Chapter 6: Structures, roles and safe practice in sport

6.1: Structures, strategies and roles in physical activity

Link with the Coursework Planner (PAP): Following completion of this section each student could analyse their own/peer’s performance in relation to their effective use of tactics and strategies. Video analysis, notational analysis, a tactics board/app and observations could be used. A proforma and sample is provided. Evidence should be retained for possible use in the final PAP.

Introduction: Explain the differences between structures, strategies and roles, applying to examples (see table 6.1).

TASK 6.1 (Group work) ANSWER

Identify the structures and strategies that exist within one physical activity. Include: • formations and organisation • tactics and strategies • roles within the activity.

Activity: Soccer

Formation and organisation: – Eleven players from each team are allowed on the pitch. – Seven substitutes can be named but only three may be used. – The game is 90 minutes in duration (two x 45-minute halves). – Additional time may be added by the officials due to stoppages such as injuries. – Formations are applied to outfield players such as 4, 4, 2. – There are rules and boundaries for play with sanctions for violations. – Scoring is in the form of a goal – when all of the ball crosses all of the goal line between the goal posts and under the crossbar.

Tactics and strategies: – Defensive and offensive strategies such as creating or denying space, offside trap, marking opponents. – Systems of play and changes in formation.

Roles: – Player – Coach – Official – Manager – Spectator – Organiser – Physical therapist/doctor/physiotherapist – Stewards.

Discuss the examples of how structures and strategies can be modified. – Direct students to the 100m sprint Apply it example on page 134 of the textbook.

Discuss the methods of evaluating performance, linking them to the examples on pages 131–132 of the textbook. – Direct the students to the Apply it example on page 132 in the textbook. – Ask the students to identify the method of analysis taking place in figure 6.1 (football tactics – knowledge of performance). – Discuss the use of technology such as Prozone software as a means of evaluating tactics and strategies. – Ask the students to identify the method of analysis taking place in figure 6.2 (tennis serve/knowledge of results). Discuss how this analysis may benefit the performer during the competition.

PRACTICE QUESTION ANSWERS

Q1. Structures exist within all competitive activities. Outline the structures for one named activity.

Activity: 100m sprint

– Race run in lanes with no contact. – The race starts when the starter fires the gun. – A false start will lead to disqualification. – Winner decided by crossing the finish line first. – Phases of the race include the start, acceleration phase, maintaining speed and overcoming deceleration, the finish. Q2. Winning or losing is often decided by strategy. Outline two examples of when tactics could make the decisive difference between two opponents. – Formations in invasion games can prevent your opponent from scoring and create scoring opportunities for your team. – Sprint finish in endurance events: saving energy by drafting and waiting until the final sprint can often lead to success in running and cycling. – Identifying and exploiting an opponent’s weakness. For example, a cyclist who is aware of their opponent’s inability to descend quickly can exploit this weakness in order to gain time. Q3. There are many different roles within a physical activity. Choose one activity and outline three roles that exist within it.

Activity: Basketball

– Player: to work as part of a team to score baskets and defend their own basket. – Coach: to train, select and organise the team including tactics, strategies, roles, substitutions. – Official: to know and apply the rules, communicate with players and fellow officials. Q4. Evaluating performance is important for improving performance. Describe three ways you could evaluate performance in one selected activity.

Activity: Soccer

– Knowledge of results: score, successful passes/interceptions/tackles, metres covered. – Knowledge of performance: contribution to the team, skill, technique, effort, implementation of tactics. – Compared to other performers: work rate, shot success, possession. – Technology: video analysis, fitness analysis. – Self-evaluation: intrinsic feedback/how the performance felt. Q5. It may be necessary for a coach to modify the structure or strategy of a team before or during an important game. Describe three situations where this this may be necessary. – When a team concedes a goal they may need to implement a more offensive strategy. – Defending a lead by implementing a more defensive strategy. – Changing the formation following a red card. Q6. Coaches must evaluate the performance of their team and their upcoming opponents in order to prepare their structures and strategies. Outline two methods of analysis they could use to do this effectively. – Video analysis software in order to identify formations and tactics. – Knowledge of results such as games won, possession, shot success, passing success rate. – Knowledge of performance in order to identify weak areas such as tactics or individuals within the team.

6.2 Rules, rituals and conventions

Introduction: Explain the concepts of rules, rituals and convention. – Discuss the examples provided. – Watch the PowerPoint video of rituals in sport. – Explain task 6.2 and direct students to read the 100m sprint Apply it example prior to completing the task.

TASK 6.2 ANSWERS

Research and identify rituals and conventions in the following activities: (a) Football or hurling – Rituals: using the same equipment or clothing; pre-match meal, prayer or routine. – Conventions: the home team getting to wear their home colours; tossing a coin to determine who gets to decide which end they will attack first; shaking hands before the game; if any team breaks a deadlock by scoring as time runs out, the referee is expected to give the losing side a chance to square the match; a player is not fouling the ball if an opposing player is fouling them at the same time e.g. taking too many steps while your jersey is being pulled. (b) Soccer – Rituals: Players can be superstitious about the number of their jersey, where they sit on the bus, who they share a room with, their haircut, how they enter the pitch; prayer. – Conventions: the home team getting to wear home colours; tossing a coin to decide which end your team gets to attack first; kicking the ball out for an injured opponent; returning the ball to the team who kicked it out; shaking hands before the match. (c) Rugby – Rituals: The New Zealand team performs the Haka facing their opponents; players may insist on the same food before every game; how and when they put on their boots and jersey; being last or first out of the changing room; prayer. – Conventions: shaking hands after the final whistle; applauding each other as they leave the field; not arguing with the referee as a sign of respect; remaining quiet for the goal kicker.

TASK 6.3 (Practical task) – NOTES

Organise an event/performance in which the particular rules, roles, rituals and conventions of the activity are respected. – Designate the students who will be performers, officials and managers. – Ask the students to volunteer as lead organisers (two to four students). – Try to incorporate the task into your current practical activity if possible. – Allow students time to prepare for the task (e.g. three to seven days).

PRACTICE QUESTION ANSWERS

Q1. Rules are the laws that govern how an activity is played. Explain how rules benefit the performers in a named activity. – Make it fair – Ensure safety and player welfare – Prevent an unfair advantage being attained – Limit gamesmanship – Increase respect and integrity. Q2. Describe what is meant by a ritual and outline two examples.

A behaviour carried out in the belief that it will influence performance positively: – Wearing the same clothing or using the same equipment – Prayers – Lucky objects – Pre-match food or journey. Q3. Choose an activity and outline two conventions that exist within it. – Coin toss to decide who will start/which end they attack – Respect e.g. declaring a foul/shaking hands/stopping play for an injured opponent; behaviour towards opponents and officials – Remaining silent for a goal kick/start of a race.

6.3 Roles within physical activity

Introduction: Ask the students to work in groups and use the textbook to identify the requirements of different roles. – Four groups: one group per role. – Allow three minutes for completion. – Compare the students’ work with the answers listed in the table on the next slide.

Explain how an official can be assertive in order to maintain order and control the game.

PowerPoint group task: What makes an effective coach or choreographer? – Ask the students to complete this task in the same groups. – Each group must identify as many qualities of a coach or choreographer as they can. – Compare the group answers with the completed table on the next slide.

Discuss the benefits of adopting different roles, including skills and qualities developed.

PRACTICE QUESTION ANSWERS

Q1. Suggest three benefits of becoming a coach or official. – Increase knowledge of the activity – Skills such as communication and decision-making – Earn money/career – Stay involved in the activity after a playing career – Improve/maintain fitness. Q2. Discuss four qualities or skills required for a role of your choice.

Role: Coach/choreographer

– Knowledgeable – Observation/communication/organisation skills – Good motivator – Leader – Patience/empathy – Creative and enthusiastic. Q3. Describe what is involved in being a successful official. – Knowledge: know, interpret and apply the rules – Understand and apply the correct scoring – Check safety such as playing surface, equipment and first aid – Communicate effectively with players, coaches and other officials – Work as part of a team – Be fair and consistent – Be assertive: firm in your decision-making in order to gain respect. Q4. Officials often have to deal with conflict during a competitive activity. Describe how an official could effectively deal with conflict in an activity of your choice. – Be clear and decisive – Be assertive with decision-making – Be friendly and reassuring – Listen and show empathy – Give options and use discipline where necessary.

PRACTICE QUESTION ANSWERS (continued)

Q5. The demands of being a performer differ from a coach or official in terms of the level of physical fitness and skill required. Identify two similarities in the demands of the performer and the demands of a coach or official. – Team work and communication – Knowledge of the game – Decision-making skills.

Long answer question

As part of your PE course you are required to take on the role of a coach. Design a physical fitness and skills training programme for a performer in one activity with the aim of preparing them for optimum performance: a) Identify the most important components of fitness (chapter 1). b) Construct a fitness training programme based on key areas of fitness (chapter 1). c) Identify the key skills of the activity. d) Outline specific practices to improve skill.

Activity: Soccer

(a) Components of fitness: cardio-respiratory endurance, strength, speed, power, agility, co-ordination. (b) Fartlek training session with the aim of improving stamina, speed and agility:

Duration: 30 minutes

Intensity: varied from moderate to high

Grid: 60m x 30m.

Instructions: – Jog the 60m section and sprint the 30m sections. – Jog a lap after every fourth sprint for active recovery. – Change direction quickly after every second sprint. c) Identify the key skills of the activity: passing, shooting, tackling, heading, dribbling. d) Practices to improve skill: – Small conditioned games e.g. pass and move – Drills e.g. dribble and pass to player opposite; heading drills with a feeder – Pressure training: shooting whilst under pressure form a defender.

TASK 6.4 (Practical task) – NOTES

Take on the role of coach, choreographer or official in your current practical activity. Apply this task to your current physical activity. Assign students the role of coach, official or performer. Multiple groups could be used e.g. small-sided games. – Coaches and officials must evaluate their success within the role based on the criteria listed in the book. – Performers should provide each coach and official with constructive feedback.

6.4 Safe practice in physical activity

Introduction: Explain what is involved in a risk assessment and how risks can be reduced. – Outline the main elements of a warm-up and cool-down. – Watch the PowerPoint case study video: Liverpool FC warm-up. – Discuss possible risks and hazards associated with facilities, clothing and equipment.

Use the examples as prompts.

PRACTICE QUESTION ANSWERS

Q1. Describe a sport specific warm-up and cool-down for an activity of your choice. Include all the key elements (RAMP).

Activity: Hurling/camogie

Warm-up: – Pulse raiser jog on the pitch progressing through a range of movements (side steps, high knees, heel flicks, zigzags) – Dynamic stretching of the major muscles in the upper and lower body – Resistance band exercises to activate the leg muscles – Activity-specific exercises with the hurly and sliotar (striking, dribbling, catching) – Mental preparation such as focusing, concentration, controlling anxiety.

Cool-down: – Light aerobic jog to maintain heart rate and clear waste products – Stretching to the lengthen the muscles: targeted at the main working muscles (legs, shoulders, arms). Q2. Identify three measures that can be taken to minimise the risk of injury in physical activity. – Carry out a risk assessment to identify hazards. – Inspect facilities and carry out maintenance if required. – Wear appropriate clothing. – Use equipment that is in good condition. – Carry out a warm-up. Q3. Describe the benefits of carrying out a warm-up and cool-down. – Warm-up: increases heart-rate, breathing rate, temperature and blood flow; prepares the neuromuscular system; increases the range of movement at the joints; helps the performer to mentally prepare – Cool-down: Maintains heart-rate and breathing rate to provide oxygen to the muscles; clears waste products such as lactic acid and heat; lengthens the muscles. Q4. Outline three strategies other than a cool-down that a performer could use to speed up recovery. – Ice baths – Sleep – Massage to relax the muscles/remove tightness – Antioxidants to reduce muscle damage – Compression clothing to increase blood flow – Diet: carbohydrate and protein replacement. Q5. Identify three potential hazards for a named activity and suggest how each hazard can be solved. – Inappropriate facilities for the activity: solution – move to a suitable facility. – Hazards within the facility e.g. damaged flooring: solution – carry out repairs. – Unsuitable clothing e.g. loose fitting clothing on a trampoline: solution – change to appropriate clothing. – Equipment in poor condition: solution – repair equipment or provide an alternative.

CASE STUDY QUESTION ANSWERS

Q1. Describe the key elements of the Liverpool football players’ warm-up including: (a) The activity used as a pulse raiser. Why was this activity chosen instead of light jogging? – Low-intensity passing – Used as it is sport-specific to football. (b) The activities carried out during the activate-and-mobilise phase. – Dynamic stretching – Kicking out, high knees, heel flicks. (c) The activities used to potentiate the neuromuscular system. Suggest a reason why the coaches chose each of the activities identified. – Short sprints and a variety of movements – Small-sided games (high intensity) – These exercises are more sport specific as they mimic the movements performed in a match – Small-sided games include tactical and strategic practice.

6.5 Common injuries, their causes and treatment

Explain each type of common injury. – Ask the class to identify activities that are likely to lead to such injuries. Explain the components of PRICE treatment for soft tissue injuries.

TASK 6.5 ANSWERS

Create and complete a summary table like the one below outlining the signs, symptoms and treatment for each injury.

Injury

Signs and symptoms

Muscle strain Pain, stiffness, swelling

Dehydration Thirst, tiredness, dizziness, weight loss, sickness, cramp, reduced performance

Blisters

Pocket of fluid under the skin, pain, redness

Break or fracture Pain, deformity, swelling, bruising, unable to take weight, loss of function

Winded

Difficulty breathing, pain in upper abdomen

Cuts

Broken skin, pain, bleeding

Concussion Knocked unconscious, dizzy, sick, confusion, memory loss

Exhaustion

Extreme fatigue, pale skin, weak, dizzy, sore head, nausea, cramp

Treatment

PRICE Anti-inflammatory Physiotherapy Take on fluids with electrolytes Move out of the sun Seek medical help if severe Do not burst it Allow it to dry naturally Avoid footwear than puts pressure on the area Immobilise and protect the area Seek medical help Stop activity, stay calm, try to breath normally Seek medical help Elevate the area Clean the area Dress the area Recovery position if unconscious Check airway Seek medical help Rest Reduce temperature Drinks to re-hydrate and provide energy

Case study: Allow the students to read the Callum Hawkins case study. – Discuss the conditions that affected Callum: heat exhaustaion and severe dehydration.

CASE STUDY QUESTION ANSWERS

Q1. Identify the causes of Callum’s collapse and how might he have avoided this. – Heat exhaustion due to the extreme heat during the race – Severe dehydration due to heavy sweating and inadequate fluid replacement – Callum could have paced his race better by running more slowly in order to reduce the rise in his body temperature and increased his intake of fluids to compensate for the additional sweat loss in the heat. Q2. What signs and symptoms did he experience prior to his collapse? – Stumbling – Lack of co-ordination and loss of neuromuscular function (legs like jelly) – Falling repeatedly. Q3. What recommendation does Callum make for future incidents where an athletes’ welfare is in danger? – They should limit the amount of times an athlete is allowed to fall before stepping in to help and remove him/her from the race.

PRACTICE QUESTION ANSWERS

Q1. Outline the causes and treatment of three common injuries for one selected activity. – Soft-tissue injuries (e.g. muscle strain) are caused by overuse, fatigue, over-stretching, impact, weakness, twisting or turning. PRICE treatment is effective – protect, rest, ice, compress and elevate the affected area. – Dehydration is caused by a loss of body fluid. Treated by increasing fluid intake, electrolytes and reducing fluid loss by moving to a cooler area to reduce sweating. – Exhaustion is caused by extreme fatigue from over-exertion. It can be treated by resting, re-hydrating, moving out of the heat, taking on energy. Q2. Describe two common injuries and their likely causes experienced by games players. – Soft-tissue injuries are strains or tears to the muscle, ligament or tendon. These are often caused by impact from an opponent, over-stretching for a tackle or ball, fatigue, poor technique, twisting, turning, sliding or falling. – A break or fracture is when a bone is broken or cracked. These injuries happen as a result of high-impact tackles, hyper-extending a limb, slipping, falling or collisions. Q3. Marathon runners often experience a range of minor medical problems following completion of the event. Outline two injuries or medical issues they may experience and suggest an effective treatment. – Dehydration is a loss of fluid caused by the runner sweating for a long period of time without being able to adequately replace the fluid during the event. This can be treated by consuming fluids regularly for a sustained period after the event. – Blisters occur on the runner’s feet as a result of friction and resulting in a pocket of fluid below the skin. The runner should not burst it and should allow it to dry naturally. They should avoid wearing shoes that irritate the blister.

6.6 Fatigue and overtraining

Explain fatigue and its effect on performance. Explain overtraining and its effect on the performer. – Emphasise that overload is not overtraining but too much overload can contribute to a state of overtraining. Discuss how overtraining can be avoided by applying the principles of training and the hardeasy principle.

PRACTICE QUESTION ANSWERS

Q1. Describe what is meant by the term fatigue and explain how it is caused. – Extreme physical or mental tiredness – Experienced as a result of very hard exertion. Q2. A performer may experience poor performances, lack of motivation and poor energy levels in competition even though they have been training harder than ever.

Explain: a) What is this scenario called? – Over-training b) What could be the reason for this unexplained underperformance? – Too much training with inadequate recovery. c) How it could be avoided? – Allow adequate recovery between sessions – Hard-easy principle – 3:1 (three weeks’ hard training, one week easy) – Steadily increase training load – Good nutrition with adequate energy intake – 8–9 hours of sleep per night. Q3. How does overload differ from overtraining? – Overload is a principle of training that is necessary to improve fitness as performers must work their body harder than normal in order to gain a training response and improve performance. – Overtraining is consistently training too hard and failing to recover properly leading to reduced performance.

END-OF-CHAPTER ASSIGNMENT – MARK SCHEME

(Can be used as summative assessment) Select a physical activity you are familiar with and describe: • the role and demands of a coach in that activity – Improve skill, technique and fitness – Physical and mental preparation – Structure, tactics and strategies – Team cohesion and discipline. • the qualities of an effective official in that activity – Knowledgeable – High level of organisation, communication, decision-making and observation skills – A leader and provides motivation and team cohesion – Patience and empathy – Ability to evaluate and analyse. • three possible hazards that exist for performers and how they could be avoided – Any hazard specific to the activity – Facilities: damage, litter, uneven surface – Equipment: broken/damaged, not secured, not assembled correctly, not stored correctly – Clothing: loose-fitting items catching on equipment, lack of protective equipment, inappropriate clothing for the weather, shoes without adequate grip. • two common injuries that affect performers in the activity including their cause, signs and symptoms, and a suitable treatment

Injury Signs and symptoms Treatment

Muscle strain Pain, stiffness, swelling

Dehydration

Thirst, tiredness, dizziness, weight loss, sickness, cramp, reduced performance PRICE Anti-inflammatory Physiotherapy Take on fluids with electrolytes Move out of the sun Seek medical help if severe

Blisters

Pocket of fluid under the skin, pain, redness Do not burst it Allow it to dry naturally Avoid footwear than puts pressure on the area

Break or fracture Pain, deformity, swelling, bruising, unable to take weight, loss of function Immobilise and protect the area Seek medical help

Winded

Difficulty breathing, pain in upper abdomen Stop activity, stay calm, try to breath normally Seek medical help

Cuts

Broken skin, pain, bleeding Elevate the area Clean the area Dress the area

Concussion

Exhaustion

Knocked unconscious, dizzy, sick, confusion, memory loss

Extreme fatigue, pale skin, weak, dizzy, sore head, nausea, cramp Recovery position if unconscious Check airway Seek medical help Rest Reduce temperature Drinks to re-hydrate and provide energy

• three strategies that performers could apply to avoid overtraining. – Progressive overload: gradually increasing the training volume and intensity slowly over a prolonged period – 3:1 training ratio: plan three weeks of hard training with steady progression, followed by one easy week for recovery and super-compensation (can also be applied to training days i.e. one easy day after every three hard days) – Active recovery: plan for low-intensity, shorter training days to aid recovery between hard days – Diet and nutrition: the performer should have a nutritional strategy to suit their needs and the requirements of the activity including sufficient carbohydrate, protein and fat – Rest: 8–9 hours of good quality sleep and daytime naps.