Methods Toward A Science Of Behavior And Experience 10th Edition By William J. Ray Chapter 1_16 TEST

Chapter 1 – What is Science?

Chapter Outline Science as a Way of Knowing Tenacity Authority Reason Common Sense Science Pseudoscience and Superstition The Scientific Approach Early Approaches Overview Studying Behavior and Experience Behavior: A Road Into the Subjective Experience of Research Participants The People Who Perform Science Chapter Overview Knowledge about the world is gathered in several ways. In tenacity, a belief is accepted because it is presented over and over again. Authority is a way of knowing in which we accept an idea because an authority figure tells us to. Knowledge can be acquired through reason and logic. Direct experience serves as the basis of common sense, which can lead to knowledge. Each possesses shortcomings.

In contrast to these three, science relies upon the scientific method that allows for selfcorrection of ideas. The examples of Croesus, Galen, and Semmelweis provide historical insight in the development of science. Science verifies itself because of its empirical nature whether one is studying at the cognitive, physiological, or behavioral level. In investigating the subjective experience of subjects, science must rely upon making inferences from what is directly observable and objective. Above all, science is a human activity conducted by people and communicated to people.

Chapter Objectives 1. What roles do the scientist, research participant, and witness play in science?

2. Compare and contrast between the different methods of knowing: tenacity, authority, reason, common sense, and science.

3. How did Galileo advance our thinking from authority to empiricism?

4. What is pseudoscience and why does it often influence people’s beliefs?

5. What important strides did Croesus, Galen, and Semmelweis make? How have we advanced in our contemporary scientific approach?

WHAT IS SCIENCE?

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6. What are the major characteristics of the scientific approach?

7. Why are scientific conclusions never considered final?

8. What is the importance of replication in science? How is replication part of the feedback component in science?

9. Explain how the scientific method's feedback component refines ideas.

10. What are Newton's Rules of Reasoning (1680) and how are they still utilized today by scientists?

11. How does the concept of empiricism relate to our study of behavior and experience?

12. Summarize Schumacher's four ways of studying psychological processes.

13. How is psychology like other sciences in its reliance on objective observation to study indirectly unobservable phenomena?

Teaching Points Often students do not appreciate the self-corrective mechanism of science. You may wish to stress this by showing how theories undergo modification when the data warrant.

Point out that some laypeople see this as a weakness of a theory and science, thinking, “if it changed, it must not have been a very good theory.”

Sometimes students are confused when studies of a psychological phenomenon yield conflicting results. One possible reason for this is that the level of analysis may differ between studies. You may wish to incorporate this in the discussion of empiricism.

Students sometimes jump to the conclusion that all the ways of knowing things that are addressed in the textbook (tenacity, authority, reason, and common sense) have little value compared to the scientific method. A discussion of how authority, reason, and common sense are often good might be helpful. At the same time, the value of the scientific method as a powerful investigative tool to test ideas should be stressed.

To emphasize the empirical/theoretical distinction, use concrete examples such as  Is a person who is withdrawn and keeps away from the crowd shy or a snob?  Is a rat that is displaying aggressive behavior experiencing anger, displeasure, or sexual arousal?  Is someone who is crying sad or happy?  Is a person who is gets good grades motivated by success or motivated by a fear of failure?

It is critical that students understand that inferences must be made of internal, subjective processes. Inferences, however, are not foolproof. To illustrate this, lead a discussion of

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the inferences that students make of others based on appearance, race, or gender that are ultimately found to be incorrect.

Teaching Activities Background Knowledge Probe To introduce students to the concepts and principles of this textbook and to help you gain a sense of what they bring to the course, consider assessing their background. Use Handout 1-1 before starting the course and think of repeating it at the end of the course to measure how much students have learned.

What is Science?

To introduce this chapter, consider asking students to share their views of what science is and what scientists do. Contrast these perceptions with their sense of what psychology is and what psychologists do. You can accomplish this by asking them to write or to say the first thing that comes to mind. Often students do not see psychology as a science, but simply and entirely as a mental health profession.

Pseudoscience and Superstition Ask students to recall any advertisements they have encountered that have used pseudoscience as a means to persuade potential customers that a product really works.

Next, ask students to describe some common superstitions (e.g., walking under a ladder is bad luck) and to surmise how such false beliefs got started.

Logging Ways of Knowing We probably have experience with each of the ways of knowing presented in Chapter 1.

Ask students to keep a log or journal of how they use each of the ways of knowing in their daily activities (e.g., working, studying, interacting with others).

Comparisons of Ways of Knowing Using Handout 1-2, ask students to identify the characteristics of tenacity, authority, reason, common sense, and science. Next, students should form groups and review their responses.

Decision Making Ask students to brainstorm how they would use tenacity, authority, reason, common sense, and science to make decisions. Possible decisions include purchasing a particular used car or selecting a graduate school.

The Use of Reasoning in Science As the textbook suggests, science involves the process of reasoning. To emphasize this point, use the question of whether animals can see color. Make sure the students understand the different conclusions that follow depending on whether the color choices for the animal are blue/green, color/no color, or blue/green/no color. Discuss how this experiment could be adapted to test whether babies can see color. Suggest to students that subjective experience can be answered only through inference from behavior.

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Wadsworth’s Research Methods Workshop http://www.wadsworth.com/ psychology_d/templates/student_resources/workshops/resch_wrk.html The Wadsworth’s Research Methods Workshop site has a link labeled What is Science? that includes relevant information pertaining to the scientific method. This workshop segment gives students a chance to compare their personal definition of science to a textbook definition. A contrast also is provided between the characteristics of science to other methods for fixing beliefs.

Internet Resources Statistical Assessment Service (www.stats.org) The purpose of this website is to provide comment on the accuracy of scientific and social research. It attempts to identify “bad data and research.” Of particular interest are the Dubious Data Awards, which highlight the worst cases of “bad research.”

Philosophy of Science (www.philosopher.org.uk/sci.htm) You will find information on most of the philosophies and philosophers that have shaped the sciences, such as John Locke.

4000 Years of Women in Science (http://www.astr.ua.edu/4000WS/) This site describes the contributions of women in science from the past 4000 years. It includes biographies of many scientists.

Randi $1,000,000 paranormal challenge (http://skepdic.com/randi.html) Here is a chance to win a $1,000,000 prize. However, it will not be easy and this site tells us why. The fact that no one has yet claimed the prize warns us that we should all be skeptical of paranormal, supernatural, and pseudoscientific claims.

Classics in the History of Psychology (http://psychclassics.yorku.ca) A wealth of information from primary sources on the history of psychology is found here.

Relevant examples include statistics and the role of women in psychology.

Research Activities for Students The goals of the research activities are to: (1) relate Chapter 1 on an applied learning dimension, and (2) get students involved in research.

1. Insanity Plea: Inferring Subjective Experience in Science.

As discussed in the text, scientists often use objective behavior to study subjective experience. Use online references such as PsycINFO and PubMed to find a research article in a psychology journal on the subject of the insanity plea. Address the following below:

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a. Cite the author(s), the year published, the name of the article, the journal, and the page numbers. b. What were the research questions? c. How did the author use observable behavior to infer insanity? How was insanity measured? d. Do you think this was a valid way to measure insanity? If so, what convinced you that it is a valid measure? If not, what would convince you that it was a valid measure? e. What conclusions do the investigators reach in this article? How are they tentative or probabilistic? Did the investigators claim they "proved" anything?

2. Science in the Media. Science is all around us.

Use online references such as PsycINFO and PubMed to find a study that uses the scientific method. Identify the research question, how the information was acquired, and what was concluded. Be prepared to report on your research in class and explain what you recognized as the important features of the scientific method.

3. Who is Smarter, Girls or Boys?

Ask five people these questions: 1) Who is smarter, girls or boys? 2) Why do you think so? Record each statement that is based on tenacity. a. Record the statement. b. Explain if it is widely accepted. c. Discuss in what ways this belief is perpetuated by individuals, the media, or other means. d. How would science address this question?

4. Ted Bundy. Porn Addict and Serial Killer: Questioning Claims of Authority.

Go to the library and find this article: Ellis-Simons, P. (l989). New hero of a new right: The rising voice of a family crusader.

U.S. News & World Report, l06 (5), 27.

This popular psychologist interviewed serial killer Ted Bundy before his execution. He attributed Bundy's motivation to kill to his addiction to pornography. Do you agree or disagree with the conclusions of this authority? What other articles can you find on this topic?

5. Theories.

Use online references such as PsycINFO and PubMed to identify a psychological theory.

Who developed the theory? Explain the theory. What does it predict?

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6. Women in Science.

Use the Internet to find information about women in science over the past 4000 years. (www.astr.ua.edu/4000WS/summary.shtml)

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Handout 1-1 Background Knowledge Probe As you read each term, assess how much you know about it by using the following scale: 1--- I have heard of this term 2--- I have heard of this term, but I can’t really say what it means 3--- I have heard of this term and I have a general idea of what it means 4--- I have heard of this term and I could explain its meaning to someone empiricism scientific method marker variable experimental method hypothesis confounding variable external validity modus ponens nominal measurement z score standard deviation degrees of freedom null hypothesis F-ratio alpha level Type I error counterbalancing factorial design main effects matched-subjects design Hawthorne effect placebo factors time series design naturalistic case study probability sampling reactive questions snowball sampling informed consent debriefing deception in research institutional review board multiple working hypotheses

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3

WHAT IS SCIENCE?

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Handout 1-2 Comparisons of Ways of Knowing Way of Knowing

Description

Advantages

tenacity

authority

reason

common sense

science

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Disadvantages

TESTBANK MULTIPLE CHOICE 1. A scientist and a child are alike in that both: a. experience the state of synesthesia as reality is discovered. b. learn to understand the world by relying on authority. c. follow logical principles to test hypotheses. d. learn to understand the world through experience.

ANS: D

PTS: 1

REF: Introduction

MSC: WWW

2. If a child learned that a stove was hot by touching it, then her knowledge was gained through: a. induction. b. deduction. c. experience. d. inference.

ANS: C

PTS: 1

REF: Introduction

3. Science is based on the notion that to discover the world, one must: a. develop ideas of how the world operates. b. experience it. c. reason how the world ought to be. d. discover through philosophy the functions of the world.

ANS: B

PTS: 1

REF: Introduction

MSC: WWW

4. Frank and Steve are coworkers. Frank has an idea that he says will increase profits for the company. Steve disagrees and says, "We can't do that. We've always done it another way." This best illustrates ____ as a way of knowing. a. inference b. wisdom c. common sense d. tenacity ANS: D

PTS: 1

REF: Science as a Way of Knowing

5. Statements that are accepted as fact just because they are frequently repeated are said to be acquired through: a. science. b. tenacity. c. deduction. d. empiricism.

ANS: B

PTS: 1

REF: Science as a Way of Knowing

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6. One weakness of tenacity as a way of knowing is that: a. the syllogisms it produces may be illogical. b. it requires one to experience the world. c. sensory experiences may be misleading. d. it has no way of correcting erroneous ideas.

ANS: D

PTS: 1

REF: Science as a Way of Knowing

7. You are watching a TV talk show. On the show, you listen to the world's leading researcher on relationships and learn something that might improve your relationships. Your new knowledge was acquired through: a. authority. b. common sense. c. tenacity. d. reason.

ANS: A

PTS: 1

REF: Science as a Way of Knowing

8. Two students in Mrs. Anderson's first grade class are doing a class project. One of the students says, "You're not supposed to do it that way. Mrs. Anderson says you can't." The student is appealing to ____ as the way of knowing. a. rationalization b. common sense c. authority d. tenacity ANS: C

PTS: 1

REF: Science as a Way of Knowing

9. Based on Chapter 1, questioning authority can serve to: a. expose how empiricism can be misused. b. incite disrespect of people who obviously are knowledgeable. c. cause people to question your reasoning ability. d. examine the basis of claims by the authority.

ANS: D

PTS: 1

REF: Science as a Way of Knowing

10. Galileo challenged ____ as a way of knowing by conducting experimentation. a. empiricism b. authority c. parsimony d. blindsight ANS: B

PTS: 1

REF: Box 1.1

11. We can gain new knowledge through reason and logic, but the accuracy of our conclusions is dependent upon: a. the laws of probability. b. our own experiences. c. the accuracy of our assumptions. d. parsimony.

ANS: C MSC: WWW

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PTS: 1

REF: Science as a Way of Knowing

CHAPTER 1

12. In contrast to tenacity, authority, and reason, common sense is an improvement because it: a. automatically checks our assumptions. b. appeals to direct experience. c. represents the accumulation of scientific knowledge. d. is based on blindsight.

ANS: B

PTS: 1

REF: Science as a Way of Knowing

13. Juan is excited to tell Andrea that a stranger just gave him $1,000 with no strings attached.

Andrea looks at Juan and thinks that he is lying. She says, "I've never heard of that before and I've never seen that before!" This best illustrates: a. common sense. b. tenacity. c. authority. d. a construct.

ANS: A

PTS: 1

REF: Science as a Way of Knowing

14. You read a study in a journal. You know that the results of the study can be verified. This is because in science, observations can be: a. self-correcting. b. verified by anyone. c. theoretically interpreted. d. reviewed through tenacity.

ANS: B

PTS: 1

REF: Science as a Way of Knowing

15. ____ has a self-corrective mechanism. a. Tenacity b. Authority c. Science d. Reason ANS: C

PTS: 1

REF: Science as a Way of Knowing

16. To ensure that an experimental finding is not just a fluke, a scientist should: a. base conclusions on personal experience. b. use logical inference. c. operationalize the experiment. d. replicate the experiment.

ANS: D

PTS: 1

REF: Science as a Way of Knowing

17. Many people have heard (and believe) that "you cannot teach an old dog new tricks." This statement is based on ____. a. authority b. tenacity c. common sense d. science ANS: B MSC: WWW

PTS: 1

REF: Science as a Way of Knowing

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18. Modern science began with rules of reasoning developed by: a. Albert Einstein. b. Sir Isaac Newton. c. Charles Peirce. d. Ignaz Semmelweis.

ANS: B

PTS: 1

REF: Box 1.2

19. Consider this: The same stages of language development are observed in children throughout the world. What would be Newton's reaction to this observation? a. Newton would challenge the observation since it is actually chaotic and unpredictable. b. He would question the observation since it cannot be falsified. c. He would not be surprised since he theorized that language development was entirely genetic. d. He would see it as evidence of the natural order.

ANS: D

PTS: 1

REF: Box 1.2

20. Newton's rule for developing explanations that are true, sufficient, and simple best illustrates: a. the law of parsimony. b. empiricism. c. order in nature. d. tenacity.

ANS: A

PTS: 1

REF: Box 1.2

21. Pseudoscientific claims are typically not: a. read by a large number of people. b. testable. c. published in peer-reviewed journals. d. the subject of advertisements.

ANS: C

PTS: 1

REF: Science as a Way of Knowing

22. A famous athlete appears on a television infomercial and claims that a new device to alleviate aches and pains has been extremely effective for her. Because no published, peer-reviewed studies have supported the effectiveness of the device, this may be an example of: a. superstition b. empiricism c. science d. pseudoscience ANS: D MSC: WWW

PTS: 1

REF: Science as a Way of Knowing

23. Much to his credit, the story of King Croesus illustrates the importance of: a. calculating probability in determining truth. b. carefully defining variables. c. considering multiple causes of a phenomenon. d. testing in determining truth.

ANS: D

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PTS: 1

REF: Early Approaches

CHAPTER 1

24. In his study of insomnia, Galen used: a. a control group. b. a double-blind procedure. c. a single-case experiment. d. randomization.

ANS: C

PTS: 1

REF: Early Approaches

25. The case of Semmelweis is important because it illustrates: a. the importance of ruling out factors. b. a longitudinal design. c. the necessity of debriefing. d. how bias can influence the outcome of a study.

ANS: A MSC: WWW

PTS: 1

REF: Early Approaches

26. Because self-report and observed behaviors may not match, researchers are advised to use: a. sophisticated statistical measures. b. multiple measures. c. quasi-experimentation. d. valid surveys and questionnaires.

ANS: B

PTS: 1

REF: Early Approaches

27. The stories of Croesus, Galen, and Semmelweis are important because they reflect: a. how statistical analyses are conducted. b. the importance of random sampling. c. different ways of solving problems. d. empiricism at different levels of observation.

ANS: C

PTS: 1

REF: Early Approaches

28. Science is: a. experimental rather than logical. b. empirical rather than theoretical. c. not based on direct experience. d. based on experience and reason.

ANS: D

PTS: 1

REF: Studying Behavior and Experience

29. "I need to verify this idea through my own senses." This comment best exemplifies: a. empiricism. b. reason. c. tenacity. d. the law of parsimony.

ANS: A

PTS: 1

REF: Studying Behavior and Experience

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30. To rely on sensory experience to verify ideas is called: a. rationalism. b. empiricism. c. modus ponens. d. the law of parsimony.

ANS: B MSC: WWW

PTS: 1

REF: Studying Behavior and Experience

31. In studying reality, the philosopher relies on reason and logic, but the scientist relies on: a. common sense. b. authority. c. empiricism. d. marker variables.

ANS: C

PTS: 1

REF: Studying Behavior and Experience

32. Which of the following is not an appropriate question to ask of science? a. What method of reading is best to teach to first graders? b. Why do some people commit suicide? c. What is the meaning of life? d. How does the brain process visual information?

ANS: C

PTS: 1

REF: Studying Behavior and Experience

33. The two worlds of study in psychology are: a. cognitive and physiological. b. behavior and emotion. c. cognitive and experience. d. behavior and experience.

ANS: D

PTS: 1

REF: Studying Behavior and Experience

34. Which of the following is not one of the four possible ways of studying psychological processes, according to Schumacher? a. studying our own personal world b. studying the personal world of others c. studying our outward behavior that others can observe d. studying our spirit ANS: D

PTS: 1

REF: Studying Behavior and Experience

35. It is sometimes possible to study processes that occur below the level of conscious awareness by using a: a. marker variable. b. construct. c. theory. d. generalization.

ANS: A PTS: 1 REF: Behavior: A Road Into the Subjective Experience of Research Participants MSC: WWW

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36. Your score on this exam would be considered a(n): a. modus tollens. b. marker variable. c. independent variable. d. confounding variable.

ANS: B PTS: 1 REF: Behavior: A Road Into the Subjective Experience of Research Participants 37. REM would be considered to be a: a. construct. b. product of synesthesia. c. marker variable. d. theory.

ANS: C PTS: 1 REF: Behavior: A Road Into the Subjective Experience of Research Participants 38. Which of the following is not a subjective experience? a. shaking because of nervousness b. confusion c. severe anger d. sadness ANS: A PTS: 1 REF: Behavior: A Road Into the Subjective Experience of Research Participants 39. Dr. Simon is discussing the role of inference in research. She says that psychologists study the outside to know about the inside. Is she correct? a. No  she has it backwards; we study the inside to know about the outside. b. No  inference does not play a role in research. c. Yes  we infer subjective experience (inside) from behavior (outside). d. Yes  but we don't need inference since we can directly observe subjective experience in research participants.

ANS: C PTS: 1 REF: Behavior: A Road Into the Subjective Experience of Research Participants 40. Psychologists seek to understand subjective experience through: a. replication. b. inference from behavior. c. common sense. d. direct observation.

ANS: B PTS: 1 REF: Behavior: A Road Into the Subjective Experience of Research Participants MSC: WWW

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41. Which of the following is not a measurable behavior? a. respiration rate b. daydreaming c. number of items recalled from a memorized list d. time taken to run 100 meters ANS: B PTS: 1 REF: Behavior: A Road Into the Subjective Experience of Research Participants 42. In studying subjective experience, we assume that: a. subjective experience is a marker variable. b. subjective experience is directly observable. c. behavior and subjective experience are unrelated. d. behavior is a manifestation of what the subject is experiencing.

ANS: D PTS: 1 REF: Behavior: A Road Into the Subjective Experience of Research Participants 43. Subjective experiences, the origin of the universe, and subatomic physics are all examples of phenomena that: a. cannot be directly measured. b. cannot be studied scientifically. c. are impossible to study using inferences. d. are based on superstition.

ANS: A PTS: 1 REF: Behavior: A Road Into the Subjective Experience of Research Participants 44. You are studying anxiety. Which of the following can you not directly observe? a. heart rate b. nervousness c. sweaty palms d. self-report of anxiety ANS: B PTS: 1 REF: Behavior: A Road Into the Subjective Experience of Research Participants 45. Compared to researchers in other sciences, psychologists have consisted of a: a. larger percentage of women. b. smaller percentage of women. c. larger percentage of minorities. d. larger percentage of minorities.

ANS: A MSC: WWW

PTS: 1

REF: The People Who Perform Science

46. An advantage of science as a human activity is that: a. science is subject to experimenter values. b. we can rely more on our collective common sense than on observation. c. science can be done within a community of other scientists. d. knowledge can only exist in social contexts.

ANS: C

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PTS: 1

REF: The People Who Perform Science

CHAPTER 1

SHORT ANSWER 1. Contrast tenacity, authority, reason, common sense, and science as approaches to knowing.

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

REF: Science as a Way of Knowing

2. Why is pseudoscience often called "false" science?

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

REF: Science as a Way of Knowing

3. What are superstitions based on and how do they manage to persist despite a lack of scientific support?

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

REF: Science as a Way of Knowing

4. Describe how Newton's rules of reasoning question the usefulness of tenacity, reason, and common sense as ways of knowing.

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

REF: Box 1.2

5. Briefly describe in your own words Newton's rule of reasoning.

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

REF: Box 1.2

6. What insights about science do we gain from the stories of Croesus, Galen, and Semmelweis?

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

REF: Early Approaches

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7. Define empiricism. How does empiricism give the scientist an advantage over authority and tenacity?

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

REF: Studying Behavior and Experience

8. Describe each of the cells of Schumacher's model of the ways to study psychological processes.

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

REF: Studying Behavior and Experience

9. How do scientists study what they cannot see?

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

REF: The People Who Perform Science

10. Describe how a psychologist might study synesthesia.

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1 REF: Behavior: A Road Into the Subjective Experience of Research Participants 11. What is a marker variable? How would a marker variable be used to study subjective experiences?

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1 REF: Behavior: A Road Into the Subjective Experience of Research Participants 12. Defend the assumption that science is a human activity. What implications does this assumption have on who conducts science?

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

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REF: The People Who Perform Science

CHAPTER 1

Chapter 2 – Introduction to the Methods of Science Chapter Outline Naturalistic Observation The Correlational Approach The Experimental Method Definitions in the Experimental Method Causation Exploratory Research Logic and Inference: The Detective Work of Science Validity Propositional Logic Scientific Observation: The Raw Data of Science Evaluating Scientific Research Communication in Science Chapter Overview Science is an extension of how we go about exploring the world. Naturalistic observation involves observing and describing what occurs. In the correlational approach, the scientist examines the association between variables; this method does not imply causality. However, the experimental method allows the testing of cause and effect relationships by manipulating the independent variable and measuring its effect on the dependent variable. Hypotheses are tested using experimental and control groups; the variables that are manipulated and measured should be operationally defined. Scientists may also engage in exploratory research.

In testing hypotheses, science must rely on logic and inference. There is particular interest in ensuring the validity of research; internal and external validity must be present in the experiment. Logic, through inductive and deductive reasoning, plays an important role in ruling out alternative explanations. Popper’s and Kuhn’s views of science have shaped how scientists go about asking and answering questions.

It is important to communicate to the scientific community the results of research that are accurate, capable of being replicated, and relevant to others.

Chapter Objectives 1.

Integrate these three important aspects of science: (1) idea, (2) experience, and (3) reorganization.

2.

What are the strengths and weaknesses of naturalistic observation? Give an example of this type of study.

3.

When would you use the correlational approach? What conclusion is justified?

What is a positive correlation? How does it differ from a negative correlation?

INTRODUCTION TO THE METHODS OF SCIENCE

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4.

Describe the experimental method. Why is it the most powerful design? Discuss the importance of operational definitions of variables.

5.

Differentiate between the independent and dependent variables.

6.

What is a confounding variable and how does it affect interpretation of the findings?

7.

Explain causation in terms of necessary and sufficient conditions.

8.

What is the balance between internal and external validity in research?

9.

A scientist relies on both deductive and inductive logic in science. Distinguish between these reasoning methods and evaluate when they are used in the scientific process.

10. How does modus tollens apply to testing scientific theories?

11. How are scientists influenced by paradigms? Give examples of paradigm shifts.

12. According to the text, what are the four ways to ensure the high quality of research?

13. Aristotle emphasized scientific inquiry and argument. How do they relate to communication of science?

Teaching Points The chapter describes other methods developed to answer specific questions (e.g., singlecase approaches, qualitative methods). In fact, there are several single-case studies that many students might be familiar with and are worth reminding them of. For instance, most introductory psychology courses discuss Phineas Gage as an illustration of the case study (http://www.deakin.edu.au/hmnbs/psychology/gagepage/). In addition, you might suggest that focus groups, commonly used in marketing research, are a type of qualitative method. Perhaps some of your students have participated in focus groups sponsored by your institution.

The premise of naturalistic observation is very familiar to students. Many of them have engaged in watching others in parks, airports, and the student union. One of the famous examples of naturalistic observation is Jane Goodall’s work with chimpanzees. Check out her website for more information. One of the challenges in naturalistic observation is being unobtrusive. Researches often come up with ingenious ways to deal with this issue. For instance Irenäus Eibl-Eibesfeldt and Hans Hass studied facial expressions using a film camera that would actually record events that were occurring to the side of the camera, not in front were the “lens” appeared to be.

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A problem area for students is in the use of the words positive and negative. It is important to remind them that positive and negative, as in correlations, describe the direction of the relationship, not any type of value statement as in a good or bad correlation.

Students often have great difficulty distinguishing between the independent and the dependent variables as well as formulating operational definitions. One helpful trick is to use “ICED” where the Independent variable is Cause and the Effect is the Dependent variable. Offer lots of practice identifying variables and creating operational definitions.

A good starting place is to give students hypotheses to test:  It is harder to concentrate when there is loud music playing.  People feel sad in rooms painted blue.  Depression impairs memory.  People recall more pleasant than unpleasant experiences when happy.

It is useful to have students know the pros and cons of each research method that is described. For example, the naturalistic observation method is very good for studying natural behavior, but the researcher has no control over what happens. Control is a strength of the experimental method, but control can make conditions artificial and hence unrealistic.

Teaching Activities Role of the Scientist The scientist plays a different role in each of the methods described in the chapter. Use Handout 2-1 to help students identify those roles as well as to better understand the methods.

Doing Naturalistic Observation One effective way to illustrate the challenge inherent in naturalistic observation is to assign students the task of observing behavior in a public setting such as a cafeteria or park. Inform them that they must simply describe what they observed. Of course, they should operationally define the variables they are observing. Many students will initially interpret and attribute the observed behavior to some cause. Moreover, having students make these observations in pairs allows for a discussion of interrater reliability and may augment this activity.

Correlation in the Popular Media One of the most often-made mistakes regarding correlation is describing the relationship in terms of causality. Scour the popular media for articles that use the term “correlation.”

Have students examine these articles for direct or indirect references to causation.

INTRODUCTION TO THE METHODS OF SCIENCE

21

Testing Old Wives’ Tales using the Experimental Method An effective way to help students better understand the experimental method is to test common sayings. Ask students to select a saying and then to develop an experiment to test its validity. Part of the task is to identify the independent and dependent variables, create operational definitions of variables, and to indicate the experimental and control groups.

Test a Memory Drug As a class, design a simple experiment to test a fictional memory drug. Ask the students to identify the experimental group, control group, independent variable, dependent variable, placebo, and means of assigning subjects to groups.

Infomercials and the Scientific Method Record an infomercial and show it to your class. Alternatively, visit a website that describes some of the products pitched on infomercials (see below). Have students evaluate the claims. Discuss how they would go about testing the claims from a scientific approach.

Philosophy of Science: Sir Karl Popper (Falsification Approach) One helpful activity to teach falsification is to claim that photographs move when we don’t look at them. The claim continues that people and objects return back to their original location as we observe the picture. To emphasize the point, ask students to find a photograph in the textbook and then close the book. Comment that the characters in the photograph are moving. In unison, the students are to open up the book and look at the photograph and report what they see or don’t see. Challenge students to develop a method to test this hypothesis, which appears to be untestable.

Philosophy of Science: Thomas Kuhn James Burke’s PBS series “Connections” can be helpful to illustrate how paradigm shifts and discoveries in one field “trigger” change in another field.

Wadsworth’s Research Methods Workshop http://www.wadsworth.com/ psychology_d/templates/student_resources/workshops/resch_wrk.html The Wadsworth’s Research Methods Workshop has a link entitled Experimental Methods that focuses on the types of variables that are present in experiments. First, experimental methods are distinguished from non-experimental approaches. Then, general types of variables are reviewed, including independent, dependent, and subject variables (as well as quantitative and categorical variables). The notion of confounds is introduced, and students are afforded practice with the provided research examples in recognizing and eliminating confounds. Several examples also are provided to give students guidance on how to select levels of an independent variable.

22

CHAPTER 2

Internet Resources The Jane Goodall Institute (www.janegoodall.org) Jane Goodall represents an effective and worthwhile illustration of naturalistic observation. The website describes her work and her current activism for chimpanzees and the environment.

Infomercials (www.infomercial.com) This site describes top selling infomercial products and is good fodder for practicing developing methods to test the product’s claims. Especially intriguing are the exercise products that claim incredible health benefits.

The Karl Popper Web (http://www.tkpw.net/) Popper’s contributions to science are described on this website. In addition, an email based open forum is offered to those who are interested in discussing Popper’s ideas.

Web Center for Social Research Methods (www.socialresearchmethods.net) Here there are some links to various useful resources pertaining to research methods. The methods tutorials are especially beneficial for this chapter.

National Undergraduate Research Clearinghouse (http://www.webclearinghouse.net/) Undergraduate students often engage in research and produce scholarly works. This site allows the user to search for research. You may wish to use this site to search for examples of different types of methods.

The Fallacy Files (www.fallacyfiles.org) Given that the chapter speaks to the role of logic in science, it might be interesting to peruse this site for its collection of logical fallacies (e.g., the masked man fallacy, fourterm fallacy, and red herring).

Suggested Readings Anderson, S.J., & Verplanck, W.S. (1983). When walls speak. What do they say?

Psychological Record, 3, 341-359.

Arluke, A., Kutakoff, L., & Levin, J. (1987). Are the times changing? An analysis of gender differences in sexual graffiti. Sex Roles, 16, 1-7.

Interesting research on the content of graffiti in public restrooms.

Cialdini, R. B., & Kenrick, D.T. (1976). Altruism as hedonism: A social development perspective on the relationship of negative mood and helping. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 34, 907-914.

INTRODUCTION TO THE METHODS OF SCIENCE

23

Latane, B., & Darley, J.M. (1968). Group inhibition of bystanders intervention in emergencies. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 10, 215-221.

Classic research on bystander behavior.

Levine, R. V. (1990, September-October). The pace of life. American Scientist, pp.

451-459.

A summary of Levine's work on the pace of life across cities in the U.S. and six other countries. Explains the Pace of Life Index and how measurements were made by the researchers.

Research Activities for Students The goals of the research activities are to: (1) relate Chapter 2 on an applied learning dimension, and (2) get students involved in research.

1. Altruism Research: Library Activity. Go to the library and find two articles on altruism. Answer the following questions separately for each: (a) How was altruism operationally defined? (b) Was the study conducted in the field or a laboratory? (c) Was the study correlational or experimental? (d) What were the author's conclusions?

Comment on the generalizability of these findings. See the Suggested Readings list for more on the subject of altruism and the generalizability of this issue (Cialdini & Kenrick, 1976).

2.Children and Shyness: Design your own research study. Go to the library and find two research articles on shyness in children. Through examination of the operational definitions and descriptions of shyness within the articles, identify five behaviors that you could observe in a naturalistic study of children on a school playground. Finally, after researching this topic in the library, generate a hypothesis related to shyness. Design a correlational or experimental study that tests this hypothesis.

Hypothesis checklist: Address the following issues. a. b. c. d. e f.

24

What is the independent variable?

Is the independent variable manipulated by the investigator?

What is the dependent variable?

What outcome are you predicting?

What relationship are you expecting between the variables?

What types of conclusions will be appropriate?

CHAPTER 2

3. Pace of Life Research. Naturalistic Observation. Conduct a naturalistic observational study on the pace of life in your city. Go to a shopping mall or the downtown center of business, and measure the following behaviors: (a) percentage of people wearing watches, (b) walking speed. Begin by operationally defining how you will measure these variables. Next, describe your procedure--that is, how you will collect data. Design a coding sheet for your observations that includes: (a) location, (b) date, (c) time of day you begin and end observation, (d) behaviors to be observed. You may also be interested in demographic information like gender and age. Be observant of patterns and trends.

Note any limitations. Was it difficult to remain unobtrusive? Include graphs and tables to illustrate your findings. Be prepared to discuss your findings in class. See the Suggested Readings list for more on Levine's (l990) Pace of Life study.

4. Graffiti in Public Restrooms. Design a Coding Sheet and Conduct a Naturalistic Study. Design a coding sheet that will be used to conduct a naturalistic observation of graffiti content found in public restrooms. The coding sheet should consist of simple categories (e.g., sexual versus non-sexual) and more complex categories (e.g., homosexual, heterosexual, and political). Identify the categories as column headings.

Observe several public restrooms for graffiti to collect data. Mark the frequency of observations in each category. Specify information about the setting (e.g., women's restroom on a university campus, etc.). Be prepared to discuss your observations in class.

Compare the findings of those who observed male versus female restrooms to determine if the graffiti content is similar in both settings. Find two research articles that address this issue (See the suggested reading list).

5. Media and Violence: Cause and Effect. Research Activity. Research online references such as PsycINFO and PubMed to find titles of scientific studies on media and violence.

What words other than cause and effect are used to imply a cause and effect? List three examples.

INTRODUCTION TO THE METHODS OF SCIENCE

25

Handout 2-1 The Role of the Scientist Method

Description

Naturalistic Observation

Correlational Approach

Experimental method

26

CHAPTER 2

The role of scientist

TESTBANK MULTIPLE CHOICE 1. A formally stated expectation concerning the outcome of an experiment is called: a. a theory. b. induction. c. a hypothesis. d. empiricism.

ANS: C

PTS: 1

REF: Introduction

2. If you learn about the world through observation and experimentation, you are relying upon: a. a hypothesis. b. inference. c. deduction. d. empiricism.

ANS: D

PTS: 1

REF: Introduction

3. A scientist will evaluate a hypothesis by using: a. empiricism. b. a theory. c. naturalistic observation. d. exploratory research.

ANS: A

PTS: 1

REF: Introduction

MSC: WWW

4. If little is known about a psychological phenomenon, then ____ is the most appropriate method to use to study it. a. the correlational approach b. the experimental approach c. the post hoc approach d. naturalistic observation ANS: D

PTS: 1

REF: Introduction

5. Professor Campbell is studying memory by using mathematical operations. She is using: a. a correlational approach. b. modeling. c. a post hoc approach. d. a retrospective approach.

ANS: B

PTS: 1

REF: Introduction

6. A scientific approach that attempts to establish an artificial system which can produce behaviors similar to those observed in humans or other animals is called: a. exploratory research. b. the correlational approach. c. the experimental method. d. modeling.

ANS: D

PTS: 1

REF: Introduction

INTRODUCTION TO THE METHODS OF SCIENCE

27

7. If we were interested in knowing whether early childhood experiences contributed to the later development of personality disorders, we would likely use: a. the experimental method. b. exploratory research. c. naturalistic observation. d. the retrospective method.

ANS: D

PTS: 1

REF: Introduction

8. Behavior is to experience as ____ is to ____. a. correlational; experimental b. experimental; qualitative c. quantitative; qualitative d. naturalistic; experimental ANS: C

PTS: 1

REF: Introduction

MSC: WWW

9. An approach that emphasizes the subjective aspects of experience uses: a. qualitative methods. b. quantitative methods. c. the retrospective method. d. modeling.

ANS: A

PTS: 1

REF: Introduction

10. To engage in a scientific approach to the study of human behavior, we would use: a. the experimental method. b. the correlational approach. c. naturalistic observation. d. any of these ANS: D

PTS: 1

REF: Introduction

11. In the ____ approach, individuals are videotaped discussing a particular topic. They then watch the video separately and comment on how they thought or felt during specific segments. a. naturalistic b. quantitative c. action-project d. film interview ANS: C

PTS: 1

REF: Introduction

12. Dr. Nathan wants to study how pythons behave in their native habitat. He sets up hidden cameras in the rain forest to observe the snakes while he remains undetected. Dr. Nathan is using the ____ method of conducting research. a. experimental b. inferential c. correlational d. naturalistic observation ANS: D

28

PTS: 1

REF: Naturalistic Observation

CHAPTER 2

13. Which of the following best describes naturalistic observation? a. You calculate internal and external validity. b. You look for an association between two variables. c. You just watch. d. You determine if there is a cause-and-effect relationship.

ANS: C MSC: WWW

PTS: 1

REF: Naturalistic Observation

14. If you wanted to study play behavior in preschool children, the ideal approach would most likely be: a. modeling. b. naturalistic observation. c. the retrospective method. d. the experimental method.

ANS: B

PTS: 1

REF: Naturalistic Observation

15. In naturalistic observation, the experimenter ____, whereas in the experimental method, the experimenter ____. a. is passive; is active b. is active; is passive c. observes; does not observe d. influences the participant's behavior; does not influence the participant's behavior ANS: A

PTS: 1

REF: Naturalistic Observation

16. Naturalistic observation tends to be: a. theoretical rather than empirical. b. concerned with determining causes of behavior. c. descriptive rather than explanatory. d. deductive rather than inductive.

ANS: C

PTS: 1

REF: Naturalistic Observation

17. In naturalistic observation, the participant ____, whereas in the experimental method, the participant ____. a. is passive; is active b. is restricted; is not restricted c. is not restricted; is restricted d. interacts with the experimenter; does not interact with the experimenter ANS: C

PTS: 1

REF: Naturalistic Observation

18. Tim is conducting naturalistic observation. He finds that the behavior of his subjects changes when they notice his presence. Which statement best describes this situation? a. The situation is good since the manipulation of the independent variable was successful. b. The situation is good since that was the focus of the study. c. The situation is not good since Tim did not record his subjects' behavior. d. The situation is not good since Tim's behavior interfered with his subjects.

ANS: D MSC: WWW

PTS: 1

REF: Naturalistic Observation

INTRODUCTION TO THE METHODS OF SCIENCE

29

19. If we were interested in understanding the association between two variables, we would use: a. the experimental method. b. naturalistic observation. c. the correlational approach. d. modeling.

ANS: C

PTS: 1

REF: The Correlational Approach

20. If we were interested in the relationship between caffeine and heart disease, our most likely approach would be: a. naturalistic observation. b. the correlational approach. c. the experimental method. d. modeling.

ANS: B

PTS: 1

REF: The Correlational Approach

21. Which of the following questions would be most appropriately answered by the correlational method? a. What is the most effective treatment for depression? b. Why do people tend to help in emergency situations if there are few eyewitnesses? c. What can be done to help learning disabled students learn? d. Does high school GPA predict college GPA? ANS: D

PTS: 1

REF: The Correlational Approach

22. Correlational research is: a. concerned with how one variable influences another variable. b. concerned with whether one variable influences another variable. c. concerned with the degree to which one variable influences another variable. d. concerned with whether there is an association between two variables.

ANS: D MSC: WWW

PTS: 1

REF: The Correlational Approach

23. Eye color and intelligence are ____ correlated. a. not b. positively c. negatively d. sometimes ANS: D

PTS: 1

REF: The Correlational Approach

24. If we were to find that the correlation between eating high-fat food and heart attack was positive, we would conclude that: a. eating high fat foods causes heart attack. b. eating lots of high fat food is associated with high incidence of heart attack. c. eating lots of high fat food is associated with low incidence of heart attack. d. people who have heart attacks do not eat many foods with high fat content.

ANS: B

30

PTS: 1

REF: The Correlational Approach

CHAPTER 2

25. Consider this: As the price of gasoline drops, people drive more miles. What type of correlation does this describe? a. a positive correlation b. a negative correlation c. a perfect correlation d. a confounding correlation ANS: B

PTS: 1

REF: The Correlational Approach

26. If we were to find that the correlation between height and anxiety was negative, we would predict that: a. taller people would tend to be more anxious. b. shorter people would tend to be more anxious. c. shorter people would tend to be less anxious. d. height and anxiety are unrelated.

ANS: B

PTS: 1

REF: The Correlational Approach

27. An unspecified variable that may have influenced the two variables in a correlational study is called a: a. positive correlation. b. predictor variable. c. third variable. d. negative correlation.

ANS: C

PTS: 1

REF: The Correlational Approach

28. If there is a low correlation between two variables, we can say that they are: a. not causally related. b. probably confounded variables. c. causally related. d. both independent variables.

ANS: A

PTS: 1

REF: The Correlational Approach

29. When trying to determine the causal factors underlying behavior, we select an approach called: a. the experimental method. b. the post hoc method. c. the correlational approach. d. naturalistic observation.

ANS: A

PTS: 1

REF: The Experimental Method

30. The group in an experiment that is getting the special treatment is called the: a. correlational group. b. experimental group. c. control group. d. naturalistic group.

ANS: B MSC: WWW

PTS: 1

REF: The Experimental Method

INTRODUCTION TO THE METHODS OF SCIENCE

31

31. A psychologist wants to know if classical music enhances memory. Subjects are assigned to two groups and instructed to study a list of 20 words. One group listens to a Bach sonata and the other group hears popular music. In this simple experiment the independent variable is: a. the word list. b. subsequent recall on a memory test. c. music type. d. the amount of time each group studied.

ANS: C

PTS: 1

REF: The Experimental Method

32. The control group should be treated exactly like the experimental group, except for the: a. dependent variable. b. confounding variables. c. factor being studied. d. level of measurement.

ANS: C

PTS: 1

REF: The Experimental Method

33. Operational definitions are used to specify: a. dependent variables. b. independent variables. c. confounding variables. d. both independent and dependent variables.

ANS: D

PTS: 1

REF: The Experimental Method

34. The two types of operational definitions are: a. inductive and deductive. b. measured and experimental. c. independent and dependent. d. structured and unstructured.

ANS: B

PTS: 1

REF: The Experimental Method

35. In an experimental design, the manipulated variable that is the presumed cause is called the ____ and the behavior that is the presumed effect is called the ____. a. treatment; control b. independent variable; dependent variable c. independent variable; dependent variable d. experimental variable; confound variable ANS: C

PTS: 1

REF: The Experimental Method

36. In the experimental method, the experimenter ____ the independent variable, ____ the dependent variable, and ____ the confounding variables. a. manipulates; measures; eliminates b. observes; manipulates; measures c. measures; manipulates; eliminates d. manipulates; measures; observes ANS: A

32

PTS: 1

REF: The Experimental Method

CHAPTER 2

37. Professor Zeeman has conducted experiments that suggest a new study technique can enhance memory. However, the new technique does not work for students taking real classes. The experimental finding: a. lacks internal validity. b. lacks external validity. c. is not reliable. d. is probably due to chance.

ANS: B

PTS: 1

REF: The Experimental Method

38. The independent variable is: a. affected by the dependent variable. b. not operationally defined. c. manipulated by the experimenter. d. measured.

ANS: C

PTS: 1

REF: The Experimental Method

39. The dependent variable is: a. the treatment. b. manipulated by the experimenter. c. the cause of the behavior. d. affected by the treatment.

ANS: D

PTS: 1

REF: The Experimental Method

40. The treatment effect is measured as: a. the difference between the experimental and control groups on the independent variable. b. the difference between the independent variable and the dependent variable. c. the difference between the scores of the experimental and control groups on the dependent variable. d. the difference between the independent variable and the confounding variables.

ANS: C MSC: WWW

PTS: 1

REF: The Experimental Method

41. The difference in magnitude between the control and the experimental groups on the dependent variable is called the: a. treatment effect. b. independent effect. c. confound effect. d. dependent effect.

ANS: A

PTS: 1

REF: The Experimental Method

42. An experiment was conducted to test a new drug for anxiety. What would be a good dependent variable for this experiment? a. heart rate b. the amount of drug given to each subject c. score on a standardized anxiety test d. heart rate and/or score on a standardized anxiety test ANS: D

PTS: 1

REF: The Experimental Method

INTRODUCTION TO THE METHODS OF SCIENCE

33

43. A recent experiment found that 7th graders who were taught math using a computer scored 25% higher on an exam than those 7th graders taught with the traditional lecture format. What is the treatment effect? a. how the students were taught math b. those students who were taught with the computer c. the 25% higher scores among those taught with the computer d. those students who were taught with the traditional format ANS: C

PTS: 1

REF: The Experimental Method

44. Confounding variables are: a. unintended dependent variables. b. unintended independent variables. c. unintended control variables. d. correctional rather than casual.

ANS: B

PTS: 1

REF: The Experimental Method

45. In an experiment to study the effects of caffeine on performance, an experimenter asked the male students in an introductory psychology class to drink two regular Pepsis before a test and the female students to drink two caffeine-free Pepsis. She then compared performance of the two groups on the test. A confounding variable in this study is: a. whether participants had studied for the test. b. the type of drink. c. the gender of the participants. d. the amount of caffeine in the Pepsi.

ANS: C

PTS: 1

REF: The Experimental Method

46. A difference between the performance of an experimental and a control group may be caused by: a. the independent variable. b. the dependent variable. c. a confounding variable. d. either the independent or a confounding variable.

ANS: D

PTS: 1

REF: The Experimental Method

47. To investigate the effects of alcohol on driving, an experimenter gave people different amounts of alcohol and then placed them in a driving simulator with instructions to press the brake whenever they saw a red light. In this study, the independent variable was ____ and the dependent variable was ____. a. whether they saw the red light; time taken to press brake b. amount of alcohol; whether they saw the red light c. whether they saw the red light; amount of alcohol d. amount of alcohol; time taken to press brake ANS: D MSC: WWW

34

PTS: 1

REF: The Experimental Method

CHAPTER 2

48. To test the hypothesis, "Anxiety hurts performance," anxiety would be the ____ variable and performance would be the ____ variable. a. dependent; independent b. independent; dependent c. confounding; depending d. independent; confounding ANS: B

PTS: 1

REF: The Experimental Method

49. In the hypothesis, "People feel more depressed in the winter," ____ is the independent variable and ____ is the dependent variable. a. season of the year; depression b. depression; season of the year c. depression; winter d. people; depression ANS: A

PTS: 1

REF: The Experimental Method

50. In the hypothesis, "psychology majors with high grade point averages are excited during final exam week," ____ is the independent variable. a. major b. grade point average c. time of the semester d. excitement ANS: C

PTS: 1

REF: The Experimental Method

51. Giving one group of subjects an experimental treatment and then informally observing the effects without a control group is best described as: a. correlational. b. exploratory. c. factorial. d. single-subject.

ANS: B

PTS: 1

REF: The Experimental Method

52. ____ is the process by which we examine evidence and then use reason to reach a conclusion. a. Exploration b. Inference c. Empiricism d. Validation ANS: B

PTS: 1

REF: Logic and Inference: The Detective

53. An experiment is internally valid if: a. the outcome can be attributed to the independent variable only. b. the results generalize to other settings. c. the results may be attributed to either the independent variable or a confounding variable. d. the internal variables are operationally defined.

ANS: A

PTS: 1

REF: Logic and Inference: The Detective

INTRODUCTION TO THE METHODS OF SCIENCE

35

54. An experiment is externally valid if: a. the outcome can be attributed to the independent variable only. b. the results generalize to other settings. c. the results are attributed only to external variables. d. there are no alternative explanations of the findings.

ANS: B

PTS: 1

REF: Logic and Inference: The Detective

55. In conducting research, one should try to: a. maximize internal validity and minimize external validity. b. minimize internal validity and maximize external validity. c. minimize both internal and external validity. d. maximize internal validity, external validity, or both, depending on the research questions.

ANS: D MSC: WWW

PTS: 1

REF: Logic and Inference: The Detective

56. Induction involves reasoning from: a. data to theory. b. theory to data. c. premise to conclusion. d. hypotheses to outcomes.

ANS: A

PTS: 1

REF: Logic and Inference: The Detective

57. Deduction involves reasoning from: a. data to theory. b. theory to concept. c. premise to conclusion. d. theory to data.

ANS: D

PTS: 1

REF: Logic and Inference: The Detective

58. If you reason that a false premise leads to a false consequent, you will have engaged in a(n) ____ argument that is called ____. a. invalid; affirming the consequent b. invalid; denying the antecedent c. valid; denying the antecedent d. valid; modus tollens ANS: B

PTS: 1

REF: Logic and Inference: The Detective

59. Confirmatory reasoning is to disconfirmatory reasoning as ____ is to ____. a. modus ponens; modus tollens b. antecedent; consequent c. independent variable; dependent variable d. consequent; antecedent ANS: A

36

PTS: 1

REF: Logic and Inference: The Detective

CHAPTER 2

60. Karl Popper's theory of science is consistent with: a. modus tollens. b. disconfirmatory reasoning. c. both modus tollens and disconfirmatory reasoning. d. paradigm shift.

ANS: C

PTS: 1

REF: Box 2.2

61. According to Karl Popper, science should attempt to ____ theories. a. prove b. support c. falsify d. discard ANS: C

PTS: 1

REF: Box 2.2

62. The assertion that scientists should attempt to falsify theories is most closely associated with: a. Karl Popper. b. Aristotle. c. Isaac Newton. d. Thomas Kuhn.

ANS: A

PTS: 1

REF: Logic and Inference: The Detective

63. A particular way of seeing the world is called a: a. logical inference. b. construct. c. prediction. d. paradigm.

ANS: D MSC: WWW

PTS: 1

REF: Scientific Observation: The Raw

64. The notion that science advances through paradigm shifts is attributed to: a. Karl Popper. b. Galileo. c. Thomas Kuhn. d. Isaac Newton.

ANS: C

PTS: 1

REF: Box 2.3

65. Conclusions in science should be viewed from the perspective of: a. the scientist. b. the research participant. c. the witness. d. all of these.

ANS: D

PTS: 1

REF: Evaluating Scientific Research

INTRODUCTION TO THE METHODS OF SCIENCE

37

66. The example presented in the chapter regarding negative reinforcement reveals the importance of: a. common words may have special meanings in science. b. negative correlations in research. c. falsification. d. paradigm shifts.

ANS: A

PTS: 1

REF: Communication in Science

SHORT ANSWER 1. What role does empiricism play in the methods of science?

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

REF: Introduction

2. In what way is a scientist like a child?

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

REF: Introduction

3. Contrast qualitative methods and quantitative methods.

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

REF: Introduction

4. Contrast the naturalistic observation approach to science with the experimental method. In what ways do the two approaches differ?

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

REF: Naturalistic Observation & The Experimental Method

5. Describe the types of questions that would be appropriate for the correlational approach and experimental method.

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

38

REF: Correlational Approach & The Experimental Method

CHAPTER 2

6. What are the limitations of the naturalistic observation and correlational approaches?

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

REF: Naturalistic Observation & The Correlational Approach

7. In the experimental method, what is the principal reason for using a control group? How does the control group differ from the experimental group?

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

REF: The Experimental Method

8. For each of the following hypotheses, identify the independent and dependent variables: a) b) c) d) e)

People who are nervous perform poorly.

Reading speed decreases as word length increases.

Highly imaginable words are more memorable.

People sleep better if they read before going to bed.

Alcohol impairs judgment.

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

REF: The Experimental Method

9. Describe an operational definition for the following variables: a) b) c) d) e)

aggression love learning anxiety depression

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

REF: The Experimental Method

10. Define internal and external validity. In which situations does internal validity tend to be highest?

In which situation does external validity tend to be highest?

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

REF: Work of Science

INTRODUCTION TO THE METHODS OF SCIENCE

39

11. Why is treatment effect such an important consideration? What does it mean if treatment effect is small even if the independent variable is thought to have an effect?

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

REF: Experimental Method

12. Distinguish between confirmatory reasoning and disconfirmatory reasoning. According to Karl Popper, which is the more useful in science?

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

REF: Logic and Inference: The Detective

13. What is modus tollens? How is it involved in science and why is it important? Which philosopher of science is most closely associated with the role of modus tollens in science?

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

REF: Logic and Inference: The Detective

14. What is a paradigm and how is it important in the advancement of science, according to Thomas Kuhn?

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

40

REF: Scientific Observation: The Raw

CHAPTER 2

Chapter 3 – Developing the Hypothesis Chapter Outline Making Our Hypotheses Concrete Making Our Hypotheses Logical The “I Wonder What Will Happen if” Hypothesis and Inductive Reasoning The “I Expect This Would Happen if” Hypothesis and Deductive Reasoning Strong Inference Creating Testable Research Hypotheses and the Problem of Measurement Overview Ideas Come From Everywhere Intuition and Revelation The Scientist’s Guide to Having an Idea Tools for Library Research Journals & Books Computer Databases The Internet Conclusion Chapter Overview Science attempts to determine the extent to which our ideas about the world are accurate.

To this end, operational definitions guide the scientist in testing hypotheses, though there may be multiple definitions of the construct under study. There are two types of hypotheses and each has a different underlying logic. Strong inference is an important procedure for examining hypotheses. In addition, testing hypotheses requires reliable and valid measurement.

An experiment’s origin is often the scientist’s idea that is translated into a testable hypothesis and includes identification of independent and dependent variables and their operational definitions. Ideas for experiments come from a variety of sources as described in the research accounts of Jude Cassidy (infant-child attachment), Lance Shotland (bystander behavior), Nora Newcombe (gender differences), and Jeffrey Parker (children’s friendship). Wallas’ four-stage model of creative problem-solving illustrates different aspects of the process of idea-generation.

There are many tools for library research and include books, journals, and computer databases (e.g., PsycINFO, PubMed, MEDLINE, SCI). Information from professional organizations, governmental agencies, colleges and universities can be accessed via the internet.

40

CHAPTER 3

Chapter Objectives 1.

Why do scientists consider their topics from ever changing perspectives?

2.

Testing our hypothesis about reality requires operational definitions. How does Chapter 3 define operational definitions and how are they applied when bonding our hypothesis to physical reality?

3.

How is construct validity important to our research procedures and measurements?

4.

Logically, what are the two fundamentally different types of hypotheses and what types of reasoning do they represent?

5.

Specify the steps involved in inductive and deductive reasoning. Give examples of their use. What are the limitations of these logical processes?

6.

Our goal in research is to use measurements that are both valid and reliable.

Discuss the relationship between reliability and validity. How would you select methods of measurement that meet this goal?

7.

Describe the steps of the research process in terms of the decisions you are required to make at each step.

8.

Discuss several ways to find ideas for research. Relate this to your own system of searching for ideas.

9.

Wallas (1920) described the scientific process in four stages. Explain each in detail and formulate examples.

10.

What is the importance of library research in the scientific process?

11.

What tools are available in helping you to locate scientific information? Describe their different functions and the benefits of these methods of information gathering.

12.

Explain the concept of strong inference. Describe the four steps outlined by Platt (1964) and how this idea relates to psychology.

DEVELOPING THE HYPOTHESIS

41

Teaching Points Creating operational definitions will challenge many students. The difficulty is likely due to how “slippery” some concepts are and that many constructs like anxiety and depression can be tested only indirectly. Another area of difficulty that students will encounter is taking general hypotheses and translating them to more specific testable hypotheses. Consider giving students practice in constructing operational definitions and testable hypotheses regarding love, fear, motivation, effort, and concentration. Students should note that several alternative definitions for each construct exist.

Since inductive and deductive reasoning can be difficult for some students, emphasize how they underlie the types of hypotheses. Specifically, emphasizing Figure 3.2 might be a highly effective way to help students grasp the logic.

Your students might be interested in knowing that there are actually several types of validity (e.g., convergent, discriminant, predictive, concurrent, face). These validity types are especially important in the area of psychometrics.

Ask your students to comment on the reliability and validity of the tests that they take in their coursework. Challenge them to offer support of their views.

Share your own experiences with how you developed hypotheses. Talk about colleagues you know and how they came up with their hypotheses.

It might be instructive if you brought to class several journals for students to examine.

Students would see the types of research conducted, the format in which articles are written, and the breadth of research.

Students often enjoy hearing about their professor’s own research and experiences.

Depending on your specific case, you may wish to describe your experiences with using bound abstracts. How has computerized databases improved your own research?

Teaching Activities What Interests You? To introduce this chapter, ask students to create a list of questions regarding behavior and mental processes. You can augment this activity by having students use online references such as PsycINFO and PubMed in their areas of interest. Additionally, students could construct an experiment to address their question. Have students create a general hypothesis, identify the variables, operationally define them, and translate the general hypotheses into a testable hypothesis.

Research Tools Using Handout 3-1, students are to collect citations from the tools listed that relate to their area of interest. Ask them to report back to the class their findings.

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CHAPTER 3

Operational Definitions in TV Commercials To give practice to students and to hone their critical viewing skills, record some TV commercials and present them to your students. Their task is to operationally define some of the more common phrases used in commercials. For examples, persuasive phrases and buzzwords are good examples of constructs for students to operationally define:  tastes good  best value  quality service  consumers’ favorite  most watched  new and improved  most durable  fastest  world’s leading  world famous Analyzing Hypotheses Ask each student to first formulate a hypothesis. Students can then analyze their hypotheses, or those formulated by other students, by identifying the independent variable(s) and dependent variables(s). They should also indicate if the hypothesis is directional and whether or not the variables have been adequately operationally defined.

Computer Databases Consider showing students an actual search on a database. Possibilities include finding citations of your own research or that of a colleague using Social Science Citation Index.

Evaluating Internet Sources Without doubt, the Internet has changed how information is disseminated both in the popular culture and in science. But accompanying the change are concerns for uncritical acceptance of Internet content. There are a number of web sites that provide guidelines and exercises regarding the evaluation of internet sources: http://www.montgomerycollege.edu/Departments/writegt/htmlhandouts/Ten%20C%20int ernet%20sources.htm http://muse.widener.edu/~tltr/How_to_Evaluate_9.htm http://www.fno.org/jun97/eval.html Wadsworth’s Research Methods Workshop http://www.wadsworth.com/psychology_d/templates/student_resources/workshops/resch _wrk.html

DEVELOPING THE HYPOTHESIS

43

A section of the Wadsworth’s Research Methods Workshop site discusses Getting Ideas for a Study. The section discusses the importance of observation and talking to experts, as well as the utility of attending various types of research conventions (plus a list of some major conferences). This is followed by a review of how to search, and gather ideas from, the literature. As with each segment of the workshop site, this segment concludes with a brief quiz (consisting of true/false statements and multiple-choice questions).

Internet Resources What is Science? (http://www.thebee.se/SCIENCE/Science.htm) At this website, you’ll find a brief description of the history and “theory” of science detailing the contributions of the Greeks and Kuhn.

Science Quotes (www.lhup.edu/~dsimanek/sciquote.htm) This website presents some thought- provoking quotes from noted scientists and theorists that reveal their perspectives on the definition, pleasure, and beauty of science.

Pseudoscience (physics.syr.edu/courses/modules/PSEUDO/pseudo_main.html) Links to sites on alternative medicine, pseudomedicine, quackery, therapeutic touch, facilitated communication, and skepticism offer a rich source of various pseudosciences.

Writing Hypotheses (http://www.accessexcellence.org/LC/TL/filson/writhypo.html) The purpose of this lesson is to teach students how and when to write hypotheses.

Cronbach and Meehl (psychclassics.yorku.ca/Cronbach/construct.htm) You can read Cronbach and Meehl’s classic paper on construct validity at this site.

Construct Validity (www.socialresearchmethods.net/kb/constval.htm) You will find more information regarding the different types of validity (e.g., face, concurrent, criterion-referenced).

Suggested Readings Douglas, N.E., & Baum, N. (1984). Library research guide to psychology: Illustrated research strategy and sources. Ann Arbor; MI: Pierian Press.

Weaver, D. B. (1982). How to do a literature search in psychology. Dallas, Texas: Resource Press.

Great reference guides for the beginning researcher.

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CHAPTER 3

Research Activities for Students The goal of the research activities are to: (1) relate Chapter 3 on an applied learning dimension, and (2) get you involved in research. l. Mapping Out Research Ideas. Give yourself permission to freely express any ideas that come to mind without any restrictions. Place your pen on the paper and do not lift it until the instructor notifies you to do so after 5 minutes. Begin in the middle of a blank piece of paper with the first thought that comes to mind. Continue by mapping all ideas that come to mind. Your goal is to use your creativity and fill every bit of white space that you can on your paper. After your instructor calls time, go back and group your ideas into general areas. Finally, rank your ideas in order of interest. Turn this paper in to your instructor and arrange for individual time to discuss possible research ideas.

2. Daily Journal of Research Ideas. Keep a daily journal of research ideas or questions that come to mind. Your goal is one idea per day. This exercise should become a habit for those who wish to become serious researchers. You will be amazed at the timing of some of your most inspirational ideas. Format your ideas into research questions and hypotheses. Don't hesitate to use the library in search of ideas and supporting information. For each idea check the library to determine whether information in this area is: (a) abundant, (b) scattered, but with a lot of related/supporting information, or (c) scarce. Turn this in to your instructor.

3. Gaining Library Skills. Use online references such as PsycINFO and PubMed to research articles related to psychology.

Assignment: Conduct a literature search on one of the following topics: * Effectiveness of mentoring at-risk youth * Utilization of mental health services among Latinos * Benefits of volunteerism * Improving pro-environmental behaviors A. Find the key words. Use the Thesaurus of Psychological terms or the online references such as PsycINFO and PubMed to identify the key words to use in your search.

B. Refine your search. Combine your key words with AND, OR, NOT, and report the number of records displayed for each search. Print out this exercise and turn it in to your instructor.

C. Identify information in the abstracts. Select and read two abstracts.

Record the following information: Author, title of the article, journal (year, volume and pages), hypotheses, and a brief summary of the results.

4. Depression Among College Students. Developing Hypotheses. Go to the library and use one of the many resources available (scientific journal articles, PsycInfo, PubMed, Psychological Abstracts, etc.) to locate four articles related to the topic of depression.

DEVELOPING THE HYPOTHESIS

45

Determine which types of measurement instruments were used to measure the construct of depression. Describe how the concept of depression is operationally defined in each study and how the multitude of definitions may confuse/clarify and refine the construct of depression. Finally, after conducting your review of the literature, formulate your own operational definition of depression as well as a testable research question related to student depression.

5. Empirical Test of Clichés. Describe in detail how you might empirically test these common sense sayings about behavior: Develop research questions for each and consider possible research designs. a. birds of a feather flock together b. absence makes the heart grow fonder c. it takes one to know one 6. Finding Psychological Articles and Tests on the Internet. Search the Internet for information on psychological articles related to personality and social psychology. Also, search the internet for personality tests like the Myers-Briggs. Print one psychological article and one psychological test from your Internet search.

7. Biographies of Scientists.

Use online references such as PsycINFO and PubMed to find a biography on a noted scientist in psychology (e.g., Wilhelm Wundt, B. F. Skinner, Sigmund Freud, Kurt Lewin, Leon Festinger, Fritz Heider, etc.).

How does their life story interface with their contribution to psychology?

46

CHAPTER 3

Handout 3-1 Research Project Research Question: Tool Book title:

Journal:

Psychological Abstracts:

Sources from PsycINFO:

Internet Source:

Other:

DEVELOPING THE HYPOTHESIS

47

TEST BANK MULTIPLE CHOICE 1. The chapter advises that researchers, in order to gain new perspectives, should: a. practice formulating testable hypotheses. b. ask subjects about their experiences in research. c. create thoughtful operational definitions. d. play with their thoughts.

ANS: D

PTS: 1

REF: Introduction

2. How do scientists accurately communicate their private ideas about the world? a. use operational definitions b. ask their colleagues for assistance in writing research articles c. engage in Wallas' four-stage model of creative problem-solving d. use inductive and deductive reasoning ANS: A MSC: WWW

PTS: 1

REF: Making Our Hypotheses Concrete

3. Operational definitions: a. define concepts in terms of clearly observable, concrete operations that anyone can repeat. b. define terms conceptually. c. define events in terms of constructs. d. all of these ANS: A

PTS: 1

REF: Making Our Hypotheses Concrete

4. An advantage of using operational definitions is that: a. they allow sampling to be done randomly. b. they allow what Wallas described as inductive reasoning to occur. c. these definitions associate hypotheses to objects and operations in the physical world. d. they allow confounding variables to exist.

ANS: C

PTS: 1

REF: Making Our Hypotheses Concrete

5. Professor Cole is discussing aggression as a dependent variable in his experiment. He says that aggression is the amount of time that a child holds a toy weapon. This best illustrates a(n): a. operational definition of playing with a toy weapon. b. confounding variable. c. operational definition of aggression. d. nominal level of measurement.

ANS: C

48

PTS: 1

REF: Making Our Hypotheses Concrete

CHAPTER 3

6. For any construct, there is (are): a. only one operational definition. b. many possible operational definitions. c. one operational definition that is valid and one that is reliable. d. only one true operational definition.

ANS: B

PTS: 1

REF: Making Our Hypotheses Concrete

7. Which of the following could not be an operational definition of intelligence? a. Score on an IQ test b. Number of rare words read per minute c. GPA d. How smart you are on several tests ANS: D

PTS: 1

REF: Making Our Hypotheses Concrete

8. Which of these is not an operational definition of anxiety? a. Heart rate b. Degree of nervousness on a math test c. Participants' ratings of their own anxiety on a 1 to 5 scale d. Scientist's rating of participants' anxiety on a 1 to 5 scale ANS: B MSC: WWW

PTS: 1

REF: Making Our Hypotheses Concrete

9. Why would a researcher want to use multiple measures of depression? a. It would increase the chance that the research would get financial support. b. Using multiple measures would increase test-retest reliability. c. Because there are several operational definitions of depression. d. It makes sense because she is studying people from different backgrounds.

ANS: C

PTS: 1

REF: Making Our Hypotheses Concrete

10. What is wrong with the following operational definition of concentration: time taken to run a mile? a. It is not reliable. b. It cannot be replicated. c. It lacks construct validity. d. It is too precise.

ANS: C

PTS: 1

REF: Making Our Hypotheses Concrete

11. To make a hypothesis testable, you must: a. operationally define your variables. b. formulate a broad general question. c. rely on inductive reasoning. d. use valid constructs.

ANS: A

PTS: 1

REF: Making Our Hypotheses Concrete

DEVELOPING THE HYPOTHESIS

49

12. If an operational definition has construct validity: a. it is consistent with the hypotheses. b. it adequately represents a concept. c. it relies on inductive reasoning. d. it will be uncorrelated with other variables.

ANS: B

PTS: 1

REF: Making Our Hypotheses Concrete

13. Questioning whether the time spent on a manipulation task is a valid measure of conscientiousness refers to the problem of ____ validity. a. predictive b. construct c. internal d. external ANS: B

PTS: 1

REF: Making Our Hypotheses Concrete

14. Hypotheses of the form "I expect this would happen if" are formulated when: a. we know a lot about a phenomenon. b. we know little about a phenomenon. c. we reason inductively. d. we know a lot about a phenomenon and we reason inductively.

ANS: A MSC: WWW

PTS: 1

REF: Making Our Hypotheses Logical

15. Imagine that a child drops a ball from her highchair and sees it fall to the ground. Later, as she sits in her bed, she holds a toy and she expects that, if she drops the toy outside of her bed, that it will fall to the floor. In fact, she believes that this type of effect will occur whenever she drops an object. This best illustrates: a. deductive reasoning. b. inductive reasoning. c. theory-driven research. d. hypothetical reasoning.

ANS: A

PTS: 1

REF: Making Our Hypotheses Logical

16. Hypotheses of the form "I wonder what will happen if" are formulated when: a. we know a lot about a phenomenon. b. we know little about a phenomenon. c. we reason inductively. d. we know a lot about a phenomenon and we reason inductively.

ANS: B

50

PTS: 1

REF: Making Our Hypotheses Logical

CHAPTER 3

17. Hypotheses of the form "I expect this would happen if" are associated with: a. deductive reasoning. b. inductive reasoning. c. theory-driven research. d. deductive reasoning and theory-driven research.

ANS: A

PTS: 1

REF: Making Our Hypotheses Logical

18. A scientist has outlined a theory of attention. She formulates a hypothesis and designs an experiment to test the theory. This type of experiment is associated with: a. deductive reasoning. b. inductive reasoning. c. theory-driven research. d. deductive reasoning and theory-driven research.

ANS: D MSC: WWW

PTS: 1

REF: Making Our Hypotheses Logical

19. Hypotheses of the form "I wonder what will happen if" are associated with: a. deductive reasoning. b. inductive reasoning. c. theory-driven research. d. deductive reasoning and theory-driven research.

ANS: B

PTS: 1

REF: Making Our Hypotheses Logical

20. One predicts observations from a well-established theory through a process of: a. induction. b. incubation. c. deduction. d. validation.

ANS: C

PTS: 1

REF: Making Our Hypotheses Logical

21. Which of the following is not a characteristic of a testable research hypothesis? a. It is stated in terms of operational definitions. b. It states how the independent variable is manipulated. c. It specifies the relation between the independent and dependent variables. d. It reflects both inductive and deductive reasoning.

ANS: D

PTS: 1

REF: Making Our Hypotheses Logical

DEVELOPING THE HYPOTHESIS

51

22. The research approach that tests two competing theories in order to falsify one of them is referred to as: a. induction. b. illumination. c. strong inference. d. verification.

ANS: C

PTS: 1

REF: Making Our Hypotheses Logical

23. If a measure is reliable, it: a. accurately measures what it is supposed to measure. b. is consistent. c. is valid. d. is both consistent and valid.

ANS: B PTS: 1 REF: Creating Testable Research Hypotheses and the Problem of Measurement MSC: WWW 24. A psychologist thinks that he has come up with a new and improved intelligence test. He gives the test to some subjects several times and finds that there is a lot of fluctuation in how well a person scores. The fluctuation seems indicate that the new test lacks: a. measurement. b. validity. c. integrity. d. precision.

ANS: B PTS: 1 REF: Creating Testable Research Hypotheses and the Problem of Measurement 25. If a measure is accurate, it is said to be: a. consistent. b. valid. c. precise. d. reliable.

ANS: B PTS: 1 REF: Creating Testable Research Hypotheses and the Problem of Measurement 26. A measure can be: a. accurate but not valid. b. reliable but not valid. c. consistent but not reliable. d. valid but not accurate.

ANS: B PTS: 1 REF: Creating Testable Research Hypotheses and the Problem of Measurement

52

CHAPTER 3

27. The clock on the classroom wall is exactly one hour off. You would conclude that the clock is: a. not reliable and not valid. b. reliable but not valid. c. not reliable but valid. d. reliable and valid.

ANS: B PTS: 1 REF: Creating Testable Research Hypotheses and the Problem of Measurement 28. As the a researcher sets up an hypothesis, it often takes the form of a(n): a. quote. b. greater than less than statement. c. if then statement. d. theory.

ANS: C PTS: 1 REF: Creating Testable Research Hypotheses and the Problem of Measurement 29. Professor James uses a system that requires a subject to press a button as soon as they see a light blink. He is measuring their reaction time. Unfortunately, his equipment is not working properly and every reaction time recorded randomly fluctuates by plus or minus 10%. You would conclude that the readings obtained with the equipment are: a. not reliable and not valid. b. reliable but not valid. c. not reliable but valid. d. reliable and valid.

ANS: A PTS: 1 REF: Creating Testable Research Hypotheses and the Problem of Measurement MSC: WWW 30. Which of the following is the best formulated hypothesis? a. A psychologist wonders if caffeine affects attention. b. Does caffeine affect attention? c. If caffeine is ingested, attention will be enhanced. d. Caffeine and attention: a relationship?

ANS: C PTS: 1 REF: Creating Testable Research Hypotheses and the Problem of Measurement 31. What do the stories of Jude Cassidy, Lance Shotland, Nora Newcombe, and Jeffrey Parker say about science? a. Construct validity is difficult to achieve. b. Wallas' stage of scientific process does not always conform to reality. c. It is difficult to formulate testable hypotheses. d. Ideas for research can come from a variety of sources.

ANS: D

PTS: 1

REF: Ideas Come From Everywhere

DEVELOPING THE HYPOTHESIS

53

32. You hear one of your classmates say, "Scientists can't use their own experiences in the scientific method. They have to be objective!" What is your reasoned reaction to this statement? a. The classmate is wrong since scientists often use their own experiences to create hypotheses. b. The classmate is wrong since science never attempts to be objective. c. The classmate is correct since personal experiences are always subjective. d. The classmate is right. One's own experiences are always seen from a particular point of view.

ANS: A

PTS: 1

REF: Ideas Come From Everywhere

33. Scientists get their research ideas from: a. reading the work of others. b. talking about their ideas with colleagues. c. prior experience. d. all of these ANS: D MSC: WWW

PTS: 1

REF: Ideas Come From Everywhere

34. The famous scientist, ____, often experienced ideas that just popped into his consciousness. a. Albert Einstein b. Graham Wallas c. Karl Popper d. Thomas Kuhn ANS: A

PTS: 1

REF: Intuition and Revelation

35. Wallas found that one of the things that scientists do to solve problems is to learn all they can about a problem and to examine it from varied perspectives. This stage of scientific problem-solving is called: a. preparation. b. incubation. c. illumination. d. verification.

ANS: A

PTS: 1

REF: The Scientist's Guide to Having an Idea

36. You've recently become interested in dreaming and have read many articles about it. In which of the following stages are you most likely to be in? a. illumination b. induction c. incubation d. preparation ANS: D

54

PTS: 1

REF: The Scientist's Guide to Having an Idea

CHAPTER 3

37. Which of the following is not one of Wallas' four stages of scientific problem solving? a. illumination b. induction c. incubation d. verification ANS: B

PTS: 1

REF: The Scientist's Guide to Having an Idea

38. Which of the following statements is false according to Wallas' four-stage theory of scientific problem-solving? a. Ideas may pop into your mind even though you have never thought about the problem before. b. Ideas may come to you suddenly as if from nowhere. c. Insights are usually preceded by extensive study of a topic. d. Ideas may not take years to develop.

ANS: A MSC: WWW

PTS: 1

REF: The Scientist's Guide to Having an Idea

39. According to Wallas, the solution to a problem begins to come into consciousness during: a. preparation. b. illumination. c. incubation. d. verification.

ANS: B

PTS: 1

REF: The Scientist's Guide to Having an Idea

40. The stage in Wallas' four-stage model that is associated with testing of the hypothesis is called: a. incubation. b. induction. c. verification. d. revelation.

ANS: C

PTS: 1

REF: The Scientist's Guide to Having an Idea

41. Professor Barrios is currently testing a hypothesis regarding psychotherapy. He is in Wallas' stage of: a. verification. b. incubation. c. induction. d. validation.

ANS: A MSC: WWW

PTS: 1

REF: The Scientist's Guide to Having an Idea

DEVELOPING THE HYPOTHESIS

55

42. If you wanted to find relevant research of the past five years on the effects of nicotine on motor performance, which of the following would be the best source? a. Index Medicus b. Journal of Developmental Psychology c. PsycINFO d. the website of Harvard's Department of Psychology ANS: C

PTS: 1

REF: Tools for Library Research

43. When searching in PsycINFO, it is best to use search terms that are: a. general b. popular c. specific d. none of these ANS: C PTS: 1 TOP: Tools for Library Research

REF: Tools for Library Research

44. Information about psychological research may be found in: a. Psychological Abstracts. b. World Wide Web. c. PsycINFO d. all of these ANS: D PTS: 1 TOP: Tools for Library Research

REF: Tools for Library Research

45. A researcher is interested in flashbulb memory research. If using PsycINFO, it might be useful to use the following search term: a. memory. b. flashbulb. c. types of memory. d. flashbulb memory.

ANS: D MSC: WWW

PTS: 1

REF: Tools for Library Research

SHORT ANSWER 1. How and why does the scientist convert private ideas into specific behaviors?

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

56

REF: Making Our Hypotheses Concrete

CHAPTER 3

2. Describe the rationale of having multiple measures of the dependent variable.

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

REF: Making Our Hypotheses Concrete

3. Discuss the relation between operational definitions and construct validity.

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

REF: Making Our Hypotheses Concrete

4. Discuss the relation between different kinds of hypotheses and inductive and deductive reasoning.

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

REF: Making Our Hypotheses Logical

5. Discuss why research described as "theory driven" is based on deductive reasoning.

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

REF: Making Our Hypotheses Logical

6. Describe the importance of reliability and validity in measurement.

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1 REF: Creating Testable Research Hypotheses and the Problem of Measurement 7. Outline the steps that should be taken to translate a general research question into a testable research hypothesis.

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

REF: Overview

DEVELOPING THE HYPOTHESIS

57

8. Operationally define the independent and dependent variables in the following hypothesis and restate it in testable form: Practice makes perfect.

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

REF: Making Our Hypotheses Concrete

9. What do the stories of the researcher described in the chapter tell us about the source of ideas in science?

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

REF: Ideas Come From Everywhere

10. Describe the four stages of Wallas' model of scientific problem-solving.

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

REF: The Scientist's Guide to Having an Idea

11. Describe the tools that a scientist has to conduct library research.

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

REF: Tools for Library Research

12. How have electronic resources, such as databases and the Internet, changed how scientists conduct research?

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

58

REF: Tools for Library Research

CHAPTER 3

Chapter 4 – Ethics Chapter Outline Ethical Considerations of Psychological Experimentation The Rights of the Scientist and the Research Participant The Experiment as an Ethical Problem Ingredients of the Initial Scientist–Participant Dialogue Voluntary Participation Informed Consent The Rights of the Research Participant and the Responsibilities of the Experimenter What Is Harmful to a Research Participant?

Ethical Guidelines of the American Psychological Association Institutional Review Board Deception Studies Obedience-to-Authority Research It’s Not a Crime the Way I See It Bypassing the Bypass Debriefing: When Is Enough Enough?

The Participant as Colleague Animals as Subjects Chapter Overview Examining psychological experimentation from an ethics perspective recognizes the role of value judgments. The underlying premise of ethics is avoiding harm to research participants, balanced with the right of a scientist to ask questions and pursue knowledge.

The relationship between ethics and experimentation is unclear and there remains a debate on balancing the rights of the scientists with the rights of the subjects.

An important principle in ethics is that research subjects must give informed consent to participate. Voluntary participation requires that the subjects must be asked by the scientist to be part of the experiment; however, this raises questions about the definition of voluntary. The principle of informed consent requires that subjects be told what will be expected of them in the study and about any potential harm from participating. Problems arising from informed consent include decisions about how much information to give to subjects. Researchers must protect the subject’s right to privacy by practicing confidentiality and anonymity of participants’ data.

The two major sources of guidelines on ethics are the American Psychological Association’s principles and the institutional review board. APA’s principles are not considered laws but are used as guidelines for the researcher who is responsible for the research. Institutional review boards determine if the rights and welfare of subjects are protected.

In some cases, participants are deceived about the true nature and purpose of the study.

Deception raises some ethical questions and there is debate about its appropriateness.

ETHICS

59

Stanley Milgram’s studies on obedience have been criticized on the basis of ethics.

Debriefing and follow-up are two elements that may help to address ethical concerns.

Another controversial area of ethics deals with the use of animals in research. On one side of the issue are several reasons for studying animals. On the other hand, pain and suffering inflicted on animals may be morally indefensible. The APA ethical guidelines and federal regulations also address the care and use of animals in research.

Chapter Objectives 1.

Discuss the balance between the rights of the scientist and the rights of the participant.

2.

What key issues must be addressed in the informed consent?

3.

What is the scientist's responsibility with respect to the participant's right to privacy?

Address the issues of confidentiality and anonymity.

4.

What issues are outlined in the American Psychological Association's ethical guidelines?

5.

What is the purpose of the institutional review board? What questions are likely to be asked by the board?

6.

Are there any possible drawbacks to be considered when using an informed consent?

Discuss this issue in terms of the psychological evidence.

7.

How would you describe a deception study? What are the guidelines according to the American Psychological Association?

8.

Describe Milgram's study on obedience. Why was it controversial?

9.

Explain in detail the process of debriefing.

10. Why is it useful for the scientist to consider the participant as a colleague?

11. How can animals be protected against inhumane treatment in research?

Teaching Points Students at this level tend to view ethical issues as either black or white and they fail to recognize the prevalence of “gray” and murky areas in the sphere of research.

In addition to having principles regarding the ethics in research, the American Psychological Association also has developed guidelines regarding professional conduct in teaching and clinical practice.

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CHAPTER 4

Lead a discussion on the ethics of using control groups in the testing of new treatments.

Specifically, what ethical issue is raised when patients are placed in control groups that offer placebos or less-than-effective treatments, and other patients are given a treatment that may have promise?

The APA first published its ethical code in 1958 and has recently revised the code. The APA takes ethical complaints and violations very seriously and may discipline members when appropriate. From time to time, the APA will publish these cases of ethical violations. It might be instructive to bring one of these notices to class and describe some of the violations. Many of them will involve violations related to clinical practice.

Point out that animals do not volunteer, provide informed consent, and cannot stop participating in a study like humans can. Stress that animals are reliant upon humans to engage in responsible and ethical research. It is therefore not surprising that the paperwork and regulations involved in animal research are often more extensive than when human research is conducted.

Teaching Activities Role playing Have students role play the parts of an experimenter, research participant, and institutional review board for various experimental situations ranging from rather innocuous deception to circumstances in which deception may carry potentially more serious consequences (e.g., Milgram).

Debating ethical issues From an ethics perspective, debate various contentious issues such as:  the end justifies the means  animals don’t have rights  all animal research is unethical  deception is never justified  the rights of science outweigh the rights of subjects Writing a Proposal for Review Take one of the many studies cited in this textbook (or check out some of the links found below) and have students write a proposal that would be suitable for submission to an institutional review board (IRB). More than likely this would also require writing consent forms. You might want to bring to class samples of the forms required by the IRB and some sample informed consents.

Discussion Since animal research is presented in the chapter, it might be interesting to start a discussion regarding the basis of ethics and animals. Perhaps a starting point is the question of whether animals have rights in the same way as people.

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61

What cannot be studied?

Some topics that are potentially interesting to scientists cannot be studied because they would not be ethical. Ask the class to identify some of these topics and seek alternative ways of addressing those problems.

Wadsworth’s Research Methods Workshop http://www.wadsworth.com/psychology_d/templates/student_resources/workshops/resch_ wrk.html A link at the Wadsworth’s Research Methods Workshop site is particularly relevant to information covered in the chapter. The workshop on Ethical Issues begins by giving students an opportunity to recognize for themselves ways in which research can insure the benefits of research. Students are informed of investigator responsibilities, and the importance of assessing risks to participants (including practice with a provided research example). Issues pertaining to the use of deception are briefly reviewed, and students are asked to assert their own opinion on the appropriateness of deception. Students also are provided an opportunity to recognize how to reduce/minimize harm in a research example, as well as to practice in knowing what information to include during the informed consent process. Also presented is a review of the basic elements of consent forms, general privacy issues in research, and how to ethically summarize results.

Internet Resources Ethics in Research (www.nap.edu/readingroom/books/obas) This website, sponsored by the National Academy of Sciences, is a good reference regarding ethics and science from a broad perspective, including professional conduct.

There are several good cases described in some of the links that might be instructive to give to students.

Sample Informed Consent (www.socialpsychology.org/consent.htm) An example of an informed consent is available at this site. The informed consent is unique since the research that it describes is Internet-based.

Instruction on Informed Consent (www.research.umn.edu/consent/orientation.html) This website provides guidance on the informed consent process with examples from research in the fields of Social and Behavioral Sciences as well as Health and Biological Sciences.

Informed Consent Checklist (www.hhs.gov/ohrp/humansubjects/assurance/consentckls.htm) The elements of a typical informed consent are listed at this website. It might be a good idea to bring a copy of an informed consent from your institution and compare to this checklist.

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Ethical Cases (http://kspope.com/ethics/ethics2.php) You will find a number of ethical complaints that require careful thought and an understanding of the APA code.

Web-Based Course (http://phrp.nihtraining.com/users/login.php) This free, web-based course provided by the National Institutes of Health is a useful aid for those who conduct research involving human participants. It focuses on the rights of subjects in all types of human research and contains short quizzes for each section.

Suggested Readings Haney, C., Banks, C. & Zimbardo, P. (1973). Interpersonal dynamics in a simulated prison. International Journal of Criminology and Penology, 1, 69-87.

Holmes, D. S. (1976a). Debriefing after psychological experiments I: Effectiveness of postdeception dehoaxing. American Psychologist, 31, 858-867.

Holmes, D. S. (1976b). Debriefing after psychological experiments II: Effectiveness of postdeception desensitizing. American Psychologist, 31, 868-875.

Humphreys, L. (1970). Tearoom trade. Chicago: Aldine.

Jones, J. H. (1981). Bad blood: The Tuskegee syphilis experiment. New York: Free Press.

McArdle, J. (1984). Psychological experimentation on animals: Not necessary, not valid.

The Humane Society News, 29, 20-22.

Milgram, S. (1974). Obedience to authority. New York: Harper & Row. This classic study stirred the scientific community.

Research Activities for Students The goals of the research activities are to: (1) relate Chapter 4 on an applied learning dimension, and (2) get you involved in research.

1. Debate the Tea Room Trade Study. Humphreys (1970) studied the homosexual encounters of men in public restrooms. In this study he participated as someone who keeps watch for the police or strangers entering the restroom while observing sexual acts.

Though the men were unaware that they were being studied, the investigator asked questions of some of the men and recorded their license plate numbers. With this information he located their names and addresses. He later went to their home residence posing as a health service worker and requested information regarding their family, occupation, and social life.

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Assignment: In your workbook present your position on this study. A reference is provided in the Suggested Readings. Refer to the APA ethical guidelines to support your answer. Address the issues of deception, informed consent, and voluntary participation.

Further discuss the potential risks to the subject. Did the risks outweigh the experimental benefits? Be prepared to debate this issue in class.

Issue

Risks

APA Ethical Principle

Deception Informed Consent Voluntary Participation Discuss Analysis of the Risk/Benefit Ratio Suggestions for changing the study

2. In your workbook write an informed consent on an original research topic or on a published research article of your choice.

INFORMED CONSENT CHECKLIST 1.

Who is the investigator and what is his or her affiliation?

2.

What is the purpose of the research and why is it important?

3.

What are the experimental procedures? How long will they take? What will the participant be expected to do? Where will the experiment take place?

4.

What are the potential risks and/or discomforts? How are these risks managed?

5.

How will the findings of this study benefit the participant and the public?

6.

State the terms of confidentiality and/or anonymity. How will they be managed?

7.

Inform the participant of the right to withdraw at any time without penalty.

8.

If appropriate, state how the participant will be compensated for participation.

9.

Inform the participant of the investigator's willingness to answer any questions.

Provide a contact for the participant to request follow-up information.

10. Provide a place for the signature of the participant and the date.

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3. Animal Subjects in Research. Research groups like the People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals, the Animal Rights Coalition, and the Society Against Vivisection have strongly protested the use of animals in research.

Assignment: (A) Using online references such as PsycINFO and PubMed, locate information about the major concerns of these groups. In you workbook discuss why they have targeted psychological research as being especially abusive towards animals.

(B) Using online references such as PsycINFO and PubMed, find two published psychological articles about studies that utilized animal subjects. Record the references in your workbook. The Journal of Experimental Psychology, the Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, and the Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior may provide you with this information.

Summarize the ethical treatment of animal subjects as described by the research investigator.

4. Stanford Prison Study. Research the “Stanford Prison Study” conducted by Zimbardo in the 1970’s. Summarize the results of this study and cite information regarding Zimbardo’s extensive debriefing procedures. Discuss your views on the ethics of conducting this study. Do you believe that the information gained from this research warranted the potential risks to the participants? Could this type of information be obtained through different means? If so, describe such alternative possibilities.

In addition, respond to Zimbardo’s statement made following the termination of the study: “In less than one week, the experience of imprisonment ended (temporarily) a lifetime of learning; human values were suspended, self-concepts were challenged, and the ugliest, most base, pathological side of human nature surfaced...”

5. Research Misconduct Use online references such as PsycINFO and PubMed to learn more about the prevalence of research misconduct and ethical violations in research. How widespread is it? What agency is ultimately responsible for ethical violations in research?

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TESTBANK MULTIPLE CHOICE 1. According to the chapter, ____ offers us insights into value judgments. a. validity b. ethics c. sampling d. science ANS: B

PTS: 1

REF: Introduction

2. Ethics in psychological experimentation is concerned with judgments of: a. relevance. b. validity. c. belief. d. value.

ANS: D

PTS: 1

REF: Introduction MSC: WWW

3. Applying ethics becomes problematic when considering: a. concrete situations like the scientific experiment. b. theory. c. abstractions. d. hypotheses.

ANS: A

PTS: 1

REF: Introduction

4. From an ethical perspective, the participant-scientist interaction is: a. likely to lead to submission on the part of the participant. b. a relationship between an ordinate and subordinate. c. void of any ethical considerations. d. just like an interaction between two people.

ANS: D

PTS: 1

REF: Introduction

5. The American Psychological Association provides: a. a fixed set of rules that must be followed with respect to ethical decisions in experimentation. b. a fixed set of ethical rules for human experiments but not for animal studies. c. a set of principles or guidelines rather than a set of rules. d. no particular rules of guidelines for experiments in psychology.

ANS: C

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PTS: 1

REF: Introduction

CHAPTER 4

6. The core of ethical principles in research is that: a. a scientist is autonomous and can make value judgments without interference from outside sources. b. the participant's rights are always more important than the scientist's right to know. c. participants should not be harmed. d. the scientist's right to know are always more important than the participant's rights.

ANS: C

PTS: 1

REF: Introduction

7. Who has the primary responsibility for ensuring the ethical treatment of participants in the experimental setting? a. the American Psychological Association b. the researcher c. the Human Subjects' Committee d. the Institutional Review Board ANS: B

PTS: 1

REF: Introduction MSC: WWW

8. The basic premise of ethical considerations in psychological experimentation is: a. not to break the law. b. seek knowledge that improves the quality of life. c. not to harm the subject. d. adequately test the hypothesis.

ANS: C PTS: 1 REF: Ethical Considerations of Psychological Experimentation 9. Ethical considerations take into account: a. the rights of the research participant. b. the rights of the experimenter. c. the responsibilities of the experimenter. d. all of these ANS: D PTS: 1 REF: Ethical Considerations of Psychological Experimentation 10. When judging potential "harm," a researcher should consider: a. physical harm. b. psychological harm. c. harm to the usefulness of the experimental results. d. physical harm and psychological harm.

ANS: D PTS: 1 REF: Ethical Considerations of Psychological Experimentation MSC: WWW

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11. The question of ethics requires science to: a. develop reliable observations. b. test theories. c. look beyond itself. d. ignore the rights of the subject for the sake of knowledge.

ANS: C PTS: 1 REF: The Rights of the Scientist and the Research Participant 12. The ____ is a code of ethics for medical experimentation with human subjects developed after WWII. a. Milgram protocol b. Nuremberg code c. American Medical Association convention d. Genovese protocol ANS: B

PTS: 1

REF: The Experiment as an Ethical Problem

13. According to the chapter, experiments conducted at Nazi concentration camps were unethical because: a. deadly viruses were given to participants. b. they lacked appropriate control conditions. c. no consent was given by participants. d. of the controversial results.

ANS: C

PTS: 1

REF: The Experiment as an Ethical Problem

14. The principle of voluntary participation gives a subject the right to: a. assign themselves to either control or experimental groups. b. gain extra credit if a college student. c. leave an experiment without penalty. d. find out about the results of the study.

ANS: C PTS: 1 REF: Ingredients of the Initial Scientist–Participant Dialogue 15. Which of the following is not an ethical requirement in scientific experimentation? a. Participants must be told about all aspects of the procedure in an experiment. b. Participants must be informed of any potential harm that might arise as a result of their participation in an experiment. c. People’s participation in an experiment is voluntary and they are free to withdraw at any time. d. Scientists must protect the personal identity of research participants.

ANS: A PTS: 1 REF: Ingredients of the Initial Scientist–Participant Dialogue

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MSC: WWW

16. The US Department of Energy found that in 40 years of studies on the effects of radiation, ____ did not occur. a. debriefing b. operational definitions of variables c. voluntary participation d. random assignment ANS: C PTS: 1 REF: Ingredients of the Initial Scientist–Participant Dialogue 17. Naturalistic observation studies on human behavior that is generally considered "private" is unethical because ____ is (are) not obtained. a. voluntary participation. b. informed consent. c. reliable data. d. both voluntary participation and informed consent ANS: D PTS: 1 REF: Ingredients of the Initial Scientist–Participant Dialogue

MSC: WWW

18. If a researcher is telling her subjects about the potential risk of participating in a study, she is illustrating the principle of: a. voluntary participation. b. informed consent. c. debriefing. d. interrater reliability.

ANS: B PTS: 1 REF: Ingredients of the Initial Scientist–Participant Dialogue 19. In order to satisfy ethics, the first task of the scientist is to: a. get informed consent from participants. b. debrief participants. c. debrief other scientists. d. justify deception to potential participants.

ANS: A PTS: 1 REF: Ingredients of the Initial Scientist–Participant Dialogue 20. The thoughts and feelings of a research participant are not made public without consent.

This illustrates: a. external manifestation of debriefing. b. internal manifestation of voluntary participation. c. internal manifestation of the right to privacy. d. external manifestation of the right to privacy.

ANS: C PTS: 1 REF: The Rights of the Research Participant and the Responsibilities of the Experimenter

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21. The principle(s) that require(s) participants' personal identity be kept separate from their data is (are): a. voluntary participation. b. confidentiality. c. anonymity. d. confidentiality and anonymity.

ANS: C PTS: 1 REF: The Rights of the Research Participant and the Responsibilities of the Experimenter 22. The principle(s) that prevent(s) the release of personal data without the consent of participants is (are): a. voluntary participation. b. confidentiality. c. anonymity. d. confidentiality and anonymity.

ANS: B PTS: 1 REF: The Rights of the Research Participant and the Responsibilities of the Experimenter 23. The scientist's rights in an experiment do not include the right to: a. seek knowledge about a problem. b. hold back information from the participant if revealing it would sabotage the outcome. c. expose the research participant to lasting harm if there is no other way to obtain desired information. d. dispense with informed consent in some circumstances.

ANS: C

PTS: 1

REF: What Is Harmful to a Research Participant?

24. Requiring participation in a psychological experiment for course credit is ethical if: a. alternative ways of obtaining course credit are available. b. the participants has the right to withdraw without penalty. c. the participant has given informed consent. d. all of these ANS: D PTS: 1 REF: Ethical Guidelines of the American Psychological Association

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25. The American Psychological Association's principles emphasize that: a. individual subjects need to take active steps to ensure that their rights are protected. b. the scientist has the sole responsibility for the ethical considerations on an experiment. c. subjects give up their basic rights when participating in a psychological study. d. the right of the scientists to acquire knowledge outweighs the rights of research participants.

ANS: B PTS: 1 REF: Ethical Guidelines of the American Psychological Association MSC: WWW 26. Institutional review is required for studies that: a. are deceptive. b. use humans. c. are high risk. d. all of these ANS: D

PTS: 1

REF: Institutional Review Board

27. Institutional review boards are typically made up of people from: a. the institution b. the community c. legal firms d. both the institution and the community ANS: D

PTS: 1

REF: Institutional Review Board

28. The primary purpose of IRB is to: a. check for the proposed study's internal and external validity. b. protect participants' welfare and rights. c. determine the qualifications of the researcher. d. fund research projects.

ANS: B

PTS: 1

REF: Institutional Review Board

29. In a federally funded institution: a. all research with human participants must be evaluated by an Institutional Review Board. b. research that violates APA guidelines must be evaluated by an Institutional Review Board. c. research concerned with psychological issues must be evaluated by an Institutional Review Board. d. all federally funded research must be evaluated by an Institutional Review Board.

ANS: A

PTS: 1

REF: Institutional Review Board

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30. Deception in a study is: a. justified if the potential benefits of the study outweigh the potential harm to the participants. b. justified if there are no alternative procedures available to attain the information. c. justified if there are no alternative procedures available and the potential benefits outweigh the potential harm to the participants. d. never justified.

ANS: C

PTS: 1

REF: Deception Studies

31. Fully informed consent may: a. be more harmful than helpful. b. actually eliminate the phenomenon under study. c. bias participants' behavior. d. all of these ANS: D

PTS: 1

REF: Box 4.2

32. The deception at issue in Milgram's study was to: a. use shocks that were more painful than originally described. b. use "false" participants. c. tell participants that the study was examining learning. d. tell participants that they were to be paid.

ANS: C

PTS: 1

REF: Box 4.2

MSC: WWW

33. In Milgram's obedience-to-authority research, which ethical principle(s) was (were) violated? a. The responsibility of the scientist to debrief participants. b. The right of the participant to be protected from physical or psychological harm. c. The responsibility of the experimenter to conduct follow-up evaluations when research procedures result in undesirable. consequences. d. All of these ANS: B

PTS: 1

REF: Deception Studies

34. In Milgram's obedience-to-authority research, ethical principles were violated even though subjects were not physically harmed. This is because: a. shocks could have been issued by accident. b. subjects were forced to participate. c. psychological harm may have resulted. d. none of these ANS: C

72

PTS: 1

REF: Deception Studies

CHAPTER 4

35. Under the strictest definition of informed consent: a. deception is all right as long as studies are followed by thorough debriefings. b. all research involving deception is unethical. c. it would be impossible to perform placebo studies. d. slight risks to participants need not be disclosed.

ANS: B MSC: WWW

PTS: 1

REF: Deception Studies

36. Part of the APA guidelines suggest that after data are collected: a. all participants should be informed about the nature of the study. b. participants need to be informed about the study only if deception was involved. c. it is best not to talk to participants. d. there is no longer any need to worry about harm to the participants.

ANS: A

PTS: 1

REF: Deception Studies

37. Interpretation of the principle of informed consent is unclear because: a. APA guidelines do not prevent the use of deception. b. APA guidelines do not state how much information must be provided to research participants. c. APA guidelines leave room for more than one interpretation. d. All of these ANS: C

PTS: 1

REF: Deception Studies

38. Debriefing is important because: a. the experimenter can gain information from participants concerning their experience of the experiment. b. it is an opportunity to justify any deception used. c. it helps to ensure that participants leave the laboratory with their self-esteem intact. d. all of these ANS: D

PTS: 1

REF: Deception Studies

39. According to the chapter, a useful metaphor in guiding research ethics is to think of participants as: a. blank slates. b. children in need of protection. c. colleagues. d. encyclopedia full of information waiting to be "read."

ANS: C

PTS: 1

REF: The Participant as Colleague

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40. Animals are used in psychology experiments because: a. it may be unethical or illegal to use humans. b. underlying mechanisms of behavior are similar across species and may be easier to study in animals. c. psychologists are interested in animals for their own sake. d. all of these ANS: D MSC: WWW

PTS: 1

REF: Animals as Subjects

41. The primary ethical issue with regard to animals is: a. whether it is acceptable to involve animals in research that would be unethical with humans. b. whether information obtained from nonhuman animals is applicable to humans. c. whether evolutionary research is of any real value. d. all of these ANS: A

PTS: 1

REF: Animals as Subjects

42. What percentage of psychological research uses animal research? a. less than 10% b. 20% c. 30% d. 50% ANS: A

PTS: 1

REF: Animals as Subjects

43. APA guidelines for the care and use of animals state that: a. animal care should follow current federal, state and local laws. b. only animals that are bred specifically for research purposes should be used. c. painful procedures should not be used under any circumstances. d. all of these ANS: A

PTS: 1

REF: Animals as Subjects

44. APA guidelines for the care and use of animals in research are especially important when one considers that animals: a. do not give informed consent b. do not participate voluntarily c. are sometimes subjects in experiments judged to be unethical for humans d. all of these ANS: D

74

PTS: 1

REF: Animals as Subjects

CHAPTER 4

45. US government guidelines for animal research state that: a. animals may not be subjected to pain under any circumstances. b. animals undergoing surgical procedures must be properly anesthetized. c. only trained psychologists may use animals in research. d. all of these ANS: B

PTS: 1

REF: Box 4.3

MSC: WWW

SHORT ANSWER 1. Describe the shift of perspective when examining the ethics of research in comparison to examining the ecology of an experiment.

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

REF: Introduction

2. What are the rights of the participant in experimentation?

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

REF: The Rights of the Scientist and the Research Participant

3. What are some research questions that are difficult to address because of ethical considerations? Are there any solutions to these dilemmas?

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

REF: The Experiment as an Ethical Problem

4. Defend the practice of offering college students extra credit to participate in psychological research. Next, attack the practice.

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

REF: The Experiment as an Ethical Problem

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5. Discuss the ethical questions that arise from the principles of voluntary participation and informed consent.

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

REF: Ingredients of the Initial Scientist–Participant Dialogue

6. In some situations, the researcher cannot completely tell subjects about all aspects of a study. Defend this practice.

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

REF: Deception Studies

7. What role does the APA play in the ethics of research?

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

REF: Ethical Guidelines of the American Psychological Association

8. When the rights of the experimenter and participant come into conflict, what procedures can be followed to resolve the conflict?

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1 REF: The Rights of the Research Participant and the Responsibilities of the Experimenter 9. Discuss the pros and cons of deception research both from the point of view of the scientist and from the perspective of the research participant.

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1 REF: The Rights of the Research Participant and the Responsibilities of the Experimenter

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10. Make an argument that Milgram's studies on obedience were ethical.

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

REF: Deception Studies

11. Why could the argument be made that animal subjects need even more protection than their human counterparts?

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

REF: Animals as Subjects

12. Discuss the principal ethical and/or moral dilemma with respect to animal research.

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

REF: Animals as Subjects

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Chapter 5 – Description of Behavior Through Numerical Representation Chapter Outline Measurement Scales of Measurement Nominal Measurement Ordinal Measurement Interval Measurement Ratio Measurement Identifying Scales of Measurement Measurement and Statistics Pictorial Descrip t ion of Frequency Information Descrip t ive Statistics Measures of Central Tendency Measures of Variability Pictorial Presentations of Numerical Data Transforming Data Standard Scores Measure of Association Chapter Overview Behavior is described through measurement that exists at four basic levels or scales: nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio. Statistics are used to help us make sense of data. A frequency distribution provides a pictorial representation of frequency information from an experiment. Distributions of scores may take several shapes, such as a bimodal distribution or skewed distribution. Mean, median, and mode are commonly used measures of central tendency. The choice of which one to use depends on the distribution. Variability can be measured by range and standard deviation. Numerical data can be represented in line and bar graphs.

Data can be transformed from one scale to another and to meet statistical assumptions.

Standard scores such as z scores allow comparison of scores to other scores. Association between variables can be depicted in a scatter diagram and with correlation coefficients, which may be positive or negative. Correlation does not show causal relationships between variables, but does have value in prediction.

Chapter Objectives 1.

Measurement theory requires us to ask what two questions when doing research?

2.

Compare and contrast the different scales of measurement.

3.

Cite two ways to display data.

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CHAPTER 5

4.

What three measures of central tendency are discussed in the text and what are their characteristics?

5.

Discuss the concept of variability. Give examples of three different measures of variability and describe their functions.

6.

Why is it common to transform data? Relate transformation of data to the concept of z-scores.

7.

What is correlation? How does it aid us in understanding the relationship between variables?

8.

How would you define a positive correlation? How would you define a negative correlation?

9.

What can you say about the effect of one variable on the other in correlational studies?

10. What information is derived from squaring the correlation coefficient? How does this relate to variability accounted for?

11. Why is it important to assess underlying distribution before calculating correlations?

Teaching Points There are several helpful points to make regarding scales of measurement. First, each subsequent scale builds upon the previous scale. Second, to make reasonable conclusions, one must be sensitive to the use of statistics for a particular scale. Third, use the acronym NOIR, the French word for black, as a cue for the scales of measurement.

The chapter makes the excellent point that “statistics do not know and do not care where your numbers come from.” For instance, you could calculate a mean from nominal level data, but the result would be meaningless. Students might recognize this as an example of “garbage in garbage out.”

Students often do not possess good graphing skills and have difficulty remembering what variables go on which axes. It would be helpful to give them practice at graphing by using one or more of the activities described below.

Remind students that a “0” in a dataset counts in determining the number of scores in calculating the mean.

Many students think too much about the mean (and central tendency in general) and not enough about variability. It is useful to demonstrate both mathematically and graphically that two or more data sets can have identical means but be very different in terms of how dispersed the values are in each set.

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79

Another area of challenge for students is how and why skewed distributions affect the choice of a measure of central tendency, in addition to difficulty with conceptually understanding standardized scores like z-scores.

Students may also get hung up on the words positive and negative. Emphasize that positive correlation does not refer to a good correlation nor does negative correlation refer to a bad correlation.

Teaching Activities Using Students as Subjects This chapter lends itself well to collecting and analyzing and creating distributions of data gotten from your students. Here are some ideas:  construct frequency distributions for height, weight, shoe size, and gender  calculate measures of central tendency and standard deviation for height and shoe size  transform the scores of height in z-scores  construct a scatter diagram with height and shoe size  calculate correlation coefficient between height and shoe size  calculate correlation coefficient between shoe size and number of siblings Dissect a Graph Supply students with a set of graphs and ask them to label and critique every part. It may be best to use a variety of graphs and to even include errors. Include graphs with error bars because students often have trouble interpreting what these indicators of variability mean.

Tables and Graphs in the Popular Media Locate tables and graphs used in the popular media and bring them into class. Let students examine them and formulate conclusions. Next compare the conclusions generated by the students to the conclusions that accompanied the table or graph.

Augment this activity with examples of poorly constructed tables and graphs that are available from the web site described below.

Measures of Central Tendency in the Popular Media As the textbook suggests, we hear about these measures often in the popular media.

Bring in examples of articles and ads that refer to a measure. Suggest that without other information, it is difficult to know if the appropriate measure was used.

Wadsworth’s Statistics Workshop http://www.wadsworth.com/psychology_d/templates/student_resources/workshops/stats_ wrk.html

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The Wadsworth’s Statistics Workshop site contains links to several sections relevant to students after reading the chapter. For example, Scale of Measurement discusses the four levels of measurement of variables in psychological research, their abstract number properties, and the types of statistics that are permitted for each variable. The tutorial ends with a summary and students can test their knowledge in identifying scales of measurement by doing the practice exercises. Another workshop entitled Central Tendency and Variability provides information on how to summarize various kinds of data. Students are led through an example that exercises their skill in calculating measures of central tendency and variability. The workshop segment z Scores elaborates on the value of the z score and provides a step-by-step process of calculating z. Finally, the section on Correlation describes the types of correlations (positive, negative, and zero) and introduces the formula for the Pearson’s correlation coefficient. As with each segment of the workshop site, this segment concludes with a brief quiz.

Internet Resources Measurement theory (ftp://ftp.sas.com/pub/neural/measurement.faq) This site provides additional information on measurement theory, scales of measurement, and transformations.

The Best and Worst of Statistical Graphics (www.math.yorku.ca/SCS/Gallery/) This site has some interesting examples of poorly conceptualized and created attempts at representing data visually.

More resources on statistics (http://www.statsoft.com/textbook/) Elementary statistical concepts are explained concisely and effectively. Of particular interest is the statistical glossary.

Datasets (lib.stat.cmu.edu/datasets) (http://www.umass.edu/statdata/) If you need real data to illustrate statistical concepts, these sites have many datasets from a variety of disciplines. The second site groups the datasets by what statistics would be appropriate to analyze the data.

Statistics links (www.mccombs.utexas.edu/faculty/jonathan.koehler/links/statistics.asp) This site contains many links to interesting articles and activities related to statistics.

Some of the topics addressed by the sites include games, gambling, sports, correlation, and comprehensive statistics sites.

Suggested Readings Huff, D., & Geis, I. (1994). How to lie with statistics. New York: W. W. Norton.

This amusing book is easy reading full of actual examples of statistical misuses.

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81

Research Activities for Students The goals of the research activities are to: (1) relate Chapter 5 on an applied learning dimension, and (2) get you involved in research.

1. Physical Activity and Mood: A Correlational Study. For one week record the information using the following scales: Rate your level of physical activity on the following scale: 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Very physically active Moderately physically active Somewhat physically active Not very physically active Very physically inactive

Rate your level of mood on the following scale: 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Date 1.

Very good mood Relatively good mood Neutral Somewhat of a bad mood Very bad mood Time of day

Physical Activity Rating

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

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Mood Rating

Research Flowchart: Fill in the following information.

A. State your research hypothesis.

B. Operationally define your variables.

C. State measures you controlled or held constant.

D. Graph data on a scatterplot. Label the axes and the graph.

E. Calculate by using the Pearson's correlation coefficient.

F.

Interpret. State the coefficient of determination.

2. Parents, Sex Information, and Risk Taking Behavior: A Correlational Study.

Administer the following survey to at least 15 individuals.

This survey involves information regarding sexual attitudes and behavior. I will be using the information gathered from this survey to gain knowledge about graphing data. No names should be indicated on the survey, and all information will be kept completely confidential. If there are any questions that you do not wish to answer, please feel free to skip to the next question. Thank you for your participation.

What is your gender? Male __________ Female __________ For the following questions please circle your response: 1, 2, 3, 4 or 5.

1. Did your parents discuss sex and its risks with you while you lived at home as an adolescent?

1 Not at all

2

3

4

5 Very much

2. How knowledgeable do you believe you are regarding sexually transmitted diseases, AIDS, and the risks of pregnancy?

1 Not at all

2

3

4

5 Very much

3. How much do you feel the information that your parents shared about sex and its risks has influenced your willingness to engage in safe sexual behaviors (e.g., using condoms)?

1 No influence

2

3

4

5 Significant

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a. State your research hypotheses. b. Organize the data obtained from questions 2 and 3 into a scatterplot. The abscissa should be labeled “Degree of Knowledge” (values 1-5). The ordinate should be labeled “Degree of Influence” (values 1-5). c. Calculate a Pearson product moment correlation coefficient between for the data obtained from questions 1 and 2, questions 1 and 3, and questions 2 and 3. d. Interpret the results by explaining what type of relationships, if any, are supported by the data. Discuss inferences about causation.

3. Misleading with the Average. Entry level salary data was collected on small sample of college graduates who earned degrees in psychology and biology. Find the mean, median, and mode for each group. If you wanted to persuade someone that they should definitely pursue a degree in psychology, which measure of central tendency would you use? If you wanted to emphasize that it really didn’t matter what they majored in, which measure of central tendency would you use?

Entry Level Salaries for Graduates in: Psychology

Biology

$30,000 $36,000 $40,000 $42,000 $149,000

$30,000 $36,000 $40,000 $42,000 $49,000

4. Misleading with Statistics. Use online references such as PsycINFO and PubMed to find articles about how statistics can lie. Explain this effect. Also see the suggested reading list at the end of this chapter.

5. Assess Your Self Esteem. Complete the following questions. Identify each item as either a nominal, ordinal, interval, or ratio number.

Social Security Number _____ Male (01) _____ Female (02) _____ Year of Birth _____ Age _____ Class Standing: Freshman (1) _____ Sophomore (2) _____ Junior (3) _____ Senior (4) _____ Exact time you started this test? ______

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Rosenberg Self Esteem Scale This form asks questions about self esteem. Answer the following questions honestly using the response scale below. There are no right and wrong answers.

1 2 3 4

Strongly agree Agree Disagree Strongly disagree

_____ 1.

I feel that I am a person of worth, at least on an equal basis with others.

_____ 2.

I feel that I have a number of good qualities.

_____ 3.

*All in all, I'm inclined to feel that I am a failure.

_____ 4.

I am able to do things as well as most other people.

_____ 5.

*I feel that I do not have much to be proud of.

_____ 6.

I take a positive attitude toward myself.

_____ 7.

On the whole, I am satisfied with myself.

_____ 8.

*I wish I could have more respect for myself.

_____ 9.

*I certainly feel useless at times.

_____10.

*At times I think I am no good at all. *Reverse score these items

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TESTBANK MULTIPLE CHOICE 1. Numbers can have the properties of identity, magnitude, equal intervals, and absolute zero. These properties refer to: a. scales of measurement. b. measures of central tendency. c. standard scores. d. measures of variation.

ANS: A MSC: WWW

PTS: 1

REF: Scales of Measurement

2. Weight is measured on a(n) ____ scale. a. nominal b. interval c. ratio d. ordinal ANS: C

PTS: 1

REF: Scales of Measurement

3. An IQ score is measured on a(n) ____ scale. a. ratio b. ordinal c. nominal d. interval ANS: D

PTS: 1

REF: Scales of Measurement

4. Classifying patients as highly anxious, moderately anxious, or not at all anxious would be an example of the use of a(n) ____ scale of measurement. a. interval b. ratio c. ordinal d. nominal ANS: C

PTS: 1

REF: Scales of Measurement

5. People's ethnic background would be measured by a(n) ____ scale. a. nominal b. interval c. ordinal d. ratio ANS: A

86

PTS: 1

REF: Scales of Measurement

CHAPTER 5

6. If differences between categories are qualitative rather than quantitative, the measurement scale is: a. ordinal. b. nominal. c. ratio. d. interval.

ANS: B

PTS: 1

REF: Scales of Measurement

7. If a scale has equal intervals between values and a single underlying quantitative dimension, then it is a(n) ____ scale of measurement. a. ordinal. b. nominal. c. ratio. d. interval.

ANS: D MSC: WWW

PTS: 1

REF: Scales of Measurement

8. Unlike the Fahrenheit and Celsius scales, the Kelvin temperature scale's lowest possible value is zero. Hence, the Kelvin scale can be considered to be ____. a. ordinal. b. nominal. c. ratio. d. interval.

ANS: C

PTS: 1

REF: Scales of Measurement

9. If a scale has equal intervals between values, a single underlying quantitative dimension, and an absolute zero, then it is a(n) ____ scale of measurement. a. ordinal. b. nominal. c. ratio. d. interval.

ANS: C

PTS: 1

REF: Scales of Measurement

10. When constructing a distribution of the number of people favoring each of five different political candidates, you should use: a. a frequency polygon. b. a bar graph. c. a line graph. d. either a frequency graph or a bar graph.

ANS: B Information

PTS: 1

REF: Pictorial Description of Frequency

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11. When constructing a distribution of the number of people who obtained each score on a test, you should use: a. a frequency polygon. b. a bar graph. c. a line graph. d. either a frequency polygon or a bar graph.

ANS: D Information MSC: WWW

PTS: 1

REF: Pictorial Description of Frequency

12. When a variable is continuous, it is appropriate to use: a. a frequency polygon. b. a bar graph. c. a line graph. d. either a frequency polygon or a bar graph.

ANS: C Information

PTS: 1

REF: Pictorial Description of Frequency

13. When a frequency distribution is constructed, the ____ appears on the y-axis. a. number of individuals who make each response b. responses of the participants c. independent variable d. dependent variable ANS: A Information

PTS: 1

REF: Pictorial Description of Frequency

14. When a frequency distribution is constructed, the ____ appears on the x-axis. a. number of individuals who make each response b. responses of the participants c. independent variable d. dependent variable ANS: B Information

PTS: 1

REF: Pictorial Description of Frequency

15. If most of the scores in a distribution are clustered near the middle, the distribution is: a. skewed. b. a frequency polygon. c. normal. d. bimodal.

ANS: C Information

88

PTS: 1

REF: Pictorial Description of Frequency

CHAPTER 5

16. If scores in a distribution are clustered towards the left end of the distribution, the distribution is: a. negatively skewed. b. positively skewed. c. not skewed. d. irregularly skewed.

ANS: B Information

PTS: 1

REF: Pictorial Description of Frequency

17. A distribution with two peaks is said to be: a. asymmetrical. b. symmetrical. c. binormal. d. bimodal.

ANS: D Information

PTS: 1

REF: Pictorial Description of Frequency

18. For a group of 60 people--50 men and 10 women--a distribution of weights would likely be: a. normal. b. positively skewed. c. negatively skewed. d. bell-shaped.

ANS: C Information MSC: WWW

PTS: 1

REF: Pictorial Description of Frequency

19. Which of the following is not a measure of central tendency? a. mean b. range c. mode d. median ANS: B

PTS: 1

REF: Descriptive Statistics

20. The middle score in a set of scores is called the: a. mean b. median c. mode d. arithmetic average ANS: B

PTS: 1

REF: Descriptive Statistics

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21. The mean of the scores 3, 6, 7, 8, 1 is: a. 5 b. 5.2 c. 6 d. 7 ANS: A

PTS: 1

REF: Descriptive Statistics

22. The measure of central tendency that takes all the scores in a data set into account is the: a. mean. b. median. c. mode. d. range.

ANS: A

PTS: 1

REF: Descriptive Statistics

23. The most frequently occurring score in a distribution is the: a. median. b. arithmetic average. c. mean. d. mode.

ANS: D

PTS: 1

REF: Descriptive Statistics

24. What is the median of the following scores: 9, 5, 4, 8, 10, 12? a. 6 b. 7 c. 8 d. 9.5 ANS: C

PTS: 1

REF: Descriptive Statistics

25. If you were told that the median of a distribution was greater than the mean, what would that tell you about the shape of the distribution? a. It was negatively skewed. b. It was positively skewed. c. It was normal. d. It would tell you nothing about the shape of the distribution.

ANS: A MSC: WWW

PTS: 1

REF: Descriptive Statistics

26. Under what conditions would the median, mode, and mean be the same value? a. when the distribution is positively skewed b. when the distribution is bimodal c. when the distribution is normal d. when the distribution is negatively skewed ANS: C

90

PTS: 1

REF: Descriptive Statistics

CHAPTER 5

27. Which of the following is not a measure of variability? a. frequency b. range c. variance d. standard deviation ANS: A

PTS: 1

REF: Descriptive Statistics

28. The measure of variability that reflects the difference between the largest and smallest scores in a distribution is the: a. standard deviation. b. sum of squares. c. variance. d. range.

ANS: D

PTS: 1

REF: Descriptive Statistics

29. The average of the squared deviations from the mean is called: a. variance. b. sum of squares. c. range. d. standard deviation.

ANS: A

PTS: 1

REF: Descriptive Statistics

30. If two sets of data have the same mean and the same range, they will also have: a. the same variance. b. the same standard deviation. c. the same sum of squares. d. none of these ANS: D

PTS: 1

REF: Descriptive Statistics

31. If a group of scores are tightly clustered around the mean, they will have a: a. small median. b. small variance. c. small N. d. all of these ANS: B

PTS: 1

REF: Descriptive Statistics

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32. Professor Jones has given a statistics test to her class. After grading the tests she reports to the class that the mean score was a 99 and the standard deviation was 0. The class will be very happy because: a. Only a few students failed the test. b. Most people did moderately well on the test. c. Everyone got a 99. d. Most people scored around 99.

ANS: C MSC: WWW

PTS: 1

REF: Descriptive Statistics

33. SS/N is called the: a. sum of all squares. b. standard deviation. c. variance. d. mean.

ANS: C

PTS: 1

REF: Descriptive Statistics

34. The square root of the variance is called the: a. squared deviation. b. average squared deviation. c. sum of the squared deviations. d. standard deviation.

ANS: D

PTS: 1

REF: Descriptive Statistics

35. When graphing measures of central tendency from experimental data, you place the ____ on the x-axis. a. independent variable b. dependent variable c. measure of the central tendency d. responses of the research participants ANS: A

PTS: 1

REF: Pictorial Presentations of Numerical Data

36. When the independent variable represents a point on a continuum, the pictorial representation of the data should be: a. a bar graph. b. a frequency polygon. c. a line graph. d. either a bar graph or a line graph.

ANS: C

92

PTS: 1

REF: Pictorial Presentations of Numerical Data

CHAPTER 5

37. When the independent variable represents categorical information, the pictorial representation of the data should be: a. a bar graph. b. a line graph. c. a frequency polygon. d. either a line graph or a frequency polygon.

ANS: A

PTS: 1

REF: Pictorial Presentations of Numerical Data

38. What technique can a researcher do to analyze data that is collected on different scales? a. linear transformation b. summing squares c. plotting data on a scatter diagram d. calculating the means ANS: A

PTS: 1

REF: Transforming Data

39. To express a score in terms of its relative position in a distribution, you use: a. the sum of squares. b. the variance. c. a standard score. d. the mean.

ANS: C MSC: WWW

PTS: 1

REF: Standard Scores

40. One reason to use standard scores instead of raw scores is: a. to calculate a correlation coefficient. b. to compare scores from two different distributions. c. to compare the standard deviation and the mean. d. all of these ANS: B

PTS: 1

REF: Standard Scores

41. The distribution of z scores has: a. a mean of 1 and a standard deviation of 2. b. a mean of 0 and a standard deviation of 1. c. a mean of 1 and a standard deviation of 1. d. a mean of 0 and a standard deviation of 1.

ANS: D

PTS: 1

REF: Standard Scores

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42. In a set of scores with a mean of 100 and a standard deviation of 5, what is the z score associated with a raw score of 95? a. 5 b. 5 c. 1 d. 1 ANS: C

PTS: 1

REF: Standard Scores

43. If your z score on a test is 0, your score is: a. the worst in the class. b. average. c. above average. d. below average.

ANS: B

PTS: 1

REF: Standard Scores

44. You have a study partner who says that she has an IQ of 130. Given that the mean IQ is 100 and the standard deviation is 15, what would you conclude about your partner? a. She's pretty smart. b. She's above average in intelligence. c. Her intelligence z score is 2.00. d. All of these.

ANS: D MSC: WWW

PTS: 1

REF: Standard Scores

45. A transformation that allows all scores to be positive with a mean of 50 and a standard deviation of 10 is called a: a. T score. b. z score. c. F score. d. r score.

ANS: A

PTS: 1

REF: Standard Scores

46. The correlation coefficient is a value between: a. 1.0 and +1.0. b. the mean and standard deviation. c. low score and high score. d. .0 and +1.0.

ANS: A

94

PTS: 1

REF: Measure of Association

CHAPTER 5

47. One of the most common correlation coefficients is called: a. range. b. t score. c. Pearson product moment correlation coefficient. d. standard correlation.

ANS: C

PTS: 1

REF: Box 5.1

48. If the correlation between two variables is .80, then: a. low scores on one variable are associated with high scores on the other variable. b. low scores one variable are associated with low scores on the other variable. c. high scores on one variable are associated with high scores on the other variable. d. there is little relation between the two variables.

ANS: A

PTS: 1

REF: Measure of Association

49. When you construct a scatter diagram, the variable that you plot on the y-axis is: a. the independent variable. b. the dependent variable. c. either variable. d. the frequency of response.

ANS: C

PTS: 1

REF: Measure of Association

50. The appropriate graph for a correlation is a: a. frequency polygon. b. scatter diagram. c. line graph. d. bar graph.

ANS: B

PTS: 1

REF: Measure of Association

51. A scatter diagram that contains data points which are tightly clustered on a path that goes from the bottom left to the upper right is likely to depict a ____ correlation. a. weak negative b. strong positive c. weak positive d. strong negative ANS: B

PTS: 1

REF: Measure of Association

52. If the correlation between age and memory is .30, how much of the variance in memory is accounted for by age? a. .09% b. .9% c. 9% d. 90% ANS: C

PTS: 1

REF: Measure of Association

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53. If two variables are not related in any way, the coefficient of correlation must be: a. 1 b. 1 c. 0 d. .5 ANS: C MSC: WWW

PTS: 1

REF: Measure of Association

54. If the correlation between practice and performance accuracy is .80, how much of the variance in performance is not accounted for by practice? a. 6.4% b. 20% c. 36% d. 64% ANS: C

PTS: 1

REF: Measure of Association

55. To determine the amount of variance in one measure due to the other measure you would calculate: a. sum of squares. b. z2  100/SD. c. r2  100. d. z-score.

ANS: C PTS: 1 TOP: Measure of Association

REF: Measure of Association

56. The statistical technique used to predict one variable from another is called: a. a t-test. b. transformation. c. a z-test. d. regression.

ANS: D

PTS: 1

REF: Measure of Association

57. In a particular college class, most students are around 20 years of age. But there is a retired third-grader teacher in that class and she is 73 years old. Her age lies outside the normal pattern and would be consider to be a(n): a. z-score. b. outlier. c. mean. d. variable.

ANS: B

PTS: 1

REF: Measure of Association

58. For a correlation to be meaningful, the relation between the two variables should be: a. curvilinear.

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b. linear. c. >1. d. positive.

ANS: B MSC: WWW

PTS: 1

REF: Measure of Association

SHORT ANSWER 1. Contrast the four scales of measurement.

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

REF: Scales of Measurement

2. What does it mean to say, "statistics do not know and do not care where numbers come from"?

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

REF: Measurement and Statistics

3. Draw and describe a bimodal distribution, positively skewed distribution, and negatively skewed distribution.

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

REF: Pictorial Description of Frequency Information

4. What is the most commonly used measure of central tendency? Under what conditions is it inappropriate to use this measure? Why? ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

REF: Descriptive Statistics

5. Why is the variance a preferred measure of variability to the range?

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

REF: Descriptive Statistics DESCRIPTION OF BEHAVIOR THROUGH NUMERICAL REPRESENTATION

97

6. Show how two distributions with the same mean can have different measures of variability. In which of the two distributions is the mean a "better" descriptor? Why? ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

REF: Descriptive Statistics

7. Describe why it might be appropriate to transform data.

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

REF: Transforming Data

8. Graph the following results of an experiment: Mean weight loss for individuals on Diet A was 20 lbs., on Diet B was 30 lbs., and on Diet C was 40 lbs.

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

REF: Pictorial Presentations of Numerical Data

9. How will the shape of a frequency distribution change as variability changes?

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

REF: Pictorial Presentations of Numerical Data

10. What advantage do standard scores give a researcher?

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

REF: Standard Scores

11. Suppose that you were told that the mean score on this test was 72 with a standard deviation of 4 and that your z-score was .5. What was your actual score on this test?

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

98

REF: Measure of Association

CHAPTER 5

12. Suppose the correlation between depression and memory loss was .50. Draw a rough scatter diagram of this relation. How would you interpret this correlation? How much of the variance in memory may be accounted for by depression? How much is accounted for by something other than depression?

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

REF: Measure of Association

13. Why would a researcher select regression to analyze data?

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

REF: Measure of Association

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Chapter 6 - Inferential Statistics: Making Statistical Decisions Chapter Outline Probability The Normal Distribution Hypothesis Testing Example of Inferential Statistics: The T Test Analysis of Variance Chapter Overview Inferential statistics are used to make judgments about a population based on a sample selected from it. Underlying inferential statistics is probability. Probability is measured by assuming that a particular study was run many times and estimating the outcomes.

Statistics are stated in the context of probability estimates.

A normal distribution has several mathematical properties important to inferential statistics. The Central Limit Theorem underlies inferential statistics and says that the mean from random samples would tend to be normally distributed. Moreover, the standard deviation of all the samples would be the standard error of the mean.

Probability statements can be made regarding the area on the normal distribution in which a mean could be found.

The null hypothesis states that the population mean is the same as the sample mean. By rejecting the null hypothesis, a conditional statement is made about the probability that this could have happened by chance. The t-test is an inferential statistic that determines whether two groups are different from each other or come from the same population.

Chapter Objectives 1.

How are inferential statistics used in research?

2.

How are samples useful in understanding the characteristics of a given population?

3.

How are probability statements used in statistical research results? What is meant by "chance alone?"

4.

Relate the "gamblers' fallacy" to the idea of independent outcomes.

5.

What is the rule for determining the probability of two independent events?

6.

What is a normal distribution? Describe its characteristics. How does it provide us with a mathematical model that we can use to interpret statistical events?

7.

How do you calculate and interpret the standard deviation?

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8.

What is the null hypothesis? What is meant by rejecting the null hypothesis?

9.

What parameters are important to consider in statistical hypothesis testing?

10. How can we use sample variance to estimate population variance?

11. Degrees of freedom refer to what?

Teaching Points Illustrate the principles of sampling and statistical inferences by using the analogy of a blood test. In order to test your blood for virus or antibodies, a specimen or sample is selected; a test of all of your blood is not necessary. On the basis of that sampling, a judgment is made concerning the existence of a substance in all of the blood in your body. Discuss the inferential nature of this example and the degree of uncertainty associated with it. For instance, in testing there is always a chance of false positives and false negatives.

Guide a discussion on the gambler’s fallacy. Ask your students to consider the lottery.

Person A has selected the computer pick to generate numbers for her ticket. Person B has selected numbers based on the birthdays of his children. Who is more likely to win?

There are people who keep track of the winning lottery numbers thinking that the numbers selected last week have an effect on the numbers picked this week.

It is a good idea to reinforce how the sample means approximate a normal distribution and that the standard deviations of these samples is called the standard error of the mean.

When first learning about the normal curve students tend to think of it as something that was invented. Initiate a discussion about normal distributions that helps students understand that many naturally occurring distributions in daily life are normally distributed.

Is there such a thing as scientific proof? Students will often assume that science goes about proving hypotheses. Point out to students that in the language of hypothesis testing, failing to reject null hypotheses does not mean that we accept it. Even when the null hypothesis is rejected, it is rejected at a particular probability level, which leaves room that we’ve committed an error in doing so.

Some students will have difficulty understanding how two different numbers (e.g., sample means) may actually represent the same thing (i.e., population mean) and therefore, are not significantly different.

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Teaching Activities False Positives/False Negative In this particular activity, students are asked to search the web for statistics regarding false positives and false negatives in psychological and medical testing (e.g., HIV testing).

Using Students as Subjects In the previous chapter, students calculated a number of descriptive statistics on several variables (e.g., height, weight, shoe size). Consider these to be population parameters.

For this chapter, select several random samples of size n from the class and determine the means for these samples. Point out to students that the means will not be the same as the population mean but that they are clustered around the population mean. Show the relationship between varying sample sizes and the standard error. Challenge students to predict how the sample mean will approximate the population mean as the sample size increases. Students should use Handout 6-1. Any sample drawn from this population (i.e., your class) will have a mean that falls within all possible sample means. Present several different sample means obtained from unknown populations. Have students make inferences concerning whether the sample was selected from their class or from a different population. Discuss in terms of rejecting or failing to reject the null hypothesis.

Emphasize that for each inference, there is always some probability of error and the question how much risk are we willing to take to assert that the difference is statistically significant.

Provide students with statistical statements from real psychology journal articles. Ask students to interpret the statements and indicate how likely the results would have occurred by chance alone.

Wadsworth’s Statistics Workshop http://www.wadsworth.com/psychology_d/templates/student_resources/workshops/stats_ wrk.html There are four sections of the Wadsworth’s Statistics Workshop that are particularly relevant to further review the material from Chapter 6. A segment entitled Sampling Distribution not only discusses the process of how to obtain a sampling distribution, but also provides an interactive exercise on how to use sampling distribution in hypothesis testing. Another link at the site entitled Central Limit Theorem elaborates on the important properties of the theorem (random sampling, increasing sample size, and population distribution). Students also are given practice on the different components of the central limit theorem. The workshop segment called Independent Versus Repeated t Tests answers the question, “When are two group means really different?” with a discussion on how the t test works. Finally, in the section One-Way ANOVA, students learn when to use ANOVA over t-tests. An interactive exercise guides students in the method of calculating the F-ratio and Type 1 error is also explained. As with each segment of the workshop site, this segment concludes with a brief quiz.

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Internet Resources Web Site for Statistical Computation (faculty.vassar.edu/lowry/VassarStats.html) Richard Lowry has put together an impressive web site that allows the user to make webbased statistical calculations. You will find a statistical table calculator, nonparametric calculators, and other basic statistical calculators.

Be An Actuary (www.beanactuary.org) An interesting application, actuarial science, estimates the probability of all sorts of outcomes. It is an effective illustration of real-world use of probability and statistics and was recently rated the second best job and among the highest paying in the United States.

Datasets (lib.stat.cmu.edu/datasets) (http://www.umass.edu/statdata/ ) If you need real data to illustrate statistical concepts, these sites have many datasets from a variety of disciplines. The second site groups the datasets by what statistics would be appropriate to analyze the data.

Rozenboom (psychclassics.yorku.ca/Rozeboom) You can read Rozeboom’s critique of the inappropriateness of null-hypothesis significance test as a method of inference.

Hyperstat Online (http://davidmlane.com/hyperstat/index.html) A good resource for that addresses most areas of statistics. The site includes instructional demos, statistical analysis tools, and exercises.

Suggested Readings Rubin, J. Z., Provenzano, F. J., & Luria, Z. (1974). The eye of the beholder: Parents’ views on sex of newborns. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 44, 512-519.

This study suggests that sex-typing and sex-role socialization begins at birth.

Zelezny, L. C. (1999). Effectiveness of environmental interventions to improve proenvironmental behavior: A meta-analysis. Journal of Environmental Education, 32, 5-14.

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Research Activities for Students The goals of the research activities are to: (1) relate Chapter 6 on an applied learning dimension, and (2) get you involved in research.

1. Sports Psychology Research: Improving Athletic Performance with Mental Imagery.

As a sports psychologist, you are interested in the effects of mental imagery on swimming performance. Test if vivid mental imagery improves athletic performance.

Design a two-group study to test this research question. Address the following: a. What are the null and alternative hypotheses? b. What is the independent variable? c. What is the dependent variable? d. What scale of measurement is your dependent variable? e. What type of statistic will you use? f. Where will you get your sample? g. How will subjects be assigned to groups?

2. Cutting Edge Statistical Tests. Use online references such as PsycINFO and PubMed to find out what a meta-analysis is. Explain how this technique differs from the statistical tests mentioned in your text. See Zelezny (1998) on the suggested reading list at the end of this chapter for a clear example of a meta-analysis.

3. Sex-typing of Infants Research: Analysis Using t-test for Independent Samples.

Design a study to investigate sex-typing, which research shows begins at birth. Select twenty subjects to participate in your study. Randomly assign ten subjects to each group.

Group 1 will rate a picture of a baby with a female name, Serena. Group 2 will rate a picture of a baby with a male name, Stephen. Ask your subjects to rate the baby on the given adjectives with respect to the accompanying rating scales. Collect your data. To score the responses, simply total the chosen values corresponding to each item. A high cumulative total would indicate a very positive rating of the baby on the given characteristics. A low cumulative total would indicate a very negative rating of the baby on the given characteristics.

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We are student investigators in a college level experimental psychology course. We are learning how to design and perform experiments. As an assignment we are investigating nonverbal cues. Please rate this baby on the following characteristics, using your best intuition in making your decision. We are most interested in your first impression.

Thank you for your participation.

[INSERT YOUR BABY PICTURE HERE]

Description: Date of Birth: August 25 Place of Birth: Sacramento, California Age: 6 months old Gender: Female Name: Serena

QUESTION: In your own words, how would you describe this baby to your friends or relatives?

Descriptive Comments.

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105

RATING SCALES (1) Strongly disagree (2) Disagree (3) Neutral (4) Agree (5) Strongly agree

1.

Healthy

1

2

3

4

5

2.

Strong

1

2

3

4

5

3.

Coordinated

1

2

3

4

5

4.

Active

1

2

3

4

5

5.

Intelligent

1

2

3

4

5

6.

Independent

1

2

3

4

5

7.

Good

1

2

3

4

5

8.

Attractive

1

2

3

4

5

9.

Outgoing

1

2

3

4

5

10. Friendly

1

2

3

4

5

11. Attentive

1

2

3

4

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We are student investigators in a college level experimental psychology course. We are learning how to design and perform experiments. As an assignment we are investigating nonverbal cues. Please rate this baby on the following characteristics, using your best intuition in making your decision. We are most interested in your first impression. Thank you for your participation.

[Insert Your Baby Picture Here]

Description: Date of Birth: August 25 Place of Birth: Sacramento, California Age: 6 months old Gender: Male Name: Stephen

QUESTION: In your own words, how would you describe this baby to your friends or relatives?

Descriptive Comments.

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RATING SCALES

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A. Design a Step by Step Flow Chart Comparing Two Independent Groups. Using the sex stereotyping research question, design a flowchart that describes the research design comparing two independent groups in a step by step process.

Address the following issues: (a) sample selection, (b) assignment into groups, (c) manipulated variable, (d) control, (e) statistical tests, (f) conclusion, (f) possible limitations or threats to internal validity.

B. Write a Research Abstract. Based on the sex stereotyping study you conducted, write an abstract. State your research questions. How many subjects were used in your study? How did you acquire your sample? How would you describe your sample based on gender, age, educational status, and ethnicity? Identify the independent and dependent variables. Discuss the details of the procedure.

Analyze the data using t-tests for independent groups. Show your work in your workbook. Report your t-test results. Did you reject the null hypothesis? What are your conclusions? What possible confounds may threaten the study's internal validity? Be prepared to discuss your research in class.

4. Mozart and Baby IQ. Identify Threats to Validity. In your work book analyze the following research scenario. Identify and discuss (a) the research hypothesis, (b) the independent and dependent variables, (c) threats to internal validity, and (d) other limitations.

Investigators wanted to see if early exposure to an intellectually stimulating environment would produce a child with a higher IQ. Couples with newborns were asked to volunteer.

The age of newborn participants was between 0 and 6 weeks. All parents were required to be college graduates. Twenty-four couples volunteered to participate with their newborns for one year. The parents and their newborns were assigned to conditions based on their preference.

Condition 1 required that Mozart be played around the clock in the baby's presence (including sleeping states). Noise levels were held constant. Further, the baby would be drilled with flash cards every day. Twelve babies and their parents participated in this condition.

Condition 2 required that the baby have no exposure to Mozart and was not to be exposed to flash card drills. Twelve babies and their parents participated in this condition.

At the end of the year, a licensed child psychologist assessed the IQ of all participating children. a. Research Hypothesis: b. Independent and Dependent Variables: c. Threats to Internal Validity: d. Other Limitations:

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Handout 6-1 Sampling Distributions A professor wants to analyze the final exam scores in her class. Here are the scores: 90, 78, 90, 87, 56, 89, 71, 89, 92, 73, 77, 83, 88, 60, 98, 75, 93, 83, 85, 92, 61, 100, 65 Calculate the population mean and standard deviation of the above dataset. Next complete the worksheet. Select samples randomly with the indicated sample sizes, then calculate the mean and standard deviation of each sample. For several samples, select two different samples of the same size. Describe what happens as the sample size increases with regard to population and sample means.

Samples and sample sizes

Sample mean

Sample 1 (n=1) Sample 2a (n=5)

Sample 2b (n=5)

Sample 3 (n=10) Sample 4a (n=15)

Sample 4a (n=15)

Sample 5 (n=20) Sample 6 (n=22)

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Sample standard deviation

TESTBANK MULTIPLE CHOICE 1. Using inferential statistics, we can learn about the population by studying: a. reliability of the null hypothesis. b. Type I errors. c. the sample. d. confounds.

ANS: C

PTS: 1

REF: Introduction MSC: WWW

2. Inferential statistics allow us to: a. infer from a population the characteristics of a sample. b. infer from a sample the characteristics of a population. c. infer that a sample is random. d. describe the statistical properties of a sample.

ANS: B

PTS: 1

REF: Introduction

3. Sample is to population as ____ is to ____. a. statistic; parameter b. inductive; deduction c. parameter; variance d. Type I; Type II ANS: A

PTS: 1

REF: Introduction

4. If an experimental report states that results are significant p<.05, this means that if the experiment was repeated you would expect: a. to obtain the same result less than 5 times in 100. b. the result to occur by chance less than 95 times in 100. c. the result to occur by chance less than 5 times in 100. d. to obtain the same result more than 55 times.

ANS: C

PTS: 1

REF: Probability

MSC: WWW

5. Which of the following p levels gives you the most confidence regarding the outcome of a study? a. p<.10 b. p<.05 c. p<.01 d. p<.001 ANS: D

PTS: 1

REF: Probability

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6. Which of the following p values gives you the least confidence regarding the outcome of a study? a. p<.10 b. p<.05 c. p<.01 d. p<.001 ANS: A

PTS: 1

REF: Probability

7. If your results were significant at p<.001: a. the probability that the results occurred by chance is less than 1 in 1000. b. the probability of being correct is less than 1 in 1000. c. the probability that the experimental manipulation worked is less than 1 in 1000. d. none of these ANS: A

PTS: 1

REF: Probability

8. If you commit the gambler's fallacy in games of chance, then you fail to appreciate the fact that: a. each outcome is independent of previous outcomes. b. each outcome is dependent on previous outcomes. c. outcome probabilities change from trial to trial. d. each outcome is conditional on a prior outcome.

ANS: A

PTS: 1

REF: Probability

MSC: WWW

9. Jason flips a coin one hundred times, and it comes up heads every time. Jason predicts that the next flip of the coin is highly likely to yield tails because that outcome is long overdue. Jason is: a. not taking into account independent events. b. affected by the gambler's fallacy. c. not aware of how probability works. d. all of these ANS: D

PTS: 1

REF: Probability

10. If the probability of an event occurring is .70, then the probability of the event not occurring is: a. 1.00 b. .70 c. .50 d. .30 ANS: D

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REF: Probability

CHAPTER 6

11. The probability of obtaining three consecutive heads on three tosses of a coin is: a. 1.50 b. .50 c. .25 d. .125 ANS: D

PTS: 1

REF: Probability

12. The probability of obtaining one head and then followed by one tail on two tosses of a coin is: a. .25 b. .50 c. .75 d. 1.00 ANS: A

PTS: 1

REF: Probability

13. The probability of obtaining either a head or a tail on any coin toss is: a. 1.00 b. .75 c. .50 d. .25 ANS: A

PTS: 1

REF: Probability

14. The probability of obtaining two heads and one tail (in any order) in three tosses of a coin is: a. .125 b. .375 c. .50 d. 1.50 ANS: B

PTS: 1

REF: Probability

15. The probability of dealing a spade from a fair deck of cards is: a. .125 b. .25 c. .50 d. 1.50 ANS: B

PTS: 1

REF: Probability

16. The probability of dealing a spade or a heart from a fair deck of cards is: a. .125 b. .25 c. .50 d. 1.50 ANS: C

PTS: 1

REF: Probability

MSC: WWW

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NARRBEGIN: Scenario 6-1 Scenario 6-1 Your class consists of 50 students, 20 male and 30 female. Forty of the students are psychology majors and ten are sociology majors. You select one student at random from the class.

NARREND 17. Refer to Scenario 6-1. What is the probability that the student is a psychology major? a. .40 b. .50 c. .80 d. .95 ANS: C

PTS: 1

REF: Probability

18. Refer to Scenario 6-1. What is the probability that the student is either a psychology major or sociology major? a. .10 b. .40 c. .80 d. 1.00 ANS: D

PTS: 1

REF: Probability

19. Refer to Scenario 6-1. What is the probability that the student is male? a. .20 b. .30 c. .40 d. .50 ANS: C

PTS: 1

REF: Probability

20. Refer to Scenario 6-1. What is the probability that the student is a sociology major? a. .20 b. .30 c. .40 d. .50 ANS: A

PTS: 1

REF: Probability

21. The additive rule of probability is: a. probability (A or B) = probability (A) + probability (B)/AB. b. probability (A or B) = (probability (A) + probability (B))/2. c. probability (A or B) = probability (A)  probability (B). d. probability (A or B) = probability (A) + probability (B).

ANS: D

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REF: Probability

CHAPTER 6

MSC: WWW

22. If lines are drawn from the points of inflection of the normal curve perpendicular to the xaxis, the x-axis would be divided into segments equal to: a. .05. b. the variance. c. the standard deviation. d. the confidence interval.

ANS: C

PTS: 1

REF: The Normal Distribution

23. In the normal distribution, the percentage of scores that fall within one standard deviation of the mean is approximately: a. 34% b. 50% c. 68% d. 95% ANS: C

PTS: 1

REF: The Normal Distribution

24. In the normal distribution, the percentage of scores than fall within two standard deviations of the mean is approximately: a. 34% b. 50% c. 68% d. 95% ANS: D

PTS: 1

REF: The Normal Distribution

25. Suppose that height is a normally distributed variable with mean of 66 inches and a standard deviation of 3 inches. If you select a person at random from the population, what is the probability that the person is between 60 and 72 inches tall? a. .34 b. .475 c. .68 d. .95 ANS: D

PTS: 1

REF: The Normal Distribution

26. Suppose that height is a normally distributed variable with mean of 66 inches and a standard deviation of 3 inches. About what percentage of people would have a height between 66 and 72 inches? a. 48% b. 68% c. 75% d. 95% ANS: A

PTS: 1

REF: The Normal Distribution

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27. Suppose that height is a normally distributed variable with mean of 66 inches and a standard deviation of 3 inches. You are 72 inches tall. How many standard deviations are you above the mean? a. impossible to tell without more information b. 1 c. 2 d. 3 ANS: C MSC: WWW

PTS: 1

REF: The Normal Distribution

28. Jane has scored 132 on an IQ test. The mean of all the people who took the same test is 100 and the standard deviation is 16. What percentage of people scored below Jane? a. 15% b. 34% c. 95% d. 97.5% ANS: D

PTS: 1

REF: The Normal Distribution

29. The Central Limit theorem states that: a. if many samples are drawn randomly from a population, their means tend to be normally distributed. b. the means of large samples will be better measures of central tendency than the means of small samples. c. most scores will fall within three standard deviations of the mean. d. the standard error of a distribution is limited by its central tendency.

ANS: A

PTS: 1

REF: The Normal Distribution

30. The standard deviation of the sampling distribution of the means is called the: a. variance. b. standard score. c. standard error. d. confidence interval.

ANS: C MSC: WWW

PTS: 1

REF: The Normal Distribution

31. If many large samples are drawn from a population and their means plotted, the variability of those means will be ____ than if many small samples are drawn. a. smaller b. larger c. no different d. either larger or no different ANS: A

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REF: The Normal Distribution

CHAPTER 6

32. As the sample size increases, standard error: a. decreases. b. increases. c. stays the same. d. may increase or decrease depending on the size of the population.

ANS: A

PTS: 1

REF: The Normal Distribution

33. The hypothesis that the population mean is the same as the sample mean is called the: a. research hypothesis. b. null hypothesis. c. alternative hypothesis. d. inferential hypothesis.

ANS: B

PTS: 1

REF: Hypothesis Testing

34. In general, the null hypothesis means that: a. subjects were randomly assigned to groups. b. a confounding variable is responsible for differences between subject groups. c. subject groups came from the same population. d. there is a significant difference between subject groups.

ANS: C

PTS: 1

REF: Hypothesis Testing

35. Using inferential statistics, we test hypotheses about: a. the population. b. the sample. c. the relation between the samples. d. all of these ANS: A

PTS: 1

REF: Hypothesis Testing

36. Characteristics of a population are referred to as ____ whereas characteristics of a simple sample are referred to as ____. a. statistics; parameters b. parameters; statistics c. parameters; probabilities d. probabilities; parameters ANS: B

PTS: 1

REF: Hypothesis Testing

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37. To compare the means of two randomly assigned groups of individuals, the appropriate test is: a. a t-test for dependent groups. b. a t-test for matched scores. c. a t-test for independent groups. d. any one of these ANS: C Test MSC: WWW

PTS: 1

REF: Example of Inferential Statistics: The T

38. We describe characteristics of a sample by using italicized ____ letters and characteristics of a population by using ____ letters. a. Greek; English b. Roman; English c. Roman; Greek d. Greek; Roman ANS: C Test

PTS: 1

REF: Example of Inferential Statistics: The T

39. Which of the following is incorrect? a. population mean   b. sample mean  X c. sample standard deviation  SD d. population standard deviation   ANS: C Test

PTS: 1

REF: Example of Inferential Statistics: The T

40. When using inferential statistics to estimate the population variance, you divide the sum of the squares by: a. N b. N+1 c. square root of N d. N1 ANS: D Test MSC: WWW

118

PTS: 1

REF: Example of Inferential Statistics: The T

CHAPTER 6

41. What term refers to the number of scores that are free to vary? a. sum of squares b. N c. degrees of freedom d. variance ANS: C Test

PTS: 1

REF: Example of Inferential Statistics: The T

42. The sample standard deviation is symbolized by ____. a. df b.  c. S d. S2 ANS: C Test

PTS: 1

REF: Example of Inferential Statistics: The T

43. One-tailed test is a ____ test, while a two-tailed test is a ____ test. a. unidirectional; bidirectional b. parametric; statistical c. unidirectional; multidirectional d. nominal; ordinal ANS: A Test

PTS: 1

REF: Example of Inferential Statistics: The T

44. If you hypothesized that the experimental group would perform better that the control group, the statistical test is: a. bidirectional. b. one-tailed. c. two-tailed. d. significant.

ANS: B Test

PTS: 1

REF: Example of Inferential Statistics: The T

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45. You read that the results of a t-test was t(12) = 3.98, p >.01. What does this mean? a. The t value is 12, the degrees of freedom is 3.98, and the result would occur by chance fewer than 1 in 100 times. b. The t value is 3.98, the degrees of freedom is 12, and the results would occur by chance fewer than 1 in 100 times. c. The t value is .01, the degrees of freedom is 12, and the results would occur by chance fewer than 3.98 in 100 times. d. The t value is .01, the degrees of freedom is 3.98, and the results would occur by chance fewer than 12 in 100 times.

ANS: B Test

PTS: 1

REF: Example of Inferential Statistics: The T

46. If your study involves more than two groups, ____ would be more appropriate than ____ to reveal differences. a. analysis of variance; t-test b. t-test; analysis of variance c. analysis of variance; r d. r; t-test ANS: A

PTS: 1

REF: Analysis of Variance

47. An analysis of variance is the appropriate test when there are ____ conditions in an experiment. a. two b. three c. four d. three or more ANS: D MSC: WWW

PTS: 1

REF: Analysis of Variance

48. Which of the following best describes the relationship between t-test and analysis of variance? a. t2=r2 b. F= c. t2=p<.001 d. F=t2 ANS: D

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REF: Analysis of Variance

CHAPTER 6

SHORT ANSWER 1. What are inferential statistics and what is being inferred?

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

REF: Introduction

2. What does p < .001 mean and how is it used in t-tests?

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

REF: Probability

3. Discuss the gambler's fallacy in the context of independent events.

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

REF: Probability

4. Describe and draw the characteristics of the normal distribution.

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

REF: The Normal Distribution

5. Discuss the Central Limit Theorem and its use in inferential statistics.

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

REF: The Normal Distribution

6. What is the sampling distribution of the mean? What is its purpose in inferential statistics? How does sample size affect the properties of this distribution?

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

REF: Hypothesis Testing

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7. What is the null hypothesis? What does it mean to reject the null hypothesis? Why and how is this an inferential process?

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

REF: Example of Inferential Statistics: The T Test

8. What does the t-test reveal about sample means?

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

REF: Example of Inferential Statistics: The T Test

9. What are the advantages and disadvantages of using a one-tailed t-test?

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

REF: Example of Inferential Statistics: The T Test

10. Compare and contrast t-tests with analysis of variance.

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1 Variance

REF: Example of Inferential Statistics: The T Test & Analysis of

11. What is meant by statistical significance? Relate this concept to probability theory.

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

REF: Analysis of Variance

12. In a journal article, it was reported that t(16) = 3.42, p < .01. What does this mean?

Explain each of the components of this mathematical statement.

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

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REF: Example of Inferential Statistics: The T Test

CHAPTER 6

Chapter 7 – Testing the Hypothesis: A Conceptual Introduction Chapter Outline The Context of Experimentation: An Example Types of Variation Chance Variation Systematic Variation Due to the Independent Variable Systematic Variation Due to Confounds Statistical Hypothesis Testing Threats to Internal Validity History Maturation Testing Instrumentation Statistical Regression Selection Mortality Selection–Maturation Interaction Diffusion or Imitation of Treatments Conclusion Chapter Overview Interpreting the outcome of an experiment requires making decisions about the source of any variance. These sources may include chance variance, systematic variation due to the independent variable, and systematic variation due to confounds. Each source of variance has implications for the probability of making Type I and Type II errors.

Variance is analyzed using the F ratio, which uses within-groups variance (chance or error variance) and between-groups variance.

There are several threats to internal validity. They include history, maturation, testing, instrumentation, statistical regression, selection, mortality, selection-maturation interaction, and diffusion.

Chapter Objectives 1.

Evaluation of a research hypothesis is a complex process. Identify three important questions you should consider in your evaluation.

2.

What three resources do we use when looking for unknown factors that may be responsible for the experimental outcome?

3.

Why is chance always involved in our sampling and observations of the world?

4.

Why do we never state that the independent variable absolutely caused the effect on the dependent variable?

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5.

Why is it essential that the initial phase of any experiment be a statistical decision process?

6.

What is the role of confounds in the research process?

7.

Why do we try to eliminate sources of uncontrolled variance that operate in a systematic manner?

8.

Why do scientists argue that the heart of experimentation lies in ruling out alternative explanations?

9.

What is the F-ratio? How can it be explained in terms of within-groups variance and between-groups variance? How does this relate to the treatment effect and error variance?

10. What is the relationship between a calculated F-value that is close to 1 and the null hypothesis? What is the general rule regarding the value of the F-ratio and the certainty of differences between groups that are not caused by chance alone?

11. What does it mean to assign a probability to a statement of our findings?

12. What special name do we give our mistakes when rejecting and failing to reject the null hypothesis? Define these errors.

13. What is the essence of power in experimentation?

14. What is effect size and how is it related to Type II errors?

15. Explain the conditions that improve the likelihood of obtaining positive experimental results.

16. What are the three ways that variability can be described in experimentation?

17. Describe the confounds that severely threaten internal validity. How can they be controlled?

Teaching Points A key problem area for students in this chapter is sorting out the different sources of variance and determining how they affect the statistical and logical decision-making process. Part of the problem is due to the difficulty students have with rejecting null hypotheses. They assume that what is rejected must have been “bad” and do not see the rejection of the null hypothesis as a positive experimental goal.

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Threats to validity can be placed into three categories. For instance, single group threat (e.g., history, maturation) can occur if the study includes one group. When there are several groups, multiple group threats (e.g., selection-maturation interaction) to validity can be present. The third type is often referred to as social threats (e.g., diffusion). These exist because research is a social process occurring in a social context.

Developmental psychologists use research designs to test hypotheses regarding change and stability. The cross sectional design examines subjects of different ages at one point in time. However, cohort effects may be responsible for systematic variation due to confounding. Cohort effects makes it difficult to determine if any difference between groups is due to age or to different life experiences of the cohorts. Longitudinal studies follow a group of people over time often for years. Mortality can be a significant problem as subjects drop out or die.

A key point to stress is that ideally a researcher wants to keep all variables constant in all conditions except for the independent variable. A follow-up point is that this is sometimes a difficult task to achieve due to potential confounding variables that sometimes can go undetected.

One of the threats to internal validity is statistical regression. Regression is an explanation for what has become called the Sports Illustrated jinx. Typically, an athlete or a team will appear on the cover of the magazine to mark outstanding performance that represents an “extreme value” in a distribution. Following their accomplishment, the athletes’ performance then drops to what is average performance for them.

Teaching Activities Testing the Hypothesis Select a well-designed published experiment. Describe the method and results to your students. Then, using Handout 7-1, ask your students to describe the elements of the study and to analyze them in the context of the three questions, described in the chapter, to interpret the results. This activity will give them practice in applying this decision making process.

Threats to Internal Validity As the chapter describes, there are several threats to internal validity. Use Handout 7-2 to help students identify those threats as well as to better understand internal validity.

Statistical Regression Use newspaper or data available on the internet to illustrate statistical regression in professional sports. For example, save newspapers from the beginning of the baseball season that contain players’ batting averages. Compare these averages to those published towards the end of the season. It will become clear to students that many, if not all, of the averages from the beginning of the season that were extreme (very high or very low) have drifted towards the mean.

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Wadsworth’s Statistics and Research Methods Workshop http://www.wadsworth.com/psychology_d/templates/student_resources/workshops/index. html In Wadsworth’s Research Methods Workshop, the segment entitled Confounds—Threats to Validity provides students exposure to confounding variables as they relate to validity.

Students can evaluate a potential confound within an example and compare their evaluation to a textbook-driven response. Threats to validity, including experimenter biases, also are discussed.

In Wadsworth’s Statistics Workshop, a section of the site entitled Hypothesis Testing introduces the concept of the null hypothesis and outlines the process of disproving it.

Statistical errors (Type I and Type II) and power (and ways to increase power) are also explained. In the workshop segment called Statistical Power, students are invited to engage in an interactive exercise that re-examines the process of testing hypotheses and the concept of error. Statistical power and the factors that influence it are discussed. As with each segment of the workshop site, this segment concludes with a brief quiz.

Internet Resources Internal Validity (psych.athabascau.ca/html/Validity/frames.html) This effective tutorial might be helpful for students to practice identifying threats to internal validity as they analyze 36 hypothetical experiments.

Quotes (www.cnr.colostate.edu/~anderson/nester.html) In this website you’ll find some interesting quotes regarding hypothesis testing.

Gallery of Statistics Jokes (www.ilstu.edu/~gcramsey/Gallery.html) Stat jokes? That’s what this website presents. References to Sir Ronald Fisher, significance, and other statistical concepts make up these amusing quips.

Logic of Hypothesis Testing (http://davidmlane.com/hyperstat/logic_hypothesis.html) This site includes all the main topics associated with hypothesis testing. There are demos and links to other articles and books that deal with hypothesis testing.

Suggested Readings Huck, S. W., & Sandler, H. M. (1979). Rival hypotheses: Alternative explanations of data based conclusions. New York: Harper & Row. This book provides great examples to practice identifying hypotheses and confounds.

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Research Activities for Students The goals of the research activities are to: (1) relate Chapter 7 on an applied learning dimension, and (2) get you involved in research.

1. TV Violence and Aggression: Develop a Research Hypothesis and Outline an Introduction. Develop a research hypothesis relating exposure to TV violence and aggression. Clearly identify the variables, the population, and the predicted outcome or relationship between variables. Locate five current supporting research articles related to your topic. Outline an introduction and turn this in to your instructor for feedback. See Chapter 15 of your text for guidance. Alphabetize your references and develop an APA style reference page.

2. Identify the Confounds and Threats to Internal Validity. For the following four studies (A, B, C, and D) identify the independent and dependent variables. Identify and discuss the threats to internal validity. How would you improve these studies?

(A) Researchers want to test whether mountain climbing will increase strength, perceived competence, and immune system functioning in juvenile delinquents. A one-week mountain climbing expedition to Mount Whitney is planned. Twenty-five male adolescents in a Los Angeles County rehabilitation facility have volunteered for the project. Twenty-five male adolescents from a San Diego County rehabilitation facility will be randomly selected to serve as a control group. The project will begin August 8 and end August 15. All subjects will be tested daily at 5 p.m. on: (1) strength as measured using a dynamometer which is a valid measure of grip strength, (2) perceived competence as measured by a questionnaire, and (3) immune system functioning as measured by the volume of t-cells in blood samples.

(B) The infamous sleep researcher, R. U. Asleep, wanted to study the effects of REM (Rapid Eye Movement) sleep deprivation on maze running ability. The experimental group consisted of five male hamsters all from the same litter to control for age, gender and genetics. The control group consisted of five male hamsters from another litter. Baseline maze-running ability was established for both experimental and control groups. The experimenter set up small individual running wheels, which were fully enclosed to control for hamster location.

Hamsters in the experimental group slept inside the wheels to adapt to the apparatus. The experimental group was deprived of REM sleep for 120 hours in the following manner. REM sleep was detected by using electromyography. At the onset of REM in the experimental condition the running wheel would begin to turn in a clockwise motion and force the hamster to wake up and run. Mazerunning ability was tested every twenty-four hours for all subjects.

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127

(C) The local school district wants to compare three anti-smoking programs used at the sixth grade level. The superintendent makes the following assignments based upon his own best judgment. School 1 will view a film program that features prominent celebrities promoting the anti-smoking message. School 2 will listen to guest lecturers who are suffering from lung cancer in an organized health awareness assembly. School 3 will receive training in a workshop on resisting peer pressure and assertiveness techniques during physical education classes. Each condition will require about one hour of school time. Each student that participates must have written permission from the parent. All students are pretested and posttested, using a Smoking Behavior and Interest Inventory.

(D) Researchers want to compare different methods of teen sex-education and intervention. Intermediate schools and high schools located in the northeast region of Fresno will implement a social inoculation training curriculum which involves role-playing and discussions about real-life sexual dilemmas and pressures that adolescents typically confront. Intermediate school and high schools located in the south region of town will institute a program that involves classes hosting guest speakers who relay personal accounts of their experiences.

These speakers would include a person suffering from AIDS, a teenage mother, a teenager who contracted a sexually transmitted disease, a teenager who gave birth to an infant suffering the effects of fetal alcohol syndrome, etc. All of the other intermediate and high schools in the Fresno school district will only have group discussions about sexuality, facilitated by a science teacher. All of the adolescents will be administered a survey, entitled Sexual Attitudes and Behavior Inventory, both before and after they participate in their assigned curriculum.

3. Identify Type I and Type II Errors. For the following four examples (A, B, C, and D), identify the given scenario as either a potential Type I or Type II error. Explain your decision by referring to the definitions of Type I and Type II errors. Comment on the seriousness of committing a Type I or Type II error.

(A) Investigators are researching a new vaccine to prevent the onset of AIDS in HIV positive subjects. One hundred HIV positive subjects volunteered to participate. Half of the subjects (N=50) were randomly assigned to Condition 1, which received the experimental vaccine, while the other half (N=50) were assigned to Condition 2, which received a placebo. Medically the vaccine results looked very encouraging, but statistically significant differences between the groups were not attained. The researchers failed to reject the null hypothesis (p <.01), and the public is denied possible treatment.

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(B) Educational consultants were hired by a California school district to study the effectiveness of competitive vs. cooperative learning. The school district was known for its highly competitive philosophy, for which it was criticized despite its successful student test scores on national assessments. The educational consultants researched several school districts nationwide and in Japan. They found that school districts that operated with a cooperative model had significantly higher test scores and higher student satisfaction than the competitive schools (i.e., investigators rejected the null hypothesis). The competitive school district is strongly considering a bond measure in the next election to fund a change to the cooperative model with estimated costs of approximately 250 million dollars.

(C) Silicone breast implants have been popular for many years for purposes of breast reconstruction and breast enlargement. Since no evidence had been collected by the drug manufacturing company nor the public, it was incorrectly assumed that they presented no harm to public health (i.e., failure to reject the null hypothesis). Currently, due to reports of serious complications from thousands of women who elected to have this surgery, major drug manufacturers are no longer producing silicone implants.

(D) In the 1930's, surgical procedures in which the neural connection between the prefrontal lobes was severed were performed frequently. Lobotomies were used on chronically hospitalized mental patients. It was considered a quick and easy treatment for mental disorders. The null hypothesis was incorrectly rejected. We now know that lobotomized patients may sink into a confused stupor or become vegetable-like. Today, lobotomies are rarely performed in psychological clinical practice.

4. Critical Thinking About Science. What are three examples of questions that science cannot address? Why is science not applicable to these questions?

5. Public Perception of Science.

A. Interview three people in the general public (e.g., family members) on their perceptions of science. Record their impressions on the following questions: 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

What is science?

What does a scientist look like?

What do scientists do?

Name one scientist.

How important is science in advancing technological progress?

B. Write a reflective paragraph that addresses the following focus questions: 1. Were you surprised about the public’s perception of science?

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2. Do you see any similarities between public perception and what you have learned about science in this class?

3. In general, do people have a positive or negative impression of science?

C. Find a famous quote, using an online reference tool such as PsycINFO and PubMed, about the contribution of science to progress or improving the quality of life.

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Handout 7-1 Analysis of Study Citation:

1.

Null hypothesis:

2.

Alternative hypothesis:

3.

Independent variable(s): Operational definition(s):

4.

Dependent variable(s): Operational definition(s)

5.

Experimental and control groups:

Results of Study:

Question

Application to Study

Results due to chance?

Describe the statistical tests used, and the significance level of each.

Results due to a confound?

Describe possible confounds present in the study.

Results due to independent variable(s)?

Describe the effect(s) of the independent variable(s) on the dependent variable(s).

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Handout 7-2 Threats to Internal Validity Threat to Internal Validity

Description

History

Maturation

Testing

Instrumentation

Statistical Regression

Selection

Mortality

Selection-Maturation Interaction

Diffusion

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Example

TESTBANK MULTIPLE CHOICE 1. What is the first question that you should ask after completing an experiment? a. Did the independent variable cause the outcome? b. Could chance alone account for the outcome? c. Is the experiment internally valid? d. Is the research hypothesis accurate?

ANS: B

PTS: 1

REF: Introduction MSC: WWW

2. When interpreting the results of an experiment, we first consider the possibility that the results are due to ____, then second, to ____, and then third, to ____. a. independent variable; chance; unknown factor b. unknown factor; independent variable; confounding variable c. chance; unknown factor; independent variable d. Type I variable; Type II variable; independent variable ANS: C

PTS: 1

REF: Introduction

3. The statistical decision process involves: a. a test of whether the independent variable caused differences between groups. b. a test of whether confound variables caused differences between groups. c. a test of the research hypothesis. d. a test of the null hypothesis.

ANS: D

PTS: 1

REF: Introduction

4. If the results of an experiment are statistically significant then they are likely due to: a. the independent variable. b. the dependent variable. c. a confounding variable. d. either the independent variable or a confounding variable.

ANS: D

PTS: 1

REF: Introduction

5. In the Bransford and Johnson study, the independent variable was ____ and the dependent variable was ____. a. age; attitudes toward the elderly b. gender; depression ratings c. gender; the picture d. the picture; comprehensibility and recall of a passage ANS: D Example

PTS: 1

REF: The Context of Experimentation: An

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6. Of the following, which is not a type of variation? a. systematic variation due to chance b. chance variation c. systematic variation due to the independent variable d. systematic variation due to confounds ANS: A

PTS: 1

REF: Types of Variation

7. Variance in an experiment may be due to: a. chance. b. the independent variable. c. a confound. d. all of these ANS: D MSC: WWW

PTS: 1

REF: Types of Variation

8. Chance or ____ refers to factors that affect subjects in a nonsystematic way. a. bias variation b. error variation c. confounding variation d. validity variation ANS: B

PTS: 1

REF: Types of Variation

9. Chance variation can be attributed primarily to: a. confounds. b. individual differences. c. systematic variation. d. between-groups variance.

ANS: B

PTS: 1

REF: Types of Variation

10. In every experiment there are individual differences between participants. This variation is: a. systematic. b. unsystematic. c. systematic error. d. nonsystematic error.

ANS: D

PTS: 1

REF: Types of Variation

11. Systematic variation in an experiment may be due to: a. the independent variable. b. confounds. c. the independent variable and confounds. d. error.

ANS: C

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REF: Types of Variation

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12. F equals: a. 2t b. square root of t c. t2 d. T ANS: C

PTS: 1

REF: Types of Variation

13. Within-groups variance is used as a measure of: a. chance. b. the independent variable. c. a confound. d. the F ratio.

ANS: A

PTS: 1

REF: Types of Variation

14. If there is no effect of the independent variable in an experiment, then: a. between-groups variance equals zero. b. between-groups variance is greater than within-groups variance. c. between-groups variance is less than within-groups variance. d. between-groups variance equals within-groups variance.

ANS: D MSC: WWW

PTS: 1

REF: Types of Variation

15. Between-groups variance may reflect: a. chance. b. treatment. c. a possible confound. d. all of these ANS: D

PTS: 1

REF: Types of Variation

16. If the null hypothesis is true, the value of the F ratio is: a. 0 b. 1 c. >1 d. <1 ANS: B

PTS: 1

REF: Types of Variation

17. Nonsystematic variation is also called: a. confound variance. b. uncontrolled variance. c. between-groups variance. d. error variance.

ANS: D

PTS: 1

REF: Types of Variation

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18. A variable that occurs along with the independent variable and differentially affects performance in different groups is called: a. a confound. b. error. c. nonsystematic variation. d. the dependent variable.

ANS: A

PTS: 1

REF: Types of Variation

19. Uncontrolled systematic variance in an experiment is due to: a. chance. b. confound. c. treatment. d. either treatment or a confound.

ANS: B

PTS: 1

REF: Types of Variation

20. Confounds introduce: a. nonsystematic bias. b. systematic bias. c. both systematic and nonsystematic bias. d. error variance.

ANS: B

PTS: 1

REF: Types of Variation

21. Extraneous variables that affect groups equally: a. are called confounds. b. introduce systematic bias. c. do not affect rejection of the null hypothesis. d. add overall variability.

ANS: D

PTS: 1

REF: Types of Variation

22. The F ratio tells us how likely it is that : a. our independent variable caused a change in our dependent variable. b. our results occurred by chance. c. our results were caused by a confound. d. all of these ANS: B

PTS: 1

REF: Statistical Hypothesis Testing

23. We may reject the null hypothesis when the value of F: a. 0 b. 1 c. >1 d. <1 ANS: C MSC: WWW

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REF: Statistical Hypothesis Testing

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24. The larger the F ratio: a. the less likely we are to reject the null hypothesis. b. the less likely our results are due to chance. c. the greater the probability of a Type I error. d. the less likely there is a confound.

ANS: B

PTS: 1

REF: Statistical Hypothesis Testing

25. If we reject the null hypothesis when it is true, we make a: a. Type I error. b. Type II error. c. correct rejection. d. correct acceptance.

ANS: A

PTS: 1

REF: Box 7.1

26. If we retain the null hypothesis when it is true, we make a: a. Type I error. b. Type II error. c. correct rejection. d. correct acceptance.

ANS: B

PTS: 1

REF: Box 7.1

27. A researcher conducts an experiment on a new drug for enhancing memory and the researcher concludes that the drug is effective. However, by chance alone the many participants having excellent memories were placed in the experimental group. This may lead to a: a. Type I error. b. Type II error. c. correct rejection. d. correct acceptance.

ANS: A

PTS: 1

REF: Box 7.1

MSC: WWW

28. The probability of rejecting the null hypothesis when it is true is called: a. alpha. b. beta. c. power. d. 1  beta.

ANS: A

PTS: 1

REF: Statistical Hypothesis Testing

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29. Alpha is symbolized by ____ and tells us about the probability of making a ____ error. a. ; Type I b. ; Type II c. ; Type I d. ; Type II ANS: C

PTS: 1

REF: Statistical Hypothesis Testing

30. If we fail to reject the null hypothesis when it is false, we make a: a. correct rejection. b. correct acceptance. c. Type I error. d. Type II error.

ANS: D

PTS: 1

REF: Statistical Hypothesis Testing

31. Kim has conducted a study and based on her statistical analysis of the results has incorrectly rejected the null hypothesis. Kim is committing a: a. correct rejection. b. correct acceptance. c. Type I error. d. Type II error.

ANS: C

PTS: 1

REF: Statistical Hypothesis Testing

32. If we fail to reject the null hypothesis when it is true, we make a: a. correct rejection. b. correct acceptance. c. Type I error. d. Type II error.

ANS: B

PTS: 1

REF: Statistical Hypothesis Testing

33. The probability of rejecting the null hypothesis when it is false is called: a. alpha. b. beta. c. 1  alpha. d. 1  beta.

ANS: D MSC: WWW

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REF: Statistical Hypothesis Testing

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34. The probability of making a Type II error is called: a. alpha. b. beta. c. 1  alpha. d. 1  beta.

ANS: B

PTS: 1

REF: Statistical Hypothesis Testing

35. The power of a statistical test is the probability of: a. 1- between-groups variance b. 1 - F c. 1-  d. 1 -  ANS: D PTS: 1 TOP: Statistical Hypothesis Testing

REF: Statistical Hypothesis Testing

36. If within-groups variance is large relative to between-groups variance, then there is increased probability of: a. rejecting the null hypothesis. b. making a Type I error. c. making a Type II error. d. accepting the research hypothesis.

ANS: C

PTS: 1

REF: Statistical Hypothesis Testing

37. A large F can be produced by: a. decreasing power. b. reducing within-groups variance. c. increasing between-groups variance. d. increasing between-groups variance, reducing within-groups variance, or both.

ANS: D MSC: WWW

PTS: 1

REF: Statistical Hypothesis Testing

38. The magnitude of the change that the independent variable has on the dependent variable is called: a. between-groups variance. b. within-groups variance. c. effect size. d. power.

ANS: C

PTS: 1

REF: Statistical Hypothesis Testing

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39. ____ can be determined by calculating the difference between the results obtained in the experimental and control groups. a. Between-groups variance. b. Within-groups variance. c. Effect size. d. Power.

ANS: C

PTS: 1

REF: Statistical Hypothesis Testing

40. In order to increase the probability of rejecting the null hypothesis, we should ____ treatment variance and ____ error variance. a. maximize; maximize b. maximize; minimize c. minimize; maximize d. minimize; eliminate ANS: B

PTS: 1

REF: Statistical Hypothesis Testing

41. The probability of making a Type II error can be reduced by maximizing: a. within-groups variance. b. mortality. c. treatment effect. d. none of these ANS: C

PTS: 1

REF: Statistical Hypothesis Testing

42. Confidence that the treatment effect is not due to chance is directly related to ____ and inversely related to ____. a. effect size; within-groups variance b. the independent variable; the dependent variable c. within-groups variance; between-groups variance d. effect size; between-groups variance ANS: A

PTS: 1

REF: Statistical Hypothesis Testing

43. A confound will: a. decrease the likelihood of rejecting the null hypothesis. b. increase the probability of a Type II error. c. decrease the size of the F ratio. d. increase the size of the F ratio.

ANS: D MSC: WWW

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REF: Statistical Hypothesis Testing

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44. The confound that refers to events other than the independent variable, that occur during an experiment is called: a. maturation. b. instrumentation. c. history. d. selection.

ANS: C

PTS: 1

REF: Threats to Internal Validity

45. The fact that research participants may become fatigued or bored in the course of an experiment introduces a confound called: a. maturation. b. history. c. mortality. d. statistical regression.

ANS: A

PTS: 1

REF: Threats to Internal Validity

46. If in the course of an experiment you repeat measurements of the same individual, you introduce a confound called: a. maturation. b. history. c. selection. d. testing.

ANS: D

PTS: 1

REF: Threats to Internal Validity

47. Suppose you wanted to test the effects of a college writing program on success in other classes. The experimental group consisted of freshmen who had enrolled in the writing class; the control group consisted of freshmen who had not enrolled in the writing class.

Subsequent performance of both groups in a writing-intensive history class was measured. A potential confound in this study is: a. maturation. b. testing. c. selection. d. mortality.

ANS: C

PTS: 1

REF: Threats to Internal Validity

48. A third grade class participated in a special reading program. Only the poorest readers in the class showed any improvement in reading. This outcome may have been obtained because of: a. diffusion. b. instrumentation. c. statistical regression. d. maturation.

ANS: C

PTS: 1

REF: Threats to Internal Validity

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49. When comparing children to adults, an important confound that you must consider is: a. mortality. b. selection-maturation interaction. c. statistical regression. d. maturation.

ANS: B MSC: WWW

PTS: 1

REF: Threats to Internal Validity

50. When participants in an experiment communicate with each other, the difference between groups may be reduced. This is called: a. diffusion. b. dissension. c. dissemination. d. statistical regression.

ANS: A

PTS: 1

REF: Threats to Internal Validity

51. Tamara's class experiment involves measuring reaction time. She uses one timer for the experimental group and a second timer for the control group. Conducting the experiment this way can possibly introduce a confound based on: a. mortality. b. statistical regression. c. instrumentation. d. maturation.

ANS: C

PTS: 1

REF: Threats to Internal Validity

52. Sometimes participants in an experiment may drop out before completing the experiment.

If this occurs more in one condition than in others, it introduces a confound called: a. mortality. b. maturation. c. statistical regression. d. selection-maturation interaction.

ANS: A

PTS: 1

REF: Threats to Internal Validity

53. The major steps in the experimentation process reflect a circular process. This is a sign of: a. Kuhn's influence on science. b. how science responds to threats to internal validity. c. difficulty dealing with variation due to independent variables. d. the self-correcting nature of science.

ANS: D

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REF: Conclusion MSC: WWW

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SHORT ANSWER 1. Why must the null hypothesis always be one possible interpretation of the results of an experiment?

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

REF: Introduction

2. What are the three questions that must be asked when the results of an experiment are evaluated, and in what order should they be asked?

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

REF: Introduction

3. Discuss how error variance affects the statistical decision process.

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

REF: Types of Variation

4. A variable such as room temperature may add variance to the results of an experiment because it is an independent variable, a confound, or just error. Discuss these three possibilities and the conditions under which each might be true.

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

REF: Types of Variation

5. What is the F-ratio? What role does it play in hypothesis testing?

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

REF: Statistical Hypothesis Testing

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6. Describe the Type I and Type II errors. What reflects the probability of making each type of error? What is power and what factors influence it?

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

REF: Statistical Hypothesis Testing

7. Suppose you were conducting an experiment to test the effectiveness of a drug for the treatment of Alzheimer's disease. The experimental group in the study was given the real drug and the control group received a "fake" drug. What are the consequences in this experiment of making a Type I error? A Type II error?

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

REF: Statistical Hypothesis Testing

8. Describe between-groups variance and within-groups variance and their role in testing hypotheses.

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

REF: Statistical Hypothesis Testing

9. Discuss how the following three sources of variance in an experiment affect the F ratio and the probability of rejecting the null hypothesis: error variance, confound variance, variance due to the independent variable.

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

REF: Statistical Hypothesis Testing

10. Discuss different possible threats to internal validity and how they might be eliminated.

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

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11. Can you ever be certain that you have achieved internal validity in a study? Do you think it is possible that threats to internal validity have gone undetected in some studies and thus affected the conclusions? What sorts of implications could this situation cause?

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

REF: Threats to Internal Validity

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Chapter 8 – Control: The Keystone of the Experimental Method Chapter Outline Control Achieved Through Participant Assignment and Selection Randomization Random Sampling Random Assignment Control Achieved Through Experimental Design Control as Related to the Logic of Experimentation Chapter Overview Control gives us more certainty that any difference between groups is due to the independent variable and not to confounds. Participant selection and assignment may introduce error into the experiment. However, control can be attained through randomization. Randomization involves making decisions on participant assignments solely based on chance random selection and random assignment. Random selection helps to ensure that the sample is representative of the population. Random assignment may include the counterbalancing procedure, and randomization controls for both known and unknown confounding variables.

Control can also be achieved through experimental design. The design must allow the effects of the independent variable to be evident and to rule out confounds. Pretestposttest control group designs control for threats to internal validity. Solomon’s fourgroup design can determine effect of the treatment and the interaction of the treatment.

A true experiment involves random assignment, at least two levels of the independent variable, control for major threats to internal validity, and sometimes compares two alternative theoretical positions.

Control can be determined by examining the logic of experimentation. Control is gained first by good experimental design – random selection, random assignment, and consistent treatment of subjects.

Chapter Objectives 1.

Explain why the experimental framework requires one to interpret experimental results in terms of not one but three separate hypotheses.

2.

How is control the keystone of the experimental method?

3.

How does control apply to participant assignment, experimental design, and the logic of experimentation?

4.

What is the objective of random selection? How is it performed?

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5.

How does random selection (sampling) differ from random assignment?

6.

Distinguish between equating, counterbalancing, and randomization as methods of participant assignment.

7.

What are the advantages and disadvantages of pretesting? How does the Solomon four-group design assess the effects related to pretesting?

8.

Summarize the four conceptual steps in experimentation.

9.

What functions must the experimental design perform? How is the experimental design like a blueprint?

10. In the pretest-posttest control group design, which threats to internal validity are controlled and which are not?

11. What are the three main characteristics of a true experiment?

12. Describe how confounds influence experimental interpretations.

Teaching Points Students tend to treat control issues separate and removed from the statistical and logical decision processes that follow an experiment. They need to understand that design (e.g., random selection; random assignment) and conclusions go hand in hand.

There is a tendency to mix up random selection and random assignment. Emphasize that subjects are selected from the population and then assigned to conditions.

Lead a discussion on random assignment as it pertains to clinical trials in which a new treatment is being evaluation. Specifically, what ethical issues are raised when patients are placed in control groups that offer placebos or less-than-effective treatments, and other patients are given a treatment that may have promise?

Students often require a lot of discussion on the reasons we need counterbalancing and the ways it can be achieved. It is helpful to tie this point in with material from the previous chapter on threats to internal validity. Illustrating how subjects can change over time and how instruments can change helps to illustrate why counterbalancing is necessary if internal validity is to be achieved.

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Teaching Activities Ethics and randomization Randomization is used in clinical trials and is necessary to appropriately evaluate a new treatment’s efficacy. Ask your students to consider this scenario: A close family member has been diagnosed with a serious, life-threatening disease. A new, experimental treatment is currently being tested and preliminary results show much promise. Your loved one is currently receiving the standard treatment that has questionable effectiveness so far. The question is: do you advise this person to forego the standard treatment and participate in a study in which random assignment is used? If they participate, they could receive a promising new treatment, but there is a chance that your family member would be assigned to a control condition and get a placebo.

Random selection and assignment Demonstrate the effectiveness of randomization and the differences between random selection and random assignment by using your class as a population. Number the students in class from 1 to N. Use a random number table to randomly select a sample.

Discuss how the results of your experiment can be generalized to the class as a whole.

Randomly assign students from your sample to one or two experimental groups. Point out to students how various subject characteristics (e.g., gender, age, height, eye color, marital status) are spread across both groups and therefore are not confounding. In other words, the groups are approximately equal with respect to many variables. You can augment this activity by varying size of the sample randomly selected. Remind the students that small sample sizes pose problems.

Counterbalancing Provide several experimental scenarios that did not use counterbalancing. What are the possible reasons for the obtained results? Point out how confounding variable could have affected the results possibly leading to a Type I or Type II error.

Wadsworth’s Research Methods Workshop http://www.wadsworth.com/psychology_d/templates/student_resources/workshops/resch _wrk.html The Wadsworth’s Research Methods Workshop web site includes a workshop entitled Controls that contains information on how to eliminate factors that jeopardize the validity of research conclusions. The workshop begins by reviewing general strategies to achieve control, such as preparation of the research setting and random assignment of participants to experimental groups. Students are given practice in recognizing factors that introduce bias into a study. Counterbalancing techniques and use of replication as a control are also discussed.

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Internet Resources Research Randomizer (www.randomizer.org/index.htm) This site provides a random number generator to use for random sampling or assigning subjects to groups. It also offers a tutorial to help students understand how randomness is used in selection and assignment.

Random Assignment to Study Social Programs (www.dss.gov.uk/asd/asd5/IH94.pdf) Using random assignment to evaluate social programs has been criticized by some as being unfair and unethical since it necessitates assigning people to control groups. This document explores this issue.

Sampling in Survey Research (www.custominsight.com/articles/random-sampling.asp) You will find information regarding the importance of sampling in survey research as well as a random sample generator.

Equating and Counterbalancing (http://psy1.clarion.edu/mm/teachRDE/C12/c12.ppt) This PowerPoint presentation addresses matched designs and counterbalancing in the context of experimental design.

Suggested Readings Campbell, D. T., & Stanley, J. C. (1963). Experimental and quasi-experimental designs for research. Chicago: Rand McNally.

An important reference on confounds and threats to internal validity.

Solomon, R. L. (1949). On extension of control group design. Psychological Bulletin, 46, 137-150.

More from the founder of the Solomon four-group design.

Research Activities for Students The goals of the research activities are to: (1) relate Chapter 8 on an applied learning dimension, and (2) get you involved in research.

1. Design a Research Flowchart. Develop your research hypothesis from Chapter 8 into an experimental design. Your objective is to use a systematic, step-by-step process to test your hypothesis. Fill in the following information.

Step 1:

What is the research hypothesis?

Step 2:

What is the population of interest?

Step 3:

How will you sample? Estimate the needed sample size.

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Step 4:

How will you assign participants to conditions?

Step 5: a. Manipulation of an independent variable?

Experimental design Observation of differences between groups 1. How many independent variables?

2. How many levels of each independent variable? b. No manipulation of an independent variable?

Correlational design Measurement of variables Step 6:

Operationally define your independent and dependent variables.

Step 7:

Specify controls in your experimental design.

Step 8:

What statistical analysis is planned?

Step 9:

What level of alpha is selected?

Step 10: What are the expected findings?

2. Anorexic Patients. Random Assignment into Treatment Conditions — Using the Random Number Table. You are interested in investigating the effects of behavior modification therapy in the treatment of anorexia nervosa. The following participants, who have been coded to protect anonymity, are patients in the Eating Disorders Unit at the Community Hospital. Their weights and ages have been recorded.

Your assignment is to randomly assign these participants to treatment conditions by using a random number table.

Objective: Randomly distribute subject characteristics between groups. Each participant should have an equal chance of being assigned to either the experimental or the control group.

Strategies Using the Random Number Table: There are many possible creative uses of the random number table. Here are two alternatives (Bordens & Abbott, 1991).

A. ODD-EVEN METHOD 1. Use the random number table in the appendix of your text.

2. Randomly start anywhere on the table.

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3. Assign a random digit (using single digits from the random number table) to each participant.

4. a. Assign participants who were randomly assigned odd numbers to Treatment Group 1. b. Assign participants who were randomly assigned even numbers to Treatment Group 2.

Note: If it is important to have the same number of participants in both groups, assign participants to Treatment Group 1 until its size equals one-half N. The remaining participants shall automatically be assigned to Treatment Group 2.

B. DIRECT METHOD 1. Use the random number table in the appendix of the text.

2. Randomly start anywhere on the table.

3. Designate numbers to represent treatment groups. For example let the number 1 represent the first treatment group, and let the number 2 represent the second treatment group.

4. Begin with the first participant and read the random numbers as single digits.

As you come across either a "1" or a "2" assign that participants to the respective treatment group. Continue with the other participants.

Note: If it is important to have the same number of participants in both groups, assign participants to Treatment Group 1 until its size equals one-half N. The remaining participants shall be automatically assigned to Treatment Group 2.

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DATA:

152

Participant

Age

Weight

A

14

88

B C

17 25

92 99

D E

21 15

101 79

F G

18 23

91 95

H I

21 15

84 82

J K

16 17

64 79

L M

18 19

86 87

N O

13 16

61 74

P Q

20 13

89 76

R S

15 17

82 70

T U

19 12

90 68

V W

22 23

88 85

X Y

16 18

73 99

Z

14

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RANDOM ASSIGNMENT Group 1: Behavior Modification Participant

Age

Weight

Age

Weight

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

12.

13.

Group 2: Control Group Participant 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

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13.

Analyze the randomly assigned groups. Use a t-test to assess whether there are significant differences between these groups in terms of weight before the behavior modification treatment begins.

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3. Identify Experimental Designs: a. Investigators are interested in the affects of caffeine on Premenstrual Syndrome (PMS). Patients are randomly assigned to one of two conditions. Group 1 will be allowed to consume unlimited amounts of caffeine during a one-month period.

Group 2 requires that patients will agree not to consume any caffeine products as specified in a written contract. At the end of the month-long study severity of PMS symptoms will be assessed.

Questions: 1. What kind of experimental design is illustrated?

2. What is the independent variable?

3. What is the dependent variable?

4. Diagram this design.

5. What are the potential confounds? b. Investigators are interested in the ability of computer technology to enhance visualization to promote T-cell production in children with cancer. Patients are randomly assigned to one of two conditions. Group 1 patients will receive a new computer visualization program that instructs the children to visualize the action of healing cells in their body which are aggressively fighting their cancer.

Group 2 patients will not receive the computer program nor any visualization training. Before treatment begins, all patients' T-cell levels will be measured via blood tests. The experimental and control treatment conditions will be initiated, and the experiment is planned to proceed for three months. After three months all patients' T-cell levels will again be measured from blood samples.

Questions: 1. What kind of experimental design is illustrated?

2. What is the independent variable?

3. What is the dependent variable?

4. Diagram this design.

5. What are the potential confounds?

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c. Investigators are interested in the effect of positive self-statements on the selfesteem of women diagnosed with Battered Woman's Syndrome. All subjects will be randomly assigned to four groups. Group 1 will be given a self-esteem inventory prior to treatment. Subjects will then be instructed to use specific positive self-statements twice each day at determined times. The program will continue for four weeks. At the end of the four-week program each subject's selfesteem will be assessed, using the same self-esteem inventory previously administered. Group 2 will also be given a self-esteem inventory to determine a baseline measure. Subjects in this condition will not receive the positive selfstatement treatment nor any other treatment. After four weeks subjects will be reassessed on the original self-esteem inventory. Group 3 will receive positive self-statement training for four weeks and then will be administered the selfesteem inventory. Group 4 will be administered the self-esteem inventory at the end of the four experimental weeks. The self-esteem of all subjects will be compared to assess for treatment effects, pretest sensitization and history effects.

Questions: 1. What kind of experimental design is illustrated?

2. What is the independent variable?

3. What is the dependent variable?

4. Diagram this design.

5. What are the potential confounds?

4. Improving Pro-environmental Behaviors of Students. Develop an educational intervention to improve the pro-environmental behaviors of primary school students.

Apply one of the experimental designs presented in Chapter 7. Summarize the investigation and address the following questions. Show all your work in your workbook.

Questions: 1. What kind of experimental design is illustrated?

2. What is the independent variable?

3. What is the dependent variable?

4. Diagram this design.

5. What are the potential confounds?

5.

Application of Classic Experimental Studies. Use online references such as PsycINFO and PubMed to discover if any experimental studies have been used as evidence to change legislation or public policy.

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TESTBANK MULTIPLE CHOICE 1. Experiments conducted in artificial environments may lack: a. internal validity. b. external validity. c. reliability. d. control.

ANS: B

PTS: 1

REF: Introduction

2. Control can help researchers make conclusions about the effects of an independent variable on a dependent variable. However, if control makes an experiment too unnatural, ____ may be compromised. a. generalizability b. external validity c. relevance to the "real world" d. all of these ANS: D

PTS: 1

REF: Introduction MSC: WWW

3. In the example cited in the chapter regarding the study on estimation of time, the first question to be asked is: a. "Who will be our participants?" b. "Does the dependent variable have at least two levels?" c. "How do we assign participants to the groups?" d. "Is the difference between groups due to a confound?"

ANS: A PTS: 1 REF: Control Achieved Through Participant Assignment and Selection 4. The question of who our subjects will be in an experiment is most related to: a. where we are conducting our experiment. b. the likelihood of Type I errors. c. our experimental design. d. the topic being studied.

ANS: D PTS: 1 REF: Control Achieved Through Participant Assignment and Selection 5. What does random selection do? a. increases counterbalancing b. helps to control systematic confounds c. helps to make sure the groups are equated d. increases within-groups variance ANS: B PTS: 1 REF: Control Achieved Through Participant Assignment and Selection 156

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6. What technique allows for the control of systematic confounds? a. random selection b. bimodal distribution c. random numbering d. analysis of variance ANS: A PTS: 1 REF: Control Achieved Through Participant Assignment and Selection MSC: WWW 7. If we have conducted random selection accurately, we would be fairly confident that: a. there are equal numbers in subject groups. b. the independent variable has been operationally defined. c. the sample of subjects reflects the population that we are studying. d. confounding variables have increased in our experiment.

ANS: C PTS: 1 REF: Control Achieved Through Participant Assignment and Selection 8. If there is a confounding variable in an experiment, you cannot: a. know the cause of the outcome. b. obtain a significant result. c. select participants randomly. d. avoid making a Type II error.

ANS: A PTS: 1 REF: Control Achieved Through Participant Assignment and Selection 9. Participant selection procedures affect: a. internal validity. b. external validity. c. counterbalancing. d. experimental design.

ANS: B PTS: 1 REF: Control Achieved Through Participant Assignment and Selection 10. Participant assignment procedures affect: a. internal validity. b. external validity. c. counterbalancing. d. experimental design.

ANS: A PTS: 1 REF: Control Achieved Through Participant Assignment and Selection

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11. If you wanted to randomly select fellow students in your class, you could: a. select those students on the left. b. pick those students sitting in front. c. use a random number table. d. select them as they come to class.

ANS: C

PTS: 1

REF: Box 8.1

MSC: WWW

12. Assigning equal numbers of men and women to each experimental condition is an example of: a. random assignment. b. counterbalancing. c. proportional assignment. d. an equating procedure.

ANS: D PTS: 1 REF: Control Achieved Through Participant Assignment and Selection 13. Potential confounds can be eliminated from experiments by using ____ when assigning participants to conditions. a. elimination procedure b. equating procedure c. counterbalancing d. all of these ANS: D PTS: 1 REF: Control Achieved Through Participant Assignment and Selection 14. If individuals are assigned to experimental conditions such that each condition appears equally often and each conditions precedes and follows other conditions equally often, then participant assignment has been: a. random. b. equated. c. counterbalanced. d. proportional.

ANS: C PTS: 1 REF: Control Achieved Through Participant Assignment and Selection 15. Using participants in different conditions that "match" on one or more characteristic is known as: a. randomizing. b. equating. c. counterbalancing. d. operationalizing.

ANS: B PTS: 1 REF: Control Achieved Through Participant Assignment and Selection

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16. Potentially confounding order effects can be addressed with: a. randomization. b. equating. c. counterbalancing. d. none of these ANS: C PTS: 1 REF: Control Achieved Through Participant Assignment and Selection 17. The counterbalancing procedure in assigning participants to either the experimental group (E) or control group (C) group would be best presented as: a. ECECECECECECEC b. EEEEEEECCCCCCC c. EECCEECCEECCEE d. CCCCCCEEEEEEEE ANS: C PTS: 1 REF: Control Achieved Through Participant Assignment and Selection 18. If every person in the population has an equal chance of being selected for a study, then selection is: a. random. b. equated. c. counterbalanced. d. proportional.

ANS: A

PTS: 1

REF: Randomization

19. A professor is advising you regarding the design of an experiment for a thesis. She asks you what you think is the best way to eliminate unintended participant assignment. What is your well-reasoned, educated response? a. counterbalancing b. equating c. operationalizing d. randomization ANS: D MSC: WWW

PTS: 1

REF: Randomization

20. The best way to eliminated potential confounds that might result from participant assignment is: a. counterbalancing. b. randomization. c. elimination. d. equating.

ANS: B

PTS: 1

REF: Randomization

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21. If you are at the point where you are deciding who from the population shall be your participants, you should be using: a. factorial design. b. random assignment. c. Solomon's four-group design. d. random sampling.

ANS: D

PTS: 1

REF: Randomization

22. Random assignment of participants to conditions has the advantage over other methods of assignment in that: a. it places equal numbers of participants in each group. b. it ensures that each condition precedes and follows every other condition equally often. c. it controls for known confounding variables. d. it controls for both known and unknown confounding variables.

ANS: D

PTS: 1

REF: Randomization

23. Random assignment is to ____ as random selection is to ____. a. control, manipulation b. conditions, population c. subject pool, conditions d. order effects, equating ANS: B MSC: WWW

PTS: 1

REF: Randomization

24. As an experimenter you've identified some confounding variables that you want to control. But you also think there might be some unknown potentially confounding variables. What method of assignment would be most appropriate? a. counterbalancing b. equating c. cluster sampling d. randomization ANS: D

PTS: 1

REF: Randomization

25. When assigning participants to groups, you should attempt to control for: a. as many individual differences as possible. b. at least two individual differences. c. just those individual differences that are potentially confounding based on commonsense and past research. d. sex differences.

ANS: C

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PTS: 1

REF: Randomization

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26. Random assignment of individuals to groups: a. nullifies individual differences. b. reduces equating. c. allows the sample to be representative of the population. d. all of these ANS: A

PTS: 1

REF: Randomization

27. To assign participants to groups in a truly random fashion, you should: a. use a random number table. b. flip a coin. c. draw names out of a hat. d. any of these ANS: D

PTS: 1

REF: Randomization

28. If we wish the results of our experiment to generalize, we need to pay special attention to: a. confounding variables. b. participant assignment. c. participant selection. d. all of these ANS: C MSC: WWW

PTS: 1

REF: Randomization

29. To select participants from a pool of potential participant, you should not: a. use a computerized random number generator. b. draw names from a hat. c. select names from a list without trying to pay attention to who the individuals are. d. use a random number table.

ANS: C

PTS: 1

REF: Randomization

30. Internal validity in an experiment is affected by: a. participant assignment to groups. b. representatives of the sample. c. participant selection procedures. d. external validity.

ANS: A

PTS: 1

REF: Randomization

31. External validity in an experiment is most related to: a. participant assignment to groups. b. representativeness of the sample. c. confounding variables. d. a pretest.

ANS: B

PTS: 1

REF: Randomization

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32. Control in an experiment can be achieved through: a. random assignment of participants to groups. b. experimental design. c. logic. d. all of these ANS: D Design

PTS: 1

REF: Control Achieved Through Experimental

33. The following experiment illustrates what design?

R Group A T M R Group B T(zero level) M a. b. c. d.

factorial design pretest-only control group design posttest-only control group design pretest-posttest control group design

ANS: C Design

PTS: 1

REF: Control Achieved Through Experimental

34. A pretest-posttest control group design does not control for: a. effects of the pretest. b. mortality. c. history. d. maturation.

ANS: A Design

PTS: 1

REF: Control Achieved Through Experimental

35. In a Solomon four-group design: a. participants who get a pretest also get a posttest. b. not all participants receive the pretest. c. not all the participants received the posttest. d. all participants receive a pretest but not all receive a posttest.

ANS: B Design MSC: WWW

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REF: Control Achieved Through Experimental

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36. A classmate designs the following experiment. What advice would you give him to improve upon it?

Group A M T M Group B M T(zero level) M a. b. c. d.

to specify both groups as receiving zero level of T not to perform a pretest-posttest to randomly assign participants to groups to randomly select participants from the population

ANS: C Design

PTS: 1

REF: Control Achieved Through Experimental

37. The following experiment illustrates what design?

R Group A M T R Group B M T(zero level) a. b. c. d.

M M

factorial design pretest-only control group design posttest-only control group design pretest-posttest control group design

ANS: D Design

PTS: 1

REF: Control Achieved Through Experimental

38. Which of the following is not a necessary characteristic of a true experiment? a. a pretest b. random assignment of participants to groups c. control of threats to internal validity d. at least two levels of the independent variable ANS: A Design

PTS: 1

REF: Control Achieved Through Experimental

39. For a study to be considered a true experiment according to Campbell and Stanley, there must be at least ____ level(s) of the independent variable. a. random b. 1 c. 2 d. 3 ANS: C Design MSC: WWW

PTS: 1

REF: Control Achieved Through Experimental

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40. In an experiment, the researcher was unintentionally talkative to one of the participant groups. What best describes the threat to internal validity and why is it a threat? a. Randomness, since being talkative can make this particular group more relaxed and better able to perform. b. Participant-maturation interaction, since being friendly to one group can introduce a confound. c. History, since this unintended interaction was not part of the independent variable, a confound was introduced. d. Testing, since the other group might feel cheated for being treated more formally by the researcher, and this introduces counterbalancing.

ANS: C Design

PTS: 1

REF: Control Achieved Through Experimental

41. You are analyzing a journal article that used the Solomon four-group design. You've identified the following groups: R Group 1 Pretest Treatment Posttest R Group 2 Pretest Posttest R Group 3 Treatment Posttest What would the fourth group look like?

I. R Group 4 II. Group 4 Pretest III. Group 4 IV. R Group 4 Pretest a. b. c. d.

Posttest Posttest Treatment Posttest

I II III IV

ANS: A Design

PTS: 1

REF: Control Achieved Through Experimental

42. If two groups are unequal at the start of an experiment with regard to the dependent variable, then the F ratio would be: a. 1 b. <1 c. >1 d. unknown ANS: C Experimentation MSC: WWW

164

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REF: Control as Related to the Logic of

CHAPTER 8

43. If two groups are equal with regard to the dependent variable at the start of an experiment before the independent variable is introduced, we can assume that the F ratio would be: a. 0 b. 1 c. >1 d. unknown ANS: B Experimentation

PTS: 1

REF: Control as Related to the Logic of

44. Before any treatment is introduced, the variation that exists between two groups that are equal is due to: a. chance. b. the F-ratio. c. the independent variable. d. the dependent variable.

ANS: A Experimentation

PTS: 1

REF: Control as Related to the Logic of

45. If individuals in different groups are not treated identically except for the independent variable, then: a. within-groups variance is increased. b. the F ratio is decreased. c. a possible confound is introduced. d. between-groups variance is decreased.

ANS: C Experimentation

PTS: 1

REF: Control as Related to the Logic of

46. If an extraneous variable affects all groups equally: a. within-groups variance is increased. b. it is more difficult to reject the null hypothesis. c. there is increased probability of a Type II error. d. all of these ANS: D Experimentation MSC: WWW

PTS: 1

REF: Control as Related to the Logic of

SHORT ANSWER 1. Explain how random sampling impacts external validity.

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

REF: Randomization CONTROL: THE KEYSTONE OF THE EXPERIMENTAL METHOD

165

2. How do the elimination procedure and the equating procedure reduce potential confounds?

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1 Selection

REF: Control Achieved Through Participant Assignment and

3. Describe the counterbalancing procedure as it relates to random assignment.

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1 Selection

REF: Control Achieved Through Participant Assignment and

4. What is the difference between participant selection and participant assignment? How does each affect either internal or external validity in an experiment?

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

REF: Randomization

5. What is the purpose of random sampling? How would you go about random sampling students at your college or university?

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

REF: Randomization

6. Explain why randomization has an advantage over counterbalancing in assignment of subjects to groups.

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

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REF: Randomization

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7. Can random selection or assignment lead to a situation that results in groups being very different even before an experiment begins? Explain you answer.

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

REF: Randomization

8. Experimental design must allow for two functions. What are these functions and how can the design help the researcher achieve them?

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

REF: Control Achieved Through Experimental Design

9. Outline the Solomon four-group design, indicating its strengths with respect to the control of confounds.

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

REF: Control Achieved Through Experimental Design

10. What is a true experiment according to Campbell and Stanley?

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

REF: Control Achieved Through Experimental Design

11. Discuss the logic of experimental design in terms of the F ratio and the null hypothesis.

What is the effect on the F ratio of unequal groups at the start of an experiment?

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

REF: Control as Related to the Logic of Experimentation

12. Why is the interpretation of experimental results "easy" if control is achieved by random selection, random assignment, and consistent treatment of subjects?

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

REF: Control as Related to the Logic of Experimentation

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Chapter 9 – Applying the Logic of Experimentation: Between-Subjects Designs Chapter Outline Between-Subjects Design Terminology Completely Randomized Design Multilevel Completely Randomized Designs Factorial Design Factorial Designs: The Logic of Experimentation and the Interaction Effect Eight Possible Outcomes of 2 X 2 Factorial Experiments Interpretation of Subject Variables With Factorial Designs Advantages of Factorial Designs Chapter Overview To allow for comparison between different groups of subjects, researchers use betweensubjects designs. An example of this design is called the completely randomized design where subjects are randomly assigned to groups and there are at least two levels of the independent variable. When there are more than two levels of the independent variable, a multilevel completely randomized design is used. To determine if the results are due to chance, a priori or post hoc tests are performed, but the most common test is the analysis of variance.

Because most psychological processes have several interacting causes, researchers often use factorial designs. In a factorial design, each participant receives a specified level of each independent variable, or factor. The notation used to describe factorial designs refers to the number of and levels of independent variables. Main effects and interaction effects are measured in factorial designs.

In factorial designs, there is a null hypothesis for each factor in the design. Interpreting the results of a factorial design follows the same decision making process used in other designs. Summary tables describe for each source of variance, the degrees of freedom, sum of squares, mean square F-ratio, and probability level. The probability level determines if the null hypothesis is rejected or accepted.

Subject variables are conditions that a participant possesses in a relatively permanent manner. These types of variables make it impossible to randomly assign participants to groups.

Chapter Objectives 1.

What are the characteristics of a between-subjects design?

2.

What is the simplest between-subjects design? Describe this design.

3.

What are the features of a multilevel, completely randomized design?

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4.

What are post hoc tests and when are they used?

5.

What are the objectives of a priori tests?

6.

What are the defining features of a factorial design?

7.

How many hypotheses are analyzed in a 2 X 2 factorial design? How many F-ratios are calculated in a 2 X 2 factorial design?

8.

Describe an analysis of variance F-table.

9.

What is an interaction in factorial design? How does it influence the experimental interpretation? What does it look like graphically?

10. Why is it a problem to use subject variables in factorial designs to make causal interpretations?

11. What are the advantages of the factorial design?

Teaching Points The primary problem for students in this chapter is the interpretation of interaction effects. Although students may appear to understand the concept and can identify the presence of an interaction on a graph, they will have difficulty expressing the interactions in words, especially within the context of the study. Give them plenty of practice with this.

Discuss the importance of post-hoc analyses when factorial designs are used. Students are often focused on F-ratios that indicate significant differences. However, they need to know that understanding where those differences are is critical when evaluating the results of a study.

Discuss the problem of subject variables in terms of interpretation of experimental results. When participants are not randomly assigned to groups, they may differ on several dimensions in addition to the subject variable that has determined their group assignment. If the results of the experiment indicate group differences as a function of the subject variable, then there is no way to be certain whether that characteristic of the subject or one of the other associated subject characteristics is the causal factor in determining performance.

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Teaching Activities Examples of 2 x 2 Designs Use concrete examples of the many possible outcomes of 2 x 2 design. In fact, it is a good idea to walk through Figures 9.5 to 9.12, but assign real variables to factors A and B. With each figure, ask students to express the outcomes in words, stating the main effects and interactions and noting how interactions qualify main effects. You might want to consider placing students in small groups to work through these figures.

Alternatively, you’ll notice that each of the figures has smaller figures side by side (e.g., cells, graphs). Present one of these to the students and ask them to construct the other.

For instance, if students see the cells, they then should draw the graph.

Statistical and Graphic Interpretation Provide students with statistical results from journal articles that describe the results of factorial designs. Ask them to interpret the F statements and the graphs. What do the F ratios mean? Are there main effects? Are there any interactions?

Wadsworth’s Statistics Workshop http://www.wadsworth.com/psychology_d/templates/student_resources/workshops/stats_ wrk.html The Wadsworth’s Statistics Workshop has a segment entitled Factorial ANOVA that provides the calculations required for factorial ANOVA. The interactive tutorial presents an example of a 2 x 2 between-subjects factorial ANOVA that allows students to set up and perform calculations that can be checked against text-book answers. As with each segment of the workshop site, this segment concludes with a brief quiz.

Internet Resources FactorWiz (psych.fullerton.edu/mbirnbaum/programs/factorWiz.htm) The FactorWiz can provide assistance in developing a factorial design for an experiment.

ANOVA Applets (davidmlane.com/hyperstat/factorial_ANOVA.html) There are over 50 applets at this website that allow data entry, calculations, and creating graphs.

Interactions in Factorial Designs (www.usd.edu/~schieber/psyc371/interact1.html) You will find examples of interactions in factorial designs.

Factorial Designs (www.uvm.edu/%7Edhowell/StatPages/Examples.html) Other examples of factorial designs are presented at this site. Some of them show the results of ANOVAs and others present raw data.

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Factorial Design Tutorial and Examples (http://www.socialresearchmethods.net/kb/expfact.php) This site provides a comprehensive tutorial on factorial designs. It also addresses different examples and statistical analyses.

Suggested Readings Ebbinghaus, H. (1964). Memory (1885/1913). New York: Dover.

For further information on memory refer to this classic work.

Marschark, M., & Hunt, R. R. (1989). A reexamination of the role of imagery in learning and memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 15, 710-720.

Explores the importance of imagery in memory.

Research Activities for Students The goals of the research activities are to: (1) relate Chapter 9 on an applied learning dimension, and (2) get you involved in research.

1.

Dirty Words, Alcohol and Memory. Factorial Analysis of Variance a. Using the data provided below, fill in the missing information on the summary table. b. Graph the results, using a line graph. c. Interpret the findings.

This hypothetical study investigated the effect of alcohol (no alcohol versus strong alcohol) on the ability of 20 introductory psychology students to correctly recall either a list of non-dirty words or a list of highly dirty words. All participants were randomly assigned to conditions. This design was 2 X 2 and completely randomized. The dependent variable was the number of repetitions required for perfect recall.

A1B1 Strong Alcohol/ Non-Dirty Words

A2B1 No Alcohol/ Non-Dirty Words

21 22 19 18 21

APPLYING THE LOGIC OF EXPERIMENTATION: BETWEEN-SUBJECTS DESIGN

19 20 18 17 21

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A1B2 Strong Alcohol/ Highly Dirty Words

A2B2 No Alcohol/ Highly Dirty Words

2 5 6 3 4

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7 7 5 6 8

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A.

SUMMARY TABLE

Source of Variance A

SS

df

MS

F

B AXB Error Total B. Graph C. Report your findings D. Interpret

2.

Fasting and Meditation: Effects on Spiritual Awareness. 3 X 2 Factorial Design. What are the effects of fasting and meditation on spiritual awareness?

Levels of fasting were manipulated using 3 conditions (long term, semi-long term, and short term). Levels of meditation were manipulated using 2 conditions (high and none). Participants self-reported their spiritual awareness.

Each of these experiments represents a different potential outcome. Graph and interpret the results using the cell means presented in the following tables.

Indicate if there appear to be main effects or an interaction between fasting and meditation on spiritual awareness.

Experiment I Long term High None

40 40

Fasting Level Semi-Long term 50 50

Short term 60 60

Experiment II Long term High None

50 60

Fasting Level Semi-Long term 50 60

Short term 50 60

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Experiment III Long term High None

60 80

Fasting Level Semi-Long term 70 70

Short term 80 60

Experiment IV Long term High None

40 70

Fasting Level Semi-Long term 50 80

Short term 60 90

Experiment V Long term High None

50 60

Fasting Level Semi-Long term 60 60

Short term 70 60

Experiment VI Long term High None

40 80

Fasting Level Semi-Long term 50 70

Short term 60 60

Experiment VII Long term High None

174

60 50

Fasting Level Semi-Long term 80 60

Short term 100 70

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3. Predicting Main Effects and Interactions in Factorial Designs. Refer to Box 8.1 (Bower, Monteiro, and Gilligan, 1978) in your text. Predict if there is (1) a main effect for factor A, mood during memory recall, (2) a main effect for factor B, mood as list was learned, and (3) an interaction effect between these variables on percentage of words remembered.

4. Interpreting Cause and Effect. Which of the following has the potential to yield cause and effect results? Explain your reasoning. a. b. c. d.

Effect of paternal abuse on ADD Effect of cigarette smoking on lung cancer in humans Effect of premature birth on learning disabilities Effect of hypothalamus size on male sexual orientation

5. Critical Thinking about Experiments. View the movie Ghostbusters. Compare and contrast the experimental method in Chapter 8 with the procedures in this movie.

Find other articles with online references such as PsycINFO and PubMed about paranormal studies. Write an essay explaining your comparative observations.

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TESTBANK MULTIPLE CHOICE 1. Factorial designs must have: a. more than one independent variable. b. more than one dependent variable. c. more than two levels of the independent variable. d. all of these ANS: A

PTS: 1

REF: Introduction MSC: WWW

2. Between-subjects designs allow the researcher to: a. compare subjects at different points in time. b. factor out changes within subjects. c. compare between different groups of subjects. d. control threats to external validity.

ANS: C

PTS: 1

REF: Between-Subjects Design Terminology

3. In between-subjects designs: a. there are always more than two levels of the independent variable. b. each individual receives only one level of the independent variable. c. different levels of the independent variable are presented to the same group of participants. d. there is always more than one independent variable.

ANS: B

PTS: 1

REF: Between-Subjects Design Terminology

4. In within-subjects designs: a. each individual receives all levels of the independent variable. b. each individual contributes more than one measure of the dependent variable. c. different levels of the independent variable are given to the same group of research participants. d. all of these ANS: D

PTS: 1

REF: Between-Subjects Design Terminology

5. A completely randomized design is: a. a between-subjects design. b. a within-subjects design. c. a correlational design. d. highly susceptible to low interrater reliability.

ANS: A

176

PTS: 1

REF: Completely Randomized Design

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6. In a multileveled completely randomized design: a. there can be two or more levels of the independent variable. b. there is one level of the independent variable. c. there are two dependent variables. d. subjects are assigned to groups based on a scores on a pretest.

ANS: A

PTS: 1

REF: Completely Randomized Design

7. The following is what type of experimental design?

R Group A T (high level) M R Group B T (low level) M a. b. c. d.

completely randomized within-group design multilevel completely randomized design completely randomized design completely multilevel within-group design

ANS: C

PTS: 1

REF: Completely Randomized Design

8. The following is what type of experimental design?

R Group A Level 1 T M R Group B Level 2 T M R Group C Level 3 T M R Group D Level 4 T M a. b. c. d.

completely randomized within-group design multilevel completely randomized design completely randomized design completely multilevel within-group design

ANS: B Design

PTS: 1

REF: Multilevel Completely Randomized

9. The study by Bransford and Johnson is described in the chapter as having a: a. quasi-experimental design. b. within-subjects design. c. completely randomized design. d. multilevel completely randomized design.

ANS: D Design

PTS: 1

REF: Multilevel Completely Randomized

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10. A multilevel completely randomized design is analyzed by using a: a. t-test. b. single-factor ANOVA. c. two-factor ANOVA. d. post hoc test.

ANS: B Design

PTS: 1

REF: Multilevel Completely Randomized

11. The null hypothesis for a three-level design would be: a. Group 1 > Group 2 > Group 3 b. Group 1 < Group 2 < Group 3 c. Group 1 = Group 2 = Group 3 d. Group 1  Group 2  Group 3 ANS: C Design

PTS: 1

REF: Multilevel Completely Randomized

12. In a study with more than two levels of the independent variable, comparisons of pairs of means that are planned before the study is performed are called: a. post hoc tests. b. F tests. c. pretests. d. a priori tests.

ANS: D Design

PTS: 1

REF: Multilevel Completely Randomized

13. Consider an experiment in which research participants were randomly assigned to one of three memory strategy training groups. After two weeks of training, participants were given a memory test. Analysis of variance indicated a significant effect of group. What further test would you perform? a. t-test b. a priori test c. post hoc test d. F test ANS: C Design MSC: WWW

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14. Which of the following is an important statistical prerequisite for applying post hoc tests? a. reject the null hypothesis b. fail to reject the null hypothesis c. p>.05 d. p>.01 ANS: A Design MSC: WWW

PTS: 1

REF: Multilevel Completely Randomized

15. Post hoc tests are not applicable when: a. an experiment only has two conditions b. the null hypothesis is retained c. p>.05 d. all of these ANS: D Design

PTS: 1

REF: Multilevel Completely Randomized

16. Another name for an independent variable is: a. cell. b. factor. c. main effect. d. level.

ANS: B Design MSC: WWW

PTS: 1

REF: Multilevel Completely Randomized

17. A professor was interested in whether caffeine affected test performance. To test this possibility, he gave students a test and asked them whether they had consumed caffeine in the hour before the test. He then compared the performance of those students who had taken caffeine to those who had not. Why is this not a true experiment? a. There are not two levels of the independent variables. b. Participants were not randomly assigned to groups. c. The study was not performed in the laboratory. d. The study lacks external validity.

ANS: B Design

PTS: 1

REF: Multilevel Completely Randomized

18. The type of experimental design that allows us to examine the effects of more than one independent variable both individually and collectively is called: a. between-subjects design. b. multileveled completely randomized design. c. factorial design. d. within-subjects design.

ANS: C

PTS: 1

REF: Factorial Design

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19. If you wanted to examine the difference between students who were exposed to a lab in research methods versus those who were not, and those involved in empirical research versus those who were not, you would use a ____. a. simple randomized design b. single factor multilevel completely randomized design c. factorial design d. Solomon four-group design ANS: C

PTS: 1

REF: Factorial Design

20. In a factorial design, each participant receives: a. a pretest and posttest. b. a specified level of each dependent variable. c. a specified level of one independent variable. d. a specified level of each independent variable ANS: D

PTS: 1

REF: Factorial Design

21. In a 2 X 2 design, an interaction effect occurs when: a. both independent variables have an effect. b. there are no main effects. c. the effect of one independent variable depends on the level of the other independent variable. d. there is a main effect of one independent variable.

ANS: C

PTS: 1

REF: Factorial Design

22. In a 2 X 3 design, there are ____ independent variables. a. 2 b. 3 c. 5 d. 6 ANS: A MSC: WWW

PTS: 1

REF: Factorial Design

23. A researcher wants to test the effects of a drug but suspects it might interact with gender.

She gives men and women either a placebo or one of three doses of the drug (5 mg, 10 mg, or 20 mg). This experiment: a. requires 8 cells. b. is a 2 X 3 design. c. requires 4 cells d. is a 3 X 3 design ANS: A

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REF: Factorial Design

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24. In a 3 X 2 design, there are ____ unique treatment conditions (or cells). a. 2 b. 3 c. 5 d. 6 ANS: D

PTS: 1

REF: Factorial Design

25. In a 2 X 3 X 2 between-subjects design, there are ____ independent variables. a. 2 b. 3 c. 7 d. 12 ANS: B

PTS: 1

REF: Factorial Design

26. In a 2 X 3 design, the number of null hypotheses that must be evaluated is: a. 2 b. 3 c. 5 d. 6 ANS: B

PTS: 1

REF: Factorial Design

27. A 3 X 4 X 2 factorial design will require ____ cells. a. 3 b. 4 c. 9 d. 24 ANS: D MSC: WWW

PTS: 1

REF: Factorial Design

28. In a factorial design, the effects of each individual variable are called: a. main effects. b. interaction effects. c. individual effects. d. additive effects.

ANS: A

PTS: 1

REF: Factorial Design

29. In a 2 X 2 design, cell means represent: a. the effect of one independent variable. b. the effect of one level of one independent variable. c. the combined effect of two independent variables. d. the combined effect of one level of one independent variable and one level of another independent variable.

ANS: D

PTS: 1

REF: Factorial Design

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30. In a factorial design, to determine the effects of each independent variable separately, you should calculate: a. row means. b. column means. c. cell means. d. both row and cell means.

ANS: D PTS: 1 REF: Factorial Designs: The Logic of Experimentation and the Interaction Effect 31. In a 2 X 2 factorial design there are: a. two independent variables. b. two possible main effects. c. one possible interaction effect d. all of these ANS: D PTS: 1 REF: Factorial Designs: The Logic of Experimentation and the Interaction Effect 32. To determine the interaction effect, you calculate: a. row means. b. column means. c. cell means. d. both row and cell means.

ANS: C PTS: 1 REF: Factorial Designs: The Logic of Experimentation and the Interaction Effect 33. When you interpret the results of a factorial experiment, you should always interpret the ____ effect(s) first. a. main b. interaction c. parallel d. independent ANS: B PTS: 1 REF: Factorial Designs: The Logic of Experimentation and the Interaction Effect MSC: WWW 34. In an analysis of variance summary table, MS stands for: a. mean sum. b. mean standard. c. mean square. d. main square.

ANS: C PTS: 1 REF: Factorial Designs: The Logic of Experimentation and the Interaction Effect

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35. In a 2 X 2 factorial design, you would calculate ____ F ratios. a. 1 b. 2 c. 3 d. 4 ANS: C PTS: 1 REF: Factorial Designs: The Logic of Experimentation and the Interaction Effect MSC: WWW 36. In an analysis of variance summary table, MS equals: a. variance. b. SS/df. c. SS/N. d. variance and SS/df.

ANS: D PTS: 1 REF: Factorial Designs: The Logic of Experimentation and the Interaction Effect 37. In an analysis of variance summary table, MS equals: a. standard deviation. b. variance. c. error. d. the interaction.

ANS: B PTS: 1 REF: Factorial Designs: The Logic of Experimentation and the Interaction Effect 38. In a two-factor experiment (Factor A and Factor B), the F value for Factor A equals: a. SSA/dfA b. MSA/MSerror c. SSA/SSerror d. SSA/MSA ANS: B PTS: 1 REF: Factorial Designs: The Logic of Experimentation and the Interaction Effect 39. If there is an interaction in a factorial experiment,: a. there will be at least one main effect. b. there will be two main effects. c. interactions do not occur in factorial designs. d. there will be both at least one main effect and two main effects.

ANS: D PTS: 1 REF: Factorial Designs: The Logic of Experimentation and the Interaction Effect MSC: WWW

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40. When graphing the results of factorial experiments, you should put ____ on the y-axis. a. factor A b. factor B c. either factor A or factor B d. the dependent variable ANS: D PTS: 1 REF: Eight Possible Outcomes of 2 X 2 Factorial Experiments 41. In a 2 x 2 experiment, if you portray the results by using a line graph, an interaction is indicated by: a. parallel lines. b. nonparallel lines. c. superimposed lines. d. none of these ANS: B PTS: 1 REF: Eight Possible Outcomes of 2 X 2 Factorial Experiments 42. If one uses a subject variable in a study, a. the study cannot be a within-subjects design. b. groups are not equal in number at the start of the experiment. c. causality cannot be attributed to the subject variable. d. the logic of experimentation is weakened.

ANS: C PTS: 1 REF: Interpretation of Subject Variables With Factorial Designs MSC: WWW 43. Attributing causality to a subject variable is incorrect because: a. assignment to groups was not random. b. the subjects in each group may have different histories. c. the logic of experimentation is weakened. d. all of these ANS: C PTS: 1 REF: Interpretation of Subject Variables With Factorial Designs

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44. An experimenter was interested in comparing two kinds of marital therapy programs--one that involved individual counseling and one that provided therapy for couples together.

The experimenter also thought that therapy effectiveness might depend on the age of the couples, the number of years they had been married, and whether or not they had any children. Which of the variables in the study is not a subject variable? a. type of therapy b. age c. years married d. children ANS: A PTS: 1 REF: Interpretation of Subject Variables With Factorial Designs 45. Relatively permanent participant characteristics that prevent random assignments are called: a. nonsystematic confounding variables. b. counterbalanced variables. c. subject variables. d. matched variables.

ANS: C PTS: 1 REF: Interpretation of Subject Variables With Factorial Designs 46. Which of the following must be a subject variable? a. hours of studying b. hours of sleep c. gender d. taking a drug or a placebo ANS: C PTS: 1 REF: Interpretation of Subject Variables With Factorial Designs 47. The research conducted by Kitayama on decision making among US and Japanese students illustrates the role that ____ play in research. a. posttests b. subject variables c. matched variables d. nonsystematic confounding variables ANS: B PTS: 1 REF: Interpretation of Subject Variables With Factorial Designs

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48. Which of the following is not an advantage of a factorial design over single-factor designs? a. A factorial design is easier to statistically analyze. b. A factorial design is more economical in terms of numbers of participants. c. A factorial design allows you to determine combined effects of variables. d. A factorial design allows you to examine more than one independent variable at the same time.

ANS: A

PTS: 1

REF: Advantages of Factorial Designs

SHORT ANSWER 1. Contrast a between-subjects design and a within-subjects design.

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

REF: Between-Subjects Design Terminology

2. In a study on the effects of smoking deprivation on memory recall, participants, who all smoked, were randomly assigned to one of four groups: not deprived of smoking, deprived for 4 hours, deprived for 8 hours, deprived for 12 hours. Subjects were then tested for their recall of nonsense syllables learned one hour before. Diagram the design and describe it in words.

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

REF: Completely Randomized Design

3. Describe the advantage of factorial designs over simple designs.

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1 REF: Factorial Designs: The Logic of Experimentation and the Interaction Effect 4. Describe the usefulness of post hoc tests. When should they be used?

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

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5. In a factorial design, why should one interpret interaction effects first?

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1 REF: Factorial Designs: The Logic of Experimentation and the Interaction Effect NARRBEGIN: Scenario 9-1 Scenario 9-1 An experimenter was interested in whether exercise would provide any benefits in the absence of accompanying diet. Participants were randomly assigned to one of four conditions that factorially combined diet/no diet and exercise/no exercise.

NARREND 6. Refer to Scenario 9-1. Diagram this experimental design and describe it in words.

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1 REF: Factorial Designs: The Logic of Experimentation and the Interaction Effect 7. Refer to Scenario 9-1. In the experiment, results indicated that individuals not on a diet lost only two pounds whether or not they exercised. However, individuals who dieted lost 10 pounds if they exercised and 6 pounds if they dieted without exercising. a)

Illustrate these results numerically (i.e. in a 2 X 2 matrix), in a line graph, and in a bar graph. b) Interpret in words the results from the above question.

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

REF: Eight Possible Outcomes of 2 X 2 Factorial Experiments

8. Refer to Scenario 9-1. Suppose the experimenter now wanted to know whether the results of the above study would be the same for men and women. How would you describe this new design? What problems in interpretation might arise?

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

REF: Eight Possible Outcomes of 2 X 2 Factorial Experiments

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9. What is an interaction effect and how is it represented graphically?

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

REF: Eight Possible Outcomes of 2 X 2 Factorial Experiments

10. Describe an experimental scenario where finding an interaction can be very important.

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

REF: Eight Possible Outcomes of 2 X 2 Factorial Experiments

11. What are subject variables and how do they affect the interpretation of results?

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

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Chapter 10 – Extending the Logic of Experimentation: Within-Subjects and Matched Subjects Approaches Chapter Outline Within-Subjects Designs An Illustration of Within-Subjects Research Advantages and Disadvantages of Within-Subjects Designs Counterbalancing Repeated Measures Mixed Designs Matched-Subjects Designs Matching as a Control Procedure Matching as an Experimental Procedure Terminology Chapter Overview In a within-subjects design, there is no control group since the participant’s own performance acts as the comparison; each participant gets each level of the independent variable. There are several advantages, such as smaller treatment effects are needed to reject the null hypothesis because there is less error variance. Disadvantages include the inappropriateness of the design to test for lasting effects and order effects. Types of counterbalancing (e.g., complete, intrasubject, incomplete, Latin squares) can control for order and time. Counterbalancing will not control for a differential order effect.

Repeated measures is a common application of within-subjects designs.

Mixed designs include elements of both within- and between-subjects designs. This requires that error variances be calculated differently since they use different error terms in the F-ratio.

Matched-subjects designs equate groups and reduce the error variance while still including random assignment. In matched-subjects designs, participants are matched using a factor that is highly correlated with the dependent variable. Matched-subjects designs can be used as a control procedure to achieve equal groups. Matching can also be used as a factor in the case of a randomized block design using blocking, stratifying, and leveling.

Chapter Objectives 1.

What are the defining characteristics of the within-subjects design? How is this design different from a between-subjects design?

2.

What is the role of random assignment in within-subjects design?

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3.

How is the within-subjects design more sensitive in terms of decreasing the chance or error variance?

4.

With respect to error variance in the F-ratio, how does this term differ in the withinsubjects design compared to the between-subjects design?

5.

All other things being equal, which is more sensitive to changes in the treatments, the between-subjects design or the within-subjects design?

6.

What is carryover and how does it confound the within-subjects design?

7.

How can carryover be controlled in the within-subjects design?

8.

Under what conditions is the within-subjects design not an appropriate design?

9.

What conditions must be met for complete counterbalancing?

10. How is the repeated measures design used to study the process of learning or practice effects directly in the within-subjects design?

11. What are the characteristics of a mixed design?

12. What are the advantages of using a matched-subjects procedure?

13. Explain the process of matching subjects.

14. Why is the relationship between the variable used for matching and the dependent variable important in order for matching to work?

15. Describe the randomized block design.

16. With respect to matching, distinguish between the terms blocking, stratifying and leveling.

Teaching Points While within-subjects designs are intuitively simple to understand, a potential problem rests in the area of why error variance is reduced. Give concrete examples of the logic described in this chapter. In particular, emphasize Table 10.1 in showing students how the reduced error affects F-ratio in within-groups versus between-group designs.

It bears repeating that counterbalancing does not eliminate order and time effects, but only controls them. Some students may have difficulty understanding how counterbalancing may control for these confounds and what conditions counterbalancing will not control (e.g., differential order effect).

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It is useful to discuss matched designs in the context of between-subjects and withinsubjects designs. Point out that although matched designs are technically betweensubjects, the matching process can yield some of the benefits that within-subjects designs offer.

Teaching Activities Sensitivity of designs Illustrate the greater power or sensitivity of the within-subjects design relative to the between-subjects design by showing the different statistical conclusions that are made in the basketball experiment even though the effect sizes are identical. Discuss with your students the implications of the type of design used in the real world. Given the two different conclusions, pose the question, “Does immediate feedback improve shooting in basketball?”

Within-groups designs Give students some problems to solve regarding within-groups designs. Have students diagram the distribution of participants across cells. Use the web sites described below to find examples. Handout 10-1 may be used to help students analyze the design.

Matched subjects Ask the class to divide themselves into two groups as if to prepare for an experiment that will use matched subjects. Have them match subjects on one characteristic first and then change to another. Ask them to use multiple characteristics and then discuss their strategies and difficulties with this task.

Wadsworth’s Research Methods Workshop http://www.wadsworth.com/psychology_d/templates/student_resources/workshops/resch _wrk.html A relevant section from Wadsworth’s Research Methods Workshop entitled Between Versus Within Designs reviews the pros and cons of between- and within-subjects designs, including the statistical impact of design decisions. Single-factor designs are initially considered, with students being afforded practice in recognizing the impact of the design choice on F-tests, as well as in generating orders of presentation for counterbalancing. Factorial designs are subsequently considered, including a brief review of mixed designs and when they are used. In this section, students are given practice with the recognition of designs from schematic, tabular representations of those designs.

Internet Resources Repeated Measures Calculator (faculty.vassar.edu/lowry/anova2corr.html) This site allows you to input data and it will calculate a summary table.

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Exercises (davidmlane.com/hyperstat/within-subjects.html) There are several good exercises here that give students good practice at within-subjects designs. In particular, use the Stroop dataset and the handedness dataset.

Randomized Block Design (www.menne-biomed.de/statistics/ranblock.html) This will show students how to generate randomized block designs for pharmacological trials.

Repeated Measures Data (http://calcnet.mth.cmich.edu/org/spss/Prj_cancer_data.htm) This site includes a dataset on the oral condition of cancer patients and, if you are using SPSS, a QuickTime movie showing repeated measures analysis.

Research Activities for Students The goals of the research activities are to: (1) relate Chapter 10 on an applied learning dimension, and (2) get you involved in research.

1. Marriage Enrichment Participants: Matching Exercise. Investigators are interested in the effects of marriage enrichment seminars on married couples in stable relationships. The following couples volunteered to participate in the study.

Investigators prescreened the volunteer couples to ensure consistency. In collecting preliminary demographic information from the volunteers it became apparent to the investigators that couples should be matched on the number of years married. This characteristic was highly related to the couple's rating of marriage satisfaction.

Assignment: a. Match the following couples on the number of years married and randomly assign them into Group A, which will receive twelve one-hour marriage enrichment sessions, or Group B, which will meet for twelve one-hour sessions for informal conversation.

Steps to match participants: 1. Organize all couples by number of years married by placing them in rank order from highest to lowest.

2. Pair the couples ranked 1 and 2, 3 and 4, 5 and 6, etc.

3. Randomly assign couples from each pair to either Group A or Group B.

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Couple Number of Years Married A 18 B 42 C 1 D 7 E 26 F 39 G 25 H 3 I 12 J 0 Random Assignment: Group A: Marriage Enrichment

Rank

Group B: Informal Conversation

b. Discuss the advantages and limitations of this design.

2.

Identifying Experimental Designs.

a.

Industrial psychologists were interested in the effects of goal-setting strategies on work productivity. Fifty participants participated in this six-month study. All participants were in middle management positions in computer-oriented firms in the Silicon Valley. Participants were randomly assigned. Group 1 received training on goal setting. Participants in Group 1 were asked to keep daily written logs of work goals and checklists of goals accomplished. Supervisors were asked to verify the checklists of goals accomplished on a weekly basis and to present specific personal feedback. Group 2 received no goal-setting training. They met with their supervisors weekly in regularly scheduled general staff meetings and discussed work-related problems. Supervisors were asked to document the work accomplishments of the participant weekly. Work productivity was rated by both the participants and their supervisors at the end of the six-month study.

Questions: 1. Identify the experimental design.

2. What is the independent variable?

3. What is the dependent variable?

4. Diagram this experimental design.

5. What are the potential confounds?

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b. Investigators were interested in the role of maternal touching on the social behavior of chimpanzees. Chimps were matched by age and then randomly assigned to groups. Group 1 received unlimited maternal touching. Group 2 were raised in complete isolation and received absolutely no maternal touching. Social behavior was measured when chimps were introduced to new social environments with other chimps. Chimps that received no maternal touching displayed significantly greater anti-social behaviors versus those chimps that had received maternal touching. Chimps raised in isolation were self-abusive, and engaged in selfstimulating rocking behaviors.

Questions: 1. Identify the experimental design.

2. What is the independent variable?

3. What is the dependent variable?

4. Diagram this experimental design.

5. What are the potential confounds? c.

Educational psychologists were interested in the impact the "Just Say No!" program and contracts on drunk driving among teens. This program was a pilot program. The investigators identified gender as a participant characteristic highly related to alcohol use among teens that would require a matching strategy and analysis statistically. With the cooperation of school officials, 16-year-old students were matched and randomly assigned with equal numbers of males and females in each group. Group A participated in a "Just Say No!" program, which required a one-hour information session instead of P.E. for six weeks. Students were presented with written factual information, motivational lectures, guidance films, and assertiveness training. Students were also encouraged to sign a personal responsibility contract that stipulated that they would not drink and drive. Group B participated in regular P. E. classes for the six-week experimental period. A twofactor factorial analysis was used to analyze for the main effect of the program factor, the main effect of the gender factor, and the interaction.

Questions: 1. Identify the experimental design.

2. What is the independent variable?

3. What is the dependent variable?

4. Diagram this experimental design.

5. What are the potential confounds?

3.

Hyperactive Children and Effective Interventions. Assess carryover. Make treatment order an independent variable: Another way to deal with carryover is to measure it by making treatment order an independent variable.

Make treatment order an independent variable for a within-subjects design that includes two levels of treatment for participants with attention deficit disorder: (A1) prescription of and (A2) behavior therapy. Subjects' were six-year old boys.

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Hyperactive behavior was measured over two six-month treatment periods by teachers using a standardized rating scale. Higher scores indicate a greater number of observed hyperactive behaviors.

Graph these findings. What are your conclusions? Is there any evidence of a carryover effect?

A1(Ritalin)

A2(Behavior Therapy)

Order of Treatment

4.

B1 (A1- A2)

60

20

B2 (A2 - A1)

20

20

Japanese versus American Students on Math/Science Competence.

Mixed Design: The United States Department of Education has become increasingly concerned over the inferior performance of American children as compared to Japanese children in academic areas such as math and science. As a result, the U.S. federal government has agreed to fund a research project examining the effects of U.S. versus Asian teaching practices on the national standardized test scores of American children in the areas of math and science over a one-month period. You, as the principal investigator, have been asked to develop an experiment using a mixed design to study this issue.

Discuss and diagram the specifics of this study. Specify both the between-subjects factor and within-subjects factor as well as the dependent variables. Discuss possible effects and the interpretation of such effects, provide information regarding statistical analysis, and discuss limitations of the study as well as suggestions for improvement.

5.

Memory and Music. Repeated measures versus between-subjects design.

Compare how many items can be remembered while listening to loud music versus silence. Demonstrate the differences between a repeated measures design (N=5) and a between-subjects design (N=10). Conduct a repeated measures study, and a between-subjects design. Compare the strengths and limitations of the two designs.

Explore Infotrac to find articles related to music and memory and cite these in your discussion.

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Handout 10-1 Within-groups design Citation

Design Diagram

Independent Variable(s):

Dependent Variable(s):

Results:

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TESTBANK MULTIPLE CHOICE 1. The design below best illustrates which of the following designs?

R Group 1 Level 1 M R Group 2 Level 2 M a. b. c. d.

between-subjects design repeated measures design quasi-experimental design within-subjects design

ANS: A

PTS: 1

REF: Introduction

2. In a within-subjects design, who receives all levels of the independent variable? a. every participant b. those participants randomly assigned to groups c. only those assigned to the control group d. only those assigned to the experimental group ANS: A MSC: WWW

PTS: 1

REF: Within-Subjects Designs

3. The design below best illustrates which of the following designs?

R Participant 1 to 10 Level 1 M R Participant 1 to 10 Level 2 M a. b. c. d.

between-subjects design correlational design quasi-experimental design within-subjects design

ANS: D

PTS: 1

REF: Within-Subjects Designs

4. Why can we be certain that the groups are exactly the same before the treatment has begun? a. the independent variable is operationally defined b. the same participants are used in each group c. random assignment is used to assign participants d. random selection is used to assigned participants ANS: B

PTS: 1

REF: Within-Subjects Designs

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5. Which of the following methods will create groups that are the most equivalent at the start of an experiment? a. random assignment b. matching c. within-subjects design d. counterbalancing ANS: C

PTS: 1

REF: Within-Subjects Designs

6. Within-subjects designs are good for: a. equating groups b. reducing error variance c. increasing the sensitivity of a study d. all of these ANS: D MSC: WWW

PTS: 1

REF: Within-Subjects Designs

7. The design that allows for the greatest reduction of error variance is: a. within-subjects. b. between-subjects. c. completely randomized. d. factorial.

ANS: A

PTS: 1

REF: Within-Subjects Designs

8. Another term for error variance is: a. within-subjects variance b. between-groups variance. c. systematic variance. d. within-groups variance.

ANS: D

PTS: 1

REF: Within-Subjects Designs

9. In a within-subjects design: a. each participant serves as his or her own control. b. participants receive only one level of the independent variable. c. between-group variance does not equal error variance at the start of an experiment. d. groups are not equated at the start of the experiment.

ANS: A

PTS: 1

REF: Within-Subjects Designs

10. A within-subjects design is more sensitive than a between-subjects design because: a. there are fewer participants. b. there is less error variance. c. there are fewer degrees of freedom. d. all of these ANS: B

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REF: Within-Subjects Designs

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11. In a within-subjects design, as compared to a between-subjects design, you are: a. less likely to reject the null hypothesis. b. more likely to make a Type II error. c. more likely to obtain a small F ratio. d. more likely to obtain a large F ratio.

ANS: D MSC: WWW

PTS: 1

REF: Within-Subjects Designs

12. In a within-subjects design: a. larger effect sizes are needed to reject the null hypothesis. b. smaller treatment differences are needed to reject the null hypothesis. c. a smaller F is needed to reject the null hypothesis. d. the variability of scores in each condition is reduced.

ANS: B

PTS: 1

REF: Within-Subjects Designs

13. Which of the following best illustrates why would we expect a reduction of error variance in a within-subjects design? a. Stephen's behavior in situations A, B, and C is more similar than Mary's, Kevin's, and Stuart's behaviors in situation X, Y, and Z. b. Stephen's behavior in situations A, B, and C is less similar than Mary's, Kevin's, and Stuart behaviors in situations X, Y, and Z. c. Stephen's behavior in situation A is similar to Mary's, Kevin's, and Stuart's behaviors in situation A. d. Stephen's behavior in situation A is not similar to Mary's, Kevin's, and Stuart behaviors in situation A. ANS: A

PTS: 1

REF: Within-Subjects Designs

14. The reason for statistically less error variance in within-subjects designs is: a. less variability within each of the two groups. b. smaller treatment differences. c. individual differences are removed from the error variance. d. all of these ANS: C

PTS: 1

REF: Within-Subjects Designs

15. The chapter describes an example of a within-subjects study examining miscalculation of space perception in airline pilots. What was the dependent variable? a. amount of landing error b. type of aircraft simulated c. years of experience as a pilot d. number of lights on the runway in the simulation ANS: A

PTS: 1

REF: Within-Subjects Designs

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16. What effect do within-subjects designs have on the number of research participants? a. It increases the number needed since the error variance increases. b. It increases the number needed because the F ratio tends to be larger. c. It reduces the number needed since each participant serves as her own control. d. It reduces the number needed since most studies of this type are concerned with populations that are small.

ANS: C

PTS: 1

REF: Within-Subjects Designs

17. Under what condition would a within-subjects design not be appropriate? a. when participants can serve as their own comparison b. when the treatment is expected to have a lasting effect on the participants c. when there are few potential participants d. when treatment effects are likely to be large ANS: B MSC: WWW

PTS: 1

REF: Within-Subjects Designs

18. Which of the following is not an advantage of the within-subjects design? a. It has greater statistical power b. It uses fewer participants c. It increases the size of the F ratio d. It is most appropriate when the treatment has a lasting effect ANS: D

PTS: 1

REF: Within-Subjects Designs

19. What effect do within-subjects designs have on F ratios? a. F ratios are more sensitive to changes in the treatments b. F ratios are less sensitive to changes in the treatments c. F ratios tend to be smaller d. There is no effect on F ratios.

ANS: A

PTS: 1

REF: Within-Subjects Designs

20. A researcher wants to conduct an experiment that uses a 2 X 3 X 3 design and requires ten participants in each cell. ____ participants would be needed for a between-subjects design but only ____ would be needed if a within-subjects design is used. a. Eight, five b. Eighteen, ten c. Eight, three d. Twenty-four, eight ANS: B

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21. If a treatment has a permanent effect on people, then it is inappropriate to use a ____ design. a. between-subjects b. within-subjects c. naturalistic observation d. completely randomized ANS: B

PTS: 1

REF: Within-Subjects Design

22. Likely confounds in a within-subjects design are: a. order effects. b. carryover effects. c. time-related effects. d. all of these ANS: D

PTS: 1

REF: Within-Subjects Designs

23. If practice of experimental tasks leads to an increase in performance by participants, ____ are said to have occurred. a. carryover effects b. order effects c. time-related effects d. counterbalancing effects ANS: B MSC: WWW

PTS: 1

REF: Within-Subjects Designs

24. ____ effects refer to any increases or decreases in performance due to continued repetition of tasks. a. Order b. Counterbalanced c. Matched d. Mixed ANS: A

PTS: 1

REF: Within-Subjects Designs

25. In the within-subjects design, the effects of treatment order can be controlled by: a. matching. b. counterbalancing. c. blocking. d. repeated measures.

ANS: B

PTS: 1

REF: Within-Subjects Designs

EXTENDING THE LOGIC OF EXPERIMENTATION: WITHIN-SUBJECTS 201 AND MATCHED SUBJECTS APPROACHES

26. The procedure that eliminates order and time effects is: a. intrasubject counterbalancing. b. intragroup counterbalancing. c. complete counterbalancing. d. none of these ANS: D

PTS: 1

REF: Within-Subjects Designs

27. For complete counterbalancing: a. order and time effects must be eliminated. b. each condition must occur equally often. c. each condition must precede and follow all other conditions an equal number of times. d. each condition must occur equally often and precede and follow all other conditions an equal number of times.

ANS: D

PTS: 1

REF: Within-Subjects Designs

28. If complete counterbalancing is used for a three condition experiment, there will be ____ possible orders. a. three b. four c. five d. six ANS: D MSC: WWW

PTS: 1

REF: Within-Subjects Designs

29. When is incomplete counterbalancing most appropriate? a. when there is a small number of conditions b. when there is a large number of conditions c. when there is a small sample size d. when there is a large sample size ANS: B

PTS: 1

REF: Within-Subjects Designs

30. A Latin square design is a special case of: a. complete counterbalancing. b. incomplete counterbalancing. c. a between-subjects design. d. a mixed design.

ANS: B

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31. The procedure that eliminates differential order effects is: a. intrasubject counterbalancing. b. intragroup counterbalancing. c. complete counterbalancing. d. none of these ANS: D

PTS: 1

REF: Within-Subjects Designs

32. In a mixed design: a. one variable is manipulated between subjects and one variable is manipulated within subjects. b. all variables are counterbalanced. c. participants are matched on one variable only. d. matching is used as a control procedure.

ANS: A

PTS: 1

REF: Mixed Designs

33. In a mixed design: a. you do not need to counterbalance. b. you do not have to worry about order effects. c. error variances of the between and within comparisons are calculated differently. d. all participants are not randomly assigned to conditions.

ANS: C

PTS: 1

REF: Mixed Designs

34. Matched-subjects procedures reduce error variance: a. more than between-subjects designs. b. more than within-subjects designs. c. less than between-subjects designs. d. as much as within-subjects designs.

ANS: A MSC: WWW

PTS: 1

REF: Matched-Subjects Designs

35. In a matched-subjects procedure, participants are matched on a variable that: a. is highly correlated with the independent variable. b. is highly correlated with the dependent variable. c. is uncorrelated with the dependent variable. d. is not confounding.

ANS: A

PTS: 1

REF: Matched-Subjects Designs

36. When matching is used as a control procedure, assignment of participants to groups is: a. not random. b. random. c. counterbalanced. d. controlled.

ANS: B

PTS: 1

REF: Matched-Subjects Designs

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37. The design below best illustrates which of the following designs?

MR Group 1 Level 1 M MR Group 2 Level 2 M a. b. c. d.

between-subjects design repeated measures design quasi-experimental design matched-subjects design

ANS: D

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38. If matching is used as an experimental procedure, then the: a. matching variable is analyzed. b. matching variable is not analyzed. c. procedure is called a randomized block design. d. matching variable is analyzed and the procedure is called a randomized block design.

ANS: D

PTS: 1

REF: Matched-Subjects Designs

39. When matching is used as an experimental procedure, the effect of the matching variable: a. is randomized. b. is eliminated. c. cannot be interpreted causally. d. is counterbalanced.

ANS: C MSC: WWW

PTS: 1

REF: Matched-Subjects Designs

40. Matched subjects procedures are: a. more sensitive than within-subjects designs. b. equally as sensitive as within-subjects designs. c. more sensitive than between-subjects designs. d. less sensitive than between-subjects designs.

ANS: C

PTS: 1

REF: Matched-Subjects Designs

41. One advantage of a matched subjects design is: a. individuals do not have to be randomly assigned. b. everything is automatically counterbalanced. c. that error variance is decreased. d. there are no individual differences.

ANS: C

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42. In a randomized block design, the term blocking is usually used when matching is on a(n): a. nominal scale. b. ordinal scale. c. interval scale. d. ratio scale.

ANS: A MSC: WWW

PTS: 1

REF: Matched-Subjects Designs

43. In a randomized block design, subjects are matched on gender. Since gender is measured on a nominal scale, ____ was used in matching participants. a. leveling b. stratifying c. counterbalancing d. blocking ANS: D

PTS: 1

REF: Matched-Subjects Designs

44. In a randomized block design, the term ____ is usually used when matching is on interval or ratio scales. a. blocking b. leveling c. stratifying d. equating ANS: B MSC: WWW

PTS: 1

REF: Matched-Subjects Designs

SHORT ANSWER 1. Compare and contrast within-subject designs and between-subjects designs in the context of a study examining the effects of computer screen size on eye fatigue.

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

REF: Within-Subjects Designs

2. Explain why it takes smaller treatment differences to reject the null hypothesis. Make sure you include a reference to the error variance.

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

REF: Within-Subjects Designs

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3. Discuss the logic of experimentation with respect to within-subjects designs and the statistical decision process.

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

REF: Within-Subjects Designs

4. Under what conditions would you use a within-subjects design rather than a betweensubjects design? Why? ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

REF: Within-Subjects Designs

5. Discuss the types of counterbalancing and how they control order and time effects.

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

REF: Within-Subjects Designs

6. Describe how and why you would use counterbalancing in examining the effects of color on heart rate.

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

REF: Within-Subjects Designs

7. Describe the mixed design and its implication for the calculation of the F-ratio.

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

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8. An experimenter was interested in the effects of reward on performance in basketball shooting. Ten male and ten female individuals who had not played basketball before were selected for participation in the study. For the first 10 shots, they earned 5 cents for each basket; for the next 10 shots they earned 1 dollar per basket; for the final 10 shots, they were awarded 5 dollars per basket. Results indicated that females scored more baskets than males that all participants scored more baskets when given greater rewards, and that males' performance improved to a greater degree than females' as reward level increased.

What is (are) the independent variable(s) in this study?

What type of experimental design was used in this study?

What is the most likely confound present in this study?

How would you control for that confound?

Graph the results and interpret them in words.

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

REF: Mixed Designs

9. An experimenter was interested in discovering which one of two reading programs was more effective for dyslexic children. What type of design would not be appropriate for this study and why not?

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

REF: Mixed Designs

10. Matched-subjects designs have some advantages over both within-subjects designs and between-subjects designs.

Under what conditions would you choose a matched-subjects design rather than a withinsubjects design?

What are the advantages of the matched-subjects design compared to a between-subjects design?

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

REF: Matched-Subjects Designs

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11. How are matched-subjects designs similar to both within-subjects and between-subjects designs.

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

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Chapter 11 – The Ecology of the Experiment: The Scientist and Research Participant in Relation to Their Environments Chapter Outline Ecology Experimenter Factors Biased Data Collection Biased Interactions With Research Participants Some Ways to Avoid Experimenter Bias Subject Factors Placebo Factors Demand Characteristics Cultural and Social Bias Chapter Overview Context refers to the setting in which research is conducted. There are limitations within this context that affect science and some of these limitations can be controlled. The interactive relationships between the scientist, research participant, and the experimental situation can be examined. For instance, the location in which the study occurs is important. To determine ecological validity, these relationships must be considered.

Biases can be introduced into an experiment by the experimenter. Experimenter effects also occur when participants are unintentionally influenced by the experimenter. In collecting data, the experimenter’s personal equation may influence observation, which may be evident in interrater reliability. The outcome of an experiment can also be unintentionally influenced by the experimenter (e.g., accepting or discarding data). Even fraud, such as in the case of Burt and Levy, demonstrates how experimenters can intentionally misinterpret or misreport their findings. Bias can also be introduced in the way the experimenter interacts with participants with regard to expectations and communication. This is also problematic in overintrepreting animal language and animal consciousness. There are several ways to avoid experimenter bias and these include using several experimenters, blind designs, and viewing the experimenter from different perspectives.

Subject factors represent another source of bias in that subjects may not behave in the way that they are expected. In the Hawthorne effect, attention given to subjects was sufficient to produce effects stronger than the independent variables. Researchers must recognize that experimental participants are active, creative, complex human beings who may not follow the instructions or second-guess the experimenter by acting in a certain way. Moreover, the placebo effect and demand characteristics may influence participants. Placebo effects refer to how some people show changes just from the suggestion that a change will occur.

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Researchers often use a double-blind design, where neither participant nor researcher would know to which group the participant is assigned, to control for placebo effects.

Demand characteristics are said to be present when the participant’s behavior is influenced more by the research setting than by the independent variable. Scientific research is also influenced by shared cultural view and worldview. Changes in paradigm affect how scientists see the world.

Chapter Objectives 1.

Explain the importance of the cultural context in which research takes place.

2.

Contrast the perspectives of the scientist, participant, and witness in science.

3.

Compare the Leipzig and Paris models. How are these models important to American psychological research?

4.

Discuss the relationship between the social structure of an experimental situation and the type of information that is generated.

5.

Relate the term "ecology" to the research setting.

6.

What are experimenter effects? How do they threaten validity?

7.

Explain the personal equation in psychological research.

8.

Name two measures that are available for assessing the consistency of multiple observers in experimentation?

9.

What are examples of experimenter bias? How can experimenter bias be avoided?

10. How can subject factors bias an investigation?

11. How prevalent are placebo effects?

12. Distinguish between a "blind" study and a "double blind" study.

13. How do demand characteristics threaten validity?

14. Why is it important to consider paradigms with respect to the interpretation of research?

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Teaching Points For many students, this chapter is an eye-opener to how susceptible the scientific enterprise actually is to bias. Sometimes students assume that scientists are above all that and operate in objective ways. Make sure you stress that, even though scientific fraud does occur, the majority of scientists follow rigorous procedures and are above reproach.

Students often do not appreciate the fallibility of observers and believe that objectivity is rather easily achieved. They also have little awareness of the importance of consistency in an experiment as a way to avoid systematic biases. To emphasize how culture influences our perceptions, share with students examples of culture-specific abnormality.

Use the example of Clever Hans to illustrate how an experimenter may unwittingly introduce bias.

Placebo effects are often not fully understood by students, who mistakenly think they can be eliminated. It may help to stress that by giving the control group a placebo and using a double-blind design, control is gained and any resulting significant differences can point towards the effect of the independent variable.

Take this opportunity to emphasize the inherent variability of individuals. Not everyone behaves identically and we should therefore view results that are extremely similar across individuals with some skepticism. At the same time, we need to try to ensure that participants in an experiment are treated consistently so that commonalities in behavior will not be masked by differences in expectations and perceptions of research participants.

Teaching Activities Placebo effects in drugs To illustrate the placebo effect, bring to class a print ad found in the popular media for a drug (e.g., Celebrex, Zyrtec). In the detailed information, you will find summaries of clinical studies that use placebo control groups. Show students how placebo can often “cause” physiological and psychological effects.

Experimenter factors Divide the class into small groups of two to four students. Each member of the groups should independently observe and code instances of some form of behavior. Have the members of each group report problems they encountered coding the behaviors and calculate interrater reliability. Here are some possible behaviors to observe and code:  violence on TV news or cartoons  stopping at stop sign  door holding behavior  social interactions  seating positions in an eating area  risk-taking by children in a playground THE ECOLOGY OF THE EXPERIMENT: THE SCIENTIST AND RESEARCH PARTICIPANT IN RELATION TO THEIR ENVIRONMENTS

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Sources of biases Give each student a copy of Handout 11-1. For each source of bias, they are to provide a description and an example cited in the chapter.

Ecology of the experiment Present a description of an experiment to initiate a discussion about experimental ecology. Modify the description so that characteristics of the experimenter, participants, and situation change. Ask students to predict the possible effects of those changes on the outcome of the experiment.

Wadsworth’s Research Methods Workshop http://www.wadsworth.com/psychology_d/templates/student_resources/workshops/resch _wrk.html The Wadsworth’s Research Methods Workshop web site includes a workshop entitled Controls that contains information on how to eliminate factors that jeopardize the validity of research conclusions. The workshop begins by reviewing general strategies to achieve control, such as preparation of the research setting and random assignment of participants to experimental groups. Students are given practice in recognizing factors that introduce bias into a study. Single-blind and double-blind procedures, as well as ethical issues regarding deception, are also discussed.

Internet Resources Mayoism (www.accel-team.com/motivation/hawthorne_01.html) This site describes a philosophy of management that comes from Elton Mayo’s Hawthorne Effect.

The Nocebo Effect (www.celebration.md/news%20stories/nocebo%20effect.htm) (www.washingtonpost.com/ac2/wp-dyn/A2709-2002Apr29) You will find a descriptions of the nocebo effect, a complementary effect to the placebo effect where the person’s negative expectations impairs health and recovery.

Diagnosing Mental Disorders (vinst.umdnj.edu/VAID/TestReport.asp?Code=RBPC) (buros.unl.edu/buros/jsp/search.jsp) Nowhere is interrater reliability more important than in the diagnosis of mental disorders as when multiple clinicians are assessing and treating individuals. Consider locating a paper-pencil rating scale to illustrate the importance of Interrater reliability.

Scientific Fraud (http://www.files.chem.vt.edu/chem-ed/ethics/index.html) A number of links regarding fraud and misconduct are included at this site, including essays on the types and consequences of fraud.

Experimenter Effects (http://skepdic.com/experimentereffect.html)

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This site addresses many aspects of experimenter effects. It also contains links to related sites and provides some suggested additional readings.

Suggested Readings Rosenthal, R., & Rosnow, R.L. (1975). The volunteer subject. New York: John Wiley & Sons.

Research Activities for Students The goals of the research activities are to: (1) relate Chapter 11 on an applied learning dimension, and (2) get you involved in research.

1.

The Volunteer Bias. Explore online references such as PsycINFO and PubMed to find the work of Rosenthal and Rosnow (1975) on the characteristics of the volunteer participant. In your workbook make a chart of Volunteer Characteristics and Situational Factors that might affect an individual's decision to volunteer for research. Rosenthal and Rosnow listed these characteristics in order of Maximum Confidence and Considerable Confidence. a. List the characteristics of individuals who volunteer, according to Rosenthal and Rosnow (1975). b. List the situational factors that may affect an individual's decision to volunteer for research participation, according to Rosenthal and Rosnow (1975). c. Discuss how you might reduce the volunteer bias.

A. VOLUNTEER CHARACTERISTICS Maximum Confidence 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Considerable Confidence 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

B. SITUATIONAL FACTORS Maximum Confidence

Considerable Confidence

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

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2.

Content Analysis of Violence on Network News. Work with a partner and observe news programs for one week. Decide on particular news programs, observation dates, and times. a. Find at least three journal articles using online references such as PsycINFO and PubMed related to this topic. List the articles in your workbook following APA guidelines. b. Operationally define violence so that you and your partner will be able to accurately observe and measure it when viewing a news program. Write your operational definition in your workbook. c. Design a coding sheet in your workbook. Include the date, the news program, and the categories you used to tally your observations of violence. You may also wish to include context information like whom the violence was against: men, women, children, animals, nature, etc. Further, you may wish to record the media's ethnic representation of who perpetrates violence. d. Observe and collect data. Calculate means and standard deviations. e. Discuss any problems incurred in this investigation.

3.

Calculate Interrater Reliability. Using the data from the content analysis of sexism on commercials during TV talk shows, calculate the interrater reliability between the observations of you and your colleague. Your instructor will advise you on his/her preferred method of calculating interrater reliability. Two commonly used statistics for determining interrater reliability are the Pearson's Product Moment Correlation Coefficient (r), and Cohen's Kappa (Bakeman & Gottman, l989).

According to Bakeman and Gottman (1989) a calculated .70 relationship or greater is an acceptable index of interrater reliability. Calculate interrater reliability and show your work. How does your calculated r compare to the recommendations of Bakeman and Gottman?

4.

Obesity, Weight Loss and Experimenter Effects. Recognizing that many of her middle-aged male patients were overweight, a physician decided that she would attempt to determine the most effective method for facilitating weight loss in her clients. After making a list of all of her overweight clients, she selected 10 men for each of the following three groups based on their personality characteristics and her belief that they would be more likely to adhere to a specific condition. Group 1 would be given a 3 week supply of appetite suppressants. Group 2 would be given a list of the specific meals, snacks, and fluids that they should consume each day over the following 3 week period. Group 3 would be given a placebo pill that looked and tasted precisely like the appetite suppressant given to Group 1. In regards to Groups 1 and 2, whom she considered to possess great self-discipline and internal motivation, she met with those patients every day for 15 minutes each and lavished considerable praise on them for any weight loss demonstrated.

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Due to the fact that she reserved Group 3 for patients she believed to possess little self-discipline or desire to lose the excess weight, the daily meetings entailed a weigh-in and a self-recording of their weight on a chart. At the end of the three week period, results revealed that groups 1 and 2 lost an average of 6.5 and 6.2 pounds, respectively. Group 3 lost an average of 1.5 pounds over this time period.

Discuss the possible explanations for these findings. Identify the limitations/confounds of the study. Redesign the study to control for or eliminate the problems identified.

5.

Cultural and Social Bias. Which of the following are universal across all cultures?

Define these constructs within your culture. Compare how these constructs are defined in other cultures using online references such as PsycINFO and PubMed . a. Time b. Change c. Independence d. Feminism e. Stress f. Success

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Handout 11-1 Sources of Bias Source of bias

Description

Biased data collection

Biased interaction with research participants

Hawthorne effect

Placebo effect

Demand characteristics

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Cited Example

TESTBANK MULTIPLE CHOICE 1. Because culture shapes the way we view the world, it is important to: a. define constructs operationally. b. perform experiments only in your own culture. c. study only culturally relevant topics. d. select participants from your own culture.

ANS: A

PTS: 1

REF: Introduction MSC: WWW

2. One perspective argues that all human experimentation is really a(n): a. attempt to know the unknown. b. exercise in defining the vague in concrete ways. c. social event. d. theoretical leap of faith.

ANS: C

PTS: 1

REF: Introduction

3. The Leipzig model of research involved ____, while the Paris model emphasized ____. a. quasi-experimentation; experimentation b. little distinction between participant and researcher; clear distinction between participant and researcher c. operational definitions; introspection d. clear distinction between participant and researcher; little distinction between participant and researcher ANS: B

PTS: 1

REF: Introduction

4. The Leipzig model was typified by the research of ____. a. Danziger b. Wundt c. Petrinovich d. none of these ANS: B

PTS: 1

REF: Introduction

5. "I want to examine my subjective reactions to environmental variables." This statement best demonstrates the ____ model. a. Leipzig b. Paris c. Geneva d. London ANS: A

PTS: 1

REF: Introduction

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6. According to Danziger, which model of ecology has most influenced experimentation in American psychology? a. Geneva b. Leipzig c. Paris d. London ANS: C

PTS: 1

REF: Introduction

7. Between-subjects and within-subjects designs are most consistent with the ____ model of ecology. a. Geneva b. Leipzig c. London d. Paris ANS: D

PTS: 1

REF: Introduction MSC: WWW

8. The term that refers to the relationship between organisms and their environment is called: a. ethology. b. ecology. c. etymology. d. entomology.

ANS: B

PTS: 1

REF: Ecology

9. Ecology of the psychological experiment is concerned with the interactions among: a. scientist, participant, and situation b. scientist, participant, and witness c. context, culture, and environment d. two or more independent variables ANS: A

PTS: 1

REF: Ecology

10. Ecological validity can be threatened by: a. experimenter bias. b. the Hawthorne effect. c. demand characteristics. d. all of these ANS: D

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PTS: 1

REF: Ecology

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11. Biased data collection is an example of: a. demand characteristics. b. ecological invalidity. c. experimenter effects. d. the Hawthorne effect.

ANS: C

PTS: 1

REF: Experimenter Factors

12. Different experimenters observe the world in different ways. This is referred to as: a. ecological validity. b. contextual bias. c. the personal equation. d. biased interaction.

ANS: C

PTS: 1

REF: Experimenter Factors

13. Differences in the observations of different scientists may be due to: a. physiological differences. b. psychological differences. c. individual differences. d. all of these ANS: D MSC: WWW

PTS: 1

REF: Experimenter Factors

14. If there are multiple observers used in experimental design, it is especially important to: a. operationally define variables and provide training. b. reduce within-subjects error. c. counterbalance. d. control the ecology of the design.

ANS: A

PTS: 1

REF: Experimenter Factors

15. One way to minimize biased data collection in an experiment is to use: a. correlational techniques. b. multiple observers. c. counterbalancing. d. all of these ANS: B

PTS: 1

REF: Experimenter Factors

16. The consistency of observations across different individuals is evaluated by using: a. interrater reliability. b. correlation. c. Cohen's Kappa. d. all of these ANS: A

PTS: 1

REF: Experimenter Factors

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17. The higher the correlation between the ratings of two independent observers in an experiment: a. the less the ratings represent inconsistent subjective factors of the raters. b. the more the ratings represent inconsistent subjective factors of the raters. c. the less the ratings represent consistent subjective factors of the raters. d. None of these ANS: A

PTS: 1

REF: Experimenter Factors

18. To correct for the possibility that a high interrater reliability is actually due to different but consistent ratings from raters, a statistic called ____ can be used. a. counterbalancing b. multiple time series c. Pearson's r d. Cohen's kappa ANS: D

PTS: 1

REF: Experimenter Factors

19. Psychologists report that if a single recording error is made by an experimenter, it is usually: a. an error that would lead to the failure to reject the null hypothesis. b. in support of the experimental hypothesis. c. due to fraud. d. due to the personal equation.

ANS: B

PTS: 1

REF: Experimenter Factors

20. The case of Samuel George Morton is strong evidence that: a. randomized sampling is important. b. a scientist can subtly influence the outcome of an experiment. c. placebo effects cannot be controlled. d. the performance of participants can be influenced by the experimenter's nonverbal communication.

ANS: B MSC: WWW

PTS: 1

REF: Experimenter Factors

21. The cases of Cyril Burt and Walter Levy illustrate: a. the influence of Hawthorne effect. b. the Paris model. c. outright fraud. d. what can happen when a scientist's culture influences research.

ANS: C

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REF: Experimenter Factors

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22. Ecological validity may be threatened by the: a. experimenter's expectations. b. experimenter's personality. c. experimenter's research assistant. d. all of these ANS: D

PTS: 1

REF: Experimenter Factors

23. Fudging the data refers to: a. unintentional altering of experimental results. b. intentional altering of experimental results. c. the tendency to see data as supporting your hypothesis. d. errors in statistical analysis of data.

ANS: B

PTS: 1

REF: Experimenter Factors

24. In studying animals, overinterpreting issues such as animal language or animal consciousness can: a. increase the need for a double blind design. b. increase external validity. c. divert the discussion from breakthroughs in our understanding of animal cognition. d. open doors of new, innovative research designs.

ANS: C

PTS: 1

REF: Experimenter Factors

25. Which of the following is not a way of avoiding experimenter bias? a. use several different experimenters b. test in several different situations c. use a placebo condition d. looking at the experiment from different perspectives ANS: C MSC: WWW

PTS: 1

REF: Experimenter Factors

26. To reduce bias, Barber suggests that ____ should specify exactly what ____ should and should not do. a. subjects; participants b. ethical guidelines; subjects c. those who plan studies; those that run those studies d. psychologists; scientists ANS: C

PTS: 1

REF: Box 11.1

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27. As a suggestion to improve research, Barber advises that it is important for students to learn that: a. one study is sufficient and that replication has limited value. b. good research methods are invaluable in answering questions. c. science requires flexibility and therefore the steps of the scientific method are too restrictive. d. finding significant results is the real purpose of conducting science.

ANS: B

PTS: 1

REF: Box 11.1

28. A scientist can subtly influence the outcome of an experiment by making biased decisions about: a. unintended variations in the experiment that tend to favor the hypothesis b. whether to accept or discard a participant's data c. conducting unplanned ad hoc analyses d. all of these ANS: A

PTS: 1

REF: Subject Factors

29. You are discussing a study that is currently being conducted. The experimenter mentions that the subjects are not acting in the way that was expected. You suggest that there may be ____ operating in the study. a. subject factors b. Type I errors c. randomized variables d. ex post facto variables ANS: A MSC: WWW

PTS: 1

REF: Subject Factors

30. Participant biases may be introduced into an experiment because: a. participants are anxious or negative about participating. b. participants are intentionally trying to sabotage the experiment. c. participants are trying to please the experimenter. d. all of these ANS: D

PTS: 1

REF: Subject Factors

31. Research participants' performance may be altered as a result of special attention given to them rather than because of any effect of the independent variable. This is called: a. the Hawthorne effect b. the placebo effect c. demand characteristics d. a cultural effect ANS: A PTS: 1 TOP: Subject Factors

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REF: Subject Factors

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32. The Hawthorne effect is so named because: a. it was examined by Daniel Hawthorne. b. an experiment took place at the Hawthorne plant of Western Electric. c. it describes the behavior of a Greek mythical figure that is similar to how the experimenter might behave. d. it describes the behavior of a Greek mythical figure that is similar to how subjects might behave.

ANS: B

PTS: 1

REF: Subject Factors

33. To control for the Hawthorne effect, you need: a. more than one observer. b. a control group that is not given special attention. c. a control group that is given special treatment but does not get the experimental treatment. d. a placebo group.

ANS: C MSC: WWW

PTS: 1

REF: Subject Factors

34. The reason for including a placebo group in a drug study is to control for: a. experimenter bias. b. physiological effects of the drug. c. participants' expectations of change. d. the experimenter being blind.

ANS: C

PTS: 1

REF: Subject Factors

35. The placebo effect is: a. purely psychological in origin. b. purely physiological in origin. c. both psychological and physiological in origin. d. not real.

ANS: C

PTS: 1

REF: Subject Factors

36. If the experimenter knows which treatments the participants have been administered, but the participants do not, the study is called: a. blind. b. double blind. c. placebo. d. invalid.

ANS: A

PTS: 1

REF: Subject Factors

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37. An experiment in which neither the experimenter nor the participants knows which treatment has been administrated to the participant is called: a. blind. b. double blind. c. placebo. d. invalid.

ANS: B MSC: WWW

PTS: 1

REF: Subject Factors

38. The best way to control for the placebo effect is to use: a. counterbalancing. b. a within-subjects design. c. a double-blind procedure. d. a between-subjects design.

ANS: C

PTS: 1

REF: Subject Factors

39. When participants in an experiment behave in a way that they think is expected by the experimental situation, they are responding to: a. the Hawthorne effect. b. demand characteristics. c. experimenter bias. d. the independent variable.

ANS: B

PTS: 1

REF: Subject Factors

40. Demand characteristics can result from all of the following except: a. the experimental situation. b. expectations. c. cultural bias. d. faking.

ANS: C

PTS: 1

REF: Subject Factors

41. Demand characteristics that are especially strong may introduce error and thus threaten: a. internal validity. b. placebo factors. c. the Hawthorne effect. d. interrater reliability.

ANS: A

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REF: Subject Factors

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42. Upon entering an experimental session, participants were greeted by a student investigator who wore jeans and a shirt with gay pride symbols. Participants were asked to report their feelings about personal freedom, equality and tolerance. Interestingly, participants in this session reported greater regard for these variables than participants in the other experimental sessions where the student investigator wore khaki pants and polo shirt. These findings may be explained by ____. a. the placebo effect. b. the Hawthorne effect. c. experimenter bias. d. demand characteristics.

ANS: D MSC: WWW

PTS: 1

REF: Subject Factors

43. A design to check out the experimental condition rather than to act as a comparison group is called a: a. quasi-control group. b. quasi-experimental group. c. double-blind group. d. Hawthorne group.

ANS: A

PTS: 1

REF: Subject Factors

44. Cultural biases are introduced into research through the acceptance of certain shared world views or approaches to science, which are called: a. paradigms. b. experimental methods. c. correlational techniques. d. demand characteristics.

ANS: A

PTS: 1

REF: Cultural and Social Bias

45. To combat cultural bias in research, the U.S. National Institutes of Health implemented a policy in 1994 that requires all federally funded research involving human participants to include: a. women. b. children. c. minority groups. d. women and minority groups.

ANS: D MSC: WWW

PTS: 1

REF: Cultural and Social Bias

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SHORT ANSWER 1. Describe how the Paris model reinforces the need for the researcher to be aware of the ecology of an experiment.

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

REF: Introduction

2. Define ecological validity. Discuss two ways in which an experimenter may affect the ecological validity of a study.

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

REF: Ecology

3. In what two ways can a research participant affect the ecology of a study?

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

REF: Subject Factors

4. What is the personal equation and how could it potentially affect the outcome of a study?

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

REF: Experimenter Factors

5. What do the cases of Sir Cyril Burt and Walter Levy suggest about the impact of experimenter bias on ecological validity?

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

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6. Individuals on a rehabilitation hospital were randomly assigned to a memory training group of a no-treatment control group. After 6 weeks of training, it was discovered that the experimental group's memory performance had improved whereas there was no change in performance of the control group. The experimenters concluded that memory training was successful. What alternative explanation might you suggest for the outcome?

How would you change the experiment to eliminate this alternative?

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

REF: Experimenter Factors

7. What is the Hawthorne effect? Give an example of how it could affect the outcome of a study and how could it be controlled.

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

REF: Subject Factors

8. Many psychological experiments are conducted in which undergraduate psychology majors are required to serve as research participants in return for course credit. Comment on what effects this type of participant selection might have on the ecological validity of the experiments.

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

REF: Subject Factors

9. What is the purpose of a double-blind study and what role does it play in controlling for subject factors?

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

REF: Subject Factors

10. How are some of the ways an experimenter can affect the results of study, even if the experimenter's influence is unintentional?

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

REF: Experimenter Factors

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11. What are "demand characteristics?" How might they affect the ecological validity of an experiment?

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

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REF: Subject Factors

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Chapter 12 – Quasi-Experimental, Correlational, and Naturalistic Observational Designs Chapter Outline Closed and Open Systems Quasi-Experimental Designs Time Series Design Interrupted Time Series Design Multiple Time Series Design Nonequivalent Before–After Design Retrospective and Ex Post Facto Designs Correlational Procedures Naturalistic Observations Concerns While Making Naturalistic Observations To Conceal or Not to Conceal; To Participate or Not to Participate Strengths and Weaknesses of Naturalistic Observation Chapter Overview Closed systems are those in which the experimenter tries to create an environment where important factors are controlled. Research results should have direct relevance or should be generalizable (i.e., have external validity) and this may require that research be conducted from the laboratory. When this occurs, special research designs need to be considered. Useful and important research can be conducted even with less experimental control.

Quasi-experimental designs are less rigorous and require logic to discount alternative explanations. A time series design is a within-subject design that examines change from pretest to posttest. Several pretest and several posttests are used in the interrupted time series design; this gives a better estimate of the normal fluctuations from pretest to posttest.

The multiple time series design includes a control group and is considered to be a betweensubjects design. If the groups are considered to be unequal before the experiment, a nonequivalent before-after design might be appropriate. In this design, differences in score for each group rather than a single dependent variable are examined. To study events that happened in the past, a researcher might turn to retrospective and ex post facto designs; they can be helpful in testing alternative hypotheses.

Correlational procedures describe associations between two variables. These procedures do not imply causation but can be a first step in establishing causation. Often a th ird variable accounts for the association between the variables. Naturalistic observation may provide initial research that would lead to hypotheses and theories. This approach presents challenges as to the scientist’s role and the greater complexity of the subject matter.

Problems may arise from data collection such as reactive behavior, which occurs when the participant’s behavior is influenced by the presence of the observer. Another issue involves the role of the researcher in deciding to participate in the processes that are being observed.

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Chapter Objectives 1.

How is the balance between internal and external validity affected by the experimental design?

2.

Distinguish between closed and open systems in experimentation.

3.

How is control related to ruling out alternative explanations and rival hypotheses?

4.

Is internal or external validity more important in good research?

5.

What is archival research and when is it used?

6.

How do some quasi-experimental designs combine naturalistic observation with more experimental-like procedures in real-life situations?

7.

Give examples of four non-retrospective quasi-experimental time series designs and list their defining characteristics.

8.

When are retrospective studies most commonly used?

9.

What is the objective of the correlational procedure? How is it limited?

10. List two potential problems with respect to naturalistic observation.

Teaching Points A key problem in this chapter will be understanding the logic behind the elimination of alternative explanations because of potential confounds that cannot be controlled experimentally.

Another section that might give some students trouble is appreciating why causal inferences are inappropriate in correlational designs. Emphasize that often third variables account for the relationships between the two variables of interest.

By the time the class has reached this point in the course it should become clear that there are many methods available to scientists for conducting science. It may be useful to review the positive and negative aspects of the methods that have been studied so far. Point out that in order for us to tackle important scientific questions, a variety of methods are desirable.

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Teaching Activities Time-series design Present an example of a simple time-series design. Have students identify problems in interpretation and suggest ways to circumvent them. Students will generate both the interrupted time series design and the multiple time-series design. Discuss the potential confounds that still remain and how to render them logically implausible as explanations of the outcome.

Correlation and third variables Discuss the possible explanations for various correlations focusing on third variables:  poverty and drug abuse  alcohol consumption and heart attack  wine consumption and health  exercise and anxiety  cigarette smoking and grades  years of education and salary Discussion Discuss why random assignment of participants to experimental groups is necessary for causal inference.

Quasi-experimental designs In this activity, using Handout 12-1 students should describe each quasi-experimental design and use a study presented in the chapter to illustrate the design.

Naturalistic Observation Have students design and conduct a short naturalistic observation on campus. Send them out in teams and ask to independently record the behaviors of interest. After returning to the classroom, have them compare notes. Were there records similar? Were there disparities? What other issues can they identify that may have affected the study?

Wadsworth’s Research Methods Workshop http://www.wadsworth.com/psychology_d/templates/student_resources/workshops/resch_ wrk.html A relevant section from Wadsworth’s Research Methods Workshop entitled Nonexperimental Approaches discusses the various techniques that can be useful in situations when an experimenter cannot execute a true experimental design. The workshop reviews the advantages and disadvantages of Quasi-experimental Designs (such as time series and interrupted time series), Single-subject Designs, and Naturalistic Observation.

Students are afforded practice in interpreting data and in astutely executing nonexperimental approaches as to suggest true experimental designs.

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Internet Resources Guessing Correlations (http://istics.net/stat/Correlations) Estimate correlations of scatter diagrams at this website.

Quasi-Experimental Designs (www.fammed.ouhsc.edu/tutor/qexpdes.htm) There are several more designs that are in the quasi-experimental family. This website summarizes them. It also includes a flowchart to help identify the specific design that is appropriate for research.

Naturalistic Observations (http://philosophyfaculty.ucsd.edu/faculty/wuthrich/teaching/2010_012/Lect07_Observatio nalResearch.pdf) This presentation covers many of the important aspects of naturalistic observation research.

Several examples of famous researchers who used observational methods are included.

Suggested Readings Diener, E., Horowitz, J., & Emmons, R. A. (1985). Happiness of the very wealthy. Social Indicators Research, 16, 157-168.

Interesting information especially for those who are seeking to attain happiness via external sources.

Festinger, L., Riecken, H.W., & Schacter, S. (1982). When prophecy fails. In A. Pines & C. Maslach (Eds.), Experiencing social psychology: Readings and projects (2nd ed.) (pp.69-75). New York: Knopf.

This is a classic example of a participant study on people who predict the end of the world. The investigators convinced the members that they were also true believers but concealed their interest in studying the group's behavior. The investigator continued to observe the groups even when their catastrophic predictions failed. Interestingly, the members became more committed to their beliefs after their prophecy failed. They believed their spiritual actions had saved the world from catastrophe.

Research Activities for Students The goals of the research activities are to: (1) relate Chapter 12 on an applied learning dimension, and (2) get you involved in research.

1.

232

Gender and Helping Behavior. A Quasi-experimental Study. Your objective is to measure the degree of helping behavior on your campus. Approach 10 females and 10 males who are present around the student union area of your campus. Ask participants if they can help you by giving you change for a dollar so you can make an important phone call. Record their gender, and the degree to which they were willing to be helpful on a 5 point scale (i.e., where a 1= not at all helpful, and a 5 = very helpful).

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You may also wish to record other types of demographic information (e.g., age, ethnicity) or to systematically manipulate variables (e.g., the way you are dressed). a. Operationally define the behavior you will record. b. Flow chart your planned procedure in your workbook. c. Create a frequency tally coding sheet in your workbook for observation. d. Record data using your workbook coding sheet. e. Summarize your data by calculating frequency totals and converting to percentages. f. Interpret the data and describe any observed patterns of behavior. g. Discuss the limitations of your study. h. Discuss recommendations for improving this study. i. Research related studies and list three references. j. Write an abstract for this study in APA format. Be prepared to discuss your findings in class.

2. Happiness, Financial Wealth, and Marital Status. A Correlational Study.

Research Diener's work on happiness (i.e., subjective well-being). Using the forms on the next page, collect data from twenty participants, asking them to (1) rate their general degree of happiness, (2) approximate their yearly gross income, and (3) indicate their marital status. Calculate three Pearson's product moment correlation coefficients to describe the relationships between these three variables. Interpret your results. Are your findings consistent with other studies in this area? Discuss the limitations of this study.

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CONSENT I am a student in a college-level experimental research methods course. I am learning how to conduct experiments and how to analyze data. I would appreciate a few minutes of your time to respond to the following questions about general happiness. These questions are not of a sensitive nature, but if you are in any way uncomfortable, you are free to stop at any time. Your honest response is greatly appreciated. Your answers are strictly anonymous. The information from this study will be used for educational purposes only.

If you have any questions, I will be happy to answer them. Thank you for participating.

Happiness Survey 1.

Circle your degree of general happiness on the following scale.

1

2

3

4

5

Unhappy

6 Happy

Comments: 2.

Circle your approximate yearly gross income.

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

3.

0 to $5,000 $5,001 to $10,000 $10,001 to $15,000 $15,001 to $20,000 $20,001 to $25,000 $25,001 to $30,000 $30,001 to $35,000 $35,001 to $40,000 $40,001 to $45,000 $45,001 to $50,000 Above $50,000

What is your marital status?

1. single, not currently in a long term relationship 2. single, currently in a long term relationship 3. married (not divorced or separated)

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7

PEARSON'S CORRELATION COEFFICIENT CALCULATIONS: FILL IN THE MISSING CORRELATION INFORMATION:

Happiness Financial Status Marital Status

Happiness 1.00

Financial Status

Marital Status

1.00 1.00

RESEARCH FINDINGS:

3. Effect of Three Strikes Law on Crime. Design an Interrupted Time Series Study.

You are a forensic psychologist interested in the effect of new California legislation entitled “Three Strikes and You’re Out” on the frequency of violent crime in the state.

Basically this law proposes that each time someone is convicted and put in jail for a violent crime, this constitutes a strike. Three such convictions result in life imprisonment or the death penalty. Design an interrupted time series study that will assess the effectiveness of this law. Discuss the limitations of this design and how such limitations affect the interpretation of results.

4. Use online references such as PsycINFO and PubMed to find three scientific studies related to the 9/11 attack on the World Trade Center. Identify if the studies are correlational, quasi-experimental, or naturalistic observations.

5. Design a correlational, quasi-experimental, or naturalistic study that examines the relationship between students’ blog activity and academic achievement. Identify the key components of your research design. Use online references such as PsycINFO and PubMed to find related articles.

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Handout 12-1 Quasi-Experimental Design Design

Description

Time Series

Interrupted Time Series

Multiple Time Series

Nonequivalent Before After

Retrospective/Ex Post Facto

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Cited Example

TESTBANK MULTIPLE CHOICE 1. Quasi-experimental research, correlational procedures, and naturalistic observation are all examples of: a. research conducted outside the laboratory. b. mixed designs. c. closed systems. d. procedures with high internal validity.

ANS: A

PTS: 1

REF: Introduction

2. Quasi-experimental research: a. tends to have greater internal validity than true experimental research. b. tends to have greater external validity than true experimental research. c. does not differ from true experimental research in internal and external validity. d. is less relevant than true experimental research.

ANS: B

PTS: 1

REF: Introduction

3. An environment in which important variables can be controlled is called a(n): a. open system. b. closed system. c. quasi-experimental design. d. field experiment.

ANS: B MSC: WWW

PTS: 1

REF: Closed and Open Systems

4. For a study conducted in a closed system, there is ____ compared to an open system. a. more control b. less control c. more external validity d. less internal validity ANS: A

PTS: 1

REF: Closed and Open Systems

5. The question of whether results of an experiment generalize to other groups, settings, and participants is a question of: a. external validity. b. ecological validity. c. internal validity. d. experimental control.

ANS: A

PTS: 1

REF: Closed and Open Systems

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6. One of the concerns regarding internal versus external validity is the trade-off between: a. correlation and causation. b. main effects and interaction effects. c. inferential and descriptive statistics. d. control and more real world relevancy.

ANS: D

PTS: 1

REF: Closed and Open Systems

7. Research is conducted in the field rather than in the laboratory in order to: a. increase experimental control. b. rule out alternative explanations. c. answer more complex questions about psychological processes. d. all of these ANS: C

PTS: 1

REF: Closed and Open Systems

8. As experimental control increases: a. external validity decreases. b. external validity increases. c. the more relevant the study to real-world problems. d. we become less able to rule out alternative hypotheses.

ANS: A

PTS: 1

REF: Closed and Open Systems

9. As we move from the laboratory to real-life situations to conduct research, we move in a direction of: a. greater precision. b. greater relevance. c. greater external validity. d. both greater relevance and greater external validity.

ANS: D

PTS: 1

REF: Closed and Open Systems

10. As we move from real-life situations to the laboratory to conduct research, we move in a direction of: a. lesser precision. b. lesser relevance. c. lesser external validity. d. both lesser relevance and lesser external validity.

ANS: D MSC: WWW

238

PTS: 1

REF: Closed and Open Systems

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11. B.F. Skinner's operant chamber (i.e., Skinner box) illustrates: a. a closed system. b. an open system. c. a multiple time series design. d. archival research.

ANS: A

PTS: 1

REF: Closed and Open Systems

12. An educational psychologist seeks to obtain and analyze the academic records of students at a community college. This is an example of: a. experimental research. b. archival research. c. a naturalistic observation. d. none of these ANS: B

PTS: 1

REF: Closed and Open Systems

13. Research that takes place in an open system as compared to a closed system has: a. greater control. b. less ability to rule out alternative explanations. c. has greater internal validity. d. all of these ANS: B

PTS: 1

REF: Closed and Open Systems

14. Dr. Jeremiah wishes to use birth records that are stored at the local courthouse for a study.

Since these records were collected before the study, he is conducting: a. single case research. b. construct research. c. archival research. d. double blind research.

ANS: C

PTS: 1

REF: Closed and Open Systems

15. In quasi-experimental designs, you may not be able to: a. manipulate the independent variable. b. control potentially confounding variables. c. assign participants randomly to treatment groups. d. all of these ANS: D

PTS: 1

REF: Closed and Open Systems

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16. To interpret the results of quasi-experimental designs: a. we may rely more on control than on logic. b. we may rely more on logic than on control. c. we must use control groups. d. we need to confirm findings in a laboratory setting.

ANS: B MSC: WWW

PTS: 1

REF: Closed and Open Systems

17. Correlational designs allow for: a. determining causation. b. cause and effect relationships. c. determining how the independent variable affects the dependent variable. d. confirming predictions.

ANS: D

PTS: 1

REF: Closed and Open Systems

18. A time-series design is: a. a within-subjects design. b. a between-subjects design. c. a mixed design. d. none of these ANS: A

PTS: 1

REF: Quasi-Experimental Designs

19. ____ is not controlled for in time series designs. a. Normal fluctuation. b. Changes between pretest and posttest. c. Ex post facto confounding. d. Attrition of subjects.

ANS: A

PTS: 1

REF: Quasi-Experimental Designs

20. An interrupted time-series design controls for ____ but not for ____. a. history; the Hawthorne effect b. history; normal fluctuation c. normal fluctuation; how one variable influenced others d. maturation; normal fluctuation ANS: C

PTS: 1

REF: Quasi-Experimental Designs

21. The design that uses a single group with several pretest and posttest measurements is called a(n): a. multiple group pretest-posttest design. b. multiple time-series design. c. interrupted time-series design. d. nonequivalent before-after design.

ANS: C

240

PTS: 1

REF: Quasi-Experimental Designs

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22. Which of the following is a one-group design? a. interrupted time-series design b. multiple time-series design c. nonequivalent before-after design d. none of these ANS: A MSC: WWW

PTS: 1

REF: Quasi-Experimental Designs

23. The multiple time-series design is considered a: a. between-subjects design. b. within-subjects design. c. correlational design. d. single-subject design.

ANS: A

PTS: 1

REF: Quasi-Experimental Designs

24. If we want to make comparisons between two groups that we know are different at the start of the experiment, the design to use is: a. nonequivalent before-after. b. multiple time-series. c. ex post facto. d. interrupted time-series.

ANS: A

PTS: 1

REF: Quasi-Experimental Designs

25. In a nonequivalent before-after design, we compare: a. the pretest and posttest scores of the experimental group. b. the pretest scores of the experimental and control groups. c. the posttest scores of the experimental and control groups. d. the change in scores from pretests to posttest for the experimental and control groups.

ANS: D

PTS: 1

REF: Quasi-Experimental Designs

26. The nonequivalent before-after design controls for ____ but not for ____. a. history; maturation b. history; selection-maturation c. maturation; history d. selection-maturation; the Hawthorne effect ANS: B

PTS: 1

REF: Quasi-Experimental Designs

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27. Which of the following is a quasi-experimental design? a. ex post facto b. multiple time series c. nonequivalent before-after d. all of these ANS: D

PTS: 1

REF: Quasi-Experimental Designs

28. If you wanted to know whether people who have strokes were more likely to have a h istory of hypertension, you would likely use a(n): a. nonequivalent before-after design. b. retrospective design. c. interrupted time-series design. d. multiple time-series design.

ANS: B MSC: WWW

PTS: 1

REF: Quasi-Experimental Designs

29. Research that uses information collected in the past is called: a. archival. b. ex post facto. c. retrospective. d. all of these ANS: D

PTS: 1

REF: Quasi-Experimental Designs

30. Correlational designs: a. may allow one to infer causal relations between variables. b. do not allow one to confirm predictions about relations between variables. c. may allow one to disconfirm potential causal relations between variables. d. may allow neither confirmation nor disconfirmation of causal relations between variables.

ANS: C

PTS: 1

REF: Correlational Procedures

31. If it is revealed that a new drug is correlated with cancer, it means that the drug: a. causes cancer. b. probably causes cancer. c. may cause cancer. d. does not cause cancer.

ANS: C

242

PTS: 1

REF: Correlational Procedures

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32. If your hypothesis involves a relationship between two variables, then you would be advised to use a(n) ____ design. a. experimental b. observational c. correlational d. time-series ANS: C MSC: WWW

PTS: 1

REF: Correlational Procedures

33. To discover whether two variables are associated (but not necessarily causally), the type of research you would do is: a. experimental. b. correlational. c. observational. d. time-series.

ANS: B

PTS: 1

REF: Correlational Procedures

34. If it was discovered that drinking fine wine was associated with good health, one could: a. conclude that people who can afford to drink wine can also afford good health care. b. conclude that only healthy people drink wine. c. predict that people who drink fine wine will tend to be healthier. d. conclude that some chemical in the wine caused improved bodily functions.

ANS: C

PTS: 1

REF: Correlational Procedures

35. Which of the following is not true about correlational research? a. If there is no correlation between variables, there could still be causality between the variables. b. Whether or not a causal conclusion may be true, correlational results must be interpreted in correlational terms. c. A lack of correlation rules out any possibility of causality. d. There are no independent or dependent variables.

ANS: A

PTS: 1

REF: Correlational Procedures

36. Although they cannot indicate causality, correlation studies can: a. lead to hypotheses that can be tested with experiments. b. rule out the possibility of causality. c. allow predictions to be made about the relationship of variables. d. all of these ANS: D MSC: WWW

PTS: 1

REF: Correlational Procedures

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37. If a high positive correlation was found between the number of churches in a city and the number of murders, the most likely explanation would be that: a. more churches are needed in a city with a lot of murders. b. increasing the number of churches in a city will also increase the number of criminals. c. the number of churches and the number of murders in a city are both being influenced by a third unspecified variable. d. criminals prefer to live in places where there are a lot of churches.

ANS: C

PTS: 1

REF: Correlational Procedures

38. In a correlational design that compared the voting behavior of men and women, what variable is being manipulated? a. gender b. voting behavior c. gender and voting behavior d. no variables are being manipulated ANS: D

PTS: 1

REF: Correlational Procedures

39. The purpose of naturalistic observation is to: a. describe a little known phenomenon. b. discern general patterns in a phenomenon. c. try to gain some understanding of complex situations. d. all of these ANS: D

PTS: 1

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40. The work of Darwin, Lorenz, and Tinbergen are examples of: a. experimental research. b. correlational research. c. naturalistic observational research. d. quasi-experimental design.

ANS: C MSC: WWW

PTS: 1

REF: Naturalistic Observations

41. If a participant's behavior is influenced by the presence of an observer, this is called: a. responsive behavior. b. reactive behavior. c. obtrusive behavior. d. selective perception.

ANS: B

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42. If a naturalistic observation study is being conducted, and the observer is suddenly revealed by accident, the study is: a. no longer naturalistic. b. now an experiment. c. lacking in control. d. now correlational.

ANS: B

PTS: 1

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43. In naturalistic observation, researchers may try to avoid interfering with the process under study by: a. making unobtrusive observations. b. making selective perceptions. c. using trained observers. d. avoiding reactive behaviors.

ANS: A

PTS: 1

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44. Accuracy of observations is affected by: a. selective perception. b. training of the observers. c. the number of observers. d. all of these ANS: D

PTS: 1

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45. One way to help increase the accuracy of observations during a naturalistic observation is to use: a. selective perception. b. untrained observers. c. multiple observers. d. record uncommon behaviors first ANS: C MSC: WWW

PTS: 1

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46. In analyzing data from naturalistic observation, a good strategy is to: a. avoid using inferential statistics. b. avoid using descriptive statistics. c. start with common behavior and then move to uncommon behavior. d. analyze uncommon behavior first, and then common behavior.

ANS: C

PTS: 1

REF: Naturalistic Observations

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47. One disadvantage of naturalistic observation is: a. it tends to be quantitative. b. it tends to rely more on the subjective judgment of the experimenter. c. it requires the participation of the experimenter in the process. d. it is concerned with ongoing behavioral patterns.

ANS: B MSC: WWW

PTS: 1

REF: Naturalistic Observations

SHORT ANSWER 1. Describe the rationale behind closed systems. Why would a researcher want to create an open system in an experimental setting?

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

REF: Closed and Open Systems

2. How do quasi-experimental designs differ from true experimental designs and under what conditions would you use a quasi-experimental design?

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

REF: Closed and Open Systems

3. What types of scientists might want to use archival research and why? What are the benefits and drawbacks of using this type of research?

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

REF: Closed and Open Systems

4. Describe how the interrupted time series design addresses the shortcomings of the time series design.

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

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5. Explain why the multiple time series design is a between-subjects design.

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

REF: Quasi-Experimental Designs

6. Describe the multiple time-series design and explain the logic of control of confounds in this design.

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

REF: Quasi-Experimental Designs

7. What is the nonequivalent before-after design and why is it commonly used in education research?

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

REF: Quasi-Experimental Designs

8. Explain the statement, "Correlation does not demonstrate causality."

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

REF: Naturalistic Observations

9. Although correlation does not demonstrate causality, what can it tell us that is useful?

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

REF: Naturalistic Observations

10. Under what conditions would a researcher use naturalistic observation as a research strategy?

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

REF: Naturalistic Observations

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11. In analysis of data from naturalistic observation, why is it a good strategy to focus on common or invariant behavior?

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

REF: Naturalistic Observations

12. Discuss the issue of whether scientists should take an active role and participate in naturalistic observation.

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

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Chapter 13 – Single-Subject Designs Chapter Outline Types of Single-Subject Designs Case Study Designs Naturalistic Case Studies One-Shot Case Studies Experimental Single-Subject Designs Reversal Design Multiple-Baseline Design Multielement Design Making Sense of Single-Subject Experimental Results Alternative Types of Single-Subject Research Chapter Overview The underlying assumption of single-subject designs is that what is being studied is found in the single subject, and therefore, does not require sampling individuals. Single-subject designs range from case studies that tend to be descriptive to designs that are more experimental. Naturalistic case studies tend to focus on problematic or exceptional behaviors, as in the example of Anna O., or brain damage. A more specific use is the oneshot case study where the information is more narrative and describes the observations made of the subject after some sort of treatment has been performed. In experimental single-subject designs, questions of how variables influence one another can be answered by using a series of measurements over time beginning from a baseline. Single-subject designs are effective for showing changes within a single individual.

Reversal design is used to determine if the change in behavior is due to the treatment.

Causal relationships can be inferred in the multiple-baseline design. This design includes a successive shift of baseline levels as the treatment is applied. When different levels of a variable or treatments are being considered, a multielement design is being used. Unlike traditional experimental designs, the researcher must use logic to interpret the results and replication to gain confidence in the results. A recent trend uses inferential statistics to interpret single-subject designs and to use these designs in describing theoretical models.

Chapter Objectives 1.

What is the history of the single-subject design?

2.

How are the objectives of the case study design and the experimental single-subject design different?

3.

Describe the importance of context in the naturalistic case study.

4.

In the one-shot case study design, what does the "one-shot" refer to?

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5.

What are the advantages of the case study design? In your judgment where in psychology would it be especially useful?

6.

Discuss the strength of inferences with respect to the case study design.

7.

What is the importance of baseline measurement in the experimental single-subject approach?

8.

When there is more than one participant, how is data dealt with differently in the single-subject design versus traditional designs?

9.

Describe the reversal design, the multiple baseline design, and the multielement design in terms of their defining features, advantages, and limitations.

10. What are some of the recent trends in single-subject research?

Teaching Points Since the previous chapters focused on designs with groups of participants and importance of randomization, some students might be confused about the important role that singlesubject studies play. Stress to students the place that these designs have in psychology and other social sciences. Another related area of concern involves how these designs have any degree of generalizability and how independent variables can get a fair test in experimental single-subject designs.

It is helpful to point out that case studies are sometimes the only method that lends itself to the study of rare phenomena. For example, the textbook addresses the case of Tom, the boy who had a hole in his stomach into which food was directly placed. This is rare, but nonetheless Wolf and Wolff (1943) began to study the effects of Tom’s emotional reactions on his stomach. However, it would have been unethical to purposely make holes in someone’s stomach in order to conduct these experiments.

Point out how the single-subject designs build upon each other with each subsequent one addressing a limitation of the previous design. Show how the shortcomings of case study designs are addressed in experimental designs and how multielement designs are built upon multiple-baselines.

Some students will find intrasubject and intersubject replication confusing. Offer a concrete example or work through one of the cases of time series found in Chapter 11.

It is important to point out to students that the same concerns expressed regarding naturalistic observation are valid for single-subjects designs. In particular, the influence and attention (i.e., Hawthorne effect) of the researcher can create confounds.

Multiple-baseline designs are often used in applied behavior analysis to test behavior modification techniques used to treat a variety of behaviors (e.g., self-injurious behavior).

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Some students may recognize the name of Paul Meehl (Box 13.1) as being one of the contributors to the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory.

Teaching Activities “Famous Case Study” Ask students to select a “famous” case study (e.g., Anna O.) or noted scientist who used case studies (e.g., Piaget, Freud). They are to discover something interesting and report back to the class their findings.

The Case of H.M. Discuss the value and limitations of case study designs by analyzing the case of H.M., which is described in Box 13.2. Note how this in-depth study of a unique individual provided a wealth of descriptive information about a particular neuropsychological phenomenon and suggested numerous hypotheses regarding the hippocampus and other brain structures. These hypotheses have since been tested experimentally. However, point out to students that findings obtained from an individual may be limited to just that individual or others and not have great applicability. Another individual whose case study is commonly presented in introductory courses is Clive Wearing.

When to Conduct a Case Study Ask students to independently write down some hypothetical situations that would lend themselves to case studies. Their responses can then be used as material for a class discussion. Why is the situation suitable for a case study? After the case study has been conducted, what would be the next logical step towards understanding what happened?

Could an experiment or some other research method be used to further the research?

Clinical vs Statistical Prediction Consider discussing the issues raised by Paul Meehl. Use Handout 13.1 to stimulate discussion.

Reading Assignment https://www.msu.edu/user/sw/ssd/issd01.htm This website offers an introduction to single subject designs. A review of the advantages and drawbacks of individual case studies and group studies is provided. The website then covers the characteristics, conventions, and issues involved in single subject designs.

Finally, examples of B, AB, ABA, and Multiple baseline designs are examined. Review and discuss the effectiveness of the designs.

Internet Resources Checklist (silcom.com/~dwsmith/Critical_Assessment/ssn1wksh.html) A series of questions is here to guide the researcher in developing single subject research.

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Teaching With Case Studies (http://sciencecases.lib.buffalo.edu/cs/) The National Center for Case Study Teaching in Science has authored an informative site on this approach. Of particular note is the link to case studies in psychology and other social sciences.

Case Studies on Phantom Limbs (http://www.macalester.edu/psychology/whathap/UBNRP/Phantom/casestudies.html) Ramachandran's case study work on phantom limb pain was addressed in the textbook.

Here are some additional case studies that address phantom limbs and brain remapping.

Suggested Reading Hall, C.S., Domhoff, W., Blick, K. A., & Weesner, K. E. (1982) The dreams of college men and women in 1950 and 1980: A comparison of dream contents and sex differences. Sleep, 5, 188-194.

Research Activities for Students The goals of the research activities are to: (1) relate Chapter 13 on an applied learning dimension, and (2) get you involved in research.

1. Multiple Baseline Studies.

A. Systematic Desensitization of Multiple Phobias. In order to treat a woman suffering from several phobias, which include fear of dogs, flying, and receiving injections, a clinical psychologist wishes to use systematic desensitization treatment where the patient will be directly and gradually exposed to the very objects which she fears. To assess treatment outcome, the dependent variable measured will be selfreported ratings of anxiety. Design the study using a multiple-baseline design, graph possible results of a successful intervention, and provide interpretation of the results discussed. Describe any limitations of your study and provide suggestions for improvement that could be incorporated into a follow-up study.

B. Self Abusive Behavior of an Autistic Child. You are a clinician attempting to reduce self-abusive behavior in a five-year-old autistic boy. The child exhibits selfabusive behavior both at home and in his special day classes. Thus, the behavior occurs across two settings. Consider interventions that may effectively reduce the self-abusive behaviors of this child. Design a single-subject multiple baseline design (across situations-home and school). Graph a rough sketch of the results you expect after employing your intervention.

2.

Reversal Design.

Reinforcement of Prosocial Behavior in Preschool Child. This applied singlesubject study was interested in the effect of positive reinforcement on the prosocial behavior of a typical four-year-old child.

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Prosocial Criteria as Established by the Parent and Child: Helps parent with dinner Plays with the baby Answers phone politely Reads book to brother Feeds cat Positive Reinforcement as Established by the Parent and Child: 1. The child will make a chart listing the prosocial criteria and post the chart.

2. The child will mark a star each time she accomplishes a prosocial behavior. The child will also notify the parent of each behavior.

3. The child and parent will total the stars at the end of the week.

4. The parent will reward the child $1.00 for every 10 stars.

5. The parent will take the child to the store to spend the reward.

Week 1: The following prosocial behavior is recorded during the baseline phase. (A) Sunday Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday

X XX X X X

Week 2: The following prosocial behavior is recorded during the treatment (reinforcement) phase. (B) Sunday Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday

XXXX XXXXX XXXX XXXXX XXXX XXXXXXX XXXXXX

Week 3: The following prosocial behavior is recorded during reversal back to baseline (no reinforcement) conditions. (A) Sunday Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday

XXX XX X X

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Week 4: The following prosocial behavior is recorded during intrasubject replication of the treatment (reinforcement) phase. (B) Sunday Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday

XXXX XXXXX XXXXX XXX XXX XXXXXX XXXXXX

Assignment: Graph these data and report your conclusions.

INTERSUBJECT REPLICATION: The study continued in an attempt to demonstrate intersubject replication with a younger child, two years old, in the same family. Utilizing the same criteria, the following data were collected.

Week 1: The following prosocial behavior is recorded during the baseline (no reinforcement) phase. (A) Sunday Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday

X X X X X

Week 2: The following prosocial behavior is recorded during the treatment (reinforcement) phase. (B) Sunday Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday

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X X X X XX

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Week 3: The following prosocial behavior is recorded during reversal back to baseline (no reinforcement) conditions. (A) Sunday Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday

X X X X X

Week 4: The following prosocial behavior is recorded during intrasubject replication of the treatment (reinforcement) phase. (B) Sunday Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday

X X X XX

Assignment: Graph these data and report your conclusions. Finally, what articles can you locate in the research journals that relate to this case study?

REFERENCES: Using online references such as PsycINFO and PubMed find three journal articles that relate to this study. Organize your references in APA format.

3. Case Study: Study Your Dreams -- Journal. For one week organize time every morning before you get out of bed to record your dreams in your workbook. Before you retire, place your workbook and a pen by your bed. Create a mind set by repeating to yourself, "I will remember my dreams tonight." Immediately when you awaken in the morning, write down your dream(s) in detail. Consider the following information: a. Who was in your dream? How many family members? How many friends or colleagues? How many strangers? How many males? How many females? b. Where did your dream take place and what was the setting? Inside or outside? c. What was the theme of your dream? Conflict? Happiness? Anger? Aggression?

Intimacy? Calamity?

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DREAM JOURNAL DAY 1

DAY 2

DAY 3

DAY 4

DAY 5

DAY 6

DAY 7

Assignment: In your workbook organize a case study report. Discuss any patterns that you have observed from your journal entries. Research this topic using online references such as PsycINFO and PubMed. Cite at least three references, using APA format to support your research findings.

CASE STUDY REPORT

REFERENCES ( 3 minimum in APA format)

4.

Skinner’s Nobel Prize in Science Use online references such as PsycINFO and PubMed to find B.F Skinner’s single subject research that led to the Nobel prize. What was ground breaking about this research?

5.

Applied Behavior Analysis Use online references such as PsycINFO and PubMed to explore Applied Behavior Analysis research with autistic children. Find a research article on this subject that used a single subject design. Identify the question, describe the design, and explain the outcome. Comment on the strengths and weaknesses of this design.

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Handout 13-1 Meehl: Clinical versus Statistical Prediction “There is no controversy in social science which shows so many studies coming out so uniformly in the same direction as this one…. When you are pushing 90 investigations, predicting everything from the outcome of football games to the diagnosis of liver disease and when you can hardly come up with a half dozen studies showing even a weak tendency in favor of the clinician, it is time to draw a practical conclusion.” (p. 372, 373) “If I try to forecast something important about a college student, or a criminal, or a depressed patient by inefficient rather than efficient means, meanwhile charging this person or the taxpayer 10 times as much money as I would need to achieve greater predictive accuracy, that is not a sound ethical practice. That it feels better, warmer, and cuddlier to me as predictor is a shabby excuse indeed.” (p. 374) Meehl, P. E. (1986). Causes and effects of my disturbing little book. Journal of Personality Assessment, 50, 370-375.

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TESTBANK MULTIPLE CHOICE 1. From a historical view, single-subject designs have been used to study: a. the effectiveness of psychotherapy. b. the effectiveness of medical treatments. c. psychophysics. d. associations between variables.

ANS: C

PTS: 1

REF: Introduction

2. Unlike other designs, single-subject designs: a. do not average the individual's data with the data of other subjects. b. use random sampling. c. use random assignment. d. are not concerned with internal or external validity.

ANS: A

PTS: 1

REF: Introduction

3. What makes a single-subject design a "single subject?" a. Only one subject is studied. b. One dependent variable is collected. c. Individual participants' data are not averaged with other participants' data but remain separate. d. Data are aggregated within the same type of subjects.

ANS: C

PTS: 1

REF: Introduction

4. The research methods of psychology have been largely borrowed from: a. philosophy. b. Asian philosophy. c. economics. d. physical sciences.

ANS: D

PTS: 1

REF: Introduction MSC: WWW

5. Which of the following applies to single-subject designs? a. The ability to control variables is critical in establishing a relation between the independent and dependent variables. b. The designs rely on probability theory and inferential statistics. c. Individual differences become error variance. d. Sampling procedures are emphasized.

ANS: A

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6. Which of the following did not focus on single-subject methodology? a. Skinner b. Fisher c. Ebbinghaus d. Wundt ANS: B

PTS: 1

REF: Introduction

7. ____ conducted famous single-subject study on memory using nonsense syllables: a. Skinner b. Fisher c. Ebbinghaus d. Wundt ANS: C

PTS: 1

REF: Introduction

8. What role did Fisher's statistical work play in the use of single-subject designs following the Fisher process? a. Individual differences were ignored and averaged out. b. Individual differences were analyzed since they represented important variation. c. He advocated the use of single-subject designs. d. He developed special statistical procedures.

ANS: A

PTS: 1

REF: Introduction

9. The main purpose of single-subject research is: a. descriptive. b. experimental. c. assessment of behavior with limited time. d. either descriptive or experimental.

ANS: D MSC: WWW

PTS: 1

REF: Types of Single-Subject Designs

10. Are group designs or single-subject designs better? a. It depends on what specific group or single-subject design is being used. b. Group designs are better. c. It depends on the questions being asked. d. Single-subject designs are better.

ANS: C

PTS: 1

REF: Types of Single-Subject Designs

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11. The technique of compiling a description of an individual's problematic behavior that brings together relevant aspects of the person's history and present situation is called a(n): a. multiple time series design. b. case study. c. experimental single-subject design. d. pretest-posttest design.

ANS: B

PTS: 1

REF: Case Study Designs

12. One advantage in conducting case studies is that: a. confounding variables are controlled. b. an individual is described in their own actual context. c. there is less chance of selective forgetting. d. there is no need to be concerned about internal or external validity.

ANS: B

PTS: 1

REF: Case Study Designs

13. Meehl's criticism of research methods and in particular, statistical testing is whether: a. internal validity can ever be attained. b. external validity is important. c. p<.05 is meaningful. d. statistical differences between groups advance the science of psychology.

ANS: D

PTS: 1

REF: Box 13.1

14. The examples of Anna O., Zasetsky, and phantom limb pain illustrate the use of: a. naturalistic case studies. b. correlational studies. c. quasi-experimental studies. d. between-subjects design.

ANS: A

PTS: 1

REF: Case Study Designs

15. The case study is useful for: a. studying rare phenomena. b. suggesting new hypotheses. c. studying brain damage. d. all of these ANS: D

PTS: 1

REF: Case Study Designs

16. Which of the following seems most appropriate for a case study? a. testing a new drug b. understanding a person born with two brains c. determining if stress and police work are somehow related d. all of these ANS: D

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17. Information that makes up a case study tends to come from: a. tests that measure unconscious functioning. b. Pearson's r correlation coefficient. c. the manipulation of the independent variable. d. a variety of sources.

ANS: D MSC: WWW

PTS: 1

REF: Case Study Designs

18. The design in which a single individual's behavior is observed after a single treatment is called a(n): a. one-shot case study b. naturalistic case study c. experimental single-subject design d. pretest-posttest design ANS: A

PTS: 1

REF: Case Study Designs

19. Which of the following would be most suitable for a one-shot case study? a. a person who experiences a phantom limb b. a person who is the first to undergo a radical new surgery c. a dog that seems to be abnormally intelligent d. none of these ANS: B

PTS: 1

REF: Case Study Designs

20. Name the following design: Treatment Single subject X a. b. c. d.

Response O

one-shot case study matched subjects procedure time series design reversal design

ANS: A MSC: WWW

PTS: 1

REF: Case Study Designs

21. If the case study is narrative and summarizes the subject's behavior following treatment, then it is considered to be a(n): a. time series design. b. matched subjects procedure. c. one-shot case study. d. reversal design.

ANS: C

PTS: 1

REF: Case Study Designs

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22. The case of H.M. illustrates the ____ design used in a retrospective way. a. time series design b. matched subjects procedure c. one-shot case study d. reversal design ANS: C

PTS: 1

REF: Box 13.2

23. One disadvantage to the case study design is: a. we can only use one subject. b. internal validity is significantly threatened. c. it tends to discourage the later use of more rigorous experimental methods. d. we cannot make strong inferences.

ANS: D

PTS: 1

REF: Case Study Designs

24. Experimental single-subject designs: a. do not manipulate an independent variable. b. measure behavior after a single treatment. c. examine a series of measurements over time. d. cannot be replicated.

ANS: C

PTS: 1

REF: Experimental Single-Subject Designs

25. To eliminate alternative hypotheses in experimental single-subject designs, ____ can be used. a. random assignment b. one-shot case cases c. a time series approach d. a nonequivalent before-after design ANS: C

PTS: 1

REF: Experimental Single-Subject Designs

26. ____ determines if the data from each participant replicates the same pattern as the data of other participants. a. Baseline replication b. Experimental replication c. Intrasubject replication d. Intersubject replication ANS: D

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27. If you are interested in comparing the pattern of data in one subject to another subject in experimental single-subject designs, you are using ____. a. baseline replication b. experimental replication c. intrasubject replication d. intersubject replication ANS: D

PTS: 1

REF: Experimental Single-Subject Designs

28. A reversal design involves shifting from: a. independent variable to dependent variable. b. one baseline to another baseline. c. baseline to treatment. d. one dependent variable to another dependent variable.

ANS: C

PTS: 1

REF: Experimental Single-Subject Designs

29. Reversal designs may use ____ of reversals. a. two type b. three types c. four types d. any number ANS: D MSC: WWW

PTS: 1

REF: Experimental Single-Subject Designs

30. In an ABA design, A usually represents: a. treatment. b. baseline. c. control group. d. experimental group.

ANS: B MSC: WWW

PTS: 1

REF: Experimental Single-Subject Designs

31. In an ABA design, B usually represents: a. treatment. b. baseline. c. control group. d. experimental group.

ANS: A

PTS: 1

REF: Experimental Single-Subject Designs

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32. Name the following design that uses a single subject: A B A B baseline treatment baseline treatment X X O1 O2 O3 O4 a. b. c. d.

ABAB multiple-baseline design ABAB multielement design ABAB single-subject reversal design ABAB one-shot design

ANS: C

PTS: 1

REF: Experimental Single-Subject Designs

33. In experimental single-subject designs: a. causal relations between variables cannot be inferred. b. establishing a baseline is necessary. c. an independent variable is not manipulated. d. there is no way to assess reliability.

ANS: B

PTS: 1

REF: Experimental Single-Subject Designs

34. In single-subject research, the effect of the independent variable on the dependent variable can be assessed through: a. intrasubject replication. b. multiple dependent variables. c. statistical procedures. d. averaging results from many subjects.

ANS: A

PTS: 1

REF: Experimental Single-Subject Designs

35. A requirement of reversal designs is that: a. behavior must reverse. b. the baseline must reverse. c. behavior need not reverse if the baseline is stable. d. dependent measures must be uncorrelated.

ANS: A

PTS: 1

REF: Experimental Single-Subject Designs

36. To investigate long-lasting effects of an independent variable with a single individual, you should use a: a. reversal design. b. multiple baseline design. c. multielement design. d. naturalistic design.

ANS: B

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37. In the multiple baseline design: a. treatment is applied to several behaviors at exactly the same time. b. several independent variables are manipulated. c. several behaviors are measured. d. measures are taken of one behavior at a time.

ANS: C MSC: WWW

PTS: 1

REF: Experimental Single-Subject Designs

38. The logic of the multiple baseline design requires that behavior(s) being treated: a. return to baseline when treatment is removed. b. be interrelated. c. do not change permanently. d. be independent of each other.

ANS: D MSC: WWW

PTS: 1

REF: Experimental Single-Subject Designs

39. Multiple baselines can be used: a. only when behavior reverses. b. only when change is not permanent. c. when behavior is permanently changed. d. only when there are no carryover effects.

ANS: C

PTS: 1

REF: Experimental Single-Subject Designs

40. A multielement design: a. may be similar to the ABAB reversal design. b. includes many reversals, which may be fast paced. c. is best suited to effects that are short-lived. d. all of these ANS: D

PTS: 1

REF: Experimental Single-Subject Designs

41. In multielement designs, potentially confounding variables are: a. carryover effects. b. selection effects. c. both carryover and selection effects. d. selection-maturation interaction effects.

ANS: A

PTS: 1

REF: Experimental Single-Subject Designs

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42. Multielement designs are best suited when the changes in behavior are: a. relatively enduring. b. short-lived. c. due to biological factors. d. highly variable.

ANS: B

PTS: 1

REF: Experimental Single-Subject Designs

43. After you have conducted a single-subject experiment, one of the first steps you should take in making a decision concerning what you have found is: a. to present the data visually in a graphic form. b. conduct a correlation analysis. c. use inferential statistical procedures. d. replicate the single-subject experiment.

ANS: A

PTS: 1

REF: Experimental Single-Subject Designs

44. The primary tool for making sense of data from single-subject designs is: a. logic. b. correlation coefficient. c. t-test. d. descriptive statistics.

ANS: A

PTS: 1

REF: Experimental Single-Subject Designs

45. In single-subject designs, the researcher must: a. use the .05 probability level. b. use the .001 probability level. c. determine the meaning of the pattern observed. d. randomly assign subjects to groups.

ANS: C

PTS: 1

REF: Experimental Single-Subject Designs

46. Our confidence in the results of a single-subject design increase when ____ is (are) employed. a. replication b. strict .05 probability level c. hypothetical testing d. inferential statistical procedures ANS: A MSC: WWW

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47. Which tool is most valuable in determining if a particular pattern of single-subject results that you collected is meaningful? a. replication b. logic c. hypothetical testing d. inferential statistical procedures ANS: B MSC: WWW

PTS: 1

REF: Experimental Single-Subject Designs

SHORT ANSWER 1. Describe several examples of psychology's use of experimental approaches from the natural sciences.

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

REF: Introduction

2. What is the underlying assumption of single-subject designs? How do they differ from other experimental designs?

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

REF: Types of Single-Subject Designs

3. What are some of the limitations of the case study method?

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

REF: Case Study Designs

4. Describe some instances when a one-shot case study design would be an appropriate method to use.

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

REF: Case Study Designs

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5. Expand the statement made by Kazdin that the single-subject designs may also be used with a large number of subjects.

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

REF: Experimental Single-Subject Designs

6. Under what conditions would you adopt a case study approach?

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

REF: Case Study Designs

7. Describe the difference between intrasubject replication and intersubject replication. How do these two indicate changes over time within an individual?

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

REF: Experimental Single-Subject Designs

8. Describe the reversal design. What is the logic by which a relation between the independent and dependent variables is established in this type of design?

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

REF: Experimental Single-Subject Designs

9. Discuss a limitation of the reversal design.

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

REF: Experimental Single-Subject Designs

10. Describe the multiple baseline design. What advantage does this design have over reversal design? Discuss how this design makes confounds such as history or maturation logically implausible.

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

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11. What are the advantages of the multielement design?

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

REF: Experimental Single-Subject Designs

12. One might think of the single-subject design as an extreme form of the within-subjects design. Using a reversal procedure as an example, illustrate how the advantages and disadvantages of the within-subjects design apply similarly to the single-subject situation.

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

REF: Experimental Single-Subject Designs

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Chapter 14 – Questionnaires, Survey Research, and Sampling Chapter Outline Question Construction and Formats Types of Questions General Considerations Special Techniques for Reactive Questions Methods of Administering a Survey Face-to-Face Interviews Telephone Interviews Mail Questionnaires Computer Questionnaires Internet Research Surveys: Conclusion Sampling Probability Sampling Nonprobability Sampling Sample Size Reliability and Validity Chapter Overview Survey research methods assist scientists in gathering information to understand characteristics of a group of people. There are several types of questions that are used in surveys. Open-ended questions have no fixed answer and do not impose the researcher’s point of view. In contrast, closed-ended questions limit the number of responses.

Funneling uses a combination of open-ended and closed-ended questions. The Likert format is a type of scale that gives each item a certain weight. Semantic differential format uses bipolar adjectives that are related to a concept or idea. When developing a survey it is important to consider the ambiguity of language, order of questions, and the perspective from which the questions are being asked. The random response method is an approach to deal with reactive or potentially embarrassing questions.

There are several methods of administering a survey. Face-to-face interviews have several advantages including probing for additional information and high response rates; however, this format is expensive and may introduce bias. Telephone interviews can be used to assess attitudes and are effective in establishing rapport. However, telephone interviews have a general time limitation. The response rate in mail questionnaires tends to be below 50%; a response rate this low raises concerns about how the sample represents the population. Computer questionnaires and Internet research take advantage of advances in technology and posses several advantages. When selecting the method, there is a tradeoff between response rate and cost.

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Generalizability is an important issue in surveying. The sample selected for the survey must represent the larger population. Sampling may be achieved through probability sampling; the forms of this approach include simple random sampling, systematic sampling, stratified random sampling, cluster sampling, and multistage sampling. The forms of nonprobability sampling include convenience sampling, quota sampling, and snowball sampling.

The size of the sample is related to the degree to which the sample is representative of the population. In determining the size of the sample, the researcher must consider questions of homogeneity of the population and accuracy. Upper and lower bounds of confidence and sampling error are established and related to the purposes of the survey. Reliability and validity are important in survey research.

Chapter Objectives 1.

What are Campbell and Katona's nine steps for designing a survey? (282-283)

2.

What can be gained from pretesting a survey? (287)

3.

Explain the two main approaches to self-report data. (290)

4.

What are the five main methods of administering a survey? Describe their advantages and disadvantages. (289-294)

5.

Define the two main types of sampling. Give several specific examples of each.

(296-299)

6.

What two questions need to be asked to determine sample size? (299)

Teaching Points A good way to introduce this chapter is to help students bring to mind the pervasive use of surveying, whether it’s an approval poll of the President and other politicians, student evaluations, marketing survey, online survey, institutional survey, or telephone survey.

The most difficult problem with surveys is the construction of clear and unambiguous questions. Beginners in survey construction often fail to appreciate that the respondents cannot read the surveyor’s mind and so misinterpret questions because insufficient context is provided. The simple way to avoid such problems often overlooked by beginners is to pretest the survey.

If appropriate, you may want to highlight how subjects are selected from your institution’s Introductory Psychology pool. Many of your students will have had first hand experience with convenience sampling. Lead a discussion on how your colleagues deal with the shortcomings of this approach in their own research.

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It is probably worthwhile to review the concepts of sample and population at this point.

When asked what the population is regarding a presidential election, students will often state that it is everyone in the country, rather than all potential voters.

Teaching Activities Local surveys Bring surveys that your college or university uses in its outcome assessment efforts. Let students examine these surveys to evaluate their construction. If part of your institution’s faculty evaluation system involves asking students to respond to questionnaire items, bring that to class as well.

Developing surveys Develop surveys as a class project. Choose topics of current interest on your campus or community such as library hours, tuition, parking, campus recreation, or affirmative action.

Assign students to work in small groups on sampling, question construction, administrative procedures, and data analysis. Have each group administer the survey to a selected sample and report the results.

Administering surveys Discuss the differences that might occur in response to surveys that are conducted through different avenues such as in person, on the Internet, over the phone, or by mail. Note the problem with experimenter bias in item construction, in personal interviews, and even in the scoring of open-ended questions.

Influencing the response Give the class a short two question survey. For one half of the class, the first question will be, “Is the moon closer or farther away than 1,000,000 miles?” For the second half of the class, the first question will be, “Is the moon closer or farther away than 100,000 miles?”

For both groups, the second question will be, “About how far away is it?” Write the answers to the second question on the board, and the class will be amazed how easy it is to influence how people respond on a survey.

Flawed surveys Direct students to Statistical Assessment Service (www.stats.org). Once there, they should do a search for surveys or polls that have been identified by SAS as being flawed or misinterpreted. Ask the students to report what they find and to relate their findings to the chapter.

Sampling Use Handouts 14-1 and 14-2 to describe each type of probability and nonprobability sampling.

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Wadsworth’s Research Methods Workshop http://www.wadsworth.com/psychology_d/templates/student_resources/workshops/resch_ wrk.html Two sections from Wadsworth’s Statistics and Research Methods Workshop discuss information relevant to the chapter. The link to the segment entitled Surveys presents general information about how to design a survey, the pros and cons of different methods for survey administration (including in-person, computerized, and telephone responses), as well as sampling methods and related concerns about those methods. The related section on Designing a Survey elaborates on the critical features of a good survey design. Surveys that facilitate data collection possess logical structure and visual clarity. As with each segment of the workshop site, this segment concludes with a brief quiz.

Internet Resources Survey Research (members.bellatlantic.net/~abelson/) Polling, survey data, survey analysis, and research centers all have links at this comprehensive site.

Questionnaires and Surveys (www.statpac.com/surveys/index.htm#toc) This website presents information on most aspects of creating, administrating, and analyzing a survey or questionnaire. Of particular note is the section on item construction.

Telephone Surveying (srcweb.berkeley.edu/res/tsamp.html) At this site from the Survey Research Center of University of California at Berkeley, you will find lots of information. One of the most interesting sources on this website is the Q &A section on telephone surveying describing the protocol for various situations (e.g., a house sitter answers the phone) the surveyor may encounter.

Interviewing (www.slais.ubc.ca/resources/research_methods/interviews.htm) Links on structured interviews and oral histories are found here on the website.

Electronic Surveys (http://www.surveymonkey.com/) Online surveys are becoming very popular. This link takes you to SurveyMonkey.com, a popular site for creating online surveys.

Suggested Readings Dillman, D.A. (1978). Mail and telephone surveys: The total design method. New York: John Wiley and Sons.

Also check out Dillman’s recent book on computer surveys called the tailored design method.

Hite, S. (1987). Women and love. New York: Alfred Knopf, Inc. Hite, S. (1983). The Hite report on male sexuality. New York: Ballantine Books.

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Hite, S. (1976). The Hite report: A nationwide study on female sexuality. New York: Macmillan.

Research Activities for Students The goals of the research activities are to: (1) relate Chapter 14 on an applied learning dimension, and (2) get you involved in research.

1. Sampling Method. Minority Attitudes on Controversial Legislation: You are a researcher interested in the views of minority groups in the state regarding controversial legislative issues such as capital punishment, abortion-rights, and access to health care.

The survey you have designed is quite lengthy, and due to the nature of the survey, you have decided that face-to-face interviews will be necessary.

At this point you are trying to decide whether to use cluster sampling or multistage sampling for your research project. Develop specific plans that would be used for each sampling procedure, discuss the benefits/limitations of each, and report your decision on which of the two procedures you will use. Provide an explanation of the rational underlying your choice.

2. How are Gallup polls conducted? Search the internet for information about this process. Find information on the internet about a current Gallup poll. Report the poll's findings.

3. AIDS Attitudes. Design a Questionnaire. Fill in the following information. a. Flowchart the steps required for this assignment in your workbook. Refer to Campbell and Katona's steps for designing a survey research project. (312-313) b. Research other published work in this area for ideas and guidelines. List your references in APA format. c. Create questions. Write your ideas in your workbook. d. Develop ten question items that aim to assess attitudes about AIDS. Also include demographic questions.

Question format: Your questionnaire should include at least one question from each of the following question formats: open-ended, fixed-alternative, and combined open- and closed-ended.

Response Format: Your questionnaire should also include at least one example of each of the following response formats: Likert-type scale and semantic differential.

Also demonstrate funneling.

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e. Format your AIDS survey in your workbook. Later, type up your survey before administering it. f. Pretest your questionnaire with at least five participants. In your workbook, detail the problems that were identified in the pretest and how they may be corrected.

4.

Debate Hite's Survey Research. The Hite Report: Women and Love (1987) has been a widely debated survey. Hite has been strongly criticized for her research techniques.

Hite designed a completely open-ended survey consisting of 127 questions. A sample of 4,500 females voluntarily responded out of 100,000 surveys that were sent to various organizations nationwide to protect anonymity. The questionnaire begins: "Hello! Who are you? What is your description of yourself?" It continues with questions like the following: "Have you ever felt you were 'owned' or suffocated, held down in a relationship so that you wanted out?" and "Did you ever cry yourself to sleep because of problems with someone you loved? Why? Contemplate suicide?

When were you the loneliest?" The most publicized findings were about women and extramarital sex. Hite reported that "70% of women married more than five years are having sex outside the marriage — although most believe in monogamy."

Interestingly, 95% of the women who responded said they had been emotionally or psychologically harassed by men they love. Hite claims three countries have replicated her study and found largely the same results.

Hite presented a paper, "Devising a New Methodological Framework for Analysis and Presentation of Data in Mixed Quantitative/ Qualitative Research," in May, 1985 to the American Association for the Advancement of Science in Washington, D.C. Hite is unlike scientific researchers who strive for objective and value-free findings.

Assignment: Research Hite's work (see the Suggested Readings) and published reviews of her work. Respond to the following questions in your workbook. Be prepared to debate this issue in class. a. b. c. d. e. f. g. h. i.

What is your opinion of Hite's research methodology?

What is her background?

Does she utilize random sampling?

What is your opinion of the response rate?

Do you feel her sample is representative of the population?

What do you think about her survey format?

Would you agree to respond to this survey?

What do you think is the motivation of the respondents?

Are her generalizations internally valid? Why or why not?

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5.

Conduct a Survey. Death with Dignity.

A. Sample ten participants (N=10) B. Administer the following by either: (i) Face-to-face interview (ii) Telephone interview (iii) Mail survey. Include a cover letter and a self-addressed envelope. iv) Computer survey C. Record and tabulate the data. Reverse score all odd-numbered questions. For example: If a person marked "4" in response to question #1, you would reverse score by flipping the scale; thus the participant would now be given a value of "2" which will be used in the calculation of the overall score. A high overall score indicates a high positive attitude toward this issue.

D. Research and find three references related to this topic.

E.

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Report your findings in your workbook.

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CONSENT I am a student in a college-level research course. As part of my course work I am requesting your honest responses to the following statements. There are no right or wrong answers. I am most interested in learning about your attitudes on death-related issues.

Your participation is voluntary and you may stop at any time. All responses are anonymous and will be used for educational purposes only. Thank you for participating.

DEATH WITH DIGNITY SCALE 1. All life holds value. People should not have the right to decide when they die.

1 Strongly Agree

2 Agree

3 Neutral

4 Disagree

5 Strongly Disagree

2. If someone tells a family member that he or she never wants to be kept alive on life support in the event of an accident, that decision should be respected regardless of the wishes of the family.

1 Strongly Agree

2 Agree

3 Neutral

4 Disagree

5 Strongly Disagree

3. Patients who request medical assistance to accelerate death are generally psychologically ill.

1 Strongly Agree

2 Agree

3 Neutral

4 Disagree

5 Strongly Disagree

4. Patients who suffer severe chronic pain due to a terminal condition should be able to request physician-assisted euthanasia legally.

1 Strongly Agree

2 Agree

3 Neutral

4 Disagree

5 Strongly Disagree

5. A physician is morally obligated to keep a patient alive at all costs.

1 Strongly Agree

2 Agree

3 Neutral

4 Disagree

5 Strongly Disagree

6. Legislation that guarantees the freedom to make individual choices in death is long overdue.

1 Strongly Agree

2 Agree

3 Neutral

4 Disagree

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5 Strongly Disagree

277

7. Family members should not be allowed to make life-and-death decisions on behalf of an individual who no longer has the ability to express their wishes.

1 Strongly Agree

2 Agree

3 Neutral

4 Disagree

5 Strongly Disagree

8. When a patient is in an irreversible vegetative state, he or she should be taken off life support and allowed to die without legal interference.

1 Strongly Agree

2 Agree

3 Neutral

4 Disagree

5 Strongly Disagree

9. Physicians who assist suicide at the request of a terminally ill patient should be criminally prosecuted for murder.

1 Strongly Agree

2 Agree

3 Neutral

4 Disagree

5 Strongly Disagree

10. Parents of terminally ill children should have the legal right to request medical action to induce a painless death for that child.

1 Strongly Agree

11.

2 Agree

3 Neutral

What is your gender?

1=Male 2=Female

12. What is your year of birth?

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4 Disagree

5 Strongly Disagree

Handout 14-1 Probability Sampling

Sampling Type

Description

Cited Example

simple random sampling

systematic sampling

stratified random sampling

cluster sampling

multistage sampling

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Handout 14-2 Nonprobability Sampling

Sampling Type

Description

convenience sampling

quota sampling

snowball sampling

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Cited Example

TESTBANK MULTIPLE CHOICE 1. According to Veroff et al., there are several general purposes for conducting surveys. Of the following which is not one of these purposes? a. to assess mental health of the subjects b. to assess the life experiences of the subjects c. to determine how subjects cope with problems of adjustment d. to assess the spending habits of subjects ANS: D

PTS: 1

REF: Introduction

2. The first step in survey research is: a. to state specific hypotheses. b. to decide on the population to be surveyed. c. to specify the broad objectives of the research. d. to construct clear and unambiguous questions.

ANS: C

PTS: 1

REF: Box 14.1

MSC: WWW

3. After determining the primary purpose of the survey, the researcher must: a. construct the questions that will be used in the survey. b. seek permission from a human subjects review committee. c. select the specific statistical analyses that will be used. d. determine how many surveys to print.

ANS: A

PTS: 1

REF: Box 14.1

4. Open-ended questions in a survey: a. provide researchers with information that they had not considered before. b. provide quantitative data. c. impose the researchers' point of view on a survey. d. all of these ANS: A

PTS: 1

REF: Question Construction and Formats

5. "In what way has volunteerism influenced your personal relationships?" is an example of a(n) ____. a. semantic differential question b. closed-ended question c. Likert-type question d. open-ended question ANS: D

PTS: 1

REF: Question Construction and Formats

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6. A disadvantage of open-ended questions is that a. they provide limited scope for response. b. answers may be difficult to categorize. c. they reflect the researcher's point of view. d. none of these ANS: B

PTS: 1

REF: Question Construction and Formats

7. Closed-ended questions: a. restrict responses to a fixed set of alternatives. b. limit responses to "yes" or "no". c. are difficult to score. d. all of these ANS: A MSC: WWW

PTS: 1

REF: Question Construction and Formats

8. This question that you are reading is an example of a(n): a. open-ended question. b. closed-ended question. c. Likert scale. d. semantic differential.

ANS: B

PTS: 1

REF: Question Construction and Formats

9. When open-ended questions are followed by closed-ended questions on the same topic, the process is called: a. siphoning. b. tunneling. c. funneling. d. channeling.

ANS: C

PTS: 1

REF: Question Construction and Formats

10. A Likert scale uses: a. bipolar adjectives. b. open-ended questions. c. a subjective scoring criterion. d. numerically weighted response categories ANS: D

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PTS: 1

REF: Question Construction and Formats

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11. This question is: 1 2 very somewhat difficult difficult

3 somewhat easy

4 very easy

This question illustrates a(n): a. stratified format. b. open-ended format. c. Likert scale. d. within-subject format.

ANS: C

PTS: 1

REF: Question Construction and Formats

12. The following response format is an example of a(n): How do you feel about the research methods course?

Good ____:____:____:____:____:____:____Bad a. Likert item. b. semantic differential item. c. schematic differential item. d. Thurstone item.

ANS: B

PTS: 1

REF: Question Construction and Formats

13. The following question is an example of a(n) ____.

Do you believe that abortion should be illegal? a. b. c. d.

Yes [ ]

No [ ]

fixed alternative question. open-ended question.

Likert-type item none of these

ANS: A

PTS: 1

REF: Question Construction and Formats

14. One way to ensure that questions on a survey are clear and unambiguous is to: a. establish a context in which questions are presented. b. use only open-ended questions. c. use only closed-ended questions. d. start with open-ended questions and follow with closed-ended questions.

ANS: A MSC: WWW

PTS: 1

REF: Question Construction and Formats

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15. Double-barreled questions ____. a. are difficult to code b. should be avoided. c. are those items that combine two separate questions into one. d. all of these ANS: D

PTS: 1

REF: Question Construction and Formats

16. One of the most important ways to ensure that questions on a survey are clear and unambiguous is to: a. have clear hypotheses. b. use only a fixed alternative format. c. use a Likert scale. d. pretest the survey.

ANS: D

PTS: 1

REF: Question Construction and Formats

17. A method that has been found to be valid for surveying potentially reactive or embarrassing questions is the: a. reflexive response method. b. reactive response method. c. random response method. d. reality response method.

ANS: C

PTS: 1

REF: Question Construction and Formats

18. Highest rates of survey completion are found when the survey is administered: a. face to face. b. by phone. c. by mail. d. by computer.

ANS: A

PTS: 1

REF: Methods of Administering a Survey

19. A problem with face-to-face interviews is that: a. interviewer bias could be introduced. b. they are expensive. c. respondents may give different answers, depending on the sex, race, or appearance of the interviewer. d. all of these ANS: D MSC: WWW

284

PTS: 1

REF: Methods of Administering a Survey

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20. According to the chapter, a criticism of using telephone surveys that is no longer valid today is that: a. people generally were unwilling to use them. b. telephones were highly unreliable. c. the sound quality was too poor. d. telephones were once only owned by individuals with high SES. ANS: D

PTS: 1

REF: Box 14.2

21. Self-report of problem solving is the most accurate when: a. face-to-face interviews are used. b. preceded by questions on intelligence and general ability. c. survey participants have just solved the problem. d. accompanied by visual stimuli like figures and diagrams.

ANS: C

PTS: 1

REF: Box 14.2

22. In commenting on using verbal reports, Nisbett and Wilson argue that: a. people often don't accurately describe their own cognitive processes. b. verbal report is highly consistent with actual behavior. c. verbal report is too unreliable to use. d. verbal report and actual behavior need to be conceptualized as two separate, independent phenomena.

ANS: A

PTS: 1

REF: Box 14.2

23. To increase response rates, some telephone surveys begin with ____ and then switch the respondent to a ____. a. human contact, another person. b. a computer directed survey, human. c. human contact, computer directed survey. d. short questions, longer questions.

ANS: C

PTS: 1

REF: Methods of Administering a Survey

24. In general, telephone interviews should be no longer than: a. 5 minutes. b. 10 minutes. c. 15 minutes. d. 20 minutes.

ANS: C

PTS: 1

REF: Methods of Administering a Survey

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25. Telephone interviews can do all of the following except: a. establish rapport b. determine motivation c. clarify questions and responses d. yield the highest completion rates ANS: D

PTS: 1

REF: Methods of Administering a Survey

26. A return rate of ____ should be considered acceptable in a mail survey. a. 25% b. 50% c. 75% d. 85% ANS: B MSC: WWW

PTS: 1

REF: Methods of Administering a Survey

27. How can the response rate of mail questionnaires be improved? a. Enclose another copy of the questionnaire in follow-up letters. b. Include a small payment with the questionnaire. c. Include an abridged version of the original questionnaire in follow-up letters. d. All of the above.

ANS: D

PTS: 1

REF: Methods of Administering a Survey

28. If the ability to have a representative sample for your survey is very important, you should not administer the survey: a. face to face. b. by phone. c. by mail. d. by computer.

ANS: C MSC: WWW

PTS: 1

REF: Methods of Administering a Survey

29. A problem with a mail survey compared to other survey methods is: a. low response rate. b. biased sample. c. high cost. d. low response rate and consequently a biased sample.

ANS: D

286

PTS: 1

REF: Methods of Administering a Survey

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30. Compared to taking a survey on paper, people find taking computerized surveys more: a. impersonal. b. enjoyable. c. time consuming. d. invasive.

ANS: B

PTS: 1

REF: Methods of Administering a Survey

31. A questionnaire that is administered to all members of a population is called a: a. survey. b. poll. c. census. d. nonprobability survey.

ANS: C

PTS: 1

REF: Sampling

32. Generalizability of the results of a survey primarily depends upon: a. sampling most members of the population. b. sampling procedures. c. the validity of the results. d. content of the survey.

ANS: B

PTS: 1

REF: Sampling

33. Population refers to: a. all the people in the world b. all the people in a specified geographical area. c. any group of people that the experimenter defines as the population of interest. d. a representative sample.

ANS: C

PTS: 1

REF: Sampling

34. A sample is: a. smaller than the population. b. ideally representative of the population. c. what researchers use to make inferences. d. all of these ANS: D

PTS: 1

REF: Sampling

MSC: WWW

35. In a survey research, we want to make inferences about: a. a population. b. a sample. c. a representative sample. d. both a population and a sample.

ANS: D

PTS: 1

REF: Sampling

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36. In probability sampling: a. every individual in the population has an equal probability of being included in the sample. b. the predetermined probability of any individual being selected to participate in the survey is known. c. all samples are equally probable. d. all groups are proportionally represented.

ANS: B

PTS: 1

REF: Sampling

MSC: WWW

37. The sampling procedure in which you choose every fifth person listed in your population in called: a. systematic sampling. b. stratified random sampling. c. simple random sampling. d. selective random sampling.

ANS: A

PTS: 1

REF: Sampling

38. If you want to make sure that all ethnic groups are systematically represented in your sample, you should use: a. systematic sampling. b. stratified random sampling. c. cluster sampling. d. quota sampling.

ANS: B

PTS: 1

REF: Sampling

39. Sampling of all individuals in randomly selected population units such as city blocks is called: a. stratified random sampling. b. systematic sampling. c. cluster sampling. d. block sampling.

ANS: C

PTS: 1

REF: Sampling

40. In a study that examined mental health care among individuals living in certain areas of Cedar Falls, Iowa, groups of participants from randomly selected city blocks were surveyed. This is an example of ____ sampling. a. convenience b. simple random c. stratified random d. cluster ANS: D

288

PTS: 1

REF: Sampling

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41. If no list of the population exists, then you could not use: a. systematic sampling. b. simple random sampling. c. stratified random sampling. d. any of these ANS: D

PTS: 1

REF: Sampling

42. Asking people who are available to participate in a survey is called: a. quota sampling. b. cluster sampling. c. systematic sampling. d. convenience sampling.

ANS: D

PTS: 1

REF: Sampling

43. A sampling procedure often used when no list of the population exists is: a. snowball sampling. b. cluster sampling. c. simple random sampling. d. quota sampling.

ANS: A

PTS: 1

REF: Sampling

MSC: WWW

44. Generalizability is a problem in: a. stratified random sampling. b. convenience sampling. c. systematic sampling. d. cluster sampling.

ANS: B

PTS: 1

REF: Sampling

45. A type of nonprobability sampling is: a. quota sampling. b. cluster sampling. c. multistage sampling. d. simple random sampling.

ANS: A

PTS: 1

REF: Sampling

MSC: WWW

46. Sample size is dependent on: a. how many people are in the population. b. the variability of the population. c. acceptable amount of sampling error. d. all of these ANS: D

PTS: 1

REF: Sample Size

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47. The variation of the population is reflected by: a. standard deviation. b. reliability. c. mean. d. confidence interval.

ANS: A

PTS: 1

REF: Sample Size

48. If there is a sampling error of plus/minus 4%, the range of the confidence interval would be: a. 4% b. 5% c. 8% d. unknown ANS: C

PTS: 1

REF: Sample Size

49. Assuming a large standard deviation, as the sample size increases: a. the less likely it is that nonprobability sampling is appropriate. b. the more likely it is that nonprobability sampling is appropriate. c. sample error increases. d. sample error decreases.

ANS: D

PTS: 1

REF: Sample Size

SHORT ANSWER 1. Describe the advantages and disadvantages of the open-ended and closed-ended formats.

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

REF: Question Construction and Formats

2. One of the problems in survey construction is to avoid ambiguity. Discuss two ways to ensure that the questions on a survey are unambiguous.

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

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REF: Question Construction and Formats

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3. What are some of the difficulties associated with developing survey questions?

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

REF: Question Construction and Formats

4. Describe how a researcher could gather information in a survey of the subjects' sexual behavior using the random response method.

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

REF: Methods of Administering a Survey

5. Discuss the relative advantages and disadvantages of face-to-face, phone, and mail-in surveys.

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

REF: Methods of Administering a Survey

6. If you wish to increase the response rate of a mail questionnaire, what steps can you take?

What level of response would be acceptable?

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

REF: Methods of Administering a Survey

7. In 1936, two separate surveys were administered to predict the results of the presidential election. The survey that was administered to over 2 million people was incorrect whereas a much smaller survey came up with the correct prediction. Discuss this outcome with respect to sampling procedures.

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

REF: Sampling

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8. Discuss the forms of probability sampling and nonprobability sampling. How does the researcher decide which form of sampling to use?

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

REF: Sampling

9. What is the principal problem with non-probability samples? Why do probability samples generally avoid the problem?

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

REF: Sampling

10. Describe convenience sampling and its relationship to the question of generalizability.

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

REF: Sample Size

11. Discuss the questions that a researcher must answer when determining the size of the sample.

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

REF: Sample Size

12. How can the reliability of a survey be increased?

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

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Chapter 15 – Sharing the Results Chapter Outline Communication With Other Scientists: The Scientific Article Preparing Your Article Abstract Introduction Method Results Discussion References Publishing Your Article What Makes a Good Article?

Chapter Overview Communicating the results of a study to scientists and nonscientists is an important activity. Sharing results with other scientists may take many forms including informal conversations and publishing articles. An article typically has an abstract, introduction, method, results, and discussion; articles are often prepared in the APA writing style. The publication manual includes guidelines for referring to individuals and groups.

The abstract is a brief summary of the study that can be quickly read. The introduction provides background information and includes the hypothesis; the introduction lays out the logic used in developing the study. The introduction begins generally and ends with the hypothesis. The method describes the participants, apparatus, and procedure in enough detail to allow replication. The outcomes of the experiment are presented in the results as well as whether the outcomes were statistically significant. In the discussion, the author summarizes the outcomes, relates the outcomes to prior research, and points out limitations or confounds. All of the research cited in the article is listed in the reference section.

Publishing the article follows a process that starts with submission of the article to a journal. The article is subjected to peer review and may be accepted for publication.

Chapter Objectives 1.

Discuss the idea that science is a shared activity. How was this emphasized by Aristotle?

2.

What two audiences must the scientist address in communicating research findings?

How are the audiences benefited by this?

3.

What is the five-part format of the scientific article?

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4.

What is the objective of the abstract? What essential information must be provided in this section? Describe the abstract with respect to its length and the amount of detail that is required.

5.

What is the purpose of the introduction? How is it organized? What five tasks does the introduction perform?

6.

What is the goal of the method section? Describe the three subsections. Is it appropriate to include the operational definition of your independent and dependent variables in this section?

7.

What is the chief purpose of the results section? Should you include an interpretation of the data analysis in this section?

8.

What are the three subsections of the discussion section? What information should be included in each part?

9.

How important is a good title? What should a good title include?

10. How does the reference section benefit other scientists? Discuss the three purposes of the reference section.

11. Explain the process of peer review when submitting an article for publication. What are the criteria for reviewer evaluation?

12. According to Kazdin, what questions should guide the preparation of a good article?

13. According to Maher (1978), what is the most common reason an article is rejected for publication? According to your text, if an article is accepted, about how long will it take to get it into print?

Teaching Points Generally the material in this chapter is well understood by students. The problem arises in actually writing the experimental report. Introductions tend to be too long and not concise since students are inclined to have trouble narrowing down quickly from a general introduction of the problem to a specific hypothesis. Problems writing the method section include lack of sufficient detail to permit exact replication. The requirement of sufficient detail bears repeating to students. Results need to focus on stating the outcome and not just simply giving statistical significance. And the discussion sections often do not bring the reader back to the introduction and do not discuss the findings in the context of the research. The article then fails to come around “full circle.”

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Another possible area of confusion deals with the relationship between the results and discussion sections. The results simply present the outcomes without interpretation.

It is useful to present to students a pictorial representation of the APA style paper’s body.

The introduction can be drawn like a funnel that is widest at the beginning and then narrows to a specific hypothesis. The method and results sections are tube shaped and thin indicating that these sections are very much to the point and restricted in their scope. The discussion section can also be drawn like a funnel but it starts narrow and then broadens as the discussion becomes more general.

Teaching Activities Sections in research articles Use the Klein and Boals study on expressive writing found in Appendix B to highlight the sections found in research articles. In fact, have students locate each of the components discussed in the chapter. Alternatively use Box 15.2 to analyze the study.

Summarizing sections of a research article Give students Handout 15-1 to summarize the main components of a research article.

Electronic databases Introduce your students to popular electronic databases used in psychology (e.g., PsycINFO, PubMed). Show how electronic databases can help the researcher easily track down relevant research, saving much time. If appropriate, you may wish to share your experiences in using “hard copy” indexes such as Psych Abstracts and explain how electronic databases have been a boon for research.

Research proposal Have students write a research proposal on a topic of interest and to discuss it in a 10minute oral presentation. Other students are to critique the proposal with regard to experimental design and format of proposal. Refer students to Box 15.1 for guidelines.

Writing an abstract Give students a short and clearly written research article with the abstract missing. Ask them to write a 100 word abstract for the article as an exercise.

Wadsworth’s Research Methods Workshop http://www.wadsworth.com/psychology_d/templates/student_resources/workshops/resch_ wrk.html A relevant workshop on APA Style at the Wadsworth’s Research Methods Workshop web site is concerned with the preparation of submissions for publication and APA format. The workshop first introduces APA style and provides a brief explanation of why it is necessary and helpful (e.g., to reduce bias in language).

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Some potentially useful links are provided, including a link to information about the APA publication manual (along with a mention of general areas of coverage in the manual) and APA’s Style Helper software. Links to other resources include style guides/examples from individual departments. The APA Style Web site (www.apastyle.org) is listed as a source of answers to frequently asked questions, as well as formatting information for electronic references. Students also are given practice editing a sample title page that contains errors.

The Wadsworth’s Research Methods Workshop site also has a link labeled Evaluating Published Research that affords students an opportunity to evaluate a sample article, and thus gain practice in raising and answering important questions about the research they read. This section of the site has students review each section of a sample article, pausing after each section to ask relevant questions that can be compared to textbook-based answers for the sample article. A brief quiz is provided at the completion of this review exercise.

Internet Resources Online Journals (www.psycline.org/journals/psycline.html) This invaluable site allows searching of table of contents, abstracts, and articles in over 1900 online psychology and social science journals.

Acceptance Rates (http://www.apa.org/pubs/journals/statistics.aspx) Students will appreciate the rigor that is required to write a good article by looking at the rejection rates of major psychology journals.

Student Research (www.kon.org/powell.html) Students have several options to share the results of their experimental work. This Web site describes some of those options.

APA Journals (http://www.apa.org/pubs/journals/) This Web site describes the many psychology journals published by APA. Suggested Readings American Psychological Association. (1994) Publication manual of the American Psychological Association. Washington, D. C.: American Psychological Association.

Bond, L., & Magistrale, A. (1987). A writer's guide to psychology. New York: Heath & Co.

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Research Activities for Students The goals of the research activities are to: (1) relate Chapter 15 on an applied learning dimension, and (2) get you involved in research.

1.

Correct APA Format.

Assignment: Correct the following abstract and references, using accurate APA format.

Abstract: The five factor model of personality (Goldberg; 1990, Digman; 1990) is a robust model that globally circumscribes the sphere of personality. Goldberg, 1990, 1981, proposes that this model represents 5 important dimensions that individuals use to evaluate others in the interpersonal environment. Indeed, the five factors arose out of analyses of adjectives used to describe personality. The factors are: 1. extroversion, 2. neuroticism, 3. conscientiousness, 4. openness to experience, and 5. agreeableness.

250 introductory psychology students filled out a questionnaire to assess the 5 factors. Examination of the demographic data available indicated that twenty-eight percent of the participants were Oriental or Spanish-speaking. 79% of the participants were girls. A multivariate analysis of variance was used to examine cultural differences on all self- and peer-report scales. A significant multivariate effect was found for culture, F, 18, 162, = 2.144 at a .01 alpha level.

Bibliography 1. Goldberg, L.R. (1981). "Language and Individual differences: the search for universals in Personality lexicons." In L. Wheeler (Editor), Review of Personality and Social Psychology (Vol. 2, pp 141-165). Beverly Hill, CA; Sage.

2. Digman, J. M. 1990. Personality Structure: Emergence of the Five-Factor Model.

In M.R. Rosenzweig and L.W. Porter (eds.), Annual Review of Psychology (vol.

41, pp. 417-440). Palo Alto, CA: Annual Reviews.

3. Goldberg, L. (1990) An alternative "description of personality": the big-five factor structure. Journal of personality and social psychology, 59, 1216-1229.

2. Critique an APA Journal Article. The purpose of this activity is to learn how to dissect and analyze a scientific report. Further, it will help you practice at oral presentations, which are an important means of communicating research findings at professional conventions. This activity will give you valuable experience and feedback.

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Assignment: Organize a concise presentation analyzing a published research article of your choice. This assignment will also include a written summary and a copy of the original article to be turned in to your instructor. You may utilize visual aids. The length of the presentation should not exceed ten minutes. Be prepared to answer questions. Presentation dates will be randomly assigned.

You will be graded on the following criteria: 1. Degree of difficulty.

2. Ability to identify the research hypothesis, variables, and type of study.

3. Ability to clearly describe the details of the research methodology.

4. Evidence of understanding statistical terms and techniques.

5. Clearly explaining important tables and figures.

6. Ability to identify limitations and weaknesses.

7. Evidence of creative thought in making recommendations.

8. Interesting, organized and thoughtful presentation.

9. Ability to answer questions from instructor and colleagues.

10. Written summary of the report.

3.

Research Proposal.

Assignment: Organize a research proposal following the guidelines of the Institutional Review Board (IRB). You may utilize either: (1) an original research idea that you have been developing during this course, or (2) a published research study.

Outline the following in your workbook.

CHECKLIST FOR RESEARCH PROPOSALS: A. Application Forms: (Your instructor will provide these as needed).

B. Abstract: A brief summary that includes the research question, the proposed methodology, the recognized limitations, and the expected results.

C. Introduction: Justify the study. List several references (APA format) in your workbook that you will use to support the research idea. State the research hypothesis.

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D. Methodology: 1. Participants: Who will be the participants? How many do you need? How will you get them?

2. Tests: Name the tests that you will be giving your participants in your workbook. Officially, you will be required to include a copy of the actual tests and instructions to the IRB. 3. Procedure: What are the experimental plans? Name the tests you will use.

What will be required of the participants? Where will the experiment take place? How long will it take?

4. Risks and Benefits: What are the potential risks to the participant? Are they beyond the risks of everyday living? What are the benefits to society?

What are the benefits to the participant? Do the benefits outweigh the risks?

5. Risk Management: What will you specifically do to respect the rights of the participant during experimentation? Informed consent? Anonymous responses? Coding procedures?

6. Compensation: How will the participants be compensated? Extra credit?

Research experience? Snacks? Money?

7. Informed Consent: List the major issues you must address in the informed consent. Officially, you must provide a copy of your informed consent to the IRB. 4.

Peer Review. Romantic Interpersonal Relationships. Go to the library and obtain a recent article on romantic interpersonal relationships.

Using Kazdin’s guidelines for publishing journal articles, critique the article selected and describe how the author satisfies/fails to satisfy these guidelines.

Finally, consider yourself a peer reviewer of this article. Evaluate the article according to the guidelines suggested in the chapter. Discuss limitations of the study as well as specific suggestions for improvement of the article. Provide a recommendation regarding whether the article should be published. Defend your answer.

5.

Avoid Biased Wording How would you describe the following based on the current guidelines in the APA publication manual? a. b. c.

older people gays subjects

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Handout 15-1 Components of a Research Article

Component

Description

abstract

introduction

method

results

discussion

references

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TESTBANK MULTIPLE CHOICE 1. Conducting experimentation and observations is what Aristotle termed: a. inference. b. inquiry. c. modus ponens. d. falsification.

ANS: B

PTS: 1

REF: Introduction

2. Professor Barr is preparing a scientific report for a journal. According to Aristotle, Professor Barr is engaging in: a. empiricism. b. modus tollens. c. argument. d. qualitative methodology.

ANS: C

PTS: 1

REF: Introduction

3. The idea that science is a shared activity is by no means new. More than 2000 years ago, Aristotle emphasized that science had two parts: a. inquiry and argument. b. theoretical and applied. c. statistical significance and scientific significance. d. exploration and summary.

ANS: A

PTS: 1

REF: Introduction MSC: WWW

4. Which of the following best describes the two types of audiences to which researchers communicate their research findings? a. journal editors and colleagues b. university officials and nonscientists c. media and governmental officials d. scientists and nonscientists ANS: D

PTS: 1

REF: Introduction

5. Most formal communication between scientists takes place: a. in conferences and workshops. b. on the Internet and email. c. in books. d. in published journal articles.

ANS: D

PTS: 1

REF: Introduction

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6. Psychologists communicate their findings to other psychologists through: a. published journal articles. b. formal oral presentations at scientific meetings. c. informal conversations with colleagues. d. all of these ANS: D PTS: 1 REF: Communication With Other Scientists: The Scientific Article 7. Which of the following is not one of the five parts of a scientific paper? a. method b. introduction c. conclusion d. abstract ANS: C MSC: WWW

PTS: 1

REF: Preparing Your Article

8. According to APA style, which term is most appropriate when referring to those who take part in research? a. colleagues b. participants c. subjects d. members ANS: B

PTS: 1

REF: Preparing Your Article

9. According to the APA's publication style, in describing participants, gender refers to ____ whereas sex refers to ____. a. imprecise category; precise category b. participants; preference c. a biological distinction; a social group d. a social group; a biological distinction ANS: D

PTS: 1

REF: Preparing Your Article

10. The changes in language proposed by the APA's publication manual is an attempt to be more: a. formal. b. informal. c. general. d. specific.

ANS: D

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11. The brief 100-150 word summary that appears before the body of a scientific article is called the: a. introduction. b. synopsis. c. abstract. d. preface.

ANS: C MSC: WWW

PTS: 1

REF: Preparing Your Article

12. Why is a well-written abstract important in light of the use of electronic databases? a. More people have access to the abstract. b. The abstract will include a comprehensive bibliography that other researchers would find helpful. c. The abstract includes key words that are used to identify the article in an electronic search. d. Organizations that fund research often will read abstracts in databases and it may lead to the researcher receiving financial support.

ANS: C

PTS: 1

REF: Preparing Your Article

13. The purpose of the ____ is to give an overall description of an experiment. a. abstract b. introduction c. results d. discussion ANS: A

PTS: 1

REF: Preparing Your Article

14. A scientific article begins with: a. a description of the methods by which an experiment was performed. b. a description of what is already known about the phenomenon in question. c. a statement of the hypothesis being tested. d. a discussion of the results of the experiment.

ANS: B

PTS: 1

REF: Preparing Your Article

15. An introduction proceeds from: a. a general topic to a specific purpose. b. a specific purpose to a broader purpose. c. specific hypothesis to general applications. d. method to results.

ANS: A

PTS: 1

REF: Preparing Your Article

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16. Which of the following does not appear in the introduction to a scientific article? a. statement of purpose b. hypothesis and predictions c. statement of the outcome of the experiment d. description of relevant background ANS: C

PTS: 1

REF: Preparing Your Article

17. The hypothesis is developed from previous research. This is described in the: a. abstract. b. method. c. background. d. introduction.

ANS: D

PTS: 1

REF: Preparing Your Article

18. The section of the paper that describes exactly how an experiment was conducted is called the: a. introduction. b. method. c. abstract. d. discussion.

ANS: B

PTS: 1

REF: Preparing Your Article

19. A review of the literature that pertains to a paper's topic is most likely to appear in the: a. introduction. b. method. c. abstract. d. discussion.

ANS: A MSC: WWW

PTS: 1

REF: Preparing Your Article

20. The method should contain enough detail so that: a. someone could replicate the study. b. the reader can evaluate how the data were analyzed. c. the reader can understand the outcomes of the study. d. the reader can clearly identify the hypothesis.

ANS: A

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REF: Preparing Your Article

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21. The section of the experimental report that is most analogous to a recipe is the: a. abstract. b. introduction. c. method. d. discussion.

ANS: C

PTS: 1

REF: Preparing Your Article

22. The section of the experimental report that is most important for permitting exact replication is the: a. introduction. b. method. c. results. d. discussion.

ANS: B

PTS: 1

REF: Preparing Your Article

23. The method section of a paper should include a description of: a. the experimental and control group. b. the number and gender of the participants. c. how participants were recruited. d. all of these ANS: D MSC: WWW

PTS: 1

REF: Preparing Your Article

24. "Et al." as in Ray et al. refers to: a. acting as scientist. b. primary investigator. c. and others. d. of the university.

ANS: C

PTS: 1

REF: Preparing Your Article

25. The procedural details of the study are part of the: a. method. b. process. c. protocol. d. introduction.

ANS: A

PTS: 1

REF: Preparing Your Article

26. The method is divided into: a. subjects, elements, and apparatus. b. hypothesis, statistics, and tables. c. participants, apparatus, and procedure. d. charts, participants, and procedure.

ANS: C

PTS: 1

REF: Preparing Your Article

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27. The number of participants and who they were are fully described in the ____ section. a. abstract b. method c. results d. hypothesis ANS: B

PTS: 1

REF: Preparing Your Article

28. Where should information about how research participants were selected be placed? a. abstract b. introduction c. results d. method ANS: D MSC: WWW

PTS: 1

REF: Preparing Your Article

29. Description of equipment that is used during a study should include: a. brand names. b. model numbers. c. instrumentation settings. d. all of these ANS: D

PTS: 1

REF: Preparing Your Article

30. Operational definitions of the variables are included in a part of the method section called: a. apparatus. b. procedure. c. variables. d. results.

ANS: B

PTS: 1

REF: Preparing Your Article

31. If an experimenter used deception in her study, she ought to describe the debriefing of participants and follow-up in the ____ part of the article. a. introduction b. abstract c. method d. discussion ANS: C

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32. A statement of the outcome of an experiment and whether it was statistically significant is included in the section called: a. discussion. b. results. c. introduction. d. procedure.

ANS: B MSC: WWW

PTS: 1

REF: Preparing Your Article

33. Which of the following is not contained in the results section? a. statement of what happened b. interpretation of the outcome c. statements of statistical significance d. figures and tables ANS: B

PTS: 1

REF: Preparing Your Article

34. In constructing a graph, the ____ is placed on the y-axis and the ____ is placed on the xaxis. a. dependent variable; independent variable b. independent variable; confounding variable c. statistic; result d. experimental group; control group ANS: A

PTS: 1

REF: Preparing Your Article

35. Which of the following is not included in the discussion section? a. main results of the experiment b. limitations of the experiment c. ways that your experiment relates to other similar experiments d. statistical significance of the results ANS: D

PTS: 1

REF: Preparing Your Article

36. Only research articles that contain multiple experiments are likely to contain: a. procedure. b. introduction. c. results. d. general discussion.

ANS: D

PTS: 1

REF: Preparing Your Article

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37. Professor Beenken is preparing a research article and is currently writing how the results support the hypothesis. In what sections will this information appear? a. procedure b. introduction c. discussion d. references ANS: C MSC: WWW

PTS: 1

REF: Preparing Your Article

38. What the results of a study mean is the focus of the ____ section. a. follow-up b. discussion c. results d. debriefing ANS: B

PTS: 1

REF: Preparing Your Article

39. Limitations or potential confounds that might affect your interpretation of the results are typically addressed in the ____ section. a. results b. introduction c. discussion d. debriefing ANS: C

PTS: 1

REF: Preparing Your Article

40. The reference section includes the citations for all: a. of the papers you have read on the subject under study. b. other studies of the subject. c. studies on the subject by authors other than yourself. d. of the studies you cited in the paper.

ANS: D

PTS: 1

REF: Preparing Your Article

41. You should include references: a. to acknowledge documented scientific facts. b. to give credit to other researchers. c. to direct the reader to more detailed discussions of theoretical issues. d. all of these ANS: D

308

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REF: Preparing Your Article

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42. An informative title of a journal article includes the: a. independent variable and dependent variable. b. dependent variable and the participant groups. c. results of the study. d. dependent variable and the behavior(s) under study.

ANS: A

PTS: 1

REF: Preparing Your Article

43. In a research proposal, the results section: a. is omitted. b. includes your data. c. describes how the data will be quantified and analyzed. d. includes figures and tables.

ANS: C MSC: WWW

PTS: 1

REF: Preparing Your Article

44. If you wish to publish an article, the first question to ask is: a. "What portion of the science community do I want to read my article?" b. "What title will capture the attention of prospective readers?" c. "Did the results of my study support the hypotheses?" d. "What font does the journal use to publish articles?"

ANS: A

PTS: 1

REF: Publishing Your Article

45. In preparing research proposals, the first question to consider is: a. "What is the significance of the proposed research?" b. "Has the relevant literature been surveyed adequately?" c. "How are the data to be analyzed?" d. "What is the problem?"

ANS: D

PTS: 1

REF: Box 15.1

46. If you write an article and place it on your web page: a. it should be marked as an unpublished paper or draft manuscript. b. it must be removed from the web paged if it is subsequently published. c. it may later be refused by some journals for publication. d. all of these ANS: D

PTS: 1

REF: Publishing Your Article

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47. When articles are submitted for publication, the journal editor usually sends them to other scientists familiar with the topic for recommendations concerning publication. This process is referred to as: a. summary review. b. peer review. c. evaluation. d. proof reading.

ANS: B

PTS: 1

REF: Publishing Your Article

48. The time between the editor's acceptance of your article for publication and the actual publication is called: a. publication lag. b. journal backlog. c. publication swell. d. journal lag.

ANS: A

PTS: 1

REF: Publishing Your Article

49. After an article is accepted for publication it typically takes ____ before it appears in print. a. a few months to over a year b. a few weeks to a few months c. one week to four weeks d. five to seven days ANS: A MSC: WWW

PTS: 1

REF: Publishing Your Article

50. The final decision concerning publication of any journal article rests with: a. the scientists who evaluate the paper. b. the editor of the journal. c. the publisher of the journal. d. none of these ANS: B

PTS: 1

REF: Publishing Your Article

SHORT ANSWER 1. What are the principal reasons for communicating scientific findings?

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

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2. What suggestions does the APA publication manual offer for referring to individuals and groups?

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

REF: Preparing Your Article

3. Briefly discuss the five main sections of a research article.

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

REF: Preparing Your Article

4. Describe the general form and purpose of the introduction.

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

REF: Preparing Your Article

5. Describe the rationale behind the necessity of a more detailed method section in a study using deception.

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

REF: Preparing Your Article

6. How are statistics and graphs used to make an effective results section?

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

REF: Preparing Your Article

7. In the discussion section of an article, what three parts are presented?

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

REF: Preparing Your Article

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8. What are the purposes of the reference section of a paper?

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

REF: Preparing Your Article

9. Construct an outline for a research proposal, indicating the different sections that you would include and what would be contained in each section.

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

REF: Preparing Your Article

10. If a researcher places her article on the web, what are some precautions that need to be taken?

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

REF: Publishing Your Article

11. What are the steps involved in peer review? Why do you think this system evolved?

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

REF: Publishing Your Article

12. Describe the steps involved in publishing an article in a scientific journal.

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

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CHAPTER 15

Chapter 16 – Beyond Method Chapter Outline Dimensions of Research Beginning With a Question Limitations to Finding Answers Our Tools Our Shared View of the World Our Psychological Limitations Science as a Complex Human Process Value in Science Relevance Science as a Means of Transcendence Chapter Overview The methods of science can be placed along three dimensions. The first dimension is the extent to which the experimenter intervenes in what is being studied. The dimension has the true experiment and naturalistic observation at its extremes. The second dimension consists of research setting and is anchored by laboratory and field research. The third dimension describes the scientist’s participation in the experiment, ranging from observation to more active participation.

Research starts with asking a question and proceeding to develop a research program that systematically develops by drawing on the work of others. However, the scientist encounters obstacles that may limit the type of questions that are asked. The limitations include the methodological tools with which we have to study, our shared conceptions and personal perceptions, and fear of what knowledge might mean for us personally. Science is a complex human endeavor and is concerned with truth, value, and relevance. Science also represents a process that allows the growth and development of individuals and of society. A growing number of scientists are interested in studying both behavior and experience.

Chapter Objectives 1.

Explain the three dimensions of research approaches.

2.

Compare the advantages and disadvantages of the naturalistic and the experimental method.

3.

Explain the differing characteristics of laboratory and field research.

4.

Discuss the scientist as an observer and the scientist as a participant.

5.

What are three potential obstacles that may limit research?

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6.

What did Lakatos suggest as a method to advance science?

7.

Distinguish between Lakatos' progressive and degenerative research programs.

8.

Describe Chamberlin's two fundamental approaches to learning.

9.

What is the objective of multiple working hypotheses?

10. Explain the difference between statistical significance and scientific significance.

11. Explain how scientific knowledge can be considered a superior knowledge.

Teaching Points Many students will find the content of this chapter challenging. One reason for this is that students have not considered the personal and cultural influences on the kinds of questions that are asked in science. Tomorrow’s scientists will ask different kinds of questions because they will have different values, limitations, and tools available to them.

While science is often portrayed as unemotional and analytical, it might be a good idea to remind students that science is a human endeavor conducted by humans. Hence, scientists can be emotional, driven, and ambitious. In short, science is more complicated than just the method. The passion of scientists can be both good and bad. It can be a driving force towards discoveries, or it can cause bias in a scientist’s opinions.

Note the similarities between Chamberlin’s method of multiple working hypotheses and Platt’s method of strong inference. Point out how, in Chapter 3, scientists generate ideas for research and consider those descriptions in the context of Chapter 14.

The chapter suggests that knowledge that is acquired through science is superior to other knowledge. Remind students of the different ways of knowing presented in Chapter 1.

The challenge of maintaining objectivity in research deserves mention as well as acknowledging the influence of personal and cultural values in science. Often students assume that scientists and science are objective and not susceptible to influence. By adhering to the scientific method, these influences can be minimized, but never eliminated.

Teaching Activities Discussion Lead a discussion of the philosophy of science and the contrasting views of Kuhn, Popper, and Lakatos. Bring students back to Chapter 2 to review Kuhn and Popper.

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Background Knowledge Probe Create closure by reintroducing students to the concepts and principles that they’ve learned throughout this course. Use Handout 16-1 to demonstrate to students just how much they’ve learned. Compare their responses to the same activity presented in Chapter 1.

What Would They Say? In this activity, students are asked to “create” quotes that could have been said of those theorists described in the chapter. Inform your students that they are to carefully read about the theorist first and then respond to the prompt on Handout 16-2. Next have students read their “quotes” and ask other students to guess the theorist.

Dimensions of Research The chapter suggests reviewing some of the studies described in the textbook (e.g., Chapter 15) and determining in what quadrant they can be placed (see Figure 16.1 and Figure 16.2).

An alternative is to place the study along each dimension separately.

Multiple Working Hypotheses Present students with a simple experiment and the hypothesis that is being tested. Ask students to use Chamberlin’s method of multiple working hypotheses to generate a family of rival hypotheses. This activity can jumpstart a discussion on how this method can lead to more interesting questions about the research.

Reading Material http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=neuroscience-meets-psychoanalysis Brain imaging techniques allow us to study human behavior and experience that were previously beyond our limits. The article entitled “Defense Mechanisms: Neuroscience Meets Psychoanalysis” discusses how modern neuroscience has led to the reconceptualization of psychoanalytic defense mechanisms. Here is scientific evidence discrediting the belief that the dynamic unconscious, which Freud envisioned, is but a myth. Such studies show how science is limited by the current available techniques, and cautions us against confusing assumptions with directly observed facts. Discovering the neural bases of behavior brings us a step closer to finding more effective psychiatric treatments.

Internet Resources Imre Lakatos (www-gap.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Mathematicians/Lakatos.html) This website presents a brief biography of Lakatos.

Values in science (www1.umn.edu/ships/ethics/values.htm) Douglas Allchin discusses how values have influenced science and vice versa.

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The method of multiple working hypothesis (http://www.accessexcellence.org/RC/AB/BC/chamberlin.html) The website contains T. C. Chamberlin’s article (with commentary) about testing multiple hypotheses and the rationale underlying this approach to research.

Suggested Reading Matsumoto, D. (1994). Cultural influences on research methods and statistics. Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole.

Research Activities for Students The goals of the research activities are to: (1) relate Chapter 16 on an applied learning dimension, and (2) get you involved in research.

1.

Developing Futuristic Research Questions. Develop five interesting research questions that are limited due to our lack of scientific tools, but for which we might have tools, and ultimately scientific answers, in the future.

2.

Is Science Value-Free? Cross Cultural Sexuality Research. Using online references such as PsycINFO and PubMed, research how different cultures define and view homosexuality.

Identify societal biases that you are aware of, both related to homosexuality, as well as some of the biases inherent in your value system. Describe the influence that these biases may have both on your thinking and your ability to research homosexuality.

3.

Diverse Explanations of Aggression What does science tells us about aggression? Use online references such as PsycINFO and PubMed to research different theories about the causes of aggression. Include social, cultural, genetic, and evolutionary perspectives.

316

CHAPTER 16

Handout 16-1 Background Knowledge Probe As you read each term, assess how much you know about it by using the following scale: 1--- I have heard of this term 2--- I have heard of this term, but I can’t really say what it means 3--- I have heard of this term and I have a general idea of what it means 4--- I have heard of this term and I could explain its meaning to someone empiricism scientific method marker variable experimental method hypothesis confounding variable external validity modus ponens nominal measurement z score standard deviation degrees of freedom null hypothesis F-ratio alpha level Type I error counterbalancing factorial design main effects matched-subjects design Hawthorne effect placebo factors time series design naturalistic case study probability sampling reactive questions snowball sampling informed consent debriefing deception in research institutional review board multiple working hypotheses

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3

4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4

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Handout 16-2 What Would They Say?

Theorist

What is science?

Imre Lakatos

T. C. Chamberlin

Lewis Thomas

Thomas Kuhn (Chapter 2)

Karl Popper (Chapter 2)

318

CHAPTER 16

Do values affect science and the scientist?

TESTBANK MULTIPLE CHOICE 1. According to the chapter, the process of science is: a. using the scientific method to understand behavior. b. based upon tenacity, authority, reason, and common sense. c. more than using the scientific method to understand behavior. d. less important than the results of science.

ANS: C

PTS: 1

REF: Introduction

2. The approaches used to study behavior can be placed on three continua. Of the following, which is not one of these continua? a. scale of measurement b. role of experimenter c. research setting d. extent of control ANS: A

PTS: 1

REF: Dimensions of Research

3. Which of the following represents the extremes in the dimension described as the extent to which the experimenter intervenes in the study? a. field research and laboratory b. true experiment and naturalistic observation c. laboratory and true experiment d. correlation and naturalistic observation ANS: B

PTS: 1

REF: Dimensions of Research

4. According to the dimensions of research described in the chapter, true experiment and naturalistic observation differ in regard to: a. the number of participants needed. b. how data are analyzed. c. the extent to which the scientist intervenes in the study. d. the type of ethical problems encountered.

ANS: C

PTS: 1

REF: Dimensions of Research

5. In true experiments: a. we have to know what we are looking for. b. the experimenter is active. c. we can infer important relationships between events. d. all of these ANS: D

PTS: 1

REF: Dimensions of Research

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319

6. In comparison to naturalistic observation, the downside to using the experiment method is that: a. unknown information is excluded from being measured. b. it is unable to test cause and effect relationships. c. it is unable to control independent variables. d. it is unable to produce changes in participants' behavior.

ANS: A MSC: WWW

PTS: 1

REF: Dimensions of Research

7. In naturalistic observation: a. the experimenter is active. b. important relationships cannot be tested. c. we have to know what we are looking for. d. all of these ANS: B

PTS: 1

REF: Dimensions of Research

8. True experiment is to naturalistic observation as ____ is to ____. a. within; between b. static; dynamic c. active; passive d. independent; dependent ANS: C

PTS: 1

REF: Dimensions of Research

9. With regard to true experiments and naturalistic observation, the chapter advises: a. using both methods simultaneously. b. using the experiment first followed by naturalistic observation. c. not using either since neither allows for control of confounding variables. d. using both, but only in highly controllable situations.

ANS: A

PTS: 1

REF: Dimensions of Research

10. By moving our research into the laboratory, we obtain: a. the chance to observe natural behaviors. b. generalizability. c. ecological validity. d. greater control over environmental variables.

ANS: D

PTS: 1

REF: Dimensions of Research

11. The research setting includes: a. within and between. b. intrapersonal and interpersonal. c. inductive and deductive. d. field research and laboratory.

ANS: D

320

PTS: 1

REF: Dimensions of Research

CHAPTER 16

12. Laboratory research gives us ____. Field research allows for more ____. a. generalizability; control b. control; ecological validity c. control; correlation d. ecological validity; control ANS: B

PTS: 1

REF: Dimensions of Research

13. According to the text, which research setting is the least influenced by demand characteristics? a. the field setting b. the lab setting c. the group survey setting d. all of these are highly susceptible to demand characteristics ANS: A

PTS: 1

REF: Dimensions of Research

14. The extremes of the scientist's participation in the experiment are: a. objective and subjective. b. experimenter and observer. c. as observer and as participant. d. as judge and as jury.

ANS: C

PTS: 1

REF: Dimensions of Research

15. The research method you choose depends on: a. your philosophy of science. b. experiments that have been done previously. c. the particular research questions you wish to ask. d. all of these ANS: C

PTS: 1

REF: Dimensions of Research

16. The best approach to the study of human behavior: a. is the true experimental design. b. is naturalistic observation. c. depends on the questions being asked. d. is whatever approach is approved by the IRB. ANS: C

PTS: 1

REF: Dimensions of Research

17. The ideal level of a scientist's participation in a study is dependent upon: a. level of measurement. b. the questions being asked by the study. c. ethical considerations. d. the methodology used to select participants.

ANS: B MSC: WWW

PTS: 1

REF: Dimensions of Research

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321

18. A research program is: a. a series of directed research studies. b. a computer program that organizes research. c. a computer program that presents materials and analyzes data for research purposes. d. a shared view of the world.

ANS: A

PTS: 1

REF: Beginning With a Question

19. What advice does the chapter give regarding how scientists should discover the world? a. with a belief that finding answers is a noble endeavor b. with a perspective that nature exists to be understood c. with a childlike impatience to get answers to questions d. with a childlike perspective, wonder, and excitement ANS: D

PTS: 1

REF: Beginning With a Question

20. Lakatos proposes that science advances through: a. sudden revolution. b. replacement of degenerating programs with progressive ones. c. testing of trial-and-error hypotheses. d. re-interpretation of known facts in light of theory.

ANS: B

PTS: 1

REF: Box 16.1

MSC: WWW

21. According to Lakatos, a progressive program leads to: a. the discovery of new facts. b. the discovery of new theories. c. the reinterpretation of known facts. d. financial support from the government.

ANS: A

PTS: 1

REF: Box 16.1

22. The questions that you choose to ask depend on: a. your personal perception. b. on the shared view of the world. c. the available tools. d. all of these ANS: D

PTS: 1

REF: Limitations to Finding Answers

23. According to the chapter, a possible outcome of a scientist exclusively using a particular research method is the: a. scientist becomes an expert in the use of that method. b. scientist forces behavior to conform to measurement by that method. c. reputation of the scientist is tarnished. d. scientist's interest in other methods decreases.

ANS: B

322

PTS: 1

REF: Limitations to Finding Answers

CHAPTER 16

24. In regard to a scientist's assumptions, problems arise when: a. assumptions are unconscious beliefs. b. assumptions are untested and metaphysical. c. other scientists don't share the same assumptions. d. the assumptions are perceived as observed facts.

ANS: D MSC: WWW

PTS: 1

REF: Limitations to Finding Answers

25. Psychology is currently gaining a new appreciation of ____, a field largely ignored during a time when learning was thought to account for all behavior. a. memory b. perception c. genetics d. development ANS: C

PTS: 1

REF: Limitations to Finding Answers

26. Shared view of the world refers to: a. tacit assumptions that direct our behavior. b. explicit knowledge we have of the world. c. the body of empirical facts that make up a discipline. d. facts about the world.

ANS: A

PTS: 1

REF: Limitations to Finding Answers

27. Our approach to science and the conclusions we draw from our research are influenced by: a. our personal views. b. our shared view of the world. c. our culture. d. all of these ANS: D

PTS: 1

REF: Limitations to Finding Answers

28. With regard to the assumptions of the scientists, Bohm argued that problems can occur when: a. statistics are used to reflect the ethereal world. b. unconscious beliefs become real. c. those assumptions are confused with directly observed facts. d. those assumptions become conscious.

ANS: C

PTS: 1

REF: Limitations to Finding Answers

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323

29. One area that has yet to be systematically explored in psychology is: a. genetics. b. human potential. c. physiology. d. ethology.

ANS: B

PTS: 1

REF: Limitations to Finding Answers

30. Topics likely to be explored by positive psychologists include: a. empathy. b. altruism. c. love. d. all of these ANS: D

PTS: 1

REF: Limitations to Finding Answers

31. Campbell sees that the search for truth in science is ____. a. unordered and disorganized b. evolutionary c. stagnate d. flawed by assumptions held by scientists ANS: B

PTS: 1

REF: Box 16.2

32. Science is beginning to consider that instability and fluctuations are: a. chaotic and unpredictable. b. confounding variables that make the results of experiments difficult to interpret. c. a part of nature. d. to be avoided when studying behavior.

ANS: C 33.

PTS: 1

REF: Limitations to Finding Answers

Maslow saw science as: a. being only concerned about advancing the scientist's own personal agenda . b. a double-edged sword  as a defense and as a way of improving psychological health. c. an attempt to avoid working and living in the real world. d. outdated and out of step with the needs of people.

ANS: B MSC: WWW

324

PTS: 1

REF: Limitations to Finding Answers

CHAPTER 16

34. Mitroff and Fitzgerald have concluded that science can: a. increase psychological health. b. decrease psychological health. c. help scientists avoid life. d. help scientists avoid life or increase psychological health.

ANS: D

PTS: 1

REF: Limitations to Finding Answers

35. Science concerns itself with: a. truth. b. value. c. relevance. d. all of these ANS: D

PTS: 1

REF: Science as a Complex Human Process

36. Chamberlin suggested that scientists should learn about the world through: a. imitation of previous scientists. b. the "Great Experiments" of scientists . c. independent thinking and imitation of previous scientists. d. multiple working hypotheses.

ANS: D

PTS: 1

REF: Science as a Complex Human Process

37. According to Chamberlin, one of the approaches to understanding reality is called creative study and refers to: a. thinking for one's self. b. focusing on just one hypothesis as research progresses. c. memorizing what others have discovered about reality. d. imitating the great thinkers of the discipline.

ANS: A MSC: WWW

PTS: 1

REF: Science as a Complex Human Process

38. In the method of multiple working hypotheses: a. one considers only hypotheses that have been shown to work. b. one sees the world from a particular perspective. c. one considers at least two competing hypotheses. d. inductive logic is most important.

ANS: C

PTS: 1

REF: Science as a Complex Human Process

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39. The thought experiments conducted by Einstein help us to appreciate Chamberlin's idea that ____ is important in science. a. creativity b. tenacity c. skepticism d. statistical analysis ANS: A MSC: WWW

PTS: 1

REF: Science as a Complex Human Process

40. In considering values and science, values: a. are scientifically untestable. b. influence interpretation of results. c. enter into the choice of research questions. d. all of these ANS: D

PTS: 1

REF: Value in Science

41. The need to distinguish between scientifically significant results and statistically significant results addresses the broad question of: a. transcendence. b. limitation. c. relevance. d. all of these ANS: C

PTS: 1

REF: Relevance

MSC: WWW

42. It is possible, that even though results of a study are statistically significant, they: a. may be scientifically insignificant. b. still have practical meaning. c. have value. d. are relevant.

ANS: A

PTS: 1

REF: Relevance

MSC: WWW

43. According to the chapter, just because a study might have found that blood pressure statistically changed following treatment, it does not necessarily mean: a. participants will continue to receive treatment. b. that blood pressure was accurately measured. c. the change is meaningful. d. the change is permanent.

ANS: C

326

PTS: 1

REF: Relevance

CHAPTER 16

44. A researcher has conducted an experiment to test the effectiveness of a drug that she thinks will elevate the mood of depressed individuals. The results of a statistical analysis is that the experimental and control groups differ, but not by very much. This experiment may lack: a. the proper motivation b. scientific significance. c. the proper methodology. d. practical value.

ANS: B

PTS: 1

REF: Relevance

45. Scientific knowledge is a superior knowledge because it: a. is theoretical. b. is constantly open to question and revision. c. can be analyzed statistically. d. is precise.

ANS: B

PTS: 1

REF: Science as a Means of Transcendence

46. The transcendence of science refers to its ability to: a. go beyond our personal and collective limitations. b. bring people together. c. identify truth that stands the test of time. d. bridge scientific theory and practical applications.

ANS: A MSC: WWW

PTS: 1

REF: Science as a Means of Transcendence

47. Most of the energy in psychological research has focused on the study of: a. one's own experience. b. one's own behavior. c. the experience of others. d. the behavior of others.

ANS: D

PTS: 1

REF: Science as a Means of Transcendence

48. Karl Popper, G. Spencer-Brown, Thomas Kuhn, and others have shown us that we must consider that every theory is ____. a. testable b. inadequate c. correct d. systematic ANS: B

PTS: 1

REF: Science as a Means of Transcendence

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49. Thomas claims that because of the nature of science: a. assumptions made by scientists are unknowable. b. real truth is never attainable. c. we can predict new knowledge before actually discovering it. d. we do not know what new things will be discovered.

ANS: D

PTS: 1

REF: Box 16.3

SHORT ANSWER 1. What are the three dimensions of research and the characteristics of each?

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

REF: Dimensions of Research

2. What are some of the things that determine the kinds of research questions that people ask?

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

REF: Beginning With a Question

3. What are the obstacles that scientists encounter that limit the search for knowledge?

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

REF: Limitations to Finding Answers

4. What are some of the potentially negative things that can result for those engaged in scientific careers?

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

REF: Limitations to Finding Answers

5. Describe the two approaches of learning about the world according to Chamberlin.

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

328

REF: Science as a Complex Human Process

CHAPTER 16

6. Discuss the method of multiple working hypotheses and how it can influence seeing the world from multiple perspectives.

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

REF: Science as a Complex Human Process

7. Do scientists' value systems play a role in their research? If so, how?

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

REF: Value in Science

8. Discuss the difference between scientifically significant and statistically significant results.

Which is more important?

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

REF: Relevance

9. Defend the proposition that scientific knowledge is superior knowledge.

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

REF: Science as a Means of Transcendence

10. Describe the advantages of studying behavior and experience.

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

REF: Science as a Means of Transcendence

11. Even though it has been suggested that every theory is inadequate, why should we still retain our confidence in science?

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

REF: Science as a Means of Transcendence

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329

12. Why should scientists be pleased when their theories are refuted?

ANS: Answer not provided.

PTS: 1

330

REF: Science as a Means of Transcendence

CHAPTER 16

Instructor’s Manual with Test Bank

Methods Toward a Science of Behavior and Experience TENTH EDITION

William J. Ray Pennsylvania State University

Contents Preface Chapter 1

What is Science?

1

Chapter 2

Introduction to the Methods of Science

19

Chapter 3

Developing the Hypothesis

41

Chapter 4

Ethics

59

Chapter 5

Description of Behavior Through Numerical Representation

78

Chapter 6

Inferential Statistics: Making Statistical Decisions

100

Chapter 7

Testing the Hypothesis: A Conceptual Introduction

123

Chapter 8

Control: The Keystone of the Experimental Method

146

Chapter 9

Applying the Logic of Experimentation: Between-Subjects Design

168

Chapter 10

Extending the Logic of Experimentation: Within-Subjects and Matched-Subjects Approaches

189

Chapter 11

The Ecology of the Experiment: The Scientist and Research Participant in Relation to their Environments

209

Chapter 12

Quasi-Experimental, Correlational, and Naturalistic Observation Designs

229

Chapter 13

Single-Subject Designs

249

Chapter 14

Questionnaires, Survey Research, and Sampling

270

Chapter 15

Sharing the Results

293

Chapter 16

Beyond Method

313

Preface This instructor’s manual/test bank accompanies the Tenth Edition of Ray’s Methods: Toward a Science of Behavior and Experience. It is designed to assist both the experienced and inexperienced teacher to help their students learn course content.

Each chapter in the manual corresponds to the chapters of the textbook and includes: Chapter Overview – The overview is a brief summary of the most important content of the textbook’s chapters.

Chapter Objectives – These objectives describe expected student learning outcomes for each chapter.

Teaching Points – This section describes the areas of the chapters that students are most likely to have difficulty understanding. In addition, you’ll find examples that may be used to provide further illustrations of important textbook content.

Teaching Activities – Students can benefit by having hands-on experience by discussion or conducting and evaluating research and are part of this section.

Wahsworth’s Research Methods Workshop – These workshops provide students with activities on subject matter related to most of the chapters.

Internet Resources – Several relevant Internet sites are described in each chapter of the manual. The sites include demonstrations, tutorials, essays, and exercises to help students with the contents of the chapter.

Suggested Readings – One or more suggested readings are listed. These readings provide examples and/or commentary that are relevant to the material covered in each chapter.

Research Activities for Students – Several research activities are provided that will help students to practice what they learn from each chapter. The activities are designed to be interesting and may help engage students in research.

Handouts – In this section are the handouts that accompany some of the Teaching Activities.

Multiple Choice Questions and Short Answer Questions – These questions are designed to assess student learning. Each question references the page number and section of the chapter. Each chapter of the manual has at least 40 multiple choice questions and 10 short answer questions.