Instructor Manual Human Development A Cultural Approach 2nd Edition By Jeffrey J

Instructor Manual

CHAPTER 1: A CULTURAL APPROACH TO HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

TABLE OF CONTENTS LEARNING OBJECTIVES ............................................................................................................ 3 Section 1: Learning Objectives ................................................................................................. 3 Section 2: Learning Objectives ................................................................................................. 3 Section 3: Learning Objectives ................................................................................................. 3 KEY TERMS .................................................................................................................................. 4 Section 1: Key Terms ................................................................................................................ 4 Section 2: Key Terms ................................................................................................................ 4 Section 3: Key Terms ................................................................................................................ 4 CHAPTER OUTLINE .................................................................................................................... 5 I.

Section 1: Human Development Today and Its Origins ..................................................... 5

II.

Section 2: Theories of Human Development .................................................................... 5

III.

Section 3: How We Study Human Development ............................................................. 5

LECTURE NOTES ......................................................................................................................... 6 I.

Section 1: Human Development Today and Its Origins ..................................................... 6

A. Introduction to text............................................................................................................. 6 B. A Demographic Profile of Humanity Today ...................................................................... 6 1. Population Growth and Change ....................................................................................... 6 2. Variations Across Countries............................................................................................. 7 3. Variations Within Countries............................................................................................. 8 C. Human Development Today and Its Origins: Human Origins and the Birth of Culture .. 8 1. Our Evolutionary Beginnings........................................................................................... 8 2. The Origin of Cultures and Civilizations ......................................................................... 9 3. Human Evolution and Human Development Today ...................................................... 10 II.

Section Two: Theories of Human Development ............................................................. 10

A. Theories of Human Development: Ancient Conceptions ................................................. 10 1. The Life Course in Three Traditions .............................................................................. 10 B. Theories of Human Development: Scientific Conceptions .............................................. 11 1. Freud’s Psychosexual Theory ........................................................................................ 11 2. Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory ...................................................................................... 11 3. Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Theory ............................................................................. 12 4. A Cultural-Developmental Model for This Book .......................................................... 12

III.

Section Three: How We Study Human Development.................................................... 13

A. How We Study Human Development: The Scientific Method.......................................... 13 1. The Five Steps of the Scientific Method ........................................................................ 13 2. Ethics in Human Development Research ....................................................................... 14 B. How We Study Human Development: Methods and Designs in Research ...................... 14 1. Research Methods .......................................................................................................... 14 2. Research Design ............................................................................................................. 16 ACTIVITIES FOR THE FIRST DAY OF CLASS ...................................................................... 17 First Day Activity and Discussion: Similarities and Differences ............................................ 17 First Day Lecture Suggestion and Activity: Introduction to the Cultural Approach of This Textbook ....................................................................................................................................... 17 LECTURE LAUNCHERS, DISCUSSIONS, AND ACTIVITIES............................................... 17 Section 1 Lecture Launcher: What Is Culture? ....................................................................... 17 Section 1 Discussion/Activity: What Is Culture? .................................................................... 18 Section 1 Lecture Launcher: Development in Culture Across the Life Span ......................... 18 Section 1 Lecture Launcher: Introduce Charles Darwin ......................................................... 19 Section 1 Lecture Launcher: Evolution as an Integrative Theme from the Beginning of Class 19 Section 2 Lecture Launcher: Varying Perspectives on Development ..................................... 20 Section 2 Lecture Launcher: Stage Theory: What Is a Stage Theory?................................... 22 Section 2 Lecture Launcher: Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Theory........................................ 23 Section 2 Activity: Constructing a Life Line to Illustrate Erikson’s Stages of Development 24 Section 2 Activity: Developmental Comparisons Across Species .......................................... 24 Section 3 Lecture Launcher: Can Psychology Be a Real Science? ......................................... 25 Section 3 Lecture Launcher: Ways of Knowing ..................................................................... 25 Section 3 Lecture Launcher/Discussion: Understanding Experiments ................................... 26 Section 3 Lecture Launcher: Pseudopsychology and the Mozart Effect................................. 26 Section 3 Activity: Correlational and Experimental Research ................................................ 26 Section 3 Activity: Designing a Research Study .................................................................... 27 CRITICAL THINKING ................................................................................................................ 27 How We Study Human Development: Fools for Numbers..................................................... 27 TEXTBOOK FEATURES ............................................................................................................ 29 Section 1................................................................................................................................ 29 Section 2................................................................................................................................ 30

Section 3................................................................................................................................ 30 Handout 1-1 to Accompany Activity: Design a Research Study .................................................. 30

LEARNING OBJECTIVES Section 1: Learning Objectives 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6

Describe how the human population has changed over the past 10,000 years and explain why the United States is following a different demographic path from other developed countries.

Distinguish between the demographic profiles of developed countries and developing countries in terms of cultural values, income, and education.

Define the term socioeconomic status (SES) and explain why SES, gender, and ethnicity are important aspects of human development within countries.

Explain the process of natural selection and trace the evolutionary origins of the human species.

Summarize the major changes in human cultures since the Upper Paleolithic period.

Apply information about human evolution to how human development takes place today.

Section 2: Learning Objectives 1.7 1.8 1.9 1.10 1.11

Compare and contrast three ancient conceptions of development through the life span.

Summarize Freud’s psychosexual theory of human development and describe its main limitations.

Describe the eight stages of Erikson’s psychosocial theory of human development.

Define the five systems of Bronfenbrenner’s ecological theory and explain how it differs from stage theories.

Outline the cultural-developmental model that will be the structure of this book and describe the new life stage of emerging adulthood.

Section 3: Learning Objectives 1.12 1.13 1.14 1.15

Recall the five steps of the scientific method and the meanings and functions of hypotheses, sampling, and procedure in scientific research.

Describe some ethical standards for human development research.

Summarize the main methods used in research on human development.

Describe the major types of research designs used in human development research.

KEY TERMS Section 1: Key Terms human development p. 4 culture p. 4 total fertility rate (TFR) p. 5 developed countries p. 5 developing countries p. 5 individualistic p. 8 collectivistic p. 8 traditional culture p. 8 globalization p. 9 majority culture p. 9 contexts p. 9 socioeconomic status (SES) p. 9 ethnicity p. 10 ontogenetic p. 11 phylogenetic p. 11 natural selection p. 11 hominid p. 12 Homo sapiens p. 12 hunter-gatherer p. 12 Upper Paleolithic period p. 13 Neolithic period p. 14 civilization p. 14 state p. 14 evolutionary psychology p. 15 Section 2: Key Terms psychosexual theory p. 22 psychosocial theory p. 23 ecological theory p. 24 emerging adulthood p. 27 Section 3: Key Terms scientific method p. 29 hypothesis p. 29 research method p.30 research design p. 30 sample p. 30 population p. 30 procedure p. 31 peer-review p. 31 theory p. 31 informed consent p.32

qualitative p. 34 quantitative p. 34 ethnographic research p. 35 experimental research method p. 37 independent variable p. 37 dependent variable p. 37 intervention p. 37 natural experiment p. 38 reliability p. 38 validity p. 38 cross-sectional research p. 39 correlation p. 39 longitudinal research p. 40 cohort effect p. 40 CHAPTER OUTLINE I. Section 1: Human Development Today and Its Origins A. A Demographic Profile of Humanity Today 1. Population Growth and Change 2. Variations Across Countries 3. Variations Within Countries B. Human Origins and the Birth of Culture 1. Our Evolutionary Beginnings 2. The Origin of Cultures and Civilizations 3. Human Evolution and Human Development Today II.

Section 2: Theories of Human Development A. Ancient Conceptions B. Scientific Conceptions 1. Freud’s Psychosexual Theory 2. Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory 3. Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Theory 4. A Cultural-Developmental Model for This Book

III.

Section 3: How We Study Human Development A. The Scientific Method 1. The Five Steps of the Scientific Method a. Identify a Question of Scientific Interest b. Form a Hypothesis c. Choose a Research Method and a Research Design d. Collect Data to Test the Hypothesis e. Draw Conclusions and Form New Questions and Hypotheses 2. Ethics in Human Development Research B. Research Methods and Designs 1. Research Methods a. Questionnaires

b. Interviews c. Observations d. Ethnographic Research e. Case Studies f. Biological Measurements g. Experimental Research h. Natural Experiments i. Reliability and Validity 2. Research Designs a. Cross-Sectional Research b. Longitudinal Research

LECTURE NOTES I. Section 1: Human Development Today and Its Origins A.

B.

Introduction to text 1. This text was written to emphasize the cultural approach in understanding the way people grow and change across the life span. That is in essence human development.

2. Culture is the total pattern of a group’s customs, beliefs, art, and technology.

3. A biological perspective is also offered in this text, especially in terms of how biology interacts with cultural and social influences.

4. In the past, culture was largely ignored by social scientists in favor of universal principles of development. a. Research with White, middle-class Americans was the basis of much developmental research to the exclusion of other cultures. b. More researchers are now embracing the influence of culture on development.

5. By learning to think critically about culture, and to appreciate diversity, you will be better prepared as a citizen of the global village.

A Demographic Profile of Humanity Today 1.

Population Growth and Change a. Historically, the human population hovered around 10 million.

However, notable growth began to occur about 10,000 years ago. b. Medical advances facilitated the population boom to what it was in 2011, about 7 billion. c. Increases, of up to 10 billion, are expected to continue until about 2090, and then level off or decline. i. The increase can be attributed to the current Total Fertility Rate, or number of live births per woman, which is 2.5 of live births per woman. This is higher than the replacement rate of just 2.1.

d. Most growth will occur in economically developing countries, while a decline is expected in wealthy, developed countries. Developed countries are the most affluent countries in the world as classified by the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD). i. These countries likely include the United States, Canada, Japan, South Korea, Australia, New Zealand, Chile, and most European countries. ii. They represent about 18% of the world’s population. e. In contrast, developing countries have less wealth, but an increasing economic presence in the global economy. i. They represent about 82% of the world’s population. f. Most developed countries, except the United States, are expected to lose population by 2050. i. The U.S. population is expected to have slight gains because the fertility rate is close to the replacement rate and they have generous immigration laws compared to other OECD countries. ii. Japan is expected to decline the most due to low fertility and lack of immigration.

2.

Variations Across Countries a. There are large income and education differences between developing and developed countries. i. In developing countries, most families live on less than $6,000 per year with Africa remaining the poorest region in the world. ii. 90% of individuals in developed countries are in the top 20% of the global income distribution. b. There is also an educational divide between developing and developed countries. i. Nearly 100% of children in developed countries are afforded a primary and secondary education and about half go on to college or vocational school. ii. In developing countries, 80% of children attend primary school, but only half advance to secondary school; college attendance is for the rich. c. Cultural differences across developed and developing countries should be noted. i. Developed countries tend to foster individualistic values, such as independence and self-expression, while developing countries prize collectivistic values, such as obedience and group harmony. d. The rural and urban areas within developing countries resemble the differences between developing and developed countries. i. Individuals in rural areas tend to have more traditional cultures. They have lower incomes, fewer educational

opportunities, and inadequate medical care compared with urban areas. ii. Globalization refers to the increasing connections between different parts of the world in trade, travel, migration, and communication.

3.

C.

Variations Within Countries a. Human development varies not only between developing and developed countries, but within each as well. i. Within each country, the majority culture sets most of the norms and standards and holds most of the positions of power. ii. There are additional influences from the minority culture. b. The contexts in which human development occurs varies based on the environmental setting and circumstances that surround the individual. c. Additional variations include socioeconomic status (SES), gender, and ethnicity. i. SES refers to social class and is based on educational level, income, and occupational status. A high SES is associated with positive developmental outcomes and a low SES is associated with negative outcomes. ii. Gender role expectations vary within and between countries. f. In developed countries, gender roles have become more integrated over time with less differentiation. This is not true in some other cultures. iii. Ethnicity, cultural origin and traditions, race, religion, and language, also influence human development. f. Ethnic minorities tend to be more collectivistic even within an individualistic majority culture.

Human Development Today and Its Origins: Human Origins and the Birth of Culture Understanding human development, called ontogenetic development, we must first understand the development of the human species, called phylogenetic development.

1.

Our Evolutionary Beginnings a. According to evolutionary theory, species change through the process of natural selection. i. Young are born with variations and those with the best adaptations are the most likely to survive. a. Natural selection results in species change a little at a time over many generations. This can result in the development of new species. b. Human Evolution

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i. Human evolution began about 6–8 million years ago when a common primate ancestor split into one of three paths: Human, chimpanzees, or gorillas (See Figure 1.2). ii. The human evolutionary line is called the hominid line. iii. The hominid line further split resulting in our species of modern humans, Homo sapiens. iv. The early Homo sapiens had an increased brain size and wider female pelvis. a. Infant dependency lasted longer requiring mothers to stay close to home and become gatherers. b. With the development of the ability to make tools and control fire, they began cutting and cooking meat. This led to smaller teeth and jaws because the food was easier to eat. c. A hunter-gatherer lifestyle developed whereby males traveled to hunt and scavenge and females remained at home and gathered edible plants and cared for the young.

2.

The Origin of Cultures and Civilizations a. Homo sapiens have remained physically similar for the last 200,000 years. During the Upper Paleolithic period (40,000– 10,000 years ago), evidence of culture first appeared. i. Burst of artistic production. ii. Burial of the dead began. iii. Cultural differences appeared between groups of people, such as art and tools. iv. Trade, industry, and migration across large bodies of water began after the invention of the boat. b. The Neolithic period followed, about 10,000–5,000 years ago. i. The hallmarks of the period included farming and animal domestication, a warmer climate, new tools, and permanent dwellings. c. Civilization as we know it began around 5,000 years ago. i. Civilization is characterized by the development of cities, the ability to write, divisions of labor, SES, and central political systems known as a state. ii. Civilizations and states arose due to agricultural efficiency, which led to the opportunity to create and work in different fields. As people spread, the state tended to infrastructure and trade development.

3.

Human Evolution and Human Development Today a. Our human development is based in part on our evolutionary history.

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i. Evolutionary psychology is an approach to the study of patterns of human functioning and behavior that has resulted from adaptions to evolutionary conditions. b. Biologically, little evolutionary change has occurred since the origin of Homo sapiens, but much has changed in terms of culture. c. Our cultures shape our raw biological material producing variations in development throughout the life span. d. Culture is what makes us unique from non-human animals and it developed in part from our large brains and our ability to learn, create, and adapt.

II. Section Two: Theories of Human Development A.

Theories of Human Development: Ancient Conceptions 1.

The Life Course in Three Traditions a. These conceptions were written by and for men, which reflected the value and place of women in the society. b. Dharmashastras, the oldest known conception of a life course from the sacred law books of the Hindu religion was advanced about 3,000 years ago is comprised of 4 stages of a man’s life: apprentice, householder, forest dweller, and renunciant. c. Solon’s life stage conception, from birth to age 70 divided into 7 year increments, developed about 2,500 years ago in ancient Greece. d. The third conception of life was drawn from the Jewish religion from the Talmud about 1,500 years ago and is comprised of 14 stages that goes up to age 100. e. There are similarities among the three, traditional conceptions of life. i. They share an idealistic view of human development. ii. Youth is a preparation for adulthood and a time of immaturity. iii. Adulthood is a time to develop skills and expertise and to take on great responsibilities. iv. Old age yields wisdom and peace and is a time to prepare for death. a. The difference between the three, traditional conceptions of life is found in the way in which life span development is divided. b. There are no distinct dividing lines in human development because our biology, culture, and social interactions all intertwine to make us who we are.

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B.

Theories of Human Development: Scientific Conceptions 1.

Freud’s Psychosexual Theory a. Freud was the first to devise a known scientific theory of human development. As a clinician, his theory was based on working with mentally ill patients who had experienced and repressed a traumatic childhood event. b. He developed and used psychoanalysis to help patients uncover and heal from their traumatic pasts. c. The basis of Freud’s psychosexual theory was that sexual desire is the driving force behind human development. d. He divided the mind into three areas called the id (pleasure principle), superego (conscience), and ego (mediator; reality principle). e. There are several stages of development: oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital. The locus of the sexual drive shifts around the body during early development and the personality is complete at age 6. f. There are limitations of Freud’s psychosexual theory. i. No single motive can explain the complexity of human development. ii. The theory was not developed or tested with children; only a retrospective using troubled, adult women. g. It was the dominant theory until the latter half of the 20th century; it is no longer considered accurate.

2.

Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory a. Erikson’s psychosocial theory of development was based on our drive to become integrated into our social and cultural environment throughout the life span. b. Each of the 8 stages of development is characterized by a distinctive developmental challenge or crisis that a person must successfully resolve. His theory extends across the life span. i. Trust vs. Mistrust (Infancy) ii. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (Toddlerhood) iii. Initiative vs. Guilt (Early childhood) iv. Industry vs. Inferiority (Middle to late childhood) v. Identity vs. Identity Confusion (Adolescence) vi. Intimacy vs. Isolation (Early adulthood) vii. Generativity vs. Stagnation (Middle adulthood) viii.

Ego Integrity vs. Despair (Late adulthood) c. The psychosocial theory that we develop across the life span with cultural and social influences is still widely accepted, unlike Freud’s theory.

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d. Of all of the stages he outlined, identity in adolescence and generativity in midlife have been most fully embraced.

3.

Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Theory a. The ecological theory of development is a systems approach to development, not a stage theory. It focuses on five, interrelated social systems that influence development. i. Microsystem (more common term is context): immediate environmental settings and relationships. ii. Mesosystem: the network of the microsystems. iii. Exosystem: societal institutions with an indirect influence. iv. Macrosystem: shared cultural beliefs and values to include the economy and government. v. Chronosystem: individual and historical changes in developmental circumstances. b. Differs from stage theories because of the cultural emphasis, recognition of historical contexts, and children as active participants in their development.

4.

A Cultural-Developmental Model for This Book a. Combination of elements from Erikson’s and Bronfenbrenner’s approaches, but adds an emphasis on culture in human development. i. Framework for textbook is a cultural-developmental approach. The focus is on how culture and biology shapes development. ii. The stages are divided by the traditional periods with the addition of emerging adulthood between adolescence and young adulthood. iii. Emerging adulthood is a life stage, primarily seen in developed countries, that is a transition from parental dependence to independence, but lacks the hallmarks of adulthood. iv. Emerging adulthood usually occurs when tertiary education is pursued, thus delaying marriage and parenthood. v. Age ranges are more specific for the early stages, but less defined in the latter stages. vi. Although this text uses a stage approach, be aware that development is a continuous and gradual process.

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III.

Section Three: How We Study Human Development A.

How We Study Human Development: The Scientific Method 1.

The Five Steps of the Scientific Method a. The scientific method is a process of scientific investigation involving a series of five steps. b. Identify a question of scientific interest c. Form a hypothesis i. A hypothesis is the researcher’s idea about the possible answer to their question. d. Choose a research method and design i. The research method is the way the hypothesis is investigated. ii. The research design is the plan for when and how to collect data for a study. e. Collect data to test the hypothesis i. Data are collected from a sample, a subset of a population for which data are collected or the participants in a research study. ii. Participants should be representative of the population of interest or the entire category a sample represents. iii. Using a representative sample increases the generalizability of the findings so that conclusions may extend to the population. iv. The procedure details how the study is conducted and the data are collected, which should avoid bias. f. Draw conclusions and form new questions and hypotheses i. Conclusions are based on results that have been statistically analyzed. ii. The researcher determines whether the data support or refute the hypothesis and interpret them based on relevant theories and previous research. iii. The research is usually disseminated by writing a manuscript that is submitted to a peer reviewed journal so that the work can be assessed for accuracy and credibility by peer experts and then accepted by a journal editor if it is deemed worthwhile. iv. Research may lead to the development of modification of theories. f. A theory is an original framework to explain a set of interconnected ideas that inspires further research.

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2.

B.

Ethics in Human Development Research a. The purpose of the Institutional Review Board is to prevent ethical violations in research. They usually require the following components as part of the research proposal: i. Protection from physical and psychological harm. ii. Informed consent prior to participation. Informed consent is a procedure that entails informing potential participants of what their participation would involve, including any possible risks, and giving them the opportunity to agree to participate or not. iii. The consent form includes important information about the study, such as expectations, risks, and benefits. It also lets the participant know that participation is voluntary, withdrawal at any time is permissible, and for minors, parents must consent. iv. Confidentiality. Information about research participants is not shared outside the immediate research group and they will not be identified by name. v. Deception and debriefing. Deception is sometimes required to study phenomenon that subjects might want to hide. If deception is used, the researchers must debrief that participant afterward. That is, they must tell the participant the true purpose of the study.

How We Study Human Development: Methods and Designs in Research 1.

Research Methods a. Questionnaires (Surveys) i. Closed questions have specific responses, which makes it easy to collect and analyze the data; useful for large data sets. ii. Open-ended questions allow self-generated responses by the participant. iii. Limitations: Closed ended questions that use an existing response set may miss the depth, complexity, and diversity of the participants. b. Interviews i. Interviews capture a person’s individuality and complexity by allowing him or her to describe their lives in their own words. ii. Interviews provide qualitative data that are not readily quantifiable because it is not in numerical form. It is different from quantitative data, which is collected in numerical form. iii. Limitations of interviews: difficult and time consuming to code into useful categories. c. Observations i. Involve making systematic observations and recording that information.

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a. Locations: Naturalistic and laboratory b. Advantage: Better than self-report c. Limitation: Possible change in participant behavior when he or she has knowledge of observation d. Ethnographic Research i. In depth observational research over time that occurs when the researcher lives and interacts with the participants. ii. The results of this research are usually published in a book called an ethnography. iii. Advantage: Naturalistic setting that more accurately captures daily life. iv. Limitations: Time consuming and expensive; may develop observer bias due to personal relationships with participants. e. Case Studies i. A case study is a detailed examination of the life of one person or a small number of persons. ii. Advantage: Detailed account of the whole person. iii. Limitation: Limited generalizability. f. Biological Measurements i. Human development includes biological changes. a. Includes hormonal functioning, brain functioning, and the genetic basis of development. b. Often combined with other methodology to present a more complete picture. ii. Advantage: Allows for precise measurements; investigation of the relationship between biological and other types of development. iii. Limitations: Expensive; relationships are correlational, not causal. g. Experimental Research i. The experimental research method is one that entails comparing an experimental group that receives a treatment of some kind to a control group that receives no treatment. ii. In an experiment, participants are randomly assigned to an experimental or control group to measure the difference between the groups after the treatment or manipulation. a. The experimental group gets the treatment or manipulation. b. The control group gets no treatment or manipulation. c. Random assignment assumes equality between the groups prior to the treatment or manipulation.

1. An independent variable is the variable that differs from the control group. It is the variable that is being manipulated.

2. A dependent variable is the measurable outcome.

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d. Intervention programs intend to change the attitudes or behavior of participants and are often measured experimentally to determine their effectiveness. e. Advantage of experiments: Allows control and gives the researcher the ability to make causal, rather than correlational, statements about the effectiveness of the experimental manipulation. f. Disadvantage: lacks realism, which could compromise generalizability. h. Natural Experiments i. A natural experiment is a situation that exists naturally, but provides interesting scientific information. Researchers can examine naturally occurring groups for differences while yielding the control that a lab and random assignment afford. i. Reliability and Validity i. Reliability refers to the consistency of measurements. That is, getting the same measurements time and again. ii. Validity refers to the truthfulness or accuracy of a method. A valid measure is one that measures what it claims to measure.

2.

Research Design a. Cross-sectional research is the most common type in this field. i. Data are collected with a sample on a single occasion. ii. Advantage: Quick and inexpensive. iii. Limitation: Only yields correlational relationships between variables without the ability to determine cause. iv. A correlation is a statistical relationship between two variables, such that knowing one of the variables makes it possible to predict the other. The correlation can be positive or negative, but it does not imply causation. b. Longitudinal Research i. A longitudinal research design uses the same participants with data collected over time, at least twice but often more frequently. ii. Usually lasts a year or less, but could last a lifetime. iii. Advantages: Ability to examine development over time; allows greater insight into possible causation. a. A cohort effect is an explanation of group differences among people of different ages based on the fact that they grew up in different cohorts or historical periods. iv. Limitations: Costly and time consuming; requires more patience; attrition, or participants leaving the study, can be a problem.

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ACTIVITIES FOR THE FIRST DAY OF CLASS First Day Activity and Discussion: Similarities and Differences Present the following quotation.

Every person is like every other person.

Every person is like some other person.

Every person is like no other person.

(Adapted from Kluckhohn & Murray, 1948, p. 35) Read the quotation and ask students to write three examples of each line in their notebooks. Ask students to volunteer their answers. Explain to the class that during this course, we will be discussing how developmental psychologists attempt to discover: 1. universal human qualities over the course of the life span (the first line); 2. how membership in social groups (gender, religion, ethnicity, nationality, age, etc.) affect human development (the second line); and 3. that researchers cannot know the answer to the third line because all humans are individuals with unique qualities. Psychologists call this human variation.

First Day Lecture Suggestion and Activity: Introduction to the Cultural Approach of This Textbook The Arnett text takes a cultural approach to human development. It is important to frame this idea for the students as many of them have a very narrow view of culture. Introduce the “frog in the bottom of the well” story (Arnett, 2016) and the definition of culture to the students. Have the members of the class generate examples of the culture, or cultures, to which someone may belong. Some of the categories that may be represented might include nationality, race, SES, family, college or university, religious affiliation, etc.

LECTURE LAUNCHERS, DISCUSSIONS, AND ACTIVITIES Section 1 Lecture Launcher: What Is Culture?

Does it make sense to use the concept of race? Hector Betancourt and Steven Regester Lopez (1993) caution against the tendency to confuse the concept of culture with the concepts of race, ethnicity, nationality, and social class. Zuckerman (1990) argues that the concept of race is particularly likely to be misused in social science research and provides evidence of greater within-group differences than between-group differences in characteristics of the three “races” (Caucasoid, Negroid, and Mongoloid). Betancourt and Lopez point out that even biological factors found to vary with “race” (such as hypertension) may be attributable to cultural factors (such as diet, lifestyle, or psychological stress). Zuckerman cites cross-cultural studies in which findings of "racial differences" were a result of arbitrary sampling decisions. For example, several early studies of infant temperament reported cross-cultural differences based on a single sample from each of three different "racial" groups. According to Zuckerman, however, similar

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variation in temperament has been demonstrated in comparisons of infants in samples from three different groups of Africans—Kikuyu, Digo, and Masai (De Vries & Sameroff, 1984).

Sources: Betancourt, H., & Lopez, S.R. (1993). The study of culture, ethnicity, and race in American psychology. American Psychologist, 48, 629–637.

De Vries, M.W., & Sameroff, A. J. (1984). Culture and temperament: Influences on human temperament in three East African societies. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 54, 83–96.

Zuckerman, M. (1990). Some dubious premises in research and theory on racial differences: Scientific, social, and ethical issues. American Psychologist, 45, 1297–1303.

Section 1 Discussion/Activity: What Is Culture?

Provide students with a list of different social groups and ask them to determine whether each is a culture by applying the criteria listed in the “Lecture Suggestion: What Is Culture?”. These might include such social groups as, for example, soldiers, women, emo music fans, Irish people, Canadians, or people in poverty.

Then, have students write down which culture or cultures they are members of and how that may have influenced their development. Finally, in small group of 4–5 students, they should discuss their cultural similarities and differences. This is a good rapport building activity for the first or second day of class. In an online class, this is treated as a discussion board activity where the students respond to the same prompts and then read others’ replies and find 3 students with whom they have cultural similarities and differences to respond to on the discussion board.

Section 1 Lecture Launcher: Development in Culture Across the Life Span Another point the instructor may want to make early in the course is that there is a continuity of culture-individual interaction across the life span. An excellent source for developing a lecture on this topic is the chapter by Valsiner and Lawrence (1998). They suggest that a cultural view of development provides the greatest opportunity for understanding development over an individual’s entire lifetime. In support of this view, they include Bronfenbrenner’s (1993) person-context-process-time model. While this chapter is highly theoretical, it includes many references to anecdotal “evidence.” which might be useful in conveying the idea of continuity to students. The material presented here represents a shift in paradigm, as well as a shift from the view of culture as an independent variable to one of “interdependency of culture and person in explaining behavior and development.”

Sources: Valsiner J. & Lawrence, J. (1997). Human development in culture across the life span. In J. W. Berry, P.R. Dasen & T.S. Saraswathi (Eds.). Handbook of Cross-Cultural Psychology (Vol. 2, 2nd. ed., pp. 69–106). Boston: Allyn & Bacon.

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Bronfenbrenner, U. (1993). The ecology of cognitive development: Research models and fugitive findings. In R.H. Wozniak & K.W. Fischer (Eds.), Development in Context (pp.

3–44). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Section 1 Lecture Launcher: Introduce Charles Darwin The Research Focus: Darwin’s Diary, A Case Study includes the story of Charles Darwin and the development of his thinking on evolution by means of natural selection is an extremely interesting story. It is best told in his own words (Darwin, 1887). As you present information about Charles Darwin, elaborate on some of the points in his autobiography that you find interesting and tie them to the larger picture of how science advances. Students will find your insights into Darwin’s life compelling not only because they shed light on Darwin as a human being, but also because they will help reveal the personal, human side of scientific endeavor.

Darwin, F. (1950/1887). Charles Darwin’s autobiography. New York: Henry Schuman.

A biographical sketch of Darwin is provided by John van Wyhe in The Complete Work of Charles Darwin Online at http://darwin-online.org.uk/darwin.html.

Section 1 Lecture Launcher: Evolution as an Integrative Theme from the Beginning of Class Some students have a difficult time with the idea of evolutionary theory, which in part may be due to the misconceptions they harbor. Others may be resistant to the theory because of religious beliefs. Peter Gray provides a brief article in the APS Observer with good teaching tips for using evolution by natural selection as a way to tie together the many theories and facts provided in a developmental psychology course (and other psychology courses). He later produced a more detailed article in the Teaching of Psychology journal.

Some of the tips include: Explain the significance of evolution by natural selection to psychological concepts and theories from the beginning of the course. By providing a good framework for understanding evolution, students may be more open to the theory.

Take the time to ask “why” questions during your course. Explain the difference between proximal causation and ultimate causation as explanations of behavior.

Incorporate “functionalist, evolutionary accounts” to explain and organize evidence of behavior and test that evidence to determine whether it supports the theory in question.

Students often harbor a pathology bias, particularly those in developed, Western cultures.

Help them to reduce their bias by using evolutionary accounts to provide a broader explanation of behavior that they may view as pathological.

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As you present classic psychological theories during the course, take the time to have students consider them from an evolutionary perspective.

Approach the relationship between nature and nurture using evolutionary theory.

If you compare human development to the development of other species, take the time to incorporate an evolutionary perspective.

Using an integrated evolutionary theme in developmental psychology will foster critical thinking skills.

Be sure to acknowledge the limitations of the evolutionary perspective on explaining behavior, especially as it pertains to development.

Finally, Gray notes that you should begin to integrate the evolutionary perspective a little at a time and only what you feel comfortable with doing.

Sources: Gray, P. (1996). Using evolution by natural selection as an integrative theme in psychology courses. APS Observer, 9(3). Retrieved from http://www.psychologicalscience.org/index.php/publications/observer/1996/may-june96/using-evolution-by-natural-selection-as-an-integrative-theme-in-psychologycourses.html.

Gray, P. (1996). Incorporating evolutionary theory into the teaching of psychology. Teaching of Psychology, 23(4), 207–214. doi:10.1207/s15328023top2304_1 Supplemental Readings Barker, L. (2009). Teaching evolutionary psychology: An interview with David M. Buss.

Teaching of Psychology, 33(1), 69-73. doi: 10.1207/s15328023top3301_11 Prescott, S. (1984). An evolutionary model applied to teaching. Teaching of Psychology, 11(4), 198–202.

Section 2 Lecture Launcher: Varying Perspectives on Development After students have read or you have presented Arnett’s “frog in the well story” (p. 3), then present the following poem to your class.

The Blind Men and the Elephant

By John Godfrey Saxe It was six men of Indostan To learning much inclined,

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Who went to see the elephant (Though all of them were blind), That each by observation Might satisfy his mind.

The First approached the elephant, And, happening to fall Against his broad and sturdy side, At once began to bawl: “God bless me! but the elephant Is nothing but a wall!”

The Second, feeling of the tusk, Cried, “Ho! what have we here So very round and smooth and sharp?

To me ‘tis mighty clear This wonder of an elephant Is very like a spear!”

The Third approached the animal, And, happening to take The squirming trunk within his hands, Thus boldly up and spake: “I see,” quoth he, “the elephant Is very like a snake!”

The Fourth reached out his eager hand, And felt about the knee: “What most this wondrous beast is like Is mighty plain”, quoth he; “‘Tis clear enough the elephant Is very like a tree.”

The Fifth, who chanced to touch the ear, Said, “E’en the blindest man Can tell what this resembles most; Deny the fact who can, This marvel of an elephant Is very like a fan!”

The Sixth no sooner had begun About the beast to grope, Than, seizing on the swinging tail That fell within his scope, “I see,” quoth he, “the elephant Is very like a rope!”

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And so these men of Indostan Disputed loud and long, Each in his own opinion Exceeding stiff and strong, Though each was partly in the right, And all were in the wrong!

So, oft in theologic wars The disputants, I ween, Rail on in utter ignorance Of what each other mean, And prate about an elephant Not one of them has seen!

This poem is a good introduction to why there are so many theoretical perspectives in developmental psychology. It also ties in nicely with Arnett’s “frog in the well story” (p. 3) as it demonstrates that even some developmental theorists can have a narrow view of the discipline.

Note that in this text, Arnett (2016) favors a stage model that incorporates the cultural influences noted in a systems approach (p. 26).

Although Arnett briefly introduces the major theories of development in Chapter 1, he waits until later chapters to go into greater depth on each. You may want to introduce these theories in depth in the beginning of the semester. Students may be confused by the various theories and an early, in-depth introduction provides more opportunities for your students to understand the similarities and differences among the theories. Some excellent books to help you structure your lecture are Theories of Developmental Psychology by Patricia Miller, Theories of Development by William Crain, and An Introduction to Theories of Personality by B.R. Hergenhahn.

Good chapters on Freud, Erikson, Skinner, and Bandura: Hergenhahn, B.R. (1984). An introduction to theories of personality (2nd ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Miller’s book is an excellent and clearly written overview of the major theories in development.

The strength of her book is its organization and comparison of theories. Her third edition has an extensive chapter on Vygotsky. Her introductory chapter is a good guide for first lectures.

Miller, P.H. (2011). Theories of developmental psychology (5th. ed.). New York: Worth Publishers.

Section 2 Lecture Launcher: Stage Theory: What Is a Stage Theory?

As instructors, we are familiar with stage theories, as we spend a great deal of time studying them. Freud’s stages of psychosexual development, Erikson’s eight stages of man, Kohlberg’s stages of moral development, and Piaget’s stages of cognitive development are part of our world, but what is implied to our students when we refer to a given theory as a stage theory?

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Reber (1985) defines stage theory as “a label applicable to any theory of development that characterizes growth, be it physical, sensorimotor, cognitive, moral, etc., as a progression through a sequence of stages” (p. 724). He further states that stage theories tend to be either maturational or interactional in nature, that they are biologically determined or result from interactions between biological and experiential factors.

Actually, even if we didn’t use the word stage in referring to many of our psychological theories, we would still be able to easily discern which theories are stage theories and which are not, because there are four properties that define stage theories. Without any one of these properties, you do not have a stage theory. These properties include the following: • • • •

A stage theory must predict qualitative differences in behavior, over both time and experience.

A stage theory must assume invariance of the sequence of stages.

A stage theory assumes structural cohesiveness of a stage; the behaviors within a stage must share a common conceptual base.

There must be a hierarchical integration of structures from stage to stage, so that later stages incorporate and expand on the structures from earlier stages.

Now, back to our question, what does the term stage theory imply and subsequently mean to our students? First, it means that a stage theory is presumed to be universal, which is what “over both time and experience” means. Piaget’s theory of cognitive development offers an easy example. Piaget proposed that children, regardless of nationality, ethnicity, or sociocultural background, all experience their intellectual development in the same way. The same sequence of events unfolds, regardless of where the child lives and under what conditions. Further, Piaget proposed that the changes were not only predictable and universal, but that the changes were qualitatively different as the child moved from one stage to the next. For example, a 7-year-old child can conserve liquid, but a 4-year-old cannot. That is a qualitative difference in the thought process, and it is a function of the developmental process.

Second, stage theories and stage theorists believe that there can be no latitude in the progression of the stages of development. In Eriksonian terms, a child must resolve the trust/mistrust conflict and learn to trust before he or she can move onto the stage of autonomy versus self-doubt, because unless the trust/mistrust conflict has been resolved, the child has no possibility of resolving the autonomy issue. Stage 1 must precede Stages 2, 3, 4, and so on.

Third, cohesiveness of a stage and a common conceptual base indicate that the stage itself must fit within the overall theoretical construct, as implied by the underlying conceptual basis of the theoretical position. Finally, stage theories represent a series of building blocks, in that one builds on the other in a hierarchical fashion. Each stage must progress logically from the one preceding it, and lead logically to the one following. If a given theory satisfies these four requirements, we can properly refer to it as a stage theory.

Section 2 Lecture Launcher: Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Theory Arnett introduced Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological (Systems) Theory in Chapter 1 (p. 24-26).

Bronfenbrenner developed a model for studying the interactions among an individual’s social environments. The five basic structures of the model are the microsystem (family, peers, school, 23

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community, media), the mesosystem (interaction between two microsystems; e.g., parent conferences are an interaction between family and school and the community censoring the media is another example), the exosystem (parent’s jobs, school boards, city council); the macrosystem (a person’s subculture or culture); and the chronosystem (involving the way the passage of time affects children’s development). Explaining Bronfenbrenner’s theory can stimulate a good class discussion about the various interactions among each system. See Journal Exercises for an extension of this lecture.

Source: Bronfenbrenner, U. (1989). Ecological systems theory. In R. Vasta (Ed.), Annals of child development (Vol. 6). Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.

Section 2 Activity: Constructing a Life Line to Illustrate Erikson’s Stages of Development Peggy Brick (1981) suggests giving students the opportunity to actively explore Erikson’s stages of development in their own lives by constructing a “life line.” After discussing the eight stages of Erikson’s theory, ask students to take out a piece of paper, turn it lengthwise, and draw a line across the middle of the page. Tell them to put their birth date on the far left and a projected date of death on the far right. Then have them put the current date a few inches down the line from their birth date. Now instruct them to list several important events during the childhood and adolescence between their birth date and the current date. For example, they might list an accident, a family move, a birthday party, their first day of elementary or high school, or a special holiday memory. After giving them a few minutes to list these events, ask them to consider the future and to list things that they would like to accomplish during early, middle, and late adulthood, including what their retirement will be like and what they want to do before they die. Brick suggests pairing students to let them discuss their time lines and then leading the class in a discussion of what they learned from the activity. During the discussion, ask students to focus on how the events or accomplishments that they listed reflect aspects of Erikson’s theory.

Source: Brick, P. (1981). The life cycle. In L.T. Benjamin, Jr. & K.D. Lowman (Eds.), Activities handbook for the teaching of psychology (pp. 128–130). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

Section 2 Activity: Developmental Comparisons Across Species Arnett mentions some milestones in the chapter related to the various major theories of development. In this activity, students will compare developmental milestones across species.

Have students choose a species for which there is a lot of information available (e.g., the various primates, any domesticated animal, most songbirds, many types of lizards). On their own, have students research their species to find ages of at least five different milestones, which they can compare to human development. For example, at what age does a chimpanzee infant take its first steps compared to a human infant? At what age does a puppy wean compared to a typical human infant? At what age do lions usually make their first kill? This can be assigned individually or in small groups. Have the students present their comparisons to the class.

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Section 3 Lecture Launcher: Can Psychology Be a Real Science?

Most beginning students in psychology bring to the course the misconception that psychology research is generally unscientific in nature. Students readily accept the notion that physics, chemistry, and biology are scientific disciplines; however, they find it difficult to accept the fact that psychological research can also be scientific. A lecture can be developed that sets forth the idea of the scientific method (i.e., observation, prediction via a hypothesis, confirmation or disconfirmation, revision of hypothesis as needed, development of overarching theory). The lecture can discuss how the scientific method can be applied to one or more of the “hard science” disciplines. The lecture can then show that hypotheses in psychological research can be tested in much the same way as the hard sciences.

Section 3 Lecture Launcher: Ways of Knowing Another way to engage students is to develop a lecture on how we acquire information. Most students have difficulty understanding why they need to understand research methods in order to study psychology. Many students have the idea that psychology is all “common sense.”

There are at least six ways to acquire knowledge: five unscientific and one scientific. The unscientific ways are: tenacity, intuition, authority, rationalism, and empiricism. Tenacity involves persistent superstition. This is where beliefs are reacted to as if they are fact. Intuition is not based on any known reasoning or inferring process (e.g., psychics). Authority involves acquiring information from a respected source (e.g., a person, document). The authority is often well-known in one area, maybe even an expert, but is often not an expert in the area in which they are providing information. Rationalism involves gaining knowledge through reasoning processes and assumes that valid knowledge is acquired if correct reasoning processes are employed. Empiricism touts knowledge from experience. If something is experienced it must be valid and true. Each of the unscientific methods has obvious problems, but we use them every day to acquire information. We then use this information to make decisions that influence our lives and the lives of people around us.

The scientific method or process has two major advantages. It uses objective empirical observation that should be independent of opinion or bias. It also has a method for establishing the superiority of one belief or theory over another. The theory that is more precise (operational definitions), more parsimonious, and more testable is deemed as the better theory. Skepticism, the philosophical belief that all knowledge is questionable, is assumed. No scientific fact can be known with 100% certainty, which is why we never use the word “prove” to refer to research findings in psychology.

It is often helpful to give the class examples of questions and ask them where they would seek the information to inform their answers. For example, what is the cause of the medical symptoms I am experiencing? What kind of car should I buy? What is the best reading program to teach children to read? How can we reduce the divorce rate? Should antidepressants be prescribed to adolescents? Do video games cause violence?

Section 3 Lecture Launcher/Discussion: Understanding Experiments To supplement students’ understanding of experiments from Chapter 1, you can provide them with a good visual demonstration by showing a very easy to understand video (14:58 minutes) on 25

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the basic research design of an experiment provided by Michael Britt, creator of www.thepsychfiles.com. Although the video is not specifically related to developmental psychology, it does give excellent examples that students can understand. The basic terms your students should know are presented in the first 7:39 minutes of the video. More detailed terms, such as confound, within groups design, ANOVA, and noise are found in the latter half of the video. After watching the video, you may want to provide students with another example of an experiment, but one that is related to topics of interest in developmental psychology.

Section 3 Lecture Launcher: Pseudopsychology and the Mozart Effect In addition to the material presented in Chapter 1, Section 3, you may want to introduce the concept of pseudoscience to your students. Ask students about their impression of the so-called Mozart effect. Most students have heard of the general phenomenon and have seen advertisements and CDs of music or videos “designed to increase your children’s IQ.” Bring in a magazine advertisement and read from it or show a YouTube video clip, touting the merits of the product. Ask students if they believe it, and if they would buy the product. Probe them by asking what “proof” they would need that the product actually works. Usually, students will begin to question the merits of the product, at which point you can discuss the actual psychological findings of this moneymaking gimmick by summarizing the work of Steele, Bass, and Crook (1999).

Pseudoscience quite literally means “false science.” Its “claims [are] presented so that they appear scientific even though they lack the supporting evidence and plausibility” (Shermer, 1997, p. 33). Furthermore, pseudoscience appears to use scientific methods and tries to give that “science-y” impression. Some characteristics of pseudoscience include the following: 1. It associates itself with true science 2. It relies on, and accepts, anectdotal evidence 3. It sidesteps disproof a. any possible outcome is explained away b. a theory is not a good theory if it can explain everything because it can never make specific predictions 4. It dangerously reduces complexity to simplicity (to a consumer society) Ask students why the Mozart effect would be considered pseudoscience based on the four aforementioned characteristics. Have students give other examples of possible pseudoscience such as graphology, palmistry, aromatherapy, and quite arguably Eye-Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing (EMDR).

Michael Britt has an excellent website (www.thepsychfiles.com) that provides a great podcast on the Mozart Effect, as well as background information on this topic.

Section 3 Activity: Correlational and Experimental Research Many students have difficulty understanding the difference between correlational research and experimental research. It might be useful to walk the class through an example where both kinds of research are illustrated with the same variables. Two examples that could be used this way are 26

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the relationship between violent television viewing and aggression, and the relationship between similarity and liking. In both examples, either variable could plausibly be caused by the other (or by some third factor), so the step up from correlational to experimental research, where causality can be determined, can be seen as useful. Spend some time discussing how psychologists must be ingenious to turn concepts such as “liking” into measurable variables (this will help students appreciate the scientific process). As examples, you can present actual studies that have been done in these two areas. Byrne (1971) discusses extensive research on the influence of similarity on attraction, and Liebert and Sprafkin (1988) discuss the effects of television on children.

Sources: Byrne, D. (1971). The attraction paradigm. New York: Academic Press.

Liebert, R., & Sprafkin, J. (1988). The early window: Effects of television on children and youth.

New York: Pergamon Press.

Section 3 Activity: Designing a Research Study An appropriate collaborative learning activity for this chapter on research methods is to allow students the opportunity to design their own research. Arrange your class into groups. Tell them their assignment is to design a study in some area related to human development. Some suggestions are: What foods do infants prefer? Why are children aggressive? Why do adolescents like to hang out at malls? What methods of quitting smoking are most effective?

Why do we fall in love? Does having a pet increase the well-being of elderly people? Groups can brainstorm some ideas of their own. You may use Handout 1-1 with this to guide the activity.

CRITICAL THINKING How We Study Human Development: Fools for Numbers Understanding the Concept Can you read a magazine, watch the news or visit a website without having some sort of statistic thrown at you? Everywhere people try to persuade us with numbers. In most of our endeavors today, such as science, business, and medicine, we look to statistical operations to help us determine how valid, reliable, and predictive information is. We live in a world that demands we understand statistics well enough to make good decisions and to be more fool proofed!

Statistics is a field of mathematics that states information in numerical terms so it can be organized, analyzed, and interpreted. Statistics was originally considered the science of kings. In the 1700s “statistics” referred to the counting of goods, people, and soldiers available to the king.

Today, the science of the king belongs to all of us and is still used to summarize past or present realities and to predict future possibilities.

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For this exercise, we will cover a basic statistic. It involves some property I own in Florida. I have a great deal for you on a house. The average income of people living in the area is $500,000 a year. I need to sell right now and I really like you, so you may buy my house for just $90,000!

Unfortunately for you, there are a few millionaires with exclusive estates nearby. Why unfortunate? I added their income in to figure that average of $500,000. Your near neighbors have incomes averaging $20,000 a year and live in old trailer homes just like the one you paid me $90,000 for. Did I lie to you? (A similar example can be found in Darrel Huff’s great book, How to Lie with Statistics.)

Something as simple as an average can be misleading. Knowing the range, median, and mode before we make decisions based on averages can save us from serious error. Start noticing how often you are given just an average when numbers come your way.

Who is included in an average matters, too. A national average may not tell you much about your area of the country. A regional average would be more representative, a state average even more so, but a local average would be best if you want to know about your own city.

Critical Thinking Challenge, Use the Concept Look in any media source for an article or advertisement with statistics. Jot down every statistic given. Analyze your data (statistics) for missing information. If it is an average, do you know the range, median, or mode? If it is a simple count, do you have any information regarding how it was obtained or who it represents? How might the missing information result in misleading you?

Mastery Exercise, Capstone Use the same data or a new data set you find. In the previous exercise, you thought about missing information that might change the meaning of the data or the inferences you would make from it.

For this exercise, go two steps further: 1. Write down possible reasons the statistics were presented in the way they were. Is the author attempting to convince you to accept a certain belief or take a certain action? If so, what belief or action?

2. Write down what information you would need to be more confident the data represented the real situation accurately.

Bringing It Home Are you about to make a big decision about a purchase, political issue, or school? (If not pick one you might need to make in the future.) Using the Internet, magazines, newspapers, Twitter, etc., find statistics both pro and con related to your decision. Following the steps in “Use the Concept and the Capstone” exercise, list all the statistics you find and identify ways they may be misleading. If you are comparing items is it easy to do, or are the statistics stated too differently to compare A to B? Did all the statistics you found support the same conclusion? Write up your experience, the difficulties you encountered, and how they might be overcome in order to make your best decision.

Instructor’s Guide

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These exercises can be used as individual assignments. They translate well for online discussion boards. In a small group format, all three or any one of the exercises can be used. Students might bring in brief media examples, or you might provide one. Likewise, groups can choose or be assigned a decision they must make for the “Bringing It Home” exercise, do the research as homework, and process the exercise in groups.

Additional Resources: Often cited as one of the best brief books on thinking critically about statistics: Darrell Huff, (1991) How to Lie with Statistics. Penguin; New Edition, ISBN 0140136290.

An astounding and informative audio resource for students, Stoachisity, can be found at Radio Lab using a general search engine. The focus is on randomness and the likelihood that even the most unlikely events occur. It is particularly helpful for reducing magical thinking about statistically improbable events.

TEXTBOOK FEATURES Video Guide A Cultural Approach to Human Development (p. 3) Natural Selection (p. 11) Research Focus: Darwin’s Diary, A Case Study (p. 36) Applying Your Knowledge as a Professional Career Focus: Professor of Psychology (p. 42)

Critical Thinking Questions and Answers Section 1 What kinds of public policy changes might be necessary in the United States between now and 2050 to adapt to nearly 100 million more immigrants and a rise in the proportion of Latinos to 30%? (p. 6) Public policy changes may center around health, education, labor, and immigration itself. As a nation, we should discuss these issues, including stakeholders in the conversation. A cultural developmental approach to these issues would suggest a focus on cultural frame of reference, families, and children’s health and well-being. The nation will become increasingly

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multicultural, and a one-size-fits-all approach will not work. Bringing a cultural understanding to the table will help us all adapt.

Section 2 Based on your own experiences, which theory of human development do you consider more valid, Erikson’s or Freud’s? (p. 24) There are valid points in both theories. For example, in Freud’s theory, the idea that early experience and development can set the stage for later behavior is valid. Also, the idea that children experience sexual energy is another valid point that Freud made. Students may also find some validity in Freud’s assertion that we all bear psychological stress, and that we must have a valve for discharging it. However, among the many criticisms that exist, Freud’s theory doesn’t account for development in adulthood, so that point alone may resonate with students who will favor Erikson’s theory. Valid points in Erikson’s theory include the idea that development occurs across the life span, and that people must grapple with a key conflict at each stage of development, resolving the conflict to move on to the next stage. In both theories, the idea that we can get stuck at a stage, or have development arrested, may ring true for some students.

Section 3 Of the three hypothetical studies described here, which do you think would be likely to receive IRB approval and which not? (p. 32) In the first hypothetical study, the design is ethical and likely to be approved. Parents in the control condition would be given no instructions and so they would be expected to behave as they always have behaved. The experimental group would increase interactions with their children, but this would not be expected to be harmful to their children. In the second hypothetical study, the design is ethical and likely to be approved. The study would be a structured observation. The third study would be unethical to conduct with humans given that the earlier trial with rats lead to early deaths in those who received the drug. The study where the rats died earlier in the experimental group than the rats in the control groups would probably not pass IRB standards for approval. The IRB will most likely infer that this study may be too dangerous for humans, because the risk of death most likely does not outweigh the benefits. The risk of death brings a lot of exposure to the university where the study would be done. It is the responsibility of the IRB and the university to protect human subjects from undue risks.

Research Focus Darwin’s Diary, A Case Study (p. 36–37) Review Question Answers: 1. c.

2. a

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Handout 1-1 to Accompany Activity: Design a Research Study

DESIGN A RESEARCH STUDY You are the researchers. Design a study related to human development. In doing so, address the following: 1. What is your research problem or question?

2. Are you seeking to establish cause and effect (an experimental design) or looking for a relationship between variables (a correlational design)?

3. What are your variables? Is there need to identify one as the independent variable and one as the dependent variable? If so, what are they? How are the variables operationally defined?

4. What is your hypothesis?

5. What major developmental design are you using? Note whether you are incorporating longitudinal, cross-sectional, cross-sequential, or cross-cultural methods.

6. Who is your population? How did you draw your sample? Will you have an experimental and control group? If so, how are subjects assigned to each group?

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7. What data gathering strategies and/or “treatment” will you use?

8. Describe, diagram, or explain your research procedure.

9. What do you think your results will be?

10. How did you minimize bias in your study?

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CHAPTER 2: GENETICS AND PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT TABLE OF CONTENTS LEARNING OBJECTIVES ...........................................................................................................35 Section 1: Learning Objectives ................................................................................................35 Section 2: Learning Objectives ................................................................................................35 Section 3: Learning Objectives ................................................................................................35 KEY TERMS .................................................................................................................................36 Section 1: Key Terms ...............................................................................................................36 Section 2: Key Terms ...............................................................................................................37 Section 3: Key Terms ...............................................................................................................37 CHAPTER OUTLINE .................................................................................................................38 I.

Section 1: Genetic Influences on Development...............................................................38

II.

Section 2: Prenatal Development and Prenatal Care .......................................................38

III. Section 3: Pregnancy Problems .......................................................................................38 LECTURE NOTES ........................................................................................................................38 I.

Section 1: Genetic Influences on Development ...........................................................38

A.

Genetic Basics..............................................................................................................38

1.

Genotype and Phenotype .............................................................................................38

2.

The Sex Chromosomes ................................................................................................39

B.

Genes and Environment in Human Development........................................................39

1.

Nature vs. Nurture........................................................................................................39

2.

Principles of Behavior Genetics...................................................................................39

3.

Gene-Environment Interactions: Epigenesis and Reaction Ranges .............................39

4.

The Theory of Genotype→Environment Effects .........................................................39

C.

Genes and Individual Development .............................................................................40

1.

Sperm and Egg Formation ...........................................................................................40

2.

Conception ...................................................................................................................40

II.

Section 2: Prenatal Development and Prenatal Care .................................................41

A.

Prenatal Development (Conception to Birth) ..............................................................41

1.

The Germinal Period (First 2 Weeks) ..........................................................................41

2.

The Embryonic Period (Weeks 3–8) ...........................................................................41

3.

The Fetal Period (Week 9–Birth).................................................................................41 33

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B.

Prenatal Care ................................................................................................................42

1.

Variations in Prenatal Care ..........................................................................................42

2.

Teratogens ....................................................................................................................43

III. Section Three: Pregnancy Problems ............................................................................44 A.

Prenatal Problems ........................................................................................................44

1.

Chromosomal Disorders ..............................................................................................44

2.

Prenatal Diagnosis .......................................................................................................45

B.

Infertility ......................................................................................................................46

1.

Causes and Treatments.................................................................................................46

2.

Sources of Infertility ....................................................................................................46

3.

Infertility Treatments ...................................................................................................46

4.

Infertility Worldwide ...................................................................................................47

LECTURE LAUNCHERS, DISCUSSIONS, AND ACTIVITIES ...........................................47 Section 1 Activity and Discussion: The Human Genome Project .........................................47 Section 1 Discussion: Gene-Environment Interaction ..........................................................47 Section 2 Activity: Life’s Greatest Miracle (53:41) ...............................................................48 Section 2 Activity: Podcast on Improving Maternal Health (11:45)......................................48 Section 3 Discussion: Genetic Testing ...................................................................................48 Section 3 Activity: Genetic Counseling .................................................................................48 Section 3 Lecture Launcher: Infertility ..................................................................................49 Section 3 Discussion: Ethics of Assisted Reproductive Technology .....................................50 Section 3 Activity: Infertility and Assisted Reproductive Technology .................................50 CRITICAL THINKING ABOUT DEVELOPMENT ....................................................................50 Evaluating Websites for Academic Use ...................................................................................50 SUPPLEMENTAL READINGS ...................................................................................................53 MULTIMEDIA IDEAS .................................................................................................................53 TEXTBOOK FEATURES .............................................................................................................55 VIDEO GUIDE ........................................................................................................................55 Genetics and Prenatal Development (8:56; p. 45)..................................................................55 A Preference for Sons (4:07; p. 50)........................................................................................55 Cultural Focus: Pregnancy and Prenatal Care Across Cultures (8:22; p. 66) ........................55 Applying Your Knowledge as a Professional ..........................................................................55 Career Focus: Genetic Counselor (5:11; p. 79) ......................................................................55 Critical Thinking Questions and Answers ...............................................................................55 34

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Section 1.................................................................................................................................55 Section 2.................................................................................................................................55 Section 3.................................................................................................................................56 Research Focus Answers ..........................................................................................................56 Twin Studies: The Story of Oskar and Jack (pp. 55–56) .........................................................56 Handouts ........................................................................................................................................57 2-1: Fertility Problems and Solutions.......................................................................................57 Handout 2-2: Facts About Conception and Pregnancy ............................................................58 LEARNING OBJECTIVES Section 1: Learning Objectives 2.1 Distinguish between genotype and phenotype and identify the different forms of genetic inheritance.

2.2 Describe the sex chromosomes and identify what makes them different from other chromosomes.

2.3 Describe how behavior geneticists use heritability estimates and concordance rates in their research.

2.4 Describe how the concept of epigenesis frames gene–environment interactions, and connect epigenesis to the concept of reaction range.

2.5 Explain how the theory of genotype → environment effects casts new light on the old nature–nurture debate.

2.6 Outline the process of meiosis in the formation of reproductive cells and specify how the process differs for males and females.

2.7 Describe the process of fertilization and conception.

Section 2: Learning Objectives 2.8 Describe the structures that form during the germinal period, and identify when implantation takes place.

2.9 Outline the major milestones of the embryonic period and identify when they take place.

2.10 Describe the major milestones of the fetal period and identify when viability occurs.

2.11 2.12

Compare and contrast prenatal care in traditional cultures and developed countries.

Identify the major teratogens in developing countries and developed countries.

Section 3: Learning Objectives 2.13 Explain how chromosomal disorders occur.

2.14

Describe the three main techniques of prenatal diagnosis, and explain who is likely to seek genetic counseling and for what purposes.

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2.15 2.18

List the major causes of infertility for both men and women and describe current treatments.

Compare rates of infertility worldwide, and contrast the views of infertility in developed and developing countries.

KEY TERMS Section 1: Key Terms chromosome p. 46 DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) p. 46 gene p. 46 genome p. 46 genotype p. 46 phenotype p. 46 dominant–recessive inheritance p. 47 allele p. 47 incomplete dominance p. 47 polygenic inheritance p. 49 sex chromosomes p. 49 X-linked inheritance p. 49 nature–nurture debate p. 51 behavior genetics p. 51 monozygotic (MZ) twins p. 51 dizygotic (DZ) twins p. 51 heritability p. 51 concordance rate p. 52 epigenesis p. 52 reaction range p. 53 theory of genotype →environment effects p. 53 passive genotype → environment effects p. 54 evocative genotype → environment effects p. 54 active genotype → environment effects p. 54 gametes p. 57 ovum p. 57 meiosis p. 57 mitosis p. 57 cytoplasm p. 58 crossing over p. 58 36

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follicle p. 58 zygote p. 59 Section 2: Key Terms germinal period p. 62 blastocyst p. 62 trophoblast p. 62 embryonic disk p. 62 amnion p. 62 placenta p. 62 umbilical cord p. 62 embryonic period p. 62 gestation p. 63 ectoderm p. 63 mesoderm p. 63 endoderm p. 63 neural tube p. 63 neuron p. 63 fetal period p. 63 trimester p. 63 vernix p. 63 midwife p. 66 teratogen p. 68 AIDS (acquired immune deficiency syndrome) p. 69 Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder (FASD) p. 70 secondhand smoke p. 70 Section 3: Key Terms Down syndrome p. 73 ultrasound p. 74 amniocentesis p. 74 chorionic villus sampling (CVS) p. 74 infertility p. 75 assisted reproductive technologies (ART ) p. 76 artificial insemination p. 76 in vitro fertilization (IVF) p. 77

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CHAPTER OUTLINE I. Section 1: Genetic Influences on Development A. Genetic Basics 1. Genotype and Phenotype 2. The Sex Chromosomes B. Genes and the Environment 1. Principles of Behavior Genetics 2. Gene–Environment Interactions: Epigenesis and Reaction Ranges 3. The Theory of Genotype → Environment Effects a. The Three Forms of Genotype → Environment Effects b. Genotype → Environment Effects Over Time C. Genes and Individual Development 1. Sperm and Egg Formation 2. Conception II. Section 2: Prenatal Development and Prenatal Care A. Prenatal Development 1. The Germinal Period (First 2 Weeks) 2. The Embryonic Period (Weeks 3–8) 3. The Fetal Period (Week 9–Birth) B. Prenatal Care 1. Variations in Prenatal Care 2. Teratogens III. Section 3: Pregnancy Problems A. Prenatal Problems 1. Chromosomal Disorders 2. Prenatal Diagnosis B. Infertility 1. Causes and Treatments 2. Infertility Worldwide LECTURE NOTES I. Section 1: Genetic Influences on Development A. Genetic Basics 1. Genotype and Phenotype a. There are 46 chromosomes in the human genome, organized into 23 pairs which are composed of DNA. Our DNA is organized into about 23,000 segments called genes, or units, of hereditary information. b. The totality of an individual’s genes is the genotype, and the person’s actual characteristics are called the phenotype. c. Genotype and phenotype may vary due to dominant-recessive inheritance, incomplete dominance, and environmental influences. i. Dominant-recessive inheritance means that only the dominant gene influences the phenotype, while the recessive gene does not. Each form of the gene is called an allele. ii. Incomplete dominance exists when the phenotype is influenced primarily by the dominant gene, but not entirely. a. Sickle cell trait result of incomplete dominance.

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d. Most human characteristics are the result of polygenic inheritance, meaning that they are influenced by multiple genes, rather than just one.

2. The Sex Chromosomes a. Among the 23 pairs of chromosomes, one pair is different from the rest, the sex chromosomes. b. These sex chromosomes determine whether the person will be male or female. c. In the female, this pair is called XX; in the male, XY. i. All eggs from the female only donate an X chromosome. ii. Males will donate either an X or Y chromosome to the pairing, ultimately determining the sex of the child. iii. Beliefs about how to predict a baby’s sex vary by culture.

There are unscientific examples from Mayan and Chinese cultures. Strong preference for boys in many cultures. d. The biological consequences of having only one X chromosome makes males more vulnerable than females to a variety of recessive disorders that are linked to the X chromosome referred to as X-linked inheritance.

B. Genes and Environment in Human Development 1. Nature vs. Nurture a. The nature versus nurture debate is the battle between genetics or the environment as the explanation for development. Currently, it is agreed that both play a role, but the amount of influence from each is still debated.

2. Principles of Behavior Genetics a. Behavior genetics involves the study of how genes contribute to human development, especially focusing on the heritability of various characteristics and concordance rates between people with different degrees of genetic similarity. b. Identical or monozygotic (MZ) twins have 100% of their genes in common (including sex genes), while fraternal or dizygotic (DZ) twins and siblings have 40–60% of their genes in common. c. Heritability is an estimate of the extent to which genes are responsible for individual differences, ranging from 0 to 1.00. Higher heritability may indicate more genetic influence. d. Heritability estimates also measure how much the environment allows genes to be expressed, thus measuring phenotype. e. Concordance rates indicate the degree of similarity in phenotype among pairs of family members from 0 to 3. Gene-Environment Interactions: Epigenesis and Reaction Ranges a. The environment does influence gene expression; the resulting developmental process, epigenesis, is created from the bi-directional interactions between genotype and the environment. b. Genes establish a reaction range of possible developmental paths established by genes; environment determines where development takes place within that range.

4. The Theory of Genotype→Environment Effects

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Scar and McCartney developed a theory of genotype and environment effects that note that both make essential contributions, but that we create our own environments based on our genotypes. a. The Three Forms of Genotype→ Environment Effects i. Genes influence environments through three types of genotypeenvironment effects. a. Passive-genotype →environment effects: Parents provide both genes and environment to their children. b. Evocative-genotype →environment effects: Children evoke responses from those who care for them. c. Active-genotype →environment effects: Children seek out an environment that corresponds to their genotype, known as niche-picking. b. Genotype →Environment Effects Over Time i. The three types of effects operate throughout the life span and their relative balance changes with time based on how much control individuals have over their environment.

C. Genes and Individual Development 1. Sperm and Egg Formation a. Gametes, or reproductive cells, are called sperm in the male and ovum (egg) in the female. Their formation is referred to as meiosis. b. In meiosis, cells that begin with 23 pairs of chromosomes split and replicate repeatedly until they form four gametes, each with 23 individual chromosomes. i. In males, the outcome of completed meiosis is four viable sperm. ii. In females, meiosis produces only one viable ovum, but the process is not completed until the ovum is fertilized. The viable ovum stores cytoplasm, which is main source of nutrients immediately following conception. iii. Crossing over is a process whereby pieces of genetic material are exchanged between the alleles during the beginning of meiosis resulting in sibling differences. c. Males produce millions of sperm each day (100-300 million per ejaculation), but females have all of the ova they will ever have while still in utero (about 1 million).

2. Conception a. Conception generally begins with sexual intercourse between a man and woman. Sperm must travel a long distance to make it to the ovum and only a few hundred survive the difficult journey. i. Each ovary alternates monthly with an ovum release. ii. A follicle consists of the ovum and the supporting cells.

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iii. About 14 days into a woman’s cycle, an ovum is released into the fallopian tube from one of the ovaries. b. Only during the 24 hours following the ovum release can fertilization occur, so conception is most likely to take place on the day of intercourse or up to 48 hours before. c. A new cell, the zygote, is formed from the two gametes. d. The zygote’s 46 paired chromosomes constitute the new organism’s unique genotype, set once and for all at the moment of conception. e. Variations in the process and conditions can result in twins.

II. Section 2: Prenatal Development and Prenatal Care A. Prenatal Development (Conception to Birth) 1. The Germinal Period (First 2 Weeks) a. During the germinal period, the zygote travels down the fallopian tube and cellular division begins. The result is a ball of about 100 cells called the blastocyst, which has two layers. i. The trophoblast, or outer layer, will form the supporting structures of the amnion, placenta, and umbilical cord. ii. The embryonic disk that will become the embryo of the new organism is the inner layer. b. During Week 2, implantation occurs and a protective, fluid filled membrane, the amnion, forms around the trophoblast. The nutrient transmitting placenta forms between the uterus and the embryonic disk and the umbilical cord begins to develop. c. Only about half of all implantations are successful. If implantation fails, then the uterine lining will shed during the women’s next menstrual period.

2. The Embryonic Period (Weeks 3–8) a. During this period of gestation (the time elapsed since conception), nearly all the major organ systems are formed initially. b. The embryonic disk differentiates into 3 layers. i. The outer layer known as the ectoderm; the middle layer or mesoderm; and the endoderm or inner layer. ii. The neural tube, which later becomes the spinal cord and brain, develops first and fastest. iii. Billions of neurons or nerve cells are produced by the neural tube. c. The heart begins beating during Week 4. d. By the end of the 8th week, all main body parts and organs have formed, except for the sex organs. It looks like a human.

3. The Fetal Period (Week 9–Birth) a. During the fetal period, organ systems continue to develop and there is immense growth in size.

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b. This period is divided into 3 three month periods called trimesters. i. By the end of the third month, the genitals have formed and the fetus weighs 3 ounces and is 3 inches long (“3 times 3”). ii. During the second trimester, the fetus becomes more active and responsive, which is felt by the mother at 4 months. It is covered with a slimy, white substance called the vernix and downy hair called lanugo. By the end of the second trimester or 6 months, it weighs 2 pounds and is 14 inches long. iii. Viability, the ability to survive outside the womb, is rare before the third trimester because of the immaturity of the lungs. Survival before 22 weeks is rare and only 50% by 26 weeks. iv. During the third trimester, the fetus experiences rapid brain development during the last two months. v. The brain is still very immature at birth compared to other animals making the neonate more dependent on parental care. a. By 28 weeks, the fetus has sleep-wake cycles similar to a newborn baby and can remember and respond to sound, taste, and the mother’s movements. b. The brain is still very immature at birth compared to other animals.

B. Prenatal Care 1. Variations in Prenatal Care a. Some pregnancy advice is practical and sensible based on the collected wisdom of the culture over time. Some advice may seem odd to those from other cultures, particularly when it is not scientifically based. i. The Beng people of Africa have women avoid wine based on bad outcomes, but are also told not to eat antelope or they could have striped babies. ii. In Bali, pregnant women are to avoid hot foods among other things and to avoid those who are spiritually impure. b. These prenatal customs may emerge from an awareness that pregnancy and childbirth can be life threatening to the mother and fetus and a desire for a successful outcome. c. In developed countries, prenatal care has come a long way in recent decades. Previously, women were instructed to limit weight gain during pregnancy, but now they are told to gain 25–35 pounds, with women who gain less than 20 pounds experiencing more complications. d. Pregnant women should receive regular prenatal care from a skilled health care worker, such as a physician, nurse or midwife. This is more likely in developed countries, but some poorer regions may not have access. e. Prenatal care focuses on diet, exercise, and avoiding teratogens.

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f. Many traditional cultures use midwives, a person who assists in the pregnancy and birth. i. A midwife commonly performs prenatal massage during a checkup, which includes an interview and a determination of the fetal position. ii. She massages the woman’s abdomen and back, which increases circulation and decreases discomfort. iii. If the fetus is breech, the midwife may attempt an inversion. g. In the United States, early prenatal care is based on ethnicity and SES. h. In developing countries, prenatal care from skilled health care workers is limited. i. Ensuring healthy pregnancies is a priority World Health Organization (WHO). Almost all maternal and infant deaths occur in developing countries. j. Prenatal care is focused on three areas: diet, exercise, and avoiding teratogens.

2. Teratogens A teratogen is a behavior, environment, or bodily condition that can have damaging influence on prenatal development. a. Vulnerability to teratogens varies based on the age of the organism at the time of exposure known as the critical period. i. The embryonic period is an especially critical period of development. b. Malnutrition i. Malnutrition is the most common teratogen in the world. ii. Lack of financial means and varying availability are major contributors to malnutrition. iii. Nutritional deficiencies can lead to prenatal disorders. Lack of folic acid has been shown to cause anencephaly or spina bifida. a. Folic acid is so important that governments have begun requiring supplements be added to foods, especially grain products. Ideally, women should begin taking folic acid when they start trying to get pregnant. iv. Poor prenatal nutrition can contribute to prenatal problems such as premature delivery and low birth weight, and physical and mental health problems later in life. c. Infectious Diseases i. Infectious diseases are most common in developing countries with limited access to vaccinations. a. Rubella, or German measles, is a serious disease that when contracted by the mother is a teratogen during the embryonic period.

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1. It can render embryos blind and deaf with cognitive and physical deficits.

2. Fetal effects of rubella can include low birth weight, hearing problems, and skeletal defects. b. AIDS is a sexually transmitted infection (STI) caused by HIV that damages the immune system.

1. HIV/AIDS can be passed from mother to child.

2. The likelihood of contracting it can be reduced by giving pregnant mothers and later the infant effective medications, delivering by c-section, and using infant formula. d. Alcohol i. Alcohol is the most prevalent and damaging teratogen in developed countries. ii. A safe amount of alcohol while pregnant is none at all! Even small amounts can compromise the child’s prenatal development. iii. Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder (FASD) occurs when mothers drink heavily during their pregnancies. It can cause severe birth defects and cognitive deficits. e. Tobacco i. Pregnant women who smoke put themselves and their fetus at risk for miscarriage, premature birth, and low birth weight. ii. The child’s later development is also compromised from maternal cigarette smoking. Negative outcomes, such as poor health, cognitive impairment, and behavior problems are increased. iii. Exposure to secondhand smoke is also problematic. f. Other Teratogens i. Illegal, prescription, and non-prescription drugs are also known potential teratogens that can cause physical, cognitive, and behavioral problems in infants. ii. Environmental teratogens like pollution, radiation, and severe maternal stress can be problematic. .

III. Section Three: Pregnancy Problems A. Prenatal Problems 1. Chromosomal Disorders a. Sex Chromosome Disorders

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i. These disorders are commonly involved in chromosomal disorders in which a person may have an extra X or Y chromosome, or may be missing one. ii. Two common consequences include cognitive deficits and an abnormal reproductive system. b. Down Syndrome or Trisomy-21 i. This disorder occurs when there is an extra chromosome on the 21st pair. ii. It is marked by distinct physical features such as short, stocky build, flat face, large tongue, and an extra fold of skin on the eyelids. iii. Cognitive and physical deficits are also prevalent. iv. Social development varies widely and can be fostered by supportive families and intervention programs. v. Those with Down syndrome have lower life expectancy than the general population. c. Parental Age and Chromosomal Disorders i. Chromosomal disorders most commonly occur to mothers of advanced maternal age. ii. The risk climbs over time, but becomes aversive in the late 30s to early 40s and beyond.

2. Prenatal Diagnosis a. Techniques of Prenatal Monitoring i. Developed countries are likely to have access to techniques to monitor the growth and health of the fetus and to detect problems. ii. Common techniques include ultrasound, amniocentesis, and chorionic villus sampling (CVS). a. Ultrasounds may be performed throughout pregnancy with no risk to the fetus. High-frequency sound waves are directed toward and bounce off of the mother’s abdomen producing a computer image.

1. It is used to measure fetal size, shape, and activities, and to screen for chromosomal disorders, and determine the sex of the child. b. Amniocentesis is the extraction of amniotic fluid using a

long, hollow needle to analyze fetal cells from the placenta, allowing possible prenatal problems to be detected.

1. It is usually conducted at 15–20 weeks gestation for older women or those with a family history of problems.

2. Small risk of triggering a miscarriage.

3. Very accurate in detecting fetal defects.

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c. In CVS, a sample of forming umbilical cord cells is taken

at 5–10 weeks gestation for analysis of genetic materials.

1. CVS carries risks similar to an amniocentesis.

2. Used with women who are 35 years old and above, as well as those with a family history of genetic abnormalities. b. Genetic Counseling i. Genetic counseling involves analyzing the family history and genotypes of prospective parents to identify possible risks of having children with genetic disorders.

B. Infertility 1. Causes and Treatments a. Infertility is diagnosed when a couple has been unable to attain pregnancy after at least a year of regular intercourse without contraception. b. U.S. infertility rates are consistently 10–15% among couples.

2. Sources of Infertility a. Half of the time the source of infertility is from the male and half from the female. b. Male infertility may be caused by too few sperm being produced; the poor quality of the sperm; or the sperm may be low in motility. c. Female infertility is most often caused by problems in ovulation. d. Infertility in both men and women is often due to age, but it can also be genetic or caused by behavior such as drug abuse, alcohol abuse, or cigarette smoking.

3. Infertility Treatments a. The overarching term for the methods used to achieve pregnancy when natural conception is not possible is called Assisted Reproductive Technologies (ART). b. Artificial insemination is when the man’s sperm, typically from a donor, is injected directly into the woman’s uterus. i. It is used for couples with sperm production problems and by lesbian couples or single women who want a child. ii. It is a simple, effective, and cost-efficient procedure with a 70% success rate. c. Fertility Drugs i. Fertility drugs are commonly used when the woman has ovulation problems. They are used to control hormone levels to stimulate the quality and quantity of follicles in each cycle. ii. Yields more than a 50% success rate after 6 months or cycles. iii. Risks include blood clots, kidney and ovarian damage, and the likelihood of multiple follicles being produced. Multiple births 46

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occur in 10–25% of mothers and carry risks such as miscarriage, premature birth, and developmental delays. d. In-Vitro Fertilization (IVF) i. This method is used when other attempts have been unsuccessful. ii. Ova are harvested and combined with sperm for fertilization and implantation. iii. The success rate ranges from 35% for younger couples to less than 10% in women over 40.

4. Infertility Worldwide a. Cultural differences exist in how infertility is viewed and treated socially. b. In individualistic cultures, infertility results in frustration, sadness, and loss. c. Infertility is deeply stigmatizing and viewed as more serious and devastating in collectivistic cultures where there is limited access to ART. It may be cause for divorce or taking another wife in these cultures.

LECTURE LAUNCHERS, DISCUSSIONS, AND ACTIVITIES Section 1 Activity and Discussion: The Human Genome Project Many of your students will have heard of the Human Genome Project (HGP), but they might not understand what it is. This activity is designed to extend the information from the textbook on p.

48 on the Human Genome Project. The two primary goals of the project were to identify all of the approximately 23,000 genes in human DNA and to determine the sequences of the three billion chemical base pairs that make up human DNA. Have students visit the Human Genome Project website to learn more about the history of the project, the goals, and the applications of the findings thus far. Then, discuss the merits of the HGP. What should be done with this information? Do the students believe that the high cost of the project ($3 billion over fifteen years) was justified? http://web.ornl.gov/sci/techresources/Human_Genome/project/index.shtml

Section 1 Discussion: Gene-Environment Interaction You might ask the students to speculate on possible outcomes for a child with a high genetic endowment for IQ born into an environment that is not intellectually rich. One possibility they might come up with is that the child will seek out environments that are more suitable for his genetic tendency (e.g., spending time in the library). This “niche picking” is an example of why there is an interaction between genes and environment. Another way to elaborate on this issue is to point out that the heritability of some traits, such as general cognitive ability or antisocial behavior, tends to increase with age (Goldsmith & Gottesman, 1996; Plomin et al., 1997).

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Challenge students to speculate on why this might be. One possible explanation is that genetic tendencies encourage the individual to seek out environments (e.g., peer groups) that foster the development of those traits. What other explanations can students come up with?

Section 2 Activity: Life’s Greatest Miracle (53:41) “Life’s Greatest Miracle” is a video that originally aired on November 20, 2001 on PBS. Have students watch this video online or in class; it comes with a complete transcript as well for your hearing impaired students. This is an excellent video detailing the process of conception through birth. It is an excellent visual review of Chapter 2 Section 2-3 and Chapter 3 Section 1. http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/body/life-greatest-miracle.html Section 2 Activity: Podcast on Improving Maternal Health (11:45) The United Nations created millennium goals in 2000. One of these goals included improving maternal health in developing countries. In fact, their goal was for maternal health care to become a universal right by the year 2015. In the podcast, the president of the International Women’s Health Coalition, Adrienne Germain, is interviewed. She notes the importance of addressing this issue in developing countries using a holistic approach of prevention and intervention beyond medical care to include societal problems of poverty, malnutrition, and women’s rights. http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/body/maternal-germain-au.html More detailed information on this and other related Millennium Development goals is available on the UNICEF website at http://www.unicef.org/mdg/maternal.html.

Section 3 Discussion: Genetic Testing The recent explosion of knowledge about genetics raises many interesting practical and ethical questions about genetic testing. Initiate a discussion about the pros and cons of such testing. Do the students believe that people should be tested to determine their susceptibility to certain diseases? When should this testing be done? At birth? Prenatally? Should parents be allowed to test their unborn children for the presence or absence of certain traits? Should they be allowed to make decisions about continuing the pregnancy on the basis of the results? If one member of a family discovers through genetic testing that she or he is susceptible to certain genetic disorders, is that person obligated to let other family members (who might share that susceptibility) know?

Who should have access to this information? Health insurance companies? Potential employers?

Section 3 Activity: Genetic Counseling A series of case studies can be an excellent way to explore the scientific and ethical issues surrounding genetic counseling. Have students work in teams to discuss how they would counsel various couples who might talk to a counselor. What questions would be important to ask? What advice might they give? What emotions might be likely to come up? Some examples of case studies might include:

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• • • • •

A couple who has just learned that a prenatal screening test (e.g., the alphafetoprotein test) has yielded an abnormal result.

A couple who has not yet conceived a child, but who has a history of Tay-Sachs disease in the wife’s family.

An unmarried woman who is 39 years old who wishes to have a child through artificial insemination.

An African American couple who is expecting a baby. They have no history of sickle-cell anemia in the family, but they are concerned about the possibility of this disorder for their child.

A couple with four sons who desperately want a daughter. They are planning a fifth pregnancy.

Section 3 Lecture Launcher: Infertility “Infertility is defined as the inability to get pregnant after one year or more of regular sexual activity without the use of contraception, or the inability to carry a pregnancy to a live birth....

Some specialists use two years as the cutoff point” (Jewelewicz, 1989, p. 170). Contrary to popular opinion, infertility rates are not on the rise. In 1965, the United States. infertility rate was 13.3%; in 1988 it was 13.7%. However, estimates are that one-sixth of all couples who try to conceive are sterile or infertile. Jewelewicz (1989) cites several reasons for this: 1.

There are more couples trying to conceive because the post-WWII baby boomers are reaching the end of their reproductive years.

2.

The rise in sexually transmitted diseases, women entering the workforce and being exposed to occupational hazards that affect their fertility, and the possibility of being exposed to more environmental toxins are all reasons hypothesized for increased infertility.

3.

Women are delaying childbirth and increased age is related to decreased fertility.

4.

Oral contraceptives and use of an IUD may account for some cases of infertility.

5.

Because of second marriages, some couples seek to reverse previous surgical sterilizations.

6.

More techniques are available and written about in the media, so couples are more aware of help for infertility.

It is estimated that over three million couples will seek reproductive help each year. The top five procedures include: - in vitro fertilization (IVF) - gamete intrafallopian transfers (GIFT) - intrauterine insemination (IUI) - zygote intrafallopian transfer (ZIFT) - intracytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI) There are some pros and cons about the new reproductive technologies. For example, before the 1970s, only donor insemination—injection of sperm from an anonymous man into a woman— was available for infertile women. Today, in vitro fertilization is a common choice where hormones are used to stimulate the production of several ova, which are removed. The eggs are placed in a dish of nutrients, sperm are added, and then the fertilized eggs are injected into the

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mother. Ova can be screened for genetic defects and fertilized ova can also be frozen for use in the future. Sperm can also be frozen. Few states have legal guidelines for these procedures.

Consequently, problems that might arise include: - genetic defects - sexually transmitted diseases - poor records of donor characteristics - possibility that children from same donor may grow up together and marry - use of genetic selection for the “perfect child” - use of “surrogate mothers” Sources: Jewelewicz, R. (1989). Sexual and reproductive health. In Tapley, D.F., Morris, T.Q., Rowland, L.P., Weiss, R.J., Subak-Sharpe, G.J., & Goetz, D.M. (Eds.), The Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons complete home medical guide (rev. ed.). New York: Crown.

Rutter, V. (March/April, 1996). Who stole fertility? Psychology Today, 46–47, 65–70.

Use Handout 2-1 to review some reasons for infertility and various solutions.

Section 3 Discussion: Ethics of Assisted Reproductive Technology Fertility and conception have changed drastically in the last several decades as medical interventions to enhance fertility and to assist in conceiving a child have become much more common. There are many ethical issues that are relevant to this topic. Most recently, the pregnancy of Nadya “Octomom” Suleman brought this issue to the forefront of the news once again. Ms. Suleman was a single, unemployed, mother of 6 children and used assisted reproductive technology to get pregnant again. She gave birth to octuplets. She now has 14 children. This case, and others like it, has caused much debate. For example, should a woman with such limited resources be allowed to use ART? Is it ethically defensible for a mother to choose not to selectively reduce the number of fetuses? What if there were serious developmental risks to the fetuses? What if there were serious health risks to the mother? What if the family will be unable to care for the children after they are born? There are other issues related to assisted reproductive technology as well. For example, with ART it is possible for considerably older women to have children. Are there any ethical objections to this?

Section 3 Activity: Infertility and Assisted Reproductive Technology Have students investigate what medical options currently exist for people who are unable to conceive children naturally. What are the success rates of these options? What are the costs of these options? What are the risks? You might suggest that they focus on the more common treatments (e.g., hormone treatments, IVF), rather than the more exotic (GIFT, ZIFT).

CRITICAL THINKING ABOUT DEVELOPMENT Evaluating Websites for Academic Use

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Understanding the Concept In a world bombarded with information, who can keep up with where we heard it, who said it, or whether there was valid evidence supporting it? No one can fact check everything in life.

As a student and a member of the academic community though, you must adopt a different attitude about sources of information. The Internet is a wonderful resource, and a minefield of misinformation. Evaluating websites is critical to academic and professional success today.

Critical Thinking Challenge, Website Evaluation 1. Use a search engine to locate two different websites with information on prenatal development or care. One website must be a “.gov,” or “.edu” address. One must be a “.net” or “.com” address. Use the following table of basic questions to evaluate and compare them. Circle their score on each factor.

Record the web address and name of the websites:

(.gov or .edu)

(.net or .com)

Name the owner of the website and give their contact information (not the webmaster).

+1 if it is there.

+1 if it is there.

Identify the funding source.

+1 if it is there.

+1 if it is there.

Name the editor or editors.

+1 if it is there.

+1 if it is there.

Authors are named.

( ) yes +2

( ) no +0

( ) some +.5

( ) yes +2

( ) no +0

( ) some +.5

Information includes date submitted or last updated.

( ) yes

( ) no

( ) some

( ) yes

( ) no

( ) some

+2

+0

+.5

+2

+0

+.5

The purpose, goals, or mission of the site are stated clearly.

( ) yes +2

( ) no +0

( ) yes +2

( ) no +0

The sources of the information provided are given.

( ) yes +2

( ) no +0

( ) yes +2

( ) no +0

The sources used are credible, from experts in the field and the scientific process.

( ) yes +2

( ) no +0

( ) yes +2

( ) no +0

Opinion is clearly identified as such.

( ) yes +2

( ) no +0

( ) yes +2

( ) no +0

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The site has an identifiable, but not directly stated, bias or secondary agenda.

( ) yes -2 If yes, describe:

( ) no +2

( ) yes -2 If yes, describe:

( ) no +2

The site advertises products related to content.

( ) yes -2

( ) no

( ) yes -2

( ) no

Total Points

2. If you could not find out who owns or sponsors a website or you can’t find their contact information, go to http://www.easywhois.com to find who owns the domain name and how to contact them. Record the information here: 3. Summarize in writing the differences, weaknesses, and strengths for academic use of each website you chose.

Instructor’s Guide This exercise works well as an individual assignment followed by class or small group discussion if time allows. You may wish to preselect websites to maximize the differences between academically appropriate and inappropriate websites. (Although what students find can be quite astounding!)

The exercise transfers most easily to online discussion by preselecting the websites for a forum, having students use the table as a guide, and then submit their written summary and comments in the discussion. Several websites can be covered if you use small group discussions in your course.

In the lecture hall, students can be given the table, with each website projected for a period of time while they attempt to do the analysis. This makes a good, brief, hands-on experience to accompany a lecture on evaluating sources.

Additional Resources http://www.vtstutorials.ac.uk/ Free Internet tutorials to help students develop research skills at the university level from lecturers and librarians in the United Kingdom. “Internet Detective” covers academic standards, evaluating websites, and plagiarism.

Fact check hoaxes, urban myths, chain e-mail, and political statements at: www.snopes.com www.hoax-slayer.com www.factcheck.org

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SUPPLEMENTAL READINGS American Baby Magazine (1995). As your baby grows, 4(2).

This magazine is published for expectant mothers and fathers and uses some of Nilsson’s photographs to describe how the fetus develops month by month. To obtain a copy, write to Cahners Publishing Company, 249 West 17th Street, New York, NY 10011 or call (212) 6450067.

Dorris, M. (1990). The broken cord. New York: HarperCollins.

This is a moving account of the difficulty an adoptive father has raising his son born with fetal alcohol syndrome.

Eisenberg, A., Murkoff, H.E., & Hathaway, S.E. (1991). What to expect when you’re expecting (rev. 2nd Ed.). New York: Workman.

This is an excellent and comprehensive guide that covers conception, pregnancy month by month, and childbirth.

Freiberg, K.L. (Ed.). (2002). Annual editions: Human development 2002/2003 (30th Ed.) Guilford, CT: Dushkin/McGraw-Hill.

A State of the Art Pregnancy and Fetal Psychology provide additional information on the importance of a healthy prenatal environment.

Nilsson, L., Ingelman-Sundberg, A., & Wirsen, C. (1990). A child is born (2nd Ed.). New York: Delacorte Press.

Lennart Nilsson is justly famous for his amazing photographs of babies in utero. Share these with your class. The film The Miracle of Life also uses some of his microphotography. As one student exclaimed, “He must be a very small photographer!”

MULTIMEDIA IDEAS Biological Growth: Nature’s Child (Insight Media, 1991, 60 minutes) Explores the nature-nurture controversy. Examines the influences of genetics on behavior, concentrating on hereditary contributions to intelligence, temperament, personality, sex differences, and mental illness. It also investigates the influence of environment on prenatal development.

Birth Defects (Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 1987, 19 minutes) Describes both genetic and environmental causes of birth defects.

Brave New Babies (Penn State Audio-Visual Services, 1982, 48 minutes) An introduction to genetic engineering.

Developmental Phases Before and After Birth (Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 28 minutes) This program examines the development of the fetus in utero and the child during the first year.

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Fetal Alcohol Syndrome and Other Drug Use During Pregnancy (Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 19 minutes) This program profiles an 8-year-old boy born with FAS, showing how alcohol enters the bloodstream of the fetus; it describes common characteristics of children with FAS and the learning disabilities, mental handicaps, and behavioral problems that are common. Also shows how cocaine impairs the growing fetus.

Heredity and Environment (Insight Media, 1988, 30 minutes) Describes the basic mechanisms of heredity and discusses the joint role of heredity and environment in determining human characteristics and development.

High Tech Babies (Coronet/MTI Film and Video, 1987, 58 minutes) Useful as a way of increasing students’ awareness of the issues surrounding the new reproductive technology: in vitro fertilization.

The Miracle of Life (Time-Life Films, 1983, 57 minutes) Shows development from conception to birth using Nilsson’s microphotography techniques.

Actually presents footage of the fetus moving in utero.

Motherhood on Hold (Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 23 minutes) In this program, a reproductive endocrinologist explains why a woman’s chances of conceiving drop dramatically after the 20s, and four women discuss their own very different experiences in trying to have children and the factors that shaped their choices in determining when to conceive.

Pregnancy and Substance Abuse (Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 28 minutes) This program follows several couples through pregnancy and prenatal care. Former U.S. Surgeon General C. Everett Koop talks about the risks of smoking; and Michael Dorris, author of The Broken Cord, discusses his life raising an adopted son with fetal alcohol syndrome. Highly recommended.

Prenatal Development (Insight Films, 1979, 30 minutes) Describes development from conception to birth. Illustrates the effects of cigarette smoking, alcohol, and drug use on a developing fetus. Shows fetal responsiveness to foods ingested by the mother and to music. Shows a birth at the end.

Prenatal Diagnosis (Filmmakers Library, 1982, 45 minutes) Explains amniocentesis, fetoscopy, and ultrasound. Discusses the ethical and practical aspects of making a decision about whether to abort or not abort an abnormal fetus.

Psychological Development Before Birth (Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 22 minutes) The development of the individual can be followed in utero. This program shows how it is possible to determine the well-being of the fetus; when the fetus begins to react to sound; and how mothers-to-be deal with pregnancy and prepare themselves for the birth.

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TEXTBOOK FEATURES VIDEO GUIDE Genetics and Prenatal Development (8:56; p. 45) A Preference for Sons (4:07; p. 50) Cultural Focus: Pregnancy and Prenatal Care Across Cultures (8:22; p. 66) 1. What are the advantages of using a doctor or of using a midwife, as described in this video clip? What others can you think of?

The role of the midwife from this video is to provide, quite literally, a hands-on experience to the expectant mothers. She discusses that she checks the baby with her hands and massages to help maintain a good position. She can reposition the baby if it is not in the appropriate position. She also discusses the use of an herb that can very effectively change the gender of the fetus. One of the expectant mothers in the clip states that she is seeing a physician because it is her first child and therefore more risk is involved. She adds that if there is trouble while she is in labor, the doctor can perform a caesarian section while a midwife would not have that capability. The American expectant mother discusses the testing that her physician is able to perform, and does not make mention of the use of a midwife.

Applying Your Knowledge as a Professional Career Focus: Genetic Counselor (5:11; p. 79)

Critical Thinking Questions and Answers Section 1

Think of one of your abilities and describe how the various types of genotype → environment effects may have been involved in your development of that ability. (p. 56) Examples might include intelligence, musical ability, athletic ability, talents such as dance, and the like. We know that intelligence is partly heritable, but the genes must interact with the environment—parents, school, books—in order to develop its potential. Likewise, some aspects of musical ability may be heritable, but again, if a student was never introduced to a musical instrument, he would never know he might one day become a musician.

Section 2 Are there any beliefs in your culture about what a woman should eat or should avoid eating before or during pregnancy? Do the same beliefs apply to men during any point of the conception and gestation continuum? (p. 67)

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This will vary by cultural group, but many American women are told they should not eat deli meats, soft cheese, undercooked meat, poultry, pork, fish with mercury, raw shellfish, raw eggs, unpasteurized milk or milk products, coffee or other sources of caffeine, alcohol, and unwashed produce. Men should avoid high-fat, high-calorie foods like fast food in order to protect sperm and produce viable sperm that can swim fast. Obesity for both men and women is a factor in fertility.

Section 3 Because fertility drugs frequently result in multiple births, should there be legal restrictions on how they can be used? (p. 77) Some students may say that multiple births are hard on parents and on society, and that a “twochild-per-family” policy can best control population growth. On the other hand, some students may believe that parents should be allowed to conceive all the children they want, and medical science makes that possible. As a society, we must maintain equitable access to fertility treatment, including allowing access to the poor and underserved and to gay and lesbian couples who want to conceive.

Research Focus Answers Twin Studies: The Story of Oskar and Jack (pp. 55–56) 1. d 2. c

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Handouts 2-1 : Fertility Problems and Solutions

FEMALES PROBLEM Damaged fallopian tubes Abnormal ovulation

SOLUTION Surgery, in vitro fertilization Hormone therapy, antibiotics, in vitro fertilization Antibiotics, surgery, change in birth control methods Antibiotics, hormone therapy, surgery, artificial insemination Surgery, antibiotics, hormone therapy Antibiotics, artificial insemination, hormone therapy Surgery, antibiotics Relaxation techniques Surgery

Pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) Endometriosis Damaged ovaries Hostile cervical mucus Fibroid tumor Stress Tipped uterus, fibroid tumors MALES PROBLEM Low sperm count

SOLUTION Antibiotics, hormone therapy, artificial insemination, lowered testicular temperature Surgery, lowered testicular temperature, antibiotics Surgery, antibiotics Hormone therapy Antibiotics, in vitro fertilization Artificial insemination

Dilated veins around testicle Damaged sperm ducts Hormone deficiency Sperm antibodies Chronic illness, alcoholism, drug abuse, longterm use of marijuana Pollutants Stress

Artificial insemination Relaxation techniques

Adapted from Jewelewicz, R. (1989). Sexual and reproductive health. In Tapley, D.F., Morris, T.Q., Rowland, L.P., Weiss, R.J., Subak-Sharpe, G J., & Goetz, D.M. (Eds.). The Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons complete home medical guide (Rev. Ed.). New York: Crow.

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Handout 2-2: Facts About Conception and Pregnancy This handout can be used as an assignment to be completed before your lectures on conception and pregnancy or as a review. The answers are: Conception 1. ovary → fallopian tube → uterus → uterine wall (fertilized) or vagina (unfertilized) 2. penis → vagina → uterus → fallopian tube → egg (ovum) 3. Possible answers include blocked/damaged fallopian tubes, abnormal ovulation, pelvic inflammatory disease (PID), endometriosis, damaged ovaries, hostile cervical mucus, fibroid tumor 4. Possible answers include low sperm count, dilated veins around testicle, damaged sperm ducts, hormone deficiency, sperm antibodies 5. Possible answers include surgery, in vitro fertilization, hormone therapy, antibiotics, artificial insemination Pregnancy 1. Possible answers include cessation of menses, breast tenderness, nausea 2. Stage 1: Germinal lasts two weeks (from conception till Week 2), the cells divide and attach to the uterine wall, the baby is called a “zygote” Stage 2: Embryonic stage lasts 6 weeks (from Week 2 until Week 8), the cell layers (endoderm, ectoderm, mesoderm) form, the baby is called an “embryo” Stage 3: Fetal stage lasts 7 months (from Week 8 until birth), all the child’s systems are developing rapidly, the child is called a “fetus” 3. Possible answers are see an obstetrician/midwife, eat a healthy diet including calcium and multivitamin and mineral supplements, abstain from caffeine, alcohol, nicotine, and unnecessary drugs, get plenty of rest, avoid X-rays, exercise moderately 4. amniocentesis — fetal cells are taken via a needle from amniotic fluid chorionic villus sampling (CVS) — samples of hairlike material taken from embryo ultrasound sonography — high frequency sound waves produce an image of baby 5. Possible answers include alcohol, nicotine, X-rays, prescription and illicit drugs, illnesses of the mother such as rubella, influenza, and AIDS Adapted from Strong, B. (1994). Instructor’s resource manual for human sexuality, New York: McGraw-Hill.

Chapter 13.

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Handout 2-2: FACTS ABOUT CONCEPTION AND PREGNANCY Review your knowledge of conception and pregnancy by answering the questions below.

Conception 1. Trace the journey of the egg in a woman’s body (a. unfertilized; b. fertilized): a. ovary → → → b. ovary → → → 2. Trace the journey of sperm cells from ejaculation to conception: penis → → →

→

3. List three possible reasons for infertility in women. a. b. c.

4. List two possible reasons for infertility in men. a. b.

5. List and define three treatments for infertility. a. b. c.

Pregnancy 1. List three early signs and symptoms of pregnancy. a. b. c.

2. Name the three stages of prenatal development. How long does each stage last? What systems have developed? What is the developing child called?

Stage 1: Stage 2: Stage 3:

3. List six important components of good prenatal care.

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

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4. Name and describe three prenatal tests.

1.

2.

3.

5. Name six teratogens.

1.

4.

2.

5.

3.

6.

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CHAPTER 3: BIRTH AND THE NEWBORN CHILD TABLE OF CONTENTS LEARNING OBJECTIVES .......................................................................................................... 64 Section 1: Learning Objectives ............................................................................................... 64 Section 2: Learning Objectives ............................................................................................... 64 Section 3: Learning Objectives ............................................................................................... 64 KEY TERMS ................................................................................................................................ 64 Section 1: Key Terms .............................................................................................................. 64 Section 2: Key Terms .............................................................................................................. 65 Section 3: Key Terms .............................................................................................................. 65 CHAPTER OUTLINE ...................................................................................................................................... 64

I. Section 1: Birth and Its Cultural Context .......................................................................... 65 II. Section 2: The Neonate .................................................................................................... 66 III. Section 3: Caring for the Neonate ................................................................................... 66 LECTURE NOTES ....................................................................................................................... 67 I.

Section 1: Birth and Its Cultural Context ................................................................................ 67 A. The Birth Process ............................................................................................................... 67 1. Stages of Birth Process...................................................................................................... 67 a. The First Stage: Labor ................................................................................................... 67 b. The Second and Third Stages: Delivery and Expelling the Placenta and Umbilical Cord ............................................................................................................................................ 67 2. Birth Complications .......................................................................................................... 68 a. Failure to Progress and Breech Presentation .................................................................. 68 b. Cesarean Delivery .......................................................................................................... 68 B. Historical and Cultural Variations ...................................................................................... 68 1. The Peculiar History of Birth in the West ......................................................................... 68 a. Early History: From Midwives to Doctors ..................................................................... 68 b. The 20th Century: Slow Progress.................................................................................... 69 2. Cultural Variations in Birth Beliefs and Practices ............................................................ 69 61

a. Beliefs and Rituals Surrounding Birth ........................................................................... 69 b. Who Helps? .................................................................................................................... 70 3. Cultural Variations in Methods for Easing the Birth ........................................................ 70 4 Cultural Variations in Neonatal and Maternal Mortality ................................................... 71 II. Section 2: The Neonate............................................................................................................. 71 A. The Neonate’s Health ......................................................................................................... 71 1. Measuring Neonatal Health............................................................................................... 72 2. Low Birth Weight ............................................................................................................. 72 a. Consequences of Low Birth Weight............................................................................... 73 b. Treatment for Low Birth Weight Babies ....................................................................... 73 A. Physical Functioning of the Neonate ................................................................................. 74 1. Neonatal Sleeping Patterns................................................................................................ 74 2. Neonatal Reflexes ............................................................................................................. 74 3. Neonatal Senses ................................................................................................................ 74 i. Touch .............................................................................................................................. 74 ii. Taste and Smell .............................................................................................................. 75 iii. Hearing.......................................................................................................................... 75 iv. Sight .............................................................................................................................. 75 III. Section 3: Caring for the Neonate ........................................................................................... 76 A. Nutrition: Is Breast Best? .................................................................................................. 76 1. Historical and Cultural Perspectives on Breast-Feeding ................................................... 76 2. Benefits of Breast-Feeding ................................................................................................ 76 B. Social and Emotional Aspects of Neonatal Care ................................................................ 77 1. Crying and Soothing ......................................................................................................... 77 a. Crying ............................................................................................................................. 77 b. Soothing and Responding to Cries ................................................................................. 78 2. Bonding: Myth and Truth.................................................................................................. 78 3. Postpartum Depression ...................................................................................................... 79 LECTURE LAUNCHERS, DISCUSSION IDEAS, AND ACTIVITIES .................................... 79 Section 1 Lecture Launcher: Midwife Training in the United States ..................................... 79 62

Section 1 Lecture Launcher: Childbirth Options .....................................................................80 Section 1 Discussion: Student’s Ideas About Birth and the Neonate ......................................80 Section 1 Lecture Launcher: Are There Too Many Cesarean Section Deliveries? ..................81 Section 2 Lecture Launcher: Low-Birth-Weight Babies..........................................................81 Section 3 Lecture Launcher: Breast-Feeding .........................................................................82 Section 3 Lecture Launcher: Supporting Breast-Feeding ......................................................88 Section 3 Lecture Launcher: Colic .........................................................................................89 CRITICAL THINKING ABOUT DEVELOPMENT ....................................................................89 Evaluating Periodicals and Journals for Academic Use...........................................................89 SUPPLEMENTAL READINGS ...................................................................................................91 MULTIMEDIA IDEAS .................................................................................................................91 TEXTBOOK FEATURES .............................................................................................................93 Video Guide .............................................................................................................................93 Birth and the Newborn Child (9:03; p. 83) ............................................................................93 Labor and Delivery (7:11; p. 86)............................................................................................93 Neonatal Reflexes (1:15; p. 106)............................................................................................93 Taste (2:02; p. 108) ................................................................................................................93 Cultural Focus ..........................................................................................................................93 Breast-Feeding Practices Across Cultures (6:19; p. 113) ......................................................93 Research Focus (p. 116–117) ...................................................................................................93 Breast-Feeding Benefits: Separating Correlation and Causation (3:45; p. 117) ....................93 Research Focus Answers ........................................................................................................93 Soothing Methods (p. 121) .......................................................................................................93 Applying Your Knowledge as a Professional ..........................................................................93 Career Focus: Birth Doula (p. 125) ........................................................................................93 Critical Thinking Questions and Answers ...............................................................................93 Section 1...................................................................................................................................93 Section 2...................................................................................................................................94 Section 3...................................................................................................................................94 63

LEARNING OBJECTIVES Section 1: Learning Objectives 3.1 Describe the three stages of the birth process and methods for easing its discomfort.

3.2 Name two common types of birth complications and explain how they can be overcome by cesarean delivery.

3.3 Summarize the history of birth in the West from the 15th century to today.

3.4 Describe cultural variations in birth beliefs and identify who may assist with the birth.

3.5 Compare and contrast cultural practices and medical methods for easing the birth process.

3.6 Describe the differences in maternal and neonatal mortality both within and between developed countries and developing countries.

Section 2: Learning Objectives 3.7 Identify the features of the two major scales most often used to assess neonatal health.

3.8 Identify the neonatal classifications for low birth weight and describe the consequences and major treatments.

3.9 Describe neonates’ patterns of waking and sleeping, including how and why these patterns differ across cultures.

3.10 Describe the neonatal reflexes, including those that have a functional purpose and those that do not.

3.11 Describe the neonate’s sensory abilities with respect to touch, taste and smell, hearing, and sight.

Section 3: Learning Objectives 3.12 Describe the cultural customs surrounding breast-feeding across cultures and history.

3.13 Identify the advantages of breast-feeding and where those advantages are largest.

3.14 Describe neonates’ types of crying and how crying patterns and soothing methods vary across cultures.

3.15 Describe the extent to which human mothers “bond” with their neonates and the extent to which this claim has been exaggerated.

3.16 Describe the reasons for postpartum depression and its consequences for children.

KEY TERMS Section 1: Key Terms oxytocin p. 84 labor p. 84 delivery p. 85 episiotomy p. 85 64