Instructor Manual Introduction to Learning and Behavior 6th Edition by Russell A. PowellP. Lynne

Instructor Manual Introduction to Learning and Behavior 6th Edition by Russell A. PowellP. Lynne

Instructor Manual Introduction to Learning and Behavior 6th Edition by Russell A. PowellP. Lynne

Instructor Manual: Russell A. Powell, P. Lynne Honey and Diane G. Symbulik, Introduction to Learning and Behavior 6e 2023, 9780357658475;

Instructor Solution Manual For Russell A. Powell, P. Lynne Honey and Diane G. Symbulik, Introduction to Learning and Behavior 6e 2023, 9780357658475; Chapter 1: Introduction

Table of Contents Purpose and Perspective of the Chapter ................................................................................................... 2 Cengage Supplements ............................................................................................................................... 2 Chapter Objectives .................................................................................................................................... 2 Key Terms .................................................................................................................................................. 2 What's New in This Chapter....................................................................................................................... 4 Chapter Outline ......................................................................................................................................... 5 Discussion Questions ................................................................................................................................. 6 Additional Activities and Assignments ....................................................................................................... 6 Study Tips .................................................................................................................................................. 7 Additional Resources ................................................................................................................................. 8 Suggested Readings ............................................................................................................................... 8 Internet Resources ................................................................................................................................ 8 Appendix.................................................................................................................................................. 10 Generic Rubrics ................................................................................................................................... 10 Standard Writing Rubric ...................................................................................................................... 10 Standard Discussion Rubric ................................................................................................................. 11

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Instructor Manual: Chapter 1: Introduction

Purpose and Perspective of the Chapter The first chapter of the text is designed to orient students to the historical and philosophical development of the science of behavior. By understanding the contributions of key figures and how scientific methods have changed over time, students may come to appreciate the current context of behavior analysis.

Cengage Supplements The following product-level supplements provide additional information that may help you in preparing your course. They are available in the Instructor Resource Center.

• • • •

Transition Guide (provides information about what’s new from edition to edition) Instructor Manual (contains outlines, suggested activities, and resources for instructor use in the course) PowerPoint (provides text-based lectures and presentations) Test Bank (contains assessment questions and problems)

Chapter Objectives The following objectives are addressed in this chapter: 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5.

1.6 1.7 1.8

Define learning.

Create a simple diagram of a classical conditioning procedure.

Outline earlier philosophical and scientific approaches that influenced the development of behaviorism.

Define empiricism as a philosophical approach to knowledge.

Describe similarities and differences between the structuralist and functionalist approaches to the study of psychology.

Outline the process of evolution by natural selection, including three key features.

Identify the researchers most strongly associated with the five presented forms of behaviorism.

Describe similarities and differences among the five presented forms of behaviorism.

Key Terms Applied behavior analysis: the application of interventions developed from basic principles of behavior to socially significant real-world problems Behavior: any activity of an organism that can be observed or measured Behaviorism: the philosophy of science governing both the experimental research and applied analysis of behavior British empiricism: a philosophical school of thought which suggests that almost all knowledge is a function of experience Cognitive behaviorism: branch of behaviorism that uses intervening variables, usually in the form of hypothetical cognitive processes, to explain behavior Cognitive map: the mental representation of one’s spatial surroundings; this was one of the proposed hypothetical cognitive variables used in cognitive behaviorism to explain behavior

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Instructor Manual: Chapter 1: Introduction

Determinism: the philosophical assumption that lawful events and relations exist in the environment; while this is an assumption and is not able to be tested, determinism acts as a necessary assumption to studying behavior Empiricism: the philosophical assumption that behavior is mostly learned and as result we can systematically study our environment to learn about it as well Evolutionary adaptation: a useful trait, a physical characteristic or a behavior, that has been shaped through natural selection Experimental analysis of behavior: the basic science of behavior aimed at discovering and expanding upon principles of behavior, governed by the philosophy of behaviorism Functionalism: an approach to psychology which proposes that the mind evolved to help us adapt to the world around us and that the focus of psychology should be to study those adaptive processes Introspection: the attempt to accurately describe one’s internal thoughts, emotions, and sensory experiences Latent learning: concept proposed by ASFAD which suggested that learning can still occur in the absence of immediately observable results of such Law of contiguity: law of association in which events or stimuli that occur temporally or spatially close to one another are more readily associated with one another Law of contrast: law of association in which events or stimuli that are opposite from each other are readily associated with each other Law of frequency: law of association in which the more frequently two items occur together, the more strongly they are associated with each other Law of similarity: law of association in which events or stimuli that are similar to each other on some dimension are more readily associated with each other Learning: a relatively enduring change in behavior that results from some type of experience or interaction with the environment Methodological behaviorism: a branch of behaviorism developed by John Watson which asserted that psychology should not study internal unobservable events for methodological reasons, but should instead focus on only behaviors which can be directly observed Mind-body dualism: otherwise known as Cartesian dualism, or simply dualism, philosophical assumption made by Descartes that some behaviors are controlled by the external stimulation and others are “voluntarily chosen” or controlled by forces existing on another plane considered to be the mind Nativism: the assumption that a person’s characteristics and behavioral repertoire are largely present at birth and unaffected by experience Natural selection: the evolutionary principle suggests that organisms that are better at adapting to the environment are more likely to survive long enough to reproduce and pass on the behaviors and characteristics shown to be successful in that environment than those that cannot adapt

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Instructor Manual: Chapter 1: Introduction

Neobehaviorism: the branch of behaviorism which utilizes intervening variables in the form of hypothetical constructs based off physiological processes to explain behavior Radical behaviorism: the philosophy of science introduced by B.F. Skinner which rejects the use of thoughts, feelings, and unobservable events to describe overt behavior, but suggests that these private events are behavior themself which needs to be explained through environmental variables Reciprocal determinism: the assumption that environmental events, observable behavior, and “person variables” (including thoughts and feelings) mutually influence each other Social learning theory: Bandura’s promoted branch of behaviorism which emphasizes the importance of observational learning and hypothetical cognitive constructs in explaining behavior Stimulus-response (S-R) theory: the learning theory that suggests the establishment of a connection between a specific stimulus and a specific response Structuralism: an approach to psychology that assumes it is possible to determine the structure of the mind by identifying basic elements that comprise it [return to top]

What's New in This Chapter The following elements are improvements in this chapter from the previous edition: •

•

• •

•

“Managing workers” is now included in the list of the potentially useful applications of a behavioral perspective. Many students have had jobs in which managers often used aversive consequences to control their employees’ behavior to the detriment of both employee morale and quality of work.

The definition of learning is now accompanied by a note indicating that “although we tend to emphasize change as an indicator of learning, sometimes what we are learning is when not to change, that is, when to persist with a behavior when it is prudent to do so.”

Schedule effects would be an example of this.

In discussing the different schools of behaviorism, it is now noted that Watson’s methodological behaviorism is also called “classical behaviorism” and Hull’s neobehaviorism has also been called “deductive behaviorism.”

In the section on Skinner’s radical behaviorism, the term countercontrol has been dropped when referring to the application of behavioral principles of control one’s own behavior (i.e., self-management). This is instead referred to as self-control. (The term countercontrol is more often used in reference to using behavioral principles to counter attempts by others to manipulate our behavior.)

In previous editions, the term behavior analysis was defined as the basic science that grew out of radical behaviorism. In keeping with more common usage, however, in this edition, behavior analysis is defined as the general science that grew out of radical behaviorism, which we then further divide into basic behavior analysis (also known as the experimental analysis of behavior) and applied behavior analysis.

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Instructor Manual: Chapter 1: Introduction

Chapter Outline In the outline, each element includes references (in parentheses) to related content. “CH.##” refers to the chapter objective; “PPT Slide #” refers to the slide number in the PowerPoint deck for this chapter (provided in the PowerPoints section of the Instructor Resource Center). Introduce the chapter and use the Icebreaker in the PPT if desired, and if one is provided for this chapter. Review chapter objectives for Chapter 1 (PPT Slide 3-4) I.

Explanation of Opening Scenario (1.1 – 1.2, PPT Slide 1) a. The first quote in the opening scenario to this chapter illustrates how Skinner did not ignore the fact that people have feelings. The second quote describes how Skinner’s views have often been misrepresented. These two quotes will hopefully encourage students to ignore past biases about Skinner, and about behaviorism in general, as they begin reading the text. b. The learning objectives provide students with key points and competencies they should attend to and learn throughout the chapter. (Slide 3-4) c. Before any terms are introduced, the 3R study tip is offered as a potential study solution for students. (Slide 5) d. Key terms and information about how to read a conditioning diagram provided. (Slide 6)

II. Historical Background (1.3 – 1.6, PPT Slide 7) a. The section on historical background begins with looking at the Aristotelian laws of association. Further discussed is how they led to the development of empiricism and how it relates to behaviorism as the philosophy of science. (Slide 8) b. Cartesian dualism is discussed as one of the early theories on the causes of behavior. From the move away from nativism and toward empiricism is the discussion of the British Empiricists such as John Locke. (Slide 9) c. Structuralism and its methods of science which included introspection as a method are discussed in their relation to behaviorism. Functionalists, although with different goals from the structuralists, used similar methods of study. (Slide 10-11) d. Darwin and his theory of natural selection highly impacted behavioral psychology. The implications of his theory on the development of behavior and impact of the environment greatly affected psychologists of the time. (Slide 12) e. One of these influenced psychologists was John Watson who introduced the concept of methodological behaviorism. (Slide 13) III. Five Schools of Behaviorism (1.7-1.8 PPT Slide 14) a. Methodological behaviorism suggested dispensing with introspection as a tool for conducting science. Watson proposed that psychology focus only on the publicly observable and measurable events in the environment as opposed to internal, subjective measurements of introspection. (Slide 14) b. Hull’s school of neobehaviorism diverged from methodological behaviorism in that it included intervening variables, in the form of hypothetical physiological processes as constructs, to explain behavior. (Slide 15) c. Similar to Hull, Tolman used intervening variables in the form of hypothetical constructs.

Though Tolman used cognitive constructs in his branch of cognitive behaviorism his procedures were useful to empirical research. (Slide 16) d. Bandura presented the social learning theory which also utilized internal events such as thoughts and feelings to describe the relationship between overt behavior and environmental events. (Slide 17)

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Instructor Manual: Chapter 1: Introduction

e. [Discussion] Activity: 5 minutes total. (Slide 18) f. Skinner’s radical behaviorism departed in significant ways from previous branches of behavior analysis. Unlike Watson, Skinner did consider private behaviors necessary to include in the analysis if measured and operationalized adequately. Unlike Tolman, Hull, and Bandura, he declined the use of intervening variables or hypothetical constructs to explain behavior. (Slide 19) g. To summarize the historical account and previous schools of behaviorism, the chapter ends with a description of the philosophy of science, known as behaviorism, impacts both the basic science known as the experimental analysis of behavior, as well as the clinical practice of applied behavior analysis. (Slide 20-21) [return to top]

Discussion Questions You can assign these questions several ways: in a discussion forum in your LMS; as whole-class discussions in person; or as a partner or group activity in class.

1. Discussion: Empiricism v. Nativism ([pp. 8-11], 1.4, PPT Slide 7) a. The development from nativism to empiricism greatly impacted the philosophy of what became to be known as behaviorism. How would an empiricist explain highly skilled or expert behavior? i. Answer: An empiricist would discuss how the environment played the most critical role in the development of this performance. Possibly through setting up the contingencies in ways to improve performance (e.g. practicing the behavior) was the expert performance achieved. b. How might a nativist explain problem behavior or “maladaptive” behavior? i. Answer: A nativist might discuss genetic or other biological factors to cite how the individual was born that way and the behavior was inevitable.

2. Discussion: Natural Selection ([pp. 8-11], 1.4, PPT Slide 7) a. Darwin’s theory of natural selection influenced many psychologists of the time and led to the development of Skinner’s selection by consequences as well. Describe a hypothetical behavior or evolutionary adaptation and how it could be involved in the three features of natural selection. i. Answers will vary. Variability exists across appearance of traits and behaviors, with some of them being heritable. A behavioral tendency such as a predisposition toward reinforcement via a specific type of food may increase certain food seeking behaviors in a species. If this predisposition is heritable and proves successful in the environment, species with the trait will be more effective in competing for limited resources. [return to top]

Additional Activities and Assignments 1. Dr. Dee Assignment: a. Refer to the preface for complete information about this assignment. It is only the first chapter that includes a sample set of instructions that instructors may adopt for the subsequent chapters’ Dr. Dee assignments. In subsequent chapters, only the sample letters plus the explanation for each are provided. b. Sample Instructions for Dr. Dee Assignment

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Instructor Manual: Chapter 1: Introduction

i. The relationship concerns expressed in each of the following “lovelorn” letters can be related to either one or more of the principles or concepts described in this chapter.

Students should pretend that they are Dr. Dee and compose a behavioral-type reply to one of the letters in a manner that is similar to the Advice for the Lovelorn columns in the text. Students should be sure to identify clearly the relevant behavioral principle or concept on which they have based their reply. ii. As an alternative to basing their assignment on one of these letters, students can instead compose an entire Dr. Dee column on their own (both the letter and the reply). For this option, they need not restrict themselves to romantic relationships, and they may instead address issues involving friends, family members, or even pets. Again, students should be sure to identify clearly the behavioral principle or concept on which they have based their column. If students are basing the column on an incident involving someone they know, they should be sure to disguise the person’s identity by altering some of the facts and use a pseudonym for the person involved. c. Dr. Dee Assignment i. Dear Dr. Dee, ii. I have very strong feelings for my new girlfriend, but I can’t tell if they are feelings of infatuation or love. My friends tell me I’m in love, but my parents tell me I’m infatuated.

How can I tell the difference?

So confused d. Relevant Concepts i. Answers could make reference to the difficulty of using internal or covert events for understanding behavior. It may be more useful to describe observable events (like acts of affection or amount of time spent talking together) rather than describing feelings. ii. Answers could refer to Skinner’s description of how internal events are interpreted by others. We assume that we know how someone is feeling, but these assumptions are subjective and may be wrong. We learn to label our emotions through inference, by using others’ interpretations, so one person’s definition of ‘love’ may differ from another’s. [return to top]

Study Tips Some better approaches to studying a textbook involve the “testing effect,” in which testing one’s ability to recall the information one just read can greatly enhance one’s memory for it (Dunlosky, Rawson, Marsh, Nathan, & Willingham, 2013). A recent version of this approach is the 3R method of studying (McDaniel, Howard, & Einstein, 2009). An alternate approach, which the text calls “selective underlining,” is to first read the paragraph without underlining; one instead simply searches for the important points one will want to underline later. After finishing the paragraph, one then goes back and underlines just the important points. Another possibility that one may wish to experiment with would be to combine selective underlining with the 3R approach. The important thing for students is to find the combination of study tactics that works best for them, which may be rather different from what works best for someone else.

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Instructor Manual: Chapter 1: Introduction

Additional Resources Suggested Readings Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory. Prentice Hall.

Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. W. H. Freeman and Company.

Bjork, D. W. (1993). B. F. Skinner: A life. Basic Books.

Buckley, K. W. (1989). Mechanical man: John Broadus Watson and the beginnings of behaviorism.

Guilford Press.

Hergenhahn, B. R., & Olson, M. H. (1988). An introduction to theories of learning (9th ed.). Pearson.

Hull, C. L. (1943). Principles of behavior. Appleton-Century-Crofts.

Malone, J. C. (1990). Theories of learning: A historical approach. Wadsworth Publishing Co. Skinner, B. F. (1938). The behavior of organisms: An experimental analysis. Copley Publishing Group.

Skinner, B. F. (1953). Science and human behavior. Macmillan.

Tolman, E. C. (1959). Principles of purposive behavior. In S. Koch (Ed.), Psychology: A study of a science (Vol. 2, pp. 92–157). McGraw-Hill.

Watson, J. B. (1913). Psychology as the behaviorist views it. Psychological Review, 20, 158–177.

Internet Resources •

“Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It” by John B. Watson (1913) http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Watson/views.htm This is the article that many consider to be the manifesto that launched the behaviorist revolution. (From York University, Classics in the History of Psychology.) Refer to the introduction (Introduction to: “Psychology as the Behaviorist Views it”) and the commentary (Commentary on “Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It”) to this article.

•

Introduction to: “Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It” http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Watson/intro.htm An introduction to Watson’s classic work, written by Christopher D. Green. (From York University, Classics in the History of Psychology.)

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Commentary on “Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It” http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Watson/commentary.htm A commentary on Watson’s classic work, written by Robert H. Wozniak. (From York University, Classics in the History of Psychology.)

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On “Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It.” by E. B. Titchener (1914)

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Instructor Manual: Chapter 1: Introduction

http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Titchener/watson.htm The response by Titchener, the famous structuralist, to Watson’s (1913) call to behaviorism.

(From York University, Classics in the History of Psychology.)

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Hull’s Theory of Behavior http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Hull/Conflict/ http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Hull/Hierarchy/part1.htm http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Hull/Hierarchy/part2.htm These are some articles outlining the various aspects of Hull’s theory. (From York University, Classics in the History of Psychology.)

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“Cognitive Maps in Rats and Men” by Edward C. Tolman (1948) http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Tolman/Maps/maps.htm This is Tolman’s most famous article. It includes a description of the latent learning experiment discussed on pp. 24–26 of the text. (From York University, Classics in the History of Psychology.)

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Classic Articles in the History of Behaviorism http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/topic.htm#behaviorism The complete list of classic articles in behavioral psychology at the York University website (some of which are listed above).

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Betty the Tool-Making Crow (with videos) http://users.ox.ac.uk/~kgroup/tools/introduction.shtml Betty is a very talented bird (refer to the video of Betty bending a wire to form a hook). This is an example of recent research in the area of comparative cognition.

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Tool Use in Animals http://www.pigeon.psy.tufts.edu/psych26/tools.htm This website lists several examples of tool use in animals, a topic of particular interest to those in the field of comparative cognition.

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The B. F. Skinner Foundation http://www.bfskinner.org/ This is the official website of the B. F. Skinner Foundation. It includes a short biography of Skinner, a brief exposition of operant conditioning, unpublished works by Skinner, and PDFs of some of Skinner’s publications.

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Precision Teaching http://psych.athabascau.ca/html/387/OpenModules/Lindsley/ One of Skinner’s applications of behavioral principles to education is known as precision

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Instructor Manual: Chapter 1: Introduction

teaching. This link will take students to an Athabasca University tutorial on this behaviorally based method of instruction.

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Association for Behavior Analysis International https://www.abainternational.org/welcome.aspx This is the official website of the Association for Behavior Analysis International, the primary professional organization of applied behavior analysts, or often board certified behavior analysts.

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Behavior Analysis Certification Board https://www.bacb.com/ This is the official website of the Behavior Analysis Certification Board which maintains professional credentialing and ethical guidelines for Board Certified Behavior Analysts (BCBAs).

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Various Links to Behavior Analysis and Learning http://psych.athabascau.ca/html/aupr/ba.shtml From Athabasca University, this website contains a huge list of links to Internet resources on behavior analysis and learning.

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Appendix Generic Rubrics Providing students with rubrics helps them understand expectations and components of assignments.

Rubrics help students become more aware of their learning process and progress, and they improve students’ work through timely and detailed feedback. Customize these rubrics as you wish. The writing rubric indicates 40 points and the discussion rubric indicates 30 points.

Standard Writing Rubric Criteria Content

Organization and Clarity

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Meets Requirements Needs Improvement The assignment clearly and The assignment partially comprehensively addresses all addresses some or all questions in the assignment. questions in the assignment.

Incomplete The assignment does not address the questions in the assignment.

15 points 8 points The assignment presents ideas The assignment presents ideas in a clear manner and with in a mostly clear manner and strong organizational structure. with a mostly strong The assignment includes an organizational structure. The appropriate introduction, assignment includes an content, and conclusion. appropriate introduction, Coverage of facts, arguments, content, and conclusion. and conclusions are logically Coverage of facts, arguments, related and consistent. and conclusions are mostly logically related and

0 points The assignment does not present ideas in a clear manner and with strong organizational structure. The assignment includes an introduction, content, and conclusion, but coverage of facts, arguments, and conclusions are not logically related and consistent.

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Instructor Manual: Chapter 1: Introduction

consistent.

Research

Research

Grammar and Spelling

10 points The assignment is based upon appropriate and adequate academic literature, including peer reviewed journals and other scholarly work.

7 points The assignment is based upon adequate academic literature but does not include peer reviewed journals and other scholarly work.

0 points The assignment is not based upon appropriate and adequate academic literature and does not include peer reviewed journals and other scholarly work.

5 points The assignment follows the required citation guidelines.

3 points The assignment follows some of the required citation guidelines.

0 points The assignment does not follow the required citation guidelines.

5 points 3 points The assignment has two or The assignment has three to fewer grammatical and spelling five grammatical and spelling errors. errors.

5 points

3 points

0 points The assignment is incomplete or unintelligible.

0 points

Standard Discussion Rubric Criteria Participation

Meets Requirements Submits or participates in discussion by the posted deadlines. Follows all assignment. instructions for initial post and responses.

Contribution Quality

Comments stay on task.

Comments add value to discussion topic. Comments motivate other students to respond.

Comments may not stay on task. Comments may not add value to discussion topic.

Comments may not motivate other students to respond.

20 points Maintains appropriate language. Offers criticism in a constructive manner. Provides both positive and negative feedback.

10 points 0 points Does not always maintain Does not participate in appropriate language. Offers discussion. criticism in an offensive manner. Provides only negative feedback.

5 points

Etiquette

5 points

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Needs Improvement Incomplete Does not participate or submit Does not participate in discussion by the posted discussion. deadlines. Does not follow instructions for initial post and responses.

3 points

3 points

0 points Does not participate in discussion.

0 points

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Instructor Manual: Russell A. Powell, P. Lynne Honey and Diane G. Symbaluk, Introduction to Learning and Behavior 6e, 2023, 9780357658475; Chapter 2: Research Methods

Instructor Manual Russell A. Powell, P. Lynne Honey and Diane G. Symbaluk, Introduction to Learning and Behavior 6e, 2023, 9780357658475; Chapter 2: Research Methods

Table of Contents Purpose and Perspective of the Chapter ................................................................................................. 13 Cengage Supplements ............................................................................................................................. 13 Chapter Objectives .................................................................................................................................. 13 Key Terms ................................................................................................................................................ 13 What's New in This Chapter..................................................................................................................... 15 Chapter Outline ....................................................................................................................................... 16 Discussion Questions ............................................................................................................................... 17 Additional Activities and Assignments ..................................................................................................... 18 Study Tip .................................................................................................................................................. 18 Additional Resources ............................................................................................................................... 19 Suggested Readings ............................................................................................................................. 19 Internet Resources .............................................................................................................................. 19 Appendix.................................................................................................................................................. 21 Generic Rubrics ................................................................................................................................... 21 Standard Writing Rubric ...................................................................................................................... 21 Standard Discussion Rubric ................................................................................................................. 23

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Instructor Manual: Russell A. Powell, P. Lynne Honey and Diane G. Symbaluk, Introduction to Learning and Behavior 6e, 2023, 9780357658475; Chapter 2: Research Methods

Purpose and Perspective of the Chapter The second chapter of the text describes the research methods employed in behavioral sciences. Basic terms and definitions are introduced to students along with how behavior analytic research is conducted. Students are presented with examples of research designs which can be used to address real-world concerns. By the end of the chapter, students should be able to describe how a behavioral researcher might approach different research questions using different experimental methods or designs.

Cengage Supplements The following product-level supplements provide additional information that may help you in preparing your course. They are available in the Instructor Resource Center.

• • • •

Transition Guide (provides information about what’s new from edition to edition) Instructor Manual (contains outlines, suggested activities, and resources for instructor use in the course) PowerPoint (provides text and image-based lectures with active learning activities) Test Bank (contains multiple-choice assessment questions and sample essay questions)

Chapter Objectives The following objectives are addressed in this chapter: 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5

Use accurate terminology for describing research and the measurement of behavior.

Select appropriate methods for measuring various types of behavior.

Distinguish between descriptive and experimental research methods.

Select appropriate research designs for various research questions or situations.

Outline the pros and cons of using animals in behavioral research.

Key Terms Abolishing operation: process which decreases the effectiveness of some stimulus or event to function as a reinforcer Appetitive stimulus: a preferable event or stimulus which an organism will regularly seek out Aversive stimulus: an event or stimulus which an organism will regularly avoid Baseline: the normal frequency or measured dimension of behavior prior to an intervention Changing-criterion design: a type of single-subject design in which the effect of the treatment is demonstrated by how closely the behavior matches to a predetermined, systematically altered criterion value Comparative design: a type of group design in which different species constitute one of the independent variables Contingency: a predictive relationship between two events such that the occurrence of one event predicts the probable occurrence of the other Control group design: a type of group design in which subjects are assigned to either an experimental group which receives the intervention or to a control group that does not receive the intervention

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Instructor Manual: Russell A. Powell, P. Lynne Honey and Diane G. Symbaluk, Introduction to Learning and Behavior 6e, 2023, 9780357658475; Chapter 2: Research Methods

Covert behavior: behavior that can only be observed or measured by one person, the individual engaging in the behavior; often called private behavior, these include thoughts, feelings, and perceptions Cumulative recorder: a device that records the total number of responses over time and provides a graphic depiction of the rate of response Dependent variable: the aspect of the environment that is not manipulated but is observed and measured; the effect of the independent variable can be shown through dependent variable changes Descriptive research: research that focuses on describing the behavior and the circumstances under which it occurs and other relevant variables Duration: the total amount of time that an individual repeatedly or continuously engages in a behavior Establishing operation: a process that increases the effectiveness of some stimulus to function as a reinforcer Experimental research: research in which one or more independent variables are systematically varied to determine their effect on a dependent variable Factorial design: a type of group design in which researchers examine the effects of two or more independent variables (or factors) across groups of subjects Functional relationship: the relationship in which changes in the independent variable regularly precede subsequent changes in the dependent variable Group design: a type of experimental research method where one or more independent variables are manipulated across groups of subjects to determine the possible effects Independent variable: the aspect of the environment which researchers manipulate or systematically vary across different conditions of an experiment Intensity: the force or magnitude of a behavior Interobserver reliability: the extent to which two or more independent observers agree on the occurrence or nonoccurrence of a behavior Interval recording: a measurement procedure where the period of observation is segmented into intervals and observers record whether the behavior occurs or not during series of intervals Latency: the length of time it takes for a behavior to begin Motivating operation: a process that either increases or decreases the ability of a stimulus or event to function as a reinforcer Multiple-baseline design: a type of single-subject design where the intervention is implemented at successive points in time across two or more subjects, settings, or behaviors Naturalistic observation: a descriptive research approach that involves the systematic observation and recording of behavior in its natural environment Overt behavior: behavior that can be potentially observed by an individual other than the one engaging in the behavior; often called observable or public behavior

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Instructor Manual: Russell A. Powell, P. Lynne Honey and Diane G. Symbaluk, Introduction to Learning and Behavior 6e, 2023, 9780357658475; Chapter 2: Research Methods

Quasi-independent variable: a variable that is inseparable from the individual and as result cannot be manipulated but can be used in group level statistical comparisons; includes variables such as ethnicity or diagnoses Rate of response: the number of responses that occur per certain unit of time; e.g., four instances of biting per hour, ninety keystrokes per minute Response: one instance or unit of behavior Reversal design: a type of single-subject design that involves repeated alternations between a baseline period and intervention Simple comparison (AB) design: a single-subject research design where baseline is compared to intervention with no reversal phase or return to baseline Single-subject design: research designs where the subject serves as both the experimental and the control; also referred to as single case or small-n research as typically a smaller number of subjects are required Spatial contiguity: the extent to which events are situated close to each other in space Speed: the length of time required to perform a behavior from start to finish; indicates how fast or slow a behavior is occurring Stimulus: any person, object, or event in the environment that can potentially influence behavior; plural form is stimuli Temporal contiguity: the extent to which events occur close together in time Time-sample recording: the measurement of whether a behavior occurs within a series of discontinuous intervals; the number of times the behavior occurs within an interval is irrelevant Topography: the physical form of a behavior or what it looks like to observers Variable: a characteristic of a person, place, or thing that can change over time or from one situation to another; can be measured or observed in some way [return to top]

What's New in This Chapter The following elements are improvements in this chapter from the previous edition: • • • • •

The section on dependent and independent variables now includes a discussion of quasiindependent variables (such as sex, gender, or nationality) and quasi-experimental designs.

Rate is now defined as number of responses (rather than frequency of responses) in a certain period of time (since the term frequency already implies a certain time period).

The definitions of the terms duration and speed, which students often find confusing, now indicate that the latter is concerned with how fast or slow a behavior is occurring.

The section on single-subject designs now includes a brief mention of multi-element designs (which instructors may wish to elaborate upon in their lectures).

The Study Tip box that describes the extent to which self-monitoring can facilitate improvements in behavior now also mentions the importance for most people of making the act of self-monitoring as effortless or “frictionless” as possible.

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Instructor Manual: Russell A. Powell, P. Lynne Honey and Diane G. Symbaluk, Introduction to Learning and Behavior 6e, 2023, 9780357658475; Chapter 2: Research Methods

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Chapter Outline In the following outline, each element includes references (in parentheses) to related content. “CH.##” refers to the chapter objective; “PPT Slide #” refers to the slide number in the PowerPoint deck for this chapter (provided in the PowerPoints section of the Instructor Resource Center). Introduce the chapter and use the icebreaker in the PPT if desired, and if one is provided for this chapter. Review learning objectives for Chapter 2 (PPT Slide 3).

II.

III.

IV.

V.

Explanation of Opening Scenario (2.1 - 2.3, PPT Slide 2) a. As described more in depth later in the chapter, this scenario illustrates one of the drawbacks with basing decisions on the results of statistical analysis, which is that results that are significant for a group of individuals are not necessarily applicable to an individual.

(Slide 2) b. The learning objectives provide students with key points and competencies they should attend to and learn throughout the chapter. (Slide 3) Basic Terms and Definitions (2.1, PPT Slide 4) a. Key terms regarding variables in research are defined, with examples given of what an independent variable might look like in behavioral research. Dependent variables are described as well as quasi-experimental variables. (Slide 5) b. Specific behavioral terms for the independent and dependent variables are highlighted along with how stimuli and responses are considered. If manipulations of the independent variable produce corresponding changes in the dependent variable, a functional relationship is shown. (Slide 6) c. Antecedent events such as motivating operations are defined along with their effect on behavior and the ability of a stimulus to act as a reinforcer. (Slide 6) d. [Discussion] Activity: 15 minutes total. Motivating Operation Knowledge Check. (Slide 7) I. Students are asked to identify applied examples of motivating operations and what operant classes they may impact. Students are also asked how they might test their hypothesis, which will be discussed further in the next slides. e. How contingency and contiguity are related is described. (Slide 8) Measurement of Behavior (2.2, PPT Slide 9) a. Basic steps for measuring behavior are provided. Operational definitions are useful to be able to identify and clearly observe the behavior when it occurs to then record and measure it. (Slide 9-10) b. Key terms regarding behavioral measurement, such as rate, latency, and others, are discussed. Methods for recording are also provided. (Slide 10-11) c. Reliability is an important component of measurements. Interobserver reliability is utilized to ensure that observations and measurements are consistent and believable. (Slide 12) d. [Application] Activity: 10 minutes total. Interobserver Agreement. (Slide 13) i. Students are given a short sample observation sheet and asked to calculate the interobserver reliability between the two. Follow-up questions are asked about the results they obtain.

Research Designs (2.3, PPT Slide 14) a. The differences between descriptive research and experimental research are described.

(Slide 14) b. Experimental research is often thought of as group design research, which is briefly discussed along with its limitations and advantages. (Slide 15)

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Instructor Manual: Russell A. Powell, P. Lynne Honey and Diane G. Symbaluk, Introduction to Learning and Behavior 6e, 2023, 9780357658475; Chapter 2: Research Methods

VI.

c. Behavioral research is typically experimental research but instead employs single-subject designs rather than group designs. Advantages and limitations are discussed. (Slide 16) d. One method for showing the effects of the IV on the DV is the use of a multiple baseline design, which looks at the effects of the IV across behaviors, settings, or individuals. (Slide 17) e. Graphs depicting the various single-subject designs are shown to compare and contrast.

(Slide 18-19) f. Changing criterion designs show their effect through the DV, the measured behavior, conforming to each progressive criterion or goal set. (Slide 20) g. [Discussion] Activity: 10 minutes total. Choosing a Single-Subject Design. (Slide 21) ii. Discussion prompts are provided to encourage students to consider how they might study different behaviors. Students should respond with what experimental design they would use and why it is most appropriate. There are several correct answers. It should be noted the special consideration given to where reversal designs are appropriate and where they are unethical for use.

Use of Animals in Behavioral Research (2.4, PPT Slide 22) a. Advantages and disadvantages to the use of animals in research are provided. Students are then prompted to consider their own opinion on the issue and why. (Slide 22)

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Discussion Questions You can assign these questions several ways: in a discussion forum in your LMS; as whole-class discussions in person; or as a partner or group activity in class.

1. Discussion: Variables in Research ([pp. 52‒56], 2.1, PPT Slides 4-5) c. If you wanted to change or improve your study habits, what behavior might you be interested in measuring as your dependent variable? What would you hypothesize would affect that variable, and how would you know when there is a functional relationship? i. Answer: In behavioral research, the dependent variable is some overt and measurable form of behavior as identified through the operational definition. Individuals might choose to measure the duration or how long they spend studying. Another option is to study the percentage of correct responses made on practice quizzes over time, or potentially the latency to begin homework assignments once they are presented.

Different study strategies or goal-setting exercises might be potential independent variables. A functional relationship is said to exist when changes in the independent variable result in changes in the dependent variable. d. What would be an example of an important covert behavior to study? What are some challenges in observing or measuring that behavior? Why are overt behaviors preferred in behavior analysis? (pp. 55‒56) i. Answer: Covert behaviors are those which can only be observed by the individual doing the behavior. As a result, we are entirely dependent on the individual’s report of those behaviors, and interobserver reliability measures cannot be undertaken. For these reasons, overt or public behaviors are preferred to measure and study. An important covert behavior might be depressive or anxious thoughts, or even certain private problem-solving strategies. e. Why is selecting a proper measurement system and dimension of behavior to measure important? (pp. 59‒66)

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Instructor Manual: Russell A. Powell, P. Lynne Honey and Diane G. Symbaluk, Introduction to Learning and Behavior 6e, 2023, 9780357658475; Chapter 2: Research Methods

i. Answer: If your measurement system is incorrectly chosen, you may obtain inaccurate measurements of behavior. This means that your obtained data may over- or underestimate the amount of behavior that is occurring. If an irrelevant dimension of behavior is chosen, you will not capture accurate, relevant, or reliable information about the target behavior.

2. Discussion: Research Designs ([pp. 66‒82], PPT Slide 14) a. What advantages do single-subject designs have over group designs? Why do behavioral researchers use them? i. Answers will vary. Single-subject designs require fewer individuals and do not necessarily require statistical analysis to show their effect. Single-subject designs are useful for determining the effect of an intervention on an individual and not just the “average person” in a group. Single-subject designs also assess behavior throughout an intervention, rather than at the end of the intervention, which allows one to modify the intervention if it is not having an effect. [return to top]

Additional Activities and Assignments 2. Dr. Dee Assignment a. Dear Dr. Dee, I am suspicious that my partner is having an affair with his ex. Whenever she’s in town, he texts me significantly less often. For example, between May and August, when I know for a fact that she was in town, he texted me an average of 5.8 times per day, while between September and December, when she was out of town, he texted an average of 6.4 times per day. I worked it out, and sure enough, this is a statistically significant difference! But when I confronted him with this hard evidence of his unfaithfulness, he denied it and said that I’m being paranoid.

Am I Being Paranoid?

3. Relevant Concepts a. The writer’s evidence is based on a simple comparison design that is insufficient for determining cause-and-effect relationships (pp. 70–72). There could be several other reasons for the sudden decrease in texts from her partner apart from the fact that his ex has returned to town. [return to top]

Study Tip A better approach to textbook reading, which requires more active involvement with the material, is to first read a paragraph without underlining, but instead searching for the important points in the paragraph. After finishing the paragraph, students should then go back and underline the fewest number of words and phrases needed to convey the important information, ideally while remaining somewhat readable. Another approach to textbook reading is the 3R approach (McDaniel, Howard, & Einstein, 2009), which involves three steps: 1) read a section, 2) try to recite to oneself the main points in the section, and 3) review the section, which is paying close attention to the information that one missed reciting in step 2. In all cases, students should try to find an approach that works for them.

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Instructor Manual: Russell A. Powell, P. Lynne Honey and Diane G. Symbaluk, Introduction to Learning and Behavior 6e, 2023, 9780357658475; Chapter 2: Research Methods

Additional Resources Suggested Readings Barlow, D. H., & Hersen, M. (1984). Single-case experimental designs: Strategies for studying behavior change (2nd ed.). Pergamon Press.

Kazdin, A. E. (2008). Behavior modification in applied settings (6th ed.). Brooks/Cole.

Kazdin, A. E. (2010). Single-case research designs: Methods for clinical and applied settings (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press.

Miller, L. K. (1997). Principles of everyday behavior analysis (3rd ed.). Brooks/Cole.

Mukerjee, M. (1997, February). Trends in animal research. Scientific American, 276 (2), 86–93.

Sidman, M. (1960). Tactics of scientific research: Evaluating experimental data in psychology. Basic Books.

Skinner, B. F. (1956). A case history in scientific method. American Psychologist, 11, 221–233.

Internet Resources •

APA Guidelines for Ethics in Nonhuman Animals in Research http://www.apa.org/science/leadership/care/guidelines.aspx These are the American Psychological Association guidelines for ethical conduct in the care and use of animals.

•

Animal Behavior and Welfare Laws and Practices http://grants.nih.gov/grants/olaw/olaw.htm This Web site is from the Office of Laboratory Animal Welfare, associated with the National Institutes of Health in the United States. The Web site provides links to laws and policies associated with animal research.

•

Centre for the Study of Animal Welfare https://www.uoguelph.ca/ccsaw/centre This Website is from the Campbell Centre for the Study of Animal Welfare at the University of Guelph, and it provides many links about animal welfare in Canada and more generally.

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Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee animalcare.umich.edu/institutional-animal-care-use-committee The Institutional Animal Care and Use Committees oversee animal research taking place at universities.

•

American Association for Laboratory Animal Science https://www.aalas.org/iacuc

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Instructor Manual: Russell A. Powell, P. Lynne Honey and Diane G. Symbaluk, Introduction to Learning and Behavior 6e, 2023, 9780357658475; Chapter 2: Research Methods

This site is for an organization which concerns itself with the ethical use of animals in research and ensuring quality scientific practices in fields where they are used. [return to top]

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Instructor Manual: Russell A. Powell, P. Lynne Honey and Diane G. Symbaluk, Introduction to Learning and Behavior 6e, 2023, 9780357658475; Chapter 2: Research Methods

Appendix Generic Rubrics Providing students with rubrics helps them understand expectations and components of assignments.

Rubrics help students become more aware of their learning process and progress, and they improve students’ work through timely and detailed feedback. Customize these rubrics as you wish. The writing rubric indicates 40 points and the discussion rubric indicates 30 points.

Standard Writing Rubric Criteria Content

Organization and Clarity

Research

Research

Grammar and Spelling

Criteria Content

Meets Requirements Needs Improvement The assignment clearly and The assignment partially comprehensively addresses all addresses some or all questions in the assignment. questions in the assignment.

Incomplete The assignment does not address the questions in the assignment.

15 points 8 points The assignment presents ideas The assignment presents ideas in a clear manner and with in a mostly clear manner and strong organizational structure. with a mostly strong The assignment includes an organizational structure. The appropriate introduction, assignment includes an content, and conclusion. appropriate introduction, Coverage of facts, arguments, content, and conclusion. and conclusions are logically Coverage of facts, arguments, related and consistent. and conclusions are mostly logically related and consistent.

0 points The assignment does not present ideas in a clear manner and with strong organizational structure. The assignment includes an introduction, content, and conclusion, but coverage of facts, arguments, and conclusions are not logically related and consistent.

10 points The assignment is based upon appropriate and adequate academic literature, including peer reviewed journals and other scholarly work.

7 points The assignment is based upon adequate academic literature but does not include peer reviewed journals and other scholarly work.

0 points The assignment is not based upon appropriate and adequate academic literature and does not include peer reviewed journals and other scholarly work.

5 points The assignment follows the required citation guidelines.

3 points The assignment follows some of the required citation guidelines.

0 points The assignment does not follow the required citation guidelines.

5 points 3 points The assignment has two or The assignment has three to fewer grammatical and spelling five grammatical and spelling errors. errors.

0 points The assignment is incomplete or unintelligible.

5 points 3 points Meets Requirements Needs Improvement The assignment clearly and The assignment partially comprehensively addresses all addresses some or all questions in the assignment. questions in the assignment.

0 points Incomplete The assignment does not address the questions in the assignment.

15 points Organization and Clarity

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8 points

0 points

The assignment presents ideas The assignment presents ideas The assignment does not

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Instructor Manual: Russell A. Powell, P. Lynne Honey and Diane G. Symbaluk, Introduction to Learning and Behavior 6e, 2023, 9780357658475; Chapter 2: Research Methods

in a clear manner and with in a mostly clear manner and strong organizational structure. with a mostly strong The assignment includes an organizational structure. The appropriate introduction, assignment includes an content, and conclusion. appropriate introduction, Coverage of facts, arguments, content, and conclusion. and conclusions are logically Coverage of facts, arguments, related and consistent. and conclusions are mostly logically related and consistent.

10 points Research

Research

0 points

7 points The assignment is based upon The assignment is based upon appropriate and adequate adequate academic literature academic literature, including but does not include peer peer reviewed journals and reviewed journals and other other scholarly work. scholarly work.

5 points The assignment follows the required citation guidelines.

present ideas in a clear manner and with strong organizational structure. The assignment includes an introduction, content, and conclusion, but coverage of facts, arguments, and conclusions are not logically related and consistent.

3 points The assignment follows some of the required citation guidelines.

The assignment is not based upon appropriate and adequate academic literature and does not include peer reviewed journals and other scholarly work.

0 points The assignment does not follow the required citation guidelines.

5 points Grammar and Spelling

3 points The assignment has two or The assignment has three to fewer grammatical and spelling five grammatical and spelling errors. errors.

0 points The assignment is incomplete or unintelligible.

0 points

5 points

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3 points

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Instructor Manual: Russell A. Powell, P. Lynne Honey and Diane G. Symbaluk, Introduction to Learning and Behavior 6e, 2023, 9780357658475; Chapter 3: Elicited Behaviors and Classical Conditioning

Standard Discussion Rubric Criteria Participation

Meets Requirements Submits or participates in discussion by the posted deadlines. Follows all assignment. instructions for initial post and responses.

Needs Improvement Incomplete Does not participate or submit Does not participate in discussion by the posted discussion. deadlines. Does not follow instructions for initial post and responses.

5 points 3 points Contribution Quality

Comments stay on task.

Comments add value to discussion topic. Comments motivate other students to respond.

Comments may not stay on task. Comments may not add value to discussion topic.

Comments may not motivate other students to respond.

0 points Does not participate in discussion.

10 points Etiquette

Criteria Participation

20 points Maintains appropriate language. Offers criticism in a constructive manner. Provides both positive and negative feedback.

0 points Does not always maintain Does not participate in appropriate language. Offers discussion. criticism in an offensive manner. Provides only negative feedback.

5 points Meets Requirements Submits or participates in discussion by the posted deadlines. Follows all assignment. instructions for initial post and responses.

3 points 0 points Needs Improvement Incomplete Does not participate or submit Does not participate in discussion by the posted discussion. deadlines. Does not follow instructions for initial post and responses.

5 points Contribution Quality

Comments stay on task.

Comments add value to discussion topic. Comments motivate other students to respond.

3 points Comments may not stay on task. Comments may not add value to discussion topic.

Comments may not motivate other students to respond.

0 points Does not participate in discussion.

10 points Etiquette

0 points

20 points Maintains appropriate language. Offers criticism in a constructive manner. Provides both positive and negative feedback.

Does not always maintain Does not participate in appropriate language. Offers discussion. criticism in an offensive manner. Provides only negative feedback.

5 points

3 points

0 points

Instructor Manual Russell A. Powell, P. Lynne Honey and Diane G. Symbaluk, Introduction to Learning and Behavior 6e, 2023, 9780357658475; Chapter 3: Elicited Behaviors and Classical Conditioning

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Instructor Manual: Russell A. Powell, P. Lynne Honey and Diane G. Symbaluk, Introduction to Learning and Behavior 6e, 2023, 9780357658475; Chapter 3: Elicited Behaviors and Classical Conditioning

Table of Contents Purpose and Perspective of the Chapter ................................................................................................. 25 Cengage Supplements ............................................................................................................................. 25 Chapter Objectives .................................................................................................................................. 25 Key Terms ................................................................................................................................................ 25 What's New in This Chapter..................................................................................................................... 27 Chapter Outline ....................................................................................................................................... 27 Discussion Questions ............................................................................................................................... 28 Additional Activities and Assignments ..................................................................................................... 28 Study Tip .................................................................................................................................................. 28 Additional Resources ............................................................................................................................... 29 Suggested Readings ............................................................................................................................. 29 Internet Resources .............................................................................................................................. 29 Appendix.................................................................................................................................................. 30 Generic Rubrics ................................................................................................................................... 30 Standard Writing Rubric ...................................................................................................................... 31 Standard Discussion Rubric ................................................................................................................. 33

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Instructor Manual: Russell A. Powell, P. Lynne Honey and Diane G. Symbaluk, Introduction to Learning and Behavior 6e, 2023, 9780357658475; Chapter 3: Elicited Behaviors and Classical Conditioning

Purpose and Perspective of the Chapter The third chapter of the text provides detailed accounts of elicited behavior and respondent conditioning procedures, otherwise known as classical conditioning. Elicited behavior, how it develops and how it interacts with operant behavior, is important to understand.

Cengage Supplements The following product-level supplements provide additional information that may help you in preparing your course. They are available in the Instructor Resource Center.

• • • •

Transition Guide (provides information about what’s new from edition to edition) Instructor Manual (contains outlines, suggested activities, and resources for instructor use in the course) PowerPoint (provides text and image-based lectures with active learning activities) Test Bank (contains multiple-choice assessment questions and sample essay questions)

Chapter Objectives The following objectives are addressed in this chapter: 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7

Define elicited behavior and provide examples of several common types.

Distinguish between habituation and sensitization, including the contexts that typically facilitate them.

Use the opponent-process theory of emotion to explain reactions to extreme events.

Explain the process of classical conditioning, using examples.

Distinguish between appetitive and aversive conditioning, including the personal nature of whether a stimulus is appetitive or aversive.

Distinguish between excitatory and inhibitory conditioning.

Explain how the temporal order of stimuli results in different strengths of conditioning.

Key Terms Appetitive conditioning: conditioning procedure in which the US is an appetitive event (one that an organism approaches or seeks out) Aversive conditioning: conditioning procedure in which the US is an aversive event (one that an organism avoids) Backward conditioning: conditioning procedure in which the onset of the NS follows the onset of the US Classical conditioning: a process whereby a stimulus comes to elicit a response because it has been paired with (or associated with) another stimulus; also known as Pavlovian conditioning or respondent conditioning Conditioned response (CR): the response, often similar to the unconditioned response, that is elicited by the conditioned stimulus Conditioned stimulus (CS): any stimulus that, although initially neutral, comes to elicit a response because it has been associated with (paired with) an unconditioned stimulus Delayed conditioning: conditioning procedure in which the onset of the NS precedes the onset of the US, and the two stimuli overlap

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Instructor Manual: Russell A. Powell, P. Lynne Honey and Diane G. Symbaluk, Introduction to Learning and Behavior 6e, 2023, 9780357658475; Chapter 3: Elicited Behaviors and Classical Conditioning

Dishabituation: the reappearance (or recovery) of a habituated response to a stimulus following the presentation of another, seemingly irrelevant novel stimulus Elicited behavior: behavior that is drawn out (elicited) by a preceding stimulus; also known as respondent behavior Excitatory conditioning: conditioning procedure in which a stimulus is associated with the presentation of a US and therefore, as a CS, comes to elicit a response Fixed action pattern: a fixed sequence of responses elicited by a specific stimulus Flexion response: the automatic response of jerking one’s hand or foot away from a hot or sharp object Habituation: a decrease in the strength of an elicited response following repeated presentations of a stimulus that naturally (without prior learning) elicits that response Inhibitory conditioning: conditioning procedure in which a stimulus is associated with the absence or removal of a US and therefore, as a CS, comes to inhibit the occurrence a response (meaning that the response is less likely to occur when the CS is present than when it is absent) Opponent-process theory: a theory proposing that an emotional event elicits two competing processes: (1) an a-process (or primary process) that is directly elicited by the event, and (2) a b-process (or opponent process) that is elicited by the a-process and serves to counteract the a-process Orienting response: the automatic positioning of oneself to facilitate attending to a stimulus Pseudoconditioning: false conditioning in which an elicited response that appears to be a CR is actually the result of sensitization rather than conditioning.

Reflex: a relatively simple, involuntary response to a stimulus Reflex arc: a neural structure that underlies many simple reflexes and consists of a sensory neuron, an interneuron, and a motor neuron, in that order Sensitization: an increase in the strength of an elicited response following repeated presentations of the stimulus that naturally (without prior learning) elicits that response Sign stimulus (or releaser): a specific stimulus that elicits a fixed action pattern Simultaneous conditioning: conditioning procedure in which the onset of the NS and the onset of the US are simultaneous Startle response: a defensive reaction to a sudden, unexpected stimulus, which involves the automatic tightening of skeletal muscles and various hormonal and visceral changes Temporal conditioning: a form of classical conditioning in which the CS is the passage of time Trace conditioning: conditioning procedure in which the onset and offset of the NS precede the onset of the US Unconditioned response (UR): the response that is naturally (without prior learning) elicited by the unconditioned stimulus Unconditioned stimulus (US): a stimulus that naturally (without prior learning) elicits a response [return to top]

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Instructor Manual: Russell A. Powell, P. Lynne Honey and Diane G. Symbaluk, Introduction to Learning and Behavior 6e, 2023, 9780357658475; Chapter 3: Elicited Behaviors and Classical Conditioning

What's New in This Chapter The following elements are improvements in this chapter from the previous edition: •

• •

The section on habituation and sensitization now mentions that these processes can also be dependent on temperament as well as prior learning and the context within which the stimuli are being presented (e.g., the sound of a gunshot at a shooting range versus a battlefield).

The introductory section on classical conditioning now mentions the distinction between nonassociative and associative learning.

In the section on appetitive versus aversive conditioning, the example of conditioning of sexual arousal to the sight of knee-length boots is followed by a brief description of a later study in which sexual arousal was conditioned to be elicited by a jar of pennies.

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Chapter Outline In the following outline, each element includes references (in parentheses) to related content. "CH.##” refers to the chapter objective; “PPT Slide #” refers to the slide number in the PowerPoint deck for this chapter (provided in the PowerPoints section of the Instructor Resource Center). Introduce the chapter and use the icebreaker in the PPT if desired, and if one is provided for this chapter. Review learning objectives for Chapter 3 (PPT Slide 2-3).

VII.

VIII.

IX.

X.

Explanation of Opening Scenario (3.1, PPT Slide 10) a. This scenario is explainable in terms of the opponent-process theory of emotion that is discussed in this chapter. Strong feelings of anger could, when the cause of the anger is removed, be followed by a tendency toward the opposite emotion, namely, affection. This pattern would be similar to what is often reported in abusive relationships, in which episodes of abuse are followed by a “honeymoon period” in which the two partners experience strong feelings of attraction toward each other. This scenario represents a less intense version of the same process.

Elicited Behaviors (3.1, PPT Slide 5) a. Elicited behaviors, or respondent behaviors, are those which are drawn out or directly controlled by antecedent stimuli. (Slide 5-6) b. Fixed action patterns refer to more complex sequences of behavior elicited by releasers.

(Slide 7) Simple Mechanisms of Learning (3.2, PPT Slide 8) a. Various forms of habituation are compared and contrasted. (Slide 8) b. Sensitization refers to a process opposite in effect from habituation. These two processes are compared. (Slide 9) c. One theory of emotion, the opponent-process theory, is described and how it may account for elicited emotional responses. (Slide 10) d. [Discussion] Activity: 10 minutes total. Opponent Process Theory of Emotion. (Slide 11) e. Examples of a-processes and b-processes of the theory are highlighted. (Slide 12-14) Classical Conditioning (3.3, PPT Slide 15) a. Key terms in classical conditioning are defined with respect to Pavlov’s original experiment.

(Slide 15) b. Diagrams of classical conditioning procedures are provided. Students should attempt to draw their own real-world examples of classical conditioning. (Slide 16)

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Instructor Manual: Russell A. Powell, P. Lynne Honey and Diane G. Symbaluk, Introduction to Learning and Behavior 6e, 2023, 9780357658475; Chapter 3: Elicited Behaviors and Classical Conditioning

c. Appetitive and aversive conditioning procedures are compared. Appetitive stimuli are those that organisms regularly seek out, while aversive stimuli are avoided. (Slide 17-18) d. Temporal and excitatory conditioning are described as more specific types of conditioning.

(Slide 19-20) e. How stimuli and events are arranged temporally determines how effective the conditioning procedures will be. How temporal contiguity affects conditioning is considered. (Slide 21) f. Pseudoconditioning is discussed as a similar in appearance event that is different from actual conditioning. (Slide 22) [return to top]

Discussion Questions You can assign these questions several ways: in a discussion forum in your LMS; as whole-class discussions in person; or as a partner or group activity in class.

3. Discussion: Habituation ([p. 99], 3.2, PPT Slide 8-9) f. What would happen if a US was repeatedly administered? What is this process called and what value might it have? g. Using the opponent-process theory of emotion, how might you describe the “honeymoon” period in an abusive relationship? h. How does temporal contiguity relate to conditioning procedures? Which of the possible procedures would be the most effective? [return to top]

Additional Activities and Assignments 4. Dr. Dee Assignment: a. Dear Dr. Dee, Several months ago I broke up with my boyfriend when he took a job in another city. We were together five years, and it had turned into a pretty monotonous relationship by the time it ended. But it is definitely taking me a long time to get over it. A friend tells me that I must have some kind of “unresolved dependency issue” to be this depressed. She recently broke up with her boyfriend—she went out with him for only a month but claims that she was madly in love—and got over it in a week. Is there something wrong with me, or is my friend just superficial?

Still Depressed 5. Relevant Concepts a. Opponent processes could conceivably be involved in this case. With repeated exposure to an emotional event, the counter-reaction (b-process) that is elicited by the primary emotional response (the a-process) will strengthen and thereby reduce the effect of the aprocess (because net experience = a-process – b-process). (pp. 102–108, 109) [return to top]

Study Tip It is important to note that the effectiveness of spaced (or distributed) learning trials over massed learning trials—which has come to be known as the spacing effect—applies to most learning situations, not just classical conditioning. In fact, in a recent review of effective study techniques, the only

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Instructor Manual: Russell A. Powell, P. Lynne Honey and Diane G. Symbaluk, Introduction to Learning and Behavior 6e, 2023, 9780357658475; Chapter 3: Elicited Behaviors and Classical Conditioning

techniques found to have high levels of empirical support were self-testing (as in the 3R method of studying) and distributed practice (Dunlosky et al., 2013). This also means that regularly reviewing older material as one proceeds through this course—such as regularly testing one’s recall for earlier material or redoing earlier practice tests—could significantly boost one’s overall performance in the course.

Additional Resources Suggested Readings Domjan, M. (2003). The principles of learning and behavior (7th ed.). Wadsworth.

Estes, W. K., & Skinner, B. F. (1941). Some quantitative properties of anxiety. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 29, 390–400.

Lieberman, D. A. (2000). Learning: Behavior and cognition (3rd ed.). Wadsworth.

Pavlov, I. P. (1927). Conditioned reflexes (G. V. Anrep, Trans.). Oxford University Press.

Solomon, R. L. (1980). The opponent-process theory of acquired motivation: The costs of pleasure and the benefits of pain. American Psychologist, 35, 691–712.

Windholz, G. (1997). Ivan P. Pavlov: An overview of his life and psychological work. American Psychologist, 52, 941–946.

Internet Resources •

Video Clip of a Fixed Action Pattern http://www.pigeon.psy.tufts.edu/psych26/fap.htm This video illustrates egg retrieval by a goose, which is a fixed action pattern elicited whenever an egg-shaped object is seen outside the nest. Follow the links to find further information about research into fixed action patterns.

•

Video Clip of the Process of Habituation http://www.owu.edu/~deswartz/procedures/habituation.html Follow this link to see a video clip of a rat demonstrating habituation of a startle reflex to a loud noise. (The clip is from Dale Swartzentruber’s online collection of videos on animal learning.)

•

Video Clip of the Process of Dishabituation http://www.owu.edu/~deswartz/procedures/dishabituation.html In this video clip, one can see an example of dishabituation through the presentation of a different sound. (The clip is from Dale Swartzentruber’s online collection of videos on animal learning.)

•

Video Clip of a Conditioned Suppression Procedure http://www.owu.edu/~deswartz/procedures/conditioned_suppression.html This video clip is an illustration of a conditioned suppression procedure in a rat. (The clip is from Dale Swartzentruber’s online collection of videos on animal learning.)

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Instructor Manual: Russell A. Powell, P. Lynne Honey and Diane G. Symbaluk, Introduction to Learning and Behavior 6e, 2023, 9780357658475; Chapter 3: Elicited Behaviors and Classical Conditioning

•

The Method of Pawlow [Pavlov] in Animal Psychology by Robert M. Yerkes and Sergius Morgulis (1909) http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Yerkes/pavlov.htm One of the first articles published in English on Pavlov’s investigations into classical conditioning.

(From York University, Classics in the History of Psychology.)

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Appendix Generic Rubrics Providing students with rubrics helps them understand expectations and components of assignments.

Rubrics help students become more aware of their learning process and progress, and they improve students’ work through timely and detailed feedback. Customize these rubrics as you wish. The writing rubric indicates 40 points and the discussion rubric indicates 30 points.

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Instructor Manual: Russell A. Powell, P. Lynne Honey and Diane G. Symbaluk, Introduction to Learning and Behavior 6e, 2023, 9780357658475; Chapter 3: Elicited Behaviors and Classical Conditioning

Standard Writing Rubric Criteria Content

Organization and Clarity

Research

Research

Grammar and Spelling

Criteria Content

Organization and Clarity

website, in whole or in part.

Meets Requirements Needs Improvement The assignment clearly and The assignment partially comprehensively addresses all addresses some or all questions in the assignment. questions in the assignment.

Incomplete The assignment does not address the questions in the assignment.

15 points 8 points The assignment presents ideas The assignment presents ideas in a clear manner and with in a mostly clear manner and strong organizational structure. with a mostly strong The assignment includes an organizational structure. The appropriate introduction, assignment includes an content, and conclusion. appropriate introduction, Coverage of facts, arguments, content, and conclusion. and conclusions are logically Coverage of facts, arguments, related and consistent. and conclusions are mostly logically related and consistent.

0 points The assignment does not present ideas in a clear manner and with strong organizational structure. The assignment includes an introduction, content, and conclusion, but coverage of facts, arguments, and conclusions are not logically related and consistent.

10 points The assignment is based upon appropriate and adequate academic literature, including peer reviewed journals and other scholarly work.

7 points The assignment is based upon adequate academic literature but does not include peer reviewed journals and other scholarly work.

0 points The assignment is not based upon appropriate and adequate academic literature and does not include peer reviewed journals and other scholarly work.

5 points The assignment follows the required citation guidelines.

3 points The assignment follows some of the required citation guidelines.

0 points The assignment does not follow the required citation guidelines.

5 points 3 points The assignment has two or The assignment has three to fewer grammatical and spelling five grammatical and spelling errors. errors.

0 points The assignment is incomplete or unintelligible.

5 points Meets Requirements The assignment clearly and comprehensively addresses all questions in the assignment.

3 points Needs Improvement The assignment partially addresses some or all questions in the assignment.

0 points Incomplete The assignment does not address the questions in the assignment.

15 points

8 points

The assignment presents ideas The assignment presents ideas in a clear manner and with in a mostly clear manner and strong organizational structure. with a mostly strong The assignment includes an organizational structure. The appropriate introduction, assignment includes an content, and conclusion. appropriate introduction, Coverage of facts, arguments, content, and conclusion. and conclusions are logically Coverage of facts, arguments, related and consistent. and conclusions are mostly

0 points The assignment does not present ideas in a clear manner and with strong organizational structure. The assignment includes an introduction, content, and conclusion, but coverage of facts, arguments, and conclusions are not logically related and

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Instructor Manual: Russell A. Powell, P. Lynne Honey and Diane G. Symbaluk, Introduction to Learning and Behavior 6e, 2023, 9780357658475; Chapter 3: Elicited Behaviors and Classical Conditioning

logically related and consistent.

10 points Research

Research

The assignment is based upon appropriate and adequate academic literature, including peer reviewed journals and other scholarly work.

5 points The assignment follows the required citation guidelines.

consistent.

0 points

7 points The assignment is based upon adequate academic literature but does not include peer reviewed journals and other scholarly work.

3 points The assignment follows some of the required citation guidelines.

The assignment is not based upon appropriate and adequate academic literature and does not include peer reviewed journals and other scholarly work.

0 points The assignment does not follow the required citation guidelines.

5 points Grammar and Spelling

3 points The assignment has two or The assignment has three to fewer grammatical and spelling five grammatical and spelling errors. errors.

0 points The assignment is incomplete or unintelligible.

0 points

5 points

website, in whole or in part.

3 points

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Instructor Manual: Russell A. Powell, P. Lynne Honey and Diane G. Symbaluk, Introduction to Learning and Behavior 6e, 2023, 9780357658475; Chapter 3: Elicited Behaviors and Classical Conditioning

Standard Discussion Rubric Criteria Participation

Meets Requirements Submits or participates in discussion by the posted deadlines. Follows all assignment. instructions for initial post and responses.

Needs Improvement Incomplete Does not participate or submit Does not participate in discussion by the posted discussion. deadlines. Does not follow instructions for initial post and responses.

5 points 3 points Contribution Quality

Comments stay on task.

Comments add value to discussion topic. Comments motivate other students to respond.

Comments may not stay on task. Comments may not add value to discussion topic.

Comments may not motivate other students to respond.

0 points Does not participate in discussion.

10 points Etiquette

Criteria Participation

20 points Maintains appropriate language. Offers criticism in a constructive manner. Provides both positive and negative feedback.

0 points Does not always maintain Does not participate in appropriate language. Offers discussion. criticism in an offensive manner. Provides only negative feedback.

5 points Meets Requirements Submits or participates in discussion by the posted deadlines. Follows all assignment. instructions for initial post and responses.

3 points 0 points Needs Improvement Incomplete Does not participate or submit Does not participate in discussion by the posted discussion. deadlines. Does not follow instructions for initial post and responses.

5 points Contribution Quality

Comments stay on task.

Comments add value to discussion topic. Comments motivate other students to respond.

3 points Comments may not stay on task. Comments may not add value to discussion topic.

Comments may not motivate other students to respond.

0 points Does not participate in discussion.

10 points Etiquette

website, in whole or in part.

0 points

20 points Maintains appropriate language. Offers criticism in a constructive manner. Provides both positive and negative feedback.

Does not always maintain Does not participate in appropriate language. Offers discussion. criticism in an offensive manner. Provides only negative feedback.

5 points

3 points

0 points

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Instructor Manual: Russell A. Powell, P. Lynne Honey and Diane G. Symbaluk, Introduction to Learning and Behavior, 6e, 2023, 9780357658475; Chapter 4: Classical Conditioning: Basic Phenomena and Various Complexities

Instructor Manual Russell A. Powell, P. Lynne Honey and Diane G. Symbaluk, Introduction to Learning and Behavior, 6e, 2023, 9780357658475; Chapter 4: Classical Conditioning: Basic Phenomena and Various Complexities

Table of Contents Purpose and Perspective of the Chapter ................................................................................................. 35 Cengage Supplements ............................................................................................................................. 35 Chapter Objectives .................................................................................................................................. 35 Key Terms ................................................................................................................................................ 35 What's New in This Chapter..................................................................................................................... 36 Chapter Outline ....................................................................................................................................... 36 Discussion Questions ............................................................................................................................... 37 Additional Activities and Assignments ..................................................................................................... 38 Study Tip .................................................................................................................................................. 38 Additional Resources ............................................................................................................................... 39 Suggested Readings ............................................................................................................................. 39 Internet Resources .............................................................................................................................. 39 Appendix.................................................................................................................................................. 40 Generic Rubrics ................................................................................................................................... 40 Standard Writing Rubric ...................................................................................................................... 41 Standard Discussion Rubric ................................................................................................................. 42

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Instructor Manual: Russell A. Powell, P. Lynne Honey and Diane G. Symbaluk, Introduction to Learning and Behavior, 6e, 2023, 9780357658475; Chapter 4: Classical Conditioning: Basic Phenomena and Various Complexities

Purpose and Perspective of the Chapter This chapter is aimed to orient students to the principles of classical conditioning, and the modification of respondent (elicited) behavior. Respondent behavior is one of the most common types of behavior seen across all types of organisms from planaria and sea sponges to dogs and humans. The types of responses as well as the stimuli that elicit them will be discussed along with examples.

Cengage Supplements The following product-level supplements provide additional information that may help you in preparing your course. They are available in the Instructor Resource Center.

• • • •

Transition Guide (provides information about what’s new from edition to edition) Instructor Manual (contains outlines, suggested activities, and resources for instructor use in the course) PowerPoint (provides text and image-based lectures with active learning activities) Test Bank (contains multiple-choice assessment questions and sample essay questions)

Chapter Objectives The following objectives are addressed in this chapter: 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6

Describe learning acquisition and extinction, including response patterns associated with each.

Identify factors that influence the likelihood of acquisition or extinction.

Distinguish between generalization and discrimination, including factors that influence which is more likely to occur.

Define and distinguish among the extensions of classical conditioning.

Define and distinguish among the examples of specificity in classical conditioning.

Using examples from this chapter, describe how context and prior learning influence current learning situations.

Key Terms Acquisition: the process of developing and strengthening a conditioned response through repeated pairings of an NS with a US Asymptote of conditioning: the maximum amount of conditioning that can take place in a particular situation Blocking: the phenomenon whereby the presence of an established CS during conditioning interferes with conditioning of a new CS Compound stimulus: a complex stimulus that consists of the simultaneous presentation of two or more individual stimuli Disinhibition: the sudden recovery of a conditioned response during an extinction procedure when a novel stimulus is introduced Experimental neurosis: an experimentally produced disorder in which animals exposed to unpredictable events develop neurotic-like symptoms

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Instructor Manual: Russell A. Powell, P. Lynne Honey and Diane G. Symbaluk, Introduction to Learning and Behavior, 6e, 2023, 9780357658475; Chapter 4: Classical Conditioning: Basic Phenomena and Various Complexities

Extinction: in classical conditioning, the process whereby a CR can be weakened or eliminated when the CS is repeatedly presented in the absence of the US; also, the procedure whereby this happens, namely, repeatedly presenting the CS in the absence of the US Higher-order conditioning: the process whereby an NS that is associated with a CS (rather than a US) also becomes a CS Latent inhibition: the phenomenon whereby a familiar stimulus is more difficult to condition as a CS than is an unfamiliar (novel) stimulus Occasion setting: a procedure in which a stimulus (known as an occasion setter) signals whether a stimulus is likely to be followed by a US and thereby determines whether that stimulus will act as a CS that elicits a CR Overshadowing: the phenomenon whereby the more salient member of a compound stimulus is more readily conditioned as a CS and thereby interferes with conditioning of the less salient member Semantic generalization: the generalization of a conditioned response to verbal stimuli that are similar in meaning to the CS Sensory preconditioning: when one stimulus is conditioned as a CS, another stimulus with which it was previously associated can also become a CS Spontaneous recovery: the reappearance of a conditioned response to a CS following a rest period after extinction Stimulus discrimination: the tendency for a response to be elicited more by one stimulus than another Stimulus generalization: the tendency for a CR to occur in the presence of a stimulus that is similar to the CS US revaluation: a process that involves the postconditioning presentation of the US by itself at a different level of intensity, thereby altering the strength of response to the previously conditioned CS [return to top]

What's New in This Chapter The following elements are improvements in this chapter from the previous edition: • • • •

Updated Internet resources Hypothetical applications to prompt student understanding Improved supplemental test bank questions Updated supplemental PowerPoint slides with related student activities

[return to top]

Chapter Outline In the following outline, each element includes references (in parentheses) to related content. "CH.##” refers to the chapter objective; “PPT Slide #” refers to the slide number in the PowerPoint deck for this chapter (provided in the PowerPoints section of the Instructor Resource Center). Introduce the chapter and use the icebreaker in the PPT if desired, and if one is provided for this chapter. Review learning objectives for Chapter 4 (PPT Slide 3).

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Instructor Manual: Russell A. Powell, P. Lynne Honey and Diane G. Symbaluk, Introduction to Learning and Behavior, 6e, 2023, 9780357658475; Chapter 4: Classical Conditioning: Basic Phenomena and Various Complexities

I.

Explanation of Opening Scenario (4.1, PPT Slide 1) a. The point here is that too much unpredictability can be stressful, even when the unpredictable event is something that is usually pleasant. This is congruent with Pavlov’s experimental neurosis paradigm (pp. 140–141). b. Students are prompted to consider some of the physiological responses they experience and how they might be related to classical conditioning. (Slide 2) c. The learning objectives provide students with key points and competencies they should attend to and learn throughout the chapter. (Slide 3)

II. Some Basic Conditioning Phenomena (4.1–4.3, PPT Slide 5) a. Acquisition describes the early development of the conditioned responses, where a neutral stimulus is paired with an unconditioned stimulus. (Slide 5) b. [Knowledge Check] Activity: 5 minutes total. (Slide 6) i. Students are asked to compare different stimuli and assess which they think would be most susceptible to conditioning, solidifying the previous concept regarding the relationship between intensity of stimuli and conditioning. c. Extinction occurs when the CS is no longer paired with the US. (Slide 7) d. Spontaneous recovery may occur if the stimuli are ever paired again. The response will reappear much more quickly than it originally took to develop. (Slide 8) e. Stimulus generalization describes the likelihood for similar stimuli to elicit similar responses to those in conditioning trials. (Slide 9) f. Stimulus discrimination occurs when differential responding occurs to different stimuli.

(Slide 10-11) g. [Concept Check] Activity: 5 minutes total. i. Two examples, applied and experimental, are provided of stimulus generalization and stimulus discrimination. (Slide 12) III. Three Extensions to Classical Conditioning (4.4, PPT Slide 13) a. Higher-order conditioning and sensory preconditioning are discussed. (Slide 13) b. Sensory preconditioning is when the effects carry over to stimuli the organism has already encountered. A diagram is provided. (Slides 14-15) c. Changing the intensity of the US after conditioning has occurred may alter the strength of the CR to the previously conditioned CS. (Slide 16).

IV. Four Examples of Specificity in Classical Conditioning (4.5–4.6, PPT Slide 17) a. Compound stimuli produce different conditioning effects such as overshadowing. (Slide 17) b. The presence of a previously conditioned CS may block the effects when involved in a conditioning procedure. (Slide 18) c. When a CS elicits a CR only within a certain context, an instance of occasion setting has occurred. (Slide 19) d. Novel stimuli are more susceptible to conditioning effects than familiar stimuli. (Slide 20) [return to top]

Discussion Questions You can assign these questions several ways: in a discussion forum in your LMS; as whole-class discussions in person; or as a partner or group activity in class.

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Instructor Manual: Russell A. Powell, P. Lynne Honey and Diane G. Symbaluk, Introduction to Learning and Behavior, 6e, 2023, 9780357658475; Chapter 4: Classical Conditioning: Basic Phenomena and Various Complexities

4. Discussion: Conditioning Effects ([pp. 134–146], 4.1, PPT Slide 17-20) i. Different stimuli undergo conditioning more rapidly or are more susceptible to conditioning depending on different stimulus aspects. Imagine you were in a novel office room that did not look like any previous offices and contained a collection of items. Some of the items are familiar to you, some are new and odd looking, some are very bright or loud, and others are pale and quiet. If a very aversive and distressing earthquake were to occur, what items or aspects of the environment would be most likely or strongly associated with the US of the earthquake? i. Answers will vary but students should cite one or more principles in their answer.

Familiar stimuli and stimuli that are less intense would be less likely to become CSs. The office and its location as a whole may be associated as novel stimuli are more likely to undergo acquisition, because of latent inhibition. Overshadowing would explain why less intense stimuli would not become CSs. j. What if one of the stimuli that became conditioned from the aversive earthquake event was then paired with a neutral or novel sound? What is this called, and how strong would the effect be? i. Answer: This would be second-order conditioning, where a conditioned stimulus is used to condition another neutral stimulus. The effect will be less strong than if the conditioning had been conducted with an unconditioned stimulus. Any additional conditioned stimuli added on will produce reduced effects. [return to top]

Additional Activities and Assignments 6. Dr. Dee Assignment: a. Dear Dr. Dee, I have two friends who I think would have a wonderful relationship, if only they would think of each other in a romantic way. We all grew up together, so they know each other very well.

They complete each other’s sentences, they like the same things, and they’re both very attractive. I’ve mentioned this to each of them, separately, but they laughed at me. They both said that they think of the other like family and couldn’t imagine dating! Why won’t they realize that they’re perfect for each other?

Frustrated Matchmaker 7. Relevant Concepts a. With reference to the phenomenon of latent inhibition (p. 158), a person with whom one grew up would be an extremely familiar stimulus, and it would, therefore, be difficult for them to become associated with emerging feelings of sexual attraction in adolescence or adulthood. [return to top]

Study Tip People study best in environments that have minimal distractions, including music (Chamorro-Premuzic, Swami, Terrado, & Furnham, 2009). As with self-management in general, the key is to discover what works best for oneself. Students can use the experimental methods described in Chapter 2 to assess

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Instructor Manual: Russell A. Powell, P. Lynne Honey and Diane G. Symbaluk, Introduction to Learning and Behavior, 6e, 2023, 9780357658475; Chapter 4: Classical Conditioning: Basic Phenomena and Various Complexities

what works best for them as individuals.

Additional Resources Suggested Readings Domjan, M. (2003). The principles of learning and behavior (5th ed.). Wadsworth.

Eysenck, H. J. (1967). The biological basis of personality. Charles C. Thomas.

Lieberman, D. A. (2000). Learning: Behavior and cognition (3rd ed.). Wadsworth.

Lubow, R. E., & Gewirtz, J. C. (1995). Latent inhibition in humans: Data, theory, and implications for schizophrenia. Psychological Bulletin, 117(1), 87–103.

Pavlov, I. P. (1927). Conditioned reflexes (G. V. Anrep, Trans.). Oxford University Press.

Internet Resources •

“Conditioned Reflexes: An Investigation of the Physiological Activity of the Cerebral Cortex” by Ivan P. Pavlov (1927) http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Pavlov A series of lectures by Pavlov describing his research findings in classical conditioning. (From York University, Classics in the History of Psychology)

[return to top]

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Instructor Manual: Russell A. Powell, P. Lynne Honey and Diane G. Symbaluk, Introduction to Learning and Behavior, 6e, 2023, 9780357658475; Chapter 4: Classical Conditioning: Basic Phenomena and Various Complexities

Appendix Generic Rubrics Providing students with rubrics helps them understand expectations and components of assignments.

Rubrics help students become more aware of their learning process and progress, and they improve students’ work through timely and detailed feedback. Customize these rubrics as you wish. The writing rubric indicates 40 points and the discussion rubric indicates 30 points.

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Instructor Manual: Russell A. Powell, P. Lynne Honey and Diane G. Symbaluk, Introduction to Learning and Behavior, 6e, 2023, 9780357658475; Chapter 4: Classical Conditioning: Basic Phenomena and Various Complexities

Standard Writing Rubric Criteria Content

Meets Requirements Needs Improvement The assignment clearly and The assignment partially comprehensively addresses all addresses some or all questions in the assignment. questions in the assignment.

15 points

Organization and Clarity

Research

Research

8 points

The assignment presents ideas The assignment presents ideas in a clear manner and with in a mostly clear manner and strong organizational structure. with a mostly strong The assignment includes an organizational structure. The appropriate introduction, assignment includes an content, and conclusion. appropriate introduction, Coverage of facts, arguments, content, and conclusion. and conclusions are logically Coverage of facts, arguments, related and consistent. and conclusions are mostly logically related and consistent.

10 points 7 points The assignment is based upon The assignment is based upon appropriate and adequate adequate academic literature academic literature, including but does not include peer peer reviewed journals and reviewed journals and other other scholarly work. scholarly work.

5 points The assignment follows the required citation guidelines.

Incomplete The assignment does not address the questions in the assignment.

3 points The assignment follows some of the required citation guidelines.

0 points The assignment does not present ideas in a clear manner and with strong organizational structure. The assignment includes an introduction, content, and conclusion, but coverage of facts, arguments, and conclusions are not logically related and consistent.

0 points The assignment is not based upon appropriate and adequate academic literature and does not include peer reviewed journals and other scholarly work.

0 points The assignment does not follow the required citation guidelines.

5 points Grammar and Spelling

3 points The assignment has two or The assignment has three to fewer grammatical and spelling five grammatical and spelling errors. errors.

0 points The assignment is incomplete or unintelligible.

0 points

5 points

website, in whole or in part.

3 points

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Instructor Manual: Russell A. Powell, P. Lynne Honey and Diane G. Symbaluk, Introduction to Learning and Behavior 6e, 2023, 9780357658475; Chapter 5: Classical Conditioning: Underlying Processes and Practical Applications

Standard Discussion Rubric Criteria Participation

Meets Requirements Submits or participates in discussion by the posted deadlines. Follows all assignment. instructions for initial post and responses.

Needs Improvement Incomplete Does not participate or submit Does not participate in discussion by the posted discussion. deadlines. Does not follow instructions for initial post and responses.

5 points 3 points Contribution Quality

Comments stay on task.

Comments add value to discussion topic. Comments motivate other students to respond.

Comments may not stay on task. Comments may not add value to discussion topic.

Comments may not motivate other students to respond.

0 points Does not participate in discussion.

10 points Etiquette

20 points Maintains appropriate language. Offers criticism in a constructive manner. Provides both positive and negative feedback.

5 points

0 points Does not always maintain Does not participate in appropriate language. Offers discussion. criticism in an offensive manner. Provides only negative feedback.

3 points

0 points

Instructor Manual Russell A. Powell, P. Lynne Honey and Diane G. Symbaluk, Introduction to Learning and Behavior 6e, 2023, 9780357658475; Chapter 5: Classical Conditioning: Underlying Processes and Practical Applications

Table of Contents Purpose and Perspective of the Chapter ................................................................................................. 44 Cengage Supplements ............................................................................................................................. 44 Chapter Objectives .................................................................................................................................. 44 Key Terms ................................................................................................................................................ 44 What's New in This Chapter..................................................................................................................... 45 Chapter Outline ....................................................................................................................................... 45 Discussion Questions ............................................................................................................................... 47 Additional Activities and Assignments ..................................................................................................... 47 Study Tip .................................................................................................................................................. 48 Additional Resources ............................................................................................................................... 48

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Instructor Manual: Russell A. Powell, P. Lynne Honey and Diane G. Symbaluk, Introduction to Learning and Behavior 6e, 2023, 9780357658475; Chapter 5: Classical Conditioning: Underlying Processes and Practical Applications

Suggested Readings ............................................................................................................................. 48 Internet Resources .............................................................................................................................. 49 Appendix.................................................................................................................................................. 50 Generic Rubrics ................................................................................................................................... 50 Standard Writing Rubric ...................................................................................................................... 51 Standard Discussion Rubric ................................................................................................................. 52

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Instructor Manual: Russell A. Powell, P. Lynne Honey and Diane G. Symbaluk, Introduction to Learning and Behavior 6e, 2023, 9780357658475; Chapter 5: Classical Conditioning: Underlying Processes and Practical Applications

Purpose and Perspective of the Chapter This chapter provides an overview of several theories of underlying processes of classical (or respondent) conditioning. Different levels of evidence exist to support each of the theories. Additionally, applications of classical conditioning such as in the treatment of phobias is discussed.

Cengage Supplements The following product-level supplements provide additional information that may help you in preparing your course. They are available in the Instructor Resource Center.

• • • •

Transition Guide (provides information about what’s new from edition to edition) Instructor Manual (contains outlines, suggested activities, and resources for instructor use in the course) PowerPoint (provides text and image-based lectures with active learning activities) Test Bank (contains multiple-choice assessment questions and essay problems)

Chapter Objectives The following objectives are addressed in this chapter: 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7

Distinguish between stimulus-substitution theory and preparatory response theory, including empirical support for each.

Describe the compensatory-response model of conditioning and its application to drug tolerance and overdose.

Describe the Rescorla–Wagner theory of conditioning, including how that theory accounts for phenomena like overshadowing and blocking.

Describe and diagram various ways that fears and phobias can be acquired through conditioning.

Explain the role of temperament, preparedness, and prior experiences in fear conditioning.

Distinguish among various methods to reduce fear or treat phobias.

Describe aversive conditioning treatment procedures as well as medical applications of classical conditioning.

Key Terms Aversion therapy: a form of behavior therapy that attempts to reduce the attractiveness of a desired event by associating it with an aversive stimulus Compensatory-response model: a model of conditioning in which a CS that has been repeatedly associated with the primary response (a-process) to a US will eventually come to elicit a compensatory response (b-process) Counterconditioning: the procedure whereby a CS that elicits one type of response is associated with an event that elicits an incompatible response Flooding therapy: a behavioral treatment for phobias that involves prolonged exposure to a feared stimulus, thereby providing maximal opportunity for the conditioned fear response to be extinguished Incubation: the strengthening of an already established conditioned fear response to an aversive CS (i.e., the feared object or event) as a result of repeated brief exposures to the CS by itself

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Instructor Manual: Russell A. Powell, P. Lynne Honey and Diane G. Symbaluk, Introduction to Learning and Behavior 6e, 2023, 9780357658475; Chapter 5: Classical Conditioning: Underlying Processes and Practical Applications

Overexpectation effect: the decrease in the strength of a CR that occurs when two separately conditioned CSs are combined into a compound stimulus for further pairings with the US Preparatory-response theory: a theory of classical conditioning that proposes that the purpose of the CR is to prepare the organism for the presentation of the US Preparedness: an innate predisposition to learn certain kinds of associations more easily than others (e.g. to associate snakes with an aversive event) Reciprocal inhibition: the process whereby the occurrence of a response is inhibited by the simultaneous occurrence of an incompatible response Rescorla–Wagner theory: a theory of classical conditioning that proposes that a given US can support only so much conditioning and that this amount of conditioning must be distributed among the various CSs Selective sensitization: an increase in one’s reactivity to a potentially fearful stimulus following exposure to an unrelated stressful event Stimulus-substitution theory: a theory of classical conditioning that proposes that the CS acts as a substitute for the US Systematic desensitization: a behavioral treatment for phobias that involves pairing relaxation with a succession of stimuli that elicit increasing levels of fear Temperament: an individual’s level of emotional reactivity, including how quickly or strongly one reacts to external stimulation [return to top]

What's New in This Chapter The following elements are improvements in this chapter from the previous edition: • • • •

Updated Internet resources Hypothetical applications to prompt student understanding Improved supplemental test bank questions Updated supplemental PowerPoint slides with related student activities

[return to top]

Chapter Outline In the following outline, each element includes references (in parentheses) to related content. "CH.##” refers to the chapter objective; “PPT Slide #” refers to the slide number in the PowerPoint deck for this chapter (provided in the PowerPoints section of the Instructor Resource Center). Introduce the chapter and use the icebreaker in the PPT if desired, and if one is provided for this chapter. Review learning objectives for Chapter 5 (PPT Slide 3).

I.

Explanation of Opening Scenario (5.1, PPT Slide 5) d. Estella should be concerned. In keeping with the compensatory-response theory of conditioning, because Juan had no awareness that he was drinking alcohol (meaning that this type of alcohol-related cue was absent), he may have experienced little in the way of

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Instructor Manual: Russell A. Powell, P. Lynne Honey and Diane G. Symbaluk, Introduction to Learning and Behavior 6e, 2023, 9780357658475; Chapter 5: Classical Conditioning: Underlying Processes and Practical Applications

conditioned compensatory processes to counteract the effects of the alcohol. This means that the alcohol Juan drank may have had a much stronger effect on him than if he had been aware of the alcohol. (Other cues, however, may have remained. For example, in Juan’s experience, did punch typically contain alcohol and were picnics usually associated with drinking? If so, then compensatory processes to the alcohol may have automatically been elicited by these cues, despite his belief that the punch was nonalcoholic.) (Slide 8) II. Underlying Processes in Classical Conditioning (5.1, PPT Slide 7) a. The preparatory-response theory of conditioning states that the purpose of the conditioned response is to prepare the organism for the presentation of the unconditioned stimulus.

(Slide 7) b. [Application Example] Activity. If heroin produces a decrease in blood pressure (a-process), which drug users experience as pleasant feelings of relaxation and euphoria, what would the compensatory reaction (b-process) possibly look like? i. Describe how, according to this theory, conditioning might account for some drug “overdoses.” Label the CS and other relevant stimuli in your description. (Slide 9) c. According to the stimulus-substitution theory, the UR and the CR should be the same or very similar in appearance. (Slide 10) d. According to the Rescorla‒Wagner theory, the US can only support so much conditioning.

(Slide 11) e. The amount of conditioning Is distributed across stimuli according to the Rescorla Wagner model. Discussing this model in cognitive terms has been criticized. (Slide 11) f. [Application Example] Activity. How else can you consider the Rescorla Wagner model without using mentalistic explanations? Why are mentalistic explanations avoided? (Slide 12) III. Practical Applications of Classical Conditioning (5.2, PPT Slide 13) a. Only one pairing of CS with US is required for acquisition of phobic responses. (Slide 13) b. Several other events may impact conditioning, such as events that increase the sensitivity to conditioning events and the strengthening of responses. (Slide 14) c. [Knowledge Check] Activity. The process of refers to an increase in one’s reactivity to a potentially fearful stimulus following exposure to a stressful event that is to the feared stimulus. i. How can you tell the difference between selective sensitization and incubation? (Slide 15) d. Systematic desensitization is the process of exposing a phobic individual to a succession of stimuli that elicit increasing levels of fear. (Slide 16) e. Flooding is prolonged exposure to a feared stimulus providing maximal opportunity for conditioned fear response to be extinguished. (Slide 17) f. Hybrid treatments combine element of systematic desensitization and flooding and may be more effective. (Slide 18) g. Aversion therapy is said to be a treatment procedure that reduces the attractiveness of desired event by associating it with aversive stimulus. (Slide 19) h. Conditioned allergic reactions and immunosuppression are just a few of the physiological effects of conditioning that have medical implications. (Slide 20) i. [Application Example] Activity. What stimuli might one expect to produce conditioned immunosuppression? Students are provided a diagram of hypothetical stimuli. (Slide 21) [return to top]

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Instructor Manual: Russell A. Powell, P. Lynne Honey and Diane G. Symbaluk, Introduction to Learning and Behavior 6e, 2023, 9780357658475; Chapter 5: Classical Conditioning: Underlying Processes and Practical Applications

Discussion Questions You can assign these questions several ways: in a discussion forum in your LMS; as whole-class discussions in person; or as a partner or group activity in class.

5. Discussion: Drug Conditioning ([pp. 169‒171], 5.4, PPT Slide 8) Duration 10 minutes. k. Describe how administration of strong drugs may become associated with the surrounding environment. How does the compensatory-response model account for some instances of drug overdoses? i. Answer: The surrounding environment and stimuli within it gain some of the reinforcing effect through conditioning or the pairing of these events. A certain stimulus in a room, or the room itself, can then become a CS. According to the compensatory-response model, taking the same amount of drug in a novel environment may account for some overdoses. The novel environment lacks many of the previous CSs that may act to block the effects of the drug through a compensatory reaction. The lack of these CSs may lead to increased effects of the drug without increased dosage.

6. Discussion: Phobias ([pp. 180‒187], 5.4, PPT Slide 13) Duration 10 minutes. a. The Little Albert study is one of the most infamous studies on fear responses. Describe another hypothetical real-world (e.g., not contrived) example of how fear responses might be conditioned. i. Answer: Any strong or intense aversive stimulus might lead to fear conditioning. In the Little Albert study, the US was a loud noise which was very aversive for Albert. For another individual it might be a bee sting or injury or illness that acts as the US. The stimuli that are paired with the aversive stimulus then may become CSs in the way that Little Albert’s fear response was reported to have occurred in response to the rat and other furry animals. [return to top]

Additional Activities and Assignments 8. Dr. Dee Assignment: a. Dear Dr. Dee, My friend says that if you are deeply and madly in love with someone, then you will necessarily be much less interested in anyone else. I think my friend is wrong. There is no reason why someone can’t be deeply in love with more than one person at a time. So who is right?

The Wanderer 9. Relevant Concepts a. According to the Rescorla‒Wagner theory (p. 175), if feelings of love are to some extent classically conditioned responses, then the more love you feel for one person (meaning that they are a distinctive CS that has strong associative value), the less love you might feel for alternative partners who are simultaneously available (because there is little associative value left over for those other CSs). In other words, there is only so much love (so much associative value) to go around, and strong romantic feelings for one person will result in weak romantic feelings for others. It is the case, however, that some people have strong romantic feelings for multiple partners. Perhaps those people have a larger maximum

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Instructor Manual: Russell A. Powell, P. Lynne Honey and Diane G. Symbaluk, Introduction to Learning and Behavior 6e, 2023, 9780357658475; Chapter 5: Classical Conditioning: Underlying Processes and Practical Applications

associative value for romantic feelings to distribute among different partners or perhaps they are responding to distinct aspects of each partner. [return to top]

Study Tip Counterconditioning is a process that can be applied to any situation that an individual finds aversive, including studying. Changing to a new study environment can help alleviate this problem, but another tactic that might help would be to associate studying with pleasant stimuli, such as scented candles and pleasant music, that will counteract the aversive associations. Just be careful to choose pleasant stimuli that don’t distract you from studying!

Additional Resources Suggested Readings Domjan, M. (2003). The principles of learning and behavior (7th ed.). Wadsworth.

Lieberman, D. A. (2000). Learning: Behavior and cognition (3rd ed.). Wadsworth.

Miltenberger, R. G. (1997). Behavior modification: Principles and procedures. Brooks/Cole.

Pavlov, I. P. (1941). Conditioned reflexes and psychiatry. (W. H. Gantt, Trans.). International Publishers.

Rachman, S. (1977). The conditioning theory of fear-acquisition: A critical examination. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 15, 375–387.

Rescorla, R. A., & Wagner, A. R. (1972). A theory of Pavlovian conditioning: Variations in the effectiveness of reinforcement and nonreinforcement. In A. H. Black & W. F. Prokasy (Eds.), Classical conditioning II: Current research and theory (pp. 64–99). Appleton-Century-Crofts.

Seligman, M. E. P. (1971). Phobias and preparedness. Behavior Therapy, 2, 307–320.

Siegel, S. (1983). Classical conditioning, drug tolerance, and drug dependence. In R. G. Smart, F. B. Glaser, Y. Israel, H. Kalant, R. E. Popham, & W. Schmidt (Eds.), Research advances in alcohol and drug problems (Vol. 7). Plenum Press.

Siegel, S. (1984). Pavlovian conditioning and heroin overdose: Reports by overdose victims. Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society, 22(5), 428–430.

Siegel, S. (2002). Explanatory mechanisms for placebo effects: Pavlovian conditioning. In H. A. Guess, A. Kleinman, J. W. Kusek, & L. W. Engel (Eds.), The science of the placebo: Toward an interdisciplinary research agenda. BMJ Books.

Spiegler, M. D., & Guevremont, D. C. (1998). Contemporary behavior therapy (3rd ed.). Brooks/Cole.

Watson, J. B., & Rayner, R. (1920). Conditioned emotional reactions. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 3(1), 1–14.

Wolpe, J. (1958). Psychotherapy by reciprocal inhibition. Stanford University Press.

Wolpe, J. (1995). Reciprocal inhibition: Major agent of behavior change. In W. T. O’Donohue & L. Krasner (Eds.), Theories of behavior therapy: Exploring behavior change. American

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Instructor Manual: Russell A. Powell, P. Lynne Honey and Diane G. Symbaluk, Introduction to Learning and Behavior 6e, 2023, 9780357658475; Chapter 5: Classical Conditioning: Underlying Processes and Practical Applications

Psychological Association.

Internet Resources •

“Conditioned Emotional Reactions” by John B. Watson and Rosalie Rayner (1920) http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Watson/emotion.htm This is the famous article describing the process of fear conditioning on one child, Albert B. (From York University, Classics in the History of Psychology)

•

“A Laboratory Study of Fear: The Case of Peter” by Mary Cover Jones (1924) http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Jones/ This is the original article on the use of unconditioning to treat a phobia in a young boy. (From York University, Classics in the History of Psychology) Refer also to the introduction (Introduction to “A Laboratory Study of Fear: The Case of Peter” by Mary Cover Jones [1924]) to this article.

•

Introduction to “A Laboratory Study of Fear: The Case of Peter” by Mary Cover Jones (1924) http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Jones/intro.htm An introduction to Jones’s classic study, written by Alexandra Rutherford of York University.

(From York University, Classics in the History of Psychology)

•

Self-Administered Systematic Desensitization http://www.guidetopsychology.com/sysden.htm This Web site provides a guide to the self-administration of systematic desensitization.

[return to top]

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Instructor Manual: Russell A. Powell, P. Lynne Honey and Diane G. Symbaluk, Introduction to Learning and Behavior 6e, 2023, 9780357658475; Chapter 5: Classical Conditioning: Underlying Processes and Practical Applications

Appendix Generic Rubrics Providing students with rubrics helps them understand expectations and components of assignments.

Rubrics help students become more aware of their learning process and progress, and they improve students’ work through timely and detailed feedback. Customize these rubrics as you wish. The writing rubric indicates 40 points and the discussion rubric indicates 30 points.

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Instructor Manual: Russell A. Powell, P. Lynne Honey and Diane G. Symbaluk, Introduction to Learning and Behavior 6e, 2023, 9780357658475; Chapter 5: Classical Conditioning: Underlying Processes and Practical Applications

Standard Writing Rubric Criteria Content

Meets Requirements Needs Improvement The assignment clearly and The assignment partially comprehensively addresses all addresses some or all questions in the assignment. questions in the assignment.

15 points

Organization and Clarity

Research

Incomplete The assignment does not address the questions in the assignment.

8 points

The assignment presents ideas The assignment presents ideas in a clear manner and with in a mostly clear manner and strong organizational structure. with a mostly strong The assignment includes an organizational structure. The appropriate introduction, assignment includes an content, and conclusion. appropriate introduction, Coverage of facts, arguments, content, and conclusion. and conclusions are logically Coverage of facts, arguments, related and consistent. and conclusions are mostly logically related and consistent.

10 points 7 points The assignment is based upon The assignment is based upon appropriate and adequate adequate academic literature academic literature, including but does not include peer peer reviewed journals and reviewed journals and other other scholarly work. scholarly work.

Research

5 points The assignment follows the required citation guidelines.

3 points The assignment follows some of the required citation guidelines.

Grammar and Spelling

5 points 3 points The assignment has two or The assignment has three to fewer grammatical and spelling five grammatical and spelling errors. errors.

0 points The assignment does not present ideas in a clear manner and with strong organizational structure. The assignment includes an introduction, content, and conclusion, but coverage of facts, arguments, and conclusions are not logically related and consistent.

0 points The assignment is not based upon appropriate and adequate academic literature and does not include peer reviewed journals and other scholarly work.

0 points The assignment does not follow the required citation guidelines.

0 points The assignment is incomplete or unintelligible.

0 points

5 points

website, in whole or in part.

3 points

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Instructor Manual: Russell A. Powell, P. Lynne Honey and Diane G. Symbaluk, Introduction to Learning and Behavior 6e, 2023, 9780357658475; Chapter 6: Operant Conditioning: Introduction

Standard Discussion Rubric Criteria Participation

Meets Requirements Submits or participates in discussion by the posted deadlines. Follows all assignment. instructions for initial post and responses.

Needs Improvement Incomplete Does not participate or submit Does not participate in discussion by the posted discussion. deadlines. Does not follow instructions for initial post and responses.

5 points 3 points Contribution Quality

Comments stay on task.

Comments add value to discussion topic. Comments motivate other students to respond.

Comments may not stay on task. Comments may not add value to discussion topic.

Comments may not motivate other students to respond.

0 points Does not participate in discussion.

10 points Etiquette

20 points Maintains appropriate language. Offers criticism in a constructive manner. Provides both positive and negative feedback.

5 points

0 points Does not always maintain Does not participate in appropriate language. Offers discussion. criticism in an offensive manner. Provides only negative feedback.

3 points

0 points

Instructor Manual Russell A. Powell, P. Lynne Honey and Diane G. Symbaluk, Introduction to Learning and Behavior 6e, 2023, 9780357658475; Chapter 6: Operant Conditioning: Introduction

Table of Contents Purpose and Perspective of the Chapter ................................................................................................. 54 Cengage Supplements ............................................................................................................................. 54 Chapter Objectives .................................................................................................................................. 54 Key Terms ................................................................................................................................................ 54 What's New in This Chapter..................................................................................................................... 56 Chapter Outline ....................................................................................................................................... 56 Discussion Questions ............................................................................................................................... 57 Additional Activities and Assignments ..................................................................................................... 57 Study Tips ................................................................................................................................................ 58 Additional Resources ............................................................................................................................... 58 Suggested Readings ............................................................................................................................. 58

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Instructor Manual: Russell A. Powell, P. Lynne Honey and Diane G. Symbaluk, Introduction to Learning and Behavior 6e, 2023, 9780357658475; Chapter 6: Operant Conditioning: Introduction

Internet Resources .............................................................................................................................. 58 Appendix.................................................................................................................................................. 61 Generic Rubrics ................................................................................................................................... 61 Standard Writing Rubric ...................................................................................................................... 62 Standard Discussion Rubric ................................................................................................................. 63

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Instructor Manual: Russell A. Powell, P. Lynne Honey and Diane G. Symbaluk, Introduction to Learning and Behavior 6e, 2023, 9780357658475; Chapter 6: Operant Conditioning: Introduction

Purpose and Perspective of the Chapter The main purpose of the sixth chapter is to present the concept of operant conditioning and outline the basic contingencies of reinforcement and punishment.

Cengage Supplements The following product-level supplements provide additional information that may help you in preparing your course. They are available in the Instructor Resource Center.

• • • •

Transition Guide (provides information about what’s new from edition to edition) Instructor Manual (contains outlines, suggested activities, and resources for instructor use in the course) PowerPoint (provides text and image-based lectures with active learning activities) Test Bank (contains multiple-choice assessment questions and essay prompts)

Chapter Objectives The following objectives are addressed in this chapter: 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6 6.7 6.8

Distinguish between operant (instrumental) conditioning and classical conditioning.

Describe Thorndike’s law of effect and his classic experiment that led to its creation.

Describe Skinner’s approach to operant conditioning, including his emphasis on observable behavior.

Define operant behavior, reinforcers, and punishers.

Explain the role of discriminative stimuli within the three-term contingency, including contingencies of extinction.

Describe and distinguish among the four types of operant contingencies.

Describe the different types of reinforcement, including primary/ secondary, immediate/delayed, intrinsic/extrinsic, and natural/contrived reinforcement.

Describe shaping procedures, including situations that require shaping.

Key Terms Avoidance behavior: behavior that occurs before the aversive stimulus is presented and thereby prevents its delivery Contrived reinforcers: reinforcers that have been deliberately arranged to modify a behavior; they are not a typical consequence of the behavior in that setting; also called artificial reinforcers Discriminative stimulus (SD): a stimulus in the presence of which responses are reinforced and in the absence of which they are not reinforced; that is, a stimulus that signals the availability of reinforcement Discriminative stimulus for extinction (SΔ): a stimulus that signals the absence of reinforcement Discriminative stimulus for punishment (SDp): a stimulus that signals that a response will be punished Escape behavior: a behavior that results in the termination of an aversive stimulus Extinction: the weakening of a behavior through the nonreinforcement of a previously reinforced behavior

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Instructor Manual: Russell A. Powell, P. Lynne Honey and Diane G. Symbaluk, Introduction to Learning and Behavior 6e, 2023, 9780357658475; Chapter 6: Operant Conditioning: Introduction

Extrinsic reinforcement: the reinforcement provided by a consequence that is external to, or additional to, the behavior; engaging in the behavior does not itself function as a reinforcer for the behavior Generalized reinforcer: a type of secondary reinforcer that has been associated with several other reinforcers; also called a generalized secondary reinforcer Intrinsic reinforcement: reinforcement provided by the mere act of performing the behavior; engaging in the behavior is itself a reinforcer Law of effect: as originally stated by Thorndike, the proposition that behaviors that lead to a satisfying state of affairs are strengthened, or “stamped in,” while behaviors that lead to an unsatisfying or annoying state of affairs are weakened, or “stamped out” Natural reinforcers: reinforcers that are naturally provided for a certain behavior; they are a typical consequence of the behavior within that setting Negative punishment: the removal of a stimulus (one that is usually considered pleasant or rewarding) following a response, which then leads to a decrease in the future strength of that response Negative reinforcement: the removal of a stimulus (one that is usually considered unpleasant or aversive) following a response, which then leads to an increase in the future strength of that response Operant behavior: a class of emitted responses that result in certain consequences; these consequences, in turn, affect the future frequency (or probability or strength) of those responses Operant conditioning: a type of learning in which the future frequency (or probability or strength) of a behavior is affected by its consequences Positive punishment: the presentation of a stimulus (one that is usually considered unpleasant or aversive) following a response, which then leads to a decrease in the future strength of that response Positive reinforcement: the presentation of a stimulus (one that is usually considered pleasant or rewarding) following a response, which then leads to an increase in the future strength of that response Primary reinforcer: an event that is innately reinforcing. No learning is required for it to function as a reinforcer. Also called an unconditioned reinforcer Punisher: an event that (1) follows a behavior and (2) decreases the future probability of that behavior Reinforcer: an event that (1) follows a behavior and (2) increases the future probability of that behavior Secondary reinforcer: an event that is reinforcing because it has been associated with some other reinforcer. It becomes a reinforcer as a function of learning. Also called a conditioned reinforcer Shaping: the gradual creation of new behavior through reinforcement of successively closer approximations to that behavior Three-term contingency: the relationship between a discriminative stimulus, an operant response, and a consequence (reinforcer or punisher) [return to top]

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Instructor Manual: Russell A. Powell, P. Lynne Honey and Diane G. Symbaluk, Introduction to Learning and Behavior 6e, 2023, 9780357658475; Chapter 6: Operant Conditioning: Introduction

What's New in This Chapter The following elements are improvements in this chapter from the previous edition: • • • •

Updated Internet resources Hypothetical applications to prompt student understanding Improved supplemental test bank questions Updated supplemental PowerPoint slides with related student activities

[return to top]

Chapter Outline In the following outline, each element includes references (in parentheses) to related content. "CH.##” refers to the chapter objective; “PPT Slide #” refers to the slide number in the PowerPoint deck for this chapter (provided in the PowerPoints section of the Instructor Resource Center). Introduce the chapter and use the icebreaker in the PPT if desired, and if one is provided for this chapter. Review learning objectives for Chapter 6. (PPT Slide 3-4).

I.

Explanation of Opening Scenario (6.1, PPT Slide 2) e. How do you describe your taking a completely new path on your way to work? How can behavior that is seen as “voluntary” and goal directed be analyzed? (Slide 2)

XI.

Historical Background (6.2, PPT Slide 5) a. Thorndike’s systematic investigations with cats in puzzle boxes led to the development of his law of effect. (Slide 6)

XII.

Operant Conditioning (6.3, PPT Slide 6) a. [Knowledge Check] Activity. Students are asked to determine if a list of behaviors are operant or respondent by the given information. (Slide 7) b. Many different organisms can use an operant chamber—pigeons and mice or rats are some of the more typical ones. (Slide 8) c. Operant behavior is that which is controlled by consequences. Modifying those consequences is operant conditioning. (Slide 9) d. The three-term contingency describes the discriminative stimulus which sets the occasion for the behavior that produces a certain consequence or effect in the environment. (Slide 10) e. Operant behavior is distinct from respondent behavior in that it is controlled by its consequences (what happens after the behavior). Respondent behavior is directly controlled or elicited by antecedent stimuli (what happens before the behavior). (Slide 11)

XIII.

Four Types of Contingencies (6.4, PPT Slide 12) a. [Knowledge Check] Activity. Several examples of behavioral contingencies are given, and students are asked to determine if examples are of punishment or reinforcement.

(Slide 13) b. The discriminative stimulus sets the occasion for a response to occur. (Slide 14)

XIV.

Positive Reinforcement: Further Distinctions (6.5, PPT Slide 15) a. There are four main types of contingencies, positive and negative reinforcement and positive and negative punishment. (Slide 15)

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Instructor Manual: Russell A. Powell, P. Lynne Honey and Diane G. Symbaluk, Introduction to Learning and Behavior 6e, 2023, 9780357658475; Chapter 6: Operant Conditioning: Introduction

b. [Knowledge Check] Activity. Examples of positive and negative reinforcement are provided for students to identify. (Slide 16) c. More immediate reinforcement is more effective. Reinforcers can be categorized by learning history as well. (Slide 17) d. Reinforcement can be naturally occurring or contrived. (Slide 18) e. Reinforcement can be used to gradually create new behaviors through a process called shaping. (Slide 19) f. [Knowledge Check] Activity. Learners are prompted to think about how they might apply shaping. (Slide 20) [return to top]

Discussion Questions You can assign these questions several ways: in a discussion forum in your LMS; as whole-class discussions in person; or as a partner or group activity in class.

7. Discussion: Historical Definitions ([pp. 211–215], 6.2, PPT Slide 5) l. How does Skinner’s version of operant behavior differ from Thorndike’s conceptualization of behavior? How is Skinner’s definition more parsimonious? i. Answer: Thorndike’s definition refers to the “stamping in” of behaviors through events that are “pleasant or satisfying.” Skinner’s definition refers to the increased likelihood of a behavior with no reference to mentalistic events like pleasure or satisfaction. Answers may vary.

8. Discussion: Operant and Respondent Behavior ([pp. 215–225], 6.3, PPT Slide 11) a. Why is it important to distinguish between operant and respondent behavior? i. Answer: To change behavior, it is important to know if it is controlled by events that occur before or after its occurrence. Respondent behavior is controlled almost reflexively by antecedent stimuli whereas operant behaviour acts on the environment to produce certain consequences. Altering the events before versus after a behavior is the main distinction between respondent versus operant conditioning. b. How might someone use reinforcement? i. Answer: Reinforcement can be either negative or positive. Reinforcement can be contrived or naturally occurring. To use contrived reinforcement, positive is preferred as it involves the delivery of some preferred item or praise. Reinforcers like praise are conditioned or learned through the individual’s experience with the environment. [return to top]

Additional Activities and Assignments 10. Dr. Dee Assignment: a. Dear Dr. Dee, My partner has a terrible tendency to boss me around. I have tried to counter this tendency by being especially nice to him, to show him how I would like to be treated, but the problem seems to be getting worse. He also refuses to discuss it or see a counselor. He says I’m too sensitive and that I’m looking for problems where none exist. What should I do?

Just About Hadenough 11. Relevant Concepts

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Instructor Manual: Russell A. Powell, P. Lynne Honey and Diane G. Symbaluk, Introduction to Learning and Behavior 6e, 2023, 9780357658475; Chapter 6: Operant Conditioning: Introduction

a. Longer histories of reinforcement for certain behaviors may make them more difficult to change. It could be that the partner has a history of being reinforced for dominant or “bossy” behavior. While reinforcement can be contrived, many instances occur automatically or naturally without “intention.” Observe what happens before and after instances of the partner’s bossiness to see what may be some of the maintaining variables.

Depending on Hadenough’s response to the bossiness, they may be inadvertently reinforcing this unwanted behavior in their partner. b. As noted on p. 231, the quality of a relationship is strongly determined by the ratio of positive to negative interactions. Moreover, why does the letter writer’s partner consider the use of aversive consequences to control someone’s behavior when positive reinforcement for appropriate behavior might work just as well or better? Finally, as noted on pp. 241–242, when contrived reinforcers are used, the ultimate intention is to let the “natural contingencies” eventually take over if at all possible. [return to top]

Study Tips Students often complain that they find it difficult to study, or even go to lectures, because their courses are so boring. Often, these are students who are doing the minimal amount of work to get by (if that).

But the question can be asked: Are they doing minimal work because their courses are boring, or are their courses boring because they’re doing minimal work? In support of the latter possibility, students who, for whatever reason, suddenly decide to pull up their marks—perhaps because they’ve decided they want to do a professional or graduate degree—will sometimes comment that they didn’t realize how interesting their courses (or at least some of their courses) can be when they really apply themselves. This change in perception is, of course, in keeping with the notion that being rewarded for high-quality performance can increase one’s intrinsic interest in a task.

Additional Resources Suggested Readings Cameron, J., & Pierce, W. D. (2002). Rewards and intrinsic motivation: Resolving the controversy.

Greenwood Publishing.

Deci, E. L., Koestner, R., & Ryan, R. M. (2001). Extrinsic rewards and intrinsic motivation: Reconsidered once again. Review of Educational Research, 71, 1–27.

Grant, L., & Evans, A. (1994). Principles of behavior analysis. HarperCollins.

Pryor, K. (1975). Lads before the wind: Adventures in porpoise training. Harper & Row. Pryor, K. (1999). Don’t shoot the dog: The new art of teaching and training (Rev. ed.). Bantam Books.

Skinner, B. F. (1938). The behavior of organisms: An experimental analysis. Copley.

Thorndike, E. L. (1898). Animal intelligence: An experimental study of the associative processes in animals. The Psychological Review: Monograph Supplement, 2, i–109.

Internet Resources •

“Animal Intelligence” by Edward L. Thorndike (1911)

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Instructor Manual: Russell A. Powell, P. Lynne Honey and Diane G. Symbaluk, Introduction to Learning and Behavior 6e, 2023, 9780357658475; Chapter 6: Operant Conditioning: Introduction

http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Thorndike/Animal/ This treatise is Thorndike’s major work on learning processes in animals. Chapter 2 contains a description of the famous puzzle box experiments. (From York University Classics in the History of Psychology) Also, read the introduction to this article (Introduction to “Animal Intelligence”

by Edward Lee Thorndike [1911]).

•

Introduction to “Animal Intelligence” by Edward Lee Thorndike (1911) http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Thorndike/Animal/wozniak.htm This is an introduction to Thorndike’s classic work written by Robert H. Wozniak. (From York University, Classics in the History of Psychology)

•

George Romanes on Animal Intelligence http://www.pigeon.psy.tufts.edu/psych26/romanes1.htm This Web site contains an excerpt from Romanes’s book Animal Intelligence (1888). Romanes was extreme in the extent to which he assumed animals are capable of human-like thought and emotion. This extremism is the epitome of what Thorndike was attempting to counter with his own research. (From the Animal Cognition and Learning site at Tufts University)

•

Edward Thorndike’s Criticism of Romanes’s Methodology http://www.pigeon.psy.tufts.edu/psych26/thorn.htm This excerpt is from Thorndike’s 1911 book. (From the Animal Cognition and Learning Web site at Tufts University)

•

Kohler’s Research on the Mentality of Apes plus Criticisms http://www.pigeon.psy.tufts.edu/psych26/kohler.htm This Web page contains descriptions and photos of Kohler’s famous research on insight and planning in apes, which he believed refuted behavioristic assumptions about learning. Follow the links to read criticisms of Kohler’s research (Kohler’s Criticism of Thorndike). Note especially the description and photos of Epstein’s demonstration of “insight” in pigeons. (From the Animal Cognition and Learning site at Tufts University)

•

Kohler’s Criticism of Thorndike http://www.pigeon.psy.tufts.edu/psych26/kohler1.htm This excerpt from the book The Mentality of Apes (1925) outlines Kohler’s criticisms of Thorndike’s puzzle box experiments. (From the Animal Cognition and Learning site at Tufts University)

•

Positive Reinforcement Tutorial http://psych.athabascau.ca/html/prtut/reinpair.htm This Web site contains a well-designed tutorial on the concept of positive reinforcement, created by Lyle Grant at Athabasca University.

•

Video of a Shaping Procedure

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Instructor Manual: Russell A. Powell, P. Lynne Honey and Diane G. Symbaluk, Introduction to Learning and Behavior 6e, 2023, 9780357658475; Chapter 6: Operant Conditioning: Introduction

http://www.owu.edu/~deswartz/procedures/shaping.html Follow this link to watch a video clip of a rat being trained to press a lever for food reinforcement through a process of shaping. (The clip is from Dale Swartzentruber’s online collection of videos on animal learning.)

•

Clicker Training http://www.clickertraining.com This is a link to Karen Pryor’s official Web site for clicker training. Follow the links for detailed information and enlightening discussions.

[return to top]

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Instructor Manual: Russell A. Powell, P. Lynne Honey and Diane G. Symbaluk, Introduction to Learning and Behavior 6e, 2023, 9780357658475; Chapter 6: Operant Conditioning: Introduction

Appendix Generic Rubrics Providing students with rubrics helps them understand expectations and components of assignments.

Rubrics help students become more aware of their learning process and progress, and they improve students’ work through timely and detailed feedback. Customize these rubrics as you wish. The writing rubric indicates 40 points and the discussion rubric indicates 30 points.

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Instructor Manual: Russell A. Powell, P. Lynne Honey and Diane G. Symbaluk, Introduction to Learning and Behavior 6e, 2023, 9780357658475; Chapter 6: Operant Conditioning: Introduction

Standard Writing Rubric Criteria Content

Meets Requirements Needs Improvement The assignment clearly and The assignment partially comprehensively addresses all addresses some or all questions in the assignment. questions in the assignment.

15 points

Organization and Clarity

Research

Research

8 points

The assignment presents ideas The assignment presents ideas in a clear manner and with in a mostly clear manner and strong organizational structure. with a mostly strong The assignment includes an organizational structure. The appropriate introduction, assignment includes an content, and conclusion. appropriate introduction, Coverage of facts, arguments, content, and conclusion. and conclusions are logically Coverage of facts, arguments, related and consistent. and conclusions are mostly logically related and consistent.

10 points 7 points The assignment is based upon The assignment is based upon appropriate and adequate adequate academic literature academic literature, including but does not include peer peer reviewed journals and reviewed journals and other other scholarly work. scholarly work.

5 points The assignment follows the required citation guidelines.

Incomplete The assignment does not address the questions in the assignment.

3 points The assignment follows some of the required citation guidelines.

0 points The assignment does not present ideas in a clear manner and with strong organizational structure. The assignment includes an introduction, content, and conclusion, but coverage of facts, arguments, and conclusions are not logically related and consistent.

0 points The assignment is not based upon appropriate and adequate academic literature and does not include peer reviewed journals and other scholarly work.

0 points The assignment does not follow the required citation guidelines.

5 points Grammar and Spelling

3 points The assignment has two or The assignment has three to fewer grammatical and spelling five grammatical and spelling errors. errors.

0 points The assignment is incomplete or unintelligible.

0 points

5 points

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3 points

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Instructor Manual: Russell A. Powell, P. Lynne Honey and Diane G. Symbaluk, Introduction to Learning and Behavior 6e, 2023, 9780357658475; Chapter 7: Schedules and Theories of Reinforcement

Standard Discussion Rubric Criteria Participation

Meets Requirements Submits or participates in discussion by the posted deadlines. Follows all assignment. instructions for initial post and responses.

Needs Improvement Incomplete Does not participate or submit Does not participate in discussion by the posted discussion. deadlines. Does not follow instructions for initial post and responses.

5 points 3 points Contribution Quality

Comments stay on task.

Comments add value to discussion topic. Comments motivate other students to respond.

Comments may not stay on task. Comments may not add value to discussion topic.

Comments may not motivate other students to respond.

0 points Does not participate in discussion.

10 points Etiquette

20 points Maintains appropriate language. Offers criticism in a constructive manner. Provides both positive and negative feedback.

5 points

0 points Does not always maintain Does not participate in appropriate language. Offers discussion. criticism in an offensive manner. Provides only negative feedback.

3 points

0 points

Instructor Manual Russell A. Powell, P. Lynne Honey and Diane G. Symbaluk, Introduction to Learning and Behavior 6e, 2023, 9780357658475; Chapter 7: Schedules and Theories of Reinforcement

Table of Contents Purpose and Perspective of the Chapter ..................................................................................................... 65 Cengage Supplements ................................................................................................................................. 65 Chapter Objectives ...................................................................................................................................... 65 Key Terms .................................................................................................................................................... 65 What's New in This Chapter ........................................................................................................................ 67 Chapter Outline ........................................................................................................................................... 67 Discussion Questions ................................................................................................................................... 69 Additional Activities and Assignments......................................................................................................... 70 Study Tip...................................................................................................................................................... 70 Additional Resources ................................................................................................................................... 71 Suggested Readings ................................................................................................................................. 71 Internet Resources................................................................................................................................... 71

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Instructor Manual: Russell A. Powell, P. Lynne Honey and Diane G. Symbaluk, Introduction to Learning and Behavior 6e, 2023, 9780357658475; Chapter 7: Schedules and Theories of Reinforcement

Appendix ..................................................................................................................................................... 71 Generic Rubrics........................................................................................................................................ 71 Standard Writing Rubric .......................................................................................................................... 72 Standard Discussion Rubric ...................................................................................................................... 72

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Purpose and Perspective of the Chapter Chapter 7 introduces students to the concept of schedules of reinforcement, both simple and complex.

Different types of schedules are discussed along with their effects on behavior and the implication of such schedules for understanding everyday behavior. Also discussed are different theories of reinforcement ranging from drive reduction theory to behavioral bliss point approach; the Premack principle and its practical application for modifying behavior are also covered.

Cengage Supplements The following product-level supplements provide additional information that may help you in preparing your course. They are available in the Instructor Resource Center.

• • • •

Transition Guide (provides information about what’s new from edition to edition) Instructor Manual (contains outlines, suggested activities, and resources for instructor use in the course) PowerPoint (provides text and image-based lectures with active learning activities) Test Bank (contains multiple-choice assessment questions and essay prompts)

Chapter Objectives The following objectives are addressed in this chapter: 7.1 Define schedule of reinforcement.

7.2 Distinguish between continuous and intermittent schedules of reinforcement.

7.3 Identify and describe patterns of responding associated with the four main intermittent schedules of reinforcement.

7.4 Identify and describe patterns of responding associated with duration schedules and responserate schedules of reinforcement.

7.5 Distinguish between simple and complex schedules.

7.6 Describe procedures and outcomes associated with establishing behavioral chains, including goal gradient effects.

7.7 Compare and contrast various theories of reinforcement.

Key Terms adjusting schedule: A schedule in which the response requirement changes as a function of the organism’s performance while responding for the previous reinforcer. behavioral bliss point approach: The theory that an organism with free access to alternative activities will distribute its behavior in such a way as to maximize overall reinforcement. chained schedule: A schedule consisting of a sequence of two or more simple schedules, each with its own SD and the last of which results in a terminal reinforcer.

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complex schedule: A schedule that consists of a combination of two or more simple schedules. conjunctive schedule: A type of complex schedule in which the requirements of two or more simple schedules must be met, in any order, before a reinforcer is delivered. continuous reinforcement schedule: A schedule in which each specified response is reinforced. differential reinforcement of high rates (DRH): A schedule in which reinforcement is contingent upon emitting at least a certain number of responses in a certain period of time—or, more generally, reinforcement is provided for responding at a fast rate. differential reinforcement of low rates (DRL): A schedule in which a minimum amount of time must pass between each response before the reinforcer will be delivered—or, more generally, reinforcement is provided for responding at a slow rate. differential reinforcement of paced responding (DRP): A schedule in which reinforcement is contingent upon emitting a series of responses at a set rate—or, more generally, reinforcement is provided for responding neither too fast nor too slow. drive reduction theory: A theory that holds that an event is reinforcing to the extent that it is associated with a reduction in some type of physiological drive. fixed duration (FD) schedule: A schedule in which reinforcement is contingent upon continuous performance of a behavior for a fixed, predictable period of time. fixed interval (FI) schedule: A schedule in which reinforcement is contingent upon the first response after a fixed, predictable period of time. fixed ratio (FR) schedule: A schedule in which reinforcement is contingent upon a fixed, predictable number of responses. fixed time (FT) schedule: A schedule in which the reinforcer is delivered following a fixed, predictable period of time, regardless of the organism’s behavior. goal gradient effect: An increase in the strength and/or efficiency of responding as one draws near to the goal. incentive motivation: Motivation derived from some property of the reinforcer, as opposed to an internal drive state. intermittent (or partial) reinforcement schedule: A schedule in which only some responses are reinforced. noncontingent schedule of reinforcement: A schedule in which the reinforcer is delivered independently of any response. Also known as a response-independent schedule.

Premack principle: The notion that a high-probability (or high-frequency) behavior can be used to reinforce a low-probability (or low-frequency) behavior. ratio strain: A disruption in responding for reinforcement due to an overly demanding response requirement. response deprivation hypothesis: The notion that a behavior can serve as a reinforcer when (1) access to the behavior is restricted and (2) its frequency thereby falls below its preferred (or baseline) level of occurrence.

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response-rate schedule: A schedule in which reinforcement is directly contingent upon the organism’s rate of response. schedule of reinforcement: The response requirement that must be met in order to obtain reinforcement. variable duration (VD) schedule: A schedule in which reinforcement is contingent upon continuous performance of a behavior for a varying, unpredictable period of time. variable interval (VI) schedule: A schedule in which reinforcement is contingent upon the first response after a varying, unpredictable period of time. variable ratio (VR) schedule: A schedule in which reinforcement is contingent upon a varying, unpredictable number of responses. variable time (VT) schedule: A schedule in which the reinforcer is delivered following a varying, unpredictable period of time, regardless of the organism’s behavior. [return to top]

What’s New in This Chapter The following elements are improvements in this chapter from the previous edition: • • •

Tips and additional resources for consuming and understanding behavioral research Updated study questions and test bank resources Supplemental PowerPoint slides with discussion questions

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Chapter Outline In the following outline, each element includes references (in parentheses) to related content. "CH.##” refers to the chapter objective; “PPT Slide #” refers to the slide number in the PowerPoint deck for this chapter (provided in the PowerPoints section of the Instructor Resource Center). Introduce the chapter and use the Icebreaker in the PPT if desired, and if one is provided for this chapter. Review learning objectives for Chapter 7. (PPT Slide 2) I.

XV.

Explanation of Opening Scenario (7.3) g. Mandy assumes that she’s in love because she is working so hard to get Alvin to pay attention to her. And she is working so hard because Alvin is reinforcing her attentiveness on an intermittent schedule (most likely, a VR schedule). Note also how Alvin apparently provided a lot of reinforcement in the initial stages of the relationship and then “stretched out the ratio” (p. 258) as time passed. Finally, relating this scenario to the discussion in Chapter 1 of Skinner’s approach to feelings, one can see this as an example of how the existence of a certain feeling (love) may, at least partially, be an inference based on the presence of a certain behavior pattern (persistence).

Explanation of Icebreaker Example (7.3, Slide 2) a. Similar to the opening scenario, in the example given in the Icebreaker, Nav assumes that Graham’s persistent complaining is a function of his being an obstinate person. In other words, it is a personality trait of his. However, the fact that he occasionally gets

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XVI.

XVII.

what he wants by complaining suggests that his persistence might instead be a function of intermittent reinforcement. (Slide 5) Schedules of Reinforcement (7.1‒7.7) a. A schedule of reinforcement is the response requirement that must be met in order to obtain a reinforcer. Following sufficient exposure to a schedule, certain unique response patterns (steady-state behaviors) will begin to emerge. (Slide 4) b. On a continuous reinforcement schedule, each response is reinforced; on an intermittent schedule only some responses are reinforced. (Slide 5) c. Of the four basic intermittent schedules, a fixed ratio (FR) schedule is one in which a reinforcer is delivered after a fixed, predictable number of responses. It often results in a high rate of response followed by a post-reinforcement pause. (Slide 6) d. Reinforcement schedules can be rich (low requirements result in lots of reinforcement) or lean (high requirements resulting in relatively few reinforcers). Response requirement must be increased gradually (“stretching the ratio”) or responding will break down and cease (“ratio strain”). (Slides 7‒8) e. Activity: Food for Thought: Example given of students who in high school were honors students but nevertheless do poorly in their first year at college. It may be that some of these students had a very light workload in high school and are experiencing ratio strain when confronted with the heavier workload demanded in college. (Slide 9) f. A variable ratio (VR) schedule is one in which a reinforcer is delivered after a varying, unpredictable number of responses. It results in a high rate of response with little or no post-reinforcement pause. (Slide 10) g. A fixed interval (FI) schedule is one in which a reinforcer is delivered following the first response after a fixed predictable period of time. Results in a post-reinforcement pause followed by gradually increasing rate of response. (Slide 11) h. A variable interval (VI) schedule is one in which a reinforcer is delivered following the first response after a varying unpredictable period of time. Results in a moderate steady rate of response. (Slide 12) i. Response-rate schedules involve reinforcers being delivered contingent on differentially responding at a high rate (DRH), at a low rate (DRL), or at a steady pace (DRP). (Slide 13) j. Duration schedules involve reinforcers being delivered after responding for either a fixed duration (FD) or variable duration (VD). (Slide 14) k. Noncontingent (or response-independent) schedules involve free reinforcers being delivered after a fixed time (FT) or variable time (VT) independent of any response occurring. Such schedules may account for the development of superstitious behavior.

(Slide 15) l. Complex schedules of reinforcement consist of a combination of two or more simple schedules. A conjunctive schedule consists of two or more simple schedules that must be met in order for a reinforcer to be obtained. On an adjusting schedule, the response requirement changes as a function of the organism’s performance while responding for the previous reinforcer. (Slide 16) m. A chained schedule consists of a sequence of two or more simple schedules that must be completed in a certain order, and the last of which results in a reinforcer. Such schedules can result in a goal gradient effect in which responding is stronger at the end of the chain than at the beginning. Chained schedules are often established through backward chaining in which the last link is trained first and the first link is trained last.

(Slides 17‒18) Theories of Reinforcement (7.7)

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a. Drive reduction theory proposes that an event is reinforcing because it reduces a physiological drive, such as hunger. This theory is contradicted by examples of incentive motivation in which some reinforcers (e.g., playing video games) do not seem to be associated with a physiological drive. (Slide 19) b. Some other theories view reinforcers as behaviors rather than stimuli, the critical factor being whether one behavior is more frequent (or more probable) than the other (Premack principle) or whether a behavior drops below its baseline level of occurrence (response deprivation hypothesis). (Slides 20‒21) c. The behavioral bliss point approach assumes that organisms are motivated to distribute their behavior in such a way as to draw as close as possible to their ideal distribution of such activities. (Slide 22)

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Discussion Questions You can assign these questions several ways: in a discussion forum in your LMS; as whole-class discussions in person; or as a partner or group activity in class.

9. Discussion: Schedules of reinforcement (pp. 256‒266, 268‒272; 7.3‒7.4; PPT Slides 6‒15; Duration: 5 minutes) m. Sasha discovers that there are robins nesting in her backyard feeding their young. She often looks out her kitchen window to see if she can catch a glimpse of each parent returning to the nest to feed their young. On what schedule of reinforcement is Sasha’s response of looking out the window, and what pattern of responding are we likely to see? i. Answer: This is a VI schedule of reinforcement, which should result in moderate steady pattern of looking out the window. n. Ayena is doing her math homework on the kitchen table. For every 10 math questions she solves, her mother gives her a cookie. What schedule of reinforcement is this an example of, and what is the likely pattern of responding that she is likely to show? i. Answer: This is an FR schedule. Ayena will work quickly to complete 10 questions, then take a short break (post-reinforcement pause) before quickly doing the next 10 questions.

2. Discussion: Premack principle (pp. 280‒282; 7.7; PPT Slides 20‒21; Duration: 5 minutes) o. Aliya often watches TV each morning but only rarely makes her bed. According to the Premack principle, which of these activities could be used to reinforce the occurrence of the other activity. Diagram an example of this contingency. i. TV watching could be used as a reinforcer for making the bed.

Make bed [LPB] (R) -> Watch TV [HPB] (SR) p. Connor prefers to read for around 2 hours each evening and play computer games for around 1 hour each evening. According to the response deprivation hypothesis, how could gaming be used as a reinforcer to increase his behavior of reading? Why would the Premack principle not be applicable to this scenario?

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i. If Connor’s game playing is restricted to below his baseline level of 2 hours each evening, he will be willing to increase the amount of time he reads in order to gain more access to his computer games. ii. The Premack principle would not be applicable because the behavior of gaming is occurring at a higher frequency than reading and would therefore not be used as a reinforcer for reading. [return to top]

Additional Activities and Assignments 12. Dr. Dee Assignment: [Description] 1.

Dear Dr. Dee, My girlfriend has a tendency to pick fights with me in order to get me to pay attention to her. I’ve tried ignoring her when she does this, but then she really gets riled up. Any suggestions?

Mr. Aloof

2.

Dear Dr. Dee, My friend has this dumb habit of picking at his teeth when he meets a new woman. He says that this is a real turn-on to women, but it’s easy to see that most women think he’s just plain gross. How on earth did he ever come up with this idea?

Dumbfounded

Relevant Concepts 1.

As the writer’s signature suggests, his girlfriend may be picking fights with him because this is the only way she can get his attention. A solution for him would be to deliver more social reinforcement on a noncontingent basis, which should reduce her tendency to pick fights to get attention (p. 270).

2. To give a rather fanciful explanation, it’s possible that this habit began when he was once picking at his teeth and some woman coincidentally threw herself at him. If this was somehow repeated on a couple of other occasions, this could lead to a superstitious belief that this behavior pattern is attractive to women (p. 268). [return to top]

Study Tip Post-reinforcement pauses may have important implications for studying. On the one hand, they suggest that there may be a natural tendency for us to take a break after completing a certain amount of work. On the other hand, when students take a break from studying, they often have difficulty starting up again. A possible solution to this problem might be to ensure that the study breaks, especially those that students intend to be brief, do not involve anything particularly interesting (e.g., one might do a bit of housework rather than check social media). Another useful trick, which can be used whenever one has difficulty sitting down to study, is the just-get-started (JGS) tactic. In this case, students should set themselves a very small and easily attained goal, such as to study for at least 5 or 10 minutes with the option to then quit if they still “don’t feel like studying.”

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Additional Resources Suggested Readings Domjan, M. (2003). The principles of learning and behavior (5th ed.). Wadsworth.

Ferster, C. B., & Skinner, B. F. (1957). Schedules of reinforcement. Appleton-Century-Crofts.

Hergenhahn, B. R. (1988). An introduction to theories of learning (6th ed.). Prentice-Hall.

Herrnstein, R. J. (1966). Superstition: A corollary of the principles of operant conditioning. In W. K. Honig (Ed.), Operant behavior: Areas of research and application. Appleton-Century-Crofts.

Malone, J. C. (1990). Theories of learning: A historical approach. Wadsworth.

Premack, D. (1965). Reinforcement theory. In D. Levine (Ed.), Nebraska Symposium on Motivation (Vol. 13, 123–188). University of Nebraska Press.

Reynolds, G. S. (1975). A primer of operant conditioning (2nd ed.). Scott, Foresman.

Timberlake, W. (1993). Behavior systems and reinforcement: An integrative approach. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 60, 105–128.

Timberlake, W., & Allison, J. (1974). Response deprivation: An empirical approach to instrumental performance. Psychological Review, 81, 146–164.

Timberlake, W., & Farmer-Dougan, V. A. (1991). Reinforcement in applied settings: Figuring out ahead of time what will work. Psychological Bulletin, 110, 379–391.

Internet Resources •

“‘Superstition’ in the Pigeon” by B. F. Skinner (1948) http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Skinner/Pigeon/ This article describes Skinner’s original research on the development of superstitious behavior patterns in the pigeon. (From York University, Classics in the History of Psychology)

•

NHL Superstitions http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0fS91NjrJDE&feature=related This YouTube video provides a series of examples of superstitions and rituals that professional athletes engage in before a game or during practice.

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Appendix Generic Rubrics Providing students with rubrics helps them understand expectations and components of assignments.

Rubrics help students become more aware of their learning process and progress, and they improve students’ work through timely and detailed feedback. Customize these rubrics as you wish. The writing rubric indicates 40 points and the discussion rubric indicates 30 points.

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Standard Writing Rubric Criteria Content

Organization and Clarity

Meets Requirements The assignment clearly and comprehensively addresses all questions in the assignment.

Needs Improvement The assignment partially addresses some or all questions in the assignment.

15 points

8 points

The assignment presents ideas The assignment presents ideas in a clear manner and with in a mostly clear manner and strong organizational structure. with a mostly strong The assignment includes an organizational structure. The appropriate introduction, assignment includes an content, and conclusion. appropriate introduction, Coverage of facts, arguments, content, and conclusion. and conclusions are logically Coverage of facts, arguments, related and consistent. and conclusions are mostly logically related and consistent.

10 points

Research

Research

The assignment is based upon appropriate and adequate academic literature, including peer reviewed journals and other scholarly work.

5 points The assignment follows the required citation guidelines.

Incomplete The assignment does not address the questions in the assignment.

0 points The assignment does not present ideas in a clear manner and with strong organizational structure. The assignment includes an introduction, content, and conclusion, but coverage of facts, arguments, and conclusions are not logically related and consistent.

0 points

7 points The assignment is based upon adequate academic literature but does not include peer reviewed journals and other scholarly work.

3 points The assignment follows some of the required citation guidelines.

The assignment is not based upon appropriate and adequate academic literature and does not include peer reviewed journals and other scholarly work.

0 points The assignment does not follow the required citation guidelines.

5 points Grammar and Spelling

3 points The assignment has two or The assignment has three to fewer grammatical and spelling five grammatical and spelling errors. errors.

0 points The assignment is incomplete or unintelligible.

0 points

5 points

3 points

Standard Discussion Rubric Criteria Participation

Meets Requirements Submits or participates in discussion by the posted deadlines. Follows all assignment. instructions for initial post and responses.

5 points

Contribution Quality

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Comments stay on task.

Comments add value to discussion topic. Comments motivate other students to

Needs Improvement Incomplete Does not participate or submit Does not participate in discussion by the posted discussion. deadlines. Does not follow instructions for initial post and responses.

3 points Comments may not stay on task. Comments may not add value to discussion topic.

Comments may not motivate

0 points Does not participate in discussion.

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other students to respond.

respond.

10 points 20 points Etiquette

Maintains appropriate language. Offers criticism in a constructive manner. Provides both positive and negative feedback.

0 points Does not always maintain Does not participate in appropriate language. Offers discussion. criticism in an offensive manner. Provides only negative feedback.

5 points

3 points

0 points

Instructor Manual Russell A. Powell, P. Lynne Honey and Diane G. Symbaluk, Introduction to Learning and Behavior 6e, 2023, 9780357658475; Chapter 8: Extinction and Stimulus Control

Table of Contents Purpose and Perspective of the Chapter 74 Cengage Supplements 74 Chapter Objectives Key Terms

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What's New in This Chapter

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Chapter Outline76 Discussion Questions

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Additional Activities and Assignments Study Tip

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Additional Resources

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Suggested Readings ................................................................................................................................. 79 Internet Resources................................................................................................................................... 79 Appendix

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Generic Rubrics........................................................................................................................................ 79 Standard Writing Rubric .......................................................................................................................... 80 Standard Discussion Rubric ...................................................................................................................... 81

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Instructor Manual: Russell A. Powell, P. Lynne Honey and Diane G. Symbaluk, Introduction to Learning and Behavior 6e, 2023, 9780357658475; Chapter 8: Extinction and Stimulus Control

Purpose and Perspective of the Chapter The chapter begins with a discussion of operant extinction, which includes various side effects of extinction, resistance to extinction, and spontaneous recovery. This is followed by a discussion of stimulus control, including the basic processes of stimulus generalization and discrimination as well as such related concepts as the peak shift effect and errorless discrimination training. The chapter closes with several examples of the practical application of stimulus control procedures in both animals and humans.

Cengage Supplements The following product-level supplements provide additional information that may help you in preparing your course. They are available in the Instructor Resource Center.

• • • •

Transition Guide (provides information about what’s new from edition to edition) Instructor Manual (contains outlines, suggested activities, and resources for instructor use in the course) PowerPoint (provides text and image-based lectures with active learning activities) Test Bank (contains multiple-choice assessment questions and essay prompts)

Chapter Objectives The following objectives are addressed in this chapter: 8.1 Define operant extinction and describe how it differs from extinction in classical conditioning.

8.2 Describe the extinction burst, including each of the behavioral and emotional components.

8.3 Identify factors that affect resistance to extinction.

8.4 Explain why differential reinforcement of other behavior is often preferable to extinction alone.

8.5 Define stimulus control, including the concepts of generalization and discrimination.

8.6 Describe three types of contrast effects and how multiple schedules are used to investigate them.

8.7 Describe various applications of stimulus control for animal training and for improving studying.

8.8 Describe the basic procedure for developing a habit.

Key Terms anticipatory contrast: The process whereby the rate of response varies inversely with an upcoming (“anticipated”) change in the rate of reinforcement.

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behavioral contrast: A change in the rate of reinforcement on one component of a multiple schedule produces an opposite change in the rate of response on another component. differential reinforcement of other behavior (DRO): Reinforcement of any behavior other than a target behavior that is being extinguished. discrimination training: As applied to operant conditioning, the differential reinforcement of responding in the presence of one stimulus (the SD) and not another. errorless discrimination training: A discrimination training procedure that minimizes the number of errors (i.e., nonreinforced responses to the SΔ) and reduces many of the adverse effects associated with discrimination training. extinction: The nonreinforcement of a previously reinforced response, the result of which is a decrease in the future strength of that response. extinction burst: A temporary increase in the frequency and intensity of responding when extinction is first implemented. fading: The process of gradually altering the intensity of a stimulus. generalization gradient: A measure of the strength of responding in the presence of stimuli that are similar to the SD and vary along a continuum. multiple schedule: A complex schedule consisting of two or more independent schedules presented in sequence, each resulting in reinforcement and each having a distinctive SD. negative contrast effect: An increase in the rate of reinforcement on one component of a multiple schedule produces a decrease in the rate of response on the other component. partial reinforcement effect: The process whereby behavior that has been maintained on an intermittent (partial) schedule of reinforcement extinguishes more slowly than behavior that has been maintained on a continuous schedule. peak shift effect: Following discrimination training, the peak of a generalization gradient will shift from the SD to a stimulus that is further removed from the SΔ. positive contrast effect: A decrease in rate of reinforcement on one component of a multiple schedule produces an increase in the rate of response on the other component. resistance to extinction: The extent to which responding persists after an extinction procedure has been implemented. resurgence: The reappearance during extinction of other behaviors that had previously (sometime in the past) been effective in obtaining reinforcement. spontaneous recovery: The reappearance of an extinguished response, despite the continued absence of reinforcement, following a rest period after extinction. stimulus control: A situation in which the presence of a discriminative stimulus reliably affects the probability of a behavior. stimulus discrimination: In operant conditioning, the tendency for an operant response to be emitted more in the presence of one stimulus than another. stimulus generalization: In operant conditioning, the tendency for an operant response to be emitted in the presence of a stimulus that is similar to an SD.

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[return to top]

What’s New in This Chapter The following elements are improvements in this chapter from the previous edition: • • • • • • •

Tips and additional resources for consuming and understanding behavioral research Updated study questions and test bank resources Supplemental PowerPoint slides with discussion questions Clarification of the distinction between extinction and other processes involved in weakening or eliminating a behavior Both VI and VR schedules are emphasized as being capable of producing high resistance to extinction Updated examples of the practical application of stimulus control procedures in animals (e.g., scent detection of malignant tumors and tuberculosis) Discussion of habit development as an effective means for managing one’s behavior

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Chapter Outline In the following outline, each element includes references (in parentheses) to related content. "CH.##” refers to the chapter objective; “PPT Slide #” refers to the slide number in the PowerPoint deck for this chapter (provided in the PowerPoints section of the Instructor Resource Center). Introduce the chapter and use the Icebreaker in the PPT if desired, and if one is provided for this chapter. Review learning objectives for Chapter 8. (PPT Slide 3) I.

XVIII.

XIX.

Explanation of Opening Scenario (8.2‒8.3, 8.6‒8.8) d. As noted on pp. 316–317, the opening scenario can be viewed as an example of using anticipatory contrast to increase one’s attractiveness to others.

Explanation of Icebreaker Example (PPT Slide 2) a. The first two items listed in the PPT Icebreaker alert students to the practical relevance of some of the concepts discussed in this chapter, namely, the relevance of operant extinction to interpersonal relationships and the relevance of habits to behavior selfmanagement. The last item in the Icebreaker refers to the basic procedure for developing a habit (outlined in Slide 23) that students may find interesting.

Extinction (8.1‒8.4) a. Extinction is the nonreinforcement of a previously reinforced response that results in a decrease in the strength of that response. The distinction is made between the procedure of extinction and the process of extinction. The distinction is also made between extinction and other ways by which a behavior might decrease in strength, such as punishment and removing the opportunity to make the behavior. (Slide 4) b. Common side effects of extinction are discussed, including extinction burst, increased variability of behavior, resurgence, frustration and aggression, and depression. (Slides 5‒7) c. The concept of resistance to extinction is discussed along with factors that affect resistance to extinction, as well as the process of spontaneous recovery (Slides 8‒10) d. Differential reinforcement of other behavior (DRO)—the reinforcement of any behavior other than the one being reinforced—is presented as a useful alternative to a simple

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XX.

extinction procedure. Also discussed is the variant of DRO known as functional communication training. (Slides 11‒12) Stimulus Control (8.5‒8.8) a. Stimulus control is defined as the extent to which a discriminative stimulus reliably influences the probability of a behavior. This is followed by a description of the concepts of stimulus generalization and stimulus discrimination, as well as discrimination training and the peak shift effect that can result from it. (Slides 13‒15) b. Multiple schedules are described along with the concept of behavioral contrast. This is followed by a description of negative contrast, positive contrast, and anticipatory contrast. (Slides 16‒20) c. The concept of stimulus fading and its use in errorless discrimination training is presented, along with the practical benefits and drawbacks of such training. (Slide 21) d. Additional applications of stimulus control procedures are presented. This includes its use in the management of animals and in training animals to perform certain types of discriminations that are beneficial for humans (e.g., the detection of cancerous tumors by dogs and the development of healthy and productive habits in people). (Slides 22‒ 23)

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Discussion Questions You can assign these questions several ways: in a discussion forum in your LMS; as whole-class discussions in person; or as a partner or group activity in class.

10. Discussion: Side effects of extinction (pp. 294‒295; 8.2; PPT Slides 5‒7; Duration: 5‒10 minutes) a. Can you think of examples from your everyday life in which a process of extinction seemed to be occurring? What were some of the side effects of extinction that the person or animal displayed? Did some of these side effects end up being inadvertently reinforced, thereby prolonging extinction and making the problem worse? iii. Answer: Students can often provide examples of such factors as extinction burst, resurgence, emotional behavior, and depression. The extent to which people were required to limit their social interactions during the Covid pandemic might make for an especially interesting variant of this question.

11. Discussion: Stimulus control procedures for self-management (pp. 321‒322; 8.7; Slide 23; Duration: 5–10 minutes) a. What are some stimulus control procedures you use in your own life to help you manage your behavior? In particular, do you carry out certain activities, such as exercising or studying, in a particular setting, and do you think it facilitates your ability to carry out that activity. i. Answer: Good students will often report that they have a dedicated space in which they typically study and that they are far better able to concentrate while studying in that space. But exceptions to this might also be reported in which case it can be interesting to determine if these students are using some other cue to facilitate studying — for example, as always wearing headphones, which they carry around with them, when they study. It can also be interesting to have students who make use of a dedicated study space describe that space. You

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might find that a surprising number of them also make use of scented candles or a particular type of music that they feel is helpful. [return to top]

Additional Activities and Assignments 13. Dr. Dee Assignment: [Description] 1.

Dear Dr. Dee, I’m breaking up with my boyfriend, but I don’t want to hurt his feelings too much. My friend suggested that I wean him off of me by still going out with him on occasion.

What do you think?

Sally So Nice

2.

Dear Dr. Dee, The last woman that my friend, Bob, went out with was somewhat wild, which was quite different from previous women he had gone out with. Well, now he’s dating someone who is even more wild. What gives? Is he going through some kind of premature mid-life crisis?

A concerned friend

Relevant Concepts 1.

With reference to the partial reinforcement effect (p. 299), this may be a bad idea. It will probably only increase his persistence in trying to restore his relationship with her. If it is instead a “clean break,” he may recover more quickly from the break-up as the extinction process will not be prolonged.

2. It sounds like the peak shift effect may be the culprit here. Bob may have had a much better time with this somewhat wild woman (an SD) compared to the previous women he had gone out with (who were S∆ by comparison). As a result, he is now moving even further toward the direction of wildness, and away from conservativeness, on the assumption that more wildness is a good thing. (Needless to say, he may soon be getting a wake-up call.) (pp. 308– 310) [return to top]

Study Tip Stimulus control is also useful for creating an effective study environment. Many students study best in an environment in which distractions (cues for behavior other than studying) are kept to a minimum.

Students can also benefit from the use of a dedicated study environment, such as a particular desk, in which the cues are strongly associated with studying. The text provides a classic example of such a procedure that was reported by Fox (1962). Although this study leaves much to be desired from a scientific perspective (what are some of the ways in which it is only a weak demonstration of the effectiveness of these procedures?), students may find it interesting to experiment with using similar procedures to enhance their own studying.

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Additional Resources Suggested Readings Domjan, M. (2003). The principles of learning and behavior (5th ed.). Wadsworth.

Lerman, D. C., & Iwata, B. A. (1996). Developing a technology for the use of operant extinction in clinical settings: An examination of basic and applied research. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 29, 345–382.

Mindell, J. A. (1999). Empirically supported treatments in pediatric psychology: Bedtime refusal and night wakings in young children. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 24, 465–481.

Guthrie, E. R. (1952). The psychology of learning (Rev. ed.). Harper & Row (Original work published 1935).

Thomas, D. R. (1991). Stimulus control: Principles and procedures. In W. Ishaq (Ed.), Human behavior in today’s world (pp. 191–203). Praeger.

Internet Resources •

Confronting Tantrums https://vimeo.com/20436625 There are several videos on this website that focus on behavioral methods for dealing with various parenting issues. The episode entitled “confronting tantrums” provides examples of extinction, DRO, and functional communication training. The video also shows the use of time-out procedures (relevant to Chapter 9) and discusses the importance of teaching children to delay gratification (relevant to Chapter 10). Note that these videos are several years old and that many people, including some behaviorists, have more recently become uncomfortable with utilizing procedures that make children upset. This video could therefore also be used for a class discussion on whether such procedures are acceptable these days.

[return to top]

Appendix Generic Rubrics Providing students with rubrics helps them understand expectations and components of assignments.

Rubrics help students become more aware of their learning process and progress, and they improve students’ work through timely and detailed feedback. Customize these rubrics as you wish. The writing rubric indicates 40 points and the discussion rubric indicates 30 points.

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Instructor Manual: Russell A. Powell, P. Lynne Honey and Diane G. Symbaluk, Introduction to Learning and Behavior 6e, 2023, 9780357658475; Chapter 8: Extinction and Stimulus Control

Standard Writing Rubric Criteria Content

Organization and Clarity

Meets Requirements The assignment clearly and comprehensively addresses all questions in the assignment.

Needs Improvement The assignment partially addresses some or all questions in the assignment.

15 points

8 points

The assignment presents ideas The assignment presents ideas in a clear manner and with in a mostly clear manner and strong organizational structure. with a mostly strong The assignment includes an organizational structure. The appropriate introduction, assignment includes an content, and conclusion. appropriate introduction, Coverage of facts, arguments, content, and conclusion. and conclusions are logically Coverage of facts, arguments, related and consistent. and conclusions are mostly logically related and consistent.

10 points

Research

Research

The assignment is based upon appropriate and adequate academic literature, including peer reviewed journals and other scholarly work.

5 points The assignment follows the required citation guidelines.

Incomplete The assignment does not address the questions in the assignment.

0 points The assignment does not present ideas in a clear manner and with strong organizational structure. The assignment includes an introduction, content, and conclusion, but coverage of facts, arguments, and conclusions are not logically related and consistent.

0 points

7 points The assignment is based upon adequate academic literature but does not include peer reviewed journals and other scholarly work.

3 points The assignment follows some of the required citation guidelines.

The assignment is not based upon appropriate and adequate academic literature and does not include peer reviewed journals and other scholarly work.

0 points The assignment does not follow the required citation guidelines.

5 points Grammar and Spelling

3 points The assignment has two or The assignment has three to fewer grammatical and spelling five grammatical and spelling errors. errors.

0 points The assignment is incomplete or unintelligible.

0 points

5 points

website, in whole or in part.

3 points

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Instructor Manual: Russell A. Powell, P. Lynne Honey and Diane G. Symbaluk, Introduction to Learning and Behavior 6e, 2023, 9780357658475; Chapter 9: Escape, Avoidance, and Punishment

Standard Discussion Rubric Criteria Participation

Meets Requirements Submits or participates in discussion by the posted deadlines. Follows all assignment. instructions for initial post and responses.

5 points Comments stay on task.

Comments add value to discussion topic. Comments motivate other students to respond.

Contribution Quality

Needs Improvement Incomplete Does not participate or submit Does not participate in discussion by the posted discussion. deadlines. Does not follow instructions for initial post and responses.

3 points Comments may not stay on task. Comments may not add value to discussion topic.

Comments may not motivate other students to respond.

0 points Does not participate in discussion.

10 points Etiquette

0 points

20 points Maintains appropriate language. Offers criticism in a constructive manner. Provides both positive and negative feedback.

Does not always maintain Does not participate in appropriate language. Offers discussion. criticism in an offensive manner. Provides only negative feedback.

5 points

3 points

0 points

Instructor Manual Russell A. Powell, P. Lynne Honey and Diane G. Symbaluk, Introduction to Learning and Behavior 6e, 2023, 9780357658475; Chapter 9: Escape, Avoidance, and Punishment

Table of Contents Purpose and Perspective of the Chapter 83 Cengage Supplements 83 Chapter Objectives Key Terms

83

83

What's New in This Chapter

84

Chapter Outline85 Discussion Questions

86

Additional Activities and Assignments Study Tip

86

87

Additional Resources

87

Suggested Readings ................................................................................................................................. 87 Internet Resources................................................................................................................................... 88

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Instructor Manual: Russell A. Powell, P. Lynne Honey and Diane G. Symbaluk, Introduction to Learning and Behavior 6e, 2023, 9780357658475; Chapter 9: Escape, Avoidance, and Punishment

Appendix

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Generic Rubrics........................................................................................................................................ 88 Standard Writing Rubric .......................................................................................................................... 89 Standard Discussion Rubric ...................................................................................................................... 90

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Instructor Manual: Russell A. Powell, P. Lynne Honey and Diane G. Symbaluk, Introduction to Learning and Behavior 6e, 2023, 9780357658475; Chapter 9: Escape, Avoidance, and Punishment

Purpose and Perspective of the Chapter The purpose of this chapter is to outline the effects of aversive consequences on behavior. It includes a discussion of the two-process theory of avoidance and its relationship to our understanding of phobias and obsessive-compulsive behavior. This is followed by a discussion of punishment, including several problems with the use of punishment and how, if punishment is used, such problems can be minimized.

Various theories of punishment are also briefly discussed. The chapter closes with a discussion of the adverse effects of uncontrollable and unpredictable aversive consequences on behavior, and their relationship to depression and post-traumatic stress disorder.

Cengage Supplements The following product-level supplements provide additional information that may help you in preparing your course. They are available in the Instructor Resource Center.

• • • •

Transition Guide (provides information about what’s new from edition to edition) Instructor Manual (contains outlines, suggested activities, and resources for instructor use in the course) PowerPoint (provides text and image-based lectures with active learning activities) Test Bank (contains multiple-choice assessment questions and essay prompts)

Chapter Objectives The following objectives are addressed in this chapter: 9.1 Define and distinguish between escape and avoidance.

9.2 Describe research results about the role of avoidance conditioning for phobias.

9.3 Describe research results about the role of avoidance conditioning for obsessive–compulsive disorder.

9.4 Define and distinguish among different types of punishment.

9.5 Describe risks associated with the use of punishment.

9.6 Describe the possible benefits of punishment and how it can be effectively used.

9.7 Compare and contrast the different theories of punishment.

9.8 Describe effects of noncontingent punishment, including learned helplessness and experimental neurosis.

Key Terms avoidance theory of punishment: The theory that punishment involves a type of avoidance conditioning

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in which the avoidance response consists of any behavior other than the behavior being punished. conditioned suppression theory of punishment: The theory that punishment does not weaken a behavior, but instead produces an emotional response that interferes with the occurrence of the behavior. exposure and response prevention (ERP): A method of treating obsessive–compulsive behavior that involves prolonged exposure to anxiety-arousing events while not engaging in the compulsive behavior pattern that reduces the anxiety. extrinsic punishment: Punishment that is not an inherent aspect of the behavior being punished but is the result of a separate event that follows the behavior. generalized (or generalized secondary) punisher: An event that has become punishing because it has in the past been associated with many other punishers. intrinsic punishment: Punishment that is an inherent aspect of the behavior being punished, that is, the act of engaging in the behavior is itself punishing. learned helplessness: A decrement in learning ability that results from repeated exposure to uncontrollable aversive events.

Premack principle of punishment: A low-probability behavior (LPB) can be used to punish a highprobability behavior (HPB). primary (or unconditioned) punisher: Any event that is innately punishing. response cost: A form of negative punishment involving the removal of a specific reinforcer following the occurrence of a behavior. secondary (or conditioned) punisher: An event that has become punishing because it has in the past been associated with some other punisher. time-out: A form of negative punishment involving the loss of access to positive reinforcers for a brief period of time following the occurrence of a problem behavior. two-process theory of avoidance: The theory that avoidance behavior is the result of two distinct processes: (1) classical conditioning, in which a fear response comes to be elicited by a CS, and (2) operant conditioning, in which moving away from the CS is negatively reinforced by a reduction in fear. [return to top]

What’s New in This Chapter The following elements are improvements in this chapter from the previous edition: • • • •

Tips and additional resources for consuming and understanding behavioral research Updated study questions and test bank resources Supplemental PowerPoint slides with discussion questions Clarification of the distinction between punishment and other processes that may result in weakening or eliminating a behavior

[return to top]

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Instructor Manual: Russell A. Powell, P. Lynne Honey and Diane G. Symbaluk, Introduction to Learning and Behavior 6e, 2023, 9780357658475; Chapter 9: Escape, Avoidance, and Punishment

Chapter Outline In the following outline, each element includes references (in parentheses) to related content. "CH.##” refers to the chapter objective; “PPT Slide #” refers to the slide number in the PowerPoint deck for this chapter (provided in the PowerPoints section of the Instructor Resource Center). Introduce the chapter and use the Icebreaker in the PPT if desired, and if one is provided for this chapter. Review learning objectives for Chapter 9. (PPT Slide 3) I.

XXI.

XXII.

XXIII.

Explanation of Opening Scenario (9.8, PPT Slide 21) e. This scenario illustrates how, through the delivery of noncontingent punishment, one person may instill in another a sense of helplessness, thereby leading to symptoms of depression.

Explanation of Icebreaker Example (9.2 & 9.5) a. With respect to the first item, the person subsequently avoids dogs, thereby preventing extinction from taking place. (Slide 10) b. Many students can readily identify with the types of problems created by managers who too often use punishment to control their employees. This provides a good illustration of the negative side effects associated with punishment. For example, punished employees will often show a generalized suppression of behavior in the form of doing only what is required of them. (Slides 15‒16) Escape and Avoidance (9.1‒9.3, Slides 4‒11) a. The distinction is made between escaping an aversive stimulus versus avoiding it, both of which are strengthened through negative reinforcement. (Slides 4–5) b. Mowrer’s two-process theory of avoidance is outlined, along with various problems associated with the theory and the answers given to those problems (including the alternative one-process theory of avoidance). (Slides 6‒8) c. The role of avoidance conditioning in phobias is discussed. This includes Stampfl’s explanation for differences between animal models of avoidance conditioning and human phobias. (Slides 9‒10) d. The role of avoidance conditioning in obsessive-compulsive behavior is discussed as well as the use of exposure and response prevention as a method for treating the disorder.

(Slide 11) Punishment (9.4‒9.7, Slides 12‒19) a. The different types of punishment are described, including positive and negative punishment (which includes a description of response cost versus time-out procedures), and intrinsic and extrinsic punishment, as well as primary, secondary, and generalized secondary punishment. (Slides 13‒14) b. Several problems with the use of punishment are outlined as well as potential benefits of punishment and suggestions for the effective use of punishment. (Slides 15‒19). c. Different theories of punishment are described, including the conditioned suppression theory of punishment, the avoidance theory of punishment, and the Premack principle as applied to punishment. (Slide 19) d. The effects of noncontingent punishment on behavior are outlined, including learned helplessness (which results from exposure to uncontrollable aversive events) and Masserman’s experimental neurosis (which results from exposure to unpredictable aversive events). (Slides 19‒22)

[return to top]

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Instructor Manual: Russell A. Powell, P. Lynne Honey and Diane G. Symbaluk, Introduction to Learning and Behavior 6e, 2023, 9780357658475; Chapter 9: Escape, Avoidance, and Punishment

Discussion Questions You can assign these questions several ways: in a discussion forum in your LMS; as whole-class discussions in person; or as a partner or group activity in class.

12. Discussion: The use of punishment vs. positive reinforcement for managing behavior in the workplace (pp. 346‒347; 9.5; PPT Slide 2; Duration: 5‒10 minutes) q. From your own personal experience, have you ever encountered an example of a person in a position of authority, such as a manager (but don’t give the person’s or company’s name), who you think too often used punishment or the threat of punishment to motivate those beneath them? Did any of the problems associated with the use of punishment occur, for example, avoidance of the manager or slacking off when the manager wasn’t present? Conversely, did you ever work for a manager or other person in a position of authority who more often used positive reinforcement to motivate people? Were the workers or students in that setting more or less efficient than those working for the punishing manager? To what extent did you or the other people being managed or taught by them sometimes do more than was expected? i. Answer: Several students are likely to have encountered examples of both. They will almost invariably say that that they were much better workers for the manager or teacher who emphasized positive reinforcement. If you encounter an example of a very strict manager who was considered to be effective, find out if they also made plentiful use of reinforcement and/or if there was some type of benefit or status associated with being able to cope with a punishing environment, such as in military training. [return to top]

Additional Activities and Assignments 14. Dr. Dee Assignment: [Description] 1.

Dear Dr. Dee, My boyfriend sometimes flies off the handle at the most unexpected moments, usually when we are having a real good time. I’m getting really stressed out about this, though he says he’s just a bit moody and that I should learn to live with it. Your opinion?

So stressed

2.

Dear Dr. Dee, I’ve been trying to shape up my partner by giving him lots of constructive criticism.

Unfortunately, he’s become a real dud with little or no motivation to do anything these days. Any advice?

A real caring guy

Related Concepts 1.

As shown in studies on experimental neurosis, unpredictable aversive stimulation can have serious psychological effects, especially when the aversive events occur in situations usually associated with something pleasant (pp. 356–357). This suggests that the writer probably won’t be able to learn to live with it. The stress reaction is likely to worsen as time passes.

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2.

This story is similar to the story portrayed in the opening scenario to this chapter. It may be that all that punishment (criticism) started to result in a generalized suppression of his boyfriend’s other behaviors (p. 352). Something like learned helplessness could also be involved, especially if he is starting to show other symptoms of depression (pp. 354–356).

Thus, the real problem seems to be with the writer’s use of punishment to try to change behavior. [return to top]

Study Tip Punishment may also play a role in the tendency to procrastinate. The text provides an example of Robert Boice’s detailed analyses of the work habits of faculty members, distinguishing those who are productive writers from those who are not (the writing of articles and books arguably being one of the most challenging tasks professors face). The basic notion is that when procrastinators finally do get around to writing, they engage in “binge write” for many hours, often to the point of exhaustion. This then punishes the act of writing and strengthens their tendency to procrastinate in the future. Although Boice’s advice is directed toward faculty, it has obvious implications for students. Students should seriously consider the benefits of engaging in shorter, more consistent study sessions throughout the semester (even though, for most students, a certain amount of cramming around deadline dates and exam time is probably unavoidable). Students should also consider systematically breaking up long study sessions into a series of brief sessions with frequent breaks for rest and recuperation.

Additional Resources Suggested Readings Azrin, N. H., & Holz, W. C. (1966). Punishment. In W. K. Honig (Ed.), Operant behavior: Areas of research and application. Appleton.

Foa, E. B., Zinbarg, R., & Rothbaum, B. O. (1992). Uncontrollability and unpredictability in post-traumatic stress disorder: An animal model. Psychological Bulletin, 112, 218–238.

Levis, D. J., & Brewer, K. E. (2001). The neurotic paradox: Attempts by two-factor fear theory and alternative avoidance models to resolve the issues associated with sustained avoidance responding in extinction. In R. R. Mowrer & S. B. Klein (Eds.), Handbook of contemporary learning theories.

Lawrence Erlbaum.

Lilienfeld, S. O., Kirsch, I., Sarbin, T. R., Lynn, S. J., Chaves, J. F., Ganaway, G. K., & Powell, R. A. (1999).

Dissociative Identity Disorder and the sociocognitive model: Recalling the lessons of the past.

Psychological Bulletin, 125, 507–523.

Masserman, J. H. (1943). Behavior and neurosis: An experimental psychoanalytic approach to psychobiologic principles. University of Chicago Press.

Rachman, S., & Hodgson, R. J. (1980). Obsessions and compulsions. Prentice Hall.

Seligman, M. E. P. (1975). Helplessness: On depression, development, and death. Freeman.

Sidman, M. (1989). Coercion and its fallout. Authors Cooperative.

Stampfl, T. G. (1987). Theoretical implications of the neurotic paradox as a problem in behavior theory: An experimental resolution. Behavior Analyst, 10, 161–173.

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Instructor Manual: Russell A. Powell, P. Lynne Honey and Diane G. Symbaluk, Introduction to Learning and Behavior 6e, 2023, 9780357658475; Chapter 9: Escape, Avoidance, and Punishment

Internet Resources •

Obsessive Compulsive Foundation https://iocdf.org/ This is a resource website for OCD, including a discussion of cognitive-behavioral treatments for the disorder.

•

Is Spanking Harmful? https://www.apa.org/monitor/2012/04/spanking This is a link to an APA article on the negative effects of physical punishment and on the use of ABA procedures utilizing positive reinforcement and time-out procedures as more effective alternatives.

•

Shock Collars and how owners can be seduced into using them https://video.clickertraining.com/programs/the-seductiveness-of-shock

[return to top]

Appendix Generic Rubrics Providing students with rubrics helps them understand expectations and components of assignments.

Rubrics help students become more aware of their learning process and progress, and they improve students’ work through timely and detailed feedback. Customize these rubrics as you wish. The writing rubric indicates 40 points and the discussion rubric indicates 30 points.

website, in whole or in part.

88

Instructor Manual: Russell A. Powell, P. Lynne Honey and Diane G. Symbaluk, Introduction to Learning and Behavior 6e, 2023, 9780357658475; Chapter 9: Escape, Avoidance, and Punishment

Standard Writing Rubric Criteria Content

Organization and Clarity

Meets Requirements The assignment clearly and comprehensively addresses all questions in the assignment.

Needs Improvement The assignment partially addresses some or all questions in the assignment.

15 points

8 points

The assignment presents ideas The assignment presents ideas in a clear manner and with in a mostly clear manner and strong organizational structure. with a mostly strong The assignment includes an organizational structure. The appropriate introduction, assignment includes an content, and conclusion. appropriate introduction, Coverage of facts, arguments, content, and conclusion. and conclusions are logically Coverage of facts, arguments, related and consistent. and conclusions are mostly logically related and consistent.

10 points

Research

Research

The assignment is based upon appropriate and adequate academic literature, including peer reviewed journals and other scholarly work.

5 points The assignment follows the required citation guidelines.

Incomplete The assignment does not address the questions in the assignment.

0 points The assignment does not present ideas in a clear manner and with strong organizational structure. The assignment includes an introduction, content, and conclusion, but coverage of facts, arguments, and conclusions are not logically related and consistent.

0 points

7 points The assignment is based upon adequate academic literature but does not include peer reviewed journals and other scholarly work.

3 points The assignment follows some of the required citation guidelines.

The assignment is not based upon appropriate and adequate academic literature and does not include peer reviewed journals and other scholarly work.

0 points The assignment does not follow the required citation guidelines.

5 points Grammar and Spelling

3 points The assignment has two or The assignment has three to fewer grammatical and spelling five grammatical and spelling errors. errors.

0 points The assignment is incomplete or unintelligible.

0 points

5 points

website, in whole or in part.

3 points

89

Instructor Manual: Russell A. Powell, P. Lynne Honey and Diane G. Symbaluk, Introduction to Learning and Behavior 6e 2023, 9780357658475; Chapter 10: Choice, Matching, and Self-Control

Standard Discussion Rubric Criteria Participation

Meets Requirements Submits or participates in discussion by the posted deadlines. Follows all assignment. instructions for initial post and responses.

5 points Comments stay on task.

Comments add value to discussion topic. Comments motivate other students to respond.

Contribution Quality

Needs Improvement Incomplete Does not participate or submit Does not participate in discussion by the posted discussion. deadlines. Does not follow instructions for initial post and responses.

3 points Comments may not stay on task. Comments may not add value to discussion topic.

Comments may not motivate other students to respond.

0 points Does not participate in discussion.

10 points Etiquette

0 points

20 points Maintains appropriate language. Offers criticism in a constructive manner. Provides both positive and negative feedback.

Does not always maintain Does not participate in appropriate language. Offers discussion. criticism in an offensive manner. Provides only negative feedback.

5 points

3 points

0 points

Instructor Manual Russell A. Powell, P. Lynne Honey and Diane G. Symbaluk, Introduction to Learning and Behavior 6e 2023, 9780357658475; Chapter 10: Choice, Matching, and Self-Control

Table of Contents Purpose and Perspective of the Chapter 92 Cengage Supplements 92 Chapter Objectives Key Terms

92

92

What's New in This Chapter

93

Chapter Outline94 Discussion Questions

95

Additional Activities and Assignments Study Tip

96

96

Additional Resources

96

Suggested Readings ................................................................................................................................. 96 Internet Resources................................................................................................................................... 97

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Instructor Manual: Russell A. Powell, P. Lynne Honey and Diane G. Symbaluk, Introduction to Learning and Behavior 6e 2023, 9780357658475; Chapter 10: Choice, Matching, and Self-Control

Appendix

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Generic Rubrics........................................................................................................................................ 98 Standard Writing Rubric .......................................................................................................................... 99 Standard Discussion Rubric .................................................................................................................... 100

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Instructor Manual: Russell A. Powell, P. Lynne Honey and Diane G. Symbaluk, Introduction to Learning and Behavior 6e 2023, 9780357658475; Chapter 10: Choice, Matching, and Self-Control

Purpose and Perspective of the Chapter Operant conditioning in the real world is rarely a matter of being offered only one source of reinforcement. Instead, individuals typically choose between alternative sources of reinforcement. In this chapter, we examine some of the principles by which such choices are made—especially the principle of matching, which stipulates that the amount of behavior directed toward an alternative is often proportional to the amount of reinforcement we receive from that alternative. We also examine behavioral approaches to self-control that often characterize such choices in terms of choosing between larger later rewards and smaller sooner rewards.

Cengage Supplements The following product-level supplements provide additional information that may help you in preparing your course. They are available in the Instructor Resource Center.

• • • •

Transition Guide (provides information about what’s new from edition to edition) Instructor Manual (contains outlines, suggested activities, and resources for instructor use in the course) PowerPoint (provides text and image-based lectures with active learning activities) Test Bank (contains multiple-choice assessment questions and prompts)

Chapter Objectives The following objectives are addressed in this chapter: 10.1 10.2

Describe how concurrent schedules of reinforcement are used to study choice behaviors.

Define the matching law.

10.3

Describe undermatching, overmatching, and bias from matching, including predictions for when those deviations from matching will occur.

10.4 Distinguish between matching and melioration.

10.5

Outline the challenges of defining self-control and willpower.

10.6

Describe Skinner’s views on self-control, including the distinction between controlling and controlled responses.

10.7

Describe the effects of immediate and delayed reinforcement and punishment on selfcontrol.

10.8

Describe the Ainslie–Rachlin model of self-control, including predictions about when impulsive behavior is likely to occur and when commitments are likely to be made.

10.9 Describe several strategies to improve self-control.

Key Terms bias from matching: A deviation from matching in which one response alternative attracts a higher proportion of responses than would be predicted by matching, regardless of whether that alternative contains the richer or poorer schedule.

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commitment response: An action carried out at an early point in time that serves to either eliminate or reduce the value of an upcoming temptation. Also called a precommitment response. concurrent schedule of reinforcement: A complex schedule consisting of the simultaneous presentation of two or more independent schedules, each leading to a reinforcer. impulsiveness: With respect to a choice between two rewards, selecting a smaller sooner reward over a larger later reward. matching law: The principle that the proportion of responses emitted on a particular schedule will tend to match the proportion of reinforcers obtained on that schedule. melioration theory: A theory of matching that holds that the distribution of behavior in a choice situation shifts toward those alternatives that have higher value regardless of the long-term effect on overall amount of reinforcement. overmatching: A deviation from matching in which the proportion of responses on the richer schedule versus poorer schedule is more different than would be predicted by matching. self-control: With respect to a choice between two rewards, selecting a larger later reward over a smaller sooner reward. small-but-cumulative effects model: A model of self-control in which each individual choice between a smaller sooner and larger later reward has only a small but cumulative effect on our likelihood of obtaining the desired outcome. undermatching: A deviation from matching in which the proportion of responses on the richer schedule versus poorer schedule is less different than would be predicted by matching. [return to top]

What’s New in This Chapter The following elements are improvements in this chapter from the previous edition: • • • • •

•

Tips and additional resources for consuming and understanding behavioral research Updated study questions and test bank resources Supplemental PowerPoint slides with discussion questions The section on the matching law now includes a simplified step-by-step guide on how to calculate what the matching law predicts concerning the expected proportion of responses emitted on two concurrent VI schedules of reinforcement.

The section on Mischel’s delay of gratification paradigm now mentions various social and environmental factors that can affect a child’s ability to delay gratification. This section includes a widely publicized criticism of the claim by Shoda and Mischel that children’s ability to delay gratification was predictive of their competence and success in later life, as well as a recent rebuttal of that criticism.

The section self-control now includes a discussion of “revenge bedtime procrastination” that some students will be able to identify with.

[return to top]

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Instructor Manual: Russell A. Powell, P. Lynne Honey and Diane G. Symbaluk, Introduction to Learning and Behavior 6e 2023, 9780357658475; Chapter 10: Choice, Matching, and Self-Control

Chapter Outline In the following outline, each element includes references (in parentheses) to related content. "CH.##” refers to the chapter objective; “PPT Slide #” refers to the slide number in the PowerPoint deck for this chapter (provided in the PowerPoints section of the Instructor Resource Center). Introduce the chapter and use the Icebreaker in the PPT if desired, and if one is provided for this chapter. Review learning objectives for Chapter 10. (PPT Slide 3) I.

XXIV.

XXV.

Explanation of Opening Scenario (CH 10.3, PPT Slides 16‒17) e. As noted in the Advice for the Lovelorn column on p. 383, the tendency to meliorate may result in overconsumption of a valued reinforcer (in this case, spending too much time with the person one loves) such that one gets habituated to that event. The outcome is that the overall amount of reinforcement in one’s life may actually decrease.

Hence, Jon’s concerns are quite valid.

Choice and Matching (10.2‒10.4) a. Concurrent schedules of reinforcement consist of two or more simultaneously available schedules, and the subject is able to choose which one to earn reinforcers on. (Slides 4‒ 6) b. On concurrent VI schedules, one tends to match proportion of responses on each schedule to proportion of reinforcers available on that schedule. The basic matching equation is given, along with an example of how to calculate predicted proportions of responses given two concurrent VI schedules. The relevance of matching to such behaviors as foraging in animals and human social behavior is also discussed. (Slides 7‒ 14) c. Deviations from matching are discussed. In undermatching, there is less difference in responding to the richer vs. poorer schedule than matching would predict; in overmatching, there is more difference in responding to the richer vs. poorer schedule.

In bias, there is some type of additional (nonschedule) factor that results in additional responses being made to one of the schedules. (Slides 12‒14) d. The relationship of matching to melioration is discussed along with three ways in which the tendency to meliorate (select the highest value alternative at that point in time) can actually reduce overall reinforcement. (Slides 15‒16) Self-Control (10.5‒10.9) a. The difference between traditional notions of willpower and behavioral conceptions self-control are presented. (Slide 18) b. Skinner’s distinction between controlling versus controlled responses is discussed, along with his examples of the types of controlling responses that people use. This includes self-reinforcement, which is, however, also problematic in that one can easily “shortcircuit the contingency.” (Slides 19‒20) c. Research on self-control as a temporal issue is presented, beginning with Mischel’s delay of gratification paradigm in which children are given the task of waiting for relatively long periods of time if they wish to eventually receive a larger reward. (Slides 21‒22) d. The Ainslie‒Rachlin model similarly views the subject as choosing between a smaller sooner reward (SSR), which often called a temptation, and a larger later reward (LLR).

Based on the fact there is a hyperbolic relationship between reward value and delay, we often experience a reversal of preference reversal from the LLR to the SSR when the latter becomes imminent. (Slides 23‒25)

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e. Various factors associated with individual differences in impulsivity (preference for the SSRs) are discussed along with two general strategies for increasing self-control: (1) raise the value of the LLR at earlier points in time, such as by setting subgoals, so that it will override the value of the SSR when the latter becomes imminent, or (2) lower the value of, or eliminate, the SSR so that it no longer effectively competes against the LLR. (Slides 26‒27) f. The small-but-cumulative effects model is presented as an additional factor that influences impulsivity versus self-control. In many situations, any single choice of an SSR over an LLR has little or no effect on the long-term outcome, which makes it easy to justify succumbing to a temptation whenever it becomes available—the cumulative effect of which does make a difference. (Slide 28) [return to top]

Discussion Questions You can assign these questions several ways: in a discussion forum in your LMS; as whole-class discussions in person; or as a partner or group activity in class.

13. Discussion: Matching and deviations from matching (pp. 369‒379; 10.2‒10.3; PPT Slides 7‒14); Duration: 5 minutes) r. A bear finds 70% of its food in a canyon and 30% of its food on the bank of a river.

According to the matching law, what percentage of its time would the bear spend in each area? i. Answer: canyon: 70%; river bank: 30% s. If the bear happens to injure its leg such that it becomes somewhat painful to walk, in what way might the bear’s behavior depart from matching? What would be an example of the percentage distribution of behavior to each food patch that might occur? And what type of deviation from matching is this called? i. Answer: The bear might spend more time in the canyon than the matching law would predict, e.g., canyon: 80%; river bank: 20%. This is called overmatching. t. If the distribution of behavior were canyon = 60% and river bank = 40%, what type of deviation from matching is that called? And why might such a deviation occur? i. Answer: This would be called undermatching, and it would occur if it were very easy for the bear to travel from one food patch to the other.

14. Discussion: Ainslie‒Rachlin model of self-control (pp. 392‒400; 10.8; PPT Slides 23‒27; Duration: 10 minutes) a. Even though Emily plans to study each evening, she almost always ends up watching TV or socializing with her friends. By contrast, Adil almost always follows through on his plans to study in the evening. In terms of the Ainslie‒Rachlin model of self-control, draw a graph that illustrates how the delay functions for the different rewards involved would look like for each of them. What are some things that Emily could do to rectify her situation? i. The relevant graphs are Figure 10.4 on p. 395 for Emily’s situation and Figure 10.5 p. 397 for Adil’s situation. If Emily wants to rectify her situation, she needs to implement various tactics ahead of time to increase the value of the LLR early on, such as by creating subgoals, or lower the value of the SSR when it becomes imminent, such as by making a commitment response. [return to top]

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Additional Activities and Assignments 15. Dr. Dee Assignment: [Description] 1.

Dear Dr. Dee, I know I should be more attentive to my girlfriend, but it seems like each evening I end up spending more time on the computer than interacting with her. Any suggestions?

The hacker

2.

Dear Dr. Dee, Now that I’ve learned to fully appreciate the power of positive reinforcement, I’ve decided to carry out a self-modification program. I’ve decided to give myself a chocolate each time I’m more kind, and less argumentative, with my boyfriend. Do you think this will work?

Too cranky

Relevant Concepts 1. The matching law predicts a consistent relationship between the proportion of reinforcers obtained on a certain alternative and the proportion of responses emitted on that alternative (pp. 371‒375). Also, computers can provide a rather dense source of relatively immediate reinforcement compared to the long-term rewards to be gained from a relationship (p. 387). Thus, somehow restricting the amount of computer time could result in increased interest in his relationship with his girlfriend.

2. This may not work, since there is nothing to stop her from short-circuiting the contingency by giving herself a chocolate even when she has been argumentative with her boyfriend (p.

385). Indeed, chances are she would most want a chocolate (be impulsive) when she is in an argumentative mood anyway (p. 398). [return to top]

Study Tip This chapter, in addition to offering further tips for studying, also presents some theoretical frameworks within which to conceptualize the self-management tactics being suggested. Thus, it can be just as important for students to schedule sufficient amounts of recreation in their lives as it is to schedule sufficient amounts of studying. It is also important for students to pay close attention to the three pillars of a healthy lifestyle: adequate sleep, regular exercise, and healthy eating patterns (bearing in mind that, in each case, what is optimal for you may be different from what is optimal for someone else).

Allowing these behaviors to deteriorate—as so often happens in undergraduates, especially those who, for the first time, are living away from home—can significantly undermine one’s ability to learn and study.

Additional Resources Suggested Readings Ainslie, G. (1986). Beyond microeconomics: Conflict among interests in a multiple self as a determinant of value. In J. Elster (Ed.), The multiple self. Cambridge University Press.

Ainslie, G. (1992). Picoeconomics: The strategic intervention of successive motivational states within the person. Cambridge University Press.

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Epstein, R. (1997). Skinner as self-manager. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 30, 545–568.

Herrnstein, R. J. (1997). The matching law: Papers in psychology and economics. Harvard University Press.

Logue, A. W. (1995). Self-control: Waiting until tomorrow for what you want today. Prentice-Hall.

Mazur, J. E. (2002). Learning and behavior (5th ed.). Prentice-Hall.

Mischel, W. (1974). Processes in delay of gratification. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (vol. 7). Academic Press.

Rachlin, H. (1974). Self-control. Behaviorism, 2, 94–107.

Skinner, B. F. (1953). Science and human behavior. Macmillan.

Watson, D. L., & Tharp, R. G. (1997). Self-directed behavior: Self-modification for personal adjustment (7th ed.). Brooks/Cole.

Internet Resources •

The Paradox of Choice https://www.ted.com/talks/barry_schwartz_the_paradox_of_choice?language=se This is a link to a TED talk given by Barry Schwartz, where he discusses evidence that having too many choices may be bad for people, in the sense that it makes people less happy and less satisfied.

•

Behavior Self-Management http://www.psychologicalselfhelp.org/Chapter4/ http://www.psychologicalselfhelp.org/Chapter11/ These are links to Psychological Self-Help, which is an online textbook outlining self-help methods of psychological treatment. Chapters 4 and 11 discuss various techniques of behavior self-management. See also the appendix in the textbook.

•

Self-Control Software http://visitsteve.com/made/selfcontrol/ (for Macs) http://getcoldturkey.com/ (for PCs) This is free software that allows people to block their own access to Internet sites (including email, Facebook, or other distracting Web sites) for a predetermined amount of time. This is a great example of a tool that can help someone who needs a way of making a commitment response (to avoid distractions) while working on a computer.

•

Teaching Your Child Self-Control http://kidshealth.org/parent/emotions/behavior/self_control.html# This Web site provides age-specific suggestions for improving self-control in children, through social learning and shaping.

[return to top]

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Appendix Generic Rubrics Providing students with rubrics helps them understand expectations and components of assignments.

Rubrics help students become more aware of their learning process and progress, and they improve students’ work through timely and detailed feedback. Customize these rubrics as you wish. The writing rubric indicates 40 points and the discussion rubric indicates 30 points.

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Standard Writing Rubric Criteria Content

Organization and Clarity

Meets Requirements The assignment clearly and comprehensively addresses all questions in the assignment.

Needs Improvement The assignment partially addresses some or all questions in the assignment.

15 points

8 points

The assignment presents ideas The assignment presents ideas in a clear manner and with in a mostly clear manner and strong organizational structure. with a mostly strong The assignment includes an organizational structure. The appropriate introduction, assignment includes an content, and conclusion. appropriate introduction, Coverage of facts, arguments, content, and conclusion. and conclusions are logically Coverage of facts, arguments, related and consistent. and conclusions are mostly logically related and consistent.

10 points

Research

Research

The assignment is based upon appropriate and adequate academic literature, including peer reviewed journals and other scholarly work.

5 points The assignment follows the required citation guidelines.

Incomplete The assignment does not address the questions in the assignment.

0 points The assignment does not present ideas in a clear manner and with strong organizational structure. The assignment includes an introduction, content, and conclusion, but coverage of facts, arguments, and conclusions are not logically related and consistent.

0 points

7 points The assignment is based upon adequate academic literature but does not include peer reviewed journals and other scholarly work.

3 points The assignment follows some of the required citation guidelines.

The assignment is not based upon appropriate and adequate academic literature and does not include peer reviewed journals and other scholarly work.

0 points The assignment does not follow the required citation guidelines.

5 points Grammar and Spelling

3 points The assignment has two or The assignment has three to fewer grammatical and spelling five grammatical and spelling errors. errors.

0 points The assignment is incomplete or unintelligible.

0 points

5 points

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Standard Discussion Rubric Criteria Participation

Meets Requirements Submits or participates in discussion by the posted deadlines. Follows all assignment. instructions for initial post and responses.

5 points

Contribution Quality

Comments stay on task.

Comments add value to discussion topic. Comments motivate other students to respond.

Needs Improvement Incomplete Does not participate or submit Does not participate in discussion by the posted discussion. deadlines. Does not follow instructions for initial post and responses.

3 points Comments may not stay on task. Comments may not add value to discussion topic.

Comments may not motivate other students to respond.

0 points Does not participate in discussion.

10 points Etiquette

0 points

20 points Maintains appropriate language. Offers criticism in a constructive manner. Provides both positive and negative feedback.

Does not always maintain Does not participate in appropriate language. Offers discussion. criticism in an offensive manner. Provides only negative feedback.

5 points

3 points

0 points

Instructor Manual Russell A. Powell, P. Lynne Honey and Diane G. Symbaluk, Introduction to Learning and Behavior 6e 2023, 9780357658475; Chapter 11: Observational Learning and Rule-Governed Behavior

Table of Contents Purpose and Perspective of the Chapter 102 Cengage Supplements 102 Chapter Objectives Key Terms

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102

What's New in This Chapter

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Chapter Outline103 Discussion Questions

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Additional Activities and Assignments Study Tip

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106

Additional Resources

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Suggested Readings ............................................................................................................................... 106 Internet Resources................................................................................................................................. 107

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Appendix

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Generic Rubrics...................................................................................................................................... 108 Standard Writing Rubric ........................................................................................................................ 109 Standard Discussion Rubric .................................................................................................................... 110

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Purpose and Perspective of the Chapter Much of this text has been concerned with basic processes of conditioning in which new patterns of behavior are acquired through direct exposure to the relevant events. But not all behavior patterns are acquired this directly. Some people learn to fear dogs without ever being bitten by one, and they might eagerly visit a new restaurant without ever having been there before. Such behaviors have somehow been acquired in the absence of any direct exposure to the relevant events. In this chapter, we focus on two processes that enable us to efficiently acquire new patterns of behavior through indirect means. We begin with observational learning (a topic that we touched upon in previous chapters), which plays a strong role in human learning but is also found in animals. We follow that with a discussion of how humans often use language to generate rules (or instructions) to modify behavior, which includes the use self-generated rules to modify our own behavior.

Cengage Supplements The following product-level supplements provide additional information that may help you in preparing your course. They are available in the Instructor Resource Center.

• • • •

Transition Guide (provides information about what’s new from edition to edition) Instructor Manual (contains outlines, suggested activities, and resources for instructor use in the course) PowerPoint (provides text and image-based lectures with active learning activities) Test Bank (contains multiple-choice assessment questions and prompts)

Chapter Objectives The following objectives are addressed in this chapter: 11.1

Define observational learning.

11.2

Describe simple forms of observational learning, including contagious behavior and stimulus enhancement.

11.3

Describe and diagram observational learning in both classical and operant conditioning terms.

11.4

Distinguish between acquisition and performance of socially learned behaviors.

11.5

Define true imitation and distinguish it from other forms of observational learning, as well as from generalized imitation.

11.6

Outline the evidence that animals are capable of true imitation.

11.7

Describe the evidence that aggression can be learned from violent media.

11.8

Define rule-governed behavior, and its relevance for human behavior.

Key Terms contagious behavior: A more-or-less instinctive or reflexive behavior triggered by observing the occurrence of the same behavior in another individual.

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generalized imitation: The generalized tendency to imitate new modeled behaviors in the absence of any specific reinforcement for doing so. observational learning: The process whereby the behavior of a model is witnessed by an observer, and the observer’s behavior is subsequently changed. (Also called imitation.) personal process rule: A personal rule that indicates the specific process by which a task is to be accomplished. (Also called an implementation intention.) personal rule (or self-instruction): A verbal description of a contingency that we present to ourselves to influence our behavior. rule: A verbal description of a contingency. (Also called an instruction if it additionally indicates how we should behave with respect to that contingency.) rule-governed behavior: Behavior that has been generated through exposure to rules. say–do correspondence: A close match between what we say we are going to do and what we actually do at a later time. stimulus enhancement: The process by which a person becomes more likely to approach a particular object or location because their attention has been drawn to that object or location by the behavior of another individual. true imitation: The close duplication if a novel behavior (or sequence of behaviors) to achieve a specific goal. vicarious emotional response: A classically conditioned emotional response resulting from the observation of that emotional response being exhibited by others. [return to top]

What’s New in This Chapter The following elements are improvements in this chapter from the previous edition: • • •

Tips and additional resources for consuming and understanding behavioral research Updated study questions and test bank resources Supplemental PowerPoint slides with discussion questions

[return to top]

Chapter Outline In the following outline, each element includes references (in parentheses) to related content. "CH.##” refers to the chapter objective; “PPT Slide #” refers to the slide number in the PowerPoint deck for this chapter (provided in the PowerPoints section of the Instructor Resource Center). Introduce the chapter and use the Icebreaker in the PPT if desired, and if one is provided for this chapter. Review learning objectives for Chapter 11. (PPT Slide 3) I. Explanation of Opening Scenario (CH 11.8, PPT Slide 19) g. Advice columns provide readers with a set of rules about how to manage their relationship difficulties. Unfortunately, rules have their drawbacks, one being that

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XXVI.

XXVII.

behavior that is controlled by rules may be insensitive to the actual contingencies. In terms of relationships, this may mean that the person acts in accordance with the rules they have been given rather than in accordance with the actual needs of their partner.

As noted in the Advice for the Lovelorn column in this chapter, this might cause significant problems in a relationship.

Observational or Social Learning (11.1‒11.7, Slides 4‒17) a. Observational learning (sometimes also called social learning) allows us to learn about things without having to directly experience the events ourselves. (Slide 4) b. Contagious behavior and stimulus enhancement are two rudimentary forms of social learning. Behaviors that can become contagious are often those that are relevant to survival (such as fear) and social bonding (such as laughter). Stimulus enhancement similarly facilitates our ability to acquire reinforcers by watching others. (Slides 5‒6) c. Observational learning can play a role in classical conditioning. Fear responses, for example, are often acquired through our observation of fearful behavior in others, either through a direct process of classical conditioning or through a process of higherorder conditioning. (Slides 7‒9) d. Observational learning similarly plays a role in operant conditioning, in which a distinction is often made between acquisition of an operant response by watching a model and performance of the behavior, which may only occur at a later point in time.

Acquisition can be influenced by such factors as consequences of the model’s behavior, consequences for the observer’s behavior of attending to the model, whether the observer already has sufficient skills to benefit from the modeling, and personal characteristics of the model such as similarity to oneself and level of expertise. Whether the modeled behavior will actually be performed can be influenced by such factors as the consequences we will receive if we perform the modeled behavior and our history of receiving such consequences in the past. (Slides 10‒12) e. Observational learning is also sometimes called imitation. True imitation occurs when an observer precisely copies a model’s behavior. Generalized imitation is the tendency, especially in children, to model the behavior of others even when there is no apparent reinforcement for doing so. (Slides 13‒14) f. The extent to which nonhuman animals can learn through imitation is discussed. Some evidence exists that this might include true imitation. (Slide 15) g. Evidence concerning the extent to which observational learning, especially in the form of media portrayals of violence, can facilitate aggressive behavior is examined, including differences between genders in this regard. Also discussed is the extent to which the press tends to downplay the effect of media violence on behavior and why this might occur. (Slides 16‒17) Rule-Governed Behavior (11.8, Slides 18‒22) a. As with observational learning, rules (or instructions) are another way in which we can indirectly learn about contingencies without directly experiencing those contingencies.

Parents therefore spend a good deal of time training children to learn to follow rules.

(Slide 18) b. Although rules can be useful, rule-governed behavior that is generated by those rules sometimes has disadvantages. The first is that rules or instructions often provide only a rudimentary understanding of the relevant behavior. One needs to experience the natural contingencies associated with actually performing the behavior to become truly

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proficient at the behavior. The other disadvantage is that we sometimes inflexibly follow rules even when they are not effective. (Slide 19) c. Rules (or instructions) are usually so advantageous that children will begin to generate them, in the form of “personal rules” (or self-instructions), to control their own behavior. Personal rules may therefore play an important role in facilitating self-control.

This may especially apply to those who have been strongly reinforced for “say‒do correspondence” (doing what they say will do), and may even account for the ability of some individuals to use self-promises or “resolutions” to control their behavior. (Slides 20‒22) [return to top]

Discussion Questions You can assign these questions several ways: in a discussion forum in your LMS; as whole-class discussions in person; or as a partner or group activity in class.

15. Discussion: Observational learning (pp. 416‒418; 11.3; PPT Slides 8‒9; Duration: 5‒10 minutes) u. Little Jana is afraid of butterflies even though she has never been hurt or even startled by a butterfly. Her mother, however, is also afraid of butterflies. What are two ways in which Jana’s fear could have been acquired through vicarious emotional conditioning. i. Answer: Her fear could have been acquired through a process of direct conditioning in which her mother’s look of fear acts as a US or a process of higher-order conditioning in which her mother’s look of fear acts as a CS1.

16. Discussion: Rule-governed behavior (pp. 431‒436; PPT Slides 18‒19; Duration: 5 minutes) a. Jonah decides to attend a workshop on how to study. In terms of what we know about rule-governed behavior, what is a major advantage of attending such a workshop? What are some potential disadvantages of such a workshop? i. Answer: Jonah might quickly learn some effective techniques for studying prior to having any exposure to the actual consequences of studying that way.

Conversely, the rules he is given might not be optimally efficient for someone with his background, and especially if he inflexibly follows those rules regardless of how well they work for him. [return to top]

Additional Activities and Assignments 16. Dr. Dee Assignment: [Description] 1.

Dear Dr. Dee, My boyfriend’s boxing coach is terribly old-fashioned and convinced him to take a vow of abstinence for the two weeks prior to a big fight. And darned if he isn’t keeping his word. If he really loved me, how could he do that? I know for a fact that one of his training partners didn’t hold out for a week with his girlfriend. I’m starting to think I’ve got a real dud here. Any advice?

Adrienne

2.

Dear Dr. Dee,

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My girlfriend, Julie, has changed the way she treats me recently. She used to be really sweet and we would discuss major decisions, like a team. Now she just bosses me around! Julie’s best friend is really bossy with her husband, and he does everything she tells him to do. I mean, it seems to work for them, but I can’t stand it. How can I get her to treat me with respect, the way she used to?

End-of-my-rope Relevant Concepts 1.

Adrienne doesn’t appreciate that her boyfriend (Rocky?) may have a history of being reinforced for strong Say‒Do correspondence, which allows him to exert a good deal of control over his behavior. Thus, his actions may provide little indication of how much he loves her. In fact, given his ability to control his impulses, he might very well be a great catch who will go far in life (pp. 440‒442).

2. Julie may have learned vicariously, from observing her friend’s relationship, that being bossy is an effective and appropriate way of interacting with a romantic partner. Although social learning is an efficient and powerful method of changing behavior, continued performance of socially learned behavior depends on whether the observer’s performance of the behavior is punished or reinforced. In order to prevent being treated in this fashion any longer, end-of-my-rope should make it clear that he prefers consultation, rather than dictatorship. In that way, Julie’s bossy behavior will not be reinforced, so she will be less likely to continue (pp. 427‒428). [return to top]

Study Tip The importance of personal process rules (or implementation intentions) has considerable relevance for studying. The importance of specificity also applies to longer-range plans for studying. Gollwitzer and Brandstätter (1997) asked college students to name two projects they intended to complete during Christmas break, one of which would be easy to accomplish (e.g., go skating) and the other of which would be difficult to accomplish (e.g., complete an English assignment). Students were also asked if they had made a decision about when and where the activity would be carried out. Following the Christmas break, the same students were asked if they had completed the project. For activities that were easy to implement, about 80% of the students said they had indeed completed them. With such easy projects, it seemed to make little difference if the students had also decided upon a time and place for implementing them. That said, one occasionally encounters students who seem to function well without setting specific times and places for their studying. The writer recalls one student who did try scheduling specific times and reported that it made her decidedly less efficient. But it turns out that she already had a rule that was, for her, highly effective—and that was to study at odd times during the day when she wasn’t otherwise occupied, which she did religiously. By comparison, planning precise times for her studying significantly lowered the amount of studying she did.

Additional Resources Suggested Readings Ainslie, G. (1986). Beyond microeconomics: Conflict among interests in a multiple self as a determinant of value. In J. Elster (Ed.), The multiple self. Cambridge University Press.

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Baldwin, J. D., & Baldwin, J. I. (1998). Behavior principles in everyday life (3rd ed.). Prentice Hall.

Bandura, A. (1977). Social learning theory. Prentice Hall.

Bushman, B. J., & Anderson, C. A. (2001). Media violence and the American public: Scientific facts versus media information. American Psychologist, 56, 477–489.

Gollwitzer, P. M. (1999). Implementation intentions: Strong effects of simple plans. American Psychologist, 54, 493–503.

Hayes, S. C. (Ed.) (1989). Rule-governed behavior: Cognition, contingencies, and instructional control.

Plenum Press.

Hayes, S. C., Strosahl, K. D., & Wilson, K. G. (1999). Acceptance and commitment therapy: An experiential approach to behavior change. Guilford Press.

Heyes, C. M. & Galef, B. G., Jr. (1996). Social learning in animals: The roots of culture. Academic Press.

Malott, R. W., Malott, M. E., & Trojan, E. A. (2000). Elementary principles of behavior (4th ed.). Prentice Hall.

Reynolds, D. K. (1984). Playing ball on running water. Quill.

Internet Resources •

Observational (Social) Learning http://www.edpsycinteractive.org/topics/soccog/soclrn.html This Web site provides a brief overview of the general principles of observational learning from a social learning perspective.

•

“Transmission of Aggression through Imitation of Aggressive Models” by Albert Bandura, Dorothea Ross, and Sheila A. Ross (1961) http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Bandura/bobo.htm This article describes the famous “Bobo doll” study by Bandura and his colleagues.

(From York University, Classics in the History of Psychology)

•

Conditioning Kids to Kill http://www.killology.com/art_beh_conditioning.htm Follow the link to an article discussing the effects of violence in the media on children.

•

Violent Video Games: Myths, Facts, and Unanswered Questions http://www.apa.org/science/about/psa/2003/10/anderson.aspx This article describes decades of research about media violence (including video game violence) and its effect on children.

•

“The Energies of Men” by William James (1907): http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/James/energies.htm

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A passage from this article is quoted on p. 441 of the text. For those who may be interested, here is the complete article. (From York University, Classics in the History of Psychology) [return to top]

Appendix Generic Rubrics Providing students with rubrics helps them understand expectations and components of assignments.

Rubrics help students become more aware of their learning process and progress, and they improve students’ work through timely and detailed feedback. Customize these rubrics as you wish. The writing rubric indicates 40 points and the discussion rubric indicates 30 points.

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Instructor Manual: Russell A. Powell, P. Lynne Honey and Diane G. Symbaluk, Introduction to Learning and Behavior 6e 2023, 9780357658475; Chapter 11: Observational Learning and Rule-Governed Behavior

Standard Writing Rubric Criteria Content

Organization and Clarity

Meets Requirements The assignment clearly and comprehensively addresses all questions in the assignment.

Needs Improvement The assignment partially addresses some or all questions in the assignment.

15 points

8 points

The assignment presents ideas The assignment presents ideas in a clear manner and with in a mostly clear manner and strong organizational structure. with a mostly strong The assignment includes an organizational structure. The appropriate introduction, assignment includes an content, and conclusion. appropriate introduction, Coverage of facts, arguments, content, and conclusion. and conclusions are logically Coverage of facts, arguments, related and consistent. and conclusions are mostly logically related and consistent.

10 points

Research

Research

The assignment is based upon appropriate and adequate academic literature, including peer reviewed journals and other scholarly work.

5 points The assignment follows the required citation guidelines.

Incomplete The assignment does not address the questions in the assignment.

0 points The assignment does not present ideas in a clear manner and with strong organizational structure. The assignment includes an introduction, content, and conclusion, but coverage of facts, arguments, and conclusions are not logically related and consistent.

0 points

7 points The assignment is based upon adequate academic literature but does not include peer reviewed journals and other scholarly work.

3 points The assignment follows some of the required citation guidelines.

The assignment is not based upon appropriate and adequate academic literature and does not include peer reviewed journals and other scholarly work.

0 points The assignment does not follow the required citation guidelines.

5 points Grammar and Spelling

3 points The assignment has two or The assignment has three to fewer grammatical and spelling five grammatical and spelling errors. errors.

0 points The assignment is incomplete or unintelligible.

0 points

5 points

website, in whole or in part.

3 points

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Standard Discussion Rubric Criteria Participation

Meets Requirements Submits or participates in discussion by the posted deadlines. Follows all assignment. instructions for initial post and responses.

5 points

Contribution Quality

Comments stay on task.

Comments add value to discussion topic. Comments motivate other students to respond.

Needs Improvement Incomplete Does not participate or submit Does not participate in discussion by the posted discussion. deadlines. Does not follow instructions for initial post and responses.

3 points Comments may not stay on task. Comments may not add value to discussion topic.

Comments may not motivate other students to respond.

0 points Does not participate in discussion.

10 points Etiquette

0 points

20 points Maintains appropriate language. Offers criticism in a constructive manner. Provides both positive and negative feedback.

Does not always maintain Does not participate in appropriate language. Offers discussion. criticism in an offensive manner. Provides only negative feedback.

5 points

3 points

0 points

Instructor Manual Russell A. Powell, P. Lynne Honey and Diane G. Symbaluk, Introduction to Learning and Behavior 6e 2023, 9780357658475; Chapter 12: Biological Dispositions in Learning

Table of Contents Purpose and Perspective of the Chapter 112 Cengage Supplements 112 Chapter Objectives Key Terms

112

112

What's New in This Chapter

113

Chapter Outline113 Discussion Questions

114

Additional Activities and Assignments Study Tip

115

115

Additional Resources

116

Suggested Readings ............................................................................................................................... 116 Internet Resources................................................................................................................................. 116

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Appendix

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Generic Rubrics...................................................................................................................................... 117 Standard Writing Rubric ........................................................................................................................ 118 Standard Discussion Rubric .................................................................................................................... 119

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Purpose and Perspective of the Chapter Although the basic principles of conditioning have a surprising degree of generality and apply to a wide range of species and behaviors, there are also limitations in this regard. For example, people more readily learn to be afraid of events that have some type of evolutionary association with danger, such as snakes and spiders, than they do of modern-day events, such as cars and toasters. It is possible that we have inherited a biological tendency to learn certain types of fears more readily than others. In this chapter, we further explore the role of biological preparedness in conditioning, as well as the manner in which such preparedness seems to produce an overlap between processes of classical conditioning and operant conditioning.

Cengage Supplements The following product-level supplements provide additional information that may help you in preparing your course. They are available in the Instructor Resource Center.

• • • •

Transition Guide (provides information about what’s new from edition to edition) Instructor Manual (contains outlines, suggested activities, and resources for instructor use in the course) PowerPoint (provides text and image-based lectures with active learning activities) Test Bank (contains multiple-choice assessment questions and prompts)

Chapter Objectives The following objectives are addressed in this chapter: 12.1

Explain how preparedness constrains classical conditioning.

12.2

Describe Garcia and Koelling’s (1966) experiments that provided evidence for the importance of CS-US relevance.

12.3

Describe examples of preparedness that constrain operant conditioning.

12.4

Define instinctive drift and sign tracking and describe the overlap between operant and respondent behavior in those phenomena.

12.5

Define and provide examples of adjunctive behavior.

12.6

Describe activity anorexia and the laboratory studies that are used to study it.

12.7

Compare activity anorexia with anorexia nervosa.

12.8

Describe behavior systems theory.

Key Terms activity anorexia: An abnormally high level of activity and low level of food intake generated by exposure to a time-restricted schedule of feeding. (Also known as activity-based anorexia.) adjunctive behavior: An excessive pattern of behavior that emerges as a by-product of certain types of intermittent schedules of reinforcement for some other behavior.

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autoshaping: A type of sign tracking in which a pigeon comes to automatically peck at a response key because the key light has been associated with the response-independent delivery of food. behavior systems theory: A theory proposing that an animal’s behavior is organized into certain systems or categories (such as feeding, mating, and avoiding predators), with each category containing a set of relevant responses that can become activated in certain situations.

CS-US relevance: An innate tendency to easily associate certain types of stimuli with each other. displacement activity: An apparently irrelevant activity sometimes displayed by animals when confronted by conflict or thwarted from attaining a goal. instinctive drift: A type of classical conditioning in which an innate, fixed action pattern gradually emerges and displaces a behavior that is being operantly conditioned. preparedness: An innate tendency for an organism to more easily learn certain types of behaviors or to associate certain types of events with each other. sign tracking: A type of elicited behavior in which an organism approaches a stimulus that signals the presentation of an appetitive event. taste aversion conditioning: A form of classical conditioning in which a food item that has been paired with gastrointestinal illness becomes a conditioned aversive stimulus. [return to top]

What’s New in This Chapter The following elements are improvements in this chapter from the previous edition: • • •

Tips and additional resources for consuming and understanding behavioral research Updated study questions and test bank resources Supplemental PowerPoint slides with discussion questions

[return to top]

Chapter Outline In the following outline, each element includes references (in parentheses) to related content. "CH.##” refers to the chapter objective; “PPT Slide #” refers to the slide number in the PowerPoint deck for this chapter (provided in the PowerPoints section of the Instructor Resource Center). Introduce the chapter and use the Icebreaker in the PPT if desired, and if one is provided for this chapter. Review learning objectives for Chapter 12. (PPT Slide 3) I.

XXVIII.

Explanation of Opening Scenario (CH 12.7, PPT Slide 16) d. Ken is focusing on two commonly accepted notions about the causes of anorexia nervosa: distorted body image and an overcontrolling family. He neglects to consider the role of high activity (in the form of Chantal’s addiction to running) which, as discussed in the section on activity anorexia, may be critical.

Preparedness and Conditioning (12.1‒12.3) a. The role of preparedness in classical conditioning is examined as illustrated by the occurrence of backward conditioning using fear relevant stimuli and taste aversion conditioning. Discussion of the latter includes the ways in which it differs from most

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XXIX.

XXX.

XXXI.

XXXII.

other forms of classical conditioning (such as associations forming over long delays), between species differences, and gender differences. Some practical applications of taste aversion conditioning are also discussed. (Slides 4‒7) b. Preparedness in operant conditioning is illustrated by such examples as rats more readily learning to freeze or run to avoid shock than to press a lever to avoid shock, and birds more readily learning to perch in a certain spot to hear a bird song than to peck a response key to hear it. (Slide 8) Operant-Respondent Interactions (12.4) a. The phenomena of instinctive drift and sign tracking are described and the manner in which they represent innate patterns of behavior that can, in some circumstances, supplant or co-occur with operant responses that are being reinforced. (Slides 9‒10) Adjunctive Behavior (12.5) a. The phenomena of adjunctive behaviors, such as schedule-induced polydipsia, is described and the manner in which they can be created as a by-produce of certain types of intermittent reinforcement schedules. Several distinguishing features of adjunctive behaviors are also discussed. (Slides 11‒12) b. Examples of possible adjunctive behaviors in humans are listed, including their possible relationship to addictive behaviors. (Slide 13) c. The occurrence of adjunctive behavior as a type of displacement activity is discussed along with the potential benefits of such behavior. (Slide 14) Activity Anorexia (12.6‒12.7) a. The basic procedure for creating activity anorexia is described along with its distinguishing characteristics as well as its similarities to anorexia nervosa in humans.

(Slides 16‒17) b. Possible underlying mechanisms are described, including the possible involvement of endorphins. The possible evolutionary value of a tendency toward high activity levels during times of food uncertainty is also presented. (Slide 18) c. Several clinical implications of the activity anorexia model with respect to the prevention and treatment or anorexia nervosa are listed. (Slide 19) Behavior Systems Theory a. Behavior systems theory is described including the manner in which it accounts for the types of experimental procedures, such as maze running and lever pressing in rats, that have been widely adopted in the investigation of animal learning. (Slide 20)

[return to top]

Discussion Questions You can assign these questions several ways: in a discussion forum in your LMS; as whole-class discussions in person; or as a partner or group activity in class.

17. Discussion: Taste aversion conditioning (p. 451; 12.2; PPT Slides 5‒7; Duration: 5 minutes) v. After eating some oatmeal porridge for breakfast, Sara felt nauseous and started vomiting. Karla also had oatmeal porridge for breakfast and cracked her tooth on a tiny pebble that was mixed in with the oats. Both of them now avoid eating oatmeal for breakfast, but how do they differ in terms of what they find aversive about it? i. Answer: Sara avoids oatmeal because of its taste and smell. which elicit a feeling of nausea. Karla avoids any food that looks like oatmeal which, because of her painful experience with it, elicits a feeling of anxiety or fear.

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18. Discussion: Adjunctive behavior (pp. 463‒468; 12.5; PPT Slide 13; Duration: 5 minutes) a. Fatima finds that whenever she studies, she tends to pick at her skin. Her friend tells her that it is because she is highly stressed and that the skin picking is a type of obsessivecompulsive behavior. Fatima, however, does not feel particularly stressed nor does she think it’s an example of OCD. What other type of behavior might it be, and when could she do to stop it? i. Answer: It may simply be an adjunctive behavior that emerges whenever she is in a situation that provides relatively little immediate reinforcement. To get rid of it, she could try engaging in a non-damaging adjunctive behavior like chewing gum or sipping some type of drink. [return to top]

Additional Activities and Assignments 17. Dr. Dee Assignment 1.

Dear Dr. Dee, The last time I dated this particular woman she got food poisoning. Since then, she has seemed very uninterested in me. I think she has somehow associated me with her illness—though a mutual friend says that she simply doesn’t think we are compatible.

What do you think?

Bob Barf

2.

Dear Dr. Dee, My boyfriend and I are in training for our first triathlon. The training is going really well except my boyfriend keeps pushing me to eat more, even when I don’t feel like it. He said that this is something he once read in a training magazine. But what would be the logic?

Born to run

Relevant Concepts 1.

Although the signature doesn’t help (and may, in fact, have resulted in some taste aversion conditioning, which would be an interesting thing for a student to bring up), the chances are that she would have associated her illness with the food and not with him (pp. 453‒ 454).

2. This advice makes sense as it seems to recognize the tendency for food intake to drop when activity levels are greatly increased, which could then lead to anorexic tendencies (pp. 469‒474). [return to top]

Study Tip To the extent that adjunctive behaviors may facilitate self-control, they may also help explain why many students like to sip on a drink (like coffee) or munch on snacks while studying. Although the items chosen typically contain caffeine or simple carbohydrates that may act as a stimulant and increase attention and are also pleasurable activities that provide a source of immediate reinforcement as one

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works toward the distant goal of passing the course, these activities may also serve as adjunctive behaviors in the sense of enabling one to remain in a situation in which reinforcers are relatively sparse.

Thus, finding a suitable adjunctive behavior to engage in while studying—preferably something that will not adversely impact one’s health—may be yet another tool one can use to facilitate “hitting the books” on a consistent basis.

Additional Resources Suggested Readings Breland, K., & Breland, M. (1961). The misbehavior of organisms. American Psychologist, 16, 681–684.

Epling, W. F., & Pierce, W. D. (1991). Solving the anorexia puzzle: A scientific approach. Hogrefe & Huber.

Epling, W. F., & Pierce, W. D. (Eds.) (1996). Activity anorexia: Theory, research, and treatment. Erlbaum.

Falk, J. L. (1977). The origin and functions of adjunctive behavior. Animal Learning and Behavior, 5, 325– 335.

Garcia, J. (1981). Tilting at the paper mills of academe. American Psychologist, 36, 149–158.

Garcia, J., & Koelling, R. A. (1966). Relation of cue to consequence in avoidance learning. Psychonomic Science, 4, 123–124.

Guisinger, S. (2003). Adapted to flee famine: Adding an evolutionary perspective on anorexia nervosa.

Psychological Review, 110, 745–761.

Seligman, M. E. P., & Hager, J. L. (Eds.). (1972). Biological boundaries of learning. Appleton-CenturyCrofts.

Timberlake, W. (1993). Behavior systems and reinforcement: An integrative approach. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 60, 105–128.

Tomie, A. (1995). CAM: An animal learning model of excessive and compulsive implement-assisted drugtaking in humans. Clinical Psychology Review, 15, 145–167.

Internet Resources •

“The Misbehavior of Organisms” by Keller Breland and Marian Breland (1961) http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Breland/misbehavior.htm This is the original article describing the phenomenon of instinctive drift in animals. (From York University, Classics in the History of Psychology.)

•

Video Clip of an Autoshaping Procedure http://www.owu.edu/~deswartz/procedures/autoshaping.html This is an excellent video clip of a pigeon being autoshaped to peck a key light associated with food delivery. (The clip is from Dale Swartzentruber’s collection of online videos on animal learning.)

•

Video Clip of Grain versus Water Autoshaping

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http://www.owu.edu/~deswartz/procedures/grain_water_us.html This video clip illustrates the difference in the types of key pecks elicited when the key light has been associated with water and food delivery. (See p. 462 in the text; the clip is from Dale Swartzentruber’s collection of online videos on animal learning.)

•

Video Clip Illustrating Negative Automaintenance (or Omission Training) http://www.owu.edu/~deswartz/procedures/omission.html This video clip illustrates a pigeon that is strongly tempted to peck a key light that precedes the delivery of food even though pecking prevents the delivery of food. After many sessions, the pigeon is still so drawn to the key light that it makes partial pecking movements toward it. (See p. 462 in the text; the clip is from Dale Swartzentruber’s online collection of videos on animal learning.)

•

Video Clip of Long Box Autoshaping http://www.owu.edu/~deswartz/procedures/long_box.html This video demonstrates a different version of negative automaintenance (omission training) in which a key light at one end of a long chamber elicits autoshaped key pecks even though time spent pecking reduces the amount of time that the pigeon can feed at the other end of the chamber significantly. (The clip is from Dale Swartzentruber’s online collection of videos on animal learning.)

[return to top]

Appendix Generic Rubrics Providing students with rubrics helps them understand expectations and components of assignments.

Rubrics help students become more aware of their learning process and progress, and they improve students’ work through timely and detailed feedback. Customize these rubrics as you wish. The writing rubric indicates 40 points and the discussion rubric indicates 30 points.

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Standard Writing Rubric Criteria Content

Organization and Clarity

Meets Requirements The assignment clearly and comprehensively addresses all questions in the assignment.

Needs Improvement The assignment partially addresses some or all questions in the assignment.

15 points

8 points

The assignment presents ideas The assignment presents ideas in a clear manner and with in a mostly clear manner and strong organizational structure. with a mostly strong The assignment includes an organizational structure. The appropriate introduction, assignment includes an content, and conclusion. appropriate introduction, Coverage of facts, arguments, content, and conclusion. and conclusions are logically Coverage of facts, arguments, related and consistent. and conclusions are mostly logically related and consistent.

10 points

Research

Research

The assignment is based upon appropriate and adequate academic literature, including peer reviewed journals and other scholarly work.

5 points The assignment follows the required citation guidelines.

Incomplete The assignment does not address the questions in the assignment.

0 points The assignment does not present ideas in a clear manner and with strong organizational structure. The assignment includes an introduction, content, and conclusion, but coverage of facts, arguments, and conclusions are not logically related and consistent.

0 points

7 points The assignment is based upon adequate academic literature but does not include peer reviewed journals and other scholarly work.

3 points The assignment follows some of the required citation guidelines.

The assignment is not based upon appropriate and adequate academic literature and does not include peer reviewed journals and other scholarly work.

0 points The assignment does not follow the required citation guidelines.

5 points Grammar and Spelling

3 points The assignment has two or The assignment has three to fewer grammatical and spelling five grammatical and spelling errors. errors.

0 points The assignment is incomplete or unintelligible.

0 points

5 points

website, in whole or in part.

3 points

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Standard Discussion Rubric Criteria Participation

Meets Requirements Submits or participates in discussion by the posted deadlines. Follows all assignment. instructions for initial post and responses.

5 points

Contribution Quality

Comments stay on task.

Comments add value to discussion topic. Comments motivate other students to respond.

Needs Improvement Incomplete Does not participate or submit Does not participate in discussion by the posted discussion. deadlines. Does not follow instructions for initial post and responses.

3 points Comments may not stay on task. Comments may not add value to discussion topic.

Comments may not motivate other students to respond.

0 points Does not participate in discussion.

10 points Etiquette

0 points

20 points Maintains appropriate language. Offers criticism in a constructive manner. Provides both positive and negative feedback.

Does not always maintain Does not participate in appropriate language. Offers discussion. criticism in an offensive manner. Provides only negative feedback.

5 points

3 points

0 points

Instructor Manual Russell A. Powell, P. Lynne Honey and Diane G. Symbaluk, Introduction to Learning and Behavior 6e 2023, 9780357658475; Chapter 13: Comparative Cognition

Table of Contents Purpose and Perspective of the Chapter 121 Cengage Supplements 121 Chapter Objectives Key Terms

121

121

What's New in This Chapter

122

Chapter Outline122 Discussion Questions

124

Additional Activities and Assignments Additional Resources

124

125

Suggested Readings ............................................................................................................................... 125 Internet Resources................................................................................................................................. 125 Appendix

126

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Generic Rubrics...................................................................................................................................... 126 Standard Writing Rubric ........................................................................................................................ 127 Standard Discussion Rubric .................................................................................................................... 128

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Purpose and Perspective of the Chapter As noted in the previous chapter, there are species-specific differences in learning. In this chapter, we explore this topic in more detail by examining evidence from the field of research known as comparative cognition: the study of information processing across species, including humans. Comparative cognition has recently become a popular area of research, with studies being conducted across a wide range of animals and on such topics as memory, categorization, decision making, problem solving, language use, and deception.

Cengage Supplements The following product-level supplements provide additional information that may help you in preparing your course. They are available in the Instructor Resource Center.

• • • •

Transition Guide (provides information about what’s new from edition to edition) Instructor Manual (contains outlines, suggested activities, and resources for instructor use in the course) PowerPoint (provides text and image-based lectures with active learning activities) Test Bank (contains multiple-choice assessment questions and prompts)

Chapter Objectives The following objectives are addressed in this chapter: 13.1

Distinguish between proximate and ultimate causes of behavior.

13.2

Define numerosity and provide examples of studies that demonstrate numerosity in various species.

13.3

Describe evidence that some animals can categorize stimuli and exhibit transitive inference.

13.4

Explain why tool use is considered an advanced cognitive skill.

13.5

Define theory of mind and describe studies that test for animals’ abilities for self-reference, cooperation, and deception.

13.6

Define language and each of its defining features.

13.7

Distinguish between language and communication, using evidence from animal studies.

Key Terms biophilia hypothesis: The inherited predisposition in humans to be drawn to or bond with nature, including other animals. communication: The process of sending and receiving a signal of some sort. comparative cognition: The study of information processing across a variety of species. delayed matching-to-sample: A memory task in which the animal is first shown a sample stimulus and then, following a delay, is required to select that stimulus out of a group of alternative stimuli.

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language: A special category of communication which has key features—symbols, syntax, and semantics—that distinguish it from other forms of communication. numerosity: An understanding of quantity. reference: The ability to associate arbitrary symbols with objects or events. self-awareness: The ability to perceive oneself as separate from others. semantics: The meaning associated with symbols. symbol: A cue that is used to represent some experience or object that you can then share with someone else. syntax: The system of grammatical rules by which symbols are arranged. theory of mind: The tendency to attribute mental states to other individuals. transitive inference: A form of reasoning in which the relationship between two objects can be inferred by knowing the relationship of each to a third object. [return to top]

What’s New in This Chapter The following elements are improvements in this chapter from the previous edition: • • •

Tips and additional resources for consuming and understanding behavioral research Updated test bank resources Supplemental PowerPoint slides with discussion questions

[return to top]

Chapter Outline In the following outline, each element includes references (in parentheses) to related content. "CH.##” refers to the chapter objective; “PPT Slide #” refers to the slide number in the PowerPoint deck for this chapter (provided in the PowerPoints section of the Instructor Resource Center). Introduce the chapter and use the Icebreaker in the PPT if desired, and if one is provided for this chapter. Review learning objectives for Chapter 13. (PPT Slide 3) I. Explanation of Opening Scenario (CH 13.1) b. As humans, we have a tendency to become close to our pets but also to look at their behaviors from a rather anthropomorphic perspective. In order to understand animal behavior and how animals “think,” we need to understand the species and avoid projecting our interpretations onto their behavior. As later explained by Dr. Dee in this chapter’s Advice for the Lovelorn column, the behavior of vomiting displayed by Kari’s lovebird, which humans would typically interpret as a sign of stress or illness, is actually a sign of affection in lovebirds. This illustrates how understanding a species’ natural behavior (consistent with Proximate Causes) gives us the ability to interpret their actions more accurately. (PPT Slide 5) XXXIII. What Is Comparative Cognition? (13.1)

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XXXIV.

XXXV.

XXXVI.

XXXVII.

XXXVIII.

a. Comparative cognition is defined as the study of information processing across species.

Tinbergen’s “four levels of analysis,” which distinguishes between ultimate and proximate causes of a behavior, is provided as a framework for understanding this approach. (Slides 4‒5) Memory in Animals (13.2) a. The delayed matching-to-sample task is presented as a useful experimental procedure for studying memory in nonhuman animals. The version of the procedure used for investigating the phenomenon of directed forgetting is presented as an example. (Slides 6‒8) b. Research findings concerning the exceptional memory ability of food-storing birds is presented, along with some of the neurological correlates of such ability. (Slide 9) Can Animals Count? (13.3) a. The famous case of Clever Hans is presented as an example of the need to use tightly controlled research procedures when dealing with claims that animals are capable of numerosity. Various procedures now used to study numerosity in animals, such as the false-bottom bucket task, are examined along with recent findings indicating that some animals have some limited ability in this regard. (Slides 10‒13) Category Learning and Relational Decisions (13.4) a. Evidence indicating the ability of some animals to categorize novel objects is presented.

Evidence is also presented indicating that some species are capable of making transitive inferences, especially highly social species for whom hierarchical relationships are a concern. (Slides 14‒15) Concepts of Tools, Self, and Others (13.5‒13.6) a. Evidence is presented concerning the use of tools by some animals and the different types of tools involved. The ways in which tool use is learned is also discussed. (Slides 16‒17) b. The concept of theory of mind is presented and the question asked as to whether other animals display a theory of mind. (Slide 19) c. Evidence concerning self-awareness in animals—which can be viewed as a prerequisite for having a theory of mind—is presented along with a description of the “mark and mirror task” used to assess it. This is followed by a discussion of research concerning chimps’ ability to differentiate self from others using the hidden banana task. (Slides 20‒21) d. Evidence is also presented concerning the ability of animals to engage in cooperation versus deception, with the deception being a more common finding than cooperation.

(Slide 22) Language (13.7‒13.8) a. The relationship between communication and language is examined, along with the various characteristics of human language (symbols, syntax, and semantics) that distinguish it from simpler forms of communication that are often found in other animals. (Slide 23) b. The types of procedures that have been used to try to teach language to animals (mostly chimps)—ranging from cross-fostering studies to American Sign Language (ASL) studies to artificial language studies—are described, along with the limited evidence produced concerning the extent to which animals are capable of learning language. (Slides 24‒25)

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Discussion Questions You can assign these questions several ways: in a discussion forum in your LMS; as whole-class discussions in person; or as a partner or group activity in class.

19. Discussion: (pp. 492‒493; 13.2; Slides 10‒11; Duration: 15 minutes) w. The Internet contains many videos of dogs that have learned to push buttons to “speak” to their owners. For example: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FpUNGUJ1_n8 To what extent do you think the dogs are actually speaking to their owners in this way?

What is another explanation for their behavior? i. Answer: The dogs have likely learned to push certain buttons because of the attention or some other type of reinforcer they receive from their owner for doing so, with no real understanding of the words that were spoken. This is similar to the case of Clever Hans discussed in this chapter. [return to top]

Additional Activities and Assignments 18. Dr. Dee Assignment: [Description] 1.

Dear Dr. Dee, My friend Joe thinks that his dog understands everything English, just because the dog gets really excited whenever Joe says something to the dog about going for a walk or having a treat. I think that the dog is picking up on his tone of voice, rather than the actual words.

How can I prove to my friend that he is giving his dog too much credit?

Skeptical Pal

2.

Dear Dr. Dee, I’m worried that my daughter is a little dim. I took her brother’s video game out of his messy room (as a punishment for not cleaning the room), and I hid the game in my closet. I asked her where she thought her brother would look for the game. She said he would look in the closet, rather than looking around his room where he left it. Should I have her tested for some sort of learning disability?

Concerned Mom

Relevant Concepts 1.

Joe’s dog may be a lot like Clever Hans, showing evidence of what looks like intelligent behavior because he has picked up on subtle cues. Many people were fooled by Clever Hans’s apparent intelligence, so Joe is not alone. That doesn’t mean the dog isn’t smart (he has certainly learned to interpret some aspect of communication), but it does mean that the dog hasn’t mastered the language. It is also possible that Joe’s dog is like Chaser, who has learned that certain words or sounds have certain meanings (reference). In order to demonstrate that the dog is responding to the tone of voice, try saying something nonsensical or negative in the happy tone of voice that is typically used to talk to dogs about walks or treats. Or, talk about walks and treats in a flat, neutral tone of voice. The reactions will indicate what has been learned. (pp. 493‒493)

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2.

It depends on the age of the daughter! Studies looking at the development of a theory of mind in children indicate that they don’t pass this sort of test until about four years of age.

If the writer’s daughter is under that age, then her answer is completely appropriate. If the daughter is over that age, then perhaps she is developing a bit more slowly. (p. 506) [return to top]

Additional Resources Suggested Readings Boesch, C., and Boesch-Achermann, H. (2000). The chimpanzees of the Taï Forest: Behavioural ecology and evolution. Oxford University Press. de Waal, F. B .M. (2005). Our inner ape. Riverhead Books.

Pepperberg, I. M. (2009). Alex & me. HarperCollins.

Pepperberg, I. M. (1999). The Alex Studies: Cognitive and communicative abilities of grey parrots.

Harvard University Press.

Rendall, D., Owren, M. J., & Ryan, M. J. (2009). What do animal signals mean? Animal Behavior, 78, 233– 240.

Reynolds, D. K. (1984). Playing ball on running water. Quill.

Savage-Rumbaugh, E. S., Shanker, S. G., & Taylor, T. J. (1998). Apes, language and the human mind.

Oxford University Press.

Shettleworth, S. J. (2010). Cognition, evolution, and behavior. Oxford University Press.

Internet Resources •

Behavioural Ecology Research Group http://users.ox.ac.uk/~kgroup/tools/tool_selection.shtml This is the Web site for the lab where Betty and other New Caledonian Crows are studied for their impressive feats of cognition and tool use.

•

Robert Seyfarth: Theory of Mind http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XDtjLSa50uk Seyfarth is an animal cognition expert, and he clearly describes the tasks associated with testing the theory of mind and the implications of this ability in humans.

•

NOVA: How Smart Are Dogs? https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ip_uVTWfXyI A border collie named Chaser and other intelligent dogs are profiled in this episode.

•

The Dolphin Institute https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KMZ7oOCXfP8

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This Web site describes research conducted with Akeakamai and other dolphins that are trained to use human forms of communication.

•

Friends of Washoe http://www.friendsofwashoe.org/ This Web site provides information about Washoe, a chimp with ASL skills, and her relatives.

•

Alex the Parrot http://alexfoundation.org/the-birds/alex/ This Web site contains a description of Irene Pepperberg’s research on language training and cognition with Alex, an African grey parrot.

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Appendix Generic Rubrics Providing students with rubrics helps them understand expectations and components of assignments.

Rubrics help students become more aware of their learning process and progress, and they improve students’ work through timely and detailed feedback. Customize these rubrics as you wish. The writing rubric indicates 40 points and the discussion rubric indicates 30 points.

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Standard Writing Rubric Criteria Content

Organization and Clarity

Meets Requirements The assignment clearly and comprehensively addresses all questions in the assignment.

Needs Improvement The assignment partially addresses some or all questions in the assignment.

15 points

8 points

The assignment presents ideas The assignment presents ideas in a clear manner and with in a mostly clear manner and strong organizational structure. with a mostly strong The assignment includes an organizational structure. The appropriate introduction, assignment includes an content, and conclusion. appropriate introduction, Coverage of facts, arguments, content, and conclusion. and conclusions are logically Coverage of facts, arguments, related and consistent. and conclusions are mostly logically related and consistent.

10 points

Research

Research

The assignment is based upon appropriate and adequate academic literature, including peer reviewed journals and other scholarly work.

5 points The assignment follows the required citation guidelines.

Incomplete The assignment does not address the questions in the assignment.

0 points The assignment does not present ideas in a clear manner and with strong organizational structure. The assignment includes an introduction, content, and conclusion, but coverage of facts, arguments, and conclusions are not logically related and consistent.

0 points

7 points The assignment is based upon adequate academic literature but does not include peer reviewed journals and other scholarly work.

3 points The assignment follows some of the required citation guidelines.

The assignment is not based upon appropriate and adequate academic literature and does not include peer reviewed journals and other scholarly work.

0 points The assignment does not follow the required citation guidelines.

5 points Grammar and Spelling

3 points The assignment has two or The assignment has three to fewer grammatical and spelling five grammatical and spelling errors. errors.

0 points The assignment is incomplete or unintelligible.

0 points

5 points

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3 points

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Standard Discussion Rubric Criteria Participation

Meets Requirements Submits or participates in discussion by the posted deadlines. Follows all assignment. instructions for initial post and responses.

5 points

Contribution Quality

Comments stay on task.

Comments add value to discussion topic. Comments motivate other students to respond.

Needs Improvement Incomplete Does not participate or submit Does not participate in discussion by the posted discussion. deadlines. Does not follow instructions for initial post and responses.

3 points Comments may not stay on task. Comments may not add value to discussion topic.

Comments may not motivate other students to respond.

0 points Does not participate in discussion.

10 points Etiquette

website, in whole or in part.

0 points

20 points Maintains appropriate language. Offers criticism in a constructive manner. Provides both positive and negative feedback.

Does not always maintain Does not participate in appropriate language. Offers discussion. criticism in an offensive manner. Provides only negative feedback.

5 points

3 points

0 points

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