnotearn $1,500 i s t ri b u t i o n of t h i s d o c um e nt i s i ll e ga l experience. The impleDm e n t a t io n i s l i k el y s ti l l going on at whatever firm a student happens etxotra

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talk with, but it has probably been going on for many months or years, as each E R P implementation is a learning experience for the consultants and the adopting firm.

Petrie Electronics 2.20. Typically, executives develop a set of organizational goals. These goals are then translated into strategic initiatives. These initiatives are broken down into projects, which require a combination of resources and processes to execute. IS projects are typically developed in this top-down method, although some organizations allow IS projects to be developed by front-line employees (e.g., see Google’s 20% rule).

2.21. In this case, Petrie Electronics uses the top-down approach to select projects that will help meet goals. The head office has set “number-1 priority” to develop closer relationships with their customers. In doing so they selected a customer loyalty I T project as part as this goal. There may be other projects that will also address this particular organization’s goal.

2.22. IS and IS projects are directly related to company strategy in that they typically are part of a program of projects that are directed toward addressing a particular organizational goal. IS cuts across all organizational boundaries (e.g., accounting, finance, marketing, and so on) to enable the organization to offer services and products. Without I S, organizations could not function.

For this reason, most, if not all, organizational goals involve IS in some sort of fashion.

2.23. Further, it is critical that IS are developed (or bought) with an understanding and alignment to corporate strategy. If IS does not perform within the needs of corporate strategy, then this strategy will simply fail.

2.24. Most consumer-facing organizations have some sort of loyalty programs. There are hundreds, if not thousands, to choose from in every sort of industry (e.g., online retail, home improvement stores, car dealerships, and so on). Most programs provide a card that allows the organizations to track the activities of their customers. The organizations can then tailor marketing efforts based on customer buying behaviors. The most common loyalty programs are those of grocers. Most grocery stores in North America and Europe all provide significant discounts for customers that use loyalty programs. They then use the buying data to provide coupons and ads that will be relevant to the customer. Also, customers who receive discounts are more likely to be “loyal” to a certain store or brand.

2.25. Jim’s next step is to start the first phases of the project management process. This includes six steps to project initiation that are outlined in Chapter 3.

2.26. As noted by Ella, the executives selected a new employee to lead this project because they wanted a fresh perspective for this very important project. This fresh perspective will allow for the possibility of a creative solution to be developed. Also, Jim is NOT invested in seeing other current systems succeed as he has not developed or invested time in them. His opinion, therefore, should be objective.

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Chapter 3 Managing the Information Systems Project Chapter Overview Chapter 3 introduces students to the process of managing an information systems project. Specifically, the chapter focuses on the systems analyst’s role in managing information systems projects through the four phases in the life of all projects: initiation, planning, execution, and closedown. You and your students should view this chapter as a valuable reference throughout the systems analysis and design course and use the material in this chapter to assist in guiding and evaluating ongoing project activities. In order to provide students with a better understanding of the totality of an information systems project, this chapter is placed early in the textbook. You should emphasize that the skills and knowledge gained from this chapter are a critical foundation to the effective management of information systems projects and other types of projects and activities.

Chapter 3 also introduces the textbook’s second running case, Pine Valley Furniture, which is also used to demonstrate each chapter’s key concepts. This running case provides a concrete example of a systems development project.

Instructional Objectives Specific student learning objectives are included at the beginning of the chapter. From an instructor’s point of view, the objectives of this chapter are to: 1. Explain the process of managing an information systems project.

2. Describe the skills required to be an effective project manager. Emphasize that project managers must juggle numerous activities and that project management is, at times, more of an art than a science.

3. List and describe the skills of a project manager during project initiation, project planning, project execution, and project closedown. Stress the importance of communication and leadership skills.

Table 3-1 lists the common activities and skills for a project manager.

4. Explain each of the planning activities involved in managing a successful project. Figure 3-9 outlines these activities.

5. Describe the documents and processes involved in each of the project steps beginning with the project charter and the project scope statement and culminating with the project closedown review.

6. Explain what is meant by critical path scheduling and describe the process of creating Gantt charts and network diagrams.

7. Explain the widely used method for project cost estimation COCOMO (COnstructive COst MOdel).

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8. Explain the increasing emphasis on the elements in a communication plan and how it affects the overall project outcome. Also explain that communicating project status is critical at all stages and for all stakeholders.

9. Explain how commercial project management software packages assist in representing and managing project schedules.

Classroom Ideas 1.

Since this chapter introduces many different concepts and terms that are central to the management of information systems projects, ask your students to review the chapter’s key terms. As part of your class discussion, use Review Question 1, at the end of the chapter, to compare and contrast this chapter’s key terms.

2.

You may choose not to lecture from this chapter. Your students can read the chapter much as they might read a supplemental, background reading. This comment is especially true if your students have been exposed to project management concepts in another course. If you choose this approach, you should ask each student to apply the concepts of this chapter to a noninformation systems activity (e.g., going on a date, registering for classes, etc.). For the noninformation systems activity, ask students to describe the initiation, planning, execution, and closedown activities. Ask your students to create a work breakdown structure that includes precedence relationships and time durations for each activity. Additionally, ask your students to construct Gantt charts and network diagrams for these activities. Students can perform these tasks either inside or outside of class. If you allocate class time, ask students to describe their project and phases. Alternatively, this activity makes a good written assignment.

3.

If you lecture from this chapter, the chapter’s tables and figures are good resources for summarizing the major project management activities.

4.

If you want to expose students to the current technology trends in project management, a quick overview of the many tools that project managers can use would be helpful. Start by showing a list of the all the potential solutions that can help manage projects. The most comprehensive lists are at: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparison_of_project_management_software.

You can then demonstrate a common locally installed project manager tool such as Microsoft Project.

Demonstrating a cloud-based version such as Clarizen would also be helpful in comparing different features. Most solutions, including Microsoft Project and Clarizen, have 30 to 60-day trials that you and your students can use. Make sure students understand that the project management activities do not change though some of the ways different solutions have you enter the information and present the information may be different.

5.

Another alternative to lecturing from the chapter is to discuss selected Review Questions, Problems and Exercises, and Field Exercises with your students. The selected questions help focus a discussion on project management concepts and techniques.

6.

Make sure your students can construct Gantt charts and network diagrams, by hand and also using a common tool. During class, work several of the problems presented in the chapter or at the end of the chapter. Problems and Exercises3.37, 3.38, 3.39, 3.40, 3.41, 3.42, 3.43, 3.44, 3.45, 3.46, 3.47, 3.48, 3.49, 3.50, 3.51, and 3.52 are good problems to work and discuss in class.

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7.

An out-of-the-box approach might be to ask students to simulate preparing an evening meal at home.

This would include a multicourse dinner with varying times for course preparation. All items are to be done at a certain time with limited resources (microwave, stove, etc.). Students should prepare a Gantt chart and/or network diagram to demonstrate their solution.

8.

Another effective approach to presenting this chapter is to ask students who have been on systems development teams to compare their experiences to the concepts presented in this chapter. This discussion is a good way to elaborate on alternative ways for managing systems development projects, especially if systems were constructed using different methodologies. Use this discussion to explore whether these student projects followed the discrete phases outlined in the chapter. Ask your students to describe the project manager’s activities. What activities are the same? What activities are different?

9.

If you have access to a practicing systems development project manager, on-campus or off-campus, a useful activity is to invite her into your class to discuss how she manages projects. Ask this person to discuss how she manages the four project management phases. Also: What tools are used? How do project members communicate? How does the person manage all the stakeholders?

10. Use a copy of the project management guidelines from a local systems development firm or consulting organization, or even from practicing colleagues on campus, to show students how extensive project management guidelines typically are. If you have students working in systems development organizations, you might ask them to bring to class their firm’s guidelines. If possible, reproduce the table of contents from these manuals for all students. Have your students compare the various guidelines to see what each organization emphasizes and what is different.

11. Introduce information from the Project Management Institute (www.pmi.org) regarding project management certifications, the membership and committee.

Answers to Key Terms Suggested answers are provided below. These answers are presented top-down, left to right.

3.15. Project manager 3.9. Project 3.4. Deliverable 3.5. Feasibility study 3.14. Project management 3.13. Project initiation 3.12. Project execution 3.11. Project closedown 3.18. Resources 3.3. Critical path scheduling 3.2. Critical path 3.17. Project workbook 3.16. Project planning 3.20. Work breakdown structure 3.6. Gantt chart 3.7. Network diagram 3.19. Slack time 3.8. PERT (Program EvaluationDR istreibvuite iow n ofTtheiscdhonciuqmuenet)is ilegal 3

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3.1. COCOMO 3.10. Project charter

Answers to Review Questions 3.21

a. Critical path scheduling is a scheduling technique whose order and duration of a sequence of task activities directly affect the completion date of a project. Gantt is a specific, graphical technique for representing projects, showing each task activity as a horizontal bar whose length is proportional to its time for completion. Network diagramming is a critical path scheduling technique used for controlling resources. Slack time is the amount of time that a single activity can be delayed without delaying the completion date of the project.

b. A project is a planned undertaking of related activities to reach an objective that has a beginning and an end. Project management is a controlled process for initiating, planning, executing, and closing down a project (i.e., the science of managing a project). The project manager is a systems analyst with a diverse set of skills (management, leadership, technical, conflict management) who is responsible for initiating, planning, executing, and closing down a project.

c. Projects are managed through four distinct phases: initiation, planning, execution, and closedown.

Project initiation includes those activities that assess the size, scope, and complexity of the project and establishes procedures to support later project activities. Project planning focuses on defining clear, discrete activities and the work needed to complete each activity within a single project.

Project execution puts the plans created in prior phases into action. Project closedown brings a project to an end.

d. A project workbook is a repository for all project documentation to include project correspondence, inputs, outputs, deliverables, procedures, and standards that is used for performing project audits, orienting new team members, communicating with management, and customers, identifying future projects, and performing post-project review.Any people, group of people, piece of equipment, or material used in accomplishing an activity are resources. A work breakdown structure refers the process of dividing the project into manageable tasks and logically ordering them to ensure a smooth evolution between tasks.

3.22 The focus of project management is to ensure that systems development projects meet customer expectations and are delivered within budget and time constraints. The present business environment is competitive and dynamic, and the systems analyst with project management process knowledge has diverse skills pertaining to management, leadership, technical knowledge, conflict management, and customer relations. These skills are critical for any project manager to adjust to challenging and dynamic working conditions.

3.23 Project managers use a variety of tools to estimate the project size and cost. The most widely used method is the COnstructive COst MOdel (COCOMO). COCOMO is applied to predict human resource requirements for basic, intermediate, and highly complex systems. Estimating resources and creating a resource plan phase during project planning helps in estimating resource requirements for each project activity; this information can be used to create a project resource plan.

3.24 Project managers use a variety of tools to estimate the project size and cost. The most widely used method is the COnstrDuocwtnilvoaedeC Owdaen lg n g( iCg i @ OgCmO O). COCOMO is applied to predict Whaunm anea d bOy:smto rM rism a i lM .com t to 4

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resource requirements for basic, intermediate, and highly complex systems. Estimating resources and creating a resource plan phase during project planning helps in estimating resource requirements for each project activity; this information can be used to create a project resource plan.

3.25 Project scope statement is a document developed primarily for the customer that outlines the work that will be done and clearly describes what the project will deliver. It is useful in ensuring that the customer and project team members have a clear understanding of the project size, duration, and outcomes. The baseline project plan provides an estimate of the project’s tasks and resource requirements and guides the next project phase: execution. The baseline project plan is updated continually as new information is acquired during project execution.

3.26 Project execution activities include: (1) executing the baseline project plan; (2) monitoring project progress against the baseline project plan; (3) managing changes to the baseline project plan; (4) maintaining the project workbook; and (5) communicating the project status.

The focus of executing the baseline project planis to initiate the execution of project activities, acquire and assign resources, orient and train new team members, keep the project on schedule, and ensure the quality of project deliverables. The focus of monitoring project progress against the baseline project planis to compare the actual progress of the project to that projected in the baseline project plan. If the project gets ahead of (or behind) schedule, adjustments to resources, activities, and budgets can be made. The focus of managing changes to the baseline project planis to incorporate approved changes to project specifications and reflect those changes in the baseline plan and project workbook. The focus of maintaining the project workbook is to update the project workbook, which contains project-related information. The focus of communicating the project status is to inform all interested parties, systems developers, managers, and customers, about how the project is progressing.

3.27 Table 3-2 summarizes project team communication methods. Table 3-2 rates each method in terms of formality and use (informing, resolving issues, or keeping permanent records). The following table lists the communication methods from Table 3-2 and provides an example of the type of information that might be shared among team members for each method.

Team Communication Methods and Corresponding Examples Communication Methods

Examples

Project Workbook

Official system documentation, such as data flow diagrams or entity– relationship diagrams, interview notes

Meetings

Review project schedule

Seminars and Workshops

Techniques and methods to be used in subsequent project phases

Project Newsletters

Introduce new team members, explain upcoming project activities

Status Reports

Project activity completions and issues

Specification Documents

Form designs, program structure charts

Minutes of Meetings

Decisions made on alternative system designs

Bulletin Boards

Project status, awards for team members

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Communication Methods

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Examples

Memos

Guidance to team members, personnel appraisals

Brown Bag Lunches

Information from trade shows attended by team members, ideas about articles read on systems analysis and design

Hallway Discussions

Answers to questions, advice on how to deal with problems

3.28 The project closedown activities performed by the project manager are: (1) closing down the project, (2) conducting reviews, and (3) closing the customer contract. The focus of closing down the project is to conclude the project. The objective of conducting reviews is to assess the strengths and weaknesses of project deliverables, the processes used to create them, and the project management process. The focus of closing the customer contract is to ensure that all contractual terms of the project are met.

3.29 The different time estimates that PERT uses are optimistic time (o), pessimistic time (p), and realistic time (r).

Expected time, ET = (o4rp)/6 o = optimistic completion time of an activity r = realistic completion time of an activity p = pessimistic completion time of an activity 3.30 The steps involved in making a Gantt chart are: (1) identify each activity to be completed in the project; (2) determine time estimates and calculate the expected completion time for each activity; (3) determine the sequence of the activities and precedence relationships among all activities; and (4) construct the Gantt chart.

3.31 Nodes that are not on the critical path contain the slack time and allow the project manager some flexibility in scheduling.

3.32 Project planning typically occurs during the project initiation and planning phase of the SDLC. Project management occurs during all phases of the SDLC; however, different project management activities occur during different SDLC phases.

3.33 Task sequence depends on which tasks produce deliverables needed in other tasks, when critical resources are available, constraints placed on the project by the client, and the process outlined in the SDLC.

Answers to Problems and Exercises 3.34 Project planning often requires making numerous assumptions about the availability of resources such as hardware, software, and personnel. It is much easier to plan nearer-term activities than those occurring in the future. The manager has to construct longer-term plans that are more general and nearer-term plans that are more detailed, as it is virtually impossible to rigorously plan activities late in the project without first completing the earlier activities. Moreover, the longer-term activities are dependent on a whole gamut of factors that might change due to dynamic business environments. As such, it is difficult to plan detailed solutions for activities that will occur far into the resulting future. thgimnaila.cowm ork breakdown structure is the activitW yam 3.35 Determining the time dD uo wr nal toiaodne d fboy:rmeoarrcishmwtaansgkngw igii@ nt o tosetarn $1,500 likely to entail errors. It isDpisatrribtuictiounloafrtlhyis cdohcaulmleenntgisiinlleggatlo make estimates when a task is highly compelxetxra per year?

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and there is a high degree of uncertainty associated with it. Project managers use PERT (Program Evaluation Review Technique) to solve that error. This technique uses optimistic, pessimistic, and realistic time estimates to calculate the expected time for a particular task.

3.36 Several project management software packages are available for the personal computer. Microsoft Project and Oracle’s Primavera are two widely used project management software packages that can be installed on your computer. Clarizen is a popular project management tool that can be accessed from your Web browser. Information about project management software can be obtained from a variety of sources, including the World Wide Web, trade magazines, the library, marketing packets, and testing services. The World Wide Web is an excellent source of information. As part of your class activities or as a homework assignment, students can search the Web for relevant information about project management software. If time permits, ask students to investigate cloud based, open source and shareware products. Encourage them to compare these products compare with Microsoft Project.

Advice given to prospective buyers is much like the advice provided to buyers of other types of software. For example, the individual should first determine what he needs and why he needs it, and then he should see what packages best meet these needs at an acceptable price. The opinions of other users are also advisable. A discussion between installed software and cloud-based solution would also be appropriate.

3.37 During project initiation there are several activities that help to assess size, scope and complexity of the project. The project manager starts this first step of the project by establishing a project team.

This can be done in a variety of ways, but the team often consists of members for several different areas. Next, the project manager would establish a relationship with the customer. This is done by assigning a specific liaison, so the customer has one person to reach out to if they have any questions. Next, the project initiation plan is undertaken. This includes defining the goals and the scope of the project. Subsequently, the project manager will establish management procedures, which are developed to give the project team and the consumer a clear understanding of the management structure and communication structure with a description of how information will flow in the project team. The second last step is to collect and organize the tools that managers use to help run the project. Also, diagrams, charts and system description are assembled into a workbook. Taken together, this step is called establishment of a project management environment and project workbook. Finally, the project manager will develop a project charter, which includes several elements that detail the different aspects of the project.

3.38 It is possible to have two (or even more) critical paths. This happens with the length of critical paths are equal. For example, Task1+Task2+Task3+Task6 = 10 days where Task1+Task5+Task6 =10 days.

3.39 The calculated expected time: Tail Event (i) A A A B C D E

Most Likely Time (tm) Head Event (j) Optimistic Time (to) B 1 1 C 1 4 D 2 2 E 1 1 E 2 5 F 2 5 F Down l3oaded by: morrismwang n6gigi@gmail.com

Pessimistic Time (tp) 7 7 8 1 14 8 15

Expected Time 2 4 3 1 6 5 7 Wa

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3.40 The expected times for this exercise are summarized in the following table to include the early finish, late finish, and slack times for this exercise. This table also identifies the activities located on the critical path.

Problems and Exercises 40 Activity Summary Table

Activity 1

Time 3

Immediate Predecessors --

Early Finish 3

Late Finish 3

Slack 0

Critical Path?

Yes

2

2

1

5

5

0

Yes

3

2

2

7

8

1

No

4

6

2

11

11

0

Yes

5

3

3

10

11

1

No

6

2

3, 4

13

17

4

No

7

4

4, 5

15

15

0

Yes

8

5

6, 7

20

22

2

No

9

7

7

22

22

0

Yes

10

2

8, 9

24

24

0

Yes

A variety of software products can be used to produce a network diagram. The important issue is that students accurately express the relationships among the activities in this problem. a. Network Diagram

b. The earliest expected completion time is 24 weeks. c. The activities in the boxes with the darker border are on the critical path. These activities include collect requirements, analyze processes, design processes, design reports, test and document, and install. d. Changing Activity 6 from 2 weeks to 6 weeks will create two critical paths. Since Activity 6 was not on the critical path originally, this change does not affect the project’s completion time.

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3.41 Microsoft Project was used to create the following Gantt chart. This chart has a February 2, 2015 start date.

Problems and Exercises 41 Gantt Chart for Problem 40

3.42 The new time estimates have pushed the earliest expected completion time to 63 weeks. The activities in the boxes with a darker border are on the critical path. The activities on the critical path include collect requirements, analyze processes, design processes, design reports, test and document, and feedback. The network diagram was completed using Microsoft Project.

Problems and Exercises 42 Network Diagram

Activity Summary Table Activity 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

Time 6 2 4 18 6 4 12 10 14 4 1

Immediate Predecessors -1 2 2 3 3, 4 4, 5 6, 7 7 8, 9 9, 10

Early Finish 6 8 12 36 15 40 48 58 62 66 67

Late Finish 6 8 20 36 23 52 48 62 62 66 67

Slack 0 0 8 0 8 12 0 4 0 0 0

Critical Path?

Yes Yes No Yes No No Yes No Yes Yes Yes

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3.43 Student answers will vary. To make it worthwhile to create Gantt and network diagrams, encourage your students to choose projects of sufficient complexity. Encourage students to use project management software to create their charts. Have students compare their charts and, if possible, compare charts created using different software products. Have students discuss the comparative strengths and weaknesses of these packages. Alternatively, compare charts drawn using software with those drawn by hand. Have your students discuss the comparative advantages and disadvantages of drawing these charts by hand as opposed to using project management software.

Emphasize the typical power of any computer tool, which is the efficiency of making changes to the data compared to manual methods.

3.44 Some of these difficulties are easier to deal with than others. When changing the project plan to account for the delays, students will simply adjust their Gantt and network diagrams accordingly.

Other difficulties, however, are more problematic. For example, dealing with the boss is potentially more difficult. Frequent communication, accurate and full assessments of the situation, requests for reasonable means to deal with problems, and a history of being a good project manager are necessary to gain compliance from the boss.

There are basically four problems. The reassigned team member and the changes in due dates are beyond the control of the project manager. However, the personality clashes among team members and the mistaken completion estimate for one of the tasks are within the control of the project manager. If these two problems remain unsolved, they may reflect poorly on the project manager.

One prudent alternative is to explain the situation to the boss. The project manager should also explain to the boss what he is doing to solve these two problems. If the boss absolutely cannot accept the project past the original deadline, then additional resources are needed to complete the project on time. If additional resources will solve the problem, and they are available, the project manager should provide a fairly strong, convincing rationale for why these new resources should be allocated to this project. The project manager might show, for example, that the project cannot be completed on time unless the boss doubles the programmers available for this project or takes some much-needed experts off other projects and assigns them to this project.

3.45 The following table summarizes the early finish, late finish, and slack times for this exercise. This table also identifies the activities located on the critical path. A Gantt chart is also provided. The Gantt chart was prepared with Microsoft Project; the starting date is July 26, 2004.

Problems and Exercises 45 Activity Summary Table

Activity

Time

Immediate Predecessors

EF

LF

Slack

Critical Path?

A

5

--

5

5

0

Yes

B

3

A

8

12

4

No

C

4

A

9

9

0

Yes

D

6

C

15

15

0

Yes

E

4

B, C

13

16

3

No

F

1

D

16

16

0

Yes

G

5

D, E, F

21

21

0

Yes

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Problems and Exercises 45 Gantt Chart

3.46 A suggested network diagram is provided below. Microsoft Project was used to prepare the network diagram. Activities A, C, D, F, and G (shown with a darker border) are on the critical path.

Problems and Exercises 46 Network Chart

3.47 Suggested answers are provided below; Microsoft Project was used to prepare the network diagram.

Activities in boxes with a darker border are on the critical path. The following table summarizes the times, immediate predecessors, early and late finish times, and slack times for each activity. As noted in the table and network diagram, activities A, D, E, F, I, and J are on the critical path.

Problems and Exercises 47 Activity Summary Table

Activity A

Time 4

Immediate Predecessors --

Early Finish 4

Late Finish 4

Slack 0

Critical Path?

Yes

B

5

A

9

31

22

No

C

6

A

10

17

7

No

D

7

A

11

11

0

Yes

E

6

A, D

17

17

0

Yes

F

5

C, E

22

22

0

Yes

G

4

D, E

21

22

1

No

H

3

E

20

26

6

No

I

4

F, G

26

26

0

Yes

J

5

H, I

31

31

0

Yes

Problems and Exercises 47 Network Diagram

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3.48 A Gantt chart, based on the previous question’s criteria, is presented below. The start date is February 2, 2015. Microsoft Project was used to prepare this chart.

Problems and Exercises 48 Gantt Chart

3.49 The following table summarizes the early start, early finish, late start, and late finish time estimates for this exercise. This table also identifies activities located on the critical path. A Gantt chart, prepared with Microsoft Project, is also provided.

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The critical path is A→C→FDo→wnHloa→deJ

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