Re-Peat: Peatlands restoration in Scotland

Re - Peat Scotland

AA LANDSCAPE URBANISM 2021-2022 // MSC ARCHITECTURAL ASSOCIATION School of Architecture London, UK PROJECT TEAM Yu-Ting Liu Chia-Chun Chen Sara Halaoui (Term2,3) Ting-Yu Chao(Term2,3) DIRECTORS Jose Alfredo Ramirez Galindo Clara Oloriz Sanjuan Eduardo Rico-Carranza STUDIO MASTER Clara Oloriz Sanjuan TECHNICAL TUTOR Daniel Kiss ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Hari Byles (Compost Mentis) Mike Daniels (John Muir Trust) Ailsa Raeburn (Community Land Scotlnd) Rob Booth (PhD researcher looking at political ecology of power, agri-food system etc.)

Eleanor Salter (Specialist in Agroecology and Global South) We would like to thank all AALU students, friends, and family for their continuous support.

ABSTRACT International efforts are working on combating climate change, focusing on cutting down emissions of greenhouse gases, chief among them carbon dioxide. Global average temperatures are around 1.1 °C warmer today than the pre-industrial era and co2 is the main cause.

Our project’s structure is based on the analysis of woodlands and peatlands in the UK context; the land use conflict between the two. By addressing the management and exploitation of both land uses at the national scale, we aim at designing a land assessment tool that will address the conflict of coexistence of woodlands and peatlands and tackle peat restoration in Scotland.

We are currently developing our thesis project and therefore we would like to engage with existing organizations, community trusts, and NGOs to discuss existing land-use conflicts, land management plans, and restoration projects. We have an interest in land ownership patterns and structures, carbon crediting systems, community engagement/rights, and policies.

RE-PEAT SCOTLAND

1

2

Part 1 Part 1: The sharp increase in co2 emissions within the last centuries has been faced recently, by a set of policies and strategies acting on various scales and layers. Global policies issued by global organisations increase forest covers and induce reforestation and afforestation projects. Implementing strategic plans, with transformational actions, by all actors, on all levels to achieve their Global Forest Goals and targets.

Under the Net zero policy, big countries and companies tend to offset their emissions through a carbon credit system.

Issue

PROJECCT STRUCTURE

Issue: As the result, the land-use conflict issue has been put on the table. the increasing reforestation and afforestation projects around the world made us question is the right tree in the right place?

Part 2: Our project structure is based on the analysis of woodlands and peatlands in the UK context. We addressed the exploitation and management of both.

First through a timeline that highlights their existence through history and time, a temporal analysis of their coexistence. Second through spatial analysis of each one independently at national scale.

Part 3: The objective of the project is to refrom the policies, look at how both land-uses are managed and exploited in order to design land assessment tools that can address the conflict between the two entities.

3

RE-PEAT SCOTLAND

Part 3

Part 2

Diagram 1: Anatomical Map Developed and drawn by S. Halaoui , C.Chen

4

TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENT 1 ABSTRACT 2 PROJECT STRUCTURE 3

GLOBAL ISSUE

GLOBAL POLICIES & LEAF AREA INDEX (LAI) NET ZERO POLICIES & CARBON CREDIT SYSTEM CARBON FLOW BETWEEN TREES AND PEATLAND TREE X PEAT

PEATLAND

WHAT ARE PEATLANDS? PEATLAND TYPE AND ITS FORMATION BIODIVERSITY OF PEATLAND PEATLAND HYDROLOGY THE DAMAGE OF PEATLAND FOR MANY PURPOSES

7 9 11 13

15 17 19 20 21

WOODLAND & PEATLAND DISTRIBUTION

GLOBAL WOODLAND & PEATLAND DISTRIBUTION UK’S WOODLAND & PEATLAND DISTRIBUTION

UK’S WOODLAND HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT

ANATOMICAL MAP HISTORICAL PART WOODLAND STATISTICS NATIVE SPECIES IMPORTED CONIFERS- SITKA SPRUCE IMPORTED CONIFERS- LODGEPOLE PINE

23 25

29 31 33 35 37

THE VISION OF CO-EXISTENCE

RIGHT TREE IN THE RIGHT PLACE 39 CO-ECISTENCE 41 SITE SELECTION CRITERIA 43 EXISTING SITE INITIATIVES 45 LANDREFORM 47

CARBON EMISSIONS LAND TAX

CARBON EMISSIONS LAND TAX OUR INTERVENTION IN THE CELT HOW DOES THE TAX WORK ?

APPLICATION PROCESS

LAND ASSESSMENT TOOLS

THE PLATFORM ASSESSMENT MANUAL / FIELD TRIP/ PLATFORM RESULT

WHAT’S NEXT?

55 61 / 62 75

81 83 89 91

BIBLIOGRAPHY 95 5

RE-PEAT SCOTLAND

THE TRANSITION COMMUNITY-BASED LAND MANAGEMENT DESIGN FUTURE SCENARO LANDSCAPE REFORM

49 51 52 53

6

GLOBAL POLICIES & LEAF AREA INDEX (LAI)

｜Leaf Area Percentage｜

Diagram 2.1: Leaf Area Percentage Drawn by Y. Liu

Australia Austria Belgium Burkina Faso Bolivia Brazil Brunei Darussalam Canada Chile China Cote d'Ivoire Congo, Dem. Rep. Congo, Rep. Colombia Cuba Cyprus Germany Denmark Europe & Central Asia Europe & Central Asia Euro area Spain European Union Finland Fiji

Legend 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Diagram 2: Global Leaf Area Index Developed and drawn by T. Chao, C. Chen

France Micronesia, Fed. Sts. Gabon United Kingdom Greece Greenland Guyana Croatia Haiti Indonesia India Ireland Iran, Islamic Rep. Iraq Iceland Israel Italy Jamaica Jordan Japan Korea, Rep. Mexico Marshall Islands Mali Malaysia Peru Philippines Poland Korea, Dem. People's Rep. Portugal South Asia Sudan San Marino Europe & Central Asia Thailand Turkey Uganda Ukraine United States British Virgin Islands Vietnam South Africa Bold: Afforestation Light: Deforestation

0

20

GLOBAL ISSUE

It is clearly noticed that global organizations responsible of issuing these global policies are located and controlled by the global north with application of policies, chief of them policies for mass afforestation in the global south. This change in tree cover has been mapped through time. Showing where policies have been shaping new forests across the globe.

80

100

GLOBAL ISSUE

7

Developed and drawn by C. Chen

60

RE-PEAT SCOTLAND

｜Animations｜

40

00:38 - 00:51

00:51 - 01:00

8

NET ZERO POLICIES & CARBON CREDIT SYSTEM Can net zero truly reduce the co2 in the atmosphere since forests are absorbing and offsetting them? or It provides us more space and right to emit carbon? Net zero at a global scale requires that all emissions of greenhouse gases should be balanced by their removal from the atmosphere. Most of the countries withing carbon credit system are ones dominant in the global north. An offset is an accounting mechanism. It’s a way of balancing the scales on pollution.

It aims to reduce emissions associated with deforestation and at restoring natural areas, helping wealthier countries stay within carbon caps by routing funding to developing countries where these forests are located. It is realized that through time, the carbon market has fluctuated and highly relies on politics, governmental actions and big companies, such as Shell. The Net zero, through the afforestation projects and carbon offsetting system has catered for greenwashing, Displacement of small land owners and created major land use conflicts.

Diagram 3: Biggest Buyers of Carbon Credits Drawn by S. Halaoui

2006

VOLUME: $31.6 MtCO2e MARKET VALUE: $111.3 M AVERAGE PRICE: $4.10

2007

VOLUME: $69.8 MtCO2e MARKET VALUE: $359.0 M AVERAGE PRICE: $6.10

2008

VOLUME: $134.5 MtCO2e MARKET VALUE: $790.2 M AVERAGE PRICE: $7.34

2009

VOLUME: $107.2 MtCO2e MARKET VALUE: $484.5 M AVERAGE PRICE: $6.46

2010

VOLUME: $131.4 MtCO2e MARKET VALUE: $444.1 M AVERAGE PRICE: $6.00

2011

VOLUME: $100.0 MtCO2e MARKET VALUE: $602.3 M AVERAGE PRICE: $6.20

2012

VOLUME: $102.8 MtCO2e MARKET VALUE: $529.8 M AVERAGE PRICE: $5.87

2013

VOLUME: $68.0 MtCO2e MARKET VALUE: $338.5 M AVERAGE PRICE: $4.93

2014

VOLUME: $76.8 MtCO2e MARKET VALUE: $298.5 M AVERAGE PRICE: $3.80

2015

VOLUME: $84.1 MtCO2e MARKET VALUE: $278.2 M AVERAGE PRICE: $3.26

MILLIONS OF TONS OF CO2 02

46

8

DELTA AIRLINES

2016

RE-PEAT SCOTLAND

SHELL

VOLUME: $84.1 MtCO2e MARKET VALUE: $278.2 M AVERAGE PRICE: $3.26

GREENCHOICE

DPD GROUP ESWE VERSORGUNGS

9

ENTEGA ALLIANZ STAEDTISCHE WERKE (KASSEL) KERING

2018

VOLUME: $98.4 MtCO2e MARKET VALUE: $295.7 M AVERAGE PRICE: $3.01

NEDBANK

Diagram 4: Carbon Offset System Drawn by C. Chen

NET ZERO POLICIES & CARBON CREDIT SYSTEM

NET ZERO POLICIES & CARBON CREDIT SYSTEM

2017

VOLUME: $46.2 MtCO2e MARKET VALUE: $145.8 M AVERAGE PRICE: $3.16

10

The mass plantation behaviour for reducing carbon in the atmosphere is actually inappropriate, because some of trees are planted on the peatland that could have stored more carbon, the co-existence of peatland and tree not only absorb less carbon but also release more carbon from peatland.

Diagram 5: Carbon Flow Between Trees And Peatland Drawn by Y. Liu

CARBON FLOW BETWEEN TREES AND PEATLAND

CARBON FLOW BETWEEN TREES AND PEATLAND

RE-PEAT SCOTLAND

11

CARBON FLOW BETWEEN TREES AND PEATLAND

12

TREE

X

PEAT

Figure 1: Sloan, T., 2018. Peatland afforestation in the UK and consequences for carbon storage. [online] Mires-and-peat.net. Available at: <http://mires-and-peat.net/media/map23/map_23_01. pdf> [Accessed 23 September 2022].

13

14

WHAT ARE PEATLANDS?

In the peatland microscopic world, countless microorganisms are living and shaping different types of soils and environments. Affecting land use patterns, soil health, carbon stock and therefore climate. https://youtu.be/xZG7vmEhRZo The top are the living mosses and vascular plants

The less decomposed, lighter brown peat with recognizable peat remains lies above

PEAT PROFILE

[Fig 2.2.1 ]

The accumulation of peatlands is only 1mm layer of organic matter per year.

Therefore It takes around 3000 years for an 3 meter ,average depth peatland to form.

WHAT ARE PEATLANDS?

The former peat surface is visible at the bottom

WHAT ARE PEATLANDS?

15

when it comes to carbon sink, people are usually think about trees, woodlands, forest. However, many research and studies prove that peat works better than wood for carbon storage. https://youtu.be/cNkootxXuJU

Figure 3: Chapman, Steve, Alexandre Buttler, André-Jean Francez, Fatima Laggoun-Défarge, Harri Vasander, Michael Schloter, and Jean Combe et al. 2022. “Exploitation Of Northern Peatlands And Biodiversity Maintenance: A Conflict Between Economy And Ecology”. Research.

RE-PEAT SCOTLAND

Figure 2: Assessment On Peatlands, Biodiversity And Climate Change. 2007. Ebook. 1st ed.

Selangor: Global Environment Centre, Kuala Lumpur & Wetlands International, Wageningen. https://ledsgp.org/app/uploads/2015/12/ Assessment-on-peatlands-biodiversity-and-climate-change-main-report.pdf.

The dark brown layer is the former peat surface that has undergone partial decomposition under oxgenated conditions

16

PEATLAND TYPE AND ITS FORMATION Peat usually forms in high water table, acidic conditions. the mosses and other bog plants capture the carbon dioxide from the air, then build up layers upon layers.

Blanket Bog

Landform

Peatland can be classified to three types, blanket bog, raised bog and fen. Topography, ground flow, water table and vegetation are important elements to form and classify different types of peatlands.

Diagram 6: Peatland Type and Its Formation Drawn by S. Halaoui, Y. Liu

CO2

CO2 ABSORPTION THROUGH PHOTOSYNTHESIS BY PLANTS (MAINLY SPHAGNUM)

CO2

Raised Bog

CO2 RELEASED THROUGH PLANT RESPIRATION

CO2

CO2 RELEASED FROM DECOMPOSED PLANTS

Fen

PEATLAND TYPE AND ITS FORMATION

RE-PEAT SCOTLAND PEATLAND TYPE AND ITS FORMATION

17

18

BIODIVERSITY OF PEATLAND

PEATLAND HYDROLOGY

Peatlands are diverse and complex ecosystems. They are home to several animal species such as the: Snipe, hobby, bog bush cricket, and the skimmer.

The nature of a peatland is controlled by hydrological processes. Its existence depends upon retaining water and its characteristics depend upon the origin, volume, chemical quality and variability of water supply.

As for plants, the dominant species is sphagnum moss.

The water table of healthy peatland is usually very close to the surface. The depth of the water table fluctuates throughout the different seasons and depending on the permeability of the soil.

Diagram 7: Biodiversity of Peatland Drawn by S. Halaoui

Diagram 8: Peatland Hydrology Drawn by S. Halaoui

BOG MYRTLE

SPHAGNUM MOSS

COTTON GRASS

BUTTERWORT

SUNDEW

[ IUCN UK Peatland Programme‟s Commission, Draft Scientific Review, Peatland Hydrology, 2010 ]

AEROBIC LAYER 5 -15 CM

SPHAGNUM MOSS 5 -25 CM

KEELED SKIMMER

19

HOBBY

PEATLAND HYDROLOGY

BIODIVERSITY OF PEATLAND

BOG BUSH CRICKET

CURLEW

RE-PEAT SCOTLAND

SNIPE

ANAEROBIC LAYER 3 -10 M

ANNUAL WATER TABLE DEPTH

20

THE DAMAGE OF PEATLAND FOR MANY PURPOSES The sections portray the existing conflicts associated with peatlands. From the afforestation projects and windfarm structures to various means of extraction, the manual domestic extraction and the industrial one, both forms of peat harvesting.

In addition to drainage acts that highly impact water table levels, loss of peat layers, and immense co2 emissions.

Diagram 9: The Damage of Peatland For Many Purposes Drawn by Y. Liu

Afforestation

Industrial peat extraction

Domestic peat extraction

Low quatlity timber Peat Bank

Drying

Traditional Peat Cutting

The three stages of drainage impacts on the catotelm

Drying

21

Peat Harvesting

22

UK 12% Peatland

The mapping highlights the peatlands across the globe and sheds light on the expansion of forests on them.

This land use conflict can be clearly monitored in the United Kingdom, since 12% of UK land is classified as peatland.

GLOBAL WOODLAND & PEATLAND DISTRIBUTION

GLOBAL WOODLAND & PEATLAND DISTRIBUTION

23

Diagram 10: Global Woodland & Peatland Distribution Drawn by T. Chao

RE-PEAT SCOTLAND

Leaf Area Index Peatland Area United Kingdom

24

INTERSECTION OF PEATLAND AND WOODLAND Woodland Peatland Woodland carbon credit Woodland and peatland intersection The following shows the distribution of peatland, woodland, and their intersection areas in the UK. Intersection areas are dominant due to expansion of woodlands on peatlands.

PEATLAND AREA England

27.5 %

Scotland

69.3 %

Wales

3.2 %

England

42.6 %

Scotland

47.3 %

Wales

10.1 %

Diagram 11: UK’s Woodland & Peatland Distribution Drawn by Y. Liu

WOODLAND AREA

6.6 %

Scotland

91.6 %

Wales

1.8 %

WOODLAND AND PEATLAND INTERSECTION AREA England

20.5 %

Scotland

79.4 %

Wales

0.1 %

UK’S WOODLAND & PEATLAND DISTRIBUTION

25

England

RE-PEAT SCOTLAND

UK’S WOODLAND & PEATLAND DISTRIBUTION

WOODLAND CARBON CREDIT AREA

26

So what kind of historical development created the distribution of different land-use?

Figure 4: Tree Falling on The Peatland

27

28

HISTORICAL LINES Woodland part: After WWI a huge reduction in woodland was noticed. UK was only covered by 5% woodlands. Therefore In 1919, the forest commission was formed. It created strategies to increase the woodland areas through mass plantation project on lands of low agricultural value, that lasted until the early 2000’s.

Trees where mainly coniferous and used for timber production.

Due to the lack of native species in the UK, non-native ones were introduced to support these reforestation attempts. They introduced imported conifers such as the North American Sitka and lodgepole pine. Softwood production dominated in the Scotland and Hardwood in England. By that time, UK issued certification for timber production called the PEFC, in line with the FSC and tracked down illegal logging.

In the 1970’s forest policies and management plans were issued. In addition to the Carbon budget plans that have impacted the forestation rates and the deadlines set to reach 13% of woodland coverage by Timber production quantities are highly increasing and expected to continue increasing in the upcoming years.

Peatland part: In the 1920’s, peatlands became part of the reforestation projects, as lands of low value, or waste lands. This was noticed with respect to the formation of The Forest Committee.

It lasted up until Peat action plans have been issued and then peatland strategies. Between 1940-1980: large amounts of coniferous trees were planted on the peatland and, a few of them have succeeded and reached harvesting age by now.

ANATOMICAL MAP HISTORICAL PART

Diagram 12: Anatomical Map Historical Part Drawn by S. Halaoui

ANATOMICAL MAP HISTORICAL PART

29

In the year 1988, the tax incentive system was removed, and during the early 2000’s the importance of peat has been realised.

Peatland strategies, policies and action plans were issued.

RE-PEAT SCOTLAND

Between 1950-1988, generous tax incentive system for peatland forestation took place, all under the pretext of encouraging employment, reducing timber imports and making wasteland productive.

And in 1980 1/10 of peatlands became forests.

30

WOODLAND STATISTICS Due to forest management policies and strategies and the aim to increase forest cover by set deadlines we notice that the forest cover in the UK has increased over the past century, and it is most notable in Scotland.

Diagram 13: Woodland Statistics Drawn by Y. Liu, T. Chao, C. Chen

2019 2015 2010 0

2015 2010 0

500

1000

1500

2000

New Tree Planting Across The UK

1500

2000

2500

3000

2500

3000

Thousand hectares

Scotland

North England

South West England 0

5 England

0

5 England

10

15 Wales

20

25 Scotland

30 Thousand hectares Northern Ireland

10

15 Wales

20

25 Scotland

30 Thousand hectares Northern Ireland

Forest Area

2010-2019 UK Forest Area

WOODLAND STATISTICS

2020 2019 2018 2017 2016 2015 2014 2013 2012 2011 2010 2009 2008 2007 2006 2005 2004 2003 2002 2001 2000 1999 1998 1997 1996 1995 1994 1993 1992 1991 1990 1989 1988 1987 1986 1985 1984 1983 1982 1981 1980 1979 1978 1977 1976

2020 2019 2018 2017 2016 2015 2014 2013 2012 2011 2010 2009 2008 2007 2006 2005 2004 2003 2002 2001 2000 1999 1998 1997 1996 1995 1994 1993 1992 1991 1990 1989 1988 1987 1986 1985 1984 1983 1982 1981 1980 1979 1978 1977 1976

RE-PEAT SCOTLAND

WOODLAND STATISTICS

1000

Thousand hectares

2019

31

500

32

｜Native Species｜

Scotland

Woodland species in the UK are divided into native and non-native ones. Native species are classified into Semi-natural woodlands and ancient semi natural ones, mostly dominant in Scotland and southern England.

Two thirds of them are privately owned by individuals and groups and only one third is publicly owned. Due to the lack of native species in the UK, non-native ones were introduced to support reforestation attempts.

Diagram 14: Native Tree Species Drawn by T. Chao, S. Halaoui

Semi natural woodland (650,000 hectares) Ancient semi natural woodland (340,000 hectares) Ex: Native pine forests of highland Scotland

Other Species Japanese Larch European Larch Douglas Fir Hybrid Larch Norway Spruce Scots Pine Lodgepine Pine

South England

Sitka Spruce 0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

Forestry Commission Scotland Ordered Conifer Stock 2013-14

NATIVE SPECIES

1/3 Publicly owned

NATIVE SPECIES

33

UK’s Native Trees Species

-Farmers -Family Trusts -Charitable trusts -Local groups -Companies

RE-PEAT SCOTLAND

2/3 woodland are owned by individuals and groups:

34

Scotland

｜Imported Conifers- Sitka Spruce｜

Wales

IMPORTED CONIFERS- SITKA SPRUCE

Diagram 15: Imported Conifers- Sitka Spruce Drawn by T. Chao, S. Halaoui

Figure 5 Shaw, Duncan. 2022. “Plantation Of Sitka Spruce - Stock Image - E760/0276”. Science Photo Library. Accessed April 24. https://www.sciencephoto.com/media/177864/view/plantation-of-sitka-spruce.

Figure 6 “Sitka Spruce”. 2022. Forestry And Land Scotland. Accessed February 24. https://forestryandland.gov.scot/learn/trees/sitka-spruce.

IMPORTED CONIFERS- SITKA SPRUCE

35

Sitka Spruce

the versatility of its timber. Because the main feature of sitka is that it is not picky about where it grows, it can even thrive in poor soil. As a result, Sitka timber can be used for paper, boat building, construction, pallets, packaging, and a variety of other purposes. In the United Kingdom, the commercial wood industry is entirely dependent on the success of Sitka trees.

RE-PEAT SCOTLAND

South West England

Sitka spruce generally dominating in Scotland and Wales. The Sitka Spruce, the world’s fifth-largest conifer, is the most common pine species found in a forest in the UK. Its name derives from Sitka, Alaska, and it is native to North America. Picea sitchensis is the scientific name for it. The Sitka grows up to 100 metres tall and has a 600-year lifespan. It is commonly found in UK forests. The Sitka’s popularity stems not only from its rapid growth (up to 1.5 metres per year), but also from

36

Scotland

｜Imported Conifers- Lodgepole Pine｜

North American Lodgepole Pine Diagram 16: Imported Conifers- Lodgepole Pine Drawn by T. Chao, S. Halaoui

Figure 7: Peatland And Bog Wildlife. 2022. Image. Accessed February 25. https://www.wildlifewatch.org.uk/sites/default/files/2020-07/ peat.jpg.

Figure 8: “Lodgepole Pine | Alaskan Provenance | Pinus Contorta | Alba Trees”. 2022. Albatrees. Accessed April 24. https://www.albatrees. co.uk/?products=pinus-contorta.

Sitka to unlock nutrients for the Sitka on poor sites, specially where heather species is present. Lodgepole also acts as a nurse crop by providing frost protection and reducing branching. However, One of the most interesting facts is that its cones need high temperatures to open and release seeds, thus, many believe that this species should’nt be planted in Scotland.

IMPORTED CONIFERS- LODGEPOLE PINE

37

Regarding to the Lodgepole pine species, it has planted in UK’s shores in 1855. Due to its tolerance to poor soil, it quickly became a valuable timber crop of Britain, particularly in Scotland. The species can grow to be up to 50 metres tall. The Lodgepole pine, Pinus contorta, with its distinctive slim shape and high branches frequently loses its lower branches as it matures. It is native to North America as same as the Sitka spruce. The lodgepole pine is an excellent tree for upland areas because it grows in poor soils and is frost and exposure. tolerant. Lodgepole is frequently planted in mixtures with

RE-PEAT SCOTLAND

IMPORTED CONIFERS- LODGEPOLE PINE

Wales

38

Figure 9: The Co-existence Transition

The co-existence here doesn’t simply mean tree exist on peatland, but right land-use management that the land could be properly deployed its function to achieve sustainable balance in Scotland.

39

40

CO-EXISTENCE By addressing the management and exploitation of both land uses at the national scale, we aim at expanding a policy and designing a land assessment tool that will address the conflict of coexistence between woodlands and peatlands and tackle peat restoration in Scotland.

Diagram 17: Anatomical Map Co-existence Part Drawn by C. Chen, S. Halaoui

Woodland Analysis

Woodland History

Peatland History

Peatland Analysis

CO-ECISTENCE

RE-PEAT SCOTLAND CO-ECISTENCE

41

42

SITE SELECTION CRITERIA By addressing the management and exploitation of both land uses at the national scale, we aim at designing a land assessment tool that will address the conflict of coexistence of woodlands and peatlands and tackle peat restoration in Scotland.

Making use of existing initiatives, expanding on existing land assessment tools and looking into mapping techniques to understand the geomorphology of the peatland area.

43

National Trust for Scotland Royal Society for the Protection of birds Border forest Trust Forest Commission Scotland John Muir trust We have selected 2 specific sites for further analysis.

Diagram 18: Site Selection Criteria Drawn by S. Halaoui

SITE SELECTION CRITERIA

SITE SELECTION CRITERIA

These community driven initiatives are managed and owned by the:

RE-PEAT SCOTLAND

on the areas of conflict, land ownership, carbon crediting systems, and peat action plans. The aim is to gather the knowledge into a restoration manual where we come back with restoration polices that are not only related to the technicalities but expand to tackle the way communities manage the land.

44

EXISTING SITE INITIATIVES Diagram 19: Existing Site Initiatives Drawn by S. Halaoui

EXISTING SITE INITIATIVES

RE-PEAT SCOTLAND EXISTING SITE INITIATIVES

45

46

LAND REFORM Diagram 20: Land Reform Drawn by C. Chen

x ‘We are improving Scotland’s system of land ownership, use, rights and responsibilities, so that our land may contribute to a fair and just society while balancing public and private interests.’

｜Summary of policy recommendations｜

｜Action｜ Scottish Land Commission Scottish Land Fund Right to buy land to further sustainable development (part 5) Community right to buy Community right to buy abandoned, neglected or detrimental land (ANDL) Crofting community right to buy Register of persons holding a controlled interest in land Engaging communities in decisions relating to land

47

Scale up Community Wealth Building approaches to local development.

LANDREFORM

LANDREFORM

Scotland’s natural capital potential to be captured for public benefit

RE-PEAT SCOTLAND

Diversify Scotland’s Land ownership

48

CARBON EMISSION LAND TAX This proposal has been developed by the John Muir Trust as an expansion to the policies and strategies developed to tackle climate change. The aim is to maximise the potential carbon sequestration and have potential to change the pattern of land in Scotland.

They proposed a Carbon Emissions Land Tax1 (CELT) for large-scale landowners with properties over 1000 ha. Based on hectarage, every landowner would be assessed for actual and potential carbon emissions and sequestration by relevant public agencies (SEPA, NatureScot), local authorities, and expert consultants.

Landowners would then be placed in a graduated banding scheme controlled by local authorities. Those landowners who is eligible for the tax could move to lower tax bands by changing land use to maximise carbon sequestration. One of the main goals of this taxation is to drive positive behavioural change.

1 “Carbon Emission Land Tax,” JOHN MUIR TRUST, April, 2022, https://www.johnmuirtrust.org/support-us/take-action/982-carbon-emissions-land-tax Responding to the climate and biodiversity emergencies and the need to reduce carbon emissions in Scotland, the proposal highlights the role and current under-realised potential of land functioning as a natural carbon store.

RE-PEAT SCOTLAND CARBON EMISSION LAND TAX

Figure 10: Carbon Emission Land Tax “Carbon Emission Land Tax,” JOHN MUIR TRUST, April, 2022 https://www.johnmuirtrust.org/support-us/take-action/982-carbon-emissions-land-tax

50

｜Our Intervention In The CELT｜ We have built up on this tax proposal.

First by modifying its criteria. Lands included will be classified into over 500 and under 500 hectares, and then creating carbon equations that would calculate actual and potential carbon emissions.

Second, the revenue will not only be used to fund further restoration and expansion projects but will also be used to support the community, especially in owning land for breaking the issue of land ownership concentration in scotland.

Third by elaborating on the suggested tools Diagram 21: Comparision of existing and modified CELT Drawn by Y. Liu and S. Halaoui

｜How Does The Tax Work ?｜ For lands above 500 hectares, an initial carbon tax is issued based on the actual carbon emissions. If the land owner decides to change land use and abide by the proposed land management scheme, a new carbon tax will be calculated. This tax is lower than the initial one.

It gives community bodies a right to compulsorily purchase land which is wholly or mainly, abandoned or neglected or the use or management of the land is causing harm to the environmental wellbeing of the community.

However, the tax would increase in case no change is implemented. In addition to the increased tax, a fragment of the land will be placed under the management and in some cases ownership of the community and fall under “The community right to buy abandoned, neglected or detrimental land.” 1

As for lands below 500 hectares, no tax is applied. Instead, they can apply for funding in order to enhance their land conditions. This funding is part of the revenue collected from the carbon emission land tax and large land owners, in addition to existing funding schemes such as the peatland action fund by NatureScot and the Scottish government.

1 The “Part 3A right to buy” is created by Part 3A of the Land Reform (Scotland) Act 2003 (“the Act”). The Part 3A right to buy allows community bodies to apply to Ministers (“Ministers”) for consent to exercise a right to buy land. Where Ministers grant consent, the community body has the right to buy the land, even if the owner is not seeking to sell it. That is, the community body can acquire the land compulsorily.

Diagram 22: How does the tax work?

Drawn by Y. Liu and S. Halaoui

CARBON EMISSION LAND TAX

RE-PEAT SCOTLAND CARBON EMISSION LAND TAX

51

52

｜Application Process｜ Our strategy is based on a land assessment tool that includes a soil, water and tree assessment mechanism, carbon tax calculation, land management proposal, second tax calculation and land management implementation with final design.

Diagram 23: Application process Drawn by Y. Liu

CARBON EMISSION LAND TAX

RE-PEAT SCOTLAND CARBON EMISSION LAND TAX

53

54

PLATFORM In order to provide access to the process we proposed, we have developed a platform where landowners are able to register their lands, undertake the CELT assessment and be provided with the proper management scheme.

The platform structure is divided into steps: Inputting land data, land assessment, carbon tax, and design manual. Each of these have subcategories. The following demonstration will use the site we visited and discussed with John Muir Trust. It is located in Pitlochry Scotland and owned by John Muir trust.

The timeline at the bottom shows the stage of the platform within the whole application Diagram 24: Platforms Developed and drawn by S. Halaoui, Y. Liu, C. Chen, T. Chao

PLATFORM

RE-PEAT SCOTLAND PLATFORM

55

56

｜Overview｜ ｜Land Data｜

The platform starts with an overview page where the user can browse through different map scales and get the chance to look and engage with different completed and ongoing projects. Projects such as the ones in the Highland area.

The platform also provides property information of neighboring sites.

｜Land Data｜ After that, users can also check the site morphology, this will provide a detailed and deep analysis of the site conditions and layers.

｜Land Data｜

｜Land Data｜

Next, Land use data is shown for landowners to compare with their current land use.

They can select a specific area to get more detailed condition of the land.

Users would need to enter their land number and then their property information would show up.

Tax Calculation

Land Management Proposal

Second Tax Calculation

Land Management Implementation

Land Assessment

Tax Calculation

Land Management Proposal

Second Tax Calculation

Land Management Implementation

PLATFORM

PLATFORM

RE-PEAT SCOTLAND

57

Land Assessment

58

｜Land Assessment｜ Next, in this part, users would need to specify the status of their land by providing land assessment report.

｜Land Assessment｜ They could press YES if they have previous land assessments done. In this case, they will be required to enter the assessment date, upload reports and necessary assessment maps.

｜Ｗhast Is The Assessment Manual?｜

｜Land Assessment｜ If they don’t have previous assessments, they can book an appointment with experts, download the assessment manual and apply for a tool kit.

Tax Calculation

Land Management Proposal

Second Tax Calculation

Land Management Implementation

PLATFORM

PLATFORM

RE-PEAT SCOTLAND

59

Land Assessment

60

ASSESSMENT MANUAL

FIELD TRIP

The assessment manual is developed based on our field trip experience for the landowners to recognize and identify peatland and woodland condition from soil, vegetation and microscopy.

Our field trip was based on community owned and managed lands, moreover, we expanded our scope of work and research into some private lands to create a comparison between land conditions based on various land ownership.

Figure 11: Assessment manual Developed and drawn by T. Chao and Y. Liu

We visited, Loch Rannoch, Schiehallion area in Scotland followed by Glenridding in Lake district, Northern England.

SITE 3A Brase of Foss (Intersection_Deep_Exposed Peat) Private Land

SITE 3B Pitlochry (Shallow Good_Peat)

Diagram 25: Field trip testing sites - Schiehallion Drawn by C. Chen and Y. Liu

SITE 4A Helvellyn (Deep_Unhealthy Peat)

SITE 4B Patterdale (Intersection_Deep_Peat)

Diagram 26: Field trip testing sites - Glenridding Drawn by C. Chen and Y. Liu

ASSESSMENT MANUAL

FIELD TRIP

RE-PEAT SCOTLAND

61

62

｜Contents｜ The manual is divided into four part, soil sampling guide and tool preparation, peatland condition and vegetation identification, woodland health and species identification and the last part, microscopy of soil.

Diagram 27: Field trip route Drawn by C. Chen and Y. Liu

Figure 12: Lacting testing sample Photo by Y. Liu

｜Chapter 1｜ In the first chapter, soil sampling tools are listed and the different processes from using the map to locate testing sites, to collecting samples are graphically illustrated.

SITE 3B

Figure 13: Water feture of the site Photo by S. Halaoui

Figure 14: Moisture and PH meter Photo by Y. Liu

FIELD TRIP

ASSESSMENT MANUAL

RE-PEAT SCOTLAND

63

SITE 3B

64

SITE 3B

｜Chapter 1｜

Figure 15: Inserting peat probe for collecting samples Photo by C. Chen

In the first chapter, soil sampling tools are listed and the different processes from using the map to locate testing sites, to collecting samples are graphically illustrated.

SITE 4B

Figure 16: Collecting peat soil Photo by Y. Liu

SITE 4B

Figure 17: Moisture and PH meter Photo by Y. Liu

SITE 3B

Figure 18: Sphagnum moss Photo by Y. Liu

｜Chapter 2｜ In this chapter, it shows how to recognize peat soil and the identification of peatland condition. We could identified peat soil from moisture, smell, colour and texture, and the most important, the vegetation on peatland – various Sphagnum moss species.

SITE 4B

SITE 4B

Figure 20: High water table Photo by Y. Liu

FIELD TRIP

65

RE-PEAT SCOTLAND

ASSESSMENT MANUAL

Figure 19: Peat soil Photo by T. Chao

66

SITE 4B

Figure 21: Different depth of peat soils - Glenridding Photo by C. Chen

SITE 3B

Figure 22: Different depth of soils on shallow peatland - Schiehallion Photo by S. Halaoui

Figure 23: Collection of soil samples from field trip Photo by T. Chao

SITE 3B

Figure 24: Vegetation on peatland - 1 Photo by Y. Liu

｜Chapter 2｜ Sphagnum moss species are also important indicators for understanding the condition of peatlands.

They could be very different depending on the moisture and PH value of peatland.

SITE 3B

SITE 3B

Figure 26: Vegetation on peatland - 3 Photo by Y. Liu

FIELD TRIP

67

RE-PEAT SCOTLAND

ASSESSMENT MANUAL

Figure 25 Vegetation on peatland - 2 Photo by Y. Liu

68

SITE 4B

Figure 27: Vegetation on peatland - 4 Photo by Y. Liu

SITE 4B

Figure 28: Vegetation on peatland - 5 Photo by Y. Liu

SITE 4B

Figure 29: Vegetation on peatland - 6 Photo by Y. Liu

SITE 4B

Figure 30: Vegetation on peatland - 7 Photo by Y. Liu

SITE 4B

SITE 4B

Figure 32: Vegetation on peatland - 9 Photo by Y. Liu

FIELD TRIP

69

RE-PEAT SCOTLAND

ASSESSMENT MANUAL

Figure 31: Vegetation on peatland - 8 Photo by Y. Liu

70

SITE 3A

Figure 33: Woodland with conifer Photo by Y. Liu

｜Chapter 3｜ Ways to inspect the health of trees are provided, in addtion to the suggestions for removing non-native trees such as lodgepole pine and sitka that used to be planted on peatland for timber production, native tree species are suggested and listed with their specific features and needs.

SITE 3B

Figure 34: Tree cutting on peatland Photo by S. Halaoui

SITE 3A

Figure 35: woodland on peatland Photo by C. Chen

SITE 3A

Figure 36: Fallen tree on woodland Photo by Y. Liu

｜Chapter 3｜

Figure 37: Woodland on peatland Photo by S. Halaoui

SITE 4B

Figure 38: Trees on peatland Photo by T. Chao

FIELD TRIP

71

SITE 3B

RE-PEAT SCOTLAND

ASSESSMENT MANUAL

Each kinds of trees have their own inclined growing environment, for the purpose of increasing carbon sequestration, and planting the right trees on right lands, we listed native trees with the soil and PH value they fit, and the ability of obsorbing carbon for landowners to consider their land management development.

72

Figure 39: Documenting collected soil samples - 1 Photo by T. Chao

Figure 40: Documenting collected soil samples - 2 Photo by Y. Liu

Figure 41: Documenting collected soil samples - 3 Photo by Y. Liu

Figure 42: Microscopy research with collected samples - 1 Photo by Y. Liu

｜Chapter 4｜

Figure 43: Micropscopy research with collected samples - 2 Photo by Y. Liu

FIELD TRIP

73

RE-PEAT SCOTLAND

ASSESSMENT MANUAL

Each kinds of trees have their own inclined growing environment, for the purpose of increasing carbon sequestration, and planting the right trees on right lands, we listed native trees with the soil and PH value they fit, and the ability of obsorbing carbon for landowners to consider their land management development.

74

PLATFORM - RESULT After using the manual, and providing the data on the platform, the results will be visualised with the supervision of experts.

The following shows how the results will be displayed for users. Site images will be used as a background to help the user identify the area.

Diagram 28: Result platform Developed and drawn by S. Halaoui, Y. Liu, C. Chen, T. Chao

PLATFORM - RESULT

RE-PEAT SCOTLAND PLATFORM - RESULT

75

76

｜Water Feture｜

｜Tree｜

At first, the location of the sample will be shown and water feature will be highlighted.

Next, tree species on site will be specified such as native or non-native species.

｜Ground Cover Vegetation｜

｜Soil｜ Then, section of the testing location will be provided, showing the different layers of soil that consist of the site.

Sphagnum moss species and other ground cover will also be identified as indicator of peatland condition from the collected sample.

｜Soil｜

｜Conclusion｜

From the samples collected, different soils will be identified such as peat and clay and then accompanied by PH analysis of the site.

Finally, a conclusion will be provied, summarizing the condition of the site and the potential percentage of restoration.

PLATFORM - RESULT

Tax Calculation

Land Management Proposal

Second Tax Calculation

Land Management Implementation

Land Assessment

Tax Calculation

Land Management Proposal

Second Tax Calculation

Land Management Implementation

PLATFORM - RESULT

77

Land Assessment

RE-PEAT SCOTLAND

Microscopy result will also be provied to further explain the condition of the land, in this case, it shows that the site had a high water table previously.

78

｜Initial Tax Calculation｜ Based on the land assessment results, an initial carbon tax is calculated. It is a sum of the actual carbon emissions from the various intersection and peatland areas.

｜Discussion Forum｜ Before the final decision, a discussion forum allows the user to get the feedback from community members and experts for better direction.

On the left side of the platform , a carbon scale will show the total carbon emissions alongside a taxing band bar to show how much tax will be paid per hectare per year.

｜Suggested Strategies｜

｜Strategy Decision｜

As landowner know the initial tax, a set of strategies are suggested.

After deciding the direction of their land management, users are able to navigate through the different strategies and the change of their tax rate.

For example, the chosen strategy 1 is high then existing tax rate. Because they choose wood expansion on peatland that would release carbon in peatland.

｜Suggested Strategies｜

｜Strategy Decision｜

In the following steps, the user will need to specify the area in which the strategies will be implemented among the three possible strategies, peatland restoration, woodland expansion and woodland edge peatland.

On the contrary, if they choose strategy 2, the tax will be lower than existing one, because they decide to do the peatland restoration that would store carbon in the future.

So that users can take the tax rate as consideration to decide their future land management.

Tax Calculation

Land Management Proposal

Second Tax Calculation

Land Management Implementation

Land Assessment

Tax Calculation

Land Management Proposal

Second Tax Calculation

Land Management Implementation

PLATFORM

PLATFORM

RE-PEAT SCOTLAND

79

Land Assessment

80

Land Assessment

Tax Calculation

Land Management Proposal

Second Tax Calculation

Land Management Implementation

｜What’s Next?｜ Let’s zoom in a little to see where these strategies develop in places, the process of each step, and further landscape changes etc.

Diagram 29: What’s Next Drawn by C. Chen

Tree Removing

Revegetating

Reprofiling & Grip Blocking

PLATFORM - RESULT

RE-PEAT SCOTLAND PLATFORM - RESULT

81

82

COMMUNITY-BASED LAND MANAGEMENT DESIGN For the following development, we are going to show how communities engage in the land management with local people to create a community-based land management design.

To achieve appropriate land management and co-existence we defined in the previous chapter, we will show how peatland will be restored depends on different conditions of lands.

Diagram 30: Peatland restoration process Drawn by Y. Liu

COMMUNITY-BASED LAND MANAGEMENT DESIGN

RE-PEAT SCOTLAND COMMUNITY-BASED LAND MANAGEMENT DESIGN

83

84

｜Tree Removing｜ For the peatlands used to be the field of reforestation, non-native trees need to be removed, timbers of those trees can be recycle for other infrastructure.

｜Reprofiling｜ For the peatlands that are actively eroding, the exposed slopes need to be reprofiled by excavator, as well as the grip that used to be drained for argriculture.

COMMUNITY-BASED LAND MANAGEMENT DESIGN

RE-PEAT SCOTLAND COMMUNITY-BASED LAND MANAGEMENT DESIGN

85

86

｜Grip Blocking｜ One of the most important factors for peatland restoration is the fluctuation of water table.

｜Revegetating｜ Last but not least part is revegetating with various species such as sphagnum moss, butterworts or cotton grass.

Various sediment traps such as timber or stone are made to keep the water in different water level. The sediment trap can also be made from other materials from the local place such as coir roll or wooden buns.

COMMUNITY-BASED LAND MANAGEMENT DESIGN

RE-PEAT SCOTLAND COMMUNITY-BASED LAND MANAGEMENT DESIGN

87

88

｜Future Scenario｜ The restoration of peatland might take several years to achieve, the source of funds and workforce for the long term management is vital. Therefore, partial income of the tax we proposed will be used in the process.

On the other hand, the cooperation of local community with trusts and organizations could manage the land through activity engagement, carbon credit system, and development of tourism to create community wealth then generate natural capital for the public on site with peatland restoration simultaneously.

Diagram 31: Peatland restoration future scenario Drawn by Y. Liu

COMMUNITY-BASED LAND MANAGEMENT DESIGN

RE-PEAT SCOTLAND COMMUNITY-BASED LAND MANAGEMENT DESIGN

89

90

｜Peatland Distribution｜ Base on the Peatland Action Data set, the darker area shows the shallow peat distribution.

LANDSCAPE REFORM Under the policies, how can the community-based land management and the change of landownership shape the landscape in the future?

We’re going to take the same location: East Schiehallion for example Diagram 32: Landscape Reform Developed and drawn by C. Chen

Native tree Non-native tree

｜Tree Distribution｜ The trees can be divided into native trees and nonnative trees according to existing circumstances

Private Land Community Land

(Captain Ian C de Sales La Terriere)

(John Muir Trust)

Private Land (Mary CC Horsfall)

｜Existing Landownership｜ RE-PEAT SCOTLAND

We project the land ownership layer on the terrain, the blue area is John Miur Trust community land, the red area belong to two private landowners.

LANDSCAPE REFORM 92

Private Land (Captain Ian C de Sales La Terriere)

Community Land (John Muir Trust)

Community Land & Shared landownership (John Muir Trust & Residents)

｜Community Right to Buy｜ However, according to the meeting and speculative future, John Miur Trust has a high chance to acquire one of private land for restoration purposes.

Native tree Non-native tree Native tree planting

｜Afforestation & Restoration｜ Afforestation and peat restoration projects can be implemented via the cooperation between John Miur Trust and the local.

II

Native tree I

Non-native tree

III

Native tree planting

II IV V

｜More Diverse Land Ownership｜

LANDSCAPE REFORM

Moreover, the land monopoly issue will be alleviated, we speculate the more diverse land ownership in Scotland. The smaller scale landowners or shared-landowners can make their own decisions with the suggested strategies.

93

‘We hope our project could at least show how could we start from the policy to the strategies implement as a way to alleviate this political, environmental issue and re-peat Scotland.’ ___Chia-Chun Chen, Yu-Ting Liu

｜ Bibliography｜

｜List of Figures｜

Sloan, T., 2018. Peatland afforestation in the UK and consequences for carbon storage. [online] Mires-and-peat. net. Available at: <http://mires-and-peat.net/media/ map23/map_23_01.pdf> [Accessed 23 September 2022].

“Rusty Bog-Moss (Sphagnum Fuscum) - Detail - Biodiversity Maps”. 2022. Maps.Biodiversityireland.Ie. Accessed June 6. https://maps.biodiversityireland.ie/Species/126786.

Assessment On Peatlands, Biodiversity And Climate Change. 2007. Ebook. 1st ed. Selangor: Global Environment Centre, Kuala Lumpur & Wetlands International, Wageningen. https://ledsgp.org/app/uploads/2015/12/ Assessment-on-peatlands-biodiversity-and-cli mate-change-main-report.pdf.

“Species Finder - British Bryological Society”. 2022. British Bryological Society. Accessed June 6. https://www. britishbryologicalsociety.org.uk/learning/species-finder/.

Chapman, Steve, Alexandre Buttler, André-Jean Francez, Fatima Laggoun-Défarge, Harri Vasander, Michael Schloter, and Jean Combe et al. 2022. “Exploitation Of Northern Peatlands And Biodiversity Maintenance: A Conflict Between Economy And Ecology”. Research.

Shaw, Duncan. 2022. “Plantation Of Sitka Spruce - Stock Image - E760/0276”. Science Photo Library. Accessed April 24. https://www.sciencephoto.com/media/177864/ view/plantation-of-sitka-spruce.

“Sitka Spruce”. 2022. Forestry And Land Scotland. Accessed February 24. https://forestryandland.gov.scot/ learn/trees/sitka-spruce.

“Sphagnum Imbricatum Complex (Sphagnaceae, Bryophyta) In Russia”. 2022. Researchgate. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/275607506_Sphagnum_imbricatum_complex_Sphagnaceae_Bryophyta_in_Russia/ figures?lo=1.

Turetsky, Merritt R. 2017. “The Sphagnome Project: Enabling Ecological And Evolutionary Insights Through A Genus-Level Sequencing Project”. https://nph.onlinelibrary. wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/nph.14860.

“The Wild And Wonderful World Of Scottish Mosses”.

2022. Plantlife.Org.Uk. Accessed June 6. https://www. plantlife.org.uk/application/files/2415/0038/6613/ WAW_Scottish_Mosses_leaflet.pdf.

Peatland And Bog Wildlife. 2022. Image. Accessed February 25. https://www.wildlifewatch.org.uk/sites/default/ files/2020-07/peat.jpg.

“Sphagnum Moss | The Wildlife Trusts”. 2022. Wildlifetrusts.Org. Accessed June 6. https://www.wildlifetrusts.org/wildlife-explorer/mosses-and-liverworts/ sphagnum-moss.

“Lodgepole Pine | Alaskan Provenance | Pinus Contorta | Alba Trees”. 2022. Albatrees. Accessed April 24. https:// www.albatrees.co.uk/?products=pinus-contorta.

“Sphagnum Mosses Guide – Field Studies Council”. 2012.

Field Studies Council. https://www.field-studies-council. org/shop/publications/sphagnum-mosses-guide/.

“Carbon Emission Land Tax.” JOHN MUIR TRUST. Accessed April 2022. https://www.johnmuirtrust.org/support-us/take-action/982-carbon-emissions-land-tax

“Sphagnum Mosses AIDGAP – Field Studies Council”.

2021. Field Studies Council. https://www.field-studies-council.org/shop/publications/sphagnum-mosses-aidgap/.

“Who Owns Scotland.” Who Owns Scotland. Accessed March2022. https://whoownsscotland.org.uk/.

“Community Land Scotland.” Community Land Scotland.Accessed April 2022. https://www. communitylandscotland.org.uk/.

“Restoration.” Yorkshire Peat Patnership. Accessed July 20, 2022.https://www.yppartnership.org.uk/restoration.

“Sphagnum Capillifolium - Plant Finder”. 2022. Missouribotanicalgarden.Org. Accessed June 6. https://www. missouribotanicalgarden.org/PlantFinder/PlantFinderDetails.aspx?taxonid=443951&isprofile=0&letter=S#:~:text=This%20is%20a%20small%20to,stems%20up%20 to%201’%20long.

Otto, Mark. 2022. “Species Profile Browser · Species Profile”. Species.Biodiversityireland.Ie. Accessed June 6. https://species.biodiversityireland.ie/profile.php?taxonId=126798&keyword=HH4.

Fraser, Paul. 2022. “Scotland’s Tree Species”. Forestry And Land Scotland. Accessed June 11. https://forestryandland.gov.scot/learn/trees.

“Peatland Condition Assessment”. 2022. Nature.Scot. Accessed June 11. https://www.nature.scot/sites/default/ files/2017-10/Guidance-Peatland-Action-Peatland-Condition-Assessment-Guide-A1916874.pdf.

“Peat Depth And Peatland Condition Survey Guidance”. 2022. NATURE SCOTLAND. Accessed June 11. https://www.nature.scot/doc/peatland-action-peat-depth-and-peat-condition-survey-guidance-and-recording-form-guidance#Survey+method.

“What Does The Color Of Soil Tell You About It?”. 2022.

Natural Resources Conservation Service Wisconsin. Accessed June 11. https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/ nrcs/detail/wi/soils/?cid=NRCSEPRD1370419.

“England Launches Peat Action Plan | IUCN UK Peatland Programme”. 2021. IUCN Peatland Programme. https:// www.iucn-uk-peatlandprogramme.org/news/englandlaunches-peat-action-plan.

“England Peat Action Plan”. 2021. GOV.UK. https://www. gov.uk/government/publications/england-peat-actionplan.

“IUCN UK Peatland Strategy 2018-2040 - Search”.

2018. Bing.Com. https://www.bing.com/search?q=IUCN+UK+Peatland+Strategy+2018-2040+&qs=n&form=QBRE&sp=-1&pq=iucn+uk+peatland+strategy+2018-2040 +&sc=0-36&sk=&cvid=9C903774C273415CAC7E77FFA2CA40D7.

“Just Transition Commission: A National Mission For A Fairer, Greener Scotland”. 2021. Gov.Scot.

Hartono, Dharsono. 2010. KATINGAN PEATLAND RESTORATION AND CONSERVATION PROJECT. Ebook. 3rd ed. Republic of Indonesia: PT. Rimba Makmur Utama. https://id.katinganproject.com/uploads/default/modular/CCB_PROJ_DESC_SUM_ENG_1477_06AUG2015.pdf.

Figure 1: Sloan, T., 2018. Peatland afforestation in the UK and consequences for carbon storage. [online] Miresand-peat.net. Available at: <http://mires-and-peat.net/ media/map23/map_23_01.pdf> [Accessed 23 September 2022].

Figure 2: Assessment On Peatlands, Biodiversity And Climate Change. 2007. Ebook. 1st ed. Selangor: Global Environment Centre, Kuala Lumpur & Wetlands International, Wageningen. https://ledsgp.org/app/ uploads/2015/12/Assessment-on-peatlands-biodiversity-and-climate-change-main-report.pdf.

Figure 21: Different Depth Of Peat Soils - Glenridding

Diagram 1: Anatomical Map

Figure 22: Different Depth Of Soils On Shallow Peatland - Schiehallion

Diagram 2: Global Leaf Area Index

Figure 23: Collection Of Soil Samples From Field Trip Figure 24: Vegetation On Peatland - 1 Figure 25 Vegetation On Peatland - 2 Figure 26: Vegetation On Peatland - 3

Figure 3: Chapman, Steve, Alexandre Buttler, André-Jean Francez, Fatima Laggoun-Défarge, Harri Vasander, Michael Schloter, and Jean Combe et al. 2022. “Exploitation Of Northern Peatlands And Biodiversity Maintenance: A Conflict Between Economy And Ecology”. Research.

Figure 27: Vegetation On Peatland - 4

Figure 4: Tree Falling on The Peatland

Figure 30: Vegetation On Peatland - 7

Figure 5: Shaw, Duncan. 2022. “Plantation Of Sitka Spruce - Stock Image - E760/0276”. Science Photo Library. Accessed April 24. https://www.sciencephoto.com/media/177864/view/plantation-of-sitka-spruce.

Figure 31: Vegetation On Peatland - 8

Figure 6: “Sitka Spruce”. 2022. Forestry And Land Scotland. Accessed February 24. https://forestryandland.gov. scot/learn/trees/sitka-spruce.

Figure 7: Peatland And Bog Wildlife. 2022. Image. Accessed February 25. https://www.wildlifewatch.org.uk/ sites/default/files/2020-07/peat.jpg.

Figure 8: “Lodgepole Pine | Alaskan Provenance | Pinus Contorta | Alba Trees”. 2022. Albatrees. Accessed April 24. https://www.albatrees.co.uk/?products=pinus-contorta.

Figure 28: Vegetation On Peatland - 5 Figure 29: Vegetation On Peatland - 6

Figure 32: Vegetation On Peatland - 9 Figure 33: Woodland With Conifer Figure 34: Tree Cutting On Peatland Figure 35: Woodland On Peatland Figure 36: Fallen Tree On Woodland Figure 37: Woodland On Peatland Figure 38: Trees On Peatland Figure 39: Documenting Collected Soil Samples - 1

Figure 9: The Co-existence Transition

Figure 40: Documenting Collected Soil Samples - 2

Figure 10: Carbon Emission Land Tax “Carbon Emission Land Tax,” JOHN MUIR TRUST, April, 2022 https://www. johnmuirtrust.org/support-us/take-action/982-carbonemissions-land-tax

Figure 41: Documenting Collected Soil Samples - 3

Figure 11: Assessment Manual

Figure 43: Micropscopy Research With Collected Samples - 2

Figure 42: Microscopy Research With Collected Samples -1

Diagram 2.1: Leaf Area Percentage Diagram 3: Biggest Buyers of Carbon Credits Diagram 4: Carbon Offset System Diagram 5: Carbon Flow Between Trees And Peatland Diagram 6: Peatland Type and Its Formation Diagram 7: Biodiversity of Peatland Diagram 8: Peatland Hydrology Diagram 9: The Damage of Peatland For Many Purposes Diagram 10: Global Woodland & Peatland Distribution Diagram 11: UK’s Woodland & Peatland Distribution Diagram 12: Anatomical Map Historical Part Diagram 13: Woodland Statistics Diagram 14: Native Tree Species Diagram 15: Imported Conifers- Sitka Spruce Diagram 16: Imported Conifers- Lodgepole Pine Diagram 17: Anatomical Map Co-existence Part Diagram 18: Site Selection Criteria Diagram 19: Existing Site Initiatives Diagram 20: Land Reform Diagram 21: Comparision of existing and modified CELT Diagram 22: How does the tax work?

Diagram 23: Application process

Trust, Woodland. 2022. “Tree Species”. Woodland Trust. https://www.woodlandtrust.org.uk/trees-woods-andwildlife/british-trees/a-z-of-british-trees/aspen/.

Figure 12: Lacting Testing Sample Figure 13: Water Feture Of The Site

Diagram 25: Field trip testing sites - Schiehallion

“Soil Ph Levels For Plants”. 2021. https://www.almanac. com/plant-ph.

Figure 14: Moisture And Ph Meter

Diagram 26: Field trip testing sites - Glenridding

Figure 15: Inserting Peat Probe For Collecting Samples

Diagram 27: Field trip route

Figure 16: Collecting Peat Soil

Diagram 28: Result platform

Figure 17: Moisture And Ph Meter

Diagram 29: What’s Next

Figure 18: Sphagnum Moss

Diagram 30: Peatland restoration process

Figure 19: Peat Soil

Diagram 31: Peatland restoration future scenario

Figure 20: High Water Table

Diagram 32: Landscape Reform

“Picea Sitchensis | Landscape Plants | Oregon State University”. 2022. Landscapeplants.Oregonstate.Edu. Accessed June 11. https://landscapeplants.oregonstate. edu/plants/picea-sitchensis.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

“Pinus Contorta Var. Contorta | Landscape Plants | Oregon State University”. 2022. Landscapeplants.Oregonstate.Edu. Accessed June 11. https://landscapeplants. oregonstate.edu/plants/pinus-contorta-var-contorta.

Diagram 24: Platforms

RE-PEAT SCOTLAND

Sphagnum Guide. 2022. Ebook. 1st ed. EU Life+ programme. Accessed June 6. https://www.moorsforthefuture.org.uk/__data/assets/pdf_file/0028/87436/Sphagnum-guide-MoorMOSS-Factsheet.pdf.

“Soil Types - Boughton”. 2022. Boughton. Accessed June 11. https://www.boughton.co.uk/products/topsoils/soiltypes/.

“7 Signs For A Healthy Tree - Longacre Tree Surgery”.

2022. Longacre Tree Surgery. Accessed June 11. https:// longacretreesurgery.co.uk/7-signs-for-a-healthy-tree/.

｜List of Diagrams｜

BIBLIOGRAPHY

95

96