Behavior Modification What It Is And How To Do It 11th Edition By Gary Martin, Joseph Pear Instructo

Instructor’s Manual for

Martin and Pear

Behavior Modification What It Is and How to Do It Eleventh Edition

Routledge Taylor & Francis Group

Copyright © 2019 by Taylor and Francis. All rights reserved. Manufactured in the United States of America. The contents, or parts thereof, may be reproduced with Behavior Modification: What It Is and How to Do It, Eleventh Edition, by Garry Martin and Joseph Pear, provided such reproductions bear copyright notice, but may not be reproduced in any form for any other purpose without written permission from the copyright owner. To obtain permission(s) to use material from this work, please visit the Rights and Permissions page at https://www.routledge.com/info/permissions.

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PREFACE Considering the extensive study aids already incorporated into the text, as well as our own experience in using the first ten editions of the text during the past 41 years, we believe that the most helpful additional material we can give an instructor is our detailed answer key to all of the Questions for Learning in the text, including the Questions for Further Learning in the Notes for Further Learning (NfFL) sections. Having such an answer key available can be a tremendous time-saver for instructors and can greatly facilitate accurate and consistent grading by teaching assistants. Part II of this manual, therefore, contains answers to all Q uestions for Learning and Questions for Further Learning. The form of the suggested answers varies somewhat according to the type of question asked.

As mentioned in the Preface to the text, the NfFL sections contain information that might be used by instructors as springboards for lecture material. Our suggested answers to the Questions for Further Learning in the NfFL sections, besides being helpful to course graders, may also prove useful to instructors when elaborating or expanding on the material in the NfFL sections.

The Questions for Learning and the Questions for Further Learning were prepared by the authors of the text. For instructors who wish to use option-based questions, a pool of multiplechoice and true/false questions has been provided in Part III on a chapter-by-chapter basis by Nicole Duy, Garry Martin, Nickie Martin, and Brunata Smyk. The multiple-choice and true/false questions are as closely related a s possible to the material contained in the answers to the Questions for Learning and the Questions for Further Learning. This was a deliberate tactic so that students who master the textual material by learning answers to the Questions for Learning and Questions for Further Learning will perform well on the multiple-choice and true/false questions.

Included in the Instructor’s Manual in Part IV are fifteen in-class practica or mini-lab exercises that have been developed and field-tested. Each exercise is designed for completion by a group of two or three students during a regularly scheduled class. After students have studied and been examined on relevant chapters, completion of a practicum helps them learn to talk about and apply behavior modification principles. Feedback from students indicates that the exercises are an excellent teaching tool.

Also in this edition of the Instructor’s Resource Manual is a section (Part I) on the Thinking Levels required to fully answer the Questions for Learning and the Questions for Further Learning in the text. This information is based on research carried out by Joseph Pear using the Questions for Learning in a Computer-Aided Personalized System of Instruction approach (see www.capsi.org). As mentioned in Part I, there are a number of uses instructors can make of this information.

Garry Martin and Joseph Pear

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Part I Thinking Levels

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BLOOM’S TAXONOMY: A MODIFIED FORM One goal of education is to teach students to think at higher levels. However, this has always been a problem. One of the difficulties that instructors encounter is operationally defining higher-level thinking.

In the 1950s Benjamin S. Bloom, an educational psychologist, a n d his research team identified six major levels of questions in a book titled Taxonomy of educational objectives: the classification of educational goals1. These levels, now commonly called Bloom’s Taxonomy, are: ( 1 ) knowledge, (2) comprehension, ( 3 ) application, ( 4 ) analysis, (5) synthesis, and ( 6) evaluation. Joseph Pear and his students applied a modified form of Bloom’s taxonomy to the Questions for Learning in Behavior Modification: What It Is and How to Do It (see www.capsi.org). Table 1 shows the definitions of the levels at which the questions in the text are rated. These ratings have good inter-rater reliability.

Table 1. Modified definitions of the major categories in Bloom’s Taxonomy (Adapted from Crone-Todd, Pear, J.J., & Read, C. N. Operational definitions for higher-order thinking objectives at the post-secondary level. Academic Exchange Quarterly, 4, 99-106.)

Levels 1 and 2 The answers to these types of questions will always be found in the assigned material.

Answers may be memorized or closely paraphrased from the assigned material.

1. Knowledge 2. Comprehension

Answers must be in the student’s own words, while still using terminology appropriate to the assigned material.

Levels 3, 4, 5, and 6 These questions go beyond the textual material in that they must be inferred or extrapolated from the information in the assigned material.

May require recognition, identification, or application of a concept or principle learned at Category II in a new situation or solve a new problem. Questions in this 3. Application category may present or require examples not found in the assigned material.

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Bloom, B.S. (Ed.), Engelhart, M.D., Furst, E.J., Hill, W.H., & Krathwohl, D.R. (1956). Taxonomy of educational objectives: The classification of educational goals. Handbook 1: Cognitive domain. New York: David McKay. 2

(Table 1, continued) 4. Analysis

5. Synthesis

6. Evaluation

Requires breaking down concepts into their constituent parts, or the identification or explanation of the essential components of concepts, principles, or processes.

Questions in this category may require the student to compare and contrast concepts or explain how an example illustrates a given concept, principle, etc.

Requires the putting together of parts to form a whole. Questions may require the generation of definitions not identified in the assigned material (i.e., going from specific to general), or to explain how to combine principles or concepts in a novel way or to produce something new.

Requires the presentation and evaluation of reasons for and against a particular position, and to come to a conclusion regarding the validity of that position. The most important part of the answer is the justification or rationale for the conclusion, rather than the answer per se. A good discussion in this category involves the use of all preceding levels.

USES OF THE TAXONOMY The following are some of the uses that instructors may make of the question levels given below.

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To generate higher-order thinking in students.

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To ensure a balanced distribution of thinking levels on tests.

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To equate alternate forms of a test with regard to thinking levels required.

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To ensure that the first questions on a test are at the lowest thinking level, since the higher levels tend to be more difficult for most students.

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To ensure that earlier tests in a course have a higher proportion of lower level questions than later tests.

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To test for particular types of competencies (e.g. one would give predominantly knowledge and comprehension level questions if the primary goal is to develop knowledge of what behavior modification is as opposed to how to apply it).

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To construct tests that are appropriate for the level of the course being taught (e.g. more advanced courses should have more higher-level questions than less advanced courses).

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To provide a basis for awarding bonus points.

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To provide scales for individuals conducting research in the area of higher-order thinking.

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Part II Answers to Questions for Learning and Questions for Further Learning

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CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION Answers to [and Levels of] Questions for Learning 1. Q: What is behavior, generally and technically? [Level 1/K] Give three synonyms for behavior. [Level 1/K] A: Generally, behavior is anything a person does or says. Technically, behavior is any muscular, glandular, or electrical activity of an organism. Synonyms include: activity, action, performance, responding, response, and reaction.

2. Q: Distinguish between behavior and products of behavior. [Level 4/An] Give an example of a behavior and a product of that behavior that are not in this chapter. [Level 3/App] A: Behavior is anything that a person says or does. Products of behavior are the consequences produced by the behavior. For example, studying effectively and writing the correct answers to questions on an exam are behaviors. Getting an “A” is a product of those behaviors.

3. Q: Distinguish between overt and covert behaviors. [Level 4/An] Give two examples of each that are not in this chapter. [Level 3/App] A: Overt behaviors are behaviors that could be observed and recorded by an individual other than the one performing the behavior. For example, walking and talking are overt behaviors. Covert behaviors are private or internal activities that cannot be readily observed by others. For example, thinking particular words to oneself or feeling nervous (increased heart rate, etc.) would be private behaviors.

4. Q: What are cognitive behaviors? [Level 1/K] Give two examples. [Level 2/C] A: Thinking in words (private self-talk) and imagining are sometimes referred to as cognitive behaviors. For example, a hockey player may think before stepping on the ice at a game, “I am going to play my best game yet” (private self-talk), or a teacher may tell the class to close their eyes and picture a beach (imagining).

5. Q: Describe two dimensions of behavior. [Level 2/C] Give an example of each. [Level 2/C] A: Any two dimensions can be described. Duration of a behavior is how long it lasts. For example, measuring how long an individual can tread water in a swimming pool.

Frequency of a behavior is the number of instances that occur in a given period of time.

For example, a figure skater counting the number of times that she or he lands a new jump in a practice session. The intensity or force of a behavior refers to the physical effort or energy involved in emitting the behavior. For example, the force of a person’s grip when shaking hands.

6. Q: From a behavioral point of view, what do terms like intelligence or creativity refer to?

[Level 1/K] Give an example of each. [Level 2/C] A: Although their meanings vary from speaker to speaker, they always refer to ways of behaving. An intelligent person, for example, solves problems quickly; a creative person frequently emits behaviors that are novel or unusual and have desirable effects.

7. Q: What are two positive reasons that summary terms for behavior patterns are used frequently in psychology and in everyday life? [Level 2/C] A: First, summary labels may be useful for quickly providing general information about how an individual might perform. For example, a ten-year old child labeled as having a severe developmental disability would not be able to read at the first grade level. Second, the labels may imply that a particular treatment program will be helpful. For example, someone labeled as showing road rage might be encouraged to take an anger 5

management program.

8. Q:

What are two disadvantages of using summary labels to refer to individuals or their actions? [Level 1/K] Give an example of each. [Level 2/C] A: (a) They may lead to pseudo explanations of behavior. For example, a child who inverts words while reading might be labeled as dyslexic. If we ask why the child inverts words, and we are given the answer, “Because he is dyslexic,” then the summary label for behavior has been used as a pseudo explanation for the behavior. (b) They can negatively affect the way a labeled individual might be treated. For example, suppose a teenager consistently fails to help his parents perform chores around the house. If the parents describe their son as “lazy”, that label may cause them to focus more on the problem behavior than to praise positive behaviors. Any appropriate examples are acceptable.

9. Q: What is a behavioral deficit? [Level 1/K] Give two examples that are not in this chapter.

[Level 3/App] A: Too little behavior of a particular type. For example, a child might not pronounce words clearly, nor interact with other children. Any other two appropriate examples are acceptable.

10. Q: What is a behavioral excess? [Level 1/K] Give two examples that are not in this chapter.

[Level 3/App] A: Too much behavior of a particular type. For example, a child frequently plays with the dials on the television set, and throws food on the floor at mealtime. Any other two appropriate examples are acceptable.

11. Q: Give three reasons why the authors describe behavior problems in terms of specific behavioral deficits or excesses? [Level 2/C] A: (a) To avoid the problems of using general labels to refer to individuals; (b) because it is behavior that causes concern and behavior that must be treated to alleviate the problems; and (c) specific procedures are available to overcome behavior problems.

12. Q: Define behavior modification. [Level 2/C] A: Behavior modification involves the systematic application of learning principles and techniques to assess and improve individuals’ covert and overt behaviors in order to enhance their daily functioning.

13. Q: What are stimuli? [Level 1/K] Describe two examples that are not in this chapter.

[Level 3/App] A: Stimuli are the people, objects, and events currently present in one’s immediate surroundings that impinge on one’s sense receptors and that can affect behavior. Any appropriate examples are acceptable.

14. Q: State seven defining characteristics of behavior modification. [Level 1/K] A: First, it places strong emphasis on defining problems in terms of behavior that can be measured in some way and accepting changes in the behavioral measure of the problem as the best indicator of the extent to which the problem is being helped. Second, its treatment procedures and techniques are ways of altering an individual’s environment to help that individual function more fully in society. Third, its methods and rationales can be described precisely. Fourth, the techniques of behavior modification are often applied by individuals in everyday life. Fifth, its techniques stem from basic and applied research in the psychology of learning in general, and in the principles of operant and Pavlovian conditioning in particular. Sixth, it emphasizes scientific demonstration that a particular intervention was responsible for a particular behavior change. Seventh, it places high value on accountability for everyone involved in behavior modification programs: client, staff, administrators, consultants, etc.

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15. Q: What is meant by the term target behavior? [Level 1/K] Give an example of a target behavior of yours that you would like to improve. [Level 3/App] Is your target behavior one that you want to increase (i.e., a behavioral deficit) or one that you want to decrease (i.e., a behavioral excess)? [Level 2/C] A: Target behavior is a behavior to be improved in a behavior modification program. A student might identify a target behavior of studying. This would be a behavioral deficit that needs to be increased. Other appropriate examples are acceptable.

16. Q: Define behavioral assessment. [Level 2/C] A: Behavioral assessment involves the collection and analysis of information and data in order to: (1) Identify and describe target behaviors; (2) Identify possible causes of the behavior; (3) Guide the selection of an appropriate behavioral treatment; and (4) Evaluate treatment outcome.

17. Q: Briefly describe Joseph Wolpe’s contribution to the early history of behavior therapy.

[Level 2/C] A: In the 1950s Joseph Wolpe, drawing heavily on Pavlovian conditioning, developed a behavioral treatment for specific phobias. In the early 1960s, when Wolpe moved to the United States, his behavior therapy approach for treating anxiety disorders gained in popularity.

18. Q: Briefly describe B. F. Skinner’s early influence on behavior modification? [Level 2/C] A: In 1953, in his book Science and Human Behavior, Skinner offered his interpretation of how basic learning principles could influence the behavior of people in all kinds of situations. In the 1950s and 60s, practitioners influenced by Skinner published papers that demonstrated applications of operant conditioning principles to help people in a variety of ways, and these applications were given the name behavior modification.

19. Q: State the four dimensions of applied behavior analysis. [Level 2/C] A: The dimensions of applied behavior analysis include: (a) a focus on measurable behavior that is socially significant; (b) a strong emphasis on the learning principles frequently referred to as operant conditioning, to develop treatment strategies; (c) an attempt to clearly demonstrate that the treatment that was applied was responsible for the improvement in the behavior that was measured; and (d) a demonstration of generalizable and long-lasting improvements in behavior.

20. Q: In 1970, what was Aaron Beck referring to with respect to the term cognitive therapy?

[Level 1/K] In the 1970s and 1980s what term was commonly used to refer to “Cognitive Therapy”? [Level 1/K] A: By the term “cognitive therapy”, Beck was referring to strategies for recognizing maladaptive thinking and replacing it with adaptive thinking. Cognitive behavior modification.

21. Q: List and briefly describe three types of behavior modifiers? [Level 1/K] A: The first type is “applied behavior analyst” which is used to refer to individuals who specialize in applied behavior analysis or behavior modification. The second type is “behavior therapist” which is used to refer to someone who has considerable formal training in the application of cognitive behavior therapy. The third type is someone without formal training in behavior modification who tries to improve someone’s behavior.

22. Q: List four myths or misconceptions about behavior modification. [Level 2/C] A: Any four of the following myths or misconceptions: 7

(a) Use of rewards by behavior modifiers to change behavior is bribery; (b) Behavior modification involves the use of drugs, psychosurgery,and electroconvulsive therapy; (c) Behavior modification only changes symptoms; it doesn’t get at the underlying problems; (d) Behavior modification is not applicable for changing complex problems such as low self-esteem or depression; (e) Behavior modifiers are cold and unfeeling and don’t develop empathy for their clients; (f) Behavior modifiers deal only with observable behavior; they don’t deal with thoughts and feelings of clients; (g) Behavior modification is outdated.

23. Q: List four subtopics that address ethical issues in behavior modification programs.

[Level 2/C] A: (a) Qualifications of the behavior analyst/behavior therapist; (b) definition of the problem and selection of goals; (c) selection of treatment; and (d) record-keeping and ongoing evaluation.

24. Q: State two guidelines to ensure that target behaviors for behavior modification are the most important for the client and society. [Level 2/C] A: (a) Ideally the client will be an active participant in the identification of target behaviors; and (b) where this is not possible, competent impartial third parties should be identified to act on behalf of the client.

25. Q: What is key to ensuring ethical and effective treatment programs by applied behavior analysts and behavior therapists? [Level 1/K] A: The monitoring of data of target behaviors as well as possible side effects, by concerned parties and clients.

Answers to [and Levels of] Questions for Further Learning 1.Q: What is the full title of the DSM-5? [Level 1/K] In a sentence, what is it?.

[Level 2/C] A: DSM-5 stands for Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition. It is a manual to help therapists to diagnosis or classify clients based on categories of problem behaviors observed.

2. Q: Give five reasons why many behavior modifiers use the DSM-5. [Level 2/C] A: First, it is based primarily on research. Second, individual disorders are based on categories of problem behaviors. Third, it uses a multidimensional recording system that provides extra information for planning treatment, managing a case, and predicting outcomes. Fourth, often official DSM-5 diagnoses are required by clinics, hospitals, schools, and social service agencies before treatment can be offered. Fifth, health insurance companies reimburse practitioners on the basis of the diagnoses in the DSM5.

3. Q: What is a potential disadvantage of using the DSM-5? [Level 2/C] A: A DSM-5 diagnosis may lead to an individual being labeled (e.g., autistic), and labeling can lead to several disadvantages, such as the implication that all individuals with the same label are the same, even though they are not.

4. Q: What is meant by “people first language”? [Level 1/K] Illustrate with an example. [Level 2/C] 8

A: People-first language uses terms that specify the diagnosis or label after specifying the person with that label. It t h e r e f o r e helps us to focus on the problem and to avoid labeling. Although the question does not ask for an example, an example would be identifying an individual as a child with autism rather than an autistic child.

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CHAPTER 2 AREAS OF APPLICATION: AN OVERVIEW Answers to [and Levels of] Questions for Learning 1. Q: List four children’s behaviors that have been improved by parents’ application of behavior modification. [Level 1/K] A: Any four of the following: learning to walk, learning to talk, toilet training, doing household chores, decreasing nail-biting, decreasing temper tantrums, decreasing aggressive behaviors, following rules, complying with parents’ requests, and decreasing arguing. Other behaviors might also be acceptable.

2. Q: List four behaviors of elementary school students that have been modified with behavior modification. [Level 1/K] A: Any four of the following: oral reading, reading comprehension, spelling, handwriting, mathematics, English composition, creativity, science concepts, out-of-seat behavior, tantruming, aggressive behavior, and excessive socializing. Other behaviors might also be acceptable.

3. Q: Describe three characteristics common to behavioral approaches in university teaching.

[Level 2/C] A: (a) The instructional goals for a course are stated in the form of study questions and application exercises; (b) students are given opportunities to demonstrate their mastery of the course content through frequent tests (based on the study questions) or some combination of tests and assignments; and (c) students are given detailed information at the beginning of a course about what is expected of them on the tests and assignments in order to achieve various letter grades.

4. Q: What is PSI, and who was its founder? [Level 1/K] A: PSI stands for Personalized System of Instruction, which is a behavior modification approach to teaching. It was founded by Fred S. Keller.

5. Q: What is CAPSI? [Level 1/K] A: CAPSI is Computer-Aided PSI, or Computer-Aided Personalized System of Instruction.

6. Q: What is currently the preferred term for the disability previously referred to as “mental retardation”? [Level 1/K] A: Intellectual disability.

7. Q: List four behaviors of persons with intellectual disabilities that have been modified using behavior modification. [Level 1/K] A: Any four of the following: toileting, feeding, dressing, personal hygiene, social skills, communication skills, vocational skills, leisure time activities, and community survival behaviors. Other behaviors listed might also be acceptable.

8. Q: List four behaviors of children with ASDs that have been modified using behavior modification. [Level 1/K] A: Social behaviors, language skills, play behaviors, and (elimination of) self-stimulatory behaviors. Other behaviors listed might also be acceptable.

9. Q: List four behaviors of people with schizophrenia that have been modified using behavior modification. [Level 1/K] A: Social skills, communication skills, assertiveness, and job finding skills. Other behaviors listed might also be acceptable.

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10. Q: List four psychological problems that have been effectively treated with behavior therapy.

[Level 1/K] A: Any four of the following: anxiety disorders, obsessive-compulsive disorders, stressrelated problems, depression, obesity, marital problems, sexual dysfunction, and habit disorders. Other problems might also be acceptable.

11. Q: List four behaviors in the area of self-management of personal problems that have been modified by behavior modification. [Level 1/K] A: Saving money, increasing exercise behavior, improving study habits, and controlling gambling. Other behaviors listed might also be acceptable.

12. Q: What is health psychology? [Level 1/K] A: Health psychology is the study of how psychological factors can influence or cause illness, and how people can be encouraged to practice healthy behavior in order to prevent health problems.

13. Q: List five areas of application within health psychology. [Level 1/K] A: Areas of application of health psychology include: (a) direct treatment of medical problems such as headaches; (b) establishing treatment compliance such as taking medications as prescribed; (c) promoting healthy living such as eating well-balanced meals and getting adequate exercise; (d) improving the management of caregivers, such as the behavior of nurses and other medical personnel who provide services; and (e) teaching use of behavioral strategies for coping with stress.

14. Q: List three behaviors of elderly persons that have been improved with behavior modification.

[Level 1/K] A: Any three of the following: coping with loss of skills, functioning independently during old age, learning new routines because it’s impossible to perform tasks in previously learned ways, overcoming anxiety or fear about possible failure to cope, learning new relationships with professional care staff, and decreasing disruptive behaviors in nursing homes. Other behaviors might also be acceptable.

15. Q: Define behavioral community psychology. [Level 2/C] A: Behavioral community psychology refers to applications to socially significant problems in unstructured community settings where the behavior of individuals is not considered deviant in the traditional sense.

16. Q: List four behaviors in the area of behavioral community psychology that have been modified by behavior modification. [Level 1/K] A: Any four of the following: littering, recycling, energy conservation, living in a cooperative housing project, and job skills training. Other behaviors listed might also be acceptable.

17. Q: Define organizational behavior management (OBM). [Level 2/C] A: Organizational behavior management is the application of behavioral principles and methods to the study and control of individual or group behavior within organizational settings.

18. Q: List four behaviors in business, industry, or government that have been modified by behavior modification. [Level 1/K] A: Any four of the following: improved productivity, decreased tardiness and absenteeism, increased sales volume, creation of new businesses, improved worker safety, reduced theft by employees, reduced shoplifting, and improved management-employee relations.

Other behaviors listed might also be acceptable.

19. Q: Define behavioral sport psychology. [Level 2/C] A: Behavioral sport psychology has been defined as the use of behavior analysis principles 11

and techniques to enhance the performance and satisfaction of athletes and others associated with sports.

20. Q: List four areas of application of behavioral sport psychology. [Level 1/K] A: Any four of the following: motivating practice and fitness training, teaching new athletic skills, controlling emotions that interfere with athletic performance, helping athletes cope with pressure in major competitions, and helping coaches to function more effectively.

Other behaviors listed might also be acceptable.

21. Q: Describe how knowledge of a cultural characteristic might be helpful for behavior modifiers working with individuals from different cultures. [Level 2/C] Give an example. [Level 2/C] A: Cultural characteristics can influence the effectiveness of treatment. It is helpful, for example, for therapists to know that many Asian-American clients prefer to be told specifically what to do by the therapist (as opposed to a more non-directive approach). On the other hand, with many Hispanic-American clients, compliance with goal- directed suggestions is likely to be more effective if they are preceded by a period of familiarizing small talk.

22. Q: What caution should behavior modifiers consider when working with individuals from different cultures? [Level 1/K] A: Be cautious about the dangers of overgeneralizing about any cultural group.

Answers to [and Levels of] Questions for Further Learning 1. Q: What are two important research needs in EIBI programs for children with ASDs? [Level 2/C] A: Two important research needs in EIBI programs for children with autism are: (a) quality assessment systems to evaluate the effectiveness of specific components of EIBI interventions; and (b) the development of effective rapid training procedures for teaching parents and instructors to conduct discrete-trials teaching.

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CHAPTER 3 DEFINING, MEASURING, AND RECORDING TARGET BEHAVIORS Answers to [and Levels of] Questions for Learning 1. Q: Define behavioral assessment. [Level 2/C] A: Behavioral assessment involves the collection and analysis of information and data in order to identify and describe target behavior, identify possible causes of the behavior, select appropriate treatment strategies to modify the behavior, and evaluate treatment outcome.

2. Q: List the five phases of a behavior modification program. [Level 2/C] A: (a) A screening or intake phase; (b) defining the target behavior phase; (c) a pre-program assessment or baseline phase; (d) treatment phase; (e) follow-up phase.

3. Q: What are the five functions of the intake phase of a behavior modification program?

[Level 2/C] A: The 5 functions of the intake phase are to: (a) determine if a particular agency is the appropriate one to deal with the individual’s behavior; (b) inform the client about the agencies or practitioners’ policies and procedures regarding service provision; (c) screen for the presence of a crisis condition; (d) gather sufficient information to diagnose the client; and (e) determine which behaviors should be baselined.

4. Q: What does the term target behavior mean? [Level 2/C] What were the target behaviors in Darren’s case? [Level 3/App] A: A target behavior is a behavior to be improved in a behavior modification program. In Darren’s case the target behaviors were to increase Darren’s cooperative behavior towards his mother, and to decrease Darren’s commanding behavior.

5. Q: What two things typically occur during the baseline phase of a behavior modification program? [Level 2/C] A: The behavior modifier assesses the target behavior to (a) determine its level prior to the introduction of treatment, and (b) analyze the individual’s current environment to identity possible controlling variables of the behavior to be changed.

6. Q: In what types of settings are the terms training program, and intervention strategy or therapy program typically used? [Level 2/C] A: The term training program is typically used in educational settings, and the terms therapy program and intervention strategy are typically used in community and clinical settings.

7. Q: What is the purpose of the follow-up phase of a behavior modification program?

[Level 2/C] A: The purpose of the follow-up phases is to determine whether the improvements achieved during treatment are maintained after the termination of the program.

8. Q: What is prerequisite to the design and implementation of a behavior modification program? [Level 2/C] A: Defining target behaviors clearly, completely, and in measurable terms is an important prerequisite to the design of a behavior modification program.

9. Q: Briefly distinguish between direct and indirect assessment procedures. [Level 4/An] A: Direct assessment procedures involve direct observation and measurement of some aspect of a behavior as the behavior occurs. The concern is to produce a record of what a client is 13

doing. With indirect assessment, the behavior modifier typically relies on a verbal description of the behavior of a student. The description may come from the client and/or others through interviews and/or formal questionnaires.

10. Q: Describe two circumstances that might lead to the use of indirect assessment procedures.

[Level 2/C] A: (a) It may be impractical for the therapist to observe clients regularly in the situations in which the target behaviors occur; (b) Some clients may want to change some of their thoughts and feelings that others can’t observe.

11. Q: Briefly describe the advantages and disadvantages of indirect assessment procedures.

[Level 2/C] A: Advantages of indirect assessment procedures: (a) they are convenient; (b) they don’t require a substantial amount of time; (c) they can be used to provide information about covert behaviors.

Disadvantages of indirect assessment procedures: (a) the person providing the information may not remember the observations accurately; (b) the person providing the information might have particular biases that would influence that individual to provide inaccurate data.

12. Q: List the five main types of indirect assessment procedures. [Level 2/C] A: Interview with the client and significant others, questionnaires, role-playing, information from consulting professions, and client self-monitoring.

13. Q: List and describe briefly four types of questionnaires used in behavioral assessments.

[Level 2/C] A: (a) Life history questionnaires: these provide background data such as work, sexual, and educational histories. (b) Problem checklists: these have the client indicate which problem applies to him or her among detailed lists of problems. (c) Survey schedules: these are designed to provide specific information needed to implement a particular program with a client. (d) Third party rating scales: these are used by a therapist to ask significant others or professionals involved with a client to indicate on a checklist the frequency and/or quality of certain behaviors that the client may emit.

14. Q: Briefly describe the main advantage and the three disadvantages of direct assessment procedures.

[Level 2/C] A: The main advantage of direct assessment procedures is that they are likely to be more accurate than indirect assessment procedures. The disadvantages are: (a) they are timeconsuming; (b) they require that observers be appropriately trained; and (c) they cannot be used to monitor covert behaviors.

15. Q: What does the topography of a behavior mean? [Level 2/C] Describe an example that is not in this chapter. [Level 3/App] A: Topography refers to the form or specific movements involved in a particular response. Any appropriate example is acceptable.

16. Q: What does the frequency of a behavior mean? [Level 2/C] Describe an example that is not in this chapter. [Level 3/App] A: Frequency: the number of instances of a behavior that occur in a given period of time, such as the frequency of foul shots in a basketball practice. Any appropriate example is acceptable.

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17. Q: What was plotted on the vertical axis and the horizontal axis of the frequency graph of a figure skater? [Level 1/C] A: Elements attempted, and sessions.

18. Q: What are two common measures of the amount of behavior? [Level 2/C] A: Frequency and duration.

19. Q: What do we mean by the duration of a behavior? [Level 1/K] Give and explain an example in which duration might be more appropriate than frequency.

[Level 2/C] A: The relative duration of a behavior is the length of time the behavior occurs within some period. For example, duration is more appropriate than frequency when measuring how long a child is attentive to a story being read by the teacher. Any appropriate example is acceptable.

20. Q: What is another word for the intensity of a response? [Level 1/K] Describe an example in which it would be important to measure the intensity of a behavior. [Level 2/C] A: Force. For example, force is measured in various sporting events, such as inferring force from the amount of weight that is lifted in a weightlifting competition. Any appropriate example is acceptable.

21. Q: Define stimulus control, and give an example that is not in this chapter. [Level 2/C] A: Stimulus control refers to the degree of correlation between a stimulus and a response. For example, if a driver always stops at an intersection when the traffic light shows red, then the red light exerts good stimulus control over the behavior of stopping. Any appropriate example is acceptable.

22. Q: What do we mean by the latency of a response? [Level 2/C] Describe an example that is not in this chapter. [Level 3/App] A: Latency refers to the amount of time an individual takes to begin to respond to a particular stimulus after it is presented. Any appropriate example is acceptable.

23. Q: Using an example, explain how the quality of a behavior is a refinement of one or more of the other dimensions of behavior. [Level 2/C] A: Topography, amount, intensity, stimulus control, and latency can all be used to assess quality in that a “good” response is a somewhat arbitrary designation of one or more of the other characteristics. In terms of topography, a figure skating jump that is landed on one foot is considered better than one that is landed on two feet. With respect to frequency, a student who shows a high frequency of studying and answering test questions correctly is likely to be considered as a better student than one who shows a low frequency of such behaviors. Appropriate examples might be given for the other characteristics.

24. Q: Define continuous recording. [Level 2/C] Describe an example that is not in this chapter.

[Level 3/App] A: Continuous recording is recording every instance of a particular behavior during a specified time segment, for example, counting each instance that a person swears during a one-hour interval. Other appropriate examples are acceptable.

25. Q: Define interval recording. [Level 2/C] Distinguish between partial-interval recording system and whole-interval recording. [Level 4/An] A: With interval recording, a behavior is recorded as either occurring or not occurring during short intervals of equal duration (e.g., intervals of 10 seconds) during the specified observation period (e.g., 30 minutes). With partial interval recording, the target behavior is recorded a maximum of once per interval regardless of how many times the behavior occurs during each interval and regardless of the duration of the behavior. With whole interval recording, the target behavior is recorded as occurring during an interval only if it persists 15

throughout the entire interval.

26. Q: When would one likely select to use continuous recording? [Level 2/C] A: Continuous recording is commonly used when successive responses are quite similar in duration.

27. Q: When would one likely select an interval-recording system over continuous recording?

[Level 2/C] A: One would likely select an interval recording system over a continuous recording system if successive responses are of variable duration.

28. Q: Define time-sampling recording. [Level 2/C] Describe an example that is not in this chapter. [Level 3/App] A: Time-sampling recording scores a behavior as occurring or not occurring during very brief observation intervals, each of which is separated from the others by some longer period of time. For example, a parent might check whether or not a child is watching TV by observing the child for a few seconds each hour on the hour throughout a day. Any appropriate example is acceptable.

29. Q: Briefly describe momentary time-sampling recording. [Level 2/C] A: With momentary time-sampling, a special case of time-sampling, a behavior is recorded as occurring or not occurring at specific points in time, such as every hour on the hour, rather than during specific brief intervals.

30. Q: Describe three relatively simple ways for recording behavior. [Level 2/C] A: The three mentioned in the text are: (a) Transfer a small item, such as bean, from one pocket to another each time a behavior occurs; (b) Use a golf counter; (c) Use a hand-held computer and press +1 each time a behavior occurs.

Other plausible examples are also acceptable.

31. Q: Describe an example of how technology can be used to automatically record a behavior. [Level 1/K] A: Wearable activity trackers will automatically record physical activity such as number of steps walked. Other appropriate examples are acceptable.

32. Q: Describe five categories of error that can affect the accuracy of observations. [Level 2/C] A: (a) Response definition might be vague, subjective or incomplete; (b) the behavior might be difficult to detect because it is very subtle or complex, or because of distractions or other obstructions to the observing process in the observational situation; (c) the observer might be poorly trained, unmotivated, biased, or generally incompetent; (d) data sheets might be poorly designed; and (e) recording procedures might be cumbersome.

33. Q: List and briefly describe five sources of bias and artifact that can influence an observer.

[Level 2/C] A: (a) Reactivity, which refers to the fact that accuracy of the observations is a direct function of the observer’s belief that he or she is being monitored; (b) observer drift, which is the tendency of an observer’s definition of the target behavior to gradually drift away from the definition the observer was originally given; (c) observer expectancy, which refers to the tendency of the observations to inaccurately show improvement in the target behavior as a function of the observer expecting the target behavior to improve; (d) feedback, which refers to the tendency of the observations to be influenced by positive or negative feedback inadvertently provided to the observer by his or her supervisor; (e) complexity of the observations, which refers to the tendency for observations to be less accurate if the definition of the target response has many parts or the observer is required to observe multiple behaviors at the same time.

16

34. Q: In a sentence or two, explain what we mean by interobserver agreement. (Describe the process, but don’t give the procedures for calculating IOAs.) [Level 2/C] A: Interobserver agreement refers to the amount of agreement between independent observers (i.e., observers who do not influence each others’ judgments) on the occurrence of specific instances of a particular behavior.

35. Q: Using the procedure described in the text for computing IOAs with partial-interval data, compute an IOA for the data of vocalizing as recorded by observers 1 and 2 (Figure 3.6).

Show all of your computations. [Level 3/App] A: IOA = 7 x 100% = 32% 7 + 15 36. Q: Distinguish between a frequency ratio index (or total accuracy agreement) and point-bypoint agreement. [Level 1/K] A: A frequency-ratio index is when two observers count the frequency of a particular response over a period of time and then compute an IOA score by dividing the smaller number by the larger number and multiplying by 100%. A point-by-point agreement measure is when two observers use partial-interval recording of a behavior over a period of time and then compute an IOA score by dividing the number of intervals for which the two observers agree that the behavior occurred by the total number of intervals in which either recorded a behavior and multiplying by 100%.

37. Q: What is an acceptable IOA in a behavior modification program? [Level 1/K] A: 80–100%.

38. Q: What is procedural reliability or treatment integrity? [Level 1/K] What is an acceptable level of procedural reliability in a behavior modification program?

A: Procedural reliability is the percentage of instances that the components of a treatment were carried out correctly relative to the components that were carried out correctly plus the components that were carried out incorrectly. It is desirable for procedural reliability to be at least 95%.

39. Q: Give six reasons for collecting accurate data during an assessment or baseline phase and throughout a program. [Level 2/C] A: (a) An accurate behavioral assessment provides a description of the problem that will help the behavior modifier to decide whether or not he or she is the appropriate one to design a treatment program; (b) an accurate Baseline will sometimes indicate that what someone thought was a problem is actually not a problem;(c) the initial assessment process often helps the behavior modifier to identify possible causes of the problem behavior and the best treatment strategy; (d) accurate baseline data provides means for clearly determining whether the program has produced or is producing the desired change in behavior; (e) publicly posted results can be both prompts and reinforcers for the behavior modifier for carrying out a program; (f) the displayed data may lead to improvements apart from any further treatment program.

40. Q: What error does the case of the boy who went around pinching adults exemplify?

[Level 3/App] Explain how accurately recorded data counteracted this error. [Level 2/C] A: Assuming that a procedure is working, when in fact it is not. Harris et al. used the data collected to convince the teachers that the level of pinching during the initial program was at the same level as during baseline.

41. Q: What does reactivity mean in behavioral assessment? [Level 2/C] example not given in this chapter. [Level 3/App] 17

Illustrate with an

A: Reactivity refers to the observation that displayed data of the behavior of an individual may lead to improvements in that behavior apart from any further treatment program. That is, when people know their behavior is being observed, their observed behavior may change.

Any appropriate example is acceptable.

42. Q: Briefly describe the details of the clever graphing system devised for the child who got the rabbit to the carrot patch. [Level 2/C] A: A chart was prepared showing a picture of a rabbit moving toward a carrot patch. With days depicted across the bottom and the amount of time spent in the cloakroom up the side of the chart, decreases in time spent in the cloakroom by the child were signified by moving the rabbit down the green grass on the chart toward the carrot patch at the bottom.

43. Q: Briefly describe how Ernest Hemingway and Irving Wallace used self-recording to help them maintain their writing behavior. [Level 2/C] A: Each of the authors kept daily records of the number of pages written when working on books. Trollope and Hemingway also kept track of the number of words written daily. While Trollope recorded his output in a diary, Hemingway and Wallace maintained charts of their output. In all three cases, their daily self-recordings helped to maintain their work output at what they considered to be reasonable levels.

Answers to [and Levels of] Questions for Further Learning 1. Q: What is the major purpose of sport-specific behavioral checklists? [Level 2/C] A: To provide information necessary to design effective interventions for remediating behavioral deficits or excesses in specific situations with individual athletes.

2. Q: What are two differences between behavioral checklists and traditional psychological tests? [Level 2/C] A: Unlike traditional psychological tests, behavioral checklists do not have norms and they are not designed to measure character or personality traits.

3. Q: What is the difference between obtrusive and unobtrusive observations? [Level 4/An] A: Observations are obtrusive when the observational method affects the behaviors being observed. Observations are unobtrusive when the observational method does not cause those being observed to deviate from their typical behavior.

4. Q: When is it especially misleading to include agreement on blank intervals in computing the IOA? [Level 2/C] Give an example. [Level 2/C] A: When very few instances of the behavior have been recorded. Any appropriate example is acceptable.

5. Q: When might it be acceptable to include agreement on blank intervals in your computation of an IOA? [Level 2/C] Why would this be acceptable? [Level 2/C] A: It would be acceptable when one is interested in decreasing a behavior, because then one would like to have agreement that the behavior did not occur.

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CHAPTER 4 DOING BEHAVIOR MODIFICATION RESEARCH Answers to [and Levels of] Questions for Learning 1. Q: If a behavior modification program consists of just a baseline phase and a treatment phase, explain, in two or three sentences, why we cannot necessarily claim that a change in behavior was due to the treatment.

[Level 2/C] A: In any program where a treatment phase is introduced to modify some behavior, it is quite possible for some uncontrolled variable or influence to occur concurrently with the treatment such that the change in behavior is due to the uncontrolled variable rather than the treatment itself. A program consisting of a baseline phase and a treatment phase does not enable one to conclude if the above has occurred.

2. Q: Briefly, distinguish between a behavior modification program, consisting of just a baseline phase and a treatment phase, and behavior modification research. [Level 4/An] A: A program consisting of a baseline phase and a treatment phase demonstrates that, during treatment, behavior improves as compared to baseline (and hopefully persists during follow-up). In behavior modification research, additional phases are conducted to demonstrate that the behavior improvement was indeed due to the particular treatment that was applied.

3. Q: Define dependent variable, and give an example. [Level 2/C] A: The dependent variable is a measure of the behavior being studied or treated. For example, in Kelly’s program, the dependent variable was her rate of correctly solving math problems.

Any appropriate example is acceptable.

4. Q: Define independent variable, and give an example. [Level 2/C] A: The independent variable is the treatment or intervention applied to bring about a change in the dependent variable. In Kelly’s case, for example, the independent variable was the reinforcement of an extra minute of recess for each math problem correctly solved. Any appropriate example is acceptable.

5. Q: Define internal validity. [Level 2/C] A: A finding is said to be internally valid if the independent variable did, in fact, cause observed changes in the dependent variable.

6. Q: Define external validity. [Level 2/C] A: A finding is said to be externally valid to the extent that it can be generalized to other behaviors, individuals, settings, or treatments.

7. Q: With reference to an example, briefly describe the four components of the reversalreplication design. [Level 2/C] What is another name for this design? [Level 2/C] A: (a) A baseline phase to determine the initial level of the behavior being studied; (b) a treatment phase in which the intervention strategy is first introduced; (c) a reversal phase in which the treatment is withdrawn and the baseline conditions are reinstated; and (d) replication of the treatment phase in which the treatment is once again applied, in order to confirm its effects as compared to the baseline and reversal phases. Any appropriate example is acceptable. This design is also called an ABAB design.

19

8. Q: Ideally, how long should the baseline phase of the reversal-replication design continue?

[Level 1/K] A: Ideally, until the pattern of performance is stable or until it shows a trend in the direction opposite to that predicted when the treatment is introduced.

9. Q: In a sentence or two each, describe why Baselines 1, 2, and 3 from Figure 4.2 are inadequate. [Level 3/App] A: (a) Baseline 1 is not stable; (b) Baseline 2 shows a trend in the same direction as that observed during the independent variable phase; a continuation of that trend cannot be reliably attributed to the independent variable; (c) Baseline 3 is too brief to allow conclusions about stability or trends to be drawn.

10. Q: What scientific, practical, and ethical considerations might lead someone to lengthen or shorten a baseline? [Level 2/C] A: (a) Scientific: one might accept shorter baselines for dependent variables that have been thoroughly explored in other studies, than for dependent variables that might have received little or no consideration. (b) Practical: baselines might be shortened because of limitations on the time of the experimenter, availability of observers, availability of individuals being studied, etc. (c) Ethical: baselines of behaviors of critical importance to the individual might be lengthened or shortened for ethical reasons, such as shortening a baseline of selfabusive behavior because of potential harm that an extended baseline might cause to the subject.

11. Q: How many reversals and replications are necessary in a reversal-replication design?

[Level 2/C] A: If a very large effect is observed when the independent variable is introduced, and if the area is one that has been explored before, then one replication may be sufficient. However, other combinations of factors might influence one to conduct several replications in order to convincingly demonstrate a cause-effect relationship.

12. Q: Identify two limitations of the reversal-replication design, and give an example of each.

[Level 3/App] A: (a) Conducting a reversal might be undesirable for ethical reasons, if it might hinder the individual being studied; (b) it might not be possible to obtain a reversal. Any appropriate examples are acceptable.

13. Q: State an advantage of a multiple-baseline design over a reversal-replication design.

[Level 2/C] A: It is not necessary to revert back to baseline conditions following the assessment of a treatment.

14. Q: With reference to an example, briefly describe a multiple-baseline-across-behaviors design.

[Level 2/C] A: First, a baseline is taken concurrently on two or more behaviors. Second, the treatment is introduced to one of the behaviors while the other behavior(s) continues on baseline.

Third, the first behavior continues on treatment and the treatment is introduced to the second behavior. In this way, the design calls for the introduction of the treatment sequentially across two or more behaviors. An example is shown in Figure 4-3, or any other appropriate example is acceptable.

15. Q: What are three potential limitations of a multiple-baseline-across-behaviors design?

[Level 2/C] A: (a) If two or more behaviors are not independent, so that the introduction of the treatment to one of the behaviors generalizes to the other behaviors that are still on baseline (which makes it impossible to conclude a cause-effect relationship between the treatment and the dependent variable); (b) if it is not possible to find two or more suitable behaviors; or (c) if 20

there are insufficient observers to gather the necessary data on several behaviors.

16. Q: With reference to an example, briefly describe a multiple-baseline-across-situations design.

[Level 2/C] A: First, baseline a behavior of an individual across two or more situations. Second, introduce the treatment for that behavior in one of the situations while continuing the baseline on the behavior in the other situations. Third, continue with the treatment for the behavior in the first situation and apply the treatment to the behavior in the second situation. In this way, the design calls for the introduction of the treatment of a behavior sequentially across situations. Any appropriate example is acceptable.

17. Q: What are three potential limitations of a multiple-baseline-across-situations design?

[Level 2/C] A: (a) When the introduction of the treatment to the behavior in one situation causes the behavior to improve in other situations (which makes it impossible to conclude a causeeffect relationship between the treatment and the dependent variables); (b) when the behavior occurs in only one setting; or (c) if there are insufficient observers to gather the necessary data.

18. Q: With reference to an example, briefly describe a multiple-baseline-across-people design.

[Level 2/C] A: First, take a baseline of a particular behavior in two or more individuals. Second, introduce the treatment to the behavior on one person while continuing the baseline on the other(s). Third, while continuing the treatment on the behavior of the first person, begin the treatment for that behavior with the second person as well. In this way, the treatment is introduced on a particular behavior sequentially across two or more individuals. Any appropriate example is acceptable.

19. Q: What are three potential limitations of a multiple-baseline-across-people design?

[Level 2/C] A: (a) When the individuals involved might deliberately communicate or otherwise influence other individuals who are being baselined, and thereby cause each other to show a change in behavior prior to the introduction of the treatment program (which makes it impossible to conclude a cause-effect relationship between the treatment and the dependent variables); (b) when there is only one individual who shows the problem or target behavior; or (c) if there are insufficient observers available to monitor the behavior of all individuals.

20. Q: With reference to an example, briefly describe the changing-criterion design. [Level 2/C] A: First, take a baseline of a behavior to be changed. For example, DeLuca and Holborn assessed a boy’s pedaling rate on a stationary bicycle during several 30-minute exercise sessions. Next, set a criterion for application of treatment. For example, DeLuca and Holborn reinforced the boy if the pedaling rate on the stationary bicycle increased approximately 15% above baseline. Third, introduce successive changes in the behavioral criterion for treatment. For example, in the DeLuca and Holborn study, each time the pedaling rate stabilized at the new level, the criterion for reinforcement was increased by approximately another 15%. In this way, if the behavior changes in a consistent direction each time a change is made in the criterion for application of the treatment, then we can conclude that the treatment was responsible for the change in behavior. Any appropriate example is acceptable.

21. Q: With reference to an example, briefly describe an alternating-treatments design.

[Level 2/C] What is another name for this design? [Level 1/K] Explain when and why that name might be preferred. [Level 2/C] A: (a) First, identify two different treatments to be compared. Second, identify a behavior that 21

occurs at some frequency for which both increases and decreases in frequency of the behavior are possible. Third, apply the two separate treatments to the behavior in randomly alternating sessions. In this way, the effects of the treatment can be compared directly on a single behavior of a single individual. Any appropriate example is acceptable. (b) Multielement design. This name is sometimes preferred when two different treatments are applied to two different behaviors or “elements,” or when the conditions compared are not actually therapeutic treatments.

22. Q: Briefly describe a potential problem with the alternating-treatments design. [Level 3/App] A: The two treatments may interact; i.e., one of the treatments may produce an effect either because of a contrast to the other treatment in alternating sessions or because of generalization of treatment across conditions.

23. Q: In a sentence or two each, explain the scientific and practical criteria for evaluating the effects of a particular treatment. [Level 2/C] Be sure to distinguish between the two in your answer.

A: Scientific criteria: guidelines used to evaluate whether or not there has been a convincing demonstration that a particular treatment was responsible for producing a reliable effect on the dependent variable. Practical criteria: subjective values used to judge whether or not a particular treatment has significantly improved the client’s life as judged by the personal satisfaction of the client or those responsible for caring for the client.

24. Q: Describe why it is difficult to draw conclusions about the effects of the treatments in Graphs 3, 4, and 5 in Figure 4.6. [Level 3/App] A: In graph 3, the first treatment appears to be simple continuation of the trend observed in baseline. The effects of the reversal and second treatment do not sufficiently counteract this possibility. In graph 4, the baselines are not stable and there are many overlapping data points in the baseline and reversal phases as compared to each of the two treatment phases, so that one cannot reliably conclude that the treatment produced a significant change from the baselines. In graph 5, effects of the treatment are questionable because there is only one data point shown for each of the baseline conditions and the treatment conditions.

25. Q: What seven criteria would give you maximum confidence that the treatment in an ABAB design had produced an effect on the dependent variable? [Level 2/C] A: (a) The greater the number of replications of an effect; (b) the fewer the overlapping data points between baseline and treatment phases; (c) the sooner effects are observed following introduction of a treatment; (d) the larger the effects observed when comparing treatment effects to baseline; (e) the more precisely the treatment procedures are specified; (f) the more reliable the response measures; and (g) the more consistent the findings with the existing data and accepted behavioral theory.

26. Q: What are the three levels of social validation, and why are they important? [Level 2/C] A: (a) To examine the extent to which target behaviors identified for treatment programs are really the most important for the client and/or society; (b) to examine the acceptability to the client of the particular procedures used, especially when alternative procedures can accomplish approximately the same results; (c) to ensure that the consumers (the clients and/or their caretakers) are satisfied with the results of treatment. These levels of social validation are important to ensure that behavior modifiers do the best job that they can in helping individuals function fully in society.

Answers to [and Levels of] Questions for Further Learning 1. Q: List four reasons why many behavior modifiers prefer single-case designs to group designs.

[Level 2/C] 22

A: (a) Single-case designs focus on repeated measurement of an individual’s performance across a number of sessions, and therefore provide potentially valuable information on individual variation in performance. Group designs, with their emphasis on the average performance of groups, typically gather data at a single point in time, and do not focus on continuous monitoring of individual clients over time. (b) Because experiments using single-case designs typically include three to five individuals, a researcher needs to locate only a few individuals with the same performance problem in order to evaluate an intervention. With group designs, it is often difficult to locate enough individuals with the same performance problem to form the different groups. (c) Because all individuals in a single-case design receive the intervention at one time or another, an applied researcher is not faced with resistance from clients (or their significant others) to participate in a notreatment control group. (d) Because single-case designs rely on replication logic rather than the sampling logic of the group design, they are not hampered by some of the assumptions required of group designs, such as the assumption that the dependent variable is normally distributed in the population, or that the samples are randomly selected.

2. Q: What did Kennedy propose to improve social validation methods? [Level 2/C] A: Kennedy proposed that social validation methods be supplemental with information regarding the maintenance of the behavior change produced by the treatment, because a behavior change that is not maintained cannot be considered to be socially valid.

23

CHAPTER 5 RESPONDENT (CLASSICAL, PAVLOVIAN) CONDITIONING OF REFLEXIVE BEHAVIOR Answers to [and Levels of] Questions for Learning 1. Q: What are two other names for respondent conditioning? [Level 1/K] A: Pavlovian conditioning or classical conditioning.

2. Q: What are three characteristics of respondent behavior? [Level 1/K] A: Respondent behaviors are behaviors that are (a) elicited by prior stimuli and are not affected by their consequences; (b) referred to as involuntary; and (c) usually involve smooth muscles and glands.

3. Q: Define unconditioned reflex. [Level 2/C] Give three examples. [Level 2/C] A: An unconditioned reflex is a stimulus-response relationship in which a stimulus automatically elicits a response apart from any prior learning. For example: Stimulus a. food in the mouth -----------> b. pepper in the nose -----------> c. cinder in the eye -------------->

Response salivation sneezing tears

Other appropriate examples are acceptable.

4. Q: State the principle of respondent conditioning. [Level 1/K] Clearly diagram an example of respondent conditioning that is not diagrammed in the text, and that uses one of the unconditioned reflexes in Table 5-1. [Level 3/App] A: If a neutral stimulus (that does not elicit a particular response) is closely followed in time by an unconditioned stimulus that elicits a particular response, then the neutral stimulus will come to elicit that response. The diagram of the example should be modelled after Figure 5-1.

5. Q: Define conditioned reflex, and describe an example. [Level 2/C] A: A conditioned reflex is a stimulus-response relationship in which a stimulus elicits a response because of prior respondent conditioning. For example, in Pavlov’s experiment (described in Chapter 1) after a tone had been paired with food (that elicited salivation) several times, the presentation of the tone along came to elicit salivation. The tonesalivation sequence was a conditioned reflex. Other appropriate examples are acceptable.

6. Q: Define and give an example of the following: unconditioned stimulus, unconditioned response, conditioned stimulus, and conditioned response. [Level 2/C] A: An unconditioned stimulus is a stimulus that elicits a response without prior learning. For example, presentation of food elicits salivation. An unconditioned response is a response that is elicited by an unconditioned stimulus, for example, salivation to food. A conditioned stimulus is one that did not previously elicit a response, but has come to do so because of appropriate pairings with another stimulus that elicits a response. For example, in Pavlov’s experiment, the bell did not elicit salivation, but it came to do so because of appropriate pairings with food. The bell was therefore a conditioned stimulus. A conditioned response is a response elicited by a conditioned stimulus. In the example of Pavlov’s experiment, when the bell eventually came to elicit salivation, salivation to the bell would be a conditioned response. Other appropriate examples are acceptable.

7. Q: Briefly, in a sentence each, describe five variables that influence the development of a conditioned reflex. [Level 2/C] 24

A: (a) The greater the number of pairings of a CS with a US, the greater is the ability of the CS to elicit the CR; (b) Stronger conditioning occurs if the CS just precedes the US by up to a few seconds, rather than by a longer time or rather than following the US; (c) A CS acquires greater ability to elicit a CR if the CS is always paired with a given US, than if it is only occasionally paired with the US; (d) When several neutral stimuli precede a US, the stimulus that is most consistently associated with the US is the one most likely to become a strong CS; (e) respondent conditioning will develop more quickly and strongly when the CS or US, or both, are intense rather than weak.

8. Q: Diagram an example of higher-order conditioning. [Level 3/App] A: Conditioning of the First Order

Pairings

{

NS

(A Specific Selection of Classical Music)

US

(Food) -----------------➔ UR (Salivation)

CS1

(The Classical Music Piece) --------------➔ CR (Salivation)

Conditioning of the Second Order

Pairings

{

NS

(Yellow Light)

CS1

(The Classical Music Piece------------➔ CR (Salivation)

CS2

(Yellow Light)

------------➔ CR (Salivation)

Other appropriate examples are acceptable 9. Q: Describe three examples of conditioned reflexes, one for each of these categories: digestion, circulation, and respiration. [Level 2/C] A: Any plausible examples, such as: (a) digestion, the smell of a certain food that causes a person to feel nausea; (b) circulation, such as the smell of a certain perfume causing someone to feel sexually excited; (c) respiration, such as the appearance of a certain person causing an individual to cough and wheeze as part of an asthmatic reaction.

10. Q: Give an example of a conditioned taste aversion. [Level 2/C] A: For example, when one of the authors was a teenager, he drank several ounces of lemon gin in a short period of time, and became violently ill approximately an hour later. Since that time, the smell or taste of lemon gin causes him to feel instant 25

nausea. Any appropriate example is acceptable.

11. Q: Why do you suppose that we have evolved so that we are susceptible to conditioned taste aversion? [Level 4/An] A: Because it has survival value. If tasting a potentially damaging substance can cause us to be violently ill after tasting it just once, then it decreases the likelihood that we would consume such a substance again, which could have disastrous consequences.

12. Q: What is biological preparedness? [Level 2/C] Give an example. [Level 2/C] A: The predisposition of members of a species to be more readily conditioned to some neutral stimuli as CSs than to others. For example, humans will more quickly learn fears to stimuli that may have posed a threat to survival, such as snakes and insects, than to stimuli that were likely non-threatening in our ancestors’ history, such as pictures of flowers.

13. Q: Discuss whether all stimuli are equally capable of becoming CSs. [Level 4/An] A: We have evolved so that some stimuli (such as snakes and insects) are more readily established as CSs for fear because they may have posed a threat to survival, as compared to stimuli that were likely non-threatening in our ancestors’ history, such as pictures of flowers. Thus, not all stimuli are equally capable of becoming CSs. 14. Q: State the procedure and result of the principle of respondent extinction. [Level 2/C] Describe an example that is not in this chapter. [Level 3/App] A: If a conditioned stimulus is presented without further pairings with the unconditioned stimulus, the conditioned stimulus will gradually lose its capability of eliciting the conditioned response. Any appropriate example is acceptable.

15. Q: Describe the process of counterconditioning. [Level 2/C] Describe or diagram an example of counterconditioning that is not in the chapter. [Level 3/App] A: A conditioned response may be eliminated more effectively if a new response is conditioned to the conditioned stimulus at the same time that the former conditioned response is being extinguished. This process is called counterconditioning. For example, suppose that a young gymnast has learned to fear being on the balance beam because of a number of bad falls when attempting her routine on the beam. Extinction might involve having the gymnast stand on the beam repeatedly on numerous occasions.

Counterconditioning might involve having the gymnast lick an ice cream cone (that would elicit responses to compete with fear) while standing on the beam. Any appropriate example is acceptable.

16. Q: Define respondent stimulus generalization, and give an example. [Level 2/C] A: Respondent stimulus generalization occurs when an organism has been conditioned so that a particular CS elicits a CR, and then a similar stimulus elicits that CR. For example, suppose that while the dentist is drilling a cavity you have, you experience considerable pain, and the sound of the dentist’s drill becomes a CS causing you to cringe. Later, while visiting the meat market and hearing the sound of the butcher’s cutting machine, you feel yourself cringing. This would be an example of respondent stimulus generalization. Any appropriate example is acceptable.

17. Q: Define respondent stimulus discrimination, and give an example. [Level 2/C] A: Respondent stimulus discrimination is when a stimulus functions as a CS to elicit a CR because that stimulus has been paired with a US that elicits that CR, but a similar stimulus does not function as a CS for that CR because that second stimulus has been paired with extinction trials. Suppose, for example, that a child learns a fear 26

of dogs after having been bitten by the neighbor’s Scottish terrier. Later, the family buys a friendly poodle and the sight of the poodle, although it initially elicited fear in the child, it gradually does not do so after frequent exposure to the pet poodle without being bitten. The child is discriminating between the poodle and the terrier. Any appropriate example is acceptable.

18. Q: In the example of Susan learning to fear performing the double axel jump, what was the US, UR, CS, and CR? [Level 2/C] A: For Susan, the US was being on a tilt and falling, the UR was fear while falling, the CS was approaching the take-off position for the jump, and the CR was fear while approaching the take-off position.

19. Q: Describe (or diagram) how counterconditioning was involved to help Susan overcome her fear of attempting a double axel jump. [Level 3/App] A:

Example of Susan’s Counterconditioning Several Pairings

{ Result:

CSA (approaching take-off position for double axel)

CRA (feelings of fear)

CSB (relaxation technique)

CRB (feelings of relaxation)

CSA (approaching take-off position for double axel)

CRB (feelings of relaxation)

20. Q: Describe a respondent conditioning procedure for treating constipation. [Level 3/App] Identify the US, UR, CS, and CR. [Level 4/An] A: Subjects were given a laxative (US) to elicit defecation (UR). Just before defecating, subjects stimulated themselves with a mild electrical current. Over a number of days, the laxative was gradually decreased until defecation (CR) was elicited by the electrical stimulus (CS) alone.

21. Q: Describe a respondent conditioning component of a procedure for treating nocturnal enuresis. [Level 3/App] Identify the US, UR, CS, and CR. [Level 4/An] A: A special pad was placed on the child’s bed so that when the child urinated, the urine caused a buzzer to sound, which awakened the child. In this way, awakening was consistently preceded by the pressure of a full bladder. Eventually, the pressure of a full bladder became a conditioned stimulus eliciting the response of awakening. The child could then voluntarily urinate in the toilet. The US was the buzzer. The UR was awakening in response to the buzzer. The CS was the pressure or feeling of a full bladder after it had come to elicit awakening. The CR was awakening in response to the pressure of a full bladder.

22. Q: What are three characteristics of operant behavior? [Level 1/K] Give an example. [Level 2/C] A: Operant behavior is behavior that: (a) affects or “operates on” the environment to produce consequences, and which is in turn, influenced by those consequences; (b) is referred to as voluntary; and (c) usually involves skeletal muscles. For example, asking for directions. Other appropriate examples are acceptable.

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23. Q: What is operant conditioning? [Level 1/K] Give an example. [Level 2/C] A: Operant conditioning is a type of learning in which behavior is modified by its consequences. For example, we have learned to turn on a water tap to produce water as a consequence. Any appropriate example is acceptable.

Answers to [and Levels of] Questions for Further Learning 1. Q: What conditioned reflex occurred in a study of chemotherapy for ovarian cancer?

[Level 2/C] A: In a study in which repeated chemotherapy was done in the same room in the same hospital setting for women suffering from ovarian cancer, the women eventually displayed immunosuppression (CR) after simply being brought to that room (CS) of the hospital prior to receiving chemotherapy.

2. Q: What is the field of psychoimmunology or psychoneuroimmunology all about?

[Level 2/C] A: Psychoimmunology is the study of the effects of conditioning processes on the functioning of the body’s immune system. Such studies have the potential to use respondent conditioning to help our immune system to be more effective in battling invaders.

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CHAPTER 6 INCREASING A BEHAVIOR WITH POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT Answers to [and Levels of] Questions for Learning 1. Q: What is a baseline (see Chapter 3)? [Level 1/K] A: A baseline is a measure of behavior in the absence of a treatment program.

2. Q: Describe the baseline condition for Jill’s program. [Level 2/C] A: During each of four five-minute baseline sessions, Jill was placed in her walker, the researcher said, “Come on, let’s walk”, and Jill’s steps were counted 3. Q: Describe the treatment condition for Jill’s program. [Level 2/C] A: Jill’s walker was modified so that a forward step caused three seconds of popular music or familiar voices, and colored lights to occur in the walker, all of which had been previously demonstrated to make Jill show happiness indicators.

4. Q: What type of research design (see Chapter 4) was used to assess the effect of the treatment in Jill’s program? [Level 3/App] A: The reversal-replication (ABAB) design.

5. Q: What is a positive reinforcer? [Level 1/K] A: A positive reinforcer is an event which, when presented immediately following a behavior, causes the behavior to increase in frequency.

6. Q: What is the principle of positive reinforcement? [Level 2/C] A: This principle states that if, in a given situation, somebody does something that is immediately followed by a positive reinforcer, that person is more likely to do the same thing again when he or she next encounters a similar situation.

7. Q: Describe an example of positive reinforcement of a desirable behavior that you have encountered. Identify the situation, behavior, immediate consequence, and probable longterm effects (As shown in Table 6.1). The example should not be from the text.

[Level 4/An] A: Students can describe any plausible example, such as the following: Situation: A student in class did not understand a part of a lecture of one of the authors. Response of student: Approached professor after class to request help.

Immediate consequence: Professor smiled warmly, and said, “Of course! How can I help you?” Long-term effect: Student is more likely to approach professor (and perhaps other professors) for help in the future.

8. Q: What is operant behavior? [Level 1/K] Describe an example, and indicate how the example fits the definition of operant behavior. [Level 3/App] A: Operant behaviors are those that operate on the environment to generate consequences, and are in turn influenced by those consequences. For example, if a person walks into a dark room and emits the behavior of turning on a light switch, then the consequence of the light going on increases the likelihood that flipping the light switch will occur in a similar situation in the future. Flipping the light switch is therefore an operant behavior.

Other appropriate examples are acceptable.

9. Q: Define negative reinforcement and give an example that is not from this chapter.

[Level 3/App] A: The principle of negative reinforcement states that the removal of certain stimuli immediately after the occurrence of a response will increase the likelihood of that response. For example, if, in the presence of bright sunlight a person puts on bright 29

sunglasses to escape the brightness, then putting on sunglasses has been strengthened by negative reinforcement. Other appropriate examples are acceptable.

10. Q: How are positive and negative reinforcement similar, and how are they different?

[Level 4/An] A: Positive and negative reinforcement are similar in that both increase responses. They are different in that positive reinforcement increases a response because of the presentation of a positive reinforcer after the response, whereas negative reinforcement increases a response because of the removal of an aversive stimulus after the response.

11. Q: In what way is positive reinforcement like gravity? [Level 1/K] A: They are both laws of nature.

12. Q: Why is it necessary to be specific when selecting a behavior for a reinforcement program?

[Level 2/C] A: (a) To help increase the reliability of recording the behavior; and (b) to increase the likelihood that the reinforcement program will be applied consistently.

13. Q: List the five somewhat overlapping headings under which most positive reinforcers can be classified, and give an example of each that would be a positive reinforcer for you.

[Level 2/C] A: The five somewhat overlapping headings for classifying positive reinforcers are consumable, activity, manipulative, possessional, and social. Any appropriate example of each is acceptable.

14. Q: Describe the Premack principle. [Level 2/C] Give an example. [Level 2/C] A: The Premack principle states that the opportunity to engage in a behavior that has a high probability of occurring can be used to reinforce a behavior that has a low probability of occurring. For example, a depressed student increased the frequency of positive self-statements by imagining a positive thought (a low probability behavior) just before each instance of urinating (the high probability behavior). Any appropriate example is acceptable.

15. Q: Describe the response deprivation model. [Level 2/C] Give an example. [Level 2/C] A: If a behavior is below its baseline level, the opportunity to engage in that behavior will function as a reinforcer. For example, if you typically take your dog for a walk each afternoon, and you haven’t done so in three afternoons, then the opportunity to do so would function as a reinforcer.

16. Q: Suppose for a given individual Behavior 1 occurs 60% of the time, Behavior 2 occurs 25% of the time, and Behavior 3 occurs 15% of the time. Which method would be better for increasing the occurrence of Behavior 1 for that individual – the Premack Principle or the response deprivation model? Explain. [Level 4/A] A: The response deprivation method because if Behavior 2 or 3 were below their baseline level they could serve as reinforcers for Behavior 1. The Premack Principle could not be applied to Behavior 1 because there is no higher rate behavior to serve as a reinforcer for Behavior 1.

17. Q: “It is always the individual’s performance that tells you whether or not you have selected an effective reinforcer.” Explain what this means. [Level 2/C (low level answer) or 6/E (higher level answer)] A: An answer at the lowest level would indicate that the statement means that, when an item is presented immediately following the behavior of an individual on a few trials, and the individual begins to emit that behavior more often, then the item is a reinforcer because it has caused the person’s behavior to increase. A higher-level answer would explain how the meaning of the statement in the question is implied by the definition of 30

reinforcer.

18. Q: Using the definition of positive reinforcer, describe the steps to test if a particular item is a reinforcer for someone. [Level 2/C] Illustrate with an example that is not from this chapter. [Level 3/App] A: (a) Identify a behavior that occurs once in a while and record its occurrence without reinforcement over several trials; (b) then present a consequence immediately following the behavior over several trials; and (c) finally, compare the results of (a) and (b). If the behavior increases in frequency during the second phase relative to the first phase, then the consequence is a reinforcer. Any appropriate example is acceptable.

19. Q: Using the definition of positive reinforcer, how might you conduct a test to determine if the social attention of a particular adult is or is not reinforcing for a withdrawn child?

[Level 3/App] A: The same way that you test any stimulus to see if it is a reinforcer. That is, identify a behavior that a withdrawn child emits once in a while (e.g., glancing at an adult), and measure the frequency of this behavior during a period of time (e.g., a one-half hour period). Next, have the adult give attention to the child following each instance of the behavior that was measured (e.g., the adult should now attend to the child after each glance to an adult). If glances to adults increase, then the adult attention was a reinforcer. Any appropriate example is acceptable.

20. Q: Does extrinsic reinforcement undermine intrinsic motivation? [Level 2/C] Discuss.

[Level 4/An] A: Research indicates that the answer is no. Moreover, the notion that extrinsic reinforcers undermine intrinsic interest flies in the face of common sense. If extrinsic reinforcers undermine intrinsic motivation, for example, then those people who genuinely enjoy their jobs should refuse to be paid for fear that their paychecks will destroy their enjoyment of their work.

21. Q: What do behavior modifiers mean by the term deprivation? [Level 2/C] Describe an example. [Level 2/C] A: Behavior modifiers use the term deprivation to indicate the time during which an individual does not experience a reinforcer. Any appropriate example is acceptable.

22. Q: What do behavior modifiers mean by the term satiation? [Level 2/C] Describe an example.

[Level 2/C] A: Behavior modifiers use the term satiation to refer to the condition in which an individual has experienced a reinforcer to such an extent that it is no longer reinforcing. Any appropriate example is acceptable.

23. Q: What is a motivating operation? [Level 2/C] Describe two examples, one of which should not be from this chapter. [Level 3/App] A: Motivating operations (MOs) are events or conditions that (a) temporarily alter the effectiveness of a reinforcer, and (b) increase the frequency of a behavior reinforced by that reinforcer. Two examples would be food deprivation and water deprivation. Any appropriate example is acceptable.

24. Q: Should you tell an individual with whom you are using reinforcement about the reinforcement program before putting it into effect? [Level 1/K] Why or why not?

[Level 3/App] A: Yes. Instructions may speed up the learning process for individuals who already understand them. Instructions may influence an individual to work for delayed reinforcement. Instructions may also teach the individual something about instructionfollowing.

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25. Q: If you instruct someone about a positive reinforcement program for his or her behavior, is that bribery? [Level 2/C] Why or why not? [Level 4/An] A: Not necessarily. Bribery is a reward or gift offered to induce one to commit an immoral or illegal act. Provided that the behavior to be reinforced does not so qualify, instructing someone about a positive reinforcement for that behavior would not be bribery.

26. Q: Distinguish between the direct- and indirect-acting effects of reinforcement. [Level 4/An] A: The direct effect of a positive reinforcer is the increased frequency of a response because of its immediate reinforcing consequences. The indirect effect is the strengthening of a response that is followed by a reinforcer even though the reinforcer is delayed (by more than approximately 30 seconds).

27. Q: When Coach Keedwell required young swimmers to show improved performance in order to earn a fun activity at the end of practice, their performance improved dramatically.

Was this a direct-acting or an indirect-acting effect of reinforcement? [Level 2/C] Justify your choice. [Level 6/E] A: The reinforcer of the fun activity in Coach Keedwell’s program was indirect because it was delayed by more than 30 seconds following the desirable swimming behaviors that occurred earlier in the practice.

28. Q: Describe an example of contingent reinforcement that is not in this chapter. [Level 3/App] A: If a teenager in a family is required to mow the lawn at the family home on Monday in order to use the family car on Friday, then use of the car is a contingent reinforcer even though it is delayed. Any appropriate example is acceptable.

29. Q: Describe an example of noncontingent reinforcement that is not in this chapter. [Level 3/App] A: If a teenager is allowed to use the family car every weekend independent of behavior that the teenager emits during the week, then use of the family car is a non-contingent reinforcer. Any appropriate example is acceptable.

30. Q: What is adventitious reinforcement? [Level 1/K] What is a superstitious behavior?

[Level 1/K] Give an example of each that are not in this chapter. [Level 3/App] A: When a behavior is accidentally followed by a reinforcer, even if that behavior did not produce the reinforcer, it is referred to as adventitious reinforcement. Superstitious behaviors are the behaviors that are strengthened by adventitious reinforcement. An example of adventitious reinforcement would be a gambler winning a jackpot on a slot machine just after crossing his/her fingers. The superstitious behavior would be the finger crossing. Any appropriate example is acceptable.

31. Q: What do we mean by the natural environment? [Level 2/C] By natural reinforcers?

[Level 2/C] By programmed reinforcers? [Level 2/C] A: Natural environment: any place, other than a structured training setting, where a behavior might occur. Natural reinforcers: reinforcers that follow behavior in the natural environment without specific planning and intervention on the part of the trainer.

Programmed reinforcers are reinforcers that are deliberately manipulated by individuals in behavior modification programs.

32. Q: Describe three behavioral episodes in this chapter that involved natural reinforcers.

[Level 2/C] Justify your choices. [Level 6/E] A: Any three examples that involve natural reinforcers are acceptable. Students should justify their choices by indicating that the reinforcers occurred without specific planning by the trainer. Rather than being contrived or manipulated reinforcers, they should occur naturally in the natural environment.

33. Q: Briefly describe, in a sentence each, eight factors that influence the effectiveness of 32

reinforcement. [Level 2/C] A: (a) Specifying a behavior precisely; (b) selecting an appropriate reinforcer; (c) depriving the individual of the reinforcer; (d) ensuring that the reinforcer is of a sufficient magnitude or amount; (e) utilizing instructions to explain the program before and during reinforcement, especially if the reinforcer is delayed; (f) presenting the reinforcer immediately following the desired behavior; (g) ensuring that the reinforcers are presented contingent upon the desired behavior, rather than being presented non- contingently; and (h) appropriately weaning the individual from the program.

34. Q: Is it correct to conclude that a withdrawn child necessarily does not like attention from other people? [Level 1/K] Explain. [Level 3/App] A: No. When an adult asks something of a child, a withdrawn reaction on the part of the child may get even more attention from the adult. If the withdrawn behavior subsequently increases, then the adult attention was functioning as a reinforcer, and it is reasonable to infer that the child liked the attention.

35. Q: Describe an example of the Pitfall that involves a person unknowingly applying positive reinforcement to strengthen an undesirable behavior. [Level 2/C] A: A child is noisily playing while his or her sibling is trying to study (situation); the sibling gives the child a lollipop so that he/she will be quiet (response). The child is immediately quiet and enjoys the lollipop (immediate consequence). The chance that the child will be more likely to play noisily around that sibling in the future increases (long- term effect).

Any appropriate example is acceptable.

36. Q: State the Partial-Knowledge Misapplication Pitfall. [Level 2/C] How is this pitfall exemplified by Coach Keedwell? [Level 3/App] A: Partial-knowledge-misapplication Pitfall: A person may know the principle but not realize some ramification that interferes with applying it effectively. For example, Coach Keedwell thought that providing a fun activity at the end of each swimming practice would strengthen desirable swimming behaviors. That didn’t occur, however, because the fun activity was not contingent on specific swimming behaviors.

37. Q: Consider this statement: “A college student was reinforced for studying for three hours on the weekend by getting a good grade on the test the following week.”

How does this statement exemplify the Inaccurate-Explanation-of-Behavior Pitfall? [Level 3/App] A: This exemplifies the inaccurate-explanation-of-behavior Pitfall because it is an overly simplistic explanation for the college student’s behavior, as the consequence of receiving the A did not immediately follow studying. There must have been more immediate reinforcing consequences that “bridged the gap” from the time of studying (behavior) to the time of receiving the A (consequence). For example, the student may have been anxious about the test and studying (behavior) may have relieved some of the anxiety (immediate consequence).

38. Q: State the second type of Inaccurate-Explanation-of-Behavior Pitfall, and describe an example. [Level 2/C] A: The second type of inaccurate-explanation-of-behavior Pitfall states that individuals without behavioral knowledge sometimes attempt to “explain” behavior or the lack of it by inappropriately giving people a label. For example, if a teenager consistently leaves his room in a mess and never helps his parents around the house in any type of clean-up activity, his parents might “explain” his behavior by saying “he’s lazy.” Any appropriate example is acceptable.

39. Q: Ideally, what four qualities should a reinforcer have (besides the necessary quality of functioning as a reinforcer)? [Level 3/App] A: (a) Is readily available; (b) can be presented immediately following the desired behavior; (c) can be used over and over again without causing rapid satiation; and (d) does not 33

require a great deal of time to consume.

Answers to [and Levels of] Questions for Further Learning 1. Q: Discuss evidence that people’s behavior can be modified without their being aware of it.

[Level 4/An] A: (a) Greenspoon demonstrated that students could be influenced to increase the frequency with which they said plural nouns in an experimental context, even though they were not aware of such a change in their behavior when asked about the experiment afterwards. (b) Even the most profoundly intellectually disabled individuals who cannot speak have been shown to be affected by reinforcement.

2. Q: What are three indicators that a behavior change is due to indirect-acting versus directacting effects? [Level 3/App] A: A behavior change is likely due to indirect acting effects of reinforcement if: (a) the critical response precedes the reinforcer by more than 30 seconds; (b) the behavior that is measured shows some increase in strength prior to the first occurrence of the consequence; and (c) a single occurrence of a consequence produces a large change in behavior. If the students clearly make the above three points, it’s not necessary for them to illustrate with reference to an example.

3. Q: How do some authors use the terms direct and indirect contingencies of reinforcement?

[Level 2/C] What suggestions do the authors of this make regarding that usage, and why?

[Level 2/C] A: Thompson and Iwata used the term direct reinforcement contingency to refer to a situation where a behavior modifiers hands a reinforcer to a client following a correct response, and they used the term indirect contingency of reinforcement to refer to a situation where a client’s behavior acted on the environment (such as by lifting a box) to enable the client to discover a reinforcer. To avoid confusion between direct reinforcers referring to immediate reinforcers and indirect effect of referring to delayed reinforcers, the authors suggest that the situation described by Thompson and Iwata be referred to as a reinforcement discovery contingency.

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CHAPTER 7 INCREASING BEHAVIOR WITH CONDITIONED REINFORCEMENT Answers to [and Levels of] Questions for Learning 1. Q: Explain what an unconditioned reinforcer is. [Level 2/C] Give two examples. [Level 2/C] A: Unconditioned reinforcers are stimuli which are reinforcing without prior learning, or without having to be associated with any other reinforcers. Food for someone who has not eaten for several hours, or water for someone who has not had a drink for several hours, are unconditioned reinforcers. Other appropriate examples are acceptable.

2. Q: Explain what a conditioned reinforcer is. [Level 2/C] Give and explain two examples.

[Level 2/C] A: A conditioned reinforcer is a stimulus which was not originally reinforcing but which acquired reinforcing power through association with a stimulus that is reinforcing. For example, a piece of green paper that constitutes a dollar bill is not likely to be a strong reinforcer for an infant or a young child who has had no experience with money.

However, after the dollar bill is paired with a variety of backup reinforcers while making various purchases in stores, the dollar bill becomes a powerful reinforcer. Any two appropriate examples are acceptable.

3. Q: Explain what a backup reinforcer is. [Level 2/C] Give and explain two examples.

[Level 2/C] A: A backup reinforcer is a reinforcer on which a conditioned reinforcer is based. In a token system it is a reinforcer for which tokens can be exchanged in order to maintain their reinforcing power. For example, at the end of a poker game, poker chips can be exchanged for money. In this case, the money is the backup reinforcer. Any two appropriate examples are acceptable.

4. Q: What were the backup reinforcers in Erin’s program? [Level 2/C] A: The backup reinforcers included time on Facebook or YouTube.

5. Q: Describe a target behavior of yours that you would like to improve that might be amenable to a points program like Erin’s. What would you use as backup reinforcers for the points?

[Level 3/App] A: Any appropriate example is acceptable.

6. Q: What are tokens? [Level 1/K] A: Tokens are conditioned reinforcers that can be accumulated and exchanged for other reinforcers.

7. Q: Explain in two or three sentences what a token economy is. [Level 2/C] A: A token system (or economy) is a behavior modification program that uses tokens to reinforce desirable behavior. The tokens can be exchanged for more powerful reinforcers called backup reinforcers.

8. Q: Is money a token? [Level 1/K] Justify your answer. [Level 6/E] A: Yes, money is a token because it can be accumulated and exchanged for a variety of backup reinforcers (the things that money can buy).

9. Q: Give two examples of stimuli that are conditioned reinforcers but not tokens. [Level 2/C] Explain why they are conditioned reinforcers, and why they are not tokens. [Level 6/E] A: Any two appropriate examples, such as the following: praise, a call to dinner, the sight of a loved one, or a friendly greeting. These are all associated with more powerful 35

reinforcers, and therefore are conditioned reinforcers. However, they are not tokens because they cannot be accumulated and exchanged for various backup reinforcers.

10. Q: Explain what a conditioned punisher is. [Level 2/C] Give and explain two examples.

[Level 2/C] A: A conditioned punisher is a stimulus which is not originally punishing, but which acquires punishing power through association with a stimulus that is punishing.

Examples might include criticism, scoldings, a failing grade, and the sight of a mugger in a dark alley. These are all typically punishers because they have been paired with other aversive events.

11. Q: Distinguish between a simple conditioned reinforcer and a generalized conditioned reinforcer. [Level 4/An] Explain why a generalized conditioned reinforcer is more effective than a simple conditioned reinforcer. [Level 2/C] A: A simple conditioned reinforcer is one that is paired with a single backup reinforcer. A generalized reinforcer is a conditioned reinforcer that is based on a number of different backup reinforcers. A generalized conditioned reinforcer is more effective because, at any given time at least one of the backup reinforcers should be powerful enough to maintain the reinforcing effectiveness of the generalized reinforcer.

12. Q: Is a subway token a simple or generalized conditioned reinforcer? [Level 2/C] Explain your answer.

[Level 6/E] A: It is a simple conditioned reinforcer because it is paired with a simple backup reinforcer, a ride on the subway.

13. Q: Is a grocery store coupon a simple or a generalized conditioned reinforcer? [Level 2/C] Explain your answer. [Level 6/E] A: It’s a generalized reinforcer because it is paired with more than one backup reinforcer, namely, the things that can be bought by the coupon.

14. Q: Is praise a generalized conditioned reinforcer? [Level 2/C] Defend your answer.

[Level 6/E] A: Yes, praise is likely a generalized reinforcer for most of us. That is because when people praise us, they are disposed to favor us in a variety of ways so that praise is paired with a variety of backup reinforcers. Also, positive adult attention (considered a form of praise) is provided by parents when they feed their infants, wash them, play with them, and meet their needs in other ways.

15. Q: Were the points in Erin’s program a generalized conditioned reinforcer? [Level 2/C] Defend your answer. [Level 6/E] A: The points in Erin’s program were likely a generalized reinforcer. The points were paired with two backup reinforcers, time on Facebook and time on YouTube, both of which provide a variety of conditioned reinforcers.

16. Q: List three factors that influence the effectiveness of conditioned reinforcers. [Level 2/C] A: The three factors influencing the effectiveness of conditioned reinforcers include: (a) the strength of backup reinforcers; (b) the variety of backup reinforcers; and (c) the number of pairings of the conditioned reinforcer with a backup reinforcer.

17. Q: Explain what causes a conditioned reinforcer to lose its value. [Level 2/C] A: If a conditioned reinforcer is presented a number of times without being associated with other reinforcers, it will eventually lose its reinforcing effectiveness.

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18. Q: Describe two pitfalls of conditioned reinforcement. [Level 2/C] Give an example of each.

[Level 2/C] A: The unaware-misapplication Pitfall states that people who are unfamiliar with the principle of conditioned reinforcement may unknowingly misapply it in various ways. For example, if an adult scolds a child and then gives the child a treat because the adult “feels guilty,” the scolding may become a conditioned reinforcer. The partial-knowledgemisapplication Pitfall states that individuals who are not aware of the principle of conditioned reinforcement may cease to pair a conditioned reinforcer with a backup reinforcer causing the conditioned reinforcer to lose its effects. For example, a teacher who awards stars for good behavior, but fails to use effective backup reinforcers, will cause the stars to lose their value as conditioned reinforcers.

Answers to [and Levels of] Questions for Further Learning 1. Q: How is conditioned reinforcement involved in influencing babies to babble sounds in their native language, even when no adults are around to reinforce this behavior? [Level 4/An] A: When an infant babbles a sound that has been paired with a positive reinforcer, such as the parent feeding the infant, the sound will reinforce the behavior of the babbling of the sound by the infant. Suppose, for example, that a parent says, “goo-goo-goo” frequently while feeding an infant. Because of the pairing of “goo-goo-goo” with the food reinforcement, the sound “goo-goo-goo” should become a conditioned reinforcer. Later, when the infant is in the crib alone, the infant may say “goo-goo.” Because this sound has become a conditioned reinforcer, the infant is likely to repeat that sound. Thus, conditioned reinforcement appears to be involved in strengthening babbling of babies in their native language even when no adults are around to reinforce this behavior.

2. Q: Discuss how conditioned reinforcement is involved in an addiction such as to nicotine and in making it difficult for people to quit their addiction. [Level 4/An] A: Because sensations like the smell and taste of cigarettes are paired with the reinforcing effects of nicotine in the bloodstream, the former stimuli become conditioned reinforcers.

When smokers try to quit smoking, by smoking de-nicotinized cigarettes, they still receive the powerful conditioned reinforcers of the taste and smell of cigarettes. This can interfere with the progress of treatment.

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CHAPTER 8 DECREASING A BEHAVIOR WITH OPERANT EXTINCTION Answers to [and Levels of] Questions for Learning 1. Q: What are the two parts to the principle of operant extinction? [Level 2/C] A: (a) If, in a given situation, an individual emits a previously-reinforced response that is not followed by the usual reinforcing consequence, then (b) that person is less likely to do the same thing again in that situation.

2. Q: Is telling someone to stop eating candies and the person stops an example of operant extinction? [Level 1/K] Explain why or why not on the basis of the definition of operant extinction. [Level 4/An] A: No. With extinction, a behavior decreases in frequency because instances of that behavior are no longer followed by a reinforcer. With candy eating, the reinforcer is the good taste. If the child ate the candy, the good taste would still be there. Thus, the behavior (eating candies) stopped because of being told to stop, not because the reinforcer was withheld following instances of the behavior.

3. Q: Is a parent ignoring a child’s behavior an example of operant extinction? [Level 2/C] Explain why or why not on the basis of the definition of operant extinction. [Level 4/An] A: It would be extinction only if the attention of the parent was the reinforcer that was maintaining the behavior that was being ignored. However, if the child’s behavior was maintained by some other reinforcer, such as attention from another child, then ignoring the behavior by the parent would not be extinction.

4. Q: Suppose that, immediately after an instance of swearing, parents remove a portion of the child’s weekly allowance and the result is that swearing decreases. Is this an example of operant extinction? [Level !/K] Explain why or why not. [Level 4/An] A: No, this would not be extinction, as the swearing behavior was not previously reinforced by receiving an allowance. (Although not required, the student might point out that removal of the allowance contingent upon swearing is called response-cost punishment.)

5. Q: What is the difference between forgetting and operant extinction? [Level 2/C] A: Forgetting and extinction both lead to a decrease in behavior, but they do so for different reasons. In forgetting, a behavior is weakened as a function of time following the last occurrence of the behavior. With extinction, a behavior is weakened because instances of the behavior go unreinforced.

6. Q: Explain the difference, in terms of procedure and results, between the loss of value of a conditioned reinforcer (see Chapter 7) and the operant extinction of a positively reinforced behavior. [Level 4/An] A: The procedure for the loss of value of a conditioned reinforcer is presenting the conditioned reinforcer without further pairings with a backup reinforcer. The result is the loss of value of the conditioned reinforcer. The procedure of extinction is allowing a previously-reinforced behavior to occur but no longer following it with a reinforcer. The result is that the behavior decreases in frequency.

7. Q: If a behavior that was maintained by positive reinforcement is not reinforced at least once in a while, what will happen to the behavior? [Level 2/C] A: It will decrease to its level of occurrence prior to being reinforced.

8. Q: Why did the mother’s attempt to extinguish the child’s cookie eating fail (refer to Figure 8.1)? [Level 2/C] A: The taste of the cookies, not the mother’s attention, was the reinforcer that was 38

maintaining the behavior.

9. Q: Examine Table 8.1. Which one of those examples involved positive reinforcement for an alternative response? [Level 3/App] For those that do not, indicate how positive reinforcement for an alternative response might be introduced. [Level 4/An] A: Example 3 appears to involve positive reinforcement for an alternative response. For the other examples, the student should describe plausible methods for reinforcing desirable alternative behavior.

10. Q: What is resurgence? [Level 2/C] Describe an example. [Level 2/C] A: When combining extinction of behavior A with positive reinforcement for an alternative behavior (behavior B), if behavior B undergoes extinction, the original behavior (a) may re-emerge. For example, if a parent ignores a child’s crying and reinforces sitting quietly, then if sitting quietly is put on extinction the crying may re-emerge.

11. Q: Why is it necessary to consider the setting as a factor influencing your operant extinction program? [Level 2/C] A: So as to (a) minimize the influence of alternative reinforcers for the undesirable behavior, and (b) maximize the chances that the behavior modifier(s) will persist in carrying out the program.

12. Q: Describe a particular behavior you would like to decrease in a child with whom you have contact. [Level 2/C] Would your extinction program require a special setting?

[Level 1/K] Why or why not? [Level 4/An] A: Any appropriate example is acceptable, provided that the student indicates whether or not a special setting would be required and the reason. For example: (a) Behavior to be decreased is using a spoon to throw (catapult) food around the room while sitting in a high chair. (b) To the extent that allowing the behavior to occur is not likely to be harmful to the child, a special setting would not be required. However to the extent that such behavior might be highly disruptive to others in the immediate vicinity, such as individuals in a restaurant who would likely interfere with the extinction program, a special setting would be required.

13. Q: Define continuous reinforcement and give an example that is not in this chapter.

[Level 3/App] A: Continuous reinforcement is an arrangement in which each instance of a particular response is reinforced. For example, each time that you raise a glass of a beverage to your lips and take a sip, you experience the taste of the beverage. Any appropriate example is acceptable.

14. Q: Define intermittent reinforcement and give an example that is not in this chapter.

[Level 3/App] A: Intermittent reinforcement is an arrangement in which a response is reinforced only occasionally rather than every time it occurs. For example, when a person is playing a slot machine at a casino, pressing the button is reinforced by winning only occasionally, not every time that it occurs. Any appropriate example is acceptable.

15. Q: What is the effect of continuous versus intermittent reinforcement on the resistance to extinction of an operant behavior? Level 1/K] A: A behavior is less resistant to extinction if it has been reinforced continuously rather than intermittently.

16. Q: What is an extinction burst? [Level 2/C ] Describe an example. [Level 2/C] A: An extinction burst is an increase in responding during extinction. For example, suppose that each time a child snapped her fingers to gain the attention of her teacher, the teacher responded, thereby reinforcing finger-snapping. Suppose further that the 39

teacher decides to ignore that behavior on all future occasions. At the beginning of extinction, finger-snapping may increase before it begins to decrease. The increase would be an example of an extinction burst. Any appropriate example is acceptable.

17. Q: What is spontaneous recovery? [Level 2/C] Describe an example. [Level 2/C] A: A behavior that has disappeared during an extinction session may reappear, after some time has passed, at the next session or opportunity for the behavior to occur. The reappearance of an extinguished behavior following a break or rest is called spontaneous recovery. Suppose that a child has learned to snap his fingers to gain his teacher’s attention. Suppose further that the teacher decides to extinguish that behavior. If the behavior decreases to zero during the first day of extinction, but finger-snapping reappears at the beginning of the next day, the reappearance of the behavior would be an example of spontaneous recovery. Any appropriate example is acceptable.

18. Q: In a sentence for each, describe eight general factors influencing the effectiveness of operant extinction. [[Level 2/C] A: Extinction of a particular behavior is likely to be more effective if: (a) it is combined with positive reinforcement of a desirable alternative behavior; (b) alternative possible reinforcers for the behavior that is to be decreased are controlled; (c) the setting is chosen so as to minimize potential factors interfering with the extinction program; (d) instructions are given to explain the program to the individual before implementing it; (e) behavior to decrease was on a continuous rather than an intermittent schedule of reinforcement prior to the extinction program; (f) the person applying the program is aware that the behavior being extinguished may get worse before it gets better; (g) the person applying the program is aware that extinction may produce aggression that interferes with the program; and (h) the person applying the program is aware that spontaneous recovery may occur. This is the reappearance of an extinguished behavior following a rest or the passage of time.

19. Q: Describe two examples of operant extinction that you have encountered, one involving a desirable behavior and one involving an undesirable behavior. For each example, identify the situation, behavior, immediate consequence, and probable long-term effects as is done in Tables 8.1and 8.2. (Your examples should not be from the text.) [Level 4/An] A: Any two appropriate examples involving extinction of a desirable and an undesirable behavior are acceptable.

20. Q: Briefly describe an example of a pitfall of operant extinction. [Level 2/C] Which type of Pitfall does your example illustrate? [Level 4/An] A: Suppose that, in the case of two roommates living together, one might spontaneously clean the living quarters and the other person might not think to express appreciation.

This example illustrates the unaware-misapplication Pitfall, which occurs when individuals unknowingly fail to reinforce desirable behaviors of others. Any appropriate example is acceptable.

21. Q: Operant extinction should not be applied to certain behaviors. What types of behaviors would these be? [Level 2/C] Give an example. [Level 2/C] A: Operant extinction should not be applied to behavior the occurrence of which would be destructive to the individual or others. Any appropriate example is acceptable.

22. Q: In what types of situations should operant extinction not be applied? [Level 2/C] Give an example. [Level 2/C] A: Operant extinction should not be applied in situations where others will reinforce the behavior. Any appropriate example is acceptable.

23. Q: What are three possible reasons for the failure of an operant extinction program?

[Level 2/C] 40

A: (a) The reinforcer you are withholding following the undesirable behavior is not the reinforcer that was maintaining the behavior; (b) the undesirable behavior is receiving intermittent reinforcement from another source; (c) the desirable alternative behavior has not been strengthened sufficiently.

Answers to [and Levels of] Questions for Further Learning 1. Q: What is bootleg reinforcement? [Level 1/K] Give an example. [Level 2/C] A: Unauthorized reinforcement provided for a behavior being subjected to an extinction program. Any appropriate example is acceptable.

2. Q: Describe how noncontingent reinforcement might be used to decrease challenging behavior. [Level 2/C] What is a potential limitation of this approach? [Level 2/C] A: Suppose a child with severe developmental disabilities frequently yells loudly, and suppose further that the staff unknowingly reinforces that behavior by attending to it.

One strategy for decreasing that behavior would be for staff to provide frequent staff attention (e.g., every few minutes) noncontingently. A potential limitation of such noncontingent reinforcement is that it might reduce the child’s motivation to participate in teaching sessions (since he/she would receive staff attention for essentially doing nothing).

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CHAPTER 9 GETTING A NEW BEHAVIOR TO OCCUR WITH SHAPING Answers to [and Levels of] Questions for Learning 1. Q: Identify the three basic stages in any shaping procedure as presented at the beginning of this chapter, and describe them with an example (either Frank’s case [Level 2/C] or an example of your own [Level 3/App]).

A: (a) Specify the final desired behavior (e.g., Frank jogging a quarter of a mile each day); (b) Identify a response which can be used as a starting point in working toward the desired behavior (e.g., Frank walking around the outside of his house once); (c) Reinforce the starting response, and then closer and closer approximations towards the final desired response (e.g., Frank was reinforced for walking further and further, and finally for jogging, until his goal was reached). Any appropriate example is acceptable.

2. Q: Define shaping. [Level 1/K] A: Shaping is a procedure for developing a new behavior by the reinforcement of successive approximations of that behavior and the extinction of earlier approximations of that behavior until the new behavior occurs.

3. Q: What is another name for shaping? [Level 1/K] A: The method of successive approximations.

4. Q: Explain how shaping involves successive applications of the principles of positive reinforcement and operant extinction. [Level 2/C] A: Approximation 1 is reinforced for a number of trials until Approximation 2 occurs, then Approximation 1 is extinguished and Approximation 2 is reinforced until Approximation 3 occurs, and so on.

5. Q: Why bother with shaping? [Level 2/C] Why not just learn about the use of straightforward positive reinforcement to increase a behavior? [Level 2/C] A: Positive reinforcement can be used to increase behavior that already occurs once in a while.

Shaping is necessary to develop a behavior that is not yet occurring, or that occurs rarely.

6. Q: In terms of the three stages in a shaping procedure, describe how parents might shape their child to say a particular word. [Level 2/C] A: (a) The final desired behavior is saying “dog.” (b) Starting response is imitating “d.” (c) Reinforcement of successive approximations to the final desired response. Child says “d” and parents hug child (several trials). Child says “do” and parents hug child (several trials).

Child says “dog” and parents hug child (several trials). Any appropriate example is acceptable.

7. Q: List five dimensions of behavior that can be shaped. [Level 2/C] Give two examples of each. [Level 2/C] A: (a) Topography, such as shaping a child to say, “Mommy” instead of “Mama”; (b) Frequency, such as shaping the number of steps (distance) that Frank walked; (c) Duration, such as the time spent studying before taking a break; (d) Latency, such as shaping a runner to react more and more quickly to the sound of the gun at the start of a race; and (e) Force (or intensity), such as shaping the boy to use more and more force to move the pump handle.

Other appropriate examples are acceptable.

8. Q: Describe a behavior of yours that was shaped by consequences in the natural environment,, and state several of the initial approximations. [Level 2/C] A: Any appropriate example. An example from the text was the example of the increasing rust on the pump shaping the boy to use more and more force to move the pump handle.

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9. Q: What is meant by the term final target behavior in a shaping program? [Level 2/C] Give an example. [Level 2/C] A: The final target behavior in a shaping program is the final desired behavior, such as Frank’s target behavior of jogging a quarter of a mile each day, described at the beginning of the chapter. Any appropriate example is acceptable.

10. Q: What is meant by the term starting behavior in a shaping program? [Level 2/C] Give an example. [Level 2/C] A: The starting behavior of a shaping program is a behavior that occurs once in awhile and that approximates the final desired behavior. For example, the starting behavior in Frank’s program was walking around the house once, described at the beginning of the chapter.

Any appropriate example is acceptable.

11. Q: How do you know you have enough successive approximations or shaping steps of the right size? [Level 3/App] A: You don’t. You simply give it your best guess and then try out the program. Two guidelines that are sometimes helpful for selecting successive approximations include: (a) the teacher might imagine what steps she herself would go through; and (b) the teacher might observe students who can already emit the terminal behavior and ask them to emit several approximations.

12. Q: Why is it necessary to avoid underreinforcement at any shaping step? [Level 2/C] A: Too few reinforcements at any one step means that the behavior will be weak, and is likely to extinguish when the trainer attempts to move on to the next step.

13. Q: Why is it necessary to avoid reinforcing too many times at any shaping step? [Level 2/C] A: Too many reinforcements at one step may over-strengthen that behavior and make the behavior persist when the trainer attempts to move on to the next step.

14. Q: Give an example of the Unaware-Misapplication Pitfall in which shaping might be accidentally applied to develop an undesirable behavior. [Level 2/C] Describe some of the shaping steps in your example. [Level 2/C] A: Any appropriate example is acceptable, such as a mountain climber being shaped to make increasingly more dangerous climbs.

15. Q: Give an example of the Pitfall in which the failure to apply shaping might have an undesirable result. [Level 3/App] A: Any appropriate example of a failure to apply shaping is acceptable, such as the following: Some parents may not be very responsive to their child’s babbling behavior. If they expect too much from the child and do not reinforce approximations to normal speech, then the child might stay at the babbling level for a long time and thereby fail to acquire normal speech.

16. Q: Give an example from your own experience of a final target behavior that might best be developed through a procedure other than shaping (see Guideline 1a).

[Level 3/App] A: An example could be any behavior that consists of separate responses linked together in some kind of complex series, e.g., making a bed, baking a cake, etc. Shaping would not likely be effective because the problem is not one of modifying the characteristics of some behavior; rather it is a problem of linking together in a consistent sequence specific separate responses that the client can already emit individually. This is more effectively accomplished by a procedure known as chaining that is described in a later chapter.

17. Q: State a rule for deciding when to move the learner to a new approximation(see Guideline 4d). [Level 2/C] 43

A: A guideline is: move to the next step when the student performs the current step correctly in 6 out of 10 trials (usually with one or two trials less perfect than desired, and one or two trials in which the behavior is better than the current step).

18. Q: Why do we refer to positive reinforcement and operant extinction as principles but to shaping as a procedure?(Hint: See Chapter 1, p.xx ) [Level 4/An] A: Positive reinforcement and extinction would appear to be single processes that are not composed of more basic principles. Shaping clearly is composed of both positive reinforcement and extinction. In that sense, shaping is a procedure that involves two basic principles (namely, positive reinforcement and extinction).

Answers to [and Levels of] Questions for Further Learning 1. Q: Describe an example of how shaping has been used to modify cardiovascular functioning.

[Level 2/C] A: While a man watched television, the sound was on continuously, but the video portion appeared only when the individual’s heart rate decreased by a few beats per minute from the initial baseline rate. When the subject’s heart rate remained at a new level for three consecutive sessions, the video portion was used to reinforce further change in heart rate.

In this way, the investigators shaped several decreases in the client’s heart rate below the initial level.

2. Q: Describe how computer technology might be used to shape specific limb movements in a paralyzed person. [Level 3/App] A: A TV camera could be focused on the specified limb of a paralyzed person. The camera could be hooked up to a computer that might record limb movements, set reinforcement for small shaping steps, backtrack to earlier steps if progress slows, and operate reinforcer mechanisms. Other plausible answers are acceptable.

3. Q: Describe how computer technology might be used to study shaping more accurately than can be done with the usual noncomputerized shaping procedures. [Level 3/App] A: Computers may be useful in precisely specifying shaping parameters such as step size and amount of reinforcement at the end of each step. This should be helpful in studying the relative effectiveness of various step sizes, various amounts of reinforcement at each step size, etc.

4. Q: Describe an experiment demonstrating that maladaptive behavior can be shaped.

[Level 2/C] A: Over trials, researchers reinforced laboratory rats for extending their noses further and further over the edge of a platform until eventually the rats actually fell off the platform.

(A net below the platform kept them from being injured.)

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CHAPTER 10 DEVELOPING BEHAVIORAL PERSISTENCE WITH SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT Answers to [and Levels of] Questions for Learning 1 Q: Define and give an example of intermittent reinforcement. [Level 2/C] A: Intermittent reinforcement is an arrangement in which a behavior is reinforced only occasionally rather than every time it occurs. For example, Jan was not reinforced after each math problem that she solved, but rather she was reinforced after every two problems solved. Any appropriate example is acceptable.

2. Q: Define and give an example of response rate. [Level 2/C] A: Response rate refers to the number of instances of a behavior that occur in a given period of time. An example would be reading 10 pages of your behavior modification text per hour. Any appropriate example is acceptable.

3. Q: Define and give an example of schedule of reinforcement. [Level 2/C] A: A schedule of reinforcement is a rule specifying which occurrences of a given behavior, if any, will be reinforced. For example, Jan’s initial schedule of reinforcement was that she would be reinforced after correctly solving two math problems. Any appropriate example is acceptable.

4. Q: Define CRF and give an example that is not in this chapter. [Level 2/C] A: CRF, continuous reinforcement, is a schedule of reinforcement in which each instance of a particular response is reinforced. For example, if Jan had received reinforcement for each math problem solved, then she would have been on a continuous reinforcement schedule. Any appropriate example is acceptable.

5. Q: Describe four advantages of intermittent reinforcement over CRF for maintaining behavior. [Level 2/C] A: (a) The reinforcer remains effective longer than with continuous reinforcement because satiation takes place more slowly; (b) behavior that has been reinforced intermittently takes longer to extinguish than behavior that has been continuously reinforced; (c) individuals work more consistently on certain intermittent schedules than on continuous reinforcement; and (d) behavior that has been reinforced intermittently persists more when transferred to reinforcers in the natural environment.

6. Q: Explain what an FR schedule is. [Level 2/C] Describe the details of two examples of FR schedules in everyday life (at least one of which is not in this chapter). [Level 3/App] A: Reinforcement occurs after a fixed number of responses. Any two plausible examples, at least one of which is not in the text, are acceptable. For example, during piece-rate pay in industry, a worker is paid for each fixed number of items produced.

7. Q: What is a free-operant procedure? [2/C] Give an example. [Level 2/C] A: A free-operant procedure is one in which the individual is “free” to respond repeatedly in the sense that there are no constraints on successive responses. For example, when doing a crossword puzzle, an individual is “free” to solve the clues at any given rate (e.g., one clue per minute, one clue per 2 minutes, etc.). Any appropriate example is acceptable.

8. Q: What is a discrete-trials procedure? [Level 2/C] Give an example. [Level 2/C] A: In a discrete-trials procedure an individual is “not free” to respond at whatever rate he or she chooses because the environment places limits on the availability of response opportunities. For example, when playing Jeopardy (on TV), individuals must wait for a 45

clue and then must respond correctly to receive reinforcement (money). Any appropriate example is acceptable.

9. Q: What are three characteristic effects of an FR schedule? [Level 2/C] A: (a) A high steady rate until reinforcement; (b) a post reinforcement pause; and (c) high resistance to extinction.

10. Q: What is ratio strain? [[Level 1/K] A: Ratio strain refers to the deterioration of responding from increasing a ratio schedule too rapidly.

11. Q: Explain what a VR schedule is. [Level 2/C] Describe the details of two examples of VR schedules in everyday life (at least one of which is not in this chapter). [Level 3/App] Do your examples involve a free-operant procedure or a discrete-trials procedure? [[Level 3/App] A: Reinforcement occurs after a variable number of responses, where the number varies around some mean value. For example, a door-to-door salesperson is reinforced on a VR schedule in that a sale is made after some unpredictable number of responses. After a certain number of sales, the average number of houses contacted to make a sale could be determined. Any two plausible examples, at least one of which is not in the text, are acceptable.

12. Q: Describe how a VR schedule is similar procedurally to an FR schedule. [Level 4/An] Describe how it is different procedurally. [Level 4/An] A: In both FR and VR, reinforcement occurs after a certain number of responses are emitted.

In FR the number is fixed; in VR it varies.

13. Q: What are three characteristic effects of a VR schedule? [Level 2/C] A: (a) A high rate of responding; (b) little or no pausing after reinforcement; and (c) a high resistance to extinction.

14 Q: Describe two examples of how FR or VR might be applied in training programs. [Level 3/App] (By training program, we refer to any situation in which someone deliberately uses behavior principles to increase and maintain someone else’s behavior, such as parents to influence a child’s behavior, a teacher to influence students’ behavior, a coach to influence athletes’ behavior, and an employer to influence employees’ behavior.) Do your examples involve a free-operant or a discrete-trials procedure?

[Level 3/App] A: For example, a teacher might reinforce a child for correctly performing addition or subtraction problems on a VR schedule in order to generate a high rate of correct performance. As another example, a parent might reinforce a child on a VR for picking up toys and putting them away. Any two plausible examples of FR or VR are acceptable.

15. Q: What is an FI schedule? [Level 1/K] A: Reinforcement is contingent upon the first instance of a specific response occurring after a fixed period of time.

16. Q: What are two questions to ask when judging whether a behavior is reinforced on an FI schedule? [[Level 2/C] What answers to those questions would indicate that the behavior is reinforced on an FI schedule? [Level 2/C] A: Ask: (a) Does reinforcement require only one response after a fixed interval of time? and (b) Does responding during the interval affect anything? If the answer to (a) is “yes” and the answer to (b) is “no,” this indicates that the behavior is reinforced on a fixed-interval schedule.

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17. Q: Suppose that a professor gives an exam every Friday. The students’ studying behavior would likely resemble the characteristic pattern of an FI schedule in that studying would gradually increase as Friday approaches, and the students would show a break in studying (similar to a lengthy postreinforcement pause) after each exam. But this is not an example of an FI schedule for studying. Explain why. [Level 2/C] A: On an FI schedule, the first instance of a specific response after a fixed period of time will be reinforced. But in this case, the students can’t wait around all week, then study briefly and be reinforced. Rather, the more they study, the greater the likelihood they will receive a good grade. Their studying is probably influenced, in part, by avoidance conditioning in that they study to avoid failing.

18. Q: What is a VI schedule? [Level 1/K] A: Reinforcement is contingent upon the first instance of a specific response occurring after a variable period of time, where the time period varies around some mean value.

19. Q: Explain why simple interval schedules are not often used in training programs.

[Level 2/C] A: They generate relatively long pauses at the beginning of the interval.

20. Q: Explain what an FR/LH schedule is. [Level 2/C] Describe the details of an example from everyday life that is not in this chapter. [Level 3/App] A: In an FR/LH (fixed-ratio with a limited hold) schedule, an individual must emit a fixed number of responses within a limited time period in order to receive a reinforcer. For example, if an individual must do 30 sit-ups within 2 minutes before being allowed to take a break, that would be an FR 30/LH 2 minute schedule. Any appropriate example is acceptable.

21. Q: Explain what an FI/LH schedule is. [Level 2/C] Describe the details of an example that is not in this chapter. (Hint: Think of behaviors that occur at certain fixed times, such as arriving for meals, plane departures, and cooking.) [Level 3/App] A: Reinforcement is contingent upon the first instance of a specific response occurring within a limited period of time following the expiration of a fixed interval of time. For example, waiting for a bus at a bus stop on a regular city route is probably reinforced on an approximation of an FI/LH schedule. The response is going to or being at the bus stop. The fixed interval is the length of time between bus arrivals (such as every 15 minutes). The limited hold is the amount of time the bus waits at the bus stop after it arrives. Any plausible example that is not in the chapter is acceptable.

22. Q: Describe how an FI/LH schedule is procedurally similar to a simple FI schedule.

[Level 4/An] Describe how it procedurally differs. [Level 4/An] A: In both FI and FI/LH, reinforcement is programmed to occur after the first response occurring after a fixed period of time. In FI/LH, however, the reinforcer remains available only for a limited period of time, rather than indefinitely, after it has been “set up.”

23. Q: Explain what a VI/LH schedule is. [Level 2/C] Describe the details of a example from everyday life (that is not in this chapter). [Level 3/App] A: Reinforcement is contingent on the first response occurring within a limited period of time following the expiration of another interval of time which varies around some mean value.

For example, watching a television program is reinforced on a VI/LH schedule.

Occasionally, at rather unpredictable intervals, something reinforcing happens and maintains our watching behavior. The limited hold aspect is present in that you will miss the reinforcer if you are not attending when it occurs. Any plausible example that is not in the text is acceptable.

24. Q: Give an example of how VI/LH might be applied in a training program. [Level 2/C] 47

A: Any plausible application of VI/LH is acceptable, such as the example of influencing the two boys to play cooperatively during car trips. The details of the VI/LH should be described.

25. Q: For each of the photos in Figure 10.3, identify the schedule of reinforcement that appears to be operating. [Level 3/App] A: The watching for one’s luggage photo illustrates a VI/LH. After an unpredictable period of time, one’s luggage will appear on the conveyer (the VI portion), and the traveller has a certain period of time to collect it before airport employees put it in storage (the LH portion).

The child and the pegboard photo illustrates an FR schedule. After a fixed number of pieces are stacked, the reinforcer occurs. Taking the clothes out of the dryer illustrates an FI schedule. After a fixed period of time, the first response will be reinforced. Watching TV illustrates a VI/LH. After an unpredictable period of time, the response of watching TV will be reinforced by an enjoyable scene (the VI portion), but the individual must be watching at the exact time that the enjoyable scene occurs (the LH portion).

26. Q: Explain what an FD schedule is. [Level 3/App] Describe the details of two examples of FD schedules that occur in everyday life (at least one of which is not in this chapter).

[Level 3/App] A: Reinforcement occurs after the behavior has been engaged in for a continuous, fixed period of time. For example, parents might use an FD schedule to reinforce their child practicing a musical instrument by allowing the child a certain amount of TV time following a fixed duration of practice. Any two plausible examples are acceptable.

27. Q: Suppose that each time that you put bread in a toaster and push the lever down, 30 seconds passes before your toast is ready. Is this an example of an FD schedule? [Level 2/C] Why or why not? [Level 4/An] Would it be an FD schedule if (a) the catch that keeps the lever down doesn’t work? or (b) the timer that releases it doesn’t work? Explain in each case. [Level 6/E] A: It is not an FD schedule because there is no behavior that must occur continuously for 30 seconds. Rather, it is a fixed interval schedule in that, after thirty seconds, the behavior of taking the bread from the toaster will be reinforced (the toast will be ready). It might be an FD schedule if you had to hold the lever down continuously for 30 seconds because of the catch not working. It would not be an FD if the catch that keeps the lever down works but the timer that releases it doesn’t. Rather, in the latter case, it would be an FI/LH. After 30 seconds the response of releasing the lever would pay off, and if you waited too long your toast would be burnt.

28. Q: Explain why FD might not be a very good schedule for reinforcing study behavior.

[Level 3/App] A: It is difficult to monitor the time spent in productive studying behavior (relative to monitoring, for example, the number of problems completed or the number of pages read).

29. Q: Describe two examples of how FD might be applied in training programs. [Level 3/App] A: For example, a physical education teacher might use an FD schedule to strengthen performance of various exercises. The children who participate in the exercise program continuously during the fixed duration could be reinforced by an opportunity to participate in a game of their choice. Any two plausible applications of FD are acceptable.

30. Q: Explain what a VD schedule is. [Level 3/App] Describe the details an example that occurs in everyday life (that is not in this chapter). [Level 3/App]

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A: Reinforcement occurs after the behavior has been engaged in for a continuous period of time, where the specified time period varies around some mean value. For example, the behavior of waiting in line tends to be reinforced on a VD schedule in that, after a variable period of time (depending upon the length of the line and how fast it moves), the individual gets to the end of the line and can then engage in some reinforcing activity (such as purchasing a ticket to enter the theatre). Any plausible example is acceptable.

31. Q: What are concurrent schedules of reinforcement? [Level 2/C] Describe an example.

[Level 2/C] A: When two or more behaviors are each reinforced on different schedules at the same time, the schedules of reinforcement that are in effect are called concurrent schedules of reinforcement. For example, a student might have the options of watching TV (which would likely be reinforced on a VI/LH) or talking on the phone (which would likely be reinforced on a VD). Any appropriate example is acceptable.

32. Q: If an individual has an option of engaging in two or more behaviors that are reinforced on different schedules by different reinforcers, what four factors in combination are likely to determine the response that the person will make? [Level 2/C] A: (a) The types of schedules that are operating; (b) the immediacy of reinforcement; (c) the magnitude of reinforcement; and (d) the response effort involved in performing the different options.

33. Q: Describe how intermittent reinforcement works against those who are ignorant of its effects. [Level 2/C] Give an example. [Level 2/C] A: The inconsistent use of extinction, resulting in highly persistent undesirable behavior, is probably the most common misuse of intermittent reinforcement. Any appropriate example is acceptable.

34. Q: Name six schedules of reinforcement commonly used to develop behavior persistence (i.e., the ones described in Table 10.1). [Level 2/C] A: Fixed-ratio, variable-ratio, fixed-interval with limited hold, variable-interval with limited hold, fixed-duration, and variable-duration.

35. Q: In general, which schedules tend to produce higher resistance to extinction (RTE), the fixed or the variable schedules (see Table 10.1)? [Level 1/K] A: Variable schedules.

Answers to [and Levels of] Questions for Further Learning 1. Q: Who wrote the classic authoritative work on schedules of reinforcement, and what is the title of that book? [Level 3/App] A: Ferster and Skinner: Schedules of Reinforcement.

2. Q: What may account for the failures to obtain the schedule effects in basic research with humans that are typically found in basic research with animals? [Level 2/C] A: It appears that the presence of rule-governed behavior in humans generates behavior patterns that are different from those caused by the schedules when applied to animals.

3. Q: Describe how FR schedules may be involved in writing a novel. [Level 3/App] A: Completing each chapter of a novel appears to be reinforced on a fixed ratio schedule, in that a specific number of responses must be made before a chapter is finished. In the case of Irving Wallace, he typically stopped writing immediately after completing each chapter of the book he was working on. After a brief pause of a day or so, he resumed writing at a high rate, which he maintained until the next chapter was completed. In addition, longer pauses typically occurred after a draft of a manuscript was completed.

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Thus, it appears that completed chapters and completed drafts of manuscripts are reinforcements for novel writing that occur according to an FR schedule.

4. Q: Explain what a PR schedule is, and how PR has been mainly used in applied settings.

[Level 3/App] A: A PR (Progressive Ratio) schedule is like an FR schedule but the ratio requirement increases by a specified amount after each reinforcer. Eventually, the ratio requirement reaches a level called the breakpoint at which the individual stops responding completely.

The main application of PR is to determine how potent or powerful a particular reinforcer is for a particular individual.

5. Q: Might it be better to reinforce a child for dusting the living room furniture for a fixed period of time or for a fixed number of items dusted? Explain your answer. [Level 6/E] A: Evidence indicates that when FR and FD both appear to be applicable, the former schedule is preferable in that it generates more (and higher quality) work. For example, it has been shown that students who are required to read for a fixed period of time and to answer questions on what they have read do not perform as well as students who are required to read a fixed number of pages and then to answer questions on what they have read.

6. Q: Briefly describe how schedules of reinforcement can help us understand behavior that has frequently been attributed to inner motivational states. [Level 3/App] A: Sometimes we postulate motivation as some sort of thing within us that explains differences in the rate of behavior between two individuals, such as between a student who studies a great deal (whom we might describe as highly motivated) as compared to one who studies very little (whom we might describe as not motivated). But it may be that the first student initially received frequent reinforcement for academic behavior from parents and teachers, and the reinforcers may have been gradually shifted to intermittent schedules that continue to maintain high rates. The second student may not have experienced the same history of reinforcement. Studying behavior in the second individual may not have been reinforced adequately initially; the schedule may have shifted abruptly, causing ratio strain, or other possibilities might account for the lack of studying. Thus, differences in rate of responding are not necessarily due to inner motivational states.

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CHAPTER 11 RESPONDING AT THE RIGHT TIME AND PLACE: STIMULUS DISCRIMINATION AND STIMULUS GENERALIZATION Answers to [and Levels of] Questions for Learning 1. Q: What is a stimulus? [Level 1/K] Give two examples that are not from the text.

[Level 3/App] A: A stimulus is any physical event or object in the environment that can be detected by one’s sense receptors and can affect behavior. For example, the sound and sight of an airplane passing overhead are stimuli. Any appropriate examples are acceptable.

2. Q: What is an ABC assessment? [Level 1/K] A: An ABC assessment involves the identification of the antecedents and consequences of a behavior.

3. Q: Define stimulus control. [Level 1/K] A: Stimulus control refers to the degree of correlation between an antecedent stimulus and a subsequence response.

4. Q: What is good stimulus control? [Level 1/K] Describe an example that is not in this chapter. [Level 3/App] A: Good stimulus control refers to a strong correlation between the occurrence of a particular stimulus and the occurrence of a particular response. For example, good stimulus control would be displayed if a driver consistently stops the car at red traffic lights. Any plausible example is acceptable.

5. Q: Define SD, and give an example that is not in this chapter. [Level 3/App] Identify both the SD and the response in the example. [Level 4/An] A: An SD is a stimulus in the presence of which a response will be reinforced. For example, when two people are eating dinner, the request by one person, “Please pass the salt” would be an SD for the other person to emit the response of passing the salt. Any plausible example is acceptable.

6. Q: Define SΔ, and give an example that is not in this chapter. [Level 3/App] Identify both the SΔ and the response in the example. [Level 4/An] A: An SΔ is a stimulus in the presence of which a response will not be reinforced. For example, an “out-of-order” sign on a vending machine is an SΔ for the response of putting in money. Any plausible example is acceptable.

7. Q: What is the difference between a stimulus and a discriminative stimulus? [Level 4/An] A: A stimulus is anything that can be detected by one’s sense receptors and can affect behavior. A discriminative stimulus is a stimulus in the above sense, but it is also a cue that a response will pay off.

8. Q: Like the diagram of the swearing example, diagram the SD, SΔ,response, and consequence for Darcy’s case. [Level 4/App] A: (an instance of positive reinforcement) 1. SD Response Reinforcer (phone ringing) (Darcy picked (approval from Mother) up the phone and 51

talked to Grandma) (an instance of extinction) Δ 2. S Response No Reinforcer (phone not ringing) (Darcy picked (Darcy’s Mother took the phone, hung) up the phone) it up, and told Darcy not to pick it up if it wasn’t ringing) 9. Q: Describe an example (not from this chapter) of a stimulus that is an SD for one behavior and an SΔ for a different behavior. [Level 3/App] A: If you ask someone, “What time is it, please?” that would be an SD for the person to check their watch and tell you the time; it would be an SΔ for that person to tell you the date of that particular day. Any appropriate example is acceptable.

10. Q: Describe the operant stimulus discrimination training procedure, and give an example that is not in this chapter. [Level 3/App] A: Operant stimulus discrimination training refers to the procedure of reinforcing a response in the presence of an SD and extinguishing that response in the presence of an S Δ. For example, when teaching a child to correctly name the colors of objects, you would reinforce saying “Red” when you point to a red object, but you would not reinforce saying “Red” after you have pointed to a green object. Any appropriate example is acceptable.

11. Q: State the two effects of operant stimulus discrimination training. [Level 1/K] A: After sufficient operant stimulus discrimination training, the effects are: (a) stimulus control—a high correlation between a stimulus and a response; and (b) a stimulus discrimination—a response occurs to an SD and not to an S Δ.

12. Q: Define operant stimulus generalization, and give an example that is not in this chapter.

[Level 3/App] A: Operant stimulus generalization occurs when a behavior becomes more probable in the presence of one stimulus or situation as a result of having been reinforced in the presence of another stimulus or situation. Any appropriate example is acceptable.

13. Q: In a sentence, state the difference between an instance of operant stimulus discrimination and an instance of operant stimulus generalization. [Level 4/An] A: In operant stimulus generalization, an individual makes the same response to two different stimuli, while in operant stimulus discrimination, an individual makes a different response to two different stimuli.

14. Q: What do we mean by common-element stimulus class? [Level 2/C] By conceptual behavior?

[Level 2/C] Describe an example of each that is not in this chapter. [Level 3/App] A: A stimulus common-element class is a set of stimuli, all of which have some physical characteristic in common. For example, red objects would constitute a stimulus commonelement class. Conceptual behavior is emitting an appropriate response to all the members of a stimulus common-element class, and not emitting that response to stimuli that do not belong to the class. For example, when faced with several red objects and several green objects, a child would be showing conceptual behavior if the child identified only the red objects when asked, “Which ones are red?” Any appropriate examples are acceptable.

15. Q: Describe how you might teach the concept of honest to a child. [Level 2/C] Would your program teach a child to be honest? Why or why not? [Level 4/An] A: To teach the concept “honest,” you might reinforce a particular response (such as the word “honest”) to many different examples of honest behavior and extinguish that response (and perhaps reinforce a different response, such as “dishonest”) to examples of dishonest 52

behavior. This procedure teaches a child to recognize instances of honest and dishonest behavior. It does not necessarily teach a child how to “be honest.” For example, a child might have been taught that lying is dishonest, but still lie (and be fully aware that he or she is doing so). Any appropriate example is acceptable.

16. Q: What do we mean by stimulus equivalence class? [Level 2/C] Describe an example that is not in this chapter. [Level 3/App] A: A stimulus equivalence class is a group of stimuli that are physically different, but all control the same behavior. For example, for individuals for whom the word “three,” the numeral “3,” and the Roman numeral “III” all control the same behavior, those three stimuli would constitute an equivalence class. Any appropriate example is acceptable.

17. Q: What is a primary distinction between stimulus generalization involving common-element stimulus classes and stimulus generalization involving stimulus equivalence classes?

[Level 4/An] A: With stimulus generalization involving a stimulus common-element class, the stimuli to which generalization occurs have at least one physical characteristic in common with the original SD. With stimulus generalization involving a stimulus equivalence class, the members of the equivalence class are physically different from one another.

18. Q: Describe a stimulus that you would like to establish as an S D for a behavior of yourself or a friend, and describe the behavior. Then, for that stimulus, answer the four questions listed on p. xxx. [Level 3/App] A: Suppose that you want to teach your neighbor’s child to understand the significance of a “Block Parent” sign that you have in your window. A “Block Parent” sign is different from other stimuli in the window in both shape and color; it can be presented in the window when adults are home to respond to children in the streets who may knock on the door as a function of the sign; it is quite distinctive and therefore is likely to be attended to by children who have been instructed about its function; and it is not likely to control any undesirable responses. Any appropriate example is acceptable.

19. Q: What do we mean by an error in stimulus discrimination training? [Level 1/K] A: (a) A response to an S∆ or (b) no response or an incorrect response to an SD. 20. Q: In general, what is a contingency? [Level 1/K] Describe an example that is not in this chapter. [Level 3/App] A: In general, a contingency is an “if-then” type of arrangement. For example, if you press the button on the water fountain, then a stream of water will appear. Any appropriate example that was not in the chapter.

21 Q: What is a three-term contingency of reinforcement? [Level 1/K] Describe an example that is not in this chapter. [Level 3/App] A: A three-term contingency of reinforcement describes both the antecedents and consequences of a behavior. For example, at the dining room table during dinner, a person says “Pass the salt please” (the antecedent), another person passes the salt (the response), and the first person says “Thank you” (reinforcer). Any appropriate example is acceptable.

22. Q: From a behavioral perspective, what is a rule? [Level 1/K] A: A rule is a verbal statement that describes a situation in which a behavior will lead to a consequence.

23. Q: With examples that are not in this chapter, distinguish between rule-governed and contingency-shaped behavior. [Level 4/An] A: Contingency-shaped behavior is behavior that has been strengthened simply because it has been immediately followed by reinforcement. For example, if little Johnny swears while 53

playing with friends in the street and his friends laugh at his swearing, swearing would likely be strengthened. Rule-governed behavior is behavior that occurs to a rule that describes a contingency of reinforcement. For example, if Johnny’s parents say, “If you talk without swearing all day long, you can stay up for an extra half-hour tonight,” and if as a result little Johnny talks without swearing during the day (at least in their presence), then Johnny would be showing rule-governed behavior. Any appropriate examples are acceptable.

24. Q: Following Darcy’s training for answering the phone, was her phone-answering behavior likely rule governed or contingency shaped? Justify your choice. [Level 6/E] A: It was rule-governed because her mother gave her rules for answering the phone when it was ringing and not when it wasn’t ringing, and her mother reinforced Darcy for following the rules.

25. Q: Give an example of how ignorance of operant stimulus discrimination training may lead parents or other caregivers to develop an undesirable behavior in a child or adult in their care.

[Level 3/App] A: One might reinforce responses in the presence of highly inappropriate stimuli. For example, parents with a child who has just learned to walk might follow the child around closely when they visit someone else’s house and pick the child up each time the child attempts to grab ornaments or other breakable objects. The parents may in fact be teaching the child to immediately walk towards and grab ornaments in other people’s houses. Any plausible example is acceptable.

Answers to [and Levels of] Questions for Further Learning 1. Q: Using examples, explain what is meant by reflexivity, symmetry, and transitivity.

[Level 2/C] A: Reflexivity involves matching two exemplars of an object or event, such as matching a 3 to a 3. Symmetry refers to bi-directional matching of two objects, such as matching A to B and then matching B to A. Transitivity occurs when an individual has learned to match A to B and B to C, is then able to match A to C without specific training to do so.

2.

Q: How have studies of stimulus equivalence provided support for a behavioral view of language development? [Level 4/An] A: Psycholinguists have argued that children appear to learn more about language than is directly reinforced, or that can be explained through stimulus generalization due to physical similarity. That is, children learn that physically different sounds can mean the same thing as other sounds, even though some of those sounds have not been directly paired with each other. However, stimulus equivalence enables us to account for this phenomenon and thereby provides support for a behaviorist view of language development.

3. Q: What is meant by the term contextual control? [Level 2/C] Illustrate with an example.

[Level 3/App] A: Contextual control is a complex type of stimulus control in which the general setting or context may alter the manner in which an individual responds to particular stimuli. For example, in North America the left side of the car is an SD for the designated driver to open the door and sit down. In Britain, the right side of the car is an SD for the designated driver to open the door and sit down. In this example, the country in which driving occurs is the context.

4. Q: Just before starting to cross a street, a pedestrian from England visiting Canada observed that the street was clear to the right, stepped into the street, and was struck by a car.

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Explain how lack of contextual control was involved in this accident. [Level 2/C] A: In England, car drivers drive on the left side of the road. Just before stepping onto the street, therefore, the closest approaching car would come from the right. In Canada, however, car drivers drive on the right side of the street. Thus, just before stepping onto the street, the closest approaching car would be at one’s left. In this example, the country that the pedestrian was visiting was the context, and in the context of Canada, stepping onto a street should be preceded by looking left. Unfortunately, the pedestrian was not under the contextual control of the country, and looked right.

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CHAPTER 12 CHANGING THE STIMULUS CONTROL OF A BEHAVIOR WITH FADING Answers to [and Levels of] Questions for Learning 1. Q: Define fading , and give an example of it. [Level 2/C] A: Fading is the gradual change, on successive trials, of a stimulus that controls a response, so that the response eventually occurs to a partially changed or completely new stimulus.

For example, a parent might teach a child to hold a pencil and make a line on a piece of paper by physically guiding the child’s hand. Over successive trials, the physical guidance might gradually be lessened to the point where the child will be able to draw a line without any help whatsoever. Any plausible example is acceptable.

2. Q: Define errorless discrimination training. [Level 2/C] A: Errorless discrimination training (errorless learning) is the use of a fading procedure to establish a stimulus discrimination so that no errors occur.

3. Q: Why is establishing a stimulus discrimination without errors advantageous? [Level 2/C] A: (a) Errors consume valuable time; (b) If an error occurs once, it tends to occur many times even though it is being extinguished; (c) The absence of reinforcement when errors are being extinguished often produces emotional side effects (e.g., tantrums, aggressive behavior) and/or attempts to escape from the situation.

4. Q: What is meant by a dimension of a stimulus? [Level 1/K] Describe an example. [Level 2/C] A: A dimension of a stimulus is any characteristic that can be measured on some continuum.

For example, the loudness of a particular sound. Any appropriate example is acceptable.

5. Q: Identify three stimulus dimensions along which fading occurred in the examples cited in the first two sections of this chapter. [Level 3/App] A: Any three, such as: (a) intensity of an auditory stimulus (“Peter”); (b) the amount of pressure exerted by a teacher to physically guide a student during tracing; or (c) the number of dots on a piece of paper for tracing.

6. Q: Describe an example from this chapter in which the training situation remained constant but a specific stimulus dimension was faded. [Level 2/C] A: Any appropriate example, such as teaching Peter to say his name. The training room and situation did not change, but the intensity of the auditory stimulus was faded.

7. Q: Describe an example from this chapter in which the general training situation was faded.

[Level 2/C] A: Any appropriate example, such as teaching children appropriate “classroom” behavior. The physical characteristics of the classroom (the number and location of desks and chairs and students, etc.) were gradually changed.

8. Q: Describe how one might use fading to teach a pet to perform a trick. [Level 3/App] A: Any appropriate example, such as the following: To teach a dog to raise a paw upon command, a trainer might present the command to a dog, physically guide a paw-raising response, and then provide reinforcement (such as a small piece of dog biscuit). After several trials, the trainer might raise the paw about three-quarters of the way and require the dog to raise the paw the rest of the way on each trial in order to be reinforced. After a number of reinforced trials at that level, the guidance of the paw-raising might be gradually decreased until the dog raises the paw on command with no physical guidance from the 56

trainer. Any appropriate example is acceptable.

9. Q: Assume that you have an 18-month-old child who imitates the word chip. Describe in detail how you might use fading to teach your child to correctly identify a potato chip when you point to it and ask, “What’s that?” [Level 3/App] A: We will assume that the child likes to eat potato chips. The procedure to be used would be essentially the same as the procedure described in this chapter to teach Peter to say “Peter” when asked, “What’s your name?” Specifically, you might hold up a potato chip, and say to the child very quietly, “What’s this?” and then, very loudly and quickly before the child can respond, say “chip!” When the child mimics the word “chip,” you would reinforce the child by handing the child the potato chip and allowing the child to eat it. Then, over several trials, you would begin asking the question, “What’s this?” more loudly and begin supplying the answer “chip” more quietly. Eventually, the child should correctly respond “chip” when asked, “What’s this?” while you hold up a potato chip.

10. Q: What do we mean by final target stimulus? [Level 2/C] Give an example. [Level 2/C] A: The final desired stimulus is the stimulus that you want to eventually control the target behavior in a fading program. Any plausible example is acceptable.

11. Q: What do we mean by starting stimulus? [Level 2/C] Give an example. [Level 2/C] A: The starting stimulus is the initial stimulus that reliably evokes the desired behavior at the start of a fading program. Any plausible example is acceptable.

12. Q: Define prompt. [Level 2/C] Describe an example that is not from this chapter. [Level 2/C] A: In a program to develop stimulus control, such as a fading program, supplemental stimuli may initially be used to help control the desired behavior. The supplemental stimuli are called prompts. For example, a parent may want to teach a young child to fill a sink approximately 1/4 full with water before the child washes her hands. A felt marker might be used to place a mark in the sink to initially indicate the appropriate level. The mark would be a prompt. Any appropriate example is acceptable.

13. Q: Define the four major categories of teacher-behavior prompts. [Level 2/C] Give an example of each. [Level 2/C] A: (a) Physical prompts—the teacher touches the student to guide him. (b) Verbal prompts— verbal hints or verbal cues that the teacher presents to evoke the correct response; (c) Gestural prompts—gestures or motions that the teacher makes (without touching the student) in order to evoke the desired behavior; (d) Modelling prompts—the teacher demonstrates (i.e., models) the correct behavior. Any appropriate examples are acceptable.

14. Q: Define environmental prompt, and describe an example that is not from this chapter. [ [Level 3/App] A: Environmental prompts are alterations to the physical environment in a manner that will evoke a desired behavior. For example, someone who is focusing on getting into shape may place pictures around his or her home of people lifting weights or doing other physical activity to serve as motivation or reminders for getting into shape. Any appropriate example is acceptable.

15. Q: Define within-stimulus prompt, and describe an example that is not from this chapter.

[Level 2/C] Does your example involve a teacher-behavior prompt or an environmental prompt? [Level 2/C] A: A within-stimulus prompt is an alteration in the characteristics of an SD or an SΔ to make them more noticeable, and therefore easier to discriminate. For example, suppose that a teacher has placed several brown objects and several blue objects in front of a child.

When teaching the child to respond correctly when the teacher asks, “brown or blue,” the 57

teacher might initially exaggerate the difference in the words by saying “brown” in a loud, high- pitched voice, and saying “blue” in a soft, low-pitched voice. This is a teacher-behavior prompt. Any appropriate example is acceptable.

16. Q: Define extra-stimulus prompt, and describe an example that is not from this chapter.

[Level 3/App] Does your example involve a teacher-behavior prompt or an environmental prompt? [Level 2/C] A: An extra-stimulus prompt is something that is added to the environment to make a correct response more likely. For example, suppose that a teacher is attempting to teach a child to discriminate between brown and blue objects when the teacher says, “brown or blue.” On successive trials, the correct object (e.g., a brown object when the teacher says “brown” could be placed closer to the child, and the incorrect object could be placed farther away).

The position prompt (of the objects) in this case would be an extra-stimulus prompt, and could be faded across trials. This is an environmental prompt. Any appropriate example is acceptable.

17. Q: How many reinforced trials should occur at any given fading step before the stimuli of that particular step are changed? (Hint: What suggestions were made in the examples in this chapter?) [Level 2/C] A: The number might vary with the step, the behavior being taught, and the student being taught. For example, several reinforced trials at each step were used when teaching Peter to say his name. There is no definitive answer since fading is still somewhat of an art.

18. Q: Distinguish between fading and shaping. [Level 4/An] A: Fading involves the gradual change of a stimulus while the response stays about the same; shaping involves the gradual change of a response while the stimulus stays about the same.

Answers to [and Levels of] Questions for Further Learning 1 Q: Describe a plausible example in which use of physical guidance in a teaching program might require ethical approval. [Level 3/App] Why would ethical approval be required?

[Level 4/An] A: Suppose a staff member in an agency for persons with developmental disabilities decides that it would be desirable to take a person with severe developmental disabilities on a walk outside the agency on a warm summer day. Suppose further that the client resists going on a walk. Suppose further that the staff decides to use physical guidance to influence the client to go on a walk. But perhaps such an intrusive procedure is not necessary to prompt the desired behavior. Perhaps simply showing the client a photograph of the outside scene in which walking will occur might be sufficient to prompt the desired behavior. Such an environmental prompt would be considered less restrictive than physical guidance. Because it is generally agreed that behavior modifiers should use the least intrusive and restrictive interventions wherever possible, use of physical guidance in the above instance might require ethical approval. Other appropriate examples are acceptable.

2. Q: Which of the prompt-removal procedures fit the definition of fading given at the beginning of this chapter, and which do not? [Level 2/C] Explain. [Level 6/E] A: The definition of fading given at the beginning of the chapter is: the gradual change on successive trials of a stimulus that controls a response so that the response eventually occurs to a partially changed or completely new stimulus. Decreasing assistance is the only prompt-removal procedure that fits this description. In increasing assistance the “starting” stimulus—a stimulus that consistently evokes the response—is not presented at the beginning of the procedure. In graduated guidance, the level of prompting is changed within rather than across trials. In time delay, the starting stimulus is not changed; 58

instead, the time interval between the final desired stimulus and the starting stimulus is gradually increased.

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CHAPTER 13 GETTING A NEW SEQUENCE OF BEHAVIORS TO OCCUR WITH BEHAVIOR CHAINING Answers to [and Levels of] Questions for Learning 1. Q: Briefly describe the chaining procedure used to teach Steve to perform a consistent preputt routine. [Level 2/C] A: First, Steve’s pre-putt routine was divided into 7 sequential steps. Second, over a series of 10 trials, Steve was required to perform each of the 7 steps in the appropriate sequence.

Third, on each trial, a friend of his checked off the steps as they were performed, and prompted him to perform any missing steps before continuing. Fourth, a friend of Steve’s prompted him to perform each step of the pre-putt routine on every putt during a practice round of golf. Finally, during tournament rounds, his caddy frequently reminded him to follow his pre-putt routine.

2. Q: Describe or define behavior chain, and give an example other than those in this chapter.

[Level 3/App] A: A sequence of SDs and Rs, in which each R produces the SD for the next R and the entire sequence, is typically followed by a reinforcer. Any example in which the sequence of behaviors and the reinforcer are briefly described.

3. Q: Why do you suppose a behavior chain is called a chain? [Level 2/C] A: Because it is a sequence of responses that consists of stimulus-response “links” that are connected or “chained” together.

4. Q: Distinguish between a behavior sequence that is a chain and one that is not a chain.

[Level 4/An] A: A behavior chain is a consistent series of stimuli and responses in which each stimulus (except the last) is a conditioned reinforcer for the previous response and serves as an SD for the next response. The sequence also typically terminates in a reinforcer. Other general sequences might consist of a series of responses that tend to occur in the same order on successive occasions, but such general sequences are not specific behavior chains because there are many variations to each response on successive occasions, and there are frequent “breaks” in between responses.

5. Q: Describe an example of a behavior sequence (that is not in this chapter) that is not a chain, and explain why it is not one. [Level 2/C] A: A sequence that would not be a chain would be studying for an exam, writing the exam, and attending the next class to get the mark back from the professor. The latter sequence is not a chain because of variations in each response, and frequent “breaks” in between responses. Any appropriate example is acceptable.

6. Q: Briefly describe the total-task presentation chaining method. [Level 2/C] A: Total task presentation: the client is required to attempt each of the steps in the chain from the beginning to the end on each trial, and to continue with total task trials until all steps are mastered.

7. Q: Briefly describe the backward-chaining method. [Level 2/C] A: Backward chaining: the last step is established first, then the next to the last step is taught and linked to the last step, then the third from the last step is taught and linked to the last two steps, and so on, progressing backward toward the beginning of the chain.

8. Q: Briefly describe the forward-chaining method. [Level 2/C] 60

A: Forward chaining: the initial step of a sequence is taught first, then the first and second steps are taught and linked together, then the first three steps, and so on until the entire chain is acquired.

9. Q: Describe how each of the three major chaining methods could be used to teach bed making. [Level 3/App] A: First, bed-making would be task analyzed into a number of steps, the specific number depending upon the level of functioning and skills of the person to be taught how to make beds. The task analysis might produce the following steps: (a) put on the bottom sheet; (b) straighten the bottom sheet; (c) tuck in the bottom sheet; (d) put on the top sheet; (e) straighten the top sheet; (f) tuck in the top sheet; (g) put on the spread; (h) straighten the spread; (i) pull the top of the spread back for the pillow; (j) put the pillow on the bed and (k) pull the spread over the pillow and smooth the wrinkles. In total task presentation, the client would be required to go through each of the above steps on every trial. Correct performance of a step would be reinforced with praise. If a client performed a step incorrectly, assistance would be provided to correct that step, but praise would not be provided. Praise would also be presented following the completion of the chain. In backward chaining, training would start with the bed completely made except for the last step. Over several trials, the client would be taught to perform step (k), pulling the spread over the pillow and smoothing the wrinkles. As with total task presentation, praise would be used to reinforce correct performance and incorrect responses would be corrected but would not be praised. When the client had mastered step (k), the client would be taught to perform steps (j) and (k) using the same procedures. When the last two steps had been mastered, the client would be taught to perform steps (i), (j), and (k). In this way, teaching would progress backwards until the entire chain had been mastered. In forward chaining, training would start with the first step of the sequence and the client would be taught to perform step (a), putting on the bottom sheet. As with the previous two procedures, correct responses would be reinforced while incorrect responses would be corrected, but not reinforced. When step (a) had been mastered, steps (a) and (b) would be taught. When these were performed together and correctly, training would progress through steps (a), (b), and (c). In this way, training would progress through the steps until the entire chain had been mastered.

10. Q: In a chain, a given stimulus is both an SD and a conditioned reinforcer. How can this be?

[Level 2/C] Explain with an example. [Level 2/C] A: Consider the chain for teaching a person with developmental disabilities to put on a pair of slacks (described in Figure 11-2). After doing up the snap in Step 6, the last step was to do up the zipper, which was followed by a reinforcer. Therefore, the “snap done up” became an SD for “doing up the zipper” (i.e., “snap done up” was a cue in the presence of which “doing up the zipper” would be reinforced). Also, across a number of trials, “snap done up” was paired with receiving a reinforcer and would become a conditioned reinforcer for the preceding response of “doing up the snap.” In other words, “snap done up” was the stimulus, which when presented after a response (doing up the snap), served to strengthen that response, and “snap done up” had that effect because of appropriate pairings with the reinforcer at the end of the chain. Thus, “snap done up” was both an SD and a conditioned reinforcer. Any appropriate example is acceptable.

11. Q: Which of the major chaining methods do the authors recommend for teaching persons with developmental disabilities, and for what four reasons? [Level 3/App] A: The authors recommend that the total task presentation method be used. This recommendation is based on four considerations. First, it requires the trainer to spend less time in partial assembly or disassembly to prepare the task for training; second, it appears to focus on teaching response topography and response sequence simultaneously and therefore should produce results more quickly; third, it appears to maximize the learner’s independence early in training, especially if some steps are already familiar to the 61

learner; fourth, several studies demonstrated that total task presentation was at least as good as, or better than, backward chaining or forward chaining for teaching assembly tasks to persons with severe developmental disabilities persons.

12. Q: Why might it be desirable to bring toy-playing behavior under the control of natural contingencies as soon as possible? [Level 6/E] A: Many play activities involving toys can be viewed as behavior chains in which the link with the most “fun” is manipulating the toy at the end of each chain. This would bring the chain under the control of a natural reinforcer.

13. Q: Distinguish among the types of target behavior typically established by shaping, fading, and chaining. [Level 4/An] A: In fading, the target behavior is some new stimulus control of a particular behavior. In shaping, the target behavior is some new behavior along some physical dimension, such as topography, amount, or intensity. In chaining, the target behavior is a new sequence of responses, with a “clear-cut” stimulus signalling the end of each response and the start of the next.

14. Q: Suppose that you want to teach someone to change a tire on a car. Would you use shaping or chaining? [Level 2/C] Justify your choice. [Level 6/E] A: Changing a tire involves performing an appropriate series of steps including getting the jack out of the car, inserting the jack at the appropriate place on the side of the car, raising the side of the car so that the tire can be removed, etc. In other words, changing a tire on a car is a sequence of responses with a “clear cut” stimulus signalling the end of each response and the start of the next response. Therefore, chaining would be used.

15. Q: What is meant by the term task analysis? [Level 2/C] Describe a plausible task analysis appropriate for teaching a 3-year-old child the chain of tying a knot in a shoelace.

[Level 3/App] A: Task analysis refers to the process of breaking a task down into smaller steps or component responses to facilitate training. For example, you might require the child to be seated at a desk with a completed laced shoe facing away from her. The child might then be guided through the following steps: (a) The child takes the end of a lace in each hand; (b) the right end of the lace is placed on the desk pointing straight out from the child; (c) the left end of the lace is laid across the right end; (d) the child’s left hand grabs the laces where they form a loop, and her right hand puts the top lace around and through the loop from behind; (e) both ends of the lace are now pulled, thus forming a knot. Any plausible task analysis of tying a shoelace knot is acceptable.

16. Q: Briefly describe three strategies to help individuals use prompts independently to guide the mastery of a chain of behaviors. [Level 3/App] A: (a) Prepare a written task analysis of the chaining steps; (b) For individuals who are unable to read, use a series of picture prompts to guide completion of the chain(s); (c) Teach individuals to recite self-instructions to prompt correct performance of chaining steps.

17. Q: What is an adventitious chain? [Level 2/C] A: An adventitious chain is a chain that has subcomponents that are functional in producing the reinforcer, and at least one component (called a superstitious component) that is not functional in producing the reinforcer.

18. Q: Describe an example of an adventitious chain that is not from this chapter. [Level 3/App] Clearly identify the superstitious component. [Level 4/An] A: For example, a pitcher in baseball might consistently engage in the following sequence: watch the catcher for the signal; tug on his belt buckle; wind up, and throw the pitch.

Tugging on his belt buckle would not be necessary for the reinforcer of throwing a strike.

Any appropriate example is acceptable.

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19. Q: Give an example of an Unaware-Misapplication Pitfall of chaining other than an adventitious chain. [Level 3/App] Explain how this pitfall could be avoided. [Level 2/C] A: For example, a behavioral chain manifested by some overweight people consists of watching TV until a commercial comes on, going to the kitchen during a commercial, getting a snack, and returning to the TV program where the snack is eaten (and reinforced by the events in the program). This chain could be broken by requiring the individual to separate the two activities and to eat only in the kitchen and watch TV only in the TV room without combining the two.

Answers to [and Levels of] Questions for Further Learning 1. Q: Explain how the theory that the stimuli in a behavior chain are conditioned reinforcers for the preceding responses and SDs for the subsequent responses is an oversimplification.

[Level 6/E] A: It’s an oversimplification because, in a long behavioral chain with many components, the stimuli at the beginning of the chain are a considerable distance in time from the primary reinforcer at the end of the chain, and their property as SDs decreases and they begin to take on the property of SΔs.

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CHAPTER 14 DIFFERENTIAL REINFORCEMENT PROCEDURES TO DECREASE BEHAVIOR Answers to [and Levels of] Questions for Learning 1. Q: What is the difference in the use of the schedules of reinforcement in Chapter 10 compared to the differential reinforcement procedures in this chapter? [Level 4/An] A: The schedules of reinforcement in Chapter 8 are used to increase and maintain operant behavior, while the schedules of reinforcement in Chapter 12 are used to decrease operant behavior.

2. Q: Describe briefly, point by point, how Tommy’s talking out in class was reduced.

[Level 3/App] A: (a) Tommy received instructions about a procedure. (b) According to the procedure, 5 minutes of play at the end of the day was made available to Tommy for each 50-minute session where he had 3 or fewer “talk-outs.” Thus, frequent talk-outs were not consequated by a special reinforcer. Infrequent talk-outs were consequated by a special reinforcer.

3. Q: Explain, in general, what a DRL schedule is. [Level 2/C] Give an example of one that occurs in everyday life, and that is not in this chapter. [Level 3/App] A: DRL is a schedule of reinforcement where the reinforcer is presented only if a behavior occurs at a low rate, and not if the behavior occurs at a higher rate. For example, a student visiting a professor in his office is likely to be reinforced by the professor if such visits occur at a reasonably low rate but not if they occur at such a high rate as to amount to pestering.

Any plausible example is acceptable.

4. Q: Define limited-responding DRL. [Level 2/C] Give an example. [Level 3/App] A: In limited responding DRL, an individual is reinforced if fewer than a certain number of responses occur during a session, or during a separate interval within a session. Thus, from zero to the maximum allowable number of responses might occur and the subject will still be reinforced. For example, in Tommy’s case, an interval of 50 minutes was specified, and reinforcement occurred at the end of the interval if it contained three or fewer talk-outs

by Tommy. Any appropriate example is acceptable.

5. Q: Define spaced-responding DRL[Level 2/C] Give an example. [Level 3/App] A: In spaced-responding DRL, an instance of a behavior must occur for reinforcement, and that instance must be separated from a previous instance of that behavior by a specified period of time. For example, this type of schedule might be used with a child who asks a parent for a drink of water every few minutes. The child might be put on a spacedresponding DRL one response per hour schedule, meaning that a request for a drink will be reinforced only if it has not occurred during the preceding hour. Any appropriate example is acceptable.

6. Q: How is a spaced-responding DRL procedurally similar to and different from an FI schedule? [Level 4/An] A: In spaced-responding DRL and on an FI schedule, the first response following some interval of time is reinforced. In spaced-responding DRL, the interval of time is measured from the previous response, whereas in FI it is measured from some other event, usually the previous reinforcer. Spaced-responding DRL is different from an FI schedule in that in the former responding before the specified interval has passed causes a recycling of the time interval. On an FI schedule, responding by the individual before the time interval has passed has no programmed consequence.

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7. Q: What is a procedural difference between a spaced-responding DRL and an FD schedule?

[Level 4/An] A: In spaced responding DRL, a fixed time must pass in which the response does not occur in order for a response to produce a reinforcer. On an FD schedule, the response must occur continuously for a fixed period of time in order for reinforcement to occur.

8. Q: Describe in some detail an example, which is not in this chapter, of how DRL would be useful in treating a behavior problem. [Level 6/E] Indicate which type of DRL is to be used. [Level 3/App] A: For example, suppose that a young couple with a two-year-old child is entertaining guests. Suppose further that the child runs into the room where the adults are talking every few minutes with a different toy, saying, “See my new toy!” With cooperation from the guests, it might be appropriate for the parents to place the child on a 15-minute spaced-responding DRL in order to retain some interaction between the child and the guests, but to reduce them to a more reasonable frequency. Any appropriate example is acceptable.

9. Q: Explain what a DRO schedule is. [Level 2/C] Give an example of one that occurs in everyday life. [Level 3/App] A: A reinforcer is presented if a specified period of time passes and a particular behavior does not occur during that time. For example, a child is allowed to watch a particular TV program, providing that he does not argue with his siblings for a half-hour period prior to the program. Any plausible example is acceptable.

10. Q: Describe in some detail an example, which is not in this chapter, of how a DRO might be useful in treating a behavior problem. [Level 6/E] A: For example, a staff member in a group home for developmentally disabled persons might provide praise and edibles contingent upon a 10-minute period of zero self-abusive behavior of a client who is periodically self-abusive. Any appropriate example is acceptable.

11. Q: What two words does the O in DRO stand for? [Level 3/App] Explain your answer.

[Level 6/E] A: For other responding, in which case a DRO might be thought of as reinforcing any behavior other than the specified response; or zero responding, in which case the DRO might be thought of as a schedule for reinforcing no responding of a particular type.

12. Q: Explain what a DRI schedule is. [Level 2/C] Give an example that is not in this chapter.

[Level 3/App] A: DRI is a schedule for decreasing a response by withholding reinforcers for it and reinforcing an alternative response that is incompatible with the response to be eliminated. For example, if a teacher wanted to eliminate the hand-waving behavior of a child in the classroom, she might ignore hand-waving and reinforce the incompatible response of keeping the hands on the desk. Any plausible example is acceptable.

13. Q: Why might a DRI schedule sometimes be chosen instead of a DRO schedule? [Level 4/An] A: When using a DRO schedule to decrease a problem behavior, the problem behavior might be replaced by an incompatible behavior that is also undesirable. A DRI would prevent this possibility by specifying the incompatible behavior that is to be reinforced.

14. Q: What is the difference between DRI and DRA? [Level 4/An] A: DRI involves decreasing a target behavior by withholding reinforcers for it and reinforcing an incompatible response to the target behavior. DRA involves extinction of a problem behavior combined with reinforcing a behavior that is topographically dissimilar to, but not necessarily incompatible with, the problem behavior.

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15. Q: What happens if the frequency of reinforcement on DRL, DRO, DRI, or DRA is too low or is decreased too rapidly? [Level 4/An] A: The behavior is likely to increase in frequency to its level of occurrence prior to the introduction of the schedule.

16. Q: Describe a pitfall of DRL for people who are ignorant of its effects. [Level 3/App] Give an example. [Level 3/App] A: People sometimes inadvertently reinforce on a DRL schedule a behavior that is highly desirable and that they would prefer to maintain at a high rate. An example is students giving correct answers in class. Although teachers typically prefer that students are always prepared to give the correct answers, they inevitably reinforce correct answers on a DRL (in order that all students might have a chance to respond). Any other plausible example is acceptable.

Answers to [and Levels of] Questions for Further Learning 1. Q:

What immediate consequence might account for the effectiveness of the delayed reinforcement contingency applied to Tommy’s talk-outs? [Level 4/An] A: First, praise from the teacher when she informed Tommy about the free play that he had earned may have been presented immediately following the 50-minute session, and may have helped to reinforce Tommy’s behavior that was incompatible with talking out. Second, rule-governed behavior may account to some extent for the effectiveness of the delayed reinforcement contingency. That is, Tommy might have spent a good deal of time thinking something like, “If I don’t have very many talk-outs, I’m going to have lots of fun during my extra play time.” This rule describing the contingency may have helped evoke some desirable behavior of Tommy that was incompatible with talking out.

2. Q: Describe how saying a rule to himself may have influenced Tommy’s decreased talk-outs.

[Level 4/An] A: Tommy’s saying of the rule to himself was likely reinforced on a continuous reinforcement schedule with the reinforcer being the excitement that Tommy felt when he thought about how much fun he was going to have, a conditioned reinforcer.

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CHAPTER 15 DECREASING BEHAVIOR WITH PUNISHMENT Answers to [and Levels of] Questions for Learning 1. Q: Briefly describe how Ben’s aggressive behavior was eliminated. [Level 2/C] A: A punishment program was used with Ben and was implemented by the teacher and teacher aids at the public school he attended. The punisher for Ben’s aggressive behavior consisted of contingent exercise. When Ben hit someone else, an adult said, “Ben, no hitting. Stand up and sit down 10 times.” The adult then held Ben’s hand above his head to prompt him to stand up, and then pulled his upper body forward to prompt him to sit down. After the first day, only verbal reminders were necessary to prompt Ben to perform the contingent exercise following aggressive behavior. The program was highly successful.

2. Q: How was stimulus control an important part of the punishment contingency for Ben? [Level 3/App] A: The punisher for Ben was a behavior that Ben had to engage in (namely, exercise). Because it was necessary that the exercise occur immediately following an undesirable aggressive behavior, it was important that the exercise be under the stimulus control of the verbal commands and prompting by the staff, (e.g., “stand up, sit down”).

3. Q: What is a punisher? [Level 2/C] Describe an example that you experienced. Identify both the response and the punisher. [Level 4/An] A: A punisher is an event which, when presented immediately following a behavior, causes the behavior to decrease in frequency. For example, if you speed while driving your car and you get a traffic ticket (the punisher) for speeding (the response), you are less likely to speed.

Any appropriate example is acceptable.

4. Q: State the principle of punishment. [Level 2/C] A: The principle of punishment states: If, in a given situation, somebody does something that is immediately followed by a punisher, then that person is less likely to do the same thing again when he or she next encounters a similar situation.

5. Q: How does the meaning of the word punishment for behavior modifiers differ from three meanings of that word for most people? [Level 4/An] A: First, in many instances for laypersons, punishment is not immediate, such as when a person goes to jail for committing a crime. Second, many laypersons believe that punishment should involve retribution, as in the saying “the punishment must fit the crime.” Third, in the general culture, punishment is applied, in part, as a deterrent to potential “wrongdoers.” For behavior modifiers, however, punishment is simply a technical term referring to the application of a consequence immediately after a response that has the effect of decreasing the likelihood of future instances of that response.

6. Q: Define unconditioned punisher. [Level 2/C] Describe an example that illustrates the complete definition. [Level 3/App A: An unconditioned punisher is a stimulus that is punishing without prior learning.

Examples include spankings and pinches. For example, without prior learning, if a child spits on a younger sibling and is spanked for doing so, the child is less likely to spit on the sibling in the future. Any appropriate example is acceptable.

7. Q: Describe or define four different types of punishers. [Level 2/C] Give an example of each.

[Level 3/App] A: (a) Pain-inducing punishers (also called physical punishers): this category includes all punishers that activate pain receptors or other sense receptors that typically evoke feelings 67

of discomfort; (b) Reprimands: these consist of strong negative verbal stimuli; (c) Time out: this is a period of time immediately following a particular behavior during which an individual loses the opportunity to earn a reinforcer; (d) Response cost: this involves the removal of a specified amount of a reinforcer. Any appropriate examples are acceptable in all of the above categories.

8. Q: Under which of the four categories of punishment would you put the type of punishment used with Ben? [Level 3/App] Justify your choice. [Level 6/E] A: Arguments could be made for considering it to be either physical punishment or time out.

It might be considered to be physical punishment in that exercise often produces feelings of discomfort. It might be considered to be time out in that exercising was probably a less reinforcing state for Ben than whatever he was doing when he was not exercising. (Other arguments might also be acceptable; the student should justify his or her choice.)

9. Q: Define conditioned punisher. [Level 2/C] Give an example that is not in this chapter. [Level 3/App] A: A conditioned punisher is a stimulus that was not originally punishing, but that acquired punishing power through association with other punishers. For example, the verbal stimulus “No!” is probably not a punisher for an infant or a very young child. However, it acquires punishing value because it is paired with other punishers, such as the loud sound of the parent’s voice when saying “No!” Any appropriate example is acceptable.

10. Q: Distinguish between an exclusionary and nonexclusionary timeout. [Level 4/An] A: Exclusionary time out consists of removing the individual from the situation in which reinforcement is occurring for a short time. Non-exclusionary time out consists of introducing into the situation a stimulus associated with less reinforcement.

11. Q: What is an example of response-cost punishment that parents commonly apply to their children? [Level 3/App] A: Any appropriate example is acceptable, such as taking away a child’s allowance, suspending TV-watching privileges, etc.

12. Q: State the procedures for extinction, response cost, and exclusionary timeout. [Level 2/C] A: Extinction involves withholding a reinforcer following a previously reinforced response.

Response cost involves taking away a reinforcer (that is already in the client’s possession) following a response. Exclusionary time-out involves removing the individual for a short period of time, contingent upon a response, from a situation in which reinforcement was occurring (or could be earned).

13. Q: Distinguish between the direct-acting and indirect-acting effects of punishment.

[Level 4/An] Give an example of each. [Level 3/App] A: The direct-acting effect of punishment is the decreased frequency of a response because of its immediate punishing consequence (within 30 seconds). The indirect-acting effect of punishment is weakening of a response that is followed by a punisher even though the punisher is delayed. An example of the direct-acting effect of punishment would be learning not to tease dogs because doing so is immediately followed by being bitten. An example of the indirect-acting effects of punishment would be an individual decreasing the time in the sun after developing a severe sunburn following a day spent in the sun. Any appropriate examples are acceptable.

14. Q: What are three reasons that could explain the effectiveness of a delayed punisher in decreasing a behavior? [Level 2/C] A: Delayed punishers may be effective in decreasing a behavior because: (a) there may be instructions about the behavior that lead to the punisher, (b) self-statements (thoughts) may intervene between the behavior and the delayed punisher, or (c) there may be immediate conditioned punishers that intervene between the behavior and the back-up 68

punisher.

15. Q: If you do a good job of attending to the first two factors influencing the effectiveness of punishment, you may not have to apply punishment. Discuss. [Level 4/An] A: The first factor influencing the effectiveness of punishment consists of presenting SDs prior to, and providing reinforcement following, a desirable alternative response. This alternative response hopefully is incompatible with, and will decrease the probability of, the undesirable behavior. The second factor influencing the effectiveness of punishment consists of minimizing the causes of the response to be punished. This is typically done by eliminating the SDs that prompt the undesirable behavior and identifying and eliminating reinforcement contingencies that have been maintaining it. Careful attention to these first two factors may yield some desirable alternative behavior that competes so strongly with the behavior to be decreased that punishment will never have to be used.

16. Q: What are two conditions under which a mild punisher can be effective? [Level 2/C] A: A mild punisher can be effective if the reinforcer for the undesirable behavior is withheld following instances of the behavior, and if a desirable alternative behavior is reinforced with a strong reinforcer.

17. Q: What steps might you follow to experimentally determine whether a verbal reprimand is a punisher for a particular child? [Level 4/An] A: Stimuli are identified as punishers on the basis of an experimental test. To determine if a verbal reprimand is a punisher for a particular child, you would choose a behavior of that child that occurs once in a while and keep track of it during a period of time when the verbal reprimand is not presented. Once a baseline rate of that particular behavior has been obtained, the verbal reprimand would then be introduced as a consequence of the behavior each time it occurs. After several such trials, when the behavior has been given a consequence by the verbal reprimand, the performance will tell you if the verbal reprimand is a punisher. If the behavior preceding the verbal reprimand has decreased relative to the base rate, then the verbal reprimand is a punisher for that particular child.

18. Q: Compare SD to SDp. [Level 4/An] Give an example of each from your own experience.

[Level 3/App] A: An SD is a stimulus in the presence of which a response will be reinforced. For example, a good report card received by a child is an SD that showing it to a parent will be reinforced with praise. An SDp is a stimulus in the presence of which response will be punished. For example, seeing the red and blue lights from a police car behind you on a highway is an SDp that behavior of speeding will be punished by receiving a speeding ticket. Any appropriate examples are acceptable.

19. Q: Compare S∆ to SDp. [Level 4/An] Give an example of each from your own experience.

[Level 3/App] A: An SΔ (“ess-delta”) is a stimulus in the presence of which a response will not be reinforced.

For example, an “out-of-order” sign on a vending machine is an SΔ for the behavior of inserting money. An SDp is a stimulus in the presence of which response will be punished.

For example, seeing the red and blue lights from a police car behind you on a highway is an SDp that the behavior of speeding will be punished by receiving a speeding ticket. Any appropriate examples are acceptable.

20. Q: What are four guidelines in regard to delivering a punisher? [Level 2/C] A: (a) The punisher should be presented immediately following of the response to be decreased; (b) the punisher should be presented following every instance of the undesirable behavior; (c) the individual administering the punisher should do so in a calm and matter69

of-fact manner; (d) the administering individual should take care not to pair punishment with reinforcement during instances when a punisher is delivered.

21. Q: We suggested that if behavior modifiers are unable to detect most instances of a behavior to be punished, they should have serious doubts about the value of implementing a punishment procedure. a. Give two reasons to support this suggestion. [Level 4/An] b. What alternative means for decreasing behavior are available to the behavior modifier (see Chapters 8 and 14) [Level 2/C] A: (a) First, intermittent punishment is less effective than continuous punishment. Second, unless the teacher can deliver the punisher on each occasion, those occasions where the punisher is not present may be ones where the behavior is followed by positive reinforcement. This would make the procedure even less effective. (b) The teacher can apply extinction (i.e., present SDs for desirable alternative behavior and present SΔs for the behavior to be decreased), reinforce the client on a DRL for the response to be decreased, reinforce the client on a DRO for the response to be decreased, or reinforce the client on a DRI or a DRA with respect to the response to be decreased.

22. Q: In two or three sentences, describe either the case of the lemon juice therapy with Sandra or the ice cube therapy with Gerri. [Level 3/App] A: Lemon Juice Therapy: Sandra, a six-month-old baby, consistently brought up the milk that was given to her. During treatment, Sandra’s mouth was filled with lemon juice immediately following an instance of rumination. After 16 feedings with lemon juice punishment, the rumination decreased to a very low level. Ice Cube Therapy: Jerry was a 16-year-old girl with profound intellectual disability who consistently ground her teeth.

During treatment, following an instance of teeth grinding, a staff member touched her face with an ice cube for a few seconds. Within a few days of treatment, her teeth grinding had almost completely ceased.

23. Q: What is pica? [Level 2/C] What factors influencing the effectiveness of punishment did Johnston et al. incorporate into their treatment for pica? [Level 3/App] A: Pica is the ingestion of inedible objects or non-nutritive substances. The program by Johnson et al. included the following factors that influenced the effectiveness of punishment: (a) Maximizing the conditions for a desirable alternative response; they did this by presenting SDs (edible food on the yellow placemat) and providing reinforcement (both the taste of the food and staff praise for eating the edible items). (b) Selecting an effective (but humane) punisher; the client’s face was washed with a cool damp cloth for 15 seconds. (c) Delivering the punisher immediately following each instance of a problem behavior; items that were ingested that were not on the placemat were immediately punished.

24. Q: Briefly describe the procedure that Mathews et al. taught mothers to decrease dangerous behaviors of their 1-year-old children. [Level 2/C] Was the timeout component exclusionary or nonexclusionary? [Level 3/App] Justify your choice. [Level 6/E] A: Mathews et al. taught mothers to use reprimand combined with time-out to decrease dangerous behaviors (e.g., touching an electrical cord outlet) of their one-year-old children.

A mother would praise her child for playing appropriately, and say “No” and place the child in a playpen for a brief period immediately contingent on the occurrence of a dangerous behavior. Placing the child in the playpen would be considered an exclusionary time-out because it removed the child for a short time from the situation in which reinforcement was occurring to another situation.

25. Q: Cite six potential harmful side effects of the application of punishment. [Level 2/C] A: (a) Punishment may elicit undesirable emotional behaviors that interfere with desirable behavior to be developed; (b) Punishment may elicit aggressive behavior; (c) Anything 70

associated with punishment may become a punishing stimulus so that the child will learn to avoid stimuli associated with punishment (such as educational materials, if the individual is punished often in situations associated with education); (d) Punishment does not establish new behavior, it only suppresses old behavior; (e) Children often model or imitate adults. If adults supply punishment frequently, children might use it on others. (f) Because punishment results in quick suppression of undesirable behavior, it can tempt the user to rely heavily on it and neglect the use of positive reinforcement for desirable alternative behaviors.

26. Q: Briefly describe the right-to-effective-treatment and freedom-from-harm positions in regard to the deliberate use of punishment treatment procedures. [Level 2/C] A: The “right to effective treatment” position is that a client’s right to effective treatment, might, in some cases, require the use of quicker-acting punishment procedures rather than slower-acting procedures involving reinforcement of alternative behavior. The “freedom from harm” position is that non-aversive methods for eliminating unacceptable behavior are always at least as effective as punishment and that, therefore, there is never any justification for using pain-inducing punishment.

27. Q: Describe an example of functional communication training. [Level 2/C] A: A child was taught a simple communicative response (e.g., ringing a bell) as an alternative to self-abuse in order to obtain staff attention. Any appropriate example is acceptable.

28. Q: List six conditions that should be met for behavior modifiers to design punishment programs. [Level 2/C] A: (a) The behavior is very maladaptive and it is in the client’s best interest to bring about rapid behavior change; (b) clear steps are taken to maximize the conditions for a desirable alternative response and to minimize the causes of the response to be punished before resorting to punishment; (c) the client or the client’s parent or guardian provides informed consent; (d) the intervention meets ethical standards; (e) punishment is applied according to clear guidelines; and (f) the program includes safeguards to protect the client.

29. Q: In view of the controversy regarding the use of punishment, do you agree with the way punishment was used with Ben? [Level 4/An] Defend your answer. [Level 6/E] A: Students may take different positions on this. Issues they might consider in their answers are: (a) Was a procedure that did not involve punishment attempted first, and if not, why not? (b) Was the use of a punishment procedure justified by the seriousness of the problem? (c) How aversive was the contingent exercise procedure? (d) Was the procedure carried out in a humiliating or demeaning manner to Ben, and if so, could it have been made less so (e.g., by telling Ben that the purpose of the contingent exercise was to calm him down)? (e) Could the positive effects of the procedure have been achieved just as well or better with a non-aversive procedure? (How the student approaches these issues will probably determine the position he or she takes.)

30. Q: Give an example of how punishment is applied by people who are not aware that they are doing so. [Level 2/C] A: For example, parents with good intentions might say to their teenage child, “That was good, but...” and then proceed to find fault with the behavior. Although they probably hope to be instructional, they are likely applying punishment. Other appropriate examples are acceptable.

Answers to [and Levels of] Questions for Further Learning 1. Q: Identify three areas where more research is needed on the use of timeout with children.

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[Level 3/App] A: More research is needed to: (a) evaluate the relative efficacy of exclusionary vs. nonexclusionary time-out; (b) examine how to best teach children how to comply with timeout when it is applied to them; (c) examine how to best teach parents and treatment staff to implement time-out effectively and within acceptable ethical guidelines.

2. Q: Discuss the analogy between positive and negative reinforcers and positive and negative punishers. [Level 4/An] A: A Positive punisher, such as physical punishers and reprimands, decrease a behavior the punisher follows. A negative punisher, such as time out and response cost, is a stimulus whose removal following a behavior decreases the frequency of that behavior.

3. Q: Do you think parents should use punishment? [Level 2/C] Discuss. [Level 4/An] A: Parents may have to use punishment at times if a child’s behavior is so severe that he/she may hurt themselves or someone else (e.g., siblings or playmates). If parents use punishment, however, they should be aware of the effects and the most appropriate methods for using punishment. Moreover, use of punishment by parents does not necessarily imply administering spankings or other forms of pain-inducing punishers.

4. Q: Discuss how a procedure analogous to the Premack principle can be used to identify punishers. [Level 4/An] A: According to the Premack principle, a high probability behavior can be used to reinforce a low probability behavior. Analogous to that, requiring a low probability behavior to occur can be used to punish a high probability behavior.

5. Q: Discuss how a procedure analogous to the response deprivation model can be used to identify punishers. [Level 4/An] A: According to the response deprivation model, a behavior occurring below its baseline level can be used to reinforce another behavior. Analogous to that, a behavior occurring above its baseline level can be used punish another behavior.

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CHAPTER 16 ESTABLISHING BEHAVIOR BY ESCAPE AND AVOIDANCE CONDITIONING Answers to to [and Levels of] Questions for Learning 1. Q: Define escape conditioning. [Level 2/C] Describe how it was used with Joanne. [Level 3/App] A: In escape conditioning, the removal of stimuli immediately after the occurrence of a response increases the likelihood of that response. When the tone came on, Joanne could escape it by displaying good posture.

2. Q: How is escape conditioning similar to punishment? [Level 4/An] In what two procedural ways do they differ? [Level 4/An] How do their effects differ? [Level 4/An] A: They are similar in that both involve an aversive stimulus. Differences in procedure: (a) with regard to antecedents, in escape conditioning, the aversive stimulus must be present prior to a response, whereas the aversive stimulus is not present prior to a response that is punished; (b) with regard to consequences, in escape conditioning the aversive event is removed immediately following a response, whereas in punishment the aversive stimulus is presented immediately following a response. Their effects differ in that punishment leads to a decrease in the punished response, whereas escape conditioning leads to an increase in the target response.

3. Q: Describe two examples of escape conditioning in everyday life, one of which is not in this chapter. [Level 3/App] A: Any two appropriate examples, such as a person squinting to escape from the aversiveness of bright sunlight.

4. Q: What is another name for escape conditioning, and why is it called that? [Level 2/C] A: Another name for escape conditioning is negative reinforcement. The term reinforcement indicates that the procedure is analogous to positive reinforcement in that both strengthen behavior. The term negative indicates that the strengthening effect occurs because the response leads to the removal (the taking away or subtraction) of an aversive stimulus.

5. Q: In what two procedural ways is negative reinforcement different from positive reinforcement? [Level 4/An] How are their effects similar? [Level 4/An] A: Differences in procedure: (a) In negative reinforcement, an aversive stimulus is present prior to the response being conditioned, whereas in positive reinforcement, the reinforcer is not present prior to the response; (b) In negative reinforcement, the stimulus is removed contingent on the target response, whereas in positive reinforcement, the stimulus is presented contingent on the response. Similarity in effects: Both procedures increase the likelihood of the target response.

6. Q: Define avoidance conditioning. [Level 2/C] Describe how it was used with Joanne. [Level 3/App] A: Avoidance conditioning states that a behavior will increase in frequency if it prevents an aversive stimulus from occurring. In the presence of the ticking sound (a warning stimulus), Joanne quickly learned to show good posture in order to avoid the backup aversive stimulus, the loud tone.

7. Q: Give another name for warning stimulus. [Level 1/K] A: Warning stimulus can also be referred to as a conditioned aversive stimulus.

8. Q: What is the name of the type of avoidance conditioning that involves a warning stimulus?

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[Level 2/C] A: Discriminated avoidance conditioning.

9. Q: How is a warning stimulus different than an SDp (the latter is defined in Chapter 15)?

[Level 4/An] A: A warning stimulus is a cue that an appropriate response will enable an individual to avoid an aversive event. An SDp is a cue that the occurrence of a response will be followed by a punisher.

10. Q: What are two procedural differences between escape conditioning and avoidance conditioning? [Level 4/An] A: (a) In avoidance conditioning, the aversive stimulus is not present prior to the occurrence of the response, while in escape conditioning it is. (b) In avoidance conditioning the response prevents (or postpones) the aversive stimulus rather than removing it as in escape conditioning. Also, avoidance conditioning usually involves a warning signal, whereas escape conditioning does not.

11. Q: Describe two examples of avoidance conditioning in everyday life, one of which is not in this chapter. [Level 3/App] A: Any two appropriate examples, such as a person dressing warmly in the winter in order to avoid getting cold, after observing on the television weather report that the temperature is below freezing.

12. Q: Describe three types of immediate consequences that might maintain avoidance responses.

[Level 2/C] A: One possibility is that the avoidance response is strengthened because it terminates the warning stimulus. A second possibility is that the warning stimulus causes an individual to feel anxious, and immediately following an avoidance response, the individual feels less anxious. A third possibility is that the warning stimulus causes an individual to think unpleasant thoughts about the possible forthcoming punisher, and following a successful avoidance response, these thoughts cease.

13. Q: Briefly illustrate how people unknowingly strengthen others’ undesirable behavior by allowing such behavior to lead to escape or avoidance of aversive stimuli. [Level 4/An] A: For example, one study indicates that parents of children labelled as antisocial frequently strengthened aggressive behavior by “giving in” when the aggressive behavior occurred.

Any appropriate example is acceptable.

14. Q: Describe an example of the inadvertent establishment of conditioned aversive stimuli, which then causes individuals to avoid or escape those stimuli. [Level 3/App] A: For example, if a coach frequently criticizes athletes, the athletes may show improved skills to avoid the wrath of the coach, but they are now also likely to avoid the coach off the athletic field. Any appropriate example is acceptable.

15. Q: Explain with an example of your own why an individual might unknowingly positively reinforce the undesirable behavior of another individual. (Hint: See the first example in Table 16.1.) [Level 3/App] Clearly identify the behavior principles involved. [Level 4/An] A: The undesirable behavior is an aversive event that reinforcement terminates (for awhile).

For example, in the first case illustrated in Table 16-1, it is aversive to the adult when the child screams, “Candy! Candy!” The adult is reinforced through escape conditioning for giving the screaming child a candy in the sense that when the child receives the candy, the child stops screaming (and the adult escapes from the aversive noise). Unfortunately, the candy serves as a reinforcer for the screaming response. Any appropriate example is acceptable.

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16. Q: Explain how escape conditioning might influence an adult to unknowingly positively reinforce a child’s extreme social withdrawal. [Level 2/C] A: A child’s extreme social withdrawal is likely to be aversive to an adult. Therefore, when a child shows this behavior in the presence of an adult, the adult may shower the child with attention in the hope of influencing the child to be less withdrawn. If the child does begin to show more appropriate interactions with the adult in that situation, then the adult has escaped the aversiveness of the child’s withdrawal behavior. Unfortunately, the extra attention may serve to reinforce social withdrawal in the long run.

Answers to [and Levels of] Questions for Further Learning 1. Q: What is Sidman avoidance conditioning? [Level 2/C] A: Briefly, it is an avoidance schedule in which occasional aversive events are postponed by the emission of a response, and in which no warning stimulus signals the impending occurrence of an aversive event.

2. Q: Explain how applying sunscreen or insect repellent might be an example of Sidman avoidance. [Level 2/C] Give another example from everyday life. (Hint: Some common computer applications have built-in timers that fit the definition of Sidman avoidance conditioning.) [Level 3/App] A: Suppose that you are about to start a game of golf. There are no mosquitoes buzzing around on the first tee that might serve as a warning stimulus. However, you apply insect repellent anyway. This would enable you to avoid being bitten by a mosquito later on during the round. Another example from every day life might be returning to check your parking meter (assuming that you were not wearing your watch or had forgotten to check the time when you parked your car) to avoid a parking ticket. Any appropriate example is acceptable.

3. Q: Describe how avoidance conditioning has been demonstrated in the hermit crab.

[Level 2/C] Did this study also demonstrate escape conditioning? [Level 3/App] Explain.

[Level 6/E] A: Escape conditioning occurred when a hermit crab that had received a small electric shock in its original shell left that shell. Avoidance conditioning was demonstrated in that the crab would subsequently select another shell rather than returning to its original shell.

4. Q: Do you think it is possible that plants can learn avoidance behavior? Discuss.

[Level 2/C] A: Some plant biologists have suggested that plants may learn to avoid shade and mild water deprivation.

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CHAPTER 17 RESPONDENT AND OPERANT CONDITIONING TOGETHER Answers to [and Levels of] Questions for Learning 1. Q: Diagram an example of respondent conditioning that is not in this chapter. [Level 5/S] A: Any appropriate example is acceptable. The diagram should have the following form or equivalent: ______________________________________________________________________________________________ NS (Classical Music) N Pairings

{

US

(Food) ---------------➔ UR (Salivation)

CS1 (Classical Music) ---------------➔ CR (Salivation) _____________________________________________________________________________________________ 2. Q: Describe three differences between operant behavior and respondent behavior (see Table 17-1).

[Level 3/App] A: Any three of the following: Respondent Responses

Operant Responses

1. Automatic responses to prior stimuli

1. Controlled by consequences

2. Referred to as involuntary or reflexive

2. Referred to as involuntary

3. Involve smooth muscles and glands

3. Involve skeletal muscles

4. Said to be elicited by prior stimuli

4. Said to be emitted by an individual

3. Q: Describe the conditioning procedures and the results of conditioning for operant conditioning (positive reinforcement only) and respondent conditioning. [Level 3/App] A: Respondent Conditioning

Operant Conditioning (Positive Reinforcement)

Procedure: Pairing of a previously neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus

Procedure: Presentation of a positive reinforcer following a response

Result: Neutral stimulus acquires capability of eliciting a conditioned response

Result: Behavior increases in frequency

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4. Q: Describe the extinction procedure and the results of extinction for operant conditioning and for respondent conditioning. [Level 3/App] A: The answer should contain the information in this table: Respondent Extinction

Operant Extinction

Procedure: Conditioned stimulus is presented without further pairings with the unconditioned stimulus

Procedure: Reinforcement is withheld following a previously reinforced response

Result: Conditioned stimulus loses capability of eliciting conditioned response

Result: Response decreases in frequency

5. Q: Explain why an approaching deadline likely functions as a CS eliciting anxiety as a CR. [Level 2/C] A: For most of us, we have a history of being punished for failing to meet deadlines. As a consequence of prior pairings with punishment (which elicits feelings of anxiety), stimuli associated with missing a deadline are likely to be CSs eliciting anxiety as a CR. 6. Q: Describe how respondent and operant conditioning interacted to influence Janice to get her term paper done by the deadline. [Level 4/An] A: As a consequence of prior pairings of missing deadlines with punishment, stimuli associated with missing a deadline were likely CSs eliciting anxiety as a CR in Janice. As the deadline approached, and Janice began to emit relevant operant responses (looking up references, taking notes, etc.) to meet the deadline, his anxiety likely decreased.

Thus, stimuli associated with the deadline likely caused Janice to feel anxious, a respondent response, and responding to meet the deadline, operant responses, were maintained by escape conditioning related to the decrease in Janice’s anxiety.

7. Q: Describe a behavior sequence that involves an aversive stimulus and that includes both respondent conditioning and operant conditioning. [Level 3/App] Diagram the respondent conditioning and the operant conditioning components. [Level 5/S] A: The answer should be modeled after Figure 17-2.

8. Q: Describe a behavioral sequence that involves a positive reinforcer and that includes both respondent and operant conditioning. [Level 3/App] Diagram the respondent conditioning and the operant conditioning components. [Level 5/S] A: The students should reproduce the behavioral sequence, the diagram of respondent conditioning, and the diagram of operant conditioning presented in Figure 17-3, or they should model their answer after Figure 17-3.

9. Q: Describe several physiological activities that we experience in a moment of great fear.

[Level 2/C] A: Students might list any of the physiological activities described in the text under the topic “The Respondent Component: Our Feelings.”

10. Q: Describe three unconditioned reflexes that are shown by newborn infants, and that normally do not disappear as the child grows older. [Level 2/C] A: Any three of the following: a blink reflex, which involves blinking in response to the eyes being touched or a bright light; a cough reflex, which involves coughing when the airway to the lungs is stimulated; a gag reflex, which involves gagging when the throat or back of the throat is touched; a sneeze reflex, which involves sneezing when the nasal passage is irritated; and a yawn reflex, which involves yawning when there is a decrease in oxygen 77

intake.

11. Q: Describe the procedures that are major causes for each of the emotions of joy, anger, anxiety, and relief. [Level 2/C] A: Presentation of reinforcers produces the emotion called joy. Withholding or withdrawing reinforcers produces the emotion called anger. The presentation of aversive stimuli produces the emotion called anxiety. Withdrawal of aversive stimuli produces an emotion called relief.

12. Q: In a sentence for each, summarize three important components that make up our emotions, and name the type of conditioning involved in each component. [Level 5/S] A: Emotions include: (a) the autonomic reaction that you feel inside during the experience of an emotion (and which is typically accompanied by visible signs), which is influenced by respondent conditioning; (b) the way that you learn to overtly express an emotion, which is influenced by operant conditioning; and (c) the way that you become aware of, and describe your emotions, which is also influenced by operant conditioning.

13. Q: Give an example of respondent thinking involving visual imagery that is not in this chapter. [Level 3/App] A: Any appropriate example, such as the words “at the beach”, causing you to visualize waves splashing on a sandy shore.

14. Q: Give an example of operant thinking that is not in this chapter. [Level 3/App] A: Any appropriate example, such as thinking to yourself, “This behavior modification book is fun to read.”

15. Q: When behavior modifiers speak of private behavior, to what are they referring?

[Level 1/K] A: An individual’s private self-talk and/or imagery and/or the autonomic reactions that make up our feelings.

16. Q: What basic assumption do the authors of this text make about public and private behavior? [Level 1/K] A: Except for being more difficult to “get at,” private behavior is the same as public behavior, i.e., the principles and procedures applicable to private behavior are fundamentally the same as those that apply to public behavior.

17. Q: Describe an example, not described in this chapter, that illustrates how operant thinking might function as a CS to elicit the respondent component of an emotion.

[Level 3/App] A: Any appropriate example, such as a person thinking, “If I win a multi-million dollar lottery, I will buy a condo on the ocean in Florida,” which causes the respondent components of excitement such as increased heart rate, etc.

18. Q: Discuss whether behavior modifiers deny the existence and importance of thoughts and feelings. [Level 4/An] A: No they do not. They recognize that people engage in private verbal behavior (i.e., they talk silently to themselves), they experience imagery (i.e., covert seeing and other types of covert sensing), and they experience feelings (the respondent component of emotions). They also recognize that such covert behavior often influences overt behavior, for example, when a person solves a problem by privately verbalizing and imagining certain aspects of the problem.

Answers to [and Levels of] Questions for Further Learning 78

1. Q: What is the rationale of covert sensitization? [Level 3/App] A: It is assumed that if a client imagines an undesirable reinforcer and then imagines it being paired with an aversive stimulus, then thoughts of the undesirable reinforcer will come to elicit the unpleasant reactions elicited by thoughts of the aversive stimulus. It is further assumed that after such respondent conditioning occurs, the negative reactions now elicited by the imagined undesirable reinforcer will generalize to the real stimuli.

2. Q: Describe in some detail a plausible example of covert sensitization. [Level 5/S] A: Any appropriate example is acceptable, such as imagining smoking a cigarette, and then imagining becoming violently ill and vomiting over several people in the immediate vicinity.

It is assumed that, after several such pairings, nausea will occur when an individual attempts to smoke a real cigarette.

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CHAPTER 18 TRANSFERRING BEHAVIOR TO NEW SETTINGS AND MAKING IT LAST: GENERALITY OF BEHAVIOR CHANGE Answers to [and Levels of] Questions for Learning 1. Q: When discussing programming of generality of behavior, what do we mean by the training situation versus the target situation? [Level 1/K] A: The training situation is the situation in which a behavior is initially strengthened. The target situation is a situation to which we want the behavior to occur.

2. Q: When is a behavior change said to have generality? [Level 2/C] A: A behavior change is said to have generality to the extent that: (a) the behavior transfers from the training situation to the target situation (stimulus generalization); (b) training leads to the development of new behavior that has not been trained (response generalization); and (c) the trained behavior persists in the target situation over time (behavior maintenance).

3. Q: Briefly describe how Carole’s honors presentation demonstrated behavioral generality.

[Level 2/C] A: Carole’s Honors presentation showed stimulus generalization in that she practiced in an empty classroom and was then able to perform her presentation well in that classroom with other students and the instructor present. We do not know if she showed response generalization to other presentations in other classes, and we do not know if her presentation skills were maintained over time.

4. Q: Define operant stimulus generalization. [Level 2/C] Give an example that is not in this chapter.

[Level 3/App] A: Operant stimulus generalization occurs when a behavior becomes more probable in the presence of one stimulus or situation as a result of having being reinforced in the presence of another stimulus or situation. Any appropriate example is acceptable.

5. Q: List four tactics for programming operant stimulus generalization. [Level 2/C] Give an example of each. [Level 2/C] A: (a) Train in the target situation. (b) Vary the conditions of training. (c) Program common stimuli. (d) Train sufficient stimulus exemplars. Any appropriate examples are acceptable.

6. Q: How might the teaching of a rule facilitate operant stimulus generalization? [Level 2/C] State the general factor for programming for generalization that seems to be operating.

[Level 2/C] Illustrate with an example. [Level 3/App] A: If a behavior is brought under the control of a rule that a person can rehearse in each novel situation where the behavior is desirable, then the rule rehearsal will facilitate stimulus generalization to those novel situations. A general factor that is operating is “program common stimuli.” For example, in teaching self-protection of children to strangers’ lures, a child might be taught the rule, “If someone approaches me who I don’t know, I should tell them that I have to go to my teacher, and then run to the school building.” Rehearsal of that rule by the child when approached by strangers will increase the likelihood that the child will show stimulus generalization and run to the school building whenever approached by a stranger nearby. Any appropriate example is acceptable.

7. Q: Describe the example of a self-generated mediator of generalization involving the figure skater. [Level 3/App] 80

A: To help her to land her double axel consistently at both practices and competitions, she said the word “easy” just before stepping onto her take off foot, as a prompt to control the speed of the takeoff.

8. Q: Describe the generalization strategy referred to as general case programming. [Level 3/C] Describe an example. [Level 2/App] A: In general case programming, a teacher identifies a range of relevant stimulus situations to which a learner will be expected to respond, and the response variations that might be required. During training, the learner’s behavior (and acceptable variations) is brought under the control of samples of the range of relevant stimuli. For example, to teach a student driver proper behavior at all 4-way stops, the teacher should expose the student driver to all possible 4-way stop situations (i.e., in different locations, etc.) and require appropriate behavior from the student. Any appropriate example is acceptable.

9. Q: Define response generalization. [Level 2/C] A: Response generalization refers to the procedure of reinforcing a response in the presence of a stimulus or situation, and the effect of another response becoming more probable in the presence of that or similar stimuli or situations.

10. Q: Describe an example of unlearned response generalization that is not in this chapter.

[Level 3/App] A: For example, if you learn a forehand shot in racquetball, you could likely show unlearned response generalization and be able to perform a forehand shot in squash. Any appropriate example is acceptable.

11. Q: Describe an example of learned response generalization that occurs when different responses share a common characteristic. [Level 2/C] A: For example, when a child learns to add “s” to the end of words pertaining to an object in order to express plurality, the child will likely show response generalization and add “s” to describe several examples of a new object. Any appropriate example is acceptable.

12. Q: Desscribe an example of learned response generalization due to functionally equivalent responses. [Level 2/C] A: If you are asked to pass a message along to a friend, for example, you might send that person an email, call them on the phone, send them a text message, etc. Any appropriate example is acceptable.

13. Q: List three tactics for programming operant response generalization. [Level 2/C] Describe an example of each. [Level 2/C] A: (a) Train sufficient response exemplars. (b) Vary the responses that are acceptable during training. (c) Use high-probability instructions to increase compliance with lowprobability instructions. Any appropriate examples are acceptable.

14. Q: What is the meaning of the term low-probability instructions? [Level 2/C] Describe an example. [Level 2/C] A: “Low-probability instructions” refer to instructions that a child would not normally comply with. Any appropriate example is acceptable.

15. Q: Define behavioral trap. [Level 2/C] Describe an example. [Level 2/C] A: In a behavioral trap, reinforcers in the natural environment maintain a behavior that was initially developed by programmed reinforcers. For example, during mealtimes, if you use extra reinforcers to teach a child to respond appropriately when somebody at the table asks the child to “Please pass me the (an item such as salt),” then once the passing behavior has been established, it is likely to be maintained by the requestor saying “thank you” after the child responds to the request. Any appropriate example is acceptable.

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16. Q: Briefly describe four tactics for programming operant behavior maintenance.

[Level 2/C] Give an example of each. [Level 2/C] A: (a) Use behavioral trapping to ensure that the target behavior comes under the control of reinforcers in the natural environment. (b) Teach people in the natural environment to maintain the target behavior of the subject. (c) Use an intermittent schedule of reinforcement in the target situation. (d) Teach the individual behavioral self-control to maintain the target behavior in the natural environment. Any appropriate examples are acceptable.

17. Q: Suppose a manager at a local fast-food restaurant has encouraged staff to show frequent desirable customer service behaviors. Describe the details of a plausible VI/LH schedule that the manager might use to maintain the desirable service behaviors at a high rate.

[Level 3/App] A: During a shift, the manager might use a quiet wrist alarm and set it to go off at varying intervals. Each time it goes off, the manager might check the nearest staff member to see if that staff is showing desirable customer service behavior. If so, the person would be praised as soon as the customer has been served. Any appropriate example is acceptable.

18. Q: What is meant by “recruitment of reinforcement”? [Level 2/C] Illustrate with an example that is not in this chapter. [Level 3/App] A: Recruitment of reinforcement is when an individual emits a desirable behavior and then tells someone about it in order to receive positive feedback. For example, at a basketball practice when players are practicing on their own, a young player might make three foul shots in a row, and then tell the coach about it. Any appropriate example is acceptable.

19. Q: Briefly explain why considerations regarding generality of respondent behavior differ from those regarding operant behavior. [Level 4/An] A: When programming for generality of operant behavior, we often want the behavior to occur to new stimuli (stimulus generalization), we want improvements to transfer to related behaviors (response generalization), and we want the behavior to be maintained over time.

For most treatments involving respondent conditioning, however, we are typically concerned only with maintenance of a conditioned reflex over time. For example, in the example in the text in which adults suffering from chronic constipation were conditioned to have a bowel movement at a particular time of day as a CS, it would have been very inconvenient if bowel movements generalized to a variety of different times (stimulus generalization) or if there was an increase in a variety of bowel movements such as diarrhea (response generalization). Rather, they were simply concerned with maintaining that particular time of day as a CS for a bowel movement.

20.

Q: Give two examples of the Unaware-Misapplication Pitfall involving stimulus generalization; (a) one of which involves generalization of a desirable behavior to an inappropriate situation; and (b) the other of which involves generalization of an undesirable behavior. [Level 3/App] A: (a) For example, a child is taught to say “Isn’t this fun?” at family gatherings, and then says it at a family funeral. (b) For example, a child is taught to use swear words when playing with friends on the street, and then emits those swear words when talking to grandma and grandpa.

21. Q: Give an example of the Unaware-Misapplication Pitfall involving response generalization.

[Level 2/C] A: Any plausible example is acceptable, such as the case of a young child who, after getting his own way with his parents by yelling in a restaurant, yells even more loudly the next time they are in a restaurant.

22. Q: State the Failure-to-Apply Pitfall, and describe an example of it that involves failure to program for desirable generalization. [Level 2/C] 82

A: For example, some parents of a young child might ignore their child’s temper tantrums at home, but they give into the tantrums if they occur in stores or restaurants (perhaps because they don’t want to seem like mean parents), thereby failing to program for stimulus generalization of desirable behaviors. Any appropriate example is acceptable.

Answers to [and Levels of] Questions for Further Learning 1. Q: What rule for programming stimulus generalization is exemplified by the study in which object and picture names were taught to children with developmental disabilities?

[Level 3/App] Explain. [Level 6/E] A: Welch and Pear found that developmentally disabled children showed better stimulus generalization for naming objects in their natural environment when they were trained with the objects rather than with pictures or photographs of the objects. It might be argued that this exemplifies the third rule for programming stimulus generalization, namely program common stimuli, in that the objects were present in both the training environment and in the test setting. However, it also might be argued that this is an example of the first rule for programming stimulus generalization, training in the target situation, in that the actual object to be named was the target stimulus.

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CHAPTER 19 ANTECEDENT CONTROL: RULES AND GOALS Answers to [and Levels of] Questions for Learning 1. Q: Define rule behaviorally. [Level 2/C] Give an example that is not in this chapter. [Level 3/App] A: A rule describes a situation in which a behavior will lead to a consequence. For example, the statement by a parent to a child, “If you do your homework from 6 to 7 P.M., then you can watch TV,” is a rule. Any appropriate example is acceptable.

2. Q: Describe an example of a rule that was stated by the figure skater just before competing.

[Level 2/C] A: The skater said to herself, “If I take it one step at a time, and if I focus on the things that I do when I’m skating well at practices, I will skate well here.”

3. Q: A teacher complains to you, “When I tell the children to stay at their desks and work, they never listen to me.” Describe the contingencies that are likely operating with respect to that rule given by the teacher to the kids in the class. [Level 4/An] A: It is likely that following the rule by the children is not reinforced, and emitting behavior contrary to the rule is reinforced and/or not punished. Other plausible answers are also acceptable.

4. Q: Describe an example of a partial rule that is not in this chapter. [Level 3/App] What aspects of the three-term contingency does your partial rule identify? [Level 4/An] What are the missing parts that the partial rule implied? [Level 4/An] A: A partial rule would be “Look both ways!” The antecedent (crossing the street) and the consequence (to avoid getting hit by a vehicle) are implied. The behavior is to look both ways, which is identified. Any appropriate example is acceptable.

5. Q: Describe an example of a ply, a track, and an augmental not given in this chapter.

[Level 3/App] A: A parent says to a child, “Do not touch that vase.” This a ply because the rule given would be the source of punishment for touching the vase. If a parent said, “Don’t touch that hot stove or you will get burned.” This would be a track because the source of punishment is external to the rule given. If one of your friends said, “You must try this ice cream. It’s delicious.” This would be an augment because the rule affects the strength of the reinforcer. Any other appropriate examples are acceptable.

6. Q: Define contingency-shaped behavior. [Level 2/C] Give an example not given in this chapter. [Level 3/App] A: Contingency-shaped behavior is behavior that has been strengthened by immediate consequences. For example, a person might learn to drink coffee after it has cooled off rather than when steam is rising from the cup, through trial and error. Any appropriate example is acceptable.

7. Q: Define rule-governed behavior. [Level 2/C] Give an example that is not in this chapter.

[Level 3/App] A: Rule-governed behavior is behavior that is controlled by the statement of a rule. For example, if someone tells you, “Don’t drink that coffee until it cools off,” and if you wait for a few minutes before drinking the coffee, your behavior is rule- governed. Any appropriate example is acceptable.

8. Q: Describe two common differences between rule-governed and contingency-shaped 84

behavior. [Level 2/C] A: Contingency-Shaped Behavior a. Strengthened by immediate consequences a. Typically strengthened gradually through trial and error

Rule-Governed Behavior b. Frequently involves delayed consequences b. Frequently occurs on the first opportunity after the rule is presented

9. Q: Give an example of an indirect effect of a reinforcer for your behavior. [Level 3/App] A: For example, a student living at home cleans her room, and an hour later a parent notices it and says, “Your room looks great. Good job,” and this strengthens the student’s room cleaning. Any appropriate example is acceptable.

10. Q: Briefly describe four situations in which the addition of rules to a behavior modification program might be especially helpful. [Level 3/App] Give an example of each. [Level 3/App] A: (a) When rapid behavior change is desirable; (b) when consequences that one might provide for a behavior are too delayed to directly reinforce that behavior; (c) when one would like to maintain a behavior for which natural reinforcers are immediate but highly intermittent; and (d) when a specific behavior will lead to immediate and severe punishment, and therefore some alternative behavior is desired. Any appropriate examples are acceptable.

11. Q: Describe, using examples, three explanations for why we might follow rules that identify very delayed consequences. [Level 4/An] A: (a) Although the reinforcer identified in a rule might be delayed for an individual, other people might provide immediate consequences if the individual follows (or does not follow) the rule. (b) An individual might follow a rule and then immediately make reinforcing statements to him or herself. (c) Because of our history of being punished for failing to follow rules with deadlines, rehearsal of the deadline may cause us to feel anxious, and responding to a rule to beat the deadline will then make us feel a lot better (through escape conditioning). Any appropriate examples are acceptable.

12. Q: What is one explanation of the behavior of someone who fails to wear a helmet when riding a bicycle even though that person knows that wearing a helmet could prevent brain damage from an accident? [Level 2/C] A: There are two reasons. First, there may be immediate mild punishers for wearing a helmet (e.g., it may be hot and uncomfortable). Second, rules are very ineffective if they identify a behavior that has a low probability of being associated with consequences.

13. Q: What is one explanation of the relative ineffectiveness of such rules as “I’m going to stop eating desserts”? [Level 5/S] A: The consequences for complying with the rule are too small to be effective on any one instance, and are only cumulatively significant (it takes many extra deserts to have hazardous health effects).

14. Q: In a sentence, identify five characteristics of rules that are often effective in controlling behavior, even when the outcomes are delayed. [Level 4/An] A: Rules that describe specific circumstances and deadlines for specific behavior that will lead to sizeable and probable outcomes are often effective, even when the outcomes are delayed.

15. Q: In general, what do we mean by the word goal? [Level 2/C] Describe an example of a behavioral goal not in this chapter. [Level 3/App] Describe an example of an outcome goal not in this chapter. [Level 3/App] A: A goal describes a level of performance towards which an individual or group should work.

For an example of a behavioral goal, a student might set a goal of studying two hours each day. For an example of an outcome goal, a person might set a goal of losing 2 pounds in a week. Any appropriate example is acceptable.

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16. Q: From a behavioral perspective, what is a goal? [Level 2/C] A: From a behavioral perspective, a goal is a rule that acts as a motivation to achieve some specific desired objective.

17. Q: Briefly list six of the eight conditions that summarize effective versus ineffective goal setting as a behavior modification strategy. [Level 2/C] A: Any 6 of the following: (a) Specific goals are more effective than vague goals; (b) goals with respect to learning specific skills should include mastery criteria; (c) goals should identify the circumstances under which the desirable behavior should occur; (d) realistic, challenging goals are more effective than “Do your best” goals; (e) public goals are more effective than private goals; (f) goal setting is more effective if deadlines are included; (g) goal setting plus feedback is more effective than goal setting alone; and (h) goal setting is most effective when individuals are committed to the goals.

18. Q: What is a mastery criterion? [Level 2/C] Describe an example that is not in this chapter.

[Level 3/App] A: A mastery criterion is a specific guideline for performing a skill such that if the guideline is met, the skill is likely to be mastered. For example, a mastery criterion for shooting foul shots in basketball might be to make 10 in a row. Any appropriate example is acceptable.

19. Q: From a behavioral perspective, why might realistic, challenging goals be more effective than do-your-best goals? [Level 4/An] A: If you set a realistic goal for an individual, you are more likely to consistently provide backup reinforcers for meeting that goal than when you simply tell someone to “Do your best.”

The reason is that, with a specific goal, you and the individual will agree on whether or not the goal has been met. But you may not always agree that the individual has done their best, and may therefore be less likely to reinforce that person’s behavior in such situations.

20. Q: From a behavioral perspective, why might public goals be more effective than private goals? [Level 4/An] A: Public goals may be more effective than private goals because public goals result in a public standard against which performance can be evaluated, and they imply social consequences for achieving or not achieving the goals.

21. Q: What do the authors mean by commitment in the context of goal setting? [Level 2/C] A: Commitment refers to statements or actions by the learner that indicate that the goal is important to the learner, that the learner will work toward it, and that the learner recognizes the benefits of doing so.

Answers to [and Levels of] Questions for Further Learning 1. Q: List seven rules that are a part of a behavioral treatment for insomnia. [Level 2/C] A: Seven rules that are part of behavioral treatment of insomnia include: (1) exercising regularly, but not in the late evening; (2) relaxing before going to bed; (3) not consuming caffeine or alcohol in the late evening; (4) going to bed only when feeling tired; (5) if sleep has not occurred within 10 minutes after going to bed, leave the bedroom and read a book until sleepy; (6) avoid non-sleep activities in bed; (7) get up at the same time each morning, regardless of the time you go to bed.

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CHAPTER 20 ANTECEDENT CONTROL: MODELING, GUIDANCE, AND SITUATIONAL INDUCEMENT Answers to [and Levels of] Questions for Learning 1. Q: Define modeling. [Level 2/C] How was it incorporated into the therapy sessions with James? [Level 3/App] A: Modeling is a procedure whereby a sample of a given behavior is demonstrated to an individual to induce that individual to engage in a similar behavior. With James, the therapist modeled the behavior of “feeling the soles of his feet,” smiling, and then walking away from the situation.

2. Q: Describe two recent situations in which you were influenced by modeling to emit a behavior. [Level 3/App] For each instance, describe which of the four factors that influence the effectiveness of modeling were present. [Level 5/S] A: Any two appropriate examples are acceptable. For each example, students should indicate which of the following were present: (a) Were peers used as models? (b) Did the model show both the behavior and its consequences? (c) Were multiple models used? and (d) Were both modeling and rules involved?

3. Q: List the four components of BST. [Level 2/C] A: (a) Instructions; (b) modeling; (c) rehearsal; (d) reinforcement.

4. Q: Describe the specific BST steps you might use to overcome the extreme withdrawal behavior of a nursery school child who never interacts with other children. [Level 3/App] Identify the basic principles and procedures being applied in your program. [Level 5/S] A: Any appropriate example is acceptable, such as the following: Have the child observe a model who initially exhibits extreme withdrawal. Next, the model begins to gradually interact with other children (the desired behavior) and is strongly reinforced (e.g., by peers, adults, etc.) for doing so. Then have the child imitate4 the model and rehearse interacting with other children, and reinforce the child for doing so. Continue reinforcing instances of social interaction by the child. The basic procedures involved are antecedent control procedures, and the basic principle is positive reinforcement.

5. Q: Define or describe behavioral rehearsal or role-playing. [Level 2/C] Give an example.

[Level 3/App] A: In behavior rehearsal, a client plays a role that enables him or her to practice particular behaviors in a practice setting, in order to increase the likelihood that those behaviors will occur appropriately in the real world. In the example in the text, a client rehearsed the behavior of asking for a date in the presence of the therapist.

6. Q: What does the term physical guidance mean? [Level 2/C] prompting(see Chapter 12)? [Level 4/An]

How does it differ from gestural

A: Physical guidance: applying physical contact to guide someone through the appropriate behavior. It differs from gestural prompting in that the latter does not involve physical contact.

7. Q: Identify a behavior that you were influenced to perform as a result of physical guidance.

[Level 3/App] Describe how physical guidance was involved. [Level 2/C] A: Any appropriate example involving physical guidance, plus a brief description of how guidance was involved.

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8. Q: What is generalized imitation? [Level 2/C] Describe an example. [Level 2/C] A: Generalized imitation - after having been reinforced for imitating a number of behaviors, an individual emits a completely new behavior, without reinforcement, the first time that the behavior is modeled. For example, using prompting, shaping, fading, and reinforcement procedures, a child might be taught to imitate several behaviors (such as raising the left arm) when the teacher says, “Do this.” Generalized imitation would be demonstrated if the child then correctly imitated a new response (such as tapping the arm of a table) the first time it was modeled, even though that response had not been previously reinforced. Any appropriate example is acceptable.

9. Q: What do we mean by the term situational inducement? [Level 2/C] A: “Situational inducement” involves influencing a particular behavior by using situations and occasions that already exert control over the behavior.

10. Q: Describe each of the four categories of situational inducement. [Level 2/C] A: Rearranging the surroundings; moving the activity to a new location; relocating people; changing the time of the activity.

11. Q: Give an example from your own experience of each of the four categories of situational inducement. [Level 3/App] A: Any four appropriate examples that are not from the text.

12. Q: For each of the following examples, identify the category of situational inducement in which it might best be placed and indicate why. [Level 6/E] a. On Saturday afternoon, an exercise buff can’t seem to get the energy to lift weights. To increase the likelihood of weight lifting, the exercise buff places the weights in the center of the exercise room, turns on the TV to a sporting event, and opens a copy of Muscle Beach magazine to the centerfold showing a famous bodybuilder. b. It is said that Victor Hugo, a renowned writer, controlled his work habits in his study by having his servant take his clothes away and not bring them back until the end of the day (Wallace, 1971, pp. 68–69). c. To stop drinking, an alcoholic surrounds herself or himself with members of Alcoholics Anonymous and stops seeing her or his old drinking buddies. d. A couch potato has decided to jog a mile every night before going to bed. Alas, “the road to hell [or perhaps to heart attack] is paved with good intentions.” Late nights, good TV, wine with dinner, and other delights take their toll. Three months later, the couch potato is still overweight and out of shape because of many missed jogging nights. The couch potato takes a friend’s advice to change the routine and begins jogging each day immediately upon arriving home and before eating dinner. e. After many interruptions while working on this bookat the university, the authors began working at one of their homes.

A: (a) Rearrange the surroundings; (b) rearrange the surroundings; (c) relocate people; (d) change the time of the activity; (e) move the activity to a new location. In each case, it should be indicated why that category is appropriate.

13. Q: According to the proposed guidelines for the use of rules, modeling, and physical guidance, a. what behavior principle is used with all three procedures? [Level 3/App] b. what two other behavioral procedures are likely to be used with all three procedures?

[Level 3/App] A: (a) Positive reinforcement; (b) fading and shaping.

Answers to [and Levels of] Questions for Further Learning 1. Q: Describe five processes by which imitative behavior might be learned, and give an example 88

of each. [Level 3/App] A: (a) Other people’s actions become SDs for engaging in similar actions (because the response of imitating often results in reinforcement); (b) other people’s actions are often paired with reinforcement for us, so that those actions acquire conditioned reinforcing properties; hence, we may receive conditioned reinforcement when we perform the same actions; (c) individuals may learn (perhaps by the above processes) to imitate simple responses; later, they can imitate more complex responses, which are composed of these simple responses; (d) imitative behavior is (in itself) an operant class that can be learned, and reinforcement for imitating some behaviors increases the probability of imitating in general; (e) it is possible that once a child is reinforced for imitating some behaviors, imitating functions like an operant response and the child will tend to imitate other behaviors even though they contain no elements in common with the previously reinforced behaviors. Any appropriate examples are acceptable.

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CHAPTER 21 ANTECEDENT CONTROL: MOTIVATION Answers to [and Levels of] Questions for Learning 1. Q: How do many people who are not behaviorists or behavior modifiers conceptualize motivation? [Level 2/C] Illustrate with an example. [Level 3/App] A: Many people who are not behaviorists or behavior modifiers conceptualize motivation as some “thing” inside us that causes our actions. For example, Brittany’s hockey coach says that she is highly motivated because she puts forth a great effort at practice, shows up on time, and is eager to practice more than the other players. The coach is conceptualizing motivation as the cause of Brittany’s behavior. Any appropriate example is acceptable.

2. Q: What is a conceptual problem with the traditional view of motivation? [Level 2/C] Illustrate with an example. [Level 3/App] A: A conceptual limitation of the traditional view of motivation is that it involves circular reasoning. The causal “thing” (drive, motivation, etc.) is inferred from the behavior that it is supposed to explain (e.g., Why does Brittany put forth a lot of effort at hockey practice?

Because she is a motivated player. How do we know she is a motivated player? Because she puts forth a great effort.). Any appropriate example is acceptable.

3. Q: Describe three practical problems with conceptualizing motivation as an internal cause of behavior. [Level 2/C] A: (a) The idea that the cause of our behaviors is within us may cause us to ignore the behavioral principles for changing behavior and the data that supports the effectiveness of those behavioral principles; (b) it may influence some people to blame individuals for inferior performances (e.g., “Shawn is just not motivated enough to play baseball”), vs. trying to help individuals improve their performance; (c) it may influence some to blame themselves for failure to emit certain behaviors (e.g., “I am just not motivated enough to get an A+ in this course”) rather than examining self-management strategies for improving performance.

4. Q: Define motivating operation (MO). [Level 2/C] In simple terms, what is an MO? [Level 2/C] A: Motivating operations (MOs) are events or operations that (a) temporarily alter the effectiveness of consequences as reinforcers or punishers (value-altering effect), and (b) influence behaviors that normally lead to those reinforcers and punishers (behavioraltering effect). In simple terms, an MO temporarily changes what you want and tells you how to get it.

5. Q: State the full terms for the following abbreviations: UMEO, UMAO, CMEO, and CMAO. [Level 2/C] A: Unconditioned motivating establishing operation, unconditioned motivating abolishing operation, conditioned motivating establishing operation, conditioned motivating abolishing operation.

6. Q: Define motivating establishing operation (MEO). [Level 2/C] A: An MEO is an event or operation that temporarily increases the effectiveness of a reinforcer or punisher and increases the likelihood of behaviors that lead to that reinforcer or decrease the likelihood of behaviors that lead to that punisher.

7. Q: Describe an example of a UMEO involving a reinforcer. [Level 3/App] A: An example of a UMEO involving a reinforcer is food deprivation. Any appropriate example is acceptable.

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8. Q: Describe an example of a UMEO involving a punisher. [Level 3/App] A: An example of a UMEO involving a punisher is decreasing the temperature in a room from cool to cold. Any appropriate example is acceptable.

9. Q: Describe an example of a CMEO involving a reinforcer. [Level 3/App] A: An example of a CMEO involving a reinforcer was Coach Dawson’s description of the points program, which increased the reinforcing value of points and increased player’s practice behaviors to earn points. Any appropriate example is acceptable.

10. Q: Describe an example of a CMEO involving a punisher. [Level 3/App] A: Suppose that at a little league baseball practice, a coach typically required a player to sit in the dugout alone for 5 minutes as a timeout contingent for swearing. Suppose also that, at a particular practice, the coach announced that the players could earn points for performing well, and that the five players with the most points would earn tickets to a major league baseball game. That announcement would be a CMEO involving a punisher because it would increase the effectiveness of timeout as a punisher because players could not earn points if they were in a timeout.

11. Q: Define motivating abolishing operation (MAO). [Level 2/C] A: An MAO is an event or operation that temporarily decreases the effectiveness of a reinforcer or punisher and decreases the likelihood of behaviors that normally lead to that reinforcer or increases the likelihood of behaviors that normally lead to that punisher.

12. Q: Describe an example of a UMAO involving a reinforcer. [Level 2/C] A: An example of a UMAO involving a reinforcer is food satiation. Any appropriate example is acceptable.

13. Q: Describe an example of a UMAO involving a punisher. [Level 2/C] A: In Canada during the winter an unheated room is a punisher. Increasing the room temperature is a UMAO for the punishing effect of the cold room and it increases the likelihood of going into that room. Any appropriate example is acceptable.

14. Q: Describe an example of a CMAO involving a reinforcer. [Level 2/C] A: Suppose that at a little league baseball practice, a coach typically required a player to sit in the dugout alone for 5 minutes as a timeout contingent for swearing. Suppose that the coach announced that the players could earn points for desirable behaviors but the point could no longer be exchanged for a ticket to attend a major league baseball game. That would be a CMAO for a reinforcer because it would decrease the value of points as a reinforcer. Any appropriate example is acceptable.

15. Q: Describe an example of a CMAO involving a punisher. [Level 2/C] A: Suppose that at a little league baseball practice, a coach typically required a player to sit in the dugout alone for 5 minutes as a time out contingent for swearing. Suppose that the coach announced that the players could earn points for desirable behaviors but the point could no longer be exchanged for a ticket to attend a major league baseball game. It would decrease the effectiveness of a time out as a punisher because the players would no longer care about missing the opportunity to miss points by sitting in the dugout. Any appropriate example is acceptable.

16. Q: Are the value-altering and behavior-altering effects innate or learned for UMEOs, UMAOs, CMEOs, and CMAOs? [Level 2/C] A: For UMEOs and UMAOs the value-altering effect is innate and the behavior-altering effect is learned. For CMEOs and CMAOs both the value-altering and behavior-altering effects are learned.

17. Q: Suppose that a football team has been practicing for an hour in the hot sun without 91

water. The coach says to one of the players, “Here are the keys to my car. Get the bottles of water from the trunk.” Would this request be classified as an S D or a CMEO for getting the water? [Level 3/App] Justify your choice. [Level 6/E] A: The football coach’s request to get the water is an SD because the players are already thirsty and want water. The coach’s request is a cue that tells the players what to do (go to the car) to get what they already want (water).

18. Q: Suppose that a pianist sets a goal for practicing a piece: “Before I can stop practicing, I have to play this piece through 10 times in a row without making a mistake.” Is that goal best conceptualized as an SD or a CMEO? [Level 3/App] Justify your choice.

[Level 6/E] A: The rule that the pianist sets for herself is more like a CMEO than an SD because the rule temporarily alters the value of the conditioned reinforcer of playing the piece without making a mistake, and increases practice behavior that will lead to that reinforcer.

19. Q: Define echoic. [Level 2/C] Describe an example not in the book. [Level 3/App] A: An echoic is a vocal imitative response that is typically reinforced by a social reinforcer. For example, when a mother is teaching her baby to say “Mama” she might say to her child, “Say Mama.” If later the child mimics “Mama,” the mother would praise the child by hugging him or her and saying “Yeah, that’s right, Mama!” Any appropriate example is acceptable.

20. Q: Define tact. [Level 2/C] Describe an example not in the book. [Level 3/App] A: A tact is a naming response that is typically reinforced by a social reinforcer. For example, a preschool teacher is teaching a student shapes and points to a square saying, “What’s that?” If the child answers correctly, “square,” he or she will be praised by the teacher.

Any appropriate example is acceptable.

21. Q: Define mand. [Level 2/C] Describe an example not in the book. [Level 3/App] A: A mand is a verbal response that is under the control of a motivating operation, and is reinforced by the corresponding reinforcer (or removal of corresponding aversive stimulus).

A mand is a request or demand for something that a person “wants,” and the person is reinforced by receiving whatever it is that he/she wants. For example, a child who is very hungry and has limited speech says “food please,” and is given a snack. The child’s saying “food please” was a mand. Any appropriate example is acceptable.

22. Q: Using an example, describe how a motivating operation might be incorporated into mand training with a child. [Level 3/App] A: For example, in teaching verbal behavior to a child with disabilities, training may begin with having the child mand for a reinforcer that has high motivational value (i.e., candy).

The child is given a piece of candy on the first trial and then in full view of the child, the teacher may hide the candy and ask the child “What do you want? Say candy.” If the child says “candy,” he is given another piece of candy. On subsequent trials, the teacher asks, “What do you want?” and reinforces asking for “candy.” It’s hoped that after a certain amount of such training, the child will generalize manding for “candy” to other situations (e.g., at the store, in the kitchen, etc.). Any appropriate example is acceptable.

23. Q: How was a CMEO used to motivate seat belt use among senior drivers? [Level 4/An] A: The signs “Buckle Up Stay Safe” that were placed around the town of Pleasant Oaks were a CMEO that increased the reinforcing value of wearing a fastened seatbelt, and increased the behavior of buckling up.

24. Q: How was an MAO applied to decrease the self-injurious behavior of a woman with profound intellectual disability? [Level 4/An] A: Brenda’s staff introduced a schedule of non-contingent reinforcement in which they gave 92

Brenda attention every 10 seconds. This served as an MAO for staff attention because it satiated Brenda on attention, and her self-injurious behavior that had been previously reinforced by attention immediately dropped to a low level.

Answers to [and Levels of] Questions for Further Learning 1. Q: Give an example illustrating that a given MO may affect the value of more than one reinforcer and may influence the occurrence of many behaviors. [Level 3/App] A: For example, not only does food deprivation increase the reinforcing value of food and lead to various food-seeking behaviors, it also increases the reinforcing value of water and increases the likelihood of water-seeking behavior.

2. Q: Give an example that illustrates how a drug might function as an MO. [Level 3/App] What subtype of MO would it be (see Figure 19.1)? [Level 4/An] Justify your answer. [Level 6/E] A: For example, amphetamines may function as UMAOs, decreasing the reinforcing effectiveness of food.

3. Q: Distinguish between a mand and an intraverbal. [Level 4/An] Illustrate each with an example that is not in the text. [Level 4/An] A: An intraverbal is a verbal response under the control of a preceding verbal stimulus, and there is no point-to-point correspondence between the stimulus and the response. For example, an adult asks a child, “Where do you live?” and the child responds, “Winnipeg.”

An echoic is also a verbal response, but there is point-to-point correspondence between the stimulus and the response. For example, if the adult says, “Say Winnipeg,” and the child responds correctly, “Winnipeg.” Any appropriate example is acceptable.

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CHAPTER 22 FUNCTIONAL ASSESSMENT OF PROBLEM BEHAVIOR Answers to [and Levels of] Questions for Learning 1. Q: Briefly describe the four conditions in the multielement design that Iwata et al. (1990) used in the functional analysis they carried out on Suzie’s SIB. [Level 2/C] A: (a) In an attention condition, Suzie and an adult were in a room with toys available and the adult pretending to do paperwork, and the adult only interacted with Suzie following instances of self-injurious behavior. (b) In a demand condition, the adult and Suzie were in a room together and the adult prompted Suzie to perform a task that was difficult for her.

If Suzie engaged in self-injurious behavior, the adult stopped making demands of Suzie for 30 seconds. (c) In an alone condition, Suzie was alone in a room with a one-way mirror and with no toys available. (d) In a control condition, Suzie and an adult were in a room together, toys were available, and the adult reinforced Suzie’s appropriate play behavior and ignored her SIB. 2. Q: What does the term functional assessment refer to? [Level 1/K] A: Functional assessment refers to three approaches for attempting to identify antecedents and consequences for problem behaviors: (a) a functional analysis; (b) an interview and/or questionnaire assessment; and (c) an observational assessment.

3. Q: Define functional analysis. [Level 2/C] A: Functional analysis refers to the systematic manipulation of environmental events to experimentally test their role as antecedents or as consequences in controlling or maintaining specific problem behaviors.

4. Q: Briefly discuss, with examples, what the results of Iwata et al.’s research suggest for the treatment of severe self-injurious behavior. [Level 4/An] A: Iwata et al.’s results suggest that even though the form of self-injurious behavior may be very similar from one individual to another, the treatment should be based on the function of the behavior, not on the form. For example, if a functional analysis indicates that a child’s problem behavior is maintained by adult attention, then the recommended treatment would be withholding attention following instances of the behavior and providing attention for desirable behavior. On the other hand, if a functional analysis indicated that a problem behavior was maintained by escape from demands, then the recommended treatment would include more or longer non-demand periods when working with that individual and perhaps persisting with demands if a problem behavior occurred to a demand. Other appropriate examples are acceptable.

5. Q: Describe three limitations of functional analyses. [Level 2/C] A: (a) The amount of time required to carry out a functional analysis may put a large strain on available staff; (b) it cannot be applied to extremely dangerous behaviors; (c) if the problem behaviors occur at low frequencies, experimental functional analysis requires a great deal of time before sufficient data can be obtained to draw valid conclusions.

6. Q: Briefly describe how each of the three limitations of functional analyses have been addressed in attempts to overcome these limitations. [Level 2/C] A: (a) One way to reduce the time required for functional analysis is to use only one or two repetitions of each condition and/or to decrease session length. A second option, if sensory reinforcement is suspected, is to use an alone condition as a screening phase. If the problem behavior persists during sensory reinforcement, then further testing may be omitted. (b) If functional analysis cannot be applied because the problem behaviors are extremely 94

dangerous, then it is possible to look for harmless precursor behaviors to the dangerous behaviors, to do a functional analysis of these precursors, and to then treat and eliminate the precursors to see if the severe behavior is also eliminated. (c) If a problem behavior occurs rarely such that a typical functional analysis would take many days or weeks to complete, then waiting for a problem behavior to occur and initiating a functional analysis at that moment might yield meaningful results.

7. Q: For what two causes of problem behaviors of children did Carr and Durand (1985) first use the hypothesis testing approach? [Level 2/C] A: (a) When children receive low amounts of reinforcement; (b) when children are asked to perform tasks that are difficult for them.

8. Q: Briefly compare Iwata et al.’s (1982/84) and Dunlap et al.’s (1993/2018) approaches to functional assessment. [Level 2/A] A: They were similar in that both involve functional analysis. They are different in that Dunlap et al. studied students that were neither autistic nor developmentally disabled, while Iwata et al. studied the latter persons.

9. Q: For what types of clients can the hypothesis testing approach be; (a) most applicable? And (b) least applicable? [Level 2/A] A: (a) students in the normal range of functioning; (b) individuals with very limited language skills.

10. Q: What are three indicators that a problem behavior is probably maintained by the social attention that follows it? [Level 2/C] A: (a) Attention reliably follows the behavior; (b) the individual looks at or approaches a caregiver just before engaging in the behavior; and (c) the individual smiles just before engaging in the behavior.

11. Q: What were the results of the functional analysis of the causes of excessive delusional statements made by Mr. Jones, and what was the treatment of the delusional statements based on the results of the functional analysis? [Level 2/C] A: The results with Mr. Jones showed that far more delusional statements occurred in the attention condition than in the alone, demand, or control conditions. Therefore the treatment involved reinforcing Mr. Jones with attention when he said reasonable things, and when he made a delusional statement he was ignored for approximately 10 seconds.

12. Q: What is an indicator that a problem behavior is being maintained by self-stimulatory reinforcement? [[Level 2/C] A: An indicator that a problem behavior is being maintained by self-stimulatory reinforcement is that the behavior continues unabated at a steady rate although it has no apparent effect on other individuals or the external environment.

13. Q: Describe how Rincover and Devaney applied extinction to a problem that appeared to be maintained by self-stimulatory reinforcement. [Level 2/C] A: Rincover and Devaney applied extinction to a face-scratching problem that was maintained by internal sensory positive reinforcement by eliminating the tactile sensations produced by the scratching. The young girl’s hands were covered each day with rubber gloves that did not prevent her from scratching, but eliminated sensory stimulation (and skin damage).

There was an immediate decrease in scratching rate (and it was eliminated in 4 days).

Follow up consisted of removing the gloves for 10 minutes a day, then for longer and longer periods of time until they were no longer needed.

14. Q: What is an indicator that a problem behavior is being reinforced by nonsocial external sensory stimulation? Give an example illustrating this indicator. [Level 3/App] A: The behavior continues undiminished even though it appears to have no social 95

consequences over numerous occasions. For example, in the case of the child who flushed jewelry down the toilet, she appeared to enjoy doing so even when she was alone. Any appropriate example is acceptable.

15. Q: What were two plausible explanations of the behavior of the child flushing jewelry down the toilet? [Level 2/C] How did the treatment procedure take both possibilities into account? [Level 2/C] A: (a) It may have been maintained because of external sensory positive reinforcement (i.e. the appearance of the jewelry swirling around the toilet bowl may have functioned as a sensory reinforcer). It may have been maintained as a link in a behavioral chain that was reinforced by the mother’s attention when the child told the mother about flushing the jewelry down the toilet. (b) The treatment procedure accounted for both possibilities in that it established a new chain that included taking jewelry and placing it in a jar in the kitchen (instead of flushing it down the toilet), which produced an audible tinkling sound as a sensory reinforcer, and the new chain was highly reinforced by the mother’s attention.

16. Q: What is a strong indicator that a problem behavior is being maintained as a way of escaping from demands? [Level 2/C] Give an example illustrating this indicator.

[Level 3/App] A: The individual engages in the behavior only when certain types of requests are made of him or her. For example, Suzy was self-abusive when staff requested her to do things, but not when she was left alone. Other appropriate examples are acceptable.

17. Q: Describe two alternative strategies that adults might follow to deal with a nonverbal child trying to escape from demands by screaming in various training settings. [Level 2/C] A: (a) Remove the escape function of the behavior by continuing to place demands on the child until the child stops screaming; and (b) teach the child an alternative way of communicating (such as by hand raising) that the task is aversive and that she does not want to perform it.

18. Q: Describe how escape from internal sensations might be a cause of some cases of binge eating. [Level 2/C] A: Researchers have provided evidence that some cases of binge-eating can be maintained because it leads to a decrease (at least temporarily) in unpleasant emotional responses.

19. Q: Describe an example of how escape from external sensory aversive stimuli could produce undesirable behavior. [Level 2/C] A: For example, a child might repeatedly remove her shoes because they squeeze her toes too tightly. Any appropriate example is acceptable.

20. Q: In a sentence for each, outline the six major causes of operant problem behaviors described in this chapter. [Level 2/C] A: Problem behaviors might be increased and maintained by: (a) social positive reinforcement; (b) internal self-stimulatory positive reinforcement; (c) external sensory positive reinforcement; (d) escape from demands; (e) escape from internal sensations; and (f) escape from external sensory aversive stimuli.

21. Q: What are the two main indicators that a problem behavior is elicited by prior stimuli vs. is maintained by reinforcing consequences? [Level 2/C] Give an example illustrating these indicators. [Level 3/App] A: The behavior consistently occurs in a certain situation or in the presence of certain stimuli and is never followed by any clearly identifiable reinforcing consequence. An example might be an individual who consistently shows signs of nervousness when asked a question in a 96

wide variety of settings and irrespective of the consequences of doing so. Other appropriate examples are acceptable.

22. Q: What is behavioral diagnostics? [Level 2/C] In what sense is this term broader than functional assessment? [Level 2/C] A: Behavioral diagnostics is an approach to behavioral assessment in which the therapist diagnoses the problem after examining antecedents, consequences, and medical and nutritional variables as potential causes of problem behaviors. This concept is broader than functional assessment because it not only includes the external environment, but also internal medical factors.

Answers to [and Levels of] Questions for Further Learning 1. Q: State the two meanings of the term functional analysis. [Level 2/C] A: The narrow meaning of functional analysis is that it refers to discovering specific antecedents and reinforcers for a given behavior of an individual. A broader meaning of functional analysis is scientifically finding the relationship between two variables – an independent variable and a dependent variable.

2. Q: Describe a behavior principle other than respondent conditioning that fits the second sense of functional analysis of behavior and explain how it fits the second sense but not the first. [Level 4/An] A: For example, the principle of operant extinction states that if, in a given situation, an individual emits a previously reinforced behavior and that behavior is not followed by a reinforcer, then that person is less likely to emit that behavior when next encountering a similar situation. This principle fits the second meaning of functional analysis in that it refers to a relationship between an independent variable (withholding a reinforcer following a response) and a dependent variable (the response decreases). The principle does not fit the first meaning of functional analysis in that it does not identify the withholding of a reinforcer following the specific behavior of a specific individual that leads to a decrease in that behavior. Appropriate statements for any behavioral principle can be used.

3. Q: Discuss how and why the functional analytic approach of behavior analysts differs from the approach of many traditional psychologists and psychiatrists. [Level 4/An] Give an example. [Level 2/C] A: Many traditional psychologists and psychiatrists focus on the form or topography of a problem behavior, rather than the cause of that behavior. The functional analysis approach is advantageous because it identifies the controlling variables of a problem behavior, and the topography of a behavior typically tells us little or nothing about its cause. For example, two individuals may be exhibiting similar self-injurious behavior and yet the underlying cause is completely different. The traditional approach would likely lead to the same treatment for the two individuals, while behavior analytic treatment for the two individuals would be different even though the topography of their behaviors are the same. Any appropriate example is acceptable.

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CHAPTER 23 PLANNING, APPLYING, AND EVALUATING A BEHAVIORAL PROGRAM Answers to [and Levels of] Questions for Learning 1. Q: How does a behavior modifier evaluate the importance of a problem? [Level 2/C] A: On the basis of answers to such questions as: Will solving the problem lead to less aversiveness or more positive reinforcement for the client or others? Will solving the problem likely stimulate other desirable behaviors, either directly or indirectly?

2. Q: What does a behavior modifier do when given a vague problem such as “aggression” to work on? [Level 2/C] Illustrate with an example. [Level 3/App] A: Specifies component behavior(s) that can be assessed behaviorally and determines whether dealing with the component(s) will solve the problem to the satisfaction of the referring agent or agencies. Any appropriate example is acceptable.

3. Q: How does a behavior modifier evaluate the ease with which a problem might be solved?

[Level 2/C] A: If it is an undesirable behavior to be decreased, the behavior analyst should consider its stimulus control (narrow or broad), its schedule of reinforcement (degree of intermittency), the length of its history, and whether there are desirable behaviors that can replace it. If the problem is to teach a new behavior, does the client have the prerequisite skills? The answer to such questions will determine whether or not the problem will be easily manageable.

4. Q: How does a behavior modifier evaluate the ease with which the desired behavioral change might be generalized to and maintained in the natural environment? [Level 2/C] A: Consider whether the improved behavior can be managed in the natural environment, whether it is possible to devise a special training setting that can be faded easily into the natural environment, whether there are natural contingencies that will likely maintain the behavioral objective after it has been achieved, whether the behavior modifier can change the people in the natural environment so that they will help maintain the desired behavior, and whether it is possible for the client to learn a self-control program.

5. Q: Assume that you are a professional behavior modifier. List four possible conditions under which you would not treat a behavior problem that has been referred to you. [Level 2/C] A: An answer of “no” to any of the 8 questions listed under the subsection “Deciding Whether to Design a Program Following a Referral.” Student should list at least four of these, and state them in a way that indicates that the referral would not be accepted.

6. Q: What five variables should an appropriate baseline procedure enable you to monitor or identify? [Level 2/C] A: An appropriate Baseline procedure should enable you to: (a) monitor the problem behavior, (b) identify its current stimulus control, (c) identify its maintaining consequences, (d) monitor relevant medical/health/personal variables, and (e) identify an alternative desirable behavior.

7. Q: What six questions should a behavior modifier answer during the pretreatment assessment phase? [Level 2/C] A: (a) What daily times can the mediators schedule for this project? (b) Will others in the situation help or hinder data collection? (c) Will the surroundings make your assessment difficult? (d) How frequent is the problem behavior? (e) How rapidly should the behavior change? (f) Is the presenting problem a behavioral deficit or can it be reformulated as such?

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8. Q: You are about to design a treatment program. After defining the target behavior and identifying its desired level of occurrence and stimulus control, what six questions should you answer before proceeding to the design? [Level 2/C] A: (a) Is the description precise? (b) On what grounds was the goal chosen, and how is that in the client’s best interests? (c) Has the client been given all possible information about the goal? (d) Have steps been taken to increase the client’s commitment to accomplish the goal? (e) What are potential side effects of accomplishing the goal, for both the client and others? (f) Do the answers to the above questions suggest that you should proceed? If so, then continue.

9. Q: If you are thinking of capitalizing on antecedent control, what six categories should you consider? [Level 2/C] ] A: Rules, goal setting, modelling, physical guidance, situational inducement, and motivating operations.

10. Q: If you are decreasing a behavioral excess, what five questions should you ask?

[Level 2/C] A: (a) Can you remove SDs for the problem behavior? (b) Can you withhold reinforcers that are maintaining the problem behavior, or present abolishing operations (MAOs) for those reinforcers? (c) Can you apply DRL to reduce the rate of the behavior to a low, but acceptable rate? (d) Can you apply DRO, DRI, or DRA?(e) Should punishment be used?

11.Q: List five considerations for programming stimulus generalization. [Level 2/C] A: Can you apply any of the following? i) training in the test situation ii) varying the training conditions iii) programming common stimuli iv) training sufficient stimulus exemplars v) establishing a stimulus equivalence class 12. Q: List three considerations for programming response generalization. [Level 2/C] A: Can you apply any of the following? i) training sufficient response exemplars ii) varying the acceptable responses during training iii) using behavioral momentum to increase low probability responses within a response class 13. Q: List four considerations for programming behavior maintenance. [Level 2/C] A: Can you apply any of the following? i) using natural contingencies of reinforcement ii) training the people in the natural environment iii) using schedules of reinforcement in the natural environment iv) giving the control to the individual 14. Q: What is a behavioral contract? [Level 2/C] A: A behavioral contract is a written agreement that provides a clear statement of what behaviors of what individuals will produce what reinforcers and who will deliver those reinforcers.

15. Q: What is a treatment contract, and what should it clearly outline? [Level 2/C] A: A treatment contract is a written agreement between the client and behavior analyst that clearly outlines the objectives and methods of treatment, the framework of the service to be provided, and contingencies for remuneration that may be forthcoming to the behavior analyst.

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16. Q: What are two steps for implementing a program? [Level 2/C] A: First you must be sure that those carrying out the program understand and agree with their roles and responsibilities. Second, the program must be started in a manner that will enhance the clients’ commitment to the program.

17. Q: What five questions should be answered affirmatively to increase the client’s commitment to the program? [Level 2/C] A: (a) Does the client fully understand and agree with the goals of the program? (b) Is the client aware of how the program will benefit him or her? (c) Has the mediator spent sufficient time with the client so as to gain the client’s trust and confidence? (d) Has the program been designed so that the client will experience some success early? and (e) Will the client come into contact with reinforcers early in the program?

18. Q: After a program has been implemented, what three things should be done to determine whether it is producing satisfactory results? (See Guidelines 1, 2, and 3.) [Level 2/C] A: Main points: Monitor the data, consult people who must deal with the behavioral handicap, and consult the behavioral journals and experienced behavior analysts concerning related cases. (See guidelines 1, 2, and 3 under “Program Maintenance and Evaluation.”)

19. Q: Describe in detail the steps that should be followed if a program is not producing satisfactory results (see Guidelines 5, 6, and 7). [Level 2/C] A: Answer the following questions and make the appropriate adjustment for any “yes” answer: (a) Have the reinforcers lost their effectiveness? (b) Are competing responses being reinforced? (c) Are the procedures being applied correctly? (d) Is there outside interference disrupting the program? (e) Are there any subjective variables (e.g., staff enthusiasm) that might be adversely affecting the program? If none of the answers is “yes,” then check to see if additional programming steps need to be added or removed. Another option is to consult with a colleague and to consider redesigning a major aspect of the program.

20. Q: If a program is producing satisfactory results, what two things should be done prior to successfully terminating it? (See Guidelines 8 and 9.) [Level 2/C] A: Main points: Identify a strategy to provide program maintenance until the objective is reached, and conduct follow-up observations and social validity assessments. (See guidelines 8 and 9 under “Program Maintenance and Evaluation.”)

Answers to [and Levels of] Questions for Further Learning 1. Q: As a behavior modifier, how might the geographic setting affect your decision to accept a referral? [Level 2/C] A: In an urban setting, there are likely to be a number of behavior analysts available to help clients. In a rural setting, however, although you might not be the ideal person to treat the problem, you may be the best person available.

2. Q: How did Israel and colleagues demonstrate that utilizing significant others in a program can enhance generality? [Level 3/App] A: They introduced two groups of overweight children to a behavioral weight reduction program. At the end of the eight-week treatment program, both groups of children had lost approximately the same amount of weight. However, after a one-year follow-up, the children whose parents had been introduced to the child management procedures showed better maintenance of improved weight status.

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CHAPTER 24 TOKEN ECONOMIES Answers to [and Levels of] Questions for Learning 1. Q: What are tokens? [Level 2/C] A: A token is an object or symbol that can be accumulated and exchanged for goods and services.

2. Q: What is a token economy? [Level 2/C] A: A token economy is a behavioral program in which individuals can earn tokens for a variety of desirable behaviors, and can exchange the tokens earned for backup reinforcers.

3. Q: What are two major advantages to using tokens as reinforcers? [Level 2/C] A: (a) They can be given immediately after a desirable behavior occurs and cashed in at a later time for a backup reinforcer. This helps to “bridge” long delays between the target response and a backup reinforcer that is difficult to present immediately after the behavior. (b) Tokens are generalized conditioned reinforcers and therefore do not depend on a specific motivating operation for their strength. This makes it easier to administer consistent and effective reinforcers when dealing with a group of individuals who may be in different motivational states.

4. Q:. List at least five settings in which token economies have been used. [Level 2/C] A: Classrooms, homes for pre-delinquents, prisons, in the military, in nursing homes (or any other appropriate settings).

5. Q: List at least five behaviors that token economies have been designed to develop.

[Level 2/C] A: To decrease littering, increase recycling of wastes, increase energy conservation, decrease noise pollution, increase self-help behaviors in developmentally disabled persons (or any other appropriate behaviors).

6. Q: List and briefly describe five initial steps involved in setting up and managing a token economy. [Level 2/C] A: (a) Deciding on the target behaviors: these are the specific behaviors to be reinforced with tokens, and they depend on both the short range and the long range objectives for the individuals in the token economy and on the specific behavior problems that should be decreased with those individuals. (b) Taking baselines: one should obtain baseline data on the specific target behaviors before initiating a token economy. (c) Selecting the type of tokens to use: the tokens to be used will depend mainly on the type of client involved and must be appropriate for the client who will participate in the token economy. (d) Selecting backup reinforcers: one must select backup reinforcers for the token system and also plan a simple store for aiding in dispensing them. (e) Managing the backup reinforcers: a system for storing and dispensing the backup reinforcers is an essential feature of token economies.

7. Q: Identify four target behaviors for the youths at Achievement Place: two desirable and two undesirable behaviors. [Level 3/App] A: Two desirable behaviors were doing dishes and performing homework. Two undesirable behaviors were disobeying and using poor grammar.

8. Q: What six characteristics should a token have? [Level 2/C] A: Tokens should be attractive, lightweight, portable, durable, easy to handle, and not easy to counterfeit.

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9. Q: What is the recommended number of tokens per child for a teacher to have on hand when starting a token economy in a classroom? [Level 1/K] A: 100 10. Q: List two backup reinforcers used at Achievement Place. [Level 2/C] A: Permission to stay up past bedtime for a week, and access to games for a week.

11. Q: Explain how a “fine” in a token economy fits the definition of response-cost punishment (you may want to review Chapter 15). [Level 2/C] A: Response-cost punishment involves the removal of a specified amount of a reinforcer immediately following a behavior. A “fine” in a token economy fits this definition because a fine would involve taking away a certain number of tokens from an individual because of an unacceptable behavior.

12. Q: What is a token economy store? [Level 2/C] Give examples. [Level 2/C] A: This is a place in which to keep backup reinforcers and from which they can be dispensed.

For example, the store in a classroom might be a box located on the teacher’s desk. In a large token economy in a mental institution, a store might occupy one or more rooms.

Other appropriate examples are also acceptable.

13. Q: How often should store time be held in a token economy for school children? [Level 2/C] A: Stainback, Payne, Stainback, and Payne (1973) recommend for school children that store time be held once or twice per day for the first three or four days and then decreased gradually until it is held only once a week (e.g., Friday afternoon).

14. Q: What are three considerations for deciding the token price of each backup reinforcer?

[Level 2/C] A: (a) The monetary cost of each backup reinforcer, with high cost reinforcers requiring more tokens. (b) Supply and demand, with the price being higher for items whose demand exceeds the supply, and less for items whose supply exceeds the demand. (c) The therapeutic value of the backup reinforcers, with reinforcers that have therapeutic value requiring fewer tokens to purchase.

15. Q: Identify four sources of potential help for managing a token economy. [Level 3/App] A: (a) Members of civic organizations and community action groups, friends and acquaintances, university students; (b) Volunteers (e.g., senior citizens); (c) Behaviorallyadvanced individuals within the institution where the token economy is being developed, teacher aides or teaching assistants or other workers who may be employees of the institution who could participate as part of their job; (d) the clients themselves.

16. Q: What are two ways help has been obtained to manage PSI courses? [Level 2/C] A: (a) Students who master an assignment can help evaluate the performance of other students who subsequently mastered that assignment. (b) Another option is to give the students a test during the first part of the course, and those students who do well can be put in charge of a small group of students whom they can tutor.

17. Q: How should tokens be delivered? [Level 2/C] A: Tokens should always be presented in a positive and conspicuous manner immediately following a desired response. Also, smiling approval should be administered at the same time the token is given, and the client should be told (at least in the initial stages) why he or she is receiving the token.

18. Q: Describe five potential problems that are likely to occur at the start of a token economy.

[Level 2/C] A: (a) Confusion, especially during the first few days; (b) staff or helper shortages; (c) attempts by individuals to get tokens that they have not earned or backup reinforcers for 102

which they do not have enough tokens; (d) individuals manipulating tokens in distractible ways; and (e) failure to purchase backup reinforcers.

19. Q: Briefly describe a CMS. [Level 2/C] A: In a CMS individuals who have substance-abuse disorder can obtain tokens for decreasing their intake of a harmful substance. The tokens can be exchanged for money.

20. Q: Describe how a CMS differs from other types of tokens. [Level 2/C] A: With a CMS tokens can be earned by participants can be exchanged for money. In other token economies tokens earned by participants can be exchanged for a variety of back-up reinforcers.

21. Q: State two general methods of weaning individuals from tokens when transferring behavior to the natural environment. [Level 2/C] A: (a) Gradually eliminate the tokens. (b) Gradually decrease the delay between the target behavior and token delivery.

22. Q: If one decides to wean an individual from tokens by eliminating tokens gradually, what are three ways that might be accomplished? [Level 2/C] A: (a) Gradually making the schedule of token delivery more and more intermittent. (b) Gradually decreasing the number of behaviors that earn tokens. (c) Gradually decreasing the delay between the target behavior and token delivery.

23. Q: If one decides to wean an individual of tokens by decreasing the value of the tokens gradually, what are two ways that might be accomplished? [Level 2/C] A: (a) Gradually decreasing the amount of backup reinforcement that a given number of tokens can purchase (i.e., programming inflation). (b) Gradually increasing the delay between token acquisition and the purchase of backup reinforcers.

24. Q: What is one precaution to help ensure high ethical standards for a token economy?

[Level 2/C] A: Make the system completely open to public scrutiny, provided that such openness is subject to the approval of clients or their advocates.

25. Q: List seven areas in which research on token economies is needed (see Table 24-1).

[Level 2/C] A: Types of target behaviors; types of tokens to be used; degree of variety of backup reinforcers; token training procedures; token delivery schedules; store time schedules; and token/backup reinforcers exchange schedules.

26. Q: For each of the seven research areas listed in Table 24-1, describe an example of a research question.

[Level 2/A] A: Area 1, what kind of target behaviors are most suitable for a token economy? Area 2, what type of token works best with that type of individual? Area 3, what is the optimal number of backup reinforcers? Area 4, should instructions or a pairing process be used to establish tokens as conditioned reinforcers? Area 5, what type of schedule should be used for token delivery? Area 6, what is the best schedule for store times? Area 7, what is the optimal cost for backup reinforcers. Other examples may be acceptable.

Answers to [and Levels of] Questions for Further Learning 1. Q: What is a classroom mini-economy? [Level 1/K] Describe its features. [Level 2/C] A: A classroom mini-economy is a token economy for children in a classroom that prepares the children to engage in the economy of the natural environment. In such a minieconomy, the children earn play money for desired academic behaviors and various 103

classroom work behaviors (e.g., cleaning bookshelves), and they can later spend the earned play money in a class store.

2. Q: Would you expect children in a classroom mini-economy to show more or less generalization to the natural environment than if they had not participated in the minieconomy? [Level 1/K] Explain. [Level 6/E] A: More, because in a classroom mini-economy the children learn about making money for various work activities, and they then get to spend the play money that has been earned.

3. Q: List three major works on token economies and the authors of those works.[Level 2/C] A: Any three of the references cited in the Notes for Further Learning #3 are acceptable.

4. Q: Describe a token program in which individuals in a sheltered workshop administered tokens to themselves. [Level 2/C] A: Each time a buzzer rang in the work setting, the workers marked an “X” on a sheet of paper if they were on-task. The buzzer rang at six random times during a half-day. When a worker earned six “X”s, they could be exchanged for a token. The tokens could be cashed in for items in the workshop cafeteria.

5. Q: What does the research say about the effectiveness of group homes that use TFM programs vs. group homes that use more traditional programs? [Level 2/A] A: Recent studies indicate that TFM reduces recidivism, and is associated with continued improvement after discharge to a greater extent than more traditional programs.

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CHAPTER 25 HELPING AN INDIVIDUAL TO DEVELOP SELF-CONTROL Answers to [and Levels of] Questions for Learning 1. Q: What do people mean when they talk about willpower? [Level 2/C] Is willpower a useful concept? [Level 2/C] Why or why not? [Level 4/An] A: For many people, “will power” seems to refer to some sort of a magical force within us that makes it possible to show self-restraint and refrain from behaviors that have immediate gratification (such as excessive eating), or to show an increase in behaviors (such as studying) that lead to delayed reinforcers. It does not appear to be a useful concept because the persons using it typically don’t tell us how we can get more of so-called will power.

(Other appropriate answers might also be acceptable.)

2. Q: Describe a problem of a behavioral excess in which an immediate reinforcer wins out over a delayed punisher for the behavior. [Level 2/C] A: For example, for many university students, the immediate reinforcer of fun with friends for excessive alcohol drinking wins out over the delayed punisher of a hangover. Any appropriate example is acceptable.

3. Q: Describe a problem of a behavioral excess in which an immediate reinforcer wins out over a cumulatively significant punisher for the behavior. [Level 2/C] A: For example, the immediate reinforcer of the good taste for excessive eating of junk food often wins out over the punisher of weight gain that occurs only from the cumulatively significant effects of excessive eating many times. Any appropriate example is acceptable.

4. Q: Describe a problem of a behavioral excess in which an immediate reinforcer (for the problem behavior) wins out over a delayed reinforcer (for an alternative desirable behavior). [Level 2/C] A: For example, for many students, the immediate reinforcers of enjoyable scenes from spending time on Facebook win out over the delayed reinforcer of a good grade for the alternative behavior of studying. Any appropriate example is acceptable.

5. Q: Describe a problem of a behavioral deficit that occurs because the behavior leads to immediate small punishers that win out over cumulatively significant reinforcers.[Level 2/C] A: For example, the immediate small punishers (getting hot and sweaty and tired) from exercising often win out over reinforcers (e.g., being in good shape) that occur only after exercising many times. Any appropriate example is acceptable.

6. Q: Describe a problem of a behavioral deficit that occurs because immediate small punishers for the behavior win out over immediate but highly improbable major punishers if the behavior does not occur. [Level 2/C] A: For example, the immediate small punishers (being hot and uncomfortable) from wearing a helmet while bicycle riding might win out of over the improbable punisher of brain injury from a serious accident. Any appropriate example is acceptable.

7. Q: Describe a problem of a behavioral deficit that occurs because an immediate small punisher for the behavior wins out over a delayed major punisher if the behavior does not occur. [Level 2/C] A: For example, the immediate small punisher (such as the dentist’s drill hurting your teeth) for having a dentist repair you teeth often wins out over the delayed major punisher (your teeth fall out) if dental check-ups do not occur. Any appropriate example is acceptable.

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8. Q: Consider the model of self-control illustrated in Figure 25.1. In that model, what controls the controlling behavior? [Level 2/C] Discuss. [Level 4/An] A: We assume that the society in which we live teaches us various controlling behaviors such as setting goals for ourselves, giving ourselves reminders to meet those goals, and keeping track of our progress in doing so. If such controlling behaviors are successful, the natural consequences of success will maintain them.

9. Q: List the steps that Mager recommends to unfuzzify a vaguely stated problem or self-control goal. [Level 2/C] A: (a) Write out the goal; (b) make a list of the things that you should say or do that clearly indicate that you’ve met the goal; (c) given a number of people with the same goal, how would you decide who had met the goal and who hadn’t? (d) if your goal is a product, (rather than something that you do) such as achieving a certain weight, then make a list of specific behaviors that will help you to achieve that outcome.

10. Q: How does this book define commitment? [Level 2/C] A: Commitment refers to your statements or actions that indicate that it is important to change your behavior, that show you will work toward doing so, and that you recognize the benefits of doing so.

11. Q: Describe five steps that you could take to strengthen and maintain your commitment to a program of self-control. [Level 2/C] A: (a) List all the benefits for changing your behavior; (b) make your commitment public by reminding many people about your goal and your program; (c) arrange your environment to provide frequent reminders of your goal; (d) prepare a list of statements related to your investment of time and energy in your project, and use your statements about your investment to help maintain commitment; (e) plan ahead for various ways to deal with temptations to quit your project.

12. Q: Describe two strategies for increasing the likelihood of keeping records of a problem behavior to be changed. [Level 2/C] A: Any two of the following:(a) Give your friends control over some of your reinforcers (such as your spending money) and request them to return it to you only if you take data consistently; (b) frequently tell your friends about your self-modification project and ask them if they would like to see the data;(c) keep your recording chart or graph in an obvious place to increase the likelihood of feedback from friends; and (d) frequently tell your friends about your progress.

13. Q: Give an example that illustrates how recording and graphing of a problem behavior was all that was needed to bring about improvement. [Level 3/App] A: For example, recording and graphing instances of repetitive scratching by a 52-year-old woman was sufficient to eliminate the scratching (and the unsightly lesions that occurred because of it). Any of the other cases described in the chapter are acceptable.

14. Q: Describe how Al, the lead case in this chapter, was inadvertently reinforced for eating numerous times throughout the day. [Level 2/C] A: Because Al ate in a wide variety of situations in which he encountered naturally reinforcing events, those natural reinforcers frequently immediately followed eating (although the relationship was accidental). For example, taking a bite of a potato chip while watching TV might be immediately followed by seeing something interesting or exciting. This might inadvertently reinforce eating of potato chips. Other examples are acceptable.

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15. Q: List seven major classes of antecedents that you might consider when planning how to manage the situation in a self-control program. [Level 2/C] A: (a) Instructions; (b) desirable behavior modelled by others; (c) physical guidance; (d) immediate surroundings or circumstances that prompt particular desirable behaviors; (e) the presence of other people who typically behave appropriately and desirably; (f) the time of day at which desirable behavior on your part is highly probable; (g) motivating operations.

16. Q: Describe an example that indicates how the manipulation of a motivating operation was an effective self-control strategy. [Level 2/C] A: For example, to decrease his donut consumption when having coffee with Mary in the campus cafeteria, Al ate a couple of carrots before going to the cafeteria. Any appropriate example is acceptable.

17. Q: Define mastery criterion, and give an example that is not in the text. [Level 2/C] A: A mastery criterion is a performance requirement for practicing a skill such that if the criterion is met, the skill has been learned. For example, a novice basketball player might practice shooting foul shots until she can make 5 in a row. Any appropriate example is acceptable.

18. Q: Describe an example that illustrates how the manipulation of energy expenditure or effort needed to perform a behavior is an effective self-management strategy. [Level 3/App] Would you say that the example involved the manipulation of a motivating operation?

[Level 3/App] Why or why not? [Level 4/An] A: For example, because of the effort in locating a water fountain throughout the day, David did not consume as much water as he would like. To solve the problem, he purchased a water bottle and carried water in the bottle with him during the day. His water consumption increased. This would be a motivating operation that decreased the punishing aspects of getting water. Any appropriate example is acceptable.

19. Q: List the five steps that characterize many programs of self-control. [Level 2/C] A: (a) Specify the problem and set goals; (b) make a commitment to change; (c) take data and analyze causes of the problem; (d) design and implement a program; and (e) prevent relapse and make the gains last.

20. Q: Describe, in a sentence or two for each, three different strategies for manipulating consequences in self-control programs. [Level 2/C] A: (a) Eliminate certain reinfocers that may inadvertently strengthen a particular undesirable behavior in a particular situation; (b) self-record and self-graph the target behavior; (c) arrange for specific reinforcers to be earned for showing improvement or even for just sticking to the program.

21. Q: Describe, in a sentence or two for each, three different ways of arranging for reinforcers to be received in a self-control program. [Level 2/C] A: (a) Asking others to manage them for you; (b) reminding yourself of delayed natural reinforcers that will occur if you emit the target behavior; and (c) managing reinforcers yourself.

22. Q: What often occurs when self-reinforcement is used as a self-control strategy? [Level 1/K] In a sentence, state how one can minimize or prevent short-circuiting of contingencies when using self-reinforcement. [Level 4/An] A: If you decide that you will apply self-reinforcement in the sense that you will emit some behavior and then allow yourself to have a reinforcer, it is always possible for you to 107

consume the reinforcer without emitting the behavior (called short-circuiting the reinforcement contingency). Short-circuiting can be prevented or minimized by ensuring that other contingencies are operating in addition to self-reinforcement.

23. Q: Briefly describe four possible causes of relapse in situations, and indicate how each might be handled. [Level 2/C] A: (a) Failure to anticipate avoidable set-back situations where one is at risk for returning to earlier unwanted behavior patterns. The solution is to plan for such situations and to avoid them. (b) Failure to anticipate unavoidable set-back situations and to take steps to cope with them. These can be handled by anticipating such situations and preparing to deal with them in a reasonable manner. (c) Overreaction to occasional set-backs, such as quitting a self-control program altogether because of a set-back. These can be handled by treating them as occasional set-backs, setting new goals, and making a renewed commitment to stick with the program. (d) Counterproductive self-talk. This can be handled by identifying the types of self-talk that exacerbate a problem and may lead to a relapse, and planning alternative self-talk to take its place.

24. Q: Briefly describe three possible causes of relapse in the specification of the response, and indicate how each might be handled. [Level 2/C] A: (a) A fuzzy or vague target behavior. This can be handled by following the steps for “unfuzzifying” a target behavior as described in the self-control chapter. (b) Having a target behavior or goal that is too long term or delayed. This can be handled by setting up a series of short-term goals to provide progress checks toward the long-term goal. (c) Trying too much too soon. This can be handled by prioritizing one’s goals, and dealing with them in order of priority.

25. Q: Briefly describe two possible causes of relapse in consequences, and indicate how each might be handled. [Level 2/C] A: (a) Failure to incorporate everyday rewards into programs. This can be solved by linking everyday natural reinforcers to aspects of the self-management program. (b) Failing to recognize that some consequences are only cumulatively significant. These might be handled by setting specific dates for meeting with a friend to monitor progress and to identify strategies to follow if progress is unfavorable.

26. Q: What important stimulus–control functions does a behavioral contract serve? [Level 2/C] A: The stimulus control functions of a contract help to: (a) ensure that all parties agree on the goals and procedures; (b) ensure that all parties agree throughout the program on how close they are to the goals; (c) provide a realistic estimate of the cost of the program in terms of time, effort, and money; (d) ensure that all parties who sign the contract will faithfully follow the specified procedures.

27. Q: Is it plausible to suggest that many individuals can become their own behavior therapists?

[Level 1/K] Justify your answer. [Level 6/E] A: Yes. Many people can learn how to take data, design a program, and apply behavior modification principles and techniques to many of their own problems.

Answers to [and Levels of] Questions for Further Learning 1. Q: Describe the ego-depletion model of willpower. [Level 2/C] What have researchers concluded about this model? [Level 2/C] A: The ego-depletion model maintains that willpower is a force within each person that, like a muscle, can be strengthened and can also become fatigued through use. The fatiguing 108

of willpower is called ego depletion. Researchers have concluded that there is little or no support for this model.

2. Q: What is correspondence training? [Level 2/C] Briefly describe how generalized correspondence was demonstrated in kindergarten children. [Level 2/C] A: Correspondence training is training that establishes a correspondence between what a person says he or she is going to do and what he or she does in fact do at a later time. It was demonstrated in kindergarten children by: (a) first teaching one group of children to play at the workbench after being prompted to say that this is what they were going to do; and (b) then showing that compared with a group that did not receive correspondence training, the group that received correspondence training showed more instances of following through on stated intentions to engage in another activity.

3. Q: With which behavior problems are self-help manuals most effective and least effective?

[Level 2/C] A: Self-help manuals have been most successful for treating poor study habits, depression, parenting skills, social skills, and overcoming anxiety and fears. Self-help manuals have been less effective for treating alcohol drinking, smoking, and overeating.

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CHAPTER 26 BEHAVIORAL APPROACHES TO PSYCHOTHERAPY; COGNITIVE RESTRUCTURING; SELF-DIRECTED COPING METHODS, AND MINDFULNESS AND ACCEPTANCE PROCEDURES Answers to [and Levels of] Questions for Learning 1. Q: What do the letters ABCT stand for? [Level 1/K] A: Association for Behavioral and Cognitive Therapies.

2. Q: According to Ellis and Beck, what are cognitive processes? [Level 2/C] A: Cognitive processes refer to internal mental processes such as thinking that underlie overt behavior.

3. Q: Briefly, what are the three waves or generations of behavior therapy? [Level 2/C] A: The first wave was behavior therapy, the use of behavior principles to treat clinical problems. The second wave was cognitive behavior therapy, with an emphasis changing self-statements (cognitions) in the treatment of clinical problems. The third wave focuses on changing clients reactions to their self-statements using mindfulness and acceptance procedures.

4. Q: Basically, what do cognitive restructuring methods teach clients to do? [Level 2/C] A: Basically, cognitive restructuring methods teach clients to counteract irrational selfstatements with more positive and realistic statements.

5. Q: Describe four types of dysfunctional thinking that, according to Beck, can cause problems? [Level 2/C] Describe an example of each. [Level 2/C] A: According to Beck, dysfunctional thinking can include dichotomous or all-or-none thinking, which is thinking in obsolete terms, such as assuming that one is a failure if one gets any grade less than an “A”; arbitrary inference, which is drawing a conclusion on the basis of inadequate evidence, such as misinterpreting a frown on the face of a passer-by to mean that the passer-by disapproves of him or her; overgeneralization, which is reaching a general conclusion on the basis of too few instances, such as assuming that a single failure means that one can not succeed at anything; and magnification, which is exaggerating the meaning or significance of a particular event, such as believing that it is catastrophic not to obtain something that one wants very badly. Any appropriate examples are acceptable.

6. Q: What is the generic cognitive model?

A: It refers to the tendency for natural defense reactions to develop into dysfunctional behaviors, or for normal reactions to morph into psychopathology.

7. Q: Describe the three general components of Beck’s cognitive therapy. [Level 2/C] A: (a) Clients identify the dysfunctional thoughts and maladaptive assumptions that might be causing the problem; (b) Once debilitating thought or dysfunctional assumption has been identified, several methods can be used to counteract it; (c) Beck frequently uses behavioral homework assignments to develop various desirable daily activities.

8. Q: Describe the types of homework assignments Beck uses in the third component of his cognitive therapy. [Level 2/C] Describe an example. [Level 2/C] A: In the third component of his cognitive therapy, Beck’s homework assignments contain liberal doses of behavior modification procedures to help clients develop various desirable

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daily activities. For example, depressed individuals would be given homework assignments to re-establish neglected routine tasks such as showering or bathing, and bed-making.

9. Q: Briefly describe the four steps of Meichenbaum’s self-instructional training strategy for coping with problems and negative emotions. [Level 2/C] A: (a) a client is first taught to identify certain internal stimuli produced by the problem situation and the negative self-statements the client makes; (b) next, through modeling and behavioral rehearsal, the client learns self-talk to counteract negative self-statements in the presence of the problem situation; (c) third, the client is taught to self-instruct the steps for taking appropriate action; and finally (d) the client is taught to make selfreinforcing statements immediately after he or she has coped successfully with the problem situation.

10. Q: Briefly describe the three phases of Meichenbaum’s stress inoculation training.

[Level 2/C] A: (a) Reinterpretation phase – clients are taught that it is not the stressor that is the cause of their nervousness or stress reaction, but the way that they view it. (b) Coping training phase – clients learn a variety of appropriate coping strategies such as, relaxation, self-instruction, self-reinforcement. (c) Application phase – clients practice their self-talk and coping skills to stressful stimuli.

11. Q: Does self-instructional training rely largely on contingency-shaped behavior or rulegoverned behavior? [Level 23/App] Justify your choice. [Level 6/E] A: Self-instructional training relies largely on rule-governed behavior. When a child selfinstructs himself/herself for performing a task, the child is following self-stated rules.

12. Q: In a sentence each, outline the four steps of rational problem-solving. [Level 2/C] A: (a) problem definition, in which the client is encouraged to define the problem precisely; (b) generation of alternatives, in which the client is helped to brainstorm possible solutions to the problem; (c) decision-making, in which the client is encouraged to consider the pros and cons of the various alternative solutions, and to select the best alternative; (d) implementation and verification, in which the client carries out the best solution to the problem, and tracks progress to ensure the problem is solved.

13. Q: What is mindfulness as Buddhists and behavior therapists use the term? [Level 2/C] A: “Mindfulness” involves awareness, observation, and description of one’s covert and overt behaviors, as they occur, in a non-judgmental way, as well as (in some cases) observation of the antecedents and consequences of those behaviors.

14. Q: What is acceptance as cognitive behavior therapists use the term? [Level 2/C] A: “Acceptance” refers to a set of behaviors in reaction to mindfulness activities, including refraining from judging one’s sensations, thoughts, feelings, and behaviors as good or bad, pleasant or unpleasant, useful or useless, etc.

15. Q: Briefly describe the three phases of ACT. [Level 2/C] A: Three phases of ACT are: (a) use of metaphors, paradoxes, stories, and other verbal techniques by a therapist so the client learns that past attempts to control troublesome thoughts and emotions have not only been unsuccessful but have led to more of the same thoughts and emotions; (b) mindfulness training and acceptance exercises to teach the client to experience thoughts and emotions non-judgmentally (including those that are troublesome); and (c) clients are encouraged to identify values in various life domains (i.e., work, family, health) and translate these values into achievable goals and identify behaviors needed to achieve the goals (commitment).

16. Q: Briefly explain one of the assumptions of the philosophy of dialectics. [Level 2/C] 111

A: One assumption is that opposing arguments – thesis and antithesis – lead to a new thesis and antithesis, and the process continues until truth is reached.

17. Q: What are two of the reasons that Linehan added the term dialectical to her approach to behavior therapy? [Level 2/C] A: (a) Because the therapeutic relationship often involves opposing views of the therapist and the client that must eventually come together. (b) The client initially has very negative views about him or herself and important others that eventually must be mindfully viewed and accepted so that the client can learn to take constructive action in spite of such views.

18. Q: Briefly describe several of the therapeutic phases of DBT. [Level 2/C] A: (a) The early part of therapy focuses on helping the client express what he/she hopes to get out of therapy. (b) A client is encouraged to non-judgmentally observe and describe his/her overt and covert behaviors, especially those that are potentially harmful to the client or others, or that might interfere with treatment. During therapy, the client learns to identify, label, and accept various troubling emotions and thoughts. (c) Interpersonal skills are eventually targeted so that clients learn to say no, ask for what they need, and appropriately interact with others in their lives. (d) After clients have learned to accept aspects of their lives without distortion, judgment, or evaluation, then they are much more likely to be able to learn to follow specific behavioral strategies for achieving their therapeutic goals.

19. Q: Describe how the second phase of both ACT and DBT are similar, and how the third phase of ACT is similar to the fourth phase of DBT. [Level 3/App] A: The second phase of both ACT and DBY involve mindfulness training and acceptance exercises. The third phase of ACT and the fourth phase of DBT both involve helping clients to identify and pursue valued goals in their lives.

20. Q: Give an example that illustrates how a person’s self-statements (operant thinking) can function as CSs to elicit the respondent components of an emotion. (You might want to review Chapter 17.) [Level 3/App] A: Any appropriate example, such as a person thinking, “If I win a million dollar lottery, I will buy a condo on the ocean in Florida,” which causes the respondent components of excitement such as increased heart rate, etc.

21. Q: Give an example that illustrates how a person’s self-statements might exert rule-governed control over that person’s behavior. (You might want to review Chapter 19.) [Level 3/App] A: For example, when deciding what to have for dinner, a person might say to himself, “I haven’t had pasta for awhile. I think I’ll go to the Italian restaurant just down the street.”

That rule might influence the person to go to the Italian restaurant. Any appropriate example is acceptable.

22. Q: Give an example that illustrates how cognitive therapists capitalize on rule-governed behavior to help their clients. [Level 3/App] A: Suppose that a client frequently makes such irrational statements as “I can’t do anything right.” A therapist might teach such a client to rehearse rules such as “I do some things quite well. I make an excellent spaghetti sauce and I will do so tonight,” etc. If the client follows these latter rules, doing so will likely be reinforced in the natural environment and the experience may counteract the prior irrational self-talk. Any appropriate example is acceptable.

23. Q: From a behavioral point of view, summarize why cognitive restructuring techniques might be effective. [Level 5/S] A: Some cases of cognitive restructuring might be effective because the therapist teaches the 112

client to rehearse rules that identify specific behaviors that are likely to be maintained in the natural environment. Cases of cognitive restructuring are likely to be ineffective if the rules provided by the therapist do not identify specific behaviors that lead to environmental consequences, or if the client is deficient in the behaviors specified by the rules.

24. Q: What is one explanation of why both self-instruction and problem-solving training might be effective therapeutic techniques? [Level 2/C] A: Self-instruction and problem solving training might be effective because they teach the client to emit rule-governed behavior that leads to effective consequences.

25. Q: Briefly describe two behavioral explanations that might explain why mindfulness and acceptance-based procedures are therapeutic. [Level 2/C] A: Mindfulness and acceptance procedures might be effective because: (a) non-judgmentally observing ongoing sensations displaced the behavior of irrational thinking and the negative emotions elicited by it, and (b) once the sensations characteristic of troublesome thoughts and emotions are accepted as simply responses, then the client may be more amenable to the identification of various life values, the articulation of goals or rules that represent those values, and the commitment to specific behavior to achieve those goals.

26. Q: Discuss whether reputable behavior modifiers deny the existence and importance of thoughts and feelings. [Level 4/An] A: They do not. They recognize that people engage in private verbal behavior (i.e., they talk silently to themselves), they experience imagery (i.e., covert seeing and other types of overt sensing), and they experience feelings (the respondent component of emotions). However thoughts and feelings do not appear to involve any behavior principles beyond those discussed in this book.

Answers to [and Levels of] Questions for Further Learning 1.Q: With an example, illustrate the bidirectionality aspect of relational framing. [Level 3/App] A: Relational frames exhibit bi-directionality (or mutual entailment). It is involved in all relational frames (i.e., smaller than and bigger than, slower than and faster than, duller than and brighter than, etc.). For example, if you know that two nickels equals one dime, you also know that one dime equals two nickels.

2. Q: With an example, illustrate the combinatorial entailment aspect of relational framing.

[Level 3/App] A: Relational frames show combinatorial entailment. For example, if a child learns that two is larger than one and three is larger than two, he will also know that three is larger than one.

3. Q: With an example, illustrate how relational framing involves transformation of stimulus functions among related stimuli. [Level 3/App] A: Relational frames display transformation of stimulus function. That is, if a child learns the equivalence class for bear (i.e., knows the spoken word “bear,” the written word “bear,” and an actual bear), and then witnesses a bear in the woods and is frightened, the spoken word and written word “bear” will then elicit fear in the child.

4. Q: Briefly describe the three steps that a therapist might follow in teaching a client to use thought-stopping to terminate distressing thoughts. [Level 2/C] A: The basic steps are: (a) the therapist instructs the client to think a particular thought and then suddenly yells, “Stop!”; (b) the client is then taught to yell “Stop!” while thinking a particular thought; (c) over trials, the self-instruction (by the client), “Stop!” is faded to the private level so that eventually silently yelling “Stop!” will cause the thoughts to cease.

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CHAPTER 27 PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS TREATED BY BEHAVIORAL AND COGNITIVE BEHAVIORAL THERAPIES Answers to [and Levels of] Questions for Learning 1. Q: What are empirically supported therapies (ESTs)? [Level 2/C] A: Empirically supported therapies (ESTs) are therapies that have been proven to be effective in scientifically conducted clinical trials.

2. Q: Why do empirically supported therapies often turn out to be BTs or CBTs? [Level 2/C] A: ESTs typically are behavioral or cognitive-behavioral treatments because the behavioral approach emphasizes basing treatments on well-established principles, measuring the outcomes of treatments in objectively-defined behaviors, and altering treatments that are not producing satisfactory results.

3. Q: What is a specific phobia? [Level 1/K] A: A specific phobia is an intense, irrational, incapacitating fear of a stimulus class.

4. Q: List three classes of specific phobias, and give two examples of each. [Level 2/C] A: (a) Animal type (e.g., fear of dogs, spiders, birds); (b) situational type (e.g., fear of enclosed spaces, flying); and (c) natural environment type (e.g., fear of heights, storms). Other types are acceptable.

5. Q: What is a fear hierarchy? [Level 2/C] A: A fear hierarchy is a list of fear-eliciting stimuli arranged in order from the least-to-themost fear-eliciting.

6. Q: Define systematic desensitization. [Level 2/C] A: Systematic desensitization is a procedure for overcoming a phobia by having a client in a relaxed state successively imagine the items in a fear hierarchy.

7. Q: Using an example, briefly describe the three phases of systematic desensitization of a specific phobia. [Level 2/C] A: Systematic desensitization for arachnophobia (fear of spiders): (1) therapist helps individual to develop a fear hierarchy, of 10-25 stimuli related to the feared stimulus that are ordered from least feared to most feared (e.g., from being outside to actually seeing a spider); (2) client learns deep muscle relaxation: tension-relaxation applied to muscles of all areas of the body that allows the individual to be able to relax deeply in minutes (after several training sessions); (3) actual therapy: the client relaxes and imagines the least fearinducing scene on the list (being outside), then relaxes for 15-30 seconds. This continues from least-to-most fear-inducing scenes on the list unless the client experiences anxiety, then the therapist returns to the previous scene. By the last scene (seeing an actual spider), the client should be able to encounter a spider without distress.

8. Q: Describe the fundamental difference between flooding and systematic desensitization.

[Level 2/C] A: The model for systematic desensitization is counterconditioning, establishing a relaxation response to the feared stimuli, whereas the model for flooding is extinction. With flooding, the assumption is that if an individual is exposed to the feared stimuli and is not allowed to escape from them, and no aversive event follows, then the fear response to the stimuli will extinguish.

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9. Q: Briefly illustrate an example of how in vivo flooding might be used to treat a specific phobia. [Level 3/App] A: In vivo flooding may be used to treat agoraphobia by placing a person in a crowd where he or she will be safe and should not incur any aversive stimuli. The individual’s fear will be elicited at full intensity and when nothing bad happens, his or her fear will hopefully decrease or extinguish. Other appropriate examples are acceptable.

10. Q: Briefly illustrate an example of how participant modeling might be used to treat a specific phobia. [Level 3/App] A: Participant modelling may be used to treat arachnophobia by the therapist modelling an approach to the feared stimulus (spider). The modelling may occur in a graded fashion. For example, the therapist models approaching a spider in a cage, then places it closer to the client, then removes the spider and holds it near the client and eventually asks the client to touch or hold it. At each step the client is praised for modelling the therapist. Any appropriate example is acceptable.

11. Q: What is the defining characteristic of exposure-based therapies? [Level 2/C] Give an example of a nonexposure therapy? [Level 3/App] A: A defining characteristic of exposure-based therapies is that they involve exposure—either in imagination or in vivo—of the client to the feared stimulus or stimuli. Cognitive restructuring (i.e. helping a client to overcome irrational thinking that is thought to cause problems) would be an example of a non-exposure based therapy. ACT, another non-exposure therapy, has also been used in the treatment of specific phobias.

12. Q: List and briefly describe four types of anxiety disorder. [Level 2/C] A: Any four of the following: (a) Specific phobia: a persistent, irrational fear of a circumscribed stimulus or stimuli organized around some theme, such as fear of heights. (b) Panic Disorder: attacks that may include heart rate abnormalities, sweating, trembling, shortness of breath (smothered feeling), choking feeling, chest pain, nausea, dizziness, feeling of unreality, numbness or tingling, chills/hot flashes, fear of going crazy, losing control or fear of dying. These attacks seem to come “out of the blue.” (c) Agoraphobia: which literally means fear of the marketplace, and is an intense fear of going out in public or leaving the confines of one’s home. (d) Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD): constant worry and feeling anxious over things that most people consider trivial, unimportant, or unlikely.

Individuals are so consumed by anxiety that it interferes with normal functioning, often including inability to sleep at night. (e) Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD): Impaired functioning due to an attempt to avoid thinking about a traumatic event or events (e.g., accident, sexual abuse, etc.) and avoidance of stimuli that are reminders of the event(s).

13. Q: Briefly describe an effective treatment for panic disorder. [Level 2/C] A: An effective treatment for panic disorder typically includes a behavioral component involving exposure to feared situations, and a cognitive component to help change the client’s misconceptions about panic attacks.

14. Q: In several sentences, describe an effective treatment for posttraumatic stress disorder.

[Level 2/C] A: An effective treatment for posttraumatic stress disorder is long-term vicarious exposure to the event or events that caused the problem. This may be done through imagination, talking about the event with a therapist, or writing about it. This way, the emotions elicited by the stimuli related to the trauma will extinguish and the debilitating attempts to avoid those stimuli will decrease.

15. Q: What is the distinction between obsessions and compulsions, and how might they be related? [Level 4/An] 116

A: The distinction between obsessions and compulsions is that obsessions are unwanted intrusive thoughts or feelings to engage in unproductive repetitive behavior and compulsions are repetitive behaviors caused by compulsions.

16. Q: Briefly describe an effective treatment for OCD. [Level 2/C] A: An effective treatment for OCD is in vivo exposure and response prevention (the client is encouraged to engage in a behavior that leads to an obsession, while the compulsive behavior is prevented). For example, an obsession about leaving the stove on when leaving the house is evoked and the individual is allowed to only check once before leaving.

17. Q: Briefly describe, with reference to an example, how cognitive restructuring might be used in the treatment of an OCD. [Level 2/C] A: Cognitive restructuring can be used in treating OCD by changing an individual’s selfstatements that help to maintain the obsession. For example, if someone has obsessive thoughts about turning off the stove every time they leave the house, they may tell themselves, “The stove is off, I didn’t even use it today.” Any appropriate example is acceptable.

18. Q: Briefly describe, with reference to an example, how acceptance procedures might be used in the treatment of an OCD. [Level 2/C] A: Acceptance procedures may also be used in the treatment of an OCD by helping an individual to accept that thoughts are not controllers of behavior. The individual may learn to think of thoughts such as worrying about germs as “mental garbage” which has no bearing on how clean they are or their worth as a person. Any appropriate example is acceptable.

19. Q: Briefly describe the behavioral characteristics of clinical depression. [Level 2/C] A: For individuals suffering from clinical depression, their appetite is usually reduced, they experience decreased energy and increased fatigue, and they report an impaired ability to think, concentrate, or make decisions, and they often experience a sense of worthlessness or guilt.

20. Q: What is the behavioral theory of depression referred to as behavioral activation?

[Level 2/C] In a sentence, state what is behavioral activation treatment for depression designed to do? [Level 2/C] A: The behavioral theory of depression referred to as behavioral activation states that “individuals become depressed when there is an imbalance of punishment to positive reinforcement in their lives.” Behavioral activation seeks to increase the patients contact with sources of reward by helping them get more active and improve one’s life context.

21. Q: What are the components of Sobell and Sobell’s program for problem drinkers.

[Level 2/C] A: The Sobell and Sobell program teaches problem drinkers to use goal-setting to drink in moderation, to control “triggers” for drinking, to learn problem-solving skills to avoid high risk situations, to engage in self-monitoring to detect controlling cues and maintaining consequences of drinking behaviors, and to practice all of the above with various homework assignments.

22. Q: Briefly describe four components that behavioral programs have incorporated for treating alcohol and other addictive-substance-use disorders.

[Level 2/C] A: (a) A motivational interview, in which the therapist asks the client questions about the problem, the answers to which act as motivational establishing operations for change; (b) coping skills training to teach clients to deal with stressors that are thought to cause 117

excessive alcohol consumption; (c) contingency contracting to provide reinforcers for work, social, and recreational activities that do not involve alcohol; and (d) self-control strategies to prevent relapse.

23. Q: List four types of eating disorders. [Level 2/C] A: Four types of eating disorder include: (a) bulimia nervosa; (b) anorexia nervosa; (c) binge eating disorder; and (d) obesity.

24. Q: Name the type of treatment the Division 12 website lists for each of the four types of eating disorders? [Level 2/C] A: The Division 12 website lists family-based treatment for anorexia nervosa, CBT for bulimia nervosa, CBT and interpersonal psychotherapy for binge eating, and behavioralweight-loss treatment for obesity.

25. Q: List and briefly describe four components of behavioral couples therapy. [Level 2/C] A: (a) Instigation of positive exchanges in which each spouse increases behaviors that are pleasing to the other partner; (b) communication training to help couples express to each other what they like and don’t like; (c) problem-solving training to help spouses identify and solve problems in their relationship; and (d) programming for generality of treatment by having clients monitor critical aspects of their relationship, and encouraging clients to continue using problem-solving and other techniques.

26. Q: Describe a general behavioral approach to the treatment of sexual dysfunction.

[Level 2/C] A: On the assumption that anxiety is an important factor in many cases of sexual dysfunction, behavioral treatment usually involves exposure programs in which couples engage in pleasurable stimulation of each other in a relaxing atmosphere without expectation of, or pressure to, engage in intercourse. Both partners shift the goal from performance to that of experiencing pleasure.

27. Q: Describe the three components of habit reversal.

[Level 2/C] A: (a) The client learns to describe and identify the problem behavior; (b) the client learns and practices a behavior that is incompatible with or competes with the problem behavior; (c) for motivation, the client reviews the inconvenience of the problem behavior, and has a family member provide reinforcement for engaging in treatment.

Answers to [and Levels of] Questions for Further Learning 1. Q: What are two criticisms of the current emphasis on ESTs? [Level 4/An] A: For treatments to be well-established, they must meet the following criteria: (a) at least two well-controlled studies with random assignment of participants demonstrating that the treatment is better than a pill or psychological placebo (either a therapeutically ineffective pill or a psychological procedure) or is equivalent to an existing established treatment; (b) the treatment is described precisely in a manual; (c) client characteristics in the research were clearly specified; and (d) research was conducted in at least two independent research settings.

2. Q: What is virtual reality therapy? [Level 2/C] Give an example. [Level 2/C] A: Virtual reality therapy consists of a method for presenting fear-producing stimuli through computer-generated virtual reality technology in which clients wear a head-mounted display that provides a computer-generated view of a virtual reality environment. This technology makes it possible to present fear-producing stimuli in therapy that are difficult to arrange for in-vivo exposure to them, such as violent thunderstorms.

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3. Q: In applications of CM approaches to nicotine and opiate addictions, how is substance-use measured? [Level 2/C] A: Analysis of CO levels in the breath is used as a measure of whether an individual has refrained from smoking. Urine samples are used to measure abstinence from opiate drugs.

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CHAPTER 28 GIVING IT ALL SOME PERSPECTIVE: A BRIEF HISTORY Answers to [and Levels of] Questions for Learning 1. Q: Describe how Pavlov demonstrated Pavlovian conditioning with dogs. [Level 2/C] A: Pavlov paired a bell with food presented to a dog several times, and each time the food caused the dog to salivate. After several pairings, the presentation of the bell by itself caused the dog to salivate.

2. Q: What are two other names for Pavlovian conditioning? [Level 1/K] A: Respondent conditioning, classical conditioning.

3. Q: Describe how Watson and Rayner demonstrated Pavlovian conditioning of a fear response in an 11-month-old infant. [Level 2/C] A: Watson and Rayner first demonstrated that the presentation of a white rat to the child did not cause fear. Then after several pairings of the white rat with a loud noise which caused the infant to shown signs of fear, the child then exhibited fear to the rat when presented by itself.

4. Q: How did Joseph Wolpe extend the principle of reciprocal inhibition? [Level 2/C] A: Wolpe extended the principle of reciprocal inhibition by postulating that if a response that is incompatible with a learned fear or anxiety can be made to occur to a stimulus that had been conditioned to produce that fear, then that stimulus would cease to elicit the fear reaction.

5. Q: What did Wolpe call his procedure for using relaxation to inhibit a learned fear?

[Level 1/K] A: Systematic desensitization.

6. Q: What role did Hans Eysenck play in the development of behavior therapy in the 1950s?

[Level 2/C] A: He criticized traditional Freudian psychoanalytic treatment procedures, and advocated behavior therapy procedures as an alternative. In addition, he helped popularize Wolpe’s work in a book of readings entitled Behavior Therapy and Neuroses.

7. Q: What is operant conditioning? [Level 2/C] A: Operant conditioning is a type of learning in which behavior is modified by its consequences.

8. Q: In what way was the Keller and Schoenfeld book Principles of Psychology unlike other introductory psychology texts of its day? [Level 2/C] A: Their text differed from other introductory psychology texts in that it discussed traditional topics in psychology, such as motivation and emotion, in terms of operant and respondent conditioning principles.

9. Q: How did Skinner’s Science and Human Behavior influence the initial development of behavior modification? [Level 2/C] A: In 1953, Skinner published Science and Human Behavior. Although there was very little supporting data for Skinner’s generalizations to humans, his interpretation influenced others to begin examining the effects of reinforcement variables on human behavior in a number of experimental and applied settings. The results of these efforts led to the development of the operant approach to behavior modification.

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10. Q: Many of the early reports in the operant tradition in the 1950s were straightforward experiments that demonstrated that consequences influence human behavior. Briefly, describe two such experiments. [Level 2/C] A: Fuller demonstrated that a bed-ridden, profoundly developmentally disabled adult could be taught to raise his right arm to a vertical position when arm movements were appropriately shaped, using a sugar-milk solution as the reinforcer. Greenspoon demonstrated that simple verbal consequences could influence college students to say certain types of words.

Other appropriate examples are also acceptable.

11. Q: Briefly describe one of the first published reports (a very influential one) that concerned practical applications within the operant tradition. [Level 2/C] A: One such report was that by Ayllon and Michael, which demonstrated that staff in a mental institution could utilize reinforcement procedures to modify such patient behaviors as delusional talk, refusals to eat, and various disruptive behaviors.

12. Q: The publications of the early 1960s within the operant orientation seem to have been characterized by two features. What were they? [Level 2/C] A: (a) Much of it was done with very resistant populations (such as severely developmentally disabled persons) that had not received a great deal of successful input from traditional psychology. (b) Many of the applications took place in institutional or highly controlled settings.

13. Q: Was the influential book Case Studies in Behavior Modification strictly within the operant orientation? [Level 1/K] Why or why not? [Level 2/C] A: No. It also included many studies and discussions of Pavlovian-Hullian orientation.

14. Q: Distinguish between the behavioral model and the medical model of abnormal behavior.

[Level 4/An] A: The behavioral model of abnormal behavior suggests that abnormal behavior is a function of specifiable environmental causes, and that it is possible to rearrange the environment so that the behavior can be changed or improved. The medical model of abnormal behavior considers abnormal behavior as a symptom of an underlying disturbance in a personality mechanism, with the implication that one must treat the underlying personality disturbance through Freudian psychoanalysis, rather than treating the observed symptoms by rearranging the environment.

15. Q: What is another name for the operant orientation? [Level 1/K] A: Applied behavior analysis.

16. Q: What are the names of two major behavior modification/behavior therapy journals first published in the 1960s (see Table 28.1)? [Level 1/K] A: Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, Behavior Research and Therapy.

17. Q: What does the term cognitive processes mean? [Level 2/C] A: Cognitive processes refer to things that we say to ourselves or imagine, which are frequently called, “believing,” “thinking,” and “expecting.”

18. Q: Who was the most influential of the social learning theorists? [Level 2/C] What did that person strongly emphasize throughout his 1969 book? [Level 2/C] A: Social learning theory’s most influential proponent was Albert Bandura. In his 1969 book he strongly emphasized learning by imitation, or observational learning.

19. Q: Briefly, how did cognitive therapists Ellis and Beck explain maladaptive behaviors, and what method did they propose to treat them? [Level 2/C] A: They believed that dysfunctional thinking caused maladaptive behaviors, and they 121

proposed cognitive restructuring as a treatment method.

20. Q: Who first used the term behavior therapy and in what context? [Level 2/C] A: Lindsley, Skinner, and Soloman were the first to use the term behavior therapy, and they did so in a report describing some research in which psychotic patients in a mental hospital were reinforced with candy or cigarettes for pulling a plunger.

21. Q: Describe four differences in the usage of the terms behavior therapy/cognitive behavior modification versus behavior modification during the 1960s and 1970s (Table 28.2).

[Level 5/S] A: See Table 28-2.

22. Q: In a sentence for each, distinguish between the terms cognitive behavior therapy, applied behavior analysis, and behavior modification as they tend to be used today. [Level 4/An] A: Cognitive behavior therapy is behavior modification carried out on dysfunctional behavior, generally in a clinical setting. Applied behavior analysis emphasizes the application of operant conditioning principles in which there is often an attempt to analyze or clearly demonstrate controlling variables of the behavior of concern. Behavior modification is a broader term that includes both cognitive behavior therapy and applied behavior analysis.

Answers to [and Levels of] Questions for Further Learning 1. Q: How did Aristotle’s view of the soul differ from that of Plato’s? [Level 2/C] A: Plato viewed the soul as the source of behavior; he called it the “psyche,” and he believed it was separate from the body and continues after we die. His student, Aristotle, differed in that he thought the soul was simply a “form” or functioning of the body (including behavior). Plato’s view had a greater influence on Western European theologians and philosophers.

2. Q: Briefly state a contribution each of the following made to the behavioral approach: [Level 2/C] a. Descartes b. the British empiricists c. the Russian reflexologists d. the functionalists A: (a) Descartes was the first to articulate a clear distinction between the body and the soul.

He described the body as a machine operating on the basis of reflexes and guidance from a soul comprised of an immaterial, non-spatially extended substance. (b) The British Associationists replaced the word “soul” with the more scientific word “mind,” which came from an Old English word pertaining to memory or thought. (c) The Russian Reflexologists performed experiments on establishing new reflexes (“association reflexes” [Bechterev] or “conditional reflexes” [Pavlov]). They based their ideas on Descartes’ concept of reflexes.

Their basic ideas were later incorporated into the behavioral approach. (d) The Functionalists (William James) based their theory on Darwin’s theory of evolution and advocated studying the mind’s role in the adaptation of the individual to its environment.

They studied both animal and human learning.

3. Q: Name three countries that were important in the development of behavior modification in the 1950s and the person most associated with this development in each of these countries. [Level 2/C] A: South Africa; Joseph Wolpe; England: Hans Eysenck; United States: B. F. Skinner.

4. Q: Cite three of Skinner’s contributions other than his basic research and theoretical writings. [Level 2/C] A: (a) Wrote a Utopian novel; (b) Worked on a project to teach pigeons to guide missiles during the Second World War; and (c) Developed the concept of programmed instruction and teaching machines.

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5. Q: In what Latin American country did Keller accept an academic position in 1961, and what contribution did he make to behavior modification while there? [Level 2/C] A: Brazil. While there, Keller established the first operant conditioning course, worked with Brazilian colleagues to develop PSI, and contributed to the development of behavior modification.

6. Q: To which of the two major orientations did Hull and his followers Dollard and Miller mainly contribute, and briefly what were their contributions? [Level 2/C] A: Hull developed a learning theory that meshed together operant and respondent conditioning into a theory that did not distinguish between the two types of conditioning.

Dollard and Miller translated Freudian psychodynamic concepts into the language of Hull’s learning theory. Their book had an influence in the early days of behavior modification, but mostly in the respondent and Wolpean orientation.

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CHAPTER 29 ETHICAL ISSUES Answers to [and Levels of] Questions for Learning 1. Q: Describe in behavioral terms how the history of civilization is a story of the continuous abuse of power. [Level 5/S] From your knowledge of history or current events, give an example of this abuse. [Level 3/App] A: Throughout the ages, various groups have used the reinforcers and punishers at their disposal to control the behavior of less powerful groups (groups who had fewer reinforcers and punishers to deliver, or who lacked the means to deliver them contingent on selected target behaviors). Examples might include the subjugation or exploitation of one nation by another, U.S. and Soviet imperialism as in Vietnam and Eastern Europe, and the exploitation of one group by another within a nation (e.g., exploitation of slaves by masters). Any appropriate example is acceptable.

2. Q: From your knowledge of history or current events, give an example of what often happens when the reinforcements occurring to one group in a society fall below a certain critical level relative to the reinforcements occurring to another group in that society. [Level 5/S] A: Any appropriate example in which a group with fewer reinforcers revolted against a group controlling more reinforcers, or undertook other action to bring about a more equal distribution of the reinforcers. Examples might include national revolutions, the labor movement, strikes, black power, red power, Chicano power, women’s liberation, gay liberation, and the French separatist movement in Canada.

3. Q: From a behavioral point of view, how might we account for constitutions, bills of rights, and related political documents of modern states? [Level 4/An] A: Political documents can be seen as formal specifications of contingencies designed to control the behavior of those who control the behavior of others.

4. Q: Explain why we tend to react negatively to all overt attempts to control our behavior.

[Level 2/C] A: Because of a cultural history in which power has often been abused and because of our personal experiences with people who have abused their power (i.e., used it for their own benefit and to the disadvantage of those over whom they exerted control).

5. Q: Why and how do people who would control our behavior disguise their aims? [Level 5/S] Give an example of this that is not in the text. [Level 3/App] A: They disguise their aims by making it appear that they are not controlling our behavior, because if their aims were too obvious, people would strongly resist them. An example that is not in the text might be a politician pretending that he or she is not interested in becoming president or prime minister, while at the same time doing things to help make this happen. Other plausible examples are also acceptable.

6. Q: State two propositions on which behavior modification is based. [Level 2/C] A: (a) Behavior can be controlled; and (b) it is desirable to do so in order to achieve certain objectives.

7. Q: Why is extreme wariness a healthy reaction to any new development in science or technology? [Level 4/An] Discuss an example of this. [Level 4/An] 124

A: Extreme wariness can lead people to take appropriate precautions to prevent a new technology from “getting out of hand” and being abused. Students may give any example in which technology has “gotten out of hand” because people did not take appropriate precautions when it was first developed, or may be on the verge of “getting out of hand.”

8. Q: From a behavioral point of view, what does the term ethics mean? [Level 2/C] A: From a behavioral point of view, the term “ethics” refers to certain standards of behavior that are developed by a culture and promote the survival of that culture.

9. Q: Describe how ethics has evolved as a part of our culture. [Level 3/App] A: Within a culture, certain ways of behaving evolved that were accepted and reinforced, whereas other ways of behaving evolved that were not accepted and/or were punished. For example, many cultures evolved that reinforced non-stealing behavior and punished stealing. Presumably, cultures in which honest behavior toward material possessions was not reinforced and stealing not punished tended not to survive. This may have been for many reasons. Whatever the reasons, many cultures consider non-stealing to be ethical or right, and stealing unethical or wrong. Other behavioral practices (ethics) presumably evolved similarly.

10. Q: In a sentence explain when, from a behavioral point of view, ethical guidelines represent an important source of behavioral control. [Level 2/C] A: Ethical guidelines are an important source of behavioral control when immediate reinforcers influence an individual to behave in a way that leads to aversive stimuli for others.

11. Q: Using an example, explain how ethical guidelines involve rule-governed control over behavior. [Level 2/C] A: Consider the ethical guideline “Thou shalt not steal.” That guideline might imply a rule specifying legal contingencies (e.g., “If you steal another’s possessions, you will be fined or sent to jail.”), and sometimes that guideline implies a rule based on religious beliefs (e.g., “If you steal, you will go to hell, rather than heaven, when you die.”). In either instance, the guideline is likely to exert rule-governed control over behavior (and minimize stealing). Other appropriate examples are acceptable.

12. Q: Explain why all helping professions are involved in the control of behavior whether or not their practitioners realize it. [Level 2/C] Give an example. [Level 2/C] A: All social help professions are involved in helping people solve their problems and/or improve themselves. This necessarily implies changing their behavior, which means “controlling” behavior. An example might be teaching someone to read, which requires bringing that person’s behavior under the appropriate control of printed or written words. Any other appropriate example is acceptable.

13. Q: Discuss the relative merits of planning versus not planning for behavior change.

[Level 4/An] A: Unless one is lazy or is interested in “spontaneity” for its own sake, there seems to be little merit in not planning for behavior change. On the other hand, one is much more likely to achieve desirable behavior changes if one plans for them. Conversely, lack of planning may result in the introduction of contingencies that produce undesirable behavior.

14. Q: Discuss countercontrol. [Level 4/An] Why is it important? [Level 6/E] A: Countercontrol is the reciprocal of control. It is the influence that the controllee has on the controller by virtue of access to suitable reinforcers. For example, in a therapeutic relationship, countercontrol would refer to the amount of control that the 125

client can exert over the therapist (such as by direct social contact, by withholding fee for service, or by some other means). It is important because it is one way of ensuring ethical behavior on the part of the therapist or the controller in a given situation.

15. Q: What was a primary conclusion of the comprehensive report by Stolz qnd Associates on the ethical issues involved in behavior modification? [Level 2/C] A: That persons engaged in any type of psychological intervention should subscribe to and follow the ethical codes and standards of their profession.

16. Q: What steps can be taken to help ensure that an applied behavior analyst or behavior therapist is appropriately qualified? [Level 2/C] A: The client should ensure that the behavior modifier describes clearly his or her credentials, and that he or she is a member of the local state, or provincial Psychological Association. Clients might also check to see if the behavior modifier is a member of ABAI or ABCT (although these associations do not assess a behavior modifier’s competencies), or if the behavior modifier is certified by the Behavior Analysis Certification Board, or the American Board of Behavioral Psychology.

17. Q: State two countercontrol measures regarding the definition of problems and selection of goals. [Level 2/C] A: (a) The client can require the behavior modifier to clearly specify his or her values relating to the client’s problems. (b) The client should be an active participant in the selection of goals and identification of target behaviors (or have a competent impartial third party to do so).

18. Q: In a sentence, what should be the characteristics of the intervention methods used by behavior modifiers? [Level 2/C] A: Behavior analysts should use the most effective, empirically validated interventions with the least discomfort and fewest negative side effects.

19. Q: Discuss three possible meanings of intrusive and restrictive interventions. [Level 4/An] A: (a) Interventions based on positive reinforcement are considered to be less intrusive than interventions based on aversive control. (b) Interventions where clients are given choices and allowed freedom of movement in a therapeutic environment are considered less intrusive and restrictive than interventions where there are fewer choices or less freedom of movement. (c) Interventions that capitalize on natural reinforcers are generally considered to be less intrusive and restrictive than those that capitalize on contrived or deliberately- programmed reinforcers.

20. Q: Describe a mechanism to facilitate informed consent. [Level 2/C] A: A mechanism to facilitate informed consent is the signing of a client-therapist contract that clearly outlines the objectives and methods of treatment, the framework for the service to be provided, and the contingencies of remuneration that may be forthcoming to the therapist.

21.Q: What constitutes the cornerstone for ensuring ethical and effective treatment programs by behavior modifers? [Level 2/C] A: (a) Defining problems in terms of behavior that can be measured in some way; (b) using changes in the behavioral measure of the problem as the best indicator of the extent to which the problem is being helped; (c) sharing the data (from a and b) with all concerned parties and with periodic peer evaluations.

22. Q: Briefly explain why it should be difficult to use behavior modification to the detriment of any group whose members are well versed in the principles and tactics of behavior 126

modification. [Level 2/C] A: A group of people who are well-versed in the principles and tactics of behavior modification can recognize when behavior modification is being used to their disadvantage, and can take appropriate countermeasures, such as using behavior modification against their controllers.

Answers to [and Levels of] Questions for Further Learning 1. Q: Discuss Skinner’s view that we must go “beyond freedom and dignity” if civilization is to solve some of its most difficult problems. [Level 4/An] A: Skinner argued that in the 18th century, the concept of freedom was a valuable rallying cry to spur people to break away from aversive forms of control used by dictators and tyrants. However, the concept of freedom may prevent us from seeing how our behavior is controlled by positive reinforcement. It may also influence us to give undue credit (more “dignity”) to those who are successful and to attribute undue blame to those who aren’t (given the assumption that we are all free to be masters of our own destiny), rather than recognizing that one’s achievements or failures are due to one’s conditioning history and genetic predispositions. Thus, we must go “beyond freedom and dignity” to recognize that we are all products of our environments.

2. Q: Give an example illustrating how governments use positive reinforcement to control behavior without citizens feeling that they are being controlled. [Level 3/App] A: Most people who happily buy tickets in a government-run lottery feel that they are “free” to do so, and they fail to recognize that their behavior is being controlled to the same extent as it would be if they were being “forced” to pay the same amount in taxes. It’s just that in one case the control is through positive reinforcement and in the other it is through aversive control.

3. Q: Discuss Prilleltensky’s approach for how psychologists can best help their clients.

[Level 4/An] A: Prilleltensky argued that psychologists can best help their clients by focusing on three levels: (a) the presenting problem of the client; (b) how to influence members of the community with whom the client interacts; and (c) the political level that consists of the laws and regulations that affect the client. He argues that focusing on all three levels will help the client function more fully in society.

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Practicum Exercises for Users of

Behavior Modification: What It Is and How to Do It Eleventh Edition

Practicum Exercise for Users of Behavior Modification: What It Is and How To Do It, 11th edition

Practicum #1 Behavioral Assessment As described in Chapter 3 on behavioral assessment, specifying problem behaviors precisely and devising ways to take data on the occurrence of problems are important components of effective behavior modification. The purposes of this practicum are to give you practice in specifying behaviors precisely, and identifying characteristics of behavior to be recorded.

You should proceed through the following steps: (a)

Turn to your neighbor(s) and select two or three partners to work with. You can either stay in the class, or go to a nearby cafeteria to complete the practicum.

(b)

Areas to Improve: Each person in your group should identify two or three areas for self-improvement or personal adjustment. List four such areas in the appropriate column on the following page. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5–10 mins.

(c)

Precise Definitions: Many self-improvement goals are somewhat vague, and include things like “having a positive attitude toward college,” or “improving a relationship.” Mager (1972) refers to such vague abstractions as “fuzzies.” A “fuzzy” is an acceptable starting point for identifying a selfimprovement area. However, you must then “unfuzzify” the abstraction by identifying the specific behaviors or outcomes that would cause you to agree that your goal has been achieved. For each of the “Areas to Improve” listed on the next page, identify the specific behaviors or outcomes that you would take as evidence that self-improvement has been successful. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15–20 mins.

(d)

Prioritizing: Next, review your list of specific behaviors on the next page and discuss them with the group with a view to prioritizing them as potential targets for behavior change. Justify your top 2 priority items (in terms of ease with which they can be changed, personal importance to the individual involved, potential value for others, etc.). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15–20 mins.

(e)

Characteristics to Record: Finally, considering the information in the chapter on “Direct Behavioral Assessment,” indicate the specific characteristic(s) that should be recorded for each of the behaviors on the list (i.e., frequency of..., duration of..., etc.). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5–10 mins.

(f)

Make sure that each person in the group PRINTS his or her name and SIGNS one copy of the worksheet, and hand in this signed copy at the end of class.

Practicum #1, Page 2 EACH STUDENT MUST PRINT AND SIGN THEIR OWN NAME.

General Areas to Improve

Precise Definition of Behavior to be Changed

Priority Rating

Characteristics to be Recorded

1.

2.

3.

4.

Justification for Priority Rating #1

Justification for Priority Rating #2

Practicum Exercise for Users of Behavior Modification: What It Is and How To Do It, 11th edition

Practicum #2 Positive Reinforcement As we described in Chapter 6, many of our behaviors are controlled by their consequences. A behavior that is followed by a positive reinforcer is strengthened and (as you will read in Chapter 8) a previously reinforced behavior that is not followed by a reinforcer is weakened. Although it may take several reinforced trials for there to be any noticeable increase in behavior, it is still reasonable to identify specific single instances of positive reinforcement. The purpose of this exercise is to help you to become more skillful at identifying instances of reinforcement, both with respect to the behavior of others and your own behavior.

You should proceed through the following steps: Part I (a)

(b)

Turn to your neighbor(s) and select one or two partners to work with, and go to a nearby cafeteria to complete the practicum.

Observe the behavior of others who are there. You might look at their social interactions, movements around the lounge, interaction with the staff selling coffee, etc. You should try to identify three separate instances of positive reinforcement involving reinforcers that are direct acting. Discuss them with your partners, and record them on the following page. Your description should be approximately as complete as in Table 6-1………….......................………………………………………25-35 mins.

Part II (c) Each person in your group should identify a problem behavior that they emit that they would like to decrease. Discuss the problem behaviors with others in your group, and pick two of the behaviors to describe for this practicum………………………………………………………………...5-10 mins. (d)

Record those behaviors on the following page. Then, discuss with those students probable reinforcer(s) that are maintaining the behaviors. Describe them on the following page. For each reinforcer identified in step (d), indicate whether or not it is direct acting or indirect acting, and describe the rationale for your choice………………………………………………………10-15 mins.

(e)

Make sure that each person in the group PRINTS his or her name and SIGNS one copy of the worksheet, and hand in this signed copy at the end of class.

Practicum #2, Page 2 EACH STUDENT MUST PRINT AND SIGN THEIR OWN NAME. PART I SITUATION

RESPONSE

IMMEDIATE CONSEQUENCES

LONG-TERM EFFECTS

DIRECT ACTING OR INDIRECT ACTING

REASONS FOR CHOICE (OF DIRECT VS INDIRECT)

(a)

(b)

(c)

PART II DESCRIPTION OF A PROBLEM BEHAVIOR

PROBABLE MAINTAINING REINFORCERS

(a)

(1)

(2)

(b)

(1)

(2)

Practicum Exercise for Users of Behavior Modification: What It Is and How To Do It, 11th edition

Practicum #3 Extinction Chapters 6 and 8 described the principles of positive reinforcement and extinction. The purpose of this practicum is to give you practice in designing an extinction program to decrease a behavioral excess.

Specifically, you should select a behavioral excess of your own or someone you know, and describe a plausible program incorporating extinction of the behavioral excess and positive reinforcement of a desirable alternative behavior. Your program should conform to the factors and guidelines for the effective use of extinction (see Chapter 6), and you should try to anticipate any pitfalls or potential problems.

You should proceed through the following steps: (a)

Turn to your neighbor(s) and select one or two partners to work with. You can either stay in the class, or go to a nearby cafeteria to complete the practicum.

(b)

Each person in the group should independently write down a behavioral excess of their own, or of someone they know, that they would like to decrease. When everyone has written down a behavior, read them to the other people in the group and record them on the following page. . . . . 5–10 mins

(c)

The group should select one of the behaviors to be used for completing the remainder of the practicum. The behavior chosen should be one for which it is possible to withhold the probable maintaining reinforcers if instances of the behavior occur during the extinction program. The behavior selected should be defined in detail on the following page……………………… …5 mins.

(d)

Discuss the program, how it will be set up, who will run it, and record the results on the following page, i.e., explain who will manage contingencies for the problem behavior, who will manage reinforcers for the desirable alternative behavior, etc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10–20 mins.

(e)

Explain how your program conforms to the guidelines and factors for the effective application of extinction, as described at the end of Chapter 8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10–20 mins.

(f)

Anticipate problems that might arise and indicate how they will be handled.. . . . . . . . . .10–15 mins.

(g)

Make sure that each person in the group PRINTS his or her name and SIGNS one copy of the worksheet, and hand in this signed copy at the end of class.

Practicum #3, Page 2 EACH STUDENT MUST PRINT AND SIGN THEIR OWN NAME.

From Step (b), Possible behaviors of students to decrease:

From Step (c), Behavior Chosen for Extinction Program: Problem behavior to decrease: Reinforcer to be withheld:

Alternative behavior to increase: Reinforcer to be applied:

From Step (d), Outline of program design (contingencies, setting, etc.):

From Step (e), Guidelines and factors for effective use of principles (justify your program with relevant guidelines):

From Step (f), Potential problems (if any) and how they might be handled:

Practicum Exercise for Users of Behavior Modification: What It Is and How To Do It, 11th edition

Practicum #4 Schedules of Reinforcement The purpose of this practicum is to give you practice in identifying schedules of reinforcement (see Chapter 10) as they influence behavior in everyday situations. We want you to go to a student lounge or cafeteria and observe the behavior of others who are there. Look for examples of behaviors that are being maintained by various schedules of reinforcement. In a “real life” situation, it is difficult to find examples that precisely fit the definitions you have learned, but look for reasonable approximations of these situations.

An example of a VI/LH schedule might be when a group of students is walking through the cafeteria looking for a table. The time spent looking for and selecting a table will vary, depending on how busy the cafeteria is at the particular time. Responding (i.e., selecting a particular table) before its occupants have moved will not be reinforced. However, the first response that occurs after the occupants of a table have left the cafeteria will be reinforced. The reinforcer would be obtaining an unoccupied table. There is a limited time during which the response must occur in order to be reinforced. If the students wait too long, it is likely that the table will be taken by other students.

You should proceed through the following steps: (a)

Turn to your neighbor(s) and select one or two partners to work with, and go to a cafeteria to complete the practicum.

(b)

Briefly review with your group the definitions of the schedules listed on the following page. ………………………………………………………………………………………… ….15–20 mins.

(c)

Observe the behaviors exhibited by the people in the cafeteria or lounge, and try to identify approximations of the reinforcement schedules listed on the following page. . . . . . . . . 25–40 mins.

(d)

Make sure that each person in the group PRINTS his or her name and SIGNS one copy of the worksheet, and hand in this signed copy at the end of class.

Practicum #4, Page 2 EACH STUDENT MUST PRINT AND SIGN THEIR OWN NAME. Identify examples of behaviors that are maintained on the following reinforcement schedules. For each example, specify the response that is being reinforced and the nature of the reinforcer. In addition, give a brief description of how the reinforcement schedule works in that particular situation (see example of VI/LH on previous page). Give one example for each of the schedules below.

Reinft.

Schedule

CRF

FR or VR

FI or FI/LH

VI or VI/LH

FD

Response

Reinforcer

Description

Practicum Exercise for Users of Behavior Modification: What It Is and How To Do It, 11th edition

Practicum #5 Stimulus Control As described in Chapter 11 on discrimination training, one of the events used to analyze behavior is the stimulus conditions that exist just prior to the occurrence of the behavior. From these conditions, we can identify two categories of stimuli: SD, a stimulus or an event that has been correlated with the availability of a reinforcer for a particular response; and S∆, a stimulus or event that has been correlated with extinction trials for a particular response.

In our everyday life, we learn to behave according to the stimuli presented in each situation. If you think of what you are doing right now, that is “reading,” your behavior is being controlled by the fact that a moment ago you were given specific instructions to read, you were given some written material, and you now have typed pages in front of you. These SDs all exert stimulus control over your reading behavior. Also, there are consequences specified for reading and performing this exercise in terms of the grade or points that you will receive. The purpose of this practicum is to give you practice in identifying examples of SDs and S∆s that control behavior in everyday life.

You should proceed through the following steps: (a)

Turn to your neighbor(s) and select one or two partners to work with. You can either stay in the class, or go to a nearby cafeteria to complete the practicum.

(b)

For the first part of this exercise, observe the behavior of those in the setting where you are located, and identify two different examples of SDs and two different examples of S∆s that appear to be controlling behavior in that setting. Record them in the appropriate columns on the following page…………………………………………………………………………………………15–20 mins.

(c)

For the second part of this exercise, consider the setting where one person in your group typically studies. Describe that setting on the following page……………………………………….10–15 mins.

(d)

Next, discuss with that person changes that might be made in the setting to help the person study more effectively. Describe those changes on the following page………………………….10–15 mins.

(e)

Make sure that each person in the group PRINTS his or her name and SIGNS one copy of the worksheet, and hand in this signed copy at the end of class.

Practicum #5, Page 2 EACH STUDENT MUST PRINT AND SIGN THEIR OWN NAME.

General Situation

Specific Stimulus Which Was an SD

Behavior Which Was Reinforced

General Situation

Specific Stimulus Which Was an S∆

Behavior Which Was Not Reinforced

Part I

Immediate Reinforcer(s)

1.

2.

1.

2.

Part II Describe the present study set-up for one student:

Describe changes that might be made in the study situation to help the student study more effectively. a) SDs for studying (i.e., cues that studying will be reinforced) that might be introduced:

b) SDs for competing Rs that might be eliminated:

Practicum Exercise for Users of Behavior Modification: What It Is and How To Do It, 11th edition

Practicum #6 Escape and Avoidance Conditioning As described in Chapter 16, many of our behaviors are influenced by escape or avoidance conditioning. The purpose of this exercise is to help you become more skillful at identifying instances of escape and avoidance conditioning in everyday life.

You should proceed through the following steps: (a)

Turn to your neighbor(s) and select one or two partners to work with. Then go to a nearby cafeteria to complete the practicum.

(b)

Observe the behavior of those in the setting where you are located, and try to identify instances of escape and avoidance conditioning. Alternatively, consider your own behavior during the past day or two and try to think of instances where you were influenced by escape or avoidance conditioning. ………………………………………………………………………………………………15–30 mins.

(c)

Record three separate instances of escape conditioning and three separate instances of avoidance conditioning on the following page. Do not describe instances that were already described in the text. ……………………………………………………………………………………………...15–30 mins.

(d)

Make sure that each person in the group PRINTS his or her name and SIGNS one copy of the worksheet, and hand in this signed copy at the end of class.

Practicum #6, Page 2 EACH STUDENT MUST PRINT AND SIGN THEIR OWN NAME. Part I: Describe three instances of escape conditioning.

Aversive Stimulus (or Situation)

Escape Response

Immediate Effects

Long-Term Effects

1.

2.

3.

Part II: Describe three instances of avoidance conditioning.

Situation

1.

2.

3.

Warning Stimulus

Avoidance Response

Any Immediate Effects? (Warning Stimulus Removed?)

Other Effects (Aversive Stimulus Avoided?)

Practicum Exercise for Users of Behavior Modification: What It Is and How To Do It, 11th edition

Practicum #7 Respondent and Operant Components of Emotions As described in Chapter 17, emotions have three important characteristics: (a) the autonomic reaction that you feel inside during the experience of an emotion, which is influenced by respondent conditioning; (b) the way that you learn to overtly express an emotion, which is influenced by operant conditioning; and (c) the way that you become aware of and describe your emotions, which is also influenced by operant conditioning. The purpose of this practicum is to give you some practice in analyzing the operant and respondent components of emotions.

You should proceed through the following steps: (a)

Turn to your neighbor(s) and select one or two partners to work with. Then go to a nearby cafeteria to complete the practicum.

(b)

Pick an emotion that you will analyze for this practicum. Record it on the following page…………………………………………………………………………………………5–10 mins.

(c)

Each person in the group should then indicate an event or situation where they typically experience that emotion. Record those causes on the following page. Also, indicate whether the causes involve the withdrawal or presentation of reinforcers or punishers………………………………..10–20 mins.

(d)

Each person should then indicate their typical operant displays of that emotion. Record them on the following page……………………………………………………………………………..10–20 mins.

(e)

On the following page, describe the typical respondent components of that emotion…..…5–10 mins.

(f)

Make sure that each person in the group PRINTS his or her name and SIGNS one copy of the worksheet, and hand in this signed copy at the end of class.

Practicum #7, Page 2 EACH STUDENT MUST PRINT AND SIGN THEIR OWN NAME. Emotion Selected:

Typical Causes of that Emotion for Students In Your Group.

Do the Causes Involve Presentation or Withdrawal of Reinforcers of Punishers? Indicate Which.

1.

2.

3.

4.

Typical Operant Displays of that Emotion by Students in the Group 1.

2.

3.

4.

Typical Respondent Components of that Emotion:

.

Practicum Exercise for Users of Behavior Modification: What It Is and How To Do It, 11th edition

Practicum # 8 Programming for Generality As described in Chapter 18, training produces generality when the trained behavior transfers to a new setting, when training leads to the development of a behavior that has not been specifically trained, and when the trained behavior is maintained. The purpose of this exercise is to help you to think about the various strategies for programming for all three aspects of generality.

You should proceed through the following steps: (a)

Turn to your neighbor(s), and select one or two partners to work with. You can either stay in the class or go to a nearby cafeteria to complete the practicum.

(b)

Each person in the group should independently identify a particular behavior that they would like to learn or are in the process of learning. List the behaviors on the following page. From your group, select one of the behaviors listed in order to complete the practicum...............5–10 mins.

(c)

Review the strategies in Chapter 18 for programming for all three aspects of generality. Then describe the details of the strategies that you might follow to program for all aspects of generality for the behavior selected from a person in your group. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .30–45 mins.

(d)

Make sure that each person in the group PRINTS his or her name and SIGNS one copy of the worksheet, and hand in this signed copy at the end of class.

Practicum #8, Page 2 EACH STUDENT MUST PRINT AND SIGN THEIR OWN NAME.

Behaviors that Members of the Group Are Learning or Would Like to Learn:

Behavior Chosen for This Exercise:

Strategies for Programming Stimulus Generalization

Strategies for Programming Response Generalization

Strategies for Programming Maintenance

Practicum Exercise for Users of Behavior Modification: What It Is and How To Do It, 11th edition

Practicum #9 Rule-Governed Control Over Behavior As described in Chapter 19, there are several types of situations in which use of rule-governed control over behavior is an especially effective behavior modification strategy. The purpose of this practicum is to give you some practice in capitalizing on rule-governed control over behavior for self-improvement.

You should proceed through the following steps: (a)

Turn to your neighbor(s), and select one or two partners to work with. You can either stay in the class or go to a nearby cafeteria to complete the practicum.

(b)

Each person in the group should independently identify a behavior that they do not typically emit but that they would like to perform, or that they perform less consistently than they would like to. List them on the following page. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5–10 mins.

(c)

Discuss the behaviors with your partners, and pick one of them to complete this practicum. Record it on the following page. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5–10 mins.

(d)

For the behavior chosen, describe how rules might be used to influence that person to emit that behavior in the desired fashion, with the desired frequency, and in the desired situations. Indicate which of the guidelines are being followed for using rules effectively (see Chapter 19). . 30–40 mins.

(e)

Make sure that each person in the group PRINTS his or her name and SIGNS one copy of the worksheet, and hand in this signed copy at the end of class.

Practicum #9, Page 2 EACH STUDENT MUST PRINT AND SIGN THEIR OWN NAME. Behaviors Identified by Individuals in the Group:

Behavior Selected for This Practicum:

Describe How Rules Might be Used to Effectively Influence that Behavior:

Indicate How the Guidelines for Using Rules Effectively Were Followed:

Practicum Exercise for Users of Behavior Modification: What It Is and How To Do It, 11th edition

Practicum #10 Short-Cut Tactics with Stimulus Control As indicated in the text, it is possible to bring about desirable behavior change by applying principles such as shaping, stimulus discrimination training, etc. However, because of our conditioning histories, there are already stimuli that exert control over many of our behaviors. Sometimes it is possible to bring about rapid behavior change by devising a strategy that incorporates existing forms of stimulus control. The purpose of this practicum is to give you some practice in deciding how you might use short-cut tactics involving stimulus control to influence your behavior (see Chapter 20).

You should proceed through the following steps: (a)

Turn to your neighbor(s), and select one or two partners to work with. You can either stay in the class or go to a nearby cafeteria to complete the practicum.

(b)

Each person in the group should independently examine the list of behaviors on the following page, and select two behaviors from the list that you would genuinely like to improve on.

Discuss your selections with your partners. From your group, select two of the behaviors listed in order to complete the practicum. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5–10 mins.

(c)

One person in the group should do the recording for everyone. It is only necessary to hand in one sheet for all members of the group. Complete the practicum exercise as described on the following page. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30–45 mins.

(d)

Make sure that each person in the group PRINTS his or her name and SIGNS one copy of the worksheet, and hand in this signed copy at the end of class.

Practicum #10, Page 2 EACH STUDENT MUST PRINT AND SIGN THEIR OWN NAME. Select two behaviors from the following list: a) following healthy eating practices b) feeling happy c) exercising three times per week d) preparing a study schedule at the start of each week e) being more assertive in resisting requests from friends (who want you to change your study schedule so that you can socialize with them) f) cleaning dishes and kitchen area immediately after finishing a meal g) following a weekly time management plan for studying For each behavior, describe how you might influence the behavior by combining at least four of the following tactics: modeling, guidance, rearranging the existing surroundings, moving the activity to a new location, relocating people, and changing the time of the activity. Make your suggestions highly plausible in regard to the situation.

First Behavior Selected:

Tactics Followed:

Second Behavior Selected:

Tactics Followed:

Practicum Exercise for Users of Behavior Modification: What It Is and How To Do It, 11th edition

Practicum #11 Planning a Treatment Program As described in the Chapter 23, “Planning, Applying, and Evaluating a Behavioral Program,” one must make a number of decisions in designing a behavioral program. The purpose of this practicum is to give you practice in following the guidelines for designing a program.

You should proceed through the following steps: (a)

Turn to your neighbor(s) and select two or three partners to work with. You can either stay in the class, or go to a nearby cafeteria to complete the practicum.

(b)

Each person in the group should read the following problem-behavior descriptions, and the group should select either Problem A or Problem B below, for which you will then design a program. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5–10 mins.

(c)

For the problem chosen, complete the sections on the following page. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30–45 mins.

(d)

Make sure that each person in the group PRINTS his or her name and SIGNS one copy of the worksheet, and hand in this signed copy at the end of class.

The Problem Imagine that you are a supervisor of twenty ten-year-old children who are enrolled in a summer camp at a local park. Part of your job is fairly straightforward because a daily schedule has been provided. There are specific amounts of time to be spent playing table tennis, swimming, eating lunch, resting, and so forth.

However, you are faced with several recurring behavior problems. Pick one of the two problems listed below.

For that problem, consider the information in the chapter “Steps for Planning, Applying, and Evaluating a Treatment Program.” Based on that information, complete the sections on the following page.

PROBLEM A: When swimming, Jason and Paula frequently argue. The argument often ends with one of them hitting the other and someone usually winds up crying.

PROBLEM B: At the swimming pool, one child says that he is afraid of the water. You have a note from that child’s parents indicating that he knows how to swim, but the child insists that he cannot swim and refuses to go near the pool.

Practicum #11, Page 2

EACH STUDENT MUST PRINT AND SIGN THEIR OWN NAME.

Description of the Target Behavior:

(a) Is it precise?

(b) How is it in the client’s best interests?

(c) Will its accomplishment likely produce any side effects?

Desired Stimulus Control of the Target Behavior:

Data to Be Recorded:

Details of Short-Cut Tactics to Be Used:

Gradual Change Procedures (Shaping, Chaining, Fading) to Be Used (briefly describe):

Do You Need to Program for Generality? If so, how?

Practicum Exercise for Users of Behavior Modification: What It Is and How To Do It, 11th edition

Practicum #12 Token Reinforcement in a Self-Improvement Program

As described in Chapter 24, token economies are typically used to influence behaviors of a group of individuals. But a token system can also be designed to improve several behaviors of one individual. The purpose of this practicum is to give you practice in designing a token system to influence several of your own behaviors.

You should proceed through the following steps: (a)

Turn to your neighbor(s) and select two or three partners to work with. You can either stay in the class, or go to a nearby cafeteria to complete the practicum.

(b)

Each person in the group should identify several behaviors that they know how to perform, but would like to perform more often. List them on the following page. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5–10 mins.

(c)

Discuss the behaviors identified by the members of the group. Pick the behaviors for one person and refer to them for completing this practicum. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5–10 mins.

(d)

For the behaviors selected for one of the individuals in your group, describe a plausible token system that might be used to increase the frequency of those behaviors to desirable levels. Then indicate which of the considerations in designing a token economy (see summary of considerations in Chapter 24) that you have followed. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20–35 mins.

(e)

Make sure that each person in the group PRINTS his or her name and SIGNS one copy of the worksheet, and hand in this signed copy at the end of class.

Practicum #12, Page 2 EACH STUDENT MUST PRINT AND SIGN THEIR OWN NAME.

Behaviors for Person A

Behaviors for Person B

Behaviors for Person C

Behaviors Selected for Completion of Practicum

Details of Token System

Considerations in Designing a Token Economy That Were Followed

Practicum Exercise for Users of Behavior Modification: What It Is and How To Do It, 11th edition

Practicum #13 Causes of Problems of Self-Control All of us at one time or another have experienced problems of self-control / behavioral excesses that we have difficulty decreasing or controlling, or behavioral deficits that we would like to overcome. The purpose of this practicum is to give you practice in analyzing the causes of problems of self-control (see Chapter 25).

You should proceed through the following steps: (a)

Turn to your neighbor(s) and select two or three partners to work with. You can either stay in the class, or go to a nearby cafeteria to complete the practicum.

(b)

Each person in the group should independently identify a behavioral excess that they would like to decrease, and a behavioral deficit that they would like to overcome. List them on the following page. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5–10 mins.

(c)

Review the causes of problems of self-control for behavioral excesses and behavioral deficits presented in Chapter 25. For each of the behaviors listed above, identify the most plausible general cause (e.g., immediate reinforcers vs. cumulatively significant punishers, etc). Then describe the actual contingencies that seem to exemplify that cause. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30–45 mins.

(d)

Make sure that each person in the group PRINTS his or her name and SIGNS one copy of the worksheet, and hand in this signed copy at the end of class.

Practicum #13, Page 2 EACH STUDENT MUST PRINT AND SIGN THEIR OWN NAME.

Behaviors Person A Behavioral Deficit

Person A Behavioral Excess

Person B Behavioral Deficit

Person B Behavioral Excess

Person C Behavioral Deficit

Person C Behavioral Excess

Most Plausible Causes

Description of Actual Contingencies

Practicum Exercise for Users of Behavior Modification: What It Is and How To Do It, 11th edition

Practicum #14 Task Analysis, Behavioral Progression, and Mastery Criteria As we indicated in Chapter 25 on self-control, learning complex skills can be facilitated by focusing on the behavior itself. The purpose of this practicum is to give you practice in developing a task analysis of a skill, and in preparing mastery criteria for the steps of the behavioral progression.

You should proceed through the following steps: (a)

Turn to your neighbor(s) and select two or three partners to work with. You can either stay in the class, or go to a nearby cafeteria to complete the practicum.

(b)

Consider the behavioral progression and mastery criteria for learning golf presented in the self-control chapter.

(c)

Each person in the group should independently identify a particular skill that they recently learned or would like to learn. The skill can be a sports skill, or it can be some other skill from everyday life (such as changing a tire on a car, knitting, or appropriately using some piece of equipment or a tool). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5–10 mins.

(d)

Discuss your examples with the other members of the group and pick one skill for the group for completing the rest of this exercise. You should pick a skill that is not too broad in scope. For example, “playing hockey” is far too broad. “Giving accurate forehand passes in hockey” would be a better choice. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5–10 mins.

(e)

“Task analyze” that skill, and describe a behavioral progression and the mastery criteria that you might use to try to learn it or to teach it to someone else. Make your behavioral progression and mastery criteria appropriate for an individual of a given age or level of experience. Your steps should be plausible and the difference from one step to the next should not be too large nor too small. Record your results on the following page. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30–45 mins.

(f)

Make sure that each person in the group PRINTS his or her name and SIGNS one copy of the worksheet, and hand in this signed copy at the end of class.

Practicum #14, Page 2 EACH STUDENT MUST PRINT AND SIGN THEIR OWN NAME.

Task Chosen for Analysis:

Age and Experience Level of Subject:

Behavioral Steps or Components

Mastery Criteria

Practicum Exercise for Users of Behavior Modification: What It Is and How To Do It, 11th edition

Practicum #15 Planning Coping Self-Statements As we indicated in Chapter 26, some people experience problems because of a high frequency of negative self-talk, negative thinking about themselves in relation to one or more situations. The purpose of this practicum is to give you practice in preparing some coping self-statements to counteract problem thoughts.

You should proceed through the following steps: (a)

Turn to your neighbor(s) and select two or three partners to work with. You can either stay in the class, or go to a nearby cafeteria to complete the practicum to complete the practicum.

(b)

Each person in the group should independently identify a particular situation where you sometimes experience negative thinking. It could be negative thinking about your future, about a social relationship, about work, about your performance in a course, etc. On the following page, for each person in your group, list one general theme around which negative thinking occurs. Discuss your examples with the other members in your group and pick one example for completing the rest of this exercise. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5–10 mins.

(c)

Next, in a paragraph or so in the appropriate section on the next page, write out at least 6 examples of the types of thoughts that that person (from your group whom you have chosen) typically thinks when experiencing negative thinking on that particular topic or theme. Make the statements as realistic as possible and as close as possible to the kind of thoughts that actually occur. . . . . . . . . . 20–30 mins.

(d)

Then, in the appropriate section on the following page, for each of the negative thoughts, describe specific coping thoughts that the person could think to counteract the negative thoughts. The coping thoughts should be realistic, and positive. They should be as specific as possible, and should ideally relate to specific behaviors and/or specific positive outcomes (review the guidelines for rule-governed control over behavior.) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20–30 mins.

(e)

Make sure that each person in the group PRINTS his or her name and SIGNS one copy of the worksheet, and hand in this signed copy at the end of class.

Practicum #15, Page 2 EACH STUDENT MUST PRINT AND SIGN THEIR OWN NAME.

Themes or Topics Around Which Negative Thinking Occurs by Members of the Group:

Topic or Theme of Negative Thinking Chosen for This Exercise:

Details of Negative Thoughts

Positive Coping Thoughts (Self-Talk)