CHAPTER 29 ETHICAL ISSUES

Answers to [and Levels of] Questions for Learning

1. Q: Describe in behavioral terms how the history of civilization is a story of the continuous abuse of power. [Level 5/S] From your knowledge of history or current events, give an example of this abuse. [Level 3/App]

A: Throughout the ages, various groups have used the reinforcers and punishers at their disposal to control the behavior of less powerful groups (groups who had fewer reinforcers and punishers to deliver, or who lacked the means to deliver them contingent on selected target behaviors). Examples might include the subjugation or exploitation of one nation by another, U.S. and Soviet imperialism as in Vietnam and Eastern Europe, and the exploitation of one group by another within a nation (e.g., exploitation of slavesby masters). Any appropriate example is acceptable.

2. Q: From your knowledge of history or current events, give an example of what often happens when the reinforcements occurring to one group in a society fall below a certain critical level relative to the reinforcements occurring to another group in that society. [Level 5/S]

A: Any appropriate example in which a group with fewer reinforcers revolted against a group controlling more reinforcers, or undertook other action to bring about a more equal distribution of the reinforcers. Examples might include national revolutions, the labor movement, strikes, black power, red power, Chicano power, women’s liberation, gay liberation, and the French separatist movement in Canada.

3. Q: From a behavioral point of view, how might we account for constitutions, bills of rights, and related political documents of modern states? [Level 4/An]

A: Political documents can be seen as formal specifications of contingencies designed to control the behavior of those who control the behavior of others.

4. Q: Explain why we tend to react negatively to all overt attempts to control our behavior. [Level 2/C]

A: Because of a cultural history in which power has often been abused and because of our personal experiences with people who have abused their power (i.e., used it for their own benefit and to the disadvantage of those over whom they exerted control).

5. Q: Why and how do people who would control our behavior disguise their aims? [Level 5/S] Give an example of this that is not in the text. [Level 3/App]

A: They disguise their aims by making it appear that they are not controlling our behavior, because if their aims were too obvious, people would strongly resist them. An example that is not in the text might be a politician pretending that he or she is not interested in becoming president or prime minister, while at the same time doing things to help make this happen. Other plausible examples are also acceptable

6. Q: State two propositions on which behavior modification is based. [Level 2/C]

A: (a) Behavior can be controlled; and (b) it is desirable to do so in order to achieve certain objectives.

7. Q: Why is extreme wariness a healthy reaction to any new development in science or technology? [Level 4/An] Discuss an example of this. [Level 4/An]

A: Extreme wariness can lead people to take appropriate precautions to prevent a new technology from “getting out of hand” and being abused. Students may give any example in which technology has “gotten out of hand” because people did not take appropriate precautions when it was first developed, or may be on the verge of “getting out of hand.”

8. Q: From a behavioral point of view, what does the term ethics mean? [Level 2/C]

A: From a behavioral point of view, the term “ethics” refers to certain standards of behavior that are developed by a culture and promote the survival of that culture.

9. Q: Describe how ethics has evolved as a part of our culture. [Level 3/App]

A: Within a culture, certain ways of behaving evolved that were accepted and reinforced, whereas other ways of behaving evolved that were not accepted and/or were punished For example, many cultures evolved that reinforced non-stealing behavior and punished stealing. Presumably, cultures in which honest behavior toward material possessions was not reinforced and stealing not punished tended not to survive. This may have been for many reasons. Whatever the reasons, many cultures consider non-stealing to be ethical or right, and stealing unethical or wrong. Other behavioral practices (ethics) presumably evolved similarly.

10. Q: In a sentence explain when, from a behavioral point of view, ethical guidelines represent an important source of behavioral control. [Level 2/C]

A: Ethical guidelines are an important source of behavioral control when immediate reinforcers influence an individual to behave in a way that leads to aversive stimuli for others.

11. Q: Using an example, explain how ethical guidelines involve rule-governed control over behavior. [Level 2/C]

A: Consider the ethical guideline “Thou shalt not steal.” That guideline might imply a rule specifying legal contingencies (e.g., “If you steal another’s possessions, you will be fined or sent to jail.”), and sometimes that guideline implies a rule based on religious beliefs (e.g., “If you steal, you will go to hell, rather than heaven, when you die.”). In either instance, the guideline is likely to exert rule-governed control over behavior (and minimize stealing). Other appropriate examples are acceptable

12. Q: Explain why all helping professions are involved in the control of behavior whether or not their practitioners realize it. [Level 2/C] Give an example. [Level 2/C]

A: All social help professions are involved in helping people solve their problems and/or improve themselves. This necessarily implies changing their behavior, which means “controlling” behavior. An example might be teaching someone to read, which requires bringing that person’s behavior under the appropriate control of printed or written words. Any other appropriate example is acceptable

13. Q: Discuss the relative merits of planning versus not planning for behavior change. [Level 4/An]

A: Unless one is lazy or is interested in “spontaneity” for its own sake, there seems to be little merit in not planning for behavior change. On the other hand, one is much more likely to achieve desirable behavior changes if one plans for them. Conversely, lack of planning may result in the introduction of contingencies that produce undesirable behavior.

14. Q: Discuss countercontrol. [Level 4/An] Why is it important? [Level 6/E]

A: Countercontrol is the reciprocal of control. It is the influence that the controllee has on the controller by virtue of access to suitable reinforcers. For example, in a therapeutic relationship, countercontrol would refer to the amount of control that the client can exert over the therapist (such as by direct social contact, by withholding fee for service, or by some other means). It is important because it is one way of ensuring ethical behavior on the part of the therapist or the controller in a given situation.

15. Q: What was a primary conclusion of the comprehensive report by Stolz qnd Associates on the ethical issues involved in behavior modification? [Level 2/C]

A: That persons engaged in any type of psychological intervention should subscribe to and follow the ethical codes and standards of their profession.

16. Q: What steps can be taken to help ensure that an applied behavior analyst or behavior therapist is appropriately qualified? [Level 2/C]

A: The client should ensure that the behavior modifier describes clearly his or her credentials, and that he or she is a member of the local state, or provincial Psychological Association. Clients might also check to see if the behavior modifier is a member of ABAI or ABCT (although these associations do not assess a behavior modifier’s competencies), or if the behavior modifier is certified by the Behavior Analysis Certification Board, or the American Board of Behavioral Psychology.

17. Q: State two countercontrol measures regarding the definition of problems and selection of goals. [Level 2/C]

A: (a) The client can require the behavior modifier to clearly specify his or her values relating to the client’s problems. (b) The client should be an active participant in the selection of goals and identification of target behaviors (or have a competent impartial third partyto do so).

18. Q: In a sentence, what should be the characteristics of the intervention methods used by behavior modifiers? [Level 2/C]

A: Behavior analysts should use the most effective, empirically validated interventions with the least discomfort and fewest negative side effects.

19. Q: Discuss three possible meanings of intrusive and restrictive interventions. [Level 4/An]

A: (a) Interventions based on positive reinforcement are considered to be less intrusive than interventions based on aversive control. (b) Interventions where clients are given choices and allowed freedom of movement in a therapeutic environment are considered less intrusive and restrictive than interventions where there are fewer choices or less freedom of movement. (c) Interventions that capitalize on natural reinforcers are generally considered to be less intrusive and restrictive than those that capitalize on contrived or deliberately- programmed reinforcers.

20. Q: Describe a mechanism to facilitate informed consent. [Level 2/C]

A: A mechanism to facilitate informed consent is the signing of a client-therapist contract that clearly outlines the objectives and methods of treatment, the framework for the service to be provided, and the contingencies of remuneration that may be forthcoming to the therapist.

21.Q: What constitutes the cornerstone for ensuring ethical and effective treatment programs by behavior modifers? [Level 2/C]

A: (a) Defining problems in terms of behavior that can be measured in some way; (b) using changes in the behavioral measure of the problem as the best indicator of the extent to which the problem is being helped; (c) sharing the data (from a and b) with all concerned parties and with periodic peer evaluations.

22. Q: Briefly explain why it should be difficult to use behavior modification to the detriment of any group whose members are well versed in the principles and tactics of behavior modification. [Level 2/C]

A: A group of people who are well-versed in the principles and tactics of behavior modification can recognize when behavior modification is being used to their disadvantage, and can take appropriate countermeasures, such as using behavior modification against their controllers.

Answers to [and Levels of] Questions for Further Learning

1. Q: Discuss Skinner’s view that we must go “beyond freedom and dignity” if civilization is to solve some of its most difficult problems. [Level 4/An]

A: Skinner argued that in the 18th century, the concept of freedom was a valuable rallying cry to spur people to break away from aversive forms of control used by dictators and tyrants. However, the concept of freedom may prevent us from seeing how our behavior is controlled by positive reinforcement. It may also influence us to give undue credit (more “dignity”) to those who are successful and to attribute undue blame to those who aren’t (given the assumption that we are all free to be masters of our own destiny), rather than recognizing that one’s achievements or failures are due to one’s conditioning history and genetic predispositions Thus, we must go “beyond freedom and dignity” torecognize that we are all products of our environments.

2. Q: Give an example illustrating how governments use positive reinforcement to control behavior without citizens feeling that they are being controlled. [Level 3/App]

A: Most people who happily buy tickets in a government-run lottery feel that they are “free” to do so, and they fail to recognize that their behavior is being controlled to the same extent as it would be if they were being “forced” to pay the same amount in taxes. It’s just that in one case the control is through positive reinforcement and in the other it is through aversive control.

3. Q: Discuss Prilleltensky’s approach for how psychologists can best help their clients. [Level 4/An]

A: Prilleltensky argued that psychologists can best help their clients by focusing on three levels: (a) the presenting problem of the client; (b) how to influence members of the community with whom the client interacts; and (c) the political level that consists of the laws and regulations that affect the client. He argues that focusing on all three levels will help the client function more fully in society