HYDROSOCIAL (MSc)

HYDROSOCIAL​

ARCHITECTURAL ASSOCIATION SCHOOL OF ARCHITECTURE GRADUATE SCHOOL PROGRAMMES PROGRAMME: EMERGENT TECHNOLOGIES AND DESIGN YEAR: 2022-2023 COURSE TITLE: MSc. Dissertation DISSERTATION TITLE: STUDENT NAMES: Gautami Bhoite (MArch) Oxana Nagumanova (MSc) Shraddha Nepal (MArch) Mehul Shethiya (MArch)

DECLARATION: “I certify that this piece of work is entirely my/our and that my quotation or paraphrase from the published or unpublished work of other is duly acknowledged.”

SIGNATURE OF THE STUDENT: Oxana Nagumanova DATE: 22 September 2023

HYDROSOCIAL​

COURSE DIRECTOR Dr. Elif Erdine FOUNDING DIRECTOR Dr. Michael Weinstock STUDIO MASTER Dr. Milad Showkabakhsh STUDIO TUTORS Paris Nikitidis | Felipe Oeyen Lorenzo Santelli | Fun Yue

Gautami Bhoite (MArch) Oxana Nagumanova (MSc) Shraddha Nepal (MArch) Mehul Shethiya (MArch)

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT We would like to extend our heartfelt gratitude to all the individuals who played a pivotal role in the completion of our dissertation. This research project would not have been possible without the unwavering support and assistance of many, and we wish to express our appreciation.

First and foremost, we would like to convey our sincere thanks to our dissertation advisors, Dr Michael Weinstock, Dr Elif Erdine and Dr Milad Showkatbakhsh, along with our course tutors whose guidance, expertise, and invaluable insights significantly contributed to the success of this research. A special thanks to Dr George Jeronimidis who helped us whit his expertise in material sciences. All their mentorship was instrumental in shaping the direction and quality of our work.

Our friends, colleagues, and families deserve special recognition for their unwavering support, encouragement, and understanding during this academic journey. Their belief in our efforts has been a constant source of motivation.

This dissertation stands as a testament to the power of collaboration and collective effort, and we are humbled by the incredible support we have received. While it’s impossible to name everyone individually, please accept our heartfelt thanks for your indispensable contributions to this research project.

ABSTRACT The proposal addresses the urgent issue of water scarcity and ecological degradation in the trans-Himalayan region, with a specific focus on the Spiti Valley, which is grappling with desertification. The area confronts various challenges, including rapid urbanization, overexploitation of natural resources, and the impact of climate change resulting in glacier melt, all of which worsen water scarcity and contribute to desertification. To address these critical issues, this project employs traditional techniques, strategic urban planning, and the utilization of locally available materials to establish a sustainable water system. The proposal aims to alleviate water scarcity, combat desertification, and create communal spaces for the local community.

The valley is currently facing seasonal water scarcity due to prolonged summers, short winters, and dramatic temperature changes, resulting in a shorter melt season and increased summer runoff. Rising temperatures also lead to high evaporation rates, causing rivers and reservoirs to dry up. Consequently, water scarcity during the summer necessitates the import of water from nearby regions. The proposal focuses on resolving this issue of inadequate summer water supply by implementing methods to collect and preserve summer runoff. It aims to reduce the reliance on imported water and ensure that glacial meltwater is sufficient throughout the summer while also incorporating social spaces centered around water distribution for community development.

The project initiates a hydrological network for water collection, preservation, and distribution, tailored to the site’s needs. It incorporates additional programs to cater to local requirements. Construction methods prioritize local materials to minimize carbon emissions and water consumption. Overall, this project seeks to enhance the long-term sustainability and resilience of both Spiti Valley and the wider trans-Himalayan region through a comprehensive approach.

INTRODUCTION

DOMAIN

METHODS

RESEARCH DEVELOPMENT

DESIGN DEVELOPMENT

DISCUSSION

• CLIMATE CHANGE AND

• TRANSFORMATION IN SPITI

• PHYSICAL AND DIGITAL

• PROPOSED WATER SYSTEM

• PROPOSED WATER SYSTEM

• SITE ANALYSIS

• URBAN NETWORK

BIBLIOGRAPHY

• FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

• CONTEXT - KAZA

DEVELOPMENT

• COMPUTATIONAL FLUID

• SITE ANALYSIS

GLACIER MELT • WATER SCARCITY • CONTEXT - SPITI VALLEY • BIOME OF SPITI VALLEY • POPULATION • OCCUPATIONAL AND ECONOMICAL SHIFTS • HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE AND SEASONAL DISTRIBUTION • CONCLUSION

VALLEY • DIVERSIFICATION OF AGRICULTURE • AGRICULTURAL WASTE GENERATION • TRANSFORMATION IN

DYNAMICS

• SNOW FENCE DEVELOPMENT

• AGENT BASED SYSTEMS

• CASCADE DEVELOPEMENT

• EVOLUTIONARY ALGORITHM

• EMBANKMENT FORM FINDING

• TYPOLOGY A - PRIMARY NODE DEVELOPMENT • TYPOLOGY B AGRICULTURAL DESIGN

BUILDING TECHNOLOGY

• MATERIAL PHYSICAL

• BUILDING BLOCK

• DEVELOPMENT IN TOURISM

INVESTIGATION

DEVELOPMENT

• MIGRATION • WATER HARVESTING • CASE STUDIES • CONCLUSION • RESEARCH QUESTION

CONTENTS

PROTOTYPING

• MATERIAL DIGITAL INVESTIGATION • CONCLUSION

• CONSTRUCTION DETAILING • PRODUCTION METHODOLOGY

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INTRODUCTION • CLIMATE CHANGE AND GLACIER MELT • GLACIER MELT • CONTEXT - SPITI VALLEY • BIOME OF SPITI VALLEY • POPULATION • OCCUPATIONAL AND ECONOMICAL SHIFTS • HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE AND SEASONAL DISTRIBUTION • CONCLUSION

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CLIMATE CHANGE AND GLACIER MELT

Glacial melt has emerged as a pivotal consequence of global climate change, significantly impacting ice-covered regions worldwide. Among the most vulnerable areas experiencing this phenomenon is the Himalayan Mountain range. The Himalayas, with their immensity of glaciers, play a vital role in regulating water supply to millions of people across South Asia.

However, the rapid pace of Himalayan glacial melt poses unprecedented challenges to the region’s environmental stability, ecosystem integrity, and the livelihoods of communities that depend on these precious glacial water resources.1 2 Climate change is the main cause of Himalayan glacier melting due to human activities like burning fossil fuels, deforestation, and industrialization. These activities release greenhouse gases, trapping heat, causing rising temperatures and fast glacier melting which has a direct impact on the settlements which are dependent on this meltwater.

The Himalayas host a number of villages that depend on the rivers and streams that are formed by the melting glaciers which is the main source of water during the summer season.

This summer season is the cropping season but in recent times, it has been observed that the rivers, due to fast melting and excessive evaporation are not able to provide and evenly distribute water to these villages throughout the cropping season.3

Fig.1 Annual mass change in Global Glaciers2

Bajracharya, Samjwal & Maharjan, Sudan & Shrestha, Finu & Guo, Wanqin & Liu et al. “The glaciers of the Hindu Kush Hi malayas” International Journal of Water Resources Development, 31 (2015): 11-12.

2 Lee, E., Carrivick, J.L. et al. “Accelerated mass loss of Himalayan glaciers since the Little Ice Age” Sci Rep 11, 24284 (2021).

3 Biemans, H., Siderius, C., Lutz, A.F. et al. “Importance of snow and glacier meltwater for agriculture on the Indo-Gangetic Plain” Nat Sustain 2, 594–601 (2019).

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1990

GLACIER MELT

The irregular distribution of water leads to a reduction in availability. The glacial melt water serves as a crucial source to recharge water resources and as glaciers are melting faster than they can be replenished, the overall water availability in the affected areas decreases.

This reduced water supply can lead to arid conditions. Additionally, with the rapid melting of glaciers, there can be significant fluctuations in the timing and volume of the water flowing in the rivers resulting in disruptions of the ecosystems and agricultural practices, impacting the productivity of land and eventually leading to the encroachment of desertlike conditions.4 Since the glacial melt water also carries nutrients downstream which contribute to the fertility of the soil, this quick shrinking of glaciers diminishes the supply of nutrients leading to soil degradation and slowly leading to desertification of that these ecologically sensitive areas through a series of mechanisms.5 The observed changes between 1990 and 2015 in the context of desertification and water shortage are extremely worrying. The decreasing snow cover during this time period, along with an increase in Land Surface Temperature, hastens the rate of snowmelt.6 This disturbing occurrence has obvious and significant consequences for water supplies in Spiti Valley, both for agricultural and household operations.

The negative effects are more obvious in the case of Kuhls, which convey water from snow and glacier sources to communities. The significant drop in snow cover has resulted in extended water scarcity, altering the traditional access to water supplies on which inhabitants in Spiti Valley have relied for generations.

Yashwant E., “Climate Change Altering Farming in Spiti.” (2018). https://www.thethirdpole.net/en/climatechange-altering-farming-in-spiti/ 5 Eriksson, Mats & Xu, Jianchu & Shrestha et al. “The Changing Himalayas: Impact of Climate Change on Water Resources” (2009).

6 Husain, Md & Kumar, Pankaj & Singh et al. “Snow Cover and Snowline Variation in Relation to Land Surface Temperature in Spiti Valley” International Journal of Ecology. 49. (2022).

2015

Furthermore, the flow of the Spiti River, which is vital to the region’s environment and human habitation, is significantly dependent on snow accumulation. The decreasing snow cover not only compromises the river’s long-term flow but also increases populations’ vulnerability to desertification and water scarcity. The complex interaction between declining snow supplies, desertification, and water shortages highlights the critical need for comprehensive initiatives aimed at protecting water resources, reducing desertification, and developing sustainable practices in the face of increasing climate difficulties.

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Fig.2 Monthly Variation of snow cover in Spiti Valley (1990 and 2015)6

Snow

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CONTEXT SPITI VALLEY

This mountain range produces a variety of contexts with varying climates, terrain, and resources. One of which is Spiti Valley, located in the Indian State of Himachal Pradesh.

Spiti Valley is situated within the rain shadow region of the Himalayas, nestled between the Tibetan plateau in the East and Ladakh to the North, as a result, it has a dry environment and little to no precipitation, earning it the title of a cold desert. The rain shadow effect occurs when the moist winds from the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal rise upon the Himalayas, causing rainfall on the windward side of the Himalayas but leaving the leeward side relatively dry.

Spiti Valley’s rough geography adds to its uniqueness. The valley is characterized by its rough and desolate mountains, steep gorges, and rocky terrain, and is surrounded by high peaks reaching heights of over 6,000 meters, creating stunning panoramas and a compelling and awe-inspiring atmosphere for tourists.

The villages in the valley are majorly settled in close vicinity of the river Spiti which also serves as a lifeline for the local population of 12,457 distributed in around 80 rural settlements, according to the 2011 census.7 Out of these villages, we selected the five most populous settlements in the valley to study and understand the social structure and the culture of those villages.

Fig.3 Elevation profile of the Himalayas, showing the location of Spiti Valley

Fig.4 All the settlements are situated on the banks of River Spiti which is the main source of water

Government of India, “Tehsils in Lahul & Spiti District, Himachal Pradesh - Census India”(2011). https://censusindia.gov.in/census.website/

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Kaza, the largest town in Spiti Valley, is a hub for administration, commerce, and agriculture, with a population of 1690. It is a major agricultural centre focusing on barley, peas, potatoes, and livestock rearing. Kaza relies on glacial meltwater for domestic and agricultural purposes and serves as a gateway for tourism. Tabo, a small village with a population of 592, faces challenges in agriculture due to arid conditions and limited water availability. Traditional farming practices are used for crops like barley and peas, while Tabo Monastery holds significant religious and cultural importance.8

8 Mishra, Amit, “Tabo Monastery (996 CE) A Vernacular Architecture of Lahaul and Spiti Region of Himachal Pradesh” Journal of Environmental Design and Planning, 22. 304. (2023).

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A

B

BIOME OF SPITI VALLEY Fig. 6 The difference of landscapes in Spiti Valley. A) August B) February

Fig. 7 Annual temperature 10

Spiti Valley falls within the Trans-Himalayan region, which is classified in the Koppen classification as ‘Et’ (Tundra Climate). The biome of Spiti Valley can also be classified as a high-altitude cold desert. The valley experiences extreme temperature variations.

Winters bring bone-chilling cold, with temperatures plummeting to sub-zero levels. The harsh conditions make daily life and basic survival a constant struggle for the residents.

Snowfall blankets the valley, further isolating communities and limiting access to essential resources. Additionally, the long duration of winter limits the growing season for crops, hindering agricultural activities and exacerbating food scarcity.10 The high-altitude cold desert biome offers a experience of vast open spaces. The presence of ancient monasteries, such as Tabo and Dhankar, adds a spiritual dimension to the site, showcasing the deep-rooted cultural traditions of the region. Spiti Valley’s strategic location along the ancient trading route 11 and its position within the rain shadow region make it a gateway to adventure, offering opportunities for trekking, mountaineering, and connecting with nature in its rawest form.

VILLAGES OF THE SPITI VALLEY

Losar, Dhankar, and Sumdo are three villages in Spiti Valley, each with unique characteristics and importance. Losar primarily cultivates the same barley and peas, while Dhankar and Sumdo engage in limited farming activities due to rugged terrain and arid conditions, emphasizing livestock rearing and traditional pastoral practices. They mainly rely on glacial meltwater and limited groundwater resources for their agricultural and domestic needs.

On the other hand, Dhankar holds historical and cultural significance with its Dhankar Monastery, while Sumdo serves as a vital transportation hub connecting Spiti Valley with neighbouring regions.9

“Spiti Valley: Recovering the Past and Exploring the Present”, Proceedings of the First International Conference on Spiti, Wolfson College, Oxford, (2016).

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Fig.5 Most populous villages in the Valley

Dar J. & Dubey R., “Desertification of Trans-Himalayan Glacial Valleys-An Indicator of Climatic Fluctuation and Instability”(2015) 11 Sonawani, Sanjay, “Ancient Trade Routes Passing through Northern India to Connect with Central Asia” (2021) 10

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POPULATION

OCCUPATIONAL AND ECONOMICAL SHIFTS

The villages in the valley are majorly settled in close vicinity of the river Spiti which also serves as a lifeline for the local population of 12,457 according to the 2011 census.12 And is characterized by relatively small and scattered settlements, with some villages having a few dozen residents while others having a few hundred as stated earlier. The population density is relatively low due to the region’s rugged terrain, harsh climate, and limited resources .

According to a study conducted in 2011, out of the entire population, 7,112 were working.

63.5% of workers were involved in the agricultural industry, while 36.5% describe their work as marginal work. There were 1,284 cultivators (owner or co-owner) and 112 agricultural labourers among the 7,112 employees engaged.14 Agriculture and livestock rearing have been the backbone of the local economy in Spiti Valley, but younger generations have shown declining interest in pursuing traditional agricultural practices due to harsh climatic conditions, limited water resources, and short growing seasons. This has led to an occupational shift in the valley.15

Fig.8 Projected population of the districts of Spiti and Lahaul combined13

Tourism and hospitality have become a crucial source of income for the local population, with the development of tourism-related infrastructure, such as guesthouses, homestays, restaurants, and adventure tourism services due to which handicrafts and artisanal work have gained prominence as an economic activity in Spiti Valley, showcasing the region’s rich cultural heritage and contributing to preserving traditional craftsmanship and simultaneously government services play a vital role in the local economy, providing employment opportunities and contributing to the overall development of the region.16 Alternative livelihoods have emerged as individuals explore small-scale businesses, transportation services, trading activities, and seasonal work in nearby towns or cities.

However, tourism has also posed challenges such as environmental impact, cultural change, and the potential overreliance on a seasonal industry. Striking a balance between sustainable tourism practices and the preservation of the unique cultural and natural heritage is a key consideration for the future development of the valley.

Government of India, “Tehsils in Lahul & Spiti District, Himachal Pradesh - Census India”(2011) https://censusindia.gov.in/census.website/ 13 “Lahul and Spiti District Population Census 2011 - 2021 - 2023, Himachal Pradesh Literacy Sex Ratio and Density” (2023) 12

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14 Government of India, “Spiti Tehsil Population, Religion, Caste Lahul & Spiti District, Himachal Pradesh - Census India.”

15 Mukherjee, Sumit, “Changing Economy and Culture of Food in Spiti” (2020) 16 Chauhan, “Keen to Improve Basic Infra in Spiti to Facilitate Locals” (2022)

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HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE AND SEASONAL DISTRIBUTION Due to its geographical location, this valley follows a distinct seasonal pattern. The winter season lasts from December to February, the temperatures reach extremes and precipitation occurs mainly in the form of snowfall. This snow on higher elevations acts as a reservoir that stores water for the upcoming seasons. This snow is then released in the form of glacial meltwater in the Spring months of March to May, feeding and replenishing water sources in the valley, but the temperatures remain cold making agriculture difficult.

Agriculture sees a boom every Summer which lasts from June to mid-September which is relatively short but crucial in terms of water availability. This is also the primary monsoon season where the scattered rainfall averages around 170mm annually because of its rain shadow region, but these showers further contribute to the water resources. September to November is Autumn in the valley, which witnesses a decrease in the water availability and temperatures gradually start to drop. 17 18

Fig.9 Change in the water availability affecting agricultural patterns. The orange color on the diagrams shows the period when water is scarce.

Fig.10 Annual Hydrological Cycle of Spiti Valley

17 18

“Weather report for Kaja” https://www.meteoblue.com/en/weather/kaja_india Yashwant E., “Climate Change in Spiti.” (2019). https://www.thethirdpole.net/en/climate-change-spiti/

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With rising temperatures accelerating Himalayan glacier melting and water scarcity which threatens ecosystems and livelihoods of the valley, sustainable water management practices, climate change mitigation efforts, and adaptive strategies are crucial for addressing the challenges posed by the climate and ensuring the long-term resilience and well-being of the region.19

Dar J. & Dubey R., “Desertification of Trans-Himalayan Glacial Valleys-An Indicator of Climatic Fluctuation and Instability”(2015) 19

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| | | | | | Introduction

CONCLUSION The unprecedented acceleration of Himalayan glacial melt, mostly due to human-caused climate change, is a significant global concern with far-reaching consequences. This phenomenon, which is driven by activities such as the use of fossil fuels, deforestation, and industrialisation, has serious ramifications for locations such as Spiti Valley, which is tucked in the Himalayan rain shadow. The valley’s unusually dry environment and low precipitation are compounded by the valley’s difficult geography, which has steep gorges and rocky landscapes.

Alarming alterations were noticed in Spiti Valley between 1990 and 2015. Reduced snow cover and increasing Land Surface Temperatures have resulted in rapid snowmelt, leading in extended times of water shortage. Kuhls, critical conduits that convey glacier-sourced water to villages, have been severely damaged, causing conventional access to water supplies to be disrupted.

The Spiti River, which is vital to both the ecosystem and human civilization, is strongly reliant on snowfall. The river’s continued flow is jeopardised not just by declining snow cover, but also by increased vulnerability to desertification and water shortages. Water scarcity has disastrous implications, including dry conditions, altered ecosystems, and variable agricultural practises, all of which contribute to land degradation and desertification.

The future of Spiti Valley and similar regions hinges on sustainable water management practises, climate change mitigation, and adaptive methods. Region-specific, communitydriven solutions are required, drawing on India’s rich tradition of water conservation. It also signals the need for comprehensive initiatives to address these issues. The research aims to tackle these problems across different scales: Local Scale: The study will investigate the impact of changing water availability on Spiti Valley’s villages, focusing on how these changes affect agriculture, livelihoods, and communities.

Regional Scale: It will assess the broader regional implications of glacial melt and water scarcity, considering factors such as ecosystem disruption, desertification, and the dependency of multiple communities on shared water resources.

Global Scale: The research will contribute to the understanding of the global issue of glacial melt and climate change, offering insights into how local actions in regions like Spiti Valley can be part of the broader solution.

This chapter not only highlights the severity of the problem but also lays the groundwork for a multi-scale research approach to address the complex challenges posed by Himalayan glacial melt and its impacts on water availability in Spiti Valley and beyond.

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| | | | | | Domain

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DOMAIN • TRANSFORMATION IN SPITI VALLEY • DIVERSIFICATION OF AGRICULTURE • AGRICULTURAL WASTE GENERATION • TRANSFORMATION IN BUILDING TECHNOLOGY • DEVELOPMENT IN TOURISM • MIGRATION • WATER HARVESTING • CASE STUDIES • CONCLUSION • RESEARCH QUESTION

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TRANSFORMATION IN SPITI VALLEY The diagram presented above encapsulates a succinct brief of the ecological transformations that have unfolded in the Spiti region over time. It outlines a chronological sequence of key events and their subsequent repercussions. In the early 2000s, the region felt the impact of global warming, manifesting as prolonged summers and rising temperatures. This phenomenon triggered rapid glacial melt and indicated looming water scarcity during the summer season, leading to a population decline as residents sought opportunities elsewhere. By the 2010s, changes in agricultural practices emerged, shifting from traditional crops to cash crops for increased profitability. Consequently, many locals transitioned from traditional farming to careers tied to the burgeoning tourism industry, which Spiti embraced in the mid-1990s. The surge in tourist arrivals prompted residents to enter the tourism sector, resulting in the rapid expansion of infrastructure to meet growing demand. This surge also catalysed a shift from traditional construction materials to faster but non-local options, sparking illegal sand extraction from riverbeds for construction.

This, in turn, altered river courses and negatively impacted farmlands and riverside areas.

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Fig.11 Timeline of the events that led to the transformation of the valley

Cumulatively, these events have culminated in the ecological decline of the region, characterized by water scarcity and a shift towards unsustainable practices. This timeline underscores the intricate interplay between environmental, economic, and social factors in shaping the ecological landscape of Spiti, underscoring the pressing need for sustainable and locally attuned development practices to safeguard the region’s unique environment and cultural heritage.

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DIVERSIFICATION OF AGRICULTURE

Since the early 1980s, significant progress has been recorded in the agricultural sector of Lahaul and Spiti region. However, the most noticeable transformation has been the diversification in agricultural practices towards cultivating high-value cash crops, including fruits and vegetables. This has a significant effect on the income and employment of farming households in rural areas, including isolated tribal regions. A shift from conventional agriculture to cash crops not only brings economic advantages but also imposes a significant burden on the natural resource base.

In regions like Lahaul and Spiti, where agriculture faces numerous constraints such as a short sowing season, mountainous limitations, population growth, and small land holdings, farmers are confronted with the primary task of overcoming these limitations and maximizing their profits within the available land and time.20 Hence, diversification of crops emerges as the most effective approach for farmers to maximize their earnings.

In 1980, black peas and barley were the most important crops in this region. However, the government launched the Desert Development Program in 1985 to develop the poor and disadvantaged sectors of agriculture, as well as manage desertification by restoring and conserving natural resources. As a result of this program, in 1990, the number of crops grown has been raised to 9 major crops with the addition of garden pea and apple as cash crops. Various crop inputs, such as hybrid seeds, chemicals, and fertilizers, also contributed to rapid cropping patterns alteration.

20

Department of Agriculture, Himachal Pradesh, “District Agriculture Plan: Lahaul-Spiti, H.P.” (2009)

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Fig. 12 Diversification of agriculture

The Spiti Valley’s diversification of crops was also influenced by many other factors besides government initiatives. Road connectivity and transportation improvements were significant drivers of change in cropping patterns. The main roads provided transportation of agricultural products from the fields to distant markets. Changes in people’s eating habits are another important factor affecting the demand for traditional crops like black peas, barley, and local wheat.

Diversifying crops in Lahaul and Spiti has led to the transition from water resilient crops to water intensive cash crops. Due to this, the region has experienced a higher demand for water resources. Water reserves that were previously sufficient to cultivate traditional crops are now strained, resulting in a scarcity of water for agriculture and other uses.21 Recognizing the correlation between the transition towards water-intensive cash crops and current water scarcity, it becomes essential to implement sustainable water management strategies. The process involves promoting efficient irrigation practices, exploring alternative water sources, and selecting crops that are aligned with the available water in the region.

Sharma H., Chauhan S., “Agricultural Transformation in Trans Himalayan Region of Himachal Pradesh: Cropping Pattern, Technology Adoption and Emerging Challenges”. Agricultural Economics Review. 26 Conference (2013): 173–179

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TRANSFORMATION IN BUILDING TECHNOLOGY

Fig.14 Traditional construction details

Spiti, located at an elevation of 4,270 meters, experiences extremely harsh weather conditions, including frigid temperatures dropping to -35˚C and heavy snowfall of up to 2 meters for a prolonged six-month winter period. During this winter season, the region becomes isolated with no access in or out, leaving a limited construction window of just five months. To adapt to these challenging conditions, a variety of strategies are employed by the locals, including climate-responsive planning, utilization of local materials, and incorporating thermal insulation within traditional construction methods.23

AGRICULTURAL WASTE GENERATION Agriculture waste includes all the materials produced from various agricultural activities. Fig.13 Classification of agricultural residues These consist of fertilizer runoff, pesticides, manure waste, and crop residues like peels, husks, and stems. Agricultural waste is generated during every harvest cycle, and it is largely unused today. After the completion of each cycle, most of the waste is burned.

Uncontrolled burning is a solution that is harmful to the environment and a waste of energy.

According to the report from Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR), Lahaul and Spiti region generates around 10 million tonnes of agro-waste every year.22 Crop residues or agricultural residual materials contain a wide range of organic and inorganic compounds including carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and other compounds. Numerous beneficial products can be produced from this composition, including livestock feed, biopreservatives, biofuels, biofertilizers, and sustainable building materials.

In this study, significant emphasis was placed on the exploration of alternative building materials to preserve the ecological balance of an already fragile region. The identified materials encompass particle boards made of barley husk and flaxseed meal, brick/masonry components produced from barley waste, walnut shell and insulation materials based on flax and hemp. These materials were carefully investigated to ensure their viability for future implementation. Thus, these materials present a promising solution for sustainable and environmentally friendly construction at future stages of the project.

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Indian Council of Agricultural Research, “Agriculture Contingency Plan for District: Lahaul & Spiti.” (2018)

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Pollock J., “Concrete vs. Earth in the Spiti Valley” (2013)

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Fig.16 Traditional housing layout

Winter Room Layout

Summer Room Layout

CLIMATE RESPONSIVE TRADITIONAL DESIGN STRATEGIES One notable example of intelligent bio-climatic design can be seen in an ancestral home in Fig.15 Climate responsive traditional a village called Kwang.24 Here, the design allows for seasonal migration of the family. During design strategies the summer months, the upper level of the home is occupied, providing ample sunlight and scenic views. A Makang, or communal space, is also utilized. However, when winter arrives, the family moves downstairs to the Yokang, a centrally located room that benefits from insulation provided by surrounding rooms, effectively combating the extreme cold.

Joshi, Phartiyal, and Joshi, “Hydro-Climatic Variability during Last Five Thousand Years and Its Impact on Human Colonization and Cultural Transition in Ladakh Sector, India.” (2021)

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Construction in the valley region is characterized by traditional practices that employ stone and wood for building, often finishing with lime or mud plaster.25 These methods offer numerous benefits: Traditional materials such as stone and wood are readily available and cost-effective, reducing the need for expensive imports. These construction methods are accessible to local communities as they do not require highly specialized or skilled labor, thus reducing labor costs. The use of stone and wood provides excellent thermal insulation, which is essential for coping with the extreme climatic conditions of the region, ensuring comfortable indoor temperatures even during severe winters. Thick rammed earth walls, measuring 500-600 mm in thickness, are a notable feature of valley construction. Raw earth with high moisture content is used, creating air pockets within the walls, enhancing their insulating properties.

Valley construction prioritizes eco-friendly and culturally significant materials, including stone foundations, wooden structural members, lime and sand plaster, and willow branches for roofing, which contribute to sustainability and connect the architecture with local culture and traditions. These materials are known for their durability, ensuring that buildings can withstand the harsh weather conditions and last for generations. Many of these construction materials can be reused or recycled, reducing waste and promoting sustainability. By utilizing locally sourced materials and minimizing the need for longdistance transportation of construction materials, this approach reduces the carbon footprint associated with construction.

N. Engin, N. Vural, S. Vural, M.R. Sumerkan, “Climatic Influences on Vernacular Architecture” Building and Environment, 42 (2007)

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Fig.18 Traditional architecture in Spiti Valley

In summary, traditional construction practices in the valley region combine costeffectiveness, adaptability to extreme climates, sustainability, and a connection to local culture, resulting in resilient and environmentally friendly building methods.

Replacing traditional local materials with imported Reinforced Concrete Cement (RCC) and steel in the valley has raised concerns. RCC’s growing use is driven by the need for rapid construction in a limited timeframe, but it poses challenges.

RCC has drawbacks, including a shorter lifespan compared to natural materials, poor thermal insulation in extreme cold, and a negative environmental impact. The production and transport of RCC contribute to carbon emissions, sand extraction disrupts ecosystems and agriculture, and high water usage exacerbates water scarcity.

Despite RCC’s unsuitability for the region’s extreme cold, traditional earthen homes in Kaza have been steadily replaced. Questions persist about RCC’s long-term durability, environmental effects, structural deterioration, and waste management. Balancing infrastructure demands with environmental preservation is a complex issue that requires careful consideration.

Fig.17 Shifts in the building materials over the years

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DEVELOPMENT IN TOURISM Spiti Valley has become a popular destination among Indian tourists, renowned for its Fig.19 Tourist season in Spiti Valley, remote charm, ancient monasteries, and trekking opportunities. The valley, situated Himalayas between the India-Tibet border, showcases a rich cultural heritage with magnificent monasteries offering panoramic views. Initially isolated, Spiti gradually opened to tourists in 1995, leading to the development of homestays and a shift toward tourism as a primary occupation.26 Tourism in Spiti Valley has contributed to its economic growth, providing alternative sources of income for locals. However, it has also presented challenges such as waste generation, water scarcity, and haphazard development. To improve connectivity, a new tunnel route was introduced, reducing travel time and doubling the number of visitors. This route has facilitated year-round travel, even during the winter season when the valley was previously closed.27 During the summer season, locals cater to tourists, while in winter, they migrate to nearby cities. The tourism industry has provided employment opportunities and boosted the region’s economic prospects. However, the influx of tourists and increased accessibility have also brought environmental challenges. Waste generation has increased, and the region faces water scarcity issues.28 These issues require sustainable management and infrastructure development to ensure the preservation of Spiti’s pristine natural environment.

Rashmi A. “Spiti: Responsible tourism in Spiti Valley, Himalayas” Rohan Jain, “A Brief History of Lahaul and Spiti Valley”, https://renokadventures.com/history-of-lahaul-andspiti-valley/ 28 Auer, C.E., “Measure for measure: Researching and documenting architecture in Spiti” 41, (2021): 181-201 26 27

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Fig.20 Graph showing the boost in tourism because of infrastructure development 29

Despite the challenges, tourism has played a crucial role in promoting Spiti Valley and its cultural heritage. The valley’s picturesque landscapes, ancient monasteries, and unique way of life continue to attract visitors. The government’s efforts to improve connectivity through the tunnel route have further bolstered tourism in the region.

Moving forward, it is essential to strike a balance between tourism development and environmental preservation in Spiti Valley. Sustainable practices, waste management initiatives, and responsible tourism can help mitigate the adverse impacts while maximizing the economic benefits for the local community. With proper planning and conservation efforts, Spiti Valley can continue to thrive as a popular destination, captivating visitors with its untouched beauty and cultural significance.

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Rashmi A. “Spiti: Responsible tourism in Spiti Valley, Himalayas”

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MIGRATION

Migration from Spiti Valley has been driven by several factors, including limited economic opportunities, limited education, limited healthcare facilities, and improved connectivity and infrastructure.30 Young people from Spiti Valley migrate to urban centres and developed regions for better economic prospects, such as Shimla, Chandigarh, and Delhi.31 Education is also a major factor, with limited institutions in the valley attracting students seeking diverse job opportunities. Healthcare facilities are also limited, with individuals with serious medical conditions or advanced treatments seeking better facilities in urban areas.

Connectivity and infrastructure improvements, mainly the construction of the Atal tunnel have made migration easier, with better roads and public transport options reducing barriers to mobility.32 Lifestyle and cultural shifts, exposure to different cultures, and changing aspirations have also influenced migration patterns. Young people may choose to explore life outside the valley, seeking modern amenities, education, career growth, and a different way of life. To summarise, emigration is influenced by a variety of economic, educational, healthcare, infrastructure, cultural, and aspirational issues. It will have farreaching consequences for the valley’s population, economics, and general development.

To solve the issues connected with emigration, a comprehensive approach that considers all these elements is required for the region’s long-term development.

Fig.21 Migrant population from the state of Himachal Pradesh 33

Sharma, Indu and Rani Dhanze. “Lahaul-Spiti (Himachal Pradesh), India.” (2013) Government of India, “Population by State of Last Residence and Place of Enumeration (Migrations)” 32 Dipender J., “Atal Tunnel Will Check Winter Migration.” (2015) 30 31

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33

Government of India, “Population by State of Last Residence and Place of Enumeration (Migrations)”

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CONCLUSION

The Spiti region is currently grappling with an urgent and escalating demand for a sustainable water supply, primarily triggered by a confluence of ecological degradation factors that directly impact the region’s hydrological pattern. These challenges have notably affected the agricultural sector, prompting a shift in both ecological and economic patterns. Simultaneously, the construction technology landscape has witnessed a significant transformation driven by considerations of comfort and cost-effectiveness.

The consequences of these shifts are palpable in the form of migration, as residents seek more favorable conditions elsewhere.

While the specter of climate change remains an undeniable reality, it is essential to recognize that a range of both traditional and modern approaches exists to address these challenges effectively. These methods have the potential to not only enhance the region’s construction practices but also rejuvenate the hydrological pattern in a sustainable and environmentally sensitive manner. By embracing innovative strategies and contemporary solutions, the Spiti region can embark on a path towards a more resilient and ecologically harmonious future.

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How can traditional ecological knowledge and modern environmental science be combined to develop sustainable solutions for the Spiti region’s water scarcity and environmental degradation issues?

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CASE STUDIES

WATER HARVESTING

Fig.22 Micro-catchment water harvesting techniques on a site

In many parts of the world, water harvesting has been practiced successfully for generations – and several recent interventions have also had a significant impact on settlement life. However, the vast capacity of water harvesting remains mostly unknown, undervalued, and unacknowledged.

The basic principle is capturing potentially damaging surface flow and transforming it into source for plant growth or water supply. Water harvesting systems are classified by two main criteria: catchment size and storage method.34 Classification by catchment area type was chosen as the basis for this research because it allows us to better understand the scalability and applicability of water harvesting systems across diverse geographical regions and helps identify suitable solutions for various environmental contexts.

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Maher Salman, “Strengthening Agricultural Water Efficiency and Productivity” Irrigation and Drainage. 10.1002 (2021)

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MACRO-CATCHMENT WATER HARVESTING In Spiti Valley, water preservation relies on artificial glaciers, or glacier seeding, which freeze and store meltwater from natural glaciers. These structures slow glacial melt, providing a reliable water source and supporting traditional sustainability practices. Three main types of artificial glaciers exist: 1.Basin-type: Simple and low-maintenance, they collect water in basins near the village for distribution through a spring-loaded gate valve.

2.Cascade-type: Constructed with 3-6 feet high retention walls across streams, forming step-like glaciers along the river.

3.Diversion-type: Redirects water to shaded valleys with wall structures, useful when sunlight hampers ice formation in the stream during winter, though it demands more investment, labor, and maintenance.35 The Spiti Valley is geographically characterized by sloping terrain on its northern periphery, with a river stream flowing along the southern side of the settlement area. To effectively manage water resources in this region, a cascade system presents a viable solution. This system entails diverting water from the rivers to regulate the rapid flow of glacier melt.

Additionally, this diverted water can be channelled into a network of small reservoirs, facilitating its preservation for future use and mitigating water scarcity concerns.

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Fig.23 Macro-catchment water harvesting techniques

MICRO-CATCHMENT WATER HARVESTING Fig.24 Micro-catchment water harvesting techniques

Micro catchment WH refers to a technique that involves surface flow from compact catchment areas with limited length. In an adjacent application area, collected water is accumulated and stored in the root zone to be used by plants directly. Within a single field, catchment and application zones alternate, resulting in water concentration in specific confined areas designated for plant cultivation. Consequently, the system is replicated multiple times following an identical pattern. Micro catchment methods are frequently integrated with targeted agricultural practices for annual crop cultivation or tree establishment. These practices encompass methods such as mulching, fertility management, and pest control.

Overall, micro catchment water harvesting can be seen as a versatile and cost-effective solution applicable to a wide range of crops. For farmers seeking sustainable water management, it is a valuable technique due to its ease of replication and adaptability.

Dolker K., “Impact of Ice Stupa in Mitigating the Obstacles to Agriculture in Ladhakh” (2018)

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ICE-STUPA Fig.26 Artificial glacier Ice-stupa

The ice stupa project was developed as an alternative to artificial glaciers. It aims to freeze and store water during winter to be used in spring for agricultural needs. Ice stupas raise awareness about depleting glaciers and their ecological impact in the Himalayas. Water is directed through underground pipes to the stupa, which uses natural pressure to rise vertically. Each stupa can store millions of liters of water, supporting farmers until glacial streams flow in summer.

During the night, when temperatures drop in Ladakh, freshwater is pumped through a sprinkler at the top of a vertical pipe. With extreme winter temperatures, the water freezes onto a purpose-built wood and steel structure, forming a large stalagmite-like shape.

Additional piping can be added to increase the height and water storage capacity of the artificial glacier. When temperatures rise and water becomes scarce, the ice slowly melts, releasing the stored freshwater. This serves as a crucial water source for irrigation during the early planting season, providing local communities with valuable water resources.36

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Fig.25 Conceptual working of Ice-stupa

The location of ice stupas is typically below 20 to 25 meters, which is not ideal for sustaining the people of the Spiti valley throughout the year. Since ice requires freezing temperatures, it is not feasible to construct ice stupas in the town area. Moreover, with rising temperatures and intense heat, the ice in the stupas tends to melt easily. As a result, this preservation system is not sustainable in the long run.

The melting of ice stupas due to warmer weather and heat limits their effectiveness as a reliable source of water. The storage capacity and longevity of ice stupas are significantly impacted by the changing climate patterns. The relatively lower altitude of their location also contributes to the challenges faced in maintaining the ice stupas throughout the year.

While ice stupas serve as a temporary solution for water scarcity during the critical planting season, they are not a sustainable long-term water preservation method. Alternative approaches and strategies may need to be explored to ensure a consistent and reliable water supply for the communities in the Spiti valley, considering the changing climatic conditions and geographical limitations.

Spanner H., “Ice stupas: The artificial glaciers helping combat the effects of climate change” Scientific Focus (2022)

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SNOW MANAGEMENT TECHNIQUES SNOW FENCE

A snow fence functions as a barrier designed to redirect wind-driven snow, forcing it to accumulate at specified locations. Initially, this system was implemented to mitigate snowdrift issues on roads and railways. However, over time, farmers employed snow fences strategically to encourage the formation of snowdrifts within basins, ensuring the availability of a reliable water source during the spring season.

In years with limited precipitation, drifting snow can become the primary water source for ponds located in windy areas within high-altitude terrain. In 1988-89, southeastern Wyoming experienced severe drought conditions, leading to the construction of snow fences to capture drifting snow in various reservoirs.37 This approach has demonstrated its effectiveness in ensuring an adequate water supply.

37

Jairell, R; Schmidt, R., “Snow Management and Windbreaks” University of Nebraska (1999)

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Fig. 28 The categorization of various models of snow fences

Fig. 27 The principle of operation of a snow fence

The drought situation in Wyoming prompted extensive research and on-site testing of various models to investigate the optimal effectiveness of this method. In 1995, R. L. Jarrell and R. A. Schmidt described and conducted tests on the primary models that elucidate the impact of snow fence and embankment placements on snow deposition in stock ponds.38 They presented a comparative analysis among three primary models for estimating snow accumulation. Model A, which solely incorporated a pit and an embankment without a snow fence, was juxtaposed with Models B and C, where the introduction of a snow fence and adjustments to the embankment’s location were made.

Model C has been identified as the most effective option, excelling both in the collection of snow during windy months and in retaining this snow in the pit until the melting period. In contrast, Model A exhibited limited snow accumulation. Model B demonstrated remarkable snow accumulation, surpassing even Model C. However, Model B faced challenges in securely storing the accumulated snow, as it continued to be susceptible to wind-driven dispersion without adequate containment measures.

Considering the investigation of snow fence principles and operational characteristics, this technology presents itself as a viable solution to address drought-related challenges within the chosen region. Based on the climatic conditions prevalent in the Spiti Valley, this area appears well-suited for the implementation of such a technology.

Jairell, Robert L. and R. A. Schmidt “Constructing scaled models for snowdrift tests outdoors” Vancouver, BC (1987)

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UNDERGROUND RESERVOIRS

In the arid climate of India, traditional water preservation systems have been extensively studied and utilized. These structures are specifically designed to conserve natural runoff water from the ground, and they often include tanks to collect rainwater. Additionally, some systems are adept at harvesting groundwater. These age-old practices have been consistently employed over the years and continue to be vital for water preservation in the region.

Johads are small earthen check dams that capture and conserve rainwater, improving percolation and groundwater recharge. This has resulted in a general rise of the groundwater level by almost 6 metres and a 33 percent increase in the forest cover in the area.

Kuis / Beris Found in western Rajasthan, these are 10-12 m deep pits dug near tanks to collect the seepage. Kuis can also be used to harvest rainwater in areas with meagre rainfall. The mouth of the pit is usually made very narrow. This prevents the collected water from evaporating. The pit gets wider as it burrows under the ground, so that water can seep in into a large surface area. The openings of these entirely earthen structures are generally covered with planks of wood, or put under lock and key. The water is used sparingly, as a last resource in crisis situations.

Tankas (small tank) are underground tanks, found traditionally in the main house or in the courtyard. They were circular holes made in the ground, lined with fine polished lime, in which rainwater was collected. Tankas were often beautifully decorated with tiles, which helped to keep the water cool. The water was used only for drinking.

Stepwells Built by the nobility usually for strategic and/or philanthropical reasons, they were secular structures from which everyone could draw water. Sculptures and inscriptions in stepwells demonstrate their importance to the traditional social and cultural lives of people. When a stepwell was located within or at the edge of a village, it was mainly used

Fig.29 Water reserviors in arid climate

for utilitarian purposes and as a cool place for social gatherings. When stepwells were located outside the village, on trade routes, they were often frequented as resting places.

Kunds / Kundis These structures harvest rainwater for drinking, and dot the sandier tracts of the Thar Desert in western Rajasthan and some areas in Gujarat. Essentially a circular underground well, kunds have a saucer-shaped catchment area that gently slopes towards the centre where the well is situated. A wire mesh across water-inlets prevents debris from falling into the well-pit. The sides of the well-pit are covered with (disinfectant) lime and ash. Most pits have a dome-shaped cover, or at least a lid, to protect the water. If need be, water can be drawn out with a bucket. The depth and diameter of kunds depend on their use (drinking, or domestic water requirements).39 Upon delving deeper into various methods for conserving water resources, it becomes evident that a straightforward approach, such as the implementation of pit systems, is suitable for terrains characterized by steep slopes. Conversely, in densely populated areas, the integration of water preservation strategies with communal spaces presents an opportunity to enhance public engagement and social interactions in the Spiti Valley. This conceptual framework can be further refined to not only attract tourism but also to catalyse agricultural development in the region while fostering a vibrant social milieu. Further a detail study of Stepped well is done to ensure public involvement in water conservation practices.

39

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Sharma, Pawan & Srivastava, “Water Harvesting Systems : Traditional Systems.”

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STEPPED WELLS Stepwells were built along natural slopes to collect run offs and acted as rainwater catchment areas, often connected to ponds so they could channel rainwater. The construction of stepwells date from four periods: Pre-Solanki period (8th to 11th century CE); Solanki period (11th to 12th century CE); Vaghela period (mid-13th to end-14th century CE); and the Sultanate period (mid-13th to end-15th century CE).40 They are unique yet minor elements of the Indian architecture, particularly the beautifully engraved walls of these underground water bodies. The climate of Western India is hot, semi-arid and rain is infrequent. Consequently, it is always necessary to save the water of the monsoon rains and keep it available for the arid season of the year. Primarily deep excavated ditches, rock-cut wells, or ponds filled in with water accessed by a circular flight of stairs or steps are called stepwells. The stepwells became not only sources of drinking water, but calm places for bathing, prayer, and meditation. These stepwells were always constructed on the trade routes. They served as breezy resting places for pilgrims, caravans, and common voyagers during the high temperature of the day or for the night sojourn. However, these outstanding constructions were much more than functional tanks.

The well-preserved and maintained examples in Rajasthan hold significant importance and serve as valuable case studies for understanding their relevance in the Trans Himalaya region. Despite the varying climate between Rajasthan and Spiti, the influence of community involvement has extended beyond these regions, impacting other areas of India as well.

The study of these structures allows us to establish correlations and draw insights into their significance within the Trans Himalaya region. By analyzing the architectural and engineering aspects, we can identify design principles that are suitable for the challenging environment and adapt them to other locations.

One notable aspect identified in the specific context is the lack of a social structure that facilitates community-based gatherings. This presents an opportunity for development, 40

Fig. 30 Traditional stepped well

Fig.31 Timeline of development of stepwells across India

particularly in terms of creating a network of water preservation combined with the incorporation of public spaces. By integrating these elements, a multi-functional system can be established that serves the dual purpose of water conservation and community engagement.

Implementing a hierarchy of structures in Spiti valley can have multiple benefits. Firstly, it can address the pressing need for water preservation in the area, given its challenging climate. The stepped wells, with their efficient water storage and distribution systems, can be adapted to meet the specific requirements of the region. This would help in sustainable water management and provide a reliable source of water for the community.

Additionally, the incorporation of public spaces within this network of water preservation structures can foster community development. These public spaces can serve as gathering points for social interactions, cultural events, and community-based activities. They provide a platform for the residents of Spiti valley to come together, share experiences, and strengthen their social bonds.

Moreover, the implementation of such a network can act as a catalyst for overall regional development. It can attract tourism and create opportunities for economic growth, while also preserving the unique cultural heritage of the region. The combination of water preservation, public spaces, and stepped well-inspired structures can establish a sustainable and vibrant ecosystem within Spiti valley.

“Stepwells of Ahmedabad: A Conversation on Water and Heritage | Aζ South Asia.”

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Fig.33 Dristibution network of stepwells across the region in Rajasthan

Fig.32 Funtionality of stepwells linked to household and agriculture

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As depicted in Figure 32, the layout of stepwells in Rajasthan is organized based on their functional purpose in preserving water resources. This classification is further refined by considering the design of the spaces and the water sources they rely upon. Notably, multiple water sources are evident, including rainwater, groundwater, and river water. Given the hot and arid climate of Rajasthan, groundwater serves as the predominant water source for these preservation systems.Moreover, the study of these preservation systems includes an examination of their interconnections and the scale of the preservation areas. In Figure 33, it is evident that stepwells are strategically situated near rivers, capitalizing on the natural availability of river water. This network of stepwells is intricately linked to smaller preservation areas.

This valuable insight into water resource management in Rajasthan can inform research in the Spiti Valley region. Given that settlements in Spiti Valley are located alongside rivers and rely on glacier meltwater, it is conceivable to propose preservation areas situated alongside these rivers to enhance water resource sustainability. | ARCHITECTURAL ASSOCIATION | EMTECH | 2022-2023 59

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CONCLUSION

In conclusion, the investigation into glacier melt in Spiti Valley has illuminated the pressing issue of water scarcity faced by the current population during agricultural seasons. This challenge has prompted our team to explore innovative methods for water collection and preservation, with the aim of extending the existing water supply system. Our studies have revealed that the transformation of Spiti Valley, including shifts in agricultural practices, changes in building materials, and increased tourism, has brought forth a host of difficulties for the region. These challenges have resulted in population migration and a decline in the economic stability of the settlement.

To foster long-term financial stability, engage the existing population in the economic framework, and ensure the preservation of water for an extended summer season, the development of a self-sustainable network for water collection, preservation, and distribution is imperative. Given the scattered nature of the settlement, a centralized distribution network is essential for effective water management.

WATER QUANTIFICATION Water quantification is being conducted to assess the daily water volume necessary for the town of Kaza. With around 700 households and an assumed average of 3 people per household, accommodating the total population of 1600, the calculation also considers residents, livestock, and daily tourists, all on a per-day basis. Meanwhile, the water requirement for agricultural purposes is evaluated per acre of land dedicated to barley cultivation. By merging these calculations, the overall daily water demand for the town amounts to 72468 cubic meters. Since, Kaza is not reaching the required numbers, our main objective is to first satisfy the needs of the existing population and later if and when the population starts growing, this same water calculation will be used to incorporate the requirements of the new growing population. Proposals of this will be carried out in the next phase of the research.

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Fig.34 Water quantification data

Our comprehensive case studies have provided insights into water preservation across various scales and ideologies, tailored to the diverse geographical features of Spiti Valley.

Notably, our proposed development should not solely focus on large-scale distribution but also address the valley’s diminishing identity due to changing building construction materials. Therefore, at a smaller scale of experimentation, our team will concentrate on developing a material system designed to act as an insulating material for water preservation. This material system will be derived from agro-based waste materials.

By intervening at multiple scales, including component, regional, and urban levels, this dissertation aims to create a sustainable water network system that synergizes with economic and social functions. Our overarching goal is to contribute to the long-term sustainability and resilience of Spiti Valley, ensuring that its residents have access to essential water resources and fostering a harmonious coexistence with the environment.

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How can the fusion of traditional architecture along with an advanced material system grounded in ecological solutions be utilized to design a self-sustainable settlement in the Trans-Himalaya region ?

RESEARCH QUESTION

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| | | | | | Methods

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METHODS • PHYSICAL AND DIGITAL PROTOTYPING • FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS • COMPUTATIONAL FLUID DYNAMICS • AGENT BASED SYSTEMS • EVOLUTIONARY ALGORITHM

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| | | | | | Methods

PHYSICAL AND DIGITAL PROTOTYPING Models created in Rhinoceros 3D are used for digital prototyping using Grasshopper’s algorithmic modelling features. The results of the material tests that were conducted physically were used to digitally calibrate the same material in Rhino and Grasshopper.

A variety of physical experiments were conducted with different proportions of the raw material and were then physically tested for its thermal capacity, compressive strengths, weight. These tests were conducted on small samples and the values of these results are calibrated digitally and then scaled the values to match the 1:1 scaled physical model prototype. Testing and evaluating the physical models led to conclusions that informed the digital model, creating a feedback loop between the two. During this research, a variety of models were created using these methods to serve as the basis for the entire research.

Using Rhino 3D, we were also able to conduct and test our morphologies and urban network experiments on component, regional and urban scales. Various tools were used to help us accurately calibrate the structural strengths and the efficiency of the structure to achieve our desired goals.

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FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS Fig.35 Digital prototyping in Grasshopper

Fig.36 Finite Element Analysis

After the physical tests and material calibration or the materials, structural analysis in this research is conducted with Finite Element Analysis (FEA). In FEA, a digital model is divided into smaller simplified segments called finite elements. To conduct stress and load tests on the digital model, the subdivided model can be deformed and stressed using a simulation engine. As the FEA engine, Karamba 3D was utilized in Grasshopper. We used this engine to mainly test the structural capabilities of our material on a component scale. With the final and best performing solutions on a component scale, regional scale experiments were conducted to optimize the overall form by changing the parameters that define our morphological development. Other methods and algorithms, such as multi-objective optimization, were incorporated to ensure optimal structural solutions.

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COMPUTATIONAL FLUID DYNAMICS Computational fluid dynamics is a branch of fluid mechanics that employs numerical analysis and data structures to address problems related to fluid flows. CFD is mainly used to test the aerodynamics of any object. In the context of snow deposition patterns influenced by wind, researchers study the site’s wind and snow drift patterns. They use this information to propose aerodynamic measures aimed at accumulating snow. The effectiveness of these interventions is then evaluated through CFD tests and wind simulations. Since our goal is to collect snow from winds from the south and surface runoff from the north, with the same element an integrated approach provides valuable insights into managing snow deposition on our proposed morphological development.

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AGENT BASED SYSTEMS Fig.37 Computational Fluid Dynamics

Fig.38 Agent Based Systems

Commonly referred to as Agent-based Modelling (ABMs) simulate the behaviours and interactions of independent agents. This computational process combines game theory, complex systems, computational sociology, evolutionary programming, multiagent systems and emergence, to simulate how agents react and respond to different environmental changes. The agents follow rules based on the underlying physics of water flow, such as gravity, terrain slope, and surface roughness.

As these agents move across the digital terrain model, they trace potential water flow paths, highlighting the natural flow channels within the landscape for the urban scale so as to find the most suited site for surface run off collection. During this research, using ABM, the system can identify critical areas where water flow concentrates, indicating potential areas of high water volume or accumulation. These areas can be used to identify our sites in the settlement which will then give us an optimised network for water distribution.

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| | | | | | Methods

EVOLUTIONARY ALGORITHM An evolutionary architecture seeks to emulate the mutually beneficial relationships and metabolic equilibrium observed in natural environments within the built environment. By adopting the evolutionary design method, the goal is to find a balance between conflicting objectives. This involves considering local environmental factors and their impact on building performance.

Fig.39 Standard deviation graphs

In this approach, the natural process of evolutionary optimization aligns with the methodology’s core principles, anticipating that the system will self-regulate and achieve its optimal performance. The method will be applied at various scales to assess its effectiveness. This includes observing how the phenotypes morphologically develop in response to specific environmental challenges, such as their structural strength, densification in modular scale, adaptability to changes, and positioning modules during form finding.

On the material scale, the focus lies on determining the most suitable geometries to fulfill the needs of different layers and porosity scale within the architecture. Additionally, the network’s ability to adapt to various contextual cues, such as geographical changes, will also be evaluated. By employing this comprehensive approach, evolutionary architecture aims to create sustainable and adaptable structures that mimic the resilience and efficiency found in natural systems.

| GAUTAMI BHOITE | SHRADDHA NEPAL | OXANA NAGUMANOVA | MEHUL SHETHIYA 70

Fig.40 Parallel Coordinate chart

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| MSc. Dissertation | HydroSocial

Research Development

RESEARCH DEVELOPMENT • PROPOSED WATER SYSTEM • SITE ANALYSIS • CONTEXT - KAZA • SITE ANALYSIS • SNOW FENCE DEVELOPMENT • CASCADE DEVELOPEMENT • EMBANKMENT FORM FINDING • MATERIAL PHYSICAL INVESTIGATION • MATERIAL DIGITAL INVESTIGATION • CONCLUSION

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Research Development

PROPOSED WATER SYSTEM COLLECTION - PRESERVATION - DISTRIBUTION

The research and development phase involve conducting an analysis to implement a water system in Kaza, which encompasses water collection, preservation, and a distribution network. This system ensures a water supply during the scarce summer season. This section outlines the design typologies and implementation strategy for the design project.

For the water collection system, the team drew inspiration from traditional systems in similar or nearby areas. One method we explored is the cascade system, which slows down the flow of surface runoff, allowing it to freeze and then directing it to the preservation unit.

Another primary collection method involves using a snow fence and embankment. Here, a perforated surface is placed in the direction of prevailing winds, reducing wind speed carrying snow particles. The embankment, parallel to the perforated surface, further blocks the wind, causing the particles to drop and accumulate as a snowdrift. This collected snow is then piled up, minimizing exposure to sunlight to prevent melting and evaporation.

As spring approaches and temperatures rise, the snow pile gradually melts, and the water is collected in an underground preservation unit, designed to be covered to prevent water evaporation. Moving forward, the distribution system is a network that connects the primary water supply as closely as possible for convenient use by the people of Kaza.

Fig.41 Proposed water system

| GAUTAMI BHOITE | SHRADDHA NEPAL | OXANA NAGUMANOVA | MEHUL SHETHIYA 74

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Research Development

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| | | | | | Domain

CONTEXT KAZA

The capital town of Spiti Valley

Kaza, also known as the Governing headquaters of Spiti Valley, is a magnificent hamlet situated among the steep Himalayan terrains at an altitude of approximately 3,650 m. It is the valley’s most populated settlement, with a population of about 1,690 people.

Kaza is the administrative and commercial centre of Spiti Valley, as well as the most popular tourist destination. Its prominence stems from its status as a significant agricultural centre, farming crops such as barley, peas, and potatoes while also raising cattle. However, Kaza is the worst-affected town in Spiti Valley in terms of water shortage, particularly during the dry seasons, making it a crucial area of concern for long-term water management.

Kaza is located in a difficult terrain, surrounded by steep gorges and lonely mountains, presenting stunning yet harsh vistas that distinguish it from other settlements in the vicinity. It serves as a doorway to adventure, drawing travellers from all over the world who want to explore its breathtaking landscapes and interact with nature in its purest form.

Kaza is strategically positioned a significant distance from large towns such as Shimla (420 kilometres) and Manali (200 km). This geographical isolation, along with its distinctive terrain and high-altitude desert ecosystem, highlights the critical need for good water resource management and sustainable practises in Spiti Valley’s crucial, yet water-scarce, centre.

| GAUTAMI BHOITE | SHRADDHA NEPAL | OXANA NAGUMANOVA | MEHUL SHETHIYA 78

Fig.42 Layout of Kaza town in Spiti Valley

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| MSc. Dissertation | HydroSocial

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Research Development

SITE ANALYSIS TOPOGRAPHICAL ANALYSIS The topographical analysis of Kaza, conducted with contours at 5-meter intervals, reveals intriguing details about its terrain. A significant portion of the southern area lies at a lower elevation, approximately 3,500 meters above sea level. These steep gradients and elevation differences can be used advantageously for the proposed water distribution network by having gravity fed systems providing a natural advantage for the water flowing downhill under the influence of gravity which in return lead to cost savings and lower maintenance costs.

SLOPE ANALYSIS This analysis involves assessing the inclines and gradients of the landscape, which often feature steep slopes and cliffs. It was observed that the slope gradient is minimum at the southern part of the valley adjacent to the river. This is where most of the development is situated, and the lowest parts of the settlements were used for the agriculture. This means that there is very little scope for the settlement to expand horizontally in any direction. The northern part has a maximum gradient of 55% which makes it very difficult for development of any kind.

CATCHMENT ANALYSIS Due to the rugged terrain, there are several long natural water drainage channels along the steep slope to the South. These flow lines help to determine that it is reasonable to develop a water collection system on the parts where the natural drains are dense in number.

Fig.43 a) Natural drains b) Slope Analysis c) Contours at 5M

| GAUTAMI BHOITE | SHRADDHA NEPAL | OXANA NAGUMANOVA | MEHUL SHETHIYA 80

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| | | | | | Domain

LAND USE

The land-use map of Kaza reveals a distinctive urban fabric that is predominantly characterized by residential structures, constituting the largest portion. Following closely are homestays, which serve as shared accommodations between local residents and tourists. Government buildings make up approximately 10% of the structures, while religious structures account for a modest 2%. This land-use dynamic paints a clear picture of Kaza as a town with a strong focus on tourism and economic activities.

Open spaces in the town are primarily dedicated to agricultural fields and open grounds, reflecting the significance of agriculture in the region’s economy and the need for open areas for various purposes. This land-use pattern underscores the delicate balance between urban development and the preservation of agricultural land and open spaces in Kaza.

Fig.44 Land use of existing settlement of Kaza, Spiti valley

| GAUTAMI BHOITE | SHRADDHA NEPAL | OXANA NAGUMANOVA | MEHUL SHETHIYA 82

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| MSc. Dissertation | HydroSocial

| | | | | | Domain

CLIMATIC CONDITIONS

The prevailing wind direction in Kaza is form the Southern direction with speeds reaching up to 17 mph. In the CFD simulation, it is observed that there is very little disturbance in the winds because of the flat part of the terrain on which the settlement is located. We can take advantage of these winds in the winter to collect and preserve as much snow as possible which can be later used in the summers by the local residents.

The solar radiation analysis was conducted digitally for the whole year and it was observed that majority of the structures of the settlements lied in the maximum radiation zones because of the prevalent cold temperatures year round. For ease of distribution, the water needs to be stored in between the settlements and hence to minimise the evaporation of the collected water, we will need to provide a shade.

This wind and radiation data will be later used in favour for the formation of a water distribution network.

Fig.45 Climate analysis of Kaza, Spiti valley

| GAUTAMI BHOITE | SHRADDHA NEPAL | OXANA NAGUMANOVA | MEHUL SHETHIYA 84

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Research Development

SNOW FENCE DEVELOPMENT

The experimental investigation commenced with a comprehensive analysis of snow fences, focusing on their aerodynamic attributes, masonry techniques, and structural integrity concerning snow accumulation. The angle of inclination was varied within the range of 25 to 90 degrees, while the curvature was systematically assessed by changing the radii of both the x and y axes, with the ratio between these axes maintained between 1:1.5 and 1:5. Furthermore, an evaluation of the aerodynamic properties was conducted using computational fluid dynamics.

Fig.46 Snow fence initial design

It is worth noting that the research explicitly specifies that the porosity of the fence should fall within the range of 50% to 75%. This specific porosity range will be subsequently determined through computational fluid dynamics and a multi-objective optimization process, while concurrently considering the structural strength of the fence.

Fig.47 Snow fence experiment setup

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| MSc. Dissertation | HydroSocial

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Fig.48 Inclination experiment and results

Research Development

INCLINATION AND CURVATURE EXPERIMENT

The results were obtained through Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) experiments.

Vortex shedding was observed on the leeward side of the fence system across a range of inclinations, which varied from 25° to 90°. The initial wind velocity was set at 15 m/s.

Notably, the CFD simulations indicated that wind speed decreased as the inclination angle increased. This reduction in wind speed gave rise to the formation of the largest area of vortex shedding, which was observed within the inclination range of 45° to 65°.

Subsequent CFD investigations will be carried out to optimize the fence’s strength and porosity specifically within this inclination range.

For curvature CFD experiments, we investigated the impact of different radii of curvature on wind flow patterns and the reduction in wind velocity. To assess these effects, the team measured the distance between the wall and the point of lowest wind velocity. Notably, convex curves were found to cause a deceleration in wind particles. Additionally, the team selected a range of curvature ratios between 1:2 and 1:3 for further computational analysis to optimize the fence’s structural strength and porosity.

Fig.49 Curvature experiment and results

| GAUTAMI BHOITE | SHRADDHA NEPAL | OXANA NAGUMANOVA | MEHUL SHETHIYA 90

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| MSc. Dissertation | HydroSocial

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Research Development

MULTI-OBJECTIVE OPTIMIZATION

The curvature and inclination ranges used in our study were derived from aerodynamic experiments conducted using Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD). It’s important to note that the fence was designed with sustainability in mind, utilizing a material system manufactured from agricultural-based materials. As a result, optimizing the structural stability of the fence was a crucial step in advancing its development.

Goal

To design a stable porous brick masonry wall which acts as a snow fence.

Objectives

Create maximum amount of voids in between each brick

Fitness criteria

Maximum porosity Maximum compressive strength

Phenotype

50% void in snow fence with 2500mm height and 300mm brick width.

Phenotype

Curvature of snow fence Inclination of fence Size of voids in masonry structure

Fig.51 Fitness objective for snowfence

Two distinct fitness objectives were established for optimizing the fence wall. The first objective aimed to maximize porosity, which was expected to lead to a reduction in wind velocity. To assess this, an occlusion test was conducted to identify the maximum number of vector lines passing through the voids in the wall.

The second fitness objective involved structural analysis, focusing on evaluating the fence’s ability to stand independently while accommodating varying angles of inclination.

This analysis considered the impact of multiple loads, including snow load, wind load, and the self load of the fence. It’s important to note that the ranges of fence configurations explored in these analyses were initially determined through computational fluid dynamics (CFD) testing.

Fig.52 Standard deviation graphs of experiments Fig. 50 Multi-objective experiment for snowfence analysis

The optimization graph reveals that compressive strength has been consistently maximized across all phenotypes in later generations. However, porosity exhibits variations in each generation. Consequently, there is a need to achieve stability in both wall strength and the ratio of porosity in order to advance the design of the fence wall.

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Utilizing a range of curvature and porosity settings obtained from Pareto front solutions for the snow fence, we conducted a detailed examination of the fence’s compressive strength. This analysis encompassed various combinations of void percentages, spanning from 30% to 60%. Additionally, the study explored inclination angles within the range of 74° to 87°, focusing on the objective of maximizing compressive strength, which emerged as the best-performing criteria.

Fig. 53 Snow fence analysis

The stress lines of the top-performing phenotypes underwent a reevaluation with the aim of minimizing tensile forces acting on the snow fence. These lines were subsequently employed as attractor curves to maximize the compressive strength of the fence structure.

This optimization process involved a gradual reduction in the size of voids, specifically targeting the areas where wind loads (tensile strength) were at their maximum.

Fig. 54 Snow fence post- analysis

For each of the three best-performing phenotypes, an analysis of porosity range was conducted with respect to the direction of the wind lines. This analysis revealed variations in porosity changes.

Fig. 55 Snow fence- change in porosity

Research Development

From each phenotypes, the selection was done looking for range of inclination, percentage of porosity and compressive strength. With decreasing voids of each phenotypes, the change was seen to be in the range of 15-28%. It was seen that the final porosity of snow fence is 27% which is rather less than required minimum of 50%.

This illustrates that multiple snow fence must be placed to accumulate more amount of snow.

Within all three phenotypes, it was observed that compressive strength increased after reducing the voids within the structure. Further examination of the fence’s strength involved assessing the range and size of voids that underwent changes along the length of the fence.

| GAUTAMI BHOITE | SHRADDHA NEPAL | OXANA NAGUMANOVA | MEHUL SHETHIYA 94

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| MSc. Dissertation | HydroSocial

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Research Development

CASCADE DEVELOPEMENT

In the design of cascades, two critical parameters were investigated: the angle of inclination and the overlapping distance. The selection of these parameters was based on the objective of reducing water velocity in surface runoff. The examination revealed that the optimal results were achieved within an inclination range of 15 degrees to 25 degrees and an overlapping range of 25% to 50%. Within these ranges, the cascades demonstrated the most significant reduction in water velocity across their entire span.

Fig. 56 Computational fluid dynamics test of cascdes

The experiment was conducted using Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD), wherein the initial velocity of water was set at 15 m/s. The observed results revealed a substantial decrease in water velocity, down to 5 m/s, as it passed through the multiple cascades.

These findings have significant implications for the design of water collection and preservation areas in terrains with slopes. The parameters and configurations developed for the cascades will serve as a valuable foundation for optimizing the water collection system in such sloped terrain.

Fig. 57 Analysis of the obtained results

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| MSc. Dissertation | HydroSocial

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Research Development

EMBANKMENT FORM FINDING

In the development of the embankment, a crucial requirement is to ensure that the morphology possesses aerodynamic characteristics, specifically deflecting wind upwards towards the top of the structure. To achieve this, various morphologies and roof curvatures were subjected to computational fluid dynamics (CFD) testing.

Regarding the curvature of the roof, the analysis involved four distinct inclination ranges spanning from 90⁰ to 45⁰. While the initial wind velocity remained constant at 15 m/s, it was observed that the wind velocity increased to approximately 30 m/s. Notably, only the inclination range of 75⁰ to 50⁰ demonstrated a significant increase in wind velocity.

Fig. 58 Computational fluid dynamics test of cascdes

This particular range of inclination has been selected for incorporation into the embankment’s design, as it serves the primary function of redirecting wind while also addressing the secondary objective of preserving water from evaporation.

Fig. 57 Analysis of the obtained results

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Research Development

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Research Development

MATERIAL PHYSICAL INVESTIGATION INTRODUCTION TO MATERIAL INNOVATION The surge in tourism in Spiti has fueled the demand for expanded infrastructure, but the limited construction window and seasonal labor constraints have forced the use of unsustainable methods like Reinforced Concrete (RCC). This harms the local environment due to its low thermal capacity and imported nature. To address this, reducing river sand use and overall water consumption compared to RCC is vital. Incorporating recycled organic materials to reduce landfill pressure is essential. This requires exploring alternative, eco-friendly construction materials and promoting efficient water management practices.

Balancing infrastructure growth with sustainability is crucial, considering the unique climate and cultural context of Spiti.

AIM FOR MATERIAL DEVELOPMENT The project seeks to create an innovative modular building block system that integrates thermal, structural, and contextual comfort elements. Traditional construction methods, although durable, are inefficient in addressing contemporary challenges such as rapid construction, resource depletion, water scarcity, and labor shortages.

MATERIAL INTEGRATION The project adopts an inventive strategy, utilizing local agricultural by-products to reduce reliance on traditional materials and imported resources. This approach minimizes environmental impact and fosters a circular economy by repurposing agricultural residues, benefiting both the environment and the local community while promoting sustainable and eco-friendly construction practices.

MATERIAL COMPOSITION The project recognizes the need for multifunctional construction attributes aligned with climate and structural requirements. These encompass structural integrity, thermal efficiency, and water repellence, all within a single modular system. Achieving these diverse functions requires distinct material compositions, such as air gaps for insulation and denser compositions for strength, seamlessly integrated into a unified system.

| GAUTAMI BHOITE | SHRADDHA NEPAL | OXANA NAGUMANOVA | MEHUL SHETHIYA 102

Fig.58 Material physical properties

The team initiated their material exploration by studying both local agricultural crops and other potential materials capable of meeting specific requirements and sourced from the region. Notably, materials like flax seed meal and barley husk were identified for their fibrous strength, capable of solidifying when mixed with water or binding agents. Flax seed meal’s water absorption, subsequent water expulsion, and resulting shrinkage create air pockets, rendering it insulating. Similar attributes were found in barley husk. To enhance binding and counter brittleness, clay was introduced, known for its compressive strength and local prevalence. However, the composite lacked water repellence. This gap was addressed by introducing locally available walnut shells. Through individual testing of these materials, insights were gained into their behaviour, informing composite compositions to achieve the desired properties, such as insulation, binding, and water resistance. This comprehensive approach resulted in multiple material compositions that fulfil the multifunctional needs required for construction.

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Research Development

MATERIAL PHYSICAL EXPERIMENT COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH MATERIAL COMPOSITION The team initiated the analysis of materials for their compressive strength. The process involved mixing the primary material with water and corn starch, and air-drying it for 24 hours to evaluate its binding capability. The combination of clay and water yielded a brittle material, whereas flax and water produced a compact composition. Husk, when mixed with water, exhibited effective binding, resulting in a sponge-like texture.

MATERIAL CLASSIFICATION The initial phase of experimentation involved classifying material properties and identifying primary materials, which, when combined with secondary materials, would exhibit these desired properties. The main materials selected were flaxseed meal, barley husk, clay, and walnut shell. To test compressive strength, compositions of flaxseed meal, barley husk, clay, walnut shell, and a water-corn starch mix as a binder were used. Yeast was incorporated with flaxseed meal to create air pockets, enabling the development of a porous material. Walnut shell, being water repellent, was combined with a binding agent to produce a water-resistant composite.

To enhance material strength, clay was introduced into the flax and soil mixture at varying water levels and baked for an hour. Two samples were prepared: the first with a specific water quantity and the second with double that amount. Sample S6.1.2 displayed a solid composition with consistent volume, while sample S6.2.2 exhibited greater compactness and lighter weight. This experimentation aimed to achieve improved binding properties and enhanced material strength.

MATERIAL BEHAVIOUR To assess the performance of these novel construction materials, an initial water retention analysis was conducted. This test involved gradually adding water, gram by gram, to equal volumes of the three water-absorbent materials to determine their binding water requirement. Weight-to-volume comparisons revealed that flax and husk shared the same weight for a given volume, whereas clay demanded a greater quantity due to its denser nature. This was attributed to the presence of air gaps in the original state of flax and husk, contrasting with clay’s compact composition.

When water was introduced, flax exhibited the lowest water demand for binding, while husk displayed the highest due to its exceptional water absorbency. Clay required a moderate amount of water for self-binding, falling between the other materials. Visual observation indicated that a husk ball, with the same material quantity, expanded significantly more than flax and clay due to water absorption and its greater air gap composition.

Minimum water required

Maximum water required

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Fig.60 Compressive strength material composition

In the third composition set, walnut shell was introduced to enhance structural stability and reduce weight while maintaining integrity. The outcome yielded a denser yet brittle composition. For sample S6.4, yeast was added to augment lightweight properties and improve bonding, along with the necessary materials for compressive strength. Results were comparable, revealing the superfluous application of yeast in this context .

Fig.59 Image showing the amount of water required for materials to bind.

Average amount of water required

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Research Development

WATER-REPELLENT MATERIAL COMPOSITION The aim of the water-repellent material composition was to develop a resistant substance that safeguards the building block from water-induced deterioration. Crushed walnut shell, known for its water-repellent nature, was proposed for this purpose. However, walnut shell’s challenge lay in its resistance to binding when combined with water, unlike other primary materials. To overcome this, a significant quantity of corn starch, an agro-based material functioning as a binding agent, was introduced. Upon mixing with hot water, corn starch acts as an adhesive and solidifies when dried.

THERMAL INSULATION MATERIAL COMPOSITION The objective for the thermal insulation material composition was to achieve both porosity and structural strength. To achieve this, all samples underwent baking to introduce porosity. Initial tests involved baking a mixture of flax and water, as well as a combination of flax, clay, and water for an hour. Sample S1.5 showed limited porosity, while sample S3.3 surprisingly expanded, yet with uneven voids.

Samples were assessed using a blend of walnut shell, corn starch, and water. In sample S8.1, maintaining a consistent corn starch amount, a 1:2 walnut shell-to-water ratio aimed to enhance the binding mixture. This resulted in brittleness due to insufficient material for binding. Similarly, sample S8.3 was baked for 1 hour keeping the material composition same. This sample displayed improved firmness yet remained brittle.

To enhance uniformity and porosity, yeast was introduced to both mixes. Sample S4.2 exhibited 40% porosity with consistent medium-sized air cavities, and sample S4.4 displayed 20% porosity with smaller air pockets. Comparing their structural integrity, sample S4.4 was sturdier while sample S4.2 was spongy.

Subsequently, a composition of flax and clay was pursued. Sample S4.2 aimed to achieve porosity without yeast, using varying water levels, resulting in uneven porosity and brittleness. Adding yeast to sample S6.4 yielded uniform 65% porosity, albeit with a slightly brittle nature. These experiments guided the selection of a flax, clay, water, and yeast composition for further exploration .

| GAUTAMI BHOITE | SHRADDHA NEPAL | OXANA NAGUMANOVA | MEHUL SHETHIYA 106

Fig.61 Thermal insulation material composition

Fig.62 Water-repellent material composition

To strengthen binding, flax was introduced into the mix, bolstering the material’s cohesion.

Similarly, to the initial experiment, two samples were prepared with identical compositions, one including flaxseed meal. One sample was then baked. The unbaked sample exhibited disintegration, while the baked one displayed improved performance, boasting a solid, less brittle composition .

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1

CS-1

CS-2

CS-3

CS-4

Research Development

2

CS-5

3

PHYSICAL EXPERIMENTS The process of assessing material compositions involved a series of rigorous tests aimed at understanding their properties and behaviours for specific applications. Four distinct tests were conducted to thoroughly evaluate the performance of the materials: compressive strength, thermal conductivity, porosity, and water repellence.

Fig.63 Сylindrical samples for compressive strength test

COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH TEST

The compressive strength test focused on practical experimentation. Cylindrical samples, each with a diameter of 50mm and a height of 40mm, were prepared with varying material compositions. A wooden plate was positioned on the top surface of each sample, and weight was gradually added. The process continued until the sample reached a point of disintegration. At this point, the weight applied was recorded, which was then converted into the force applied to the sample. This test aimed to quantify the material’s ability to withstand external force and pressure, providing insights into its structural strength.

| GAUTAMI BHOITE | SHRADDHA NEPAL | OXANA NAGUMANOVA | MEHUL SHETHIYA 108

Fig. 64 1) Сompressive strength test setup. 2)Measured Resistance Weight and Force. 3) Composition of samples (all values as per proportions)

During the compressive strength test, it was evident that samples containing a higher proportion of soil exhibited superior performance, withstanding the maximum load. Paradoxically, our experimentation aimed to minimize soil due to its higher water demand compared to flax. The second-best performance was observed in samples with reduced clay content, with a 450N difference. Further investigations are needed to precisely calibrate the bricks’ ability to withstand actual loads such as dead load, snow load, and wind load, aligning with the multifunctional objectives and structural requirements.

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| | | | | | Introduction

1

TI-1

TI-2

TI-3

TI-4

TI-5

2

PHYSICAL EXPERIMENTS THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY TEST The thermal conductivity test involved a different approach. A cuboidal sample, sized 80mm x 80mm x 20mm, was utilized for this experiment. The sample was placed on a heated plate to facilitate the conduction of heat through the material. A pack of ice was placed on top of the sample to create a temperature gradient. By observing the temperature difference in the upper layer of the sample at fixed intervals while keeping the heating temperature constant, the heat flux rate was calculated. This test offered insights into the material’s efficiency in conducting or insulating heat, which is crucial for its thermal performance.

Fig.65 Сuboid samples for thermal conductivity test

Fig.66 Thermal conductivity test setup

Thermal conductivity is the amount of heat that passes through 1 m2 of material with a thickness of 1 m in an hour.

| GAUTAMI BHOITE | SHRADDHA NEPAL | OXANA NAGUMANOVA | MEHUL SHETHIYA 110

Upon conducting the comprehensive tests, thermal conductivity was determined using the previously mentioned formula. The objective was to identify the sample with the lowest thermal conductivity, as this aligns with our experiment’s goals. Among the tested samples, it’s evident from the provided table that sample TI-3 exhibits the most favorable thermal conductivity performance. Notably, this sample lacks clay, contributing to its lower thermal conductivity, although it compromises structural strength compared to other samples.

The findings strongly suggest that clay has a significant impact on thermal conductivity, functioning as a conductor. Consequently, it is advisable to avoid clay within the material composition to enhance thermal resistance.

λ=(Q/t)*(d/SΔT) λ - thermal conductivity, Q - heat flux, t - time, d - thickness of the sample, S - cross sectional area, ΔT - temperature difference.

Fig. 67 1) Composition of samples (all values as per proportions).

2) Measured thermal conductivity

cooling element

sample

heating plate

Remarkably, the subsequent favorable candidate is sample TI-4, which includes soil and displays improved thermal conductivity resistance compared to the baseline. This outcome encourages the consideration of this particular sample’s composition for further refinements and developments, marking it as a potential candidate to meet the multifunctional objectives of the project.

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saturated sample

| | | | | | Introduction

dry sample

water in the pores

Fig.68 Porosity test setup

PHYSICAL EXPERIMENTS PORE VOLUME DETERMINATION: POROSITY TEST To evaluate porosity, cylindrical samples similar to those used in the compressive strength test were employed. The fluid displacement method was employed, wherein the weight of dry samples was measured initially. The samples were then submerged in water for a specific duration to become fully saturated. Post-submersion, the weight of the wet samples was recorded, and the difference between the two weights was calculated. This measurement indicated the level of porosity within the material, with a higher weight difference signifying greater porosity.

Vp=Wwater / Pwater Ф = Vp / Vbulk

Fig.69 Composition of samples (all values as per proportions).

Fig. 70 Measured porosity

VP - pore volume, WW - weight of water in the sample, Pwater - density of water, Ф - porosity, Vbulk- bulk volume of sample.

Following the tests, the outcomes indicate that samples with yeast tend to have higher porosity, while the presence of clay notably decreases porosity. The most favorable outcomes are observed in the PT3 sample, which includes yeast and flaxseed meal but lacks any clay. However, it’s important to note that the complete absence of clay doesn’t guarantee the structural stability of the material. To enhance the composition further, it may be beneficial to include yeast along with a small quantity of clay.

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| MSc. Dissertation | HydroSocial

| | | | | | Introduction

1

2

PHYSICAL EXPERIMENTS

Fig. 72 1) Composition of samples (all values as per proportions).

2) Measured water absorption

WATER ABSORPTION TEST

Assessing the brick’s water repellence involves a water absorption test to quantify material permeability. Initial weight of the dry sample will be recorded, followed by immersing it in water for 24 hours. Weight change indicates water absorption, and subsequent natural drying for another 24 hours enables weight re-measurement. Additionally, samples will be examined for disintegration, with disintegration percentage documented for further analysis. This comprehensive evaluation provides insights into water repellence and material stability, vital for multifunctional objectives and quality assurance.

| GAUTAMI BHOITE | SHRADDHA NEPAL | OXANA NAGUMANOVA | MEHUL SHETHIYA 114

Fig.71 Water absorption test setup

In the water absorption test, three different material compositions, varying in their proportions of flaxseed meal and walnut shell, were chosen. These materials were selected due to their superior interaction with water and their resistance to disintegration. These data were obtained by performing an initial test, when each material was individually placed in water for 24 hours and after that its weight was assessed and structural integrity changes. This phase, however, was aimed at identifying material compositions that were potentially efficient for this study.

The results clearly indicate that the WA-2 composition performed best. Additionally, when assessing the structural integrity of the samples after complete drying, it is evident that both WA-1 and WA-2 samples retained their physical properties entirely. In contrast, the WA-3 sample exhibited physical changes and signs of decomposition. These findings strongly support the consideration of the WA-2 composition for further refinement and development.

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| MSc. Dissertation | HydroSocial

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Research Development

MATERIAL DIGITAL INVESTIGATION

Recognizing the importance of incorporating Functionally Graded Materials (FGM) into our material experimentation, the research team delved into various FGM structures. The primary objective was to establish a hierarchical arrangement of material compositions.

However, due to the intricacies involved in mass production, the focus narrowed down to discontinuous gradient FGM.

Fig.73 Funtionally graded material illustration

The team commenced by identifying suitable materials through physical experimentation, along with their distinct properties. In this process, a composite material was formulated by blending soil and flax seeds, resulting in two phases—phase A and phase B. Once the desired composite strength was achieved, the team introduced air bubbles to enhance thermal insulation. It became imperative to strategically distribute more air bubbles within the central region of the mixture, gradually tapering their concentration towards the periphery of the brick module.

The FGM (Functionally Graded Material) system has undergone further development within the modular block by incorporating soil as a binding material as shown in Fig 74.

Furthermore, flax and walnut volumes have been introduced into the block based on their demonstrated resistance to thermal heat and moisture in previous physical tests. This digital representation is being utilized to analyze both the material system’s strength and its thermal heat transfer capacity. These digital analyses will serve as a foundation for physical calibration in the later stages of module system development.

Fig.74 Funtionally graded material illustration on modular block

| GAUTAMI BHOITE | SHRADDHA NEPAL | OXANA NAGUMANOVA | MEHUL SHETHIYA 116

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Research Development

MULTI-OBJECTIVE OPTIMIZATION

The brick is developed to be lightweight and thermally and structurally efficient system within itself. As shown in figure, it has been illustrated as an abstraction to show variations in material and porosity with various voxels representing different functions.

Goal

To create a thermally efficient brick which also has a minimal deflection

Objectives

Create maximum amount of thermal air gaps at the same time find out the ratio of flax quantity to soil for structural efficiency

Fitness criteria

Phenotype

Phenotype

Fig.76 Fitness objective for snowfence

Fig. 75 Multi-objective experiment for material system

To optimize the composition of the block based on physical tests, a set of multi-objective criteria has been established: Minimize thermal gap: This objective aims to reduce the thermal gap within the block, contributing to its enhanced structural stability. Maximize flax/ walnut volume: By maximizing the volume of flax and walnut materials used, the objective is to minimize the quantity of soil required in the block’s composition. Maximize air volume: Increasing the air volume within the block is crucial for creating thermal gaps, which can enhance its insulating properties. Minimize displacement: Ensuring structural stability is a key consideration, and thus, minimizing displacement is an important optimization objective.

While the standard deviation graphs provided insights into the optimization of flax/walnut volume, air volume, and structural stability, it became evident that there was a need for more precise optimization of the fitness criteria related to thermal gap. Notably, the initial stages of the simulation exhibited a high degree of visual geometric variation, which subsequently converged towards optimized values. This convergence occurred due to the limited number of genes responsible for informing the morphological alterations.

Minimum thermal gap Maximum flax volume Maximum air volume Minimum displacement Standard size brick volume with 50% air gap and equal ratio of soil and flax volume Ratio of surface area to volume of brick Size of thermal gap length Size of flax volume Size of air volume

Fig. 77 Standard deviation graphs of experiments

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| MSc. Dissertation | HydroSocial

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Research Development

Following the process of evolutionary optimization, it became evident that a significant portion of the generated morphologies exhibited variations in volume. These variations were primarily influenced by a specific gene responsible for altering the volume of individual bricks. Consequently, these size discrepancies had a direct impact on the structural stability of each phenotype generated.

Fig. 80 Length of average temperature

Phenotypes that excelled across all fitness criteria were chosen for further examination regarding the relationship between porosity and thermal capacity.

The phenotypes that demonstrated superior performance in FC1 exhibited a tendency towards possessing a lower porosity-to-block volume ratio. This reduced porosity ratio directly correlated with elevated values in FC4 (block strength). This suggests that blocks with decreased porosity are not only stronger but also more suited for structural applications.

Phenotypes that ranked highest in FC2 and FC3 showcased a well-balanced ratio between thermal gap and flax volume. Although these phenotypes displayed slightly compromised structural integrity, they had improved thermal efficiency compared to those leading in FC1.

A similar stability between thermal efficiency and structural integrity was also observed in FC4.

Fig. 78 Pareto front solutions

| GAUTAMI BHOITE | SHRADDHA NEPAL | OXANA NAGUMANOVA | MEHUL SHETHIYA 120

As shown in figure 80, the length of average temperature was measured from the interior volume of the block. This length determines the time it takes for the module to transfer heat and reach it’s average temperature. The time it takes for thermal heat transfer is influenced by the length of the block. Phenotypes obtained in FC1 have larger lengths, resulting in a smaller ratio of length to the average temperature difference. This indicates that blocks with greater length in relation to the temperature difference exhibit better thermal performance.

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| MSc. Dissertation | HydroSocial

CONCLUSION The analysis of the urban network begins with a thorough assessment of many elements such as catchment zones, slope analysis, climatic concerns, and betweenness centrality.

These aspects come together to generate effective solutions. The primary goal is to collect as much precipitation as possible, such as rainwater, surface runoff, and snowmelt, and to integrate these water resources into a distribution network for dependable and sustainable supply. The research specifies particular geographic locations for key collecting regions, dispersion within the community, and existing household preservation sites.

The design of an efficient water distribution system prioritises minimising distance and material utilisation, maximising geographical coverage, minimising overlapping service radii, and maximising serving radius. A multi-objective optimisation method assures that the resultant network is egalitarian, long-term, and adapted to the community’s specific needs. This strategy seeks to construct an efficient water distribution network, particularly in difficult terrain, in order to meet long-term water management concerns.

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Research Development

In conclusion, our architectural development journey commenced with a comprehensive analysis of the snow fence, a pivotal structure for the strategic accumulation of snow. It became evident that the utilization of a traditional brick wall for snow accumulation posed significant challenges. These challenges were primarily attributed to the limitations of the material system and the demanding properties required for an effective fence wall.

As we reduced the porosity of the fence wall, it became apparent that multiple fence walls would need to be designed to accumulate the same volume of snow efficiently.

In addition to the snow fence, our design incorporated cascades, strategically engineered to slow down surface runoff water. Looking ahead, our vision involves further refinement and integration of the snow fence and cascades into a composite wall system. This system will serve as a robust mechanism for harvesting water from multiple sources, addressing critical water scarcity challenges and fostering sustainable water management practices.

Furthermore, our approach of conducting digital experiments and comparing them to physical experiments has proven to be valuable in the calibration of our methods.

However, as we reflect on our methodology, it becomes evident that achieving a higher degree of accuracy would have been possible if the thermal behavior of both physical and digital blocks had been studied with a similar sample size.

The abstraction of materials in our digital simulations may have introduced some discrepancies in the calculation of strength and material behavior, highlighting the importance of further refinement in this aspect. The challenge of creating functionally graded material from agro-based materials was itself a substantial achievement, but it underscores the potential for more precise developments in the construction of material systems.

Our journey of bridging the gap between digital and physical experimentation not only enhances our understanding of material behavior but also paves the way for more advanced and effective construction techniques in the future.

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| MSc. Dissertation | HydroSocial

Design Development

DESIGN DEVELOPMENT • PROPOSED WATER SYSTEM • URBAN NETWORK DEVELOPMENT • TYPOLOGY A - PRIMARY NODE DEVELOPMENT • TYPOLOGY B - AGRICULTURAL DESIGN • BUILDING BLOCK DEVELOPMENT • CONSTRUCTION DETAILING • PRODUCTION METHODOLOGY

| GAUTAMI BHOITE | SHRADDHA NEPAL | OXANA NAGUMANOVA | MEHUL SHETHIYA 124

| ARCHITECTURAL ASSOCIATION | EMTECH | 2022-2023 125

| MSc. Dissertation | HydroSocial

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Design Development

PROPOSED WATER SYSTEM

The aim of the design development is to address the critical water needs of the local community while adhering to environmentally friendly and regionally responsive principles.

The approach includes three distinct design typologies, each tailored to specific functions and seasonal requirements. These typologies ensure water collection, preservation, and distribution, all while considering the unique challenges posed by varying climatic conditions.

The site is organized into different zones based on factors such as terrain, slope, and the urban characteristics of each part of the town. These distinct zones have different types of water system interventions that align with their specific functions.

Starting with the zone at the highest altitude, which is also aligned with the catchment areas, we have ‘typology A.’ This type is primarily responsible for collecting water from the catchment zones. Given its high altitude, it also accumulates snow during the winter months and preserves water from spring surface runoff and glacial melt. Typology A serves as the primary water source for the other types and encompasses both collection and preservation functions.

Moving on to the zone near the agricultural fields, we refer to it as ‘typology B.’ This type’s main role is to provide a water source for the agricultural fields and livestock. It is strategically located on terrains with gentle slopes to facilitate its functions. Typology B involves snow accumulation, achieved with the help of snow fences and embankments, in addition to a water preservation unit.

Finally, we have ‘typology C,’ which is situated within the urban fabric and functions as a tertiary node. The placement of these nodes is determined by a network that considers their proximity to the water source. Typology C serves as both a preservation and distribution intervention within the urban area.

Fig.81 Proposed water system

| GAUTAMI BHOITE | SHRADDHA NEPAL | OXANA NAGUMANOVA | MEHUL SHETHIYA 126

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| MSc. Dissertation | HydroSocial

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Design Development

URBAN NETWORK

The urban scale analysis commences with a comprehensive examination of the prevailing urban fabric and landscape. This study encompasses various factors, including catchment zone assessment, slope analysis across the town, meteorological considerations, and factors such as betweenness centrality. These elements converge to formulate the most efficient and effective solutions. The overarching objective is to optimize the functionality of the entire network design, enhance the efficiency of water collection processes, and reformulate the distribution network. The primary aim is to maximize the collection of precipitation in its various forms, involving rainwater, surface runoff, and snowmelt.

Subsequently, these water resources are systematically stored and integrated into the distribution network, ensuring a reliable and sustainable supply to the existing households.

After conducting a thorough analysis of the urban scale, the research team identified a set of crucial geographical prerequisites necessary for the establishment of an efficient water distribution network. These geographic features were then investigated in greater detail, leading to the development of various types of network systems. As illustrated in Figure 82, three distinct typologies were designated for design and implementation within the region.

Typology A and Typology B are primarily focused on water collection and preservation, while Typology C is specifically proposed for water distribution purposes.

Fig. 82 Conceptual site model showing how the collection, preservation and distribution come together

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| MSc. Dissertation | HydroSocial

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Design Development

TYPE A COLLECTION AREAS

These are characterized as sites situated at the highest altitudes within the vicinity of the current settlement which are strategically chosen as primary collection zones. The conditions to identify this primary collection area were that the location should be located on the highest altitude possible where it will be feasible to collect as much surface runoff from the catchments as possible and a piece of land which has a buildable slope.

We started with identifying the highest located household in the settlement which was situated at approximately 3720m above sea level hence it is necessary to identify a site which is above this altitude (as seen in Fig 83). The next step involved looking at the slopes of the settlement and its immediate surroundings through which it was observed that any land which is higher than the household at the highest altitude has slopes of more that 20% and therefore a zone with the least gradient possible above the 3720m mark was identified. Furthermore, the catchment zones were also studied and the zones where the natural drain lines are dense was selected.

Finally, all of these conditionally selected zones were overlapped with each other to find the best suitable site for the primary collection zone (Type A).

Fig. 83 A)Elevation Analysis. B)Optimal Slope. C)Catchment Analysis

Fig. 84 Selection of Type A site as per the analysis

A

B

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C

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A

B

C

D

Design Development

E

TYPE C DISTRIBUTION NETWORK

To distribute water to the existing households several open land parcels within the settlement were identified which could possibly be the sites for preservation of water. To select the best sites, the density of the existing households was considered and a range of serving radius was set depending upon the distance a normal person can cover by walking comfortably in under ten minutes on a rough terrain 41 which was approximately hundred meters which was set as the maximum limit.

Fig.85 A. Slope Analysis B. Catchment Zones C. Road Network D. Exisitng Buildings E. possible Sites

A minimum limit of fifty meters was derived based on efficiency. First a set of three primary sites were selected which can store water and then these primary sites would further feed the secondary nodes from which the locals would collect water from. This was done to have a network such like that even if there is a failure in one of the primary nodes, the others would continue to serve the locals. To have an undisturbed gravitational distribution, the altitude of each node was considered in a way that the secondary nodes are always lower in altitude than the primary node which is feeding them.

The nodes were also sorted and cut down on by considering the betweenness centrality such that the selection of nodes would increase minimum stress on the existing road network. These considerations, along with the objectives for a distribution network were then used to give the final and most optimal solution for the urban scale.

Fig. 86 Overlaying of all the analysis to identify possible sites for Type B and C

41

Yang and Diez-Roux, “Walking Distance by Trip Purpose and Population Subgroups.”

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| MSc. Dissertation | HydroSocial

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Design Development

DISTRIBUTION NETWORK To establish an equitable and efficient water distribution system from the primary collection areas (Type A) to the secondary nodes for preservation (Type B) within the settlement, the development of a well-structured network becomes imperative. This network is designed to ensure that water is distributed uniformly throughout the community. To achieve these objectives, a set of key criteria were formulated:

Fig. 87 Fitness objectives for Simultion 1 to identify the most optimal primary network.

1. Minimizing Distance and Material Usage: The first objective aimed to minimize the distance between the Type A collection points and the Type B and C distribution nodes.

This approach not only reduces the length of the distribution network but also optimizes material usage in its construction, promoting sustainability.

2. Maximizing Spatial Coverage: The second objective focused on maximizing the distance between nodes within the settlement. This strategy ensures that distribution networks are evenly dispersed across the town, enhancing accessibility for residents and promoting fairness in water access.

3. Minimizing Overlapping Service Radii: The third objective sought to minimize the overlap of service radii between nodes. By doing so, it ensures that all residents are served equitably without redundancy or over-concentration of resources.

4. Maximizing Serving Radius: The final objective aimed to maximize the serving radius of each distribution node, optimizing the reach and coverage of the water distribution network.

| GAUTAMI BHOITE | SHRADDHA NEPAL | OXANA NAGUMANOVA | MEHUL SHETHIYA 134

Fig. 88 Pareto Front solutions of the Simulation 1

To attain solutions that satisfy these multi-faceted objectives, a comprehensive multiobjective optimization process was executed. This approach ensures that the resulting water distribution network is not only efficient but also equitable, sustainable, and tailored to the unique needs of the community.

| ARCHITECTURAL ASSOCIATION | EMTECH | 2022-2023 135

| MSc. Dissertation | HydroSocial

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Design Development

Fig.91 Parallel Coordinate chart showing the values of the results of Sequential Simulation

The pareto front results of this optimisation were studied to identify the most suited solutions and a range of values that determined the solutions was selected to run a sequential simulation for the secondary branching of the network. These branches would go to the preservation sites which are situated in the settlement. The objectives for this sequential optimisation were:

1. Maximizing the length of the secondary network: This objective would ensure that the preservation sites or the site from where the locals would collect water would be able to cover as many possible sites as they can for even and fair distribution throughout the settlement.

Fig.89 Parallel Coordinate chart showing the values of the results of Simulation 1.

Fig.90 Fitness objectives for a sequential simulation to find the most optimal secondary distribution network.

2. Maximizing Serving Radius: The final objective for the sequential optimisation is to have maximum radius without overlapping with any other preservation sites and have the maximum number of households in its residents so that this network serves the maximum number of locals.

Fig.92 Pareto Front solutions of the Sequential Simulation. | GAUTAMI BHOITE | SHRADDHA NEPAL | OXANA NAGUMANOVA | MEHUL SHETHIYA 136

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| MSc. Dissertation | HydroSocial

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Design Development

Fig.94 Final selected urban network highlighting all the typologies

Type B

TYPE B AGRICULTURE

Type C

In the context of Type C (Agriculture) sites, a thorough assessment was conducted to identify potential preservation areas within the settlement and the associated distribution network. Special attention was given to sites in close proximity to the existing agricultural lands situated to the southwest of the settlement. These specific sites were strategically reconfigured to align with the distinct agricultural needs of the region.

Originally reliant on water supply from the Type A collection points, these sites underwent modifications to establish independent water and snow collection systems. This transformation was implemented to cater specifically to the agricultural requirements of the area. The selected locations for these modified sites were carefully chosen for their lower elevation, ensuring their proximity to the farmlands.

By optimizing these sites for agricultural purposes and securing a dedicated water and snow collection infrastructure, this initiative aims to enhance the sustainability and effectiveness of agricultural activities in the region while bolstering local food production.

Type C

Fig.93 The difference of functions and activities for all types

Type B

Fig.95 Rationalisation of pipe network according to the existing buildings and structures

| GAUTAMI BHOITE | SHRADDHA NEPAL | OXANA NAGUMANOVA | MEHUL SHETHIYA 138

| ARCHITECTURAL ASSOCIATION | EMTECH | 2022-2023 139

| MSc. Dissertation | HydroSocial

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Design Development

CONCLUSION The urban network analysis given in this paper provides a comprehensive and holistic answer to Spiti Valley’s water scarcity concerns. This strategy intends to maximise precipitation collection in its different forms and guarantee fair water distribution by taking essential aspects such as collecting zones, distribution network optimisation, and unique site categorizations (Type A, Type B, and Type C) into account. To establish an effective and sustainable water distribution system, the network design prioritises objectives such as minimising distance and material utilisation, maximising geographical coverage, and optimising serving radii.

Furthermore, a sequential optimisation method improves the secondary network by extending it to preservation locations inside the settlement and focused on maximising network length and serving radius. Special consideration is also given to agricultural lands, which are optimised for water and snow collection to help local farming. Overall, this holistic strategy offers an important step towards easing water shortage in Spiti Valley, promising increased water accessibility, sustainability, and communities’ well-being while building resilience in the face of this critical crisis.

A thorough study is necessary to accurately analyse the impacts of this proposed water collection, preservation, and distribution techniques on the local resident’s livelihood. The results for the urban network are to be analysed in different scenarios and see the adaptability of the whole settlement with the network. This study can also give insights whether the village is able to accommodate more people depending on the water supply infrastructure.

A more detailed study is required on how each typology interacts with the existing settlement on a local and regional scale. The network should also be thought for its rationalised constructability with the concerned households to efficiently connect the typologies with each other.

| GAUTAMI BHOITE | SHRADDHA NEPAL | OXANA NAGUMANOVA | MEHUL SHETHIYA 140

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| MSc. Dissertation | HydroSocial

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Design Development

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Design Development

TYPOLOGY A PRIMARY NODE

FUNCTION: Collection and preservation FEATURES: Cascades, snow fence, embankment WINTER/SPRING ROLE: Collects snow and surface runoff LATE SPRING/SUMMER ROLE: Preserves water for summer use

The primary design intervention, referred to as ‘type A,’ serves as a central node within the water system and encompasses both collection and preservation functions. Type A incorporates multiple elements, including cascades, snow fences, and embankments.

The inspiration for this design comes from the concept of placing a snow fence on top of an embankment. This arrangement aims to reduce wind velocity by elevating the structure.

In addition to this, cascades are integrated into the design. These cascades serve a dual purpose: they help channelize surface runoff from the catchment areas, and they also function as an embankment to block the wind. Consequently, the cascades are strategically positioned at the highest points of the site to fulfill both of these roles effectively.

Fig.96 Spatial organization diagram for A Typology

| GAUTAMI BHOITE | SHRADDHA NEPAL | OXANA NAGUMANOVA | MEHUL SHETHIYA 144

Furthermore, the embankment, situated beneath the snow fence, serves as a preservation unit. It stores meltwater, which can then be supplied to the distribution nodes, ensuring a sustainable water supply for the entire system.

| ARCHITECTURAL ASSOCIATION | EMTECH | 2022-2023 145

| MSc. Dissertation | HydroSocial

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Design Development

MORPHOLOGY DEVELOPMENT

The research and development efforts have led to the creation of two distinct types of embankments, each designed to serve different functions. Type A is intended for deployment in terrains with slopes, whereas Type B is tailored for use in flat terrain conditions. Initial analysis of these embankments has yielded aerodynamic properties, with the inclination angle of the embankment falling within the design range of 60⁰ to 90⁰.

Additionally, the research has demonstrated that the material system developed for this experiment is well-suited for use in compressive structures. This development opens the possibility of further refining these materials for use in arches, which can provide structural support for the embankment or shell structures. Further analysis of these arches is being conducted to determine the range of arch configurations that exhibit sufficient compressive strength.

Fig.97 Arches selection criteria

A variety of arch configurations were examined to identify the optimal solution for the design of the embankment. Throughout the experimentation, the arches were subjected to variations in span, rise, and vertical heights to assess their compressive strength. It was observed that arches with steeper inclinations, lower rises, and reduced vertical heights demonstrated the highest compressive strength.

The range of arch configurations derived from the compressive strength testing was subsequently utilized to formulate the design of embankments for both Type A and Type B. Type A, designed primarily for water preservation, employed arches with shorter spans and heights. In contrast, Type B, with different functional requirements, incorporated arches characterized by longer spans and greater heights in its morphology.

Fig.98 Development of arches for compressive strength

| GAUTAMI BHOITE | SHRADDHA NEPAL | OXANA NAGUMANOVA | MEHUL SHETHIYA 146

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| MSc. Dissertation | HydroSocial

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Design Development

MULTI-OBJECTIVE OPTIMIZATION TYPOLOGY A

The development of Type A morphology primarily revolves around the preservation of water, including the implementation of a covering to prevent evaporation from the reservoir.

The initial morphology was conceived using a curve derived from the curvature analysis conducted during the research and development phase. This curve was further refined to create a base plinth area intended for water storage. To protect this storage area, a vault structure was employed as a cover. These vaults are structurally supported by arches following the curvature of the design. Additionally, a snow fence was incorporated on top of the structure to facilitate the accumulation of snow during the winter months, aided by cascades.

Goal

To design a self-standing embankment that helps prevents evaporation

Objectives

Create a shell structure with minimum deflection and maximum curvature to accumulate larger amount of snow.

Fitness criteria

Minimum surface area to volume ratio Maximum curvature Minimum solar radiation in pit Maximize compressive strength

Phenotype

A curved surface along the curvature with arches for supports.

Phenotype

Fig.100 Primitive development and Fitness objectives

Fig. 99 Multi-objective experiment for typology A

Curvature of embankment Inclination of embankment wall No. of arches Rise of arches Height of snow fence

In the context of multi-objective optimization, several key objectives have been established: Minimization of the surface area-to-volume ratio of the vault: This aims to reduce exposure to solar radiation, thereby preventing thermal heat gain and preserving water in its natural state. Maximization of the curvature of the embankment: This objective seeks to enhance wind flow through the fence, facilitating the accumulation of snow. Minimization of radiation exposure on the pit area: The goal here is to reduce radiation levels in the pit area, which helps in preserving snow and slowing down its melting process. Optimization of the structural stability of the vault: This involves assessing the load-bearing capacity of the vault, considering factors such as the snow accumulation load, the mass of the fence, and the self-load of the vault itself.

Minimum surface area to volume ratio

Minimum solar radiation in the pit

Maximum curvature

Maximize compressive strength

Fig.101 Standard deviation graphs of experiments

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| MSc. Dissertation | HydroSocial

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Fig.103 Primitive development and Fitness objectives

Design Development

The outcome for ‘Type A’ was selected based on specific criteria, with a primary focus on maximizing curvature to increase the surface area exposed to the prevailing wind and, in turn, expand the snow pit area. Given the complexity of this design, which serves as the primary node for water supply, careful site planning was essential. The placement of cascades was strategically determined at the highest point of the site to facilitate the channelization of water, following a slope of 1:23. In contrast, the embankment and fence were positioned at the lowest part of the site, designed to collect water efficiently with an inclination of 1:15.

Furthermore, various parameters were established during the initial analysis to optimize the on-site planning process. These parameters included: Optimal Distance Between Cascades: A range of 10 meters to 15 meters was set to determine the most effective spacing between cascades, considering the required velocity of water flow. Distance Between Embankment and Cascades: A range of 10 meters to 15 meters was examined to strike a balance between maximizing the length of the snow pit and efficiently collecting runoff water. Optimizing the Direction of Snow Fence and Cascades: A rotation range of 15 degrees to 20 degrees was explored to determine the ideal orientation for both the snow fence and cascades to maximize their exposure to wind. Minimizing Sun Exposure: An optimal solution was sought to minimize sun exposure on the snow pit area, thereby preventing rapid snow melting.

These parameters were instrumental in fine-tuning the design and ensuring the most efficient and effective utilization of natural resources while mitigating environmental challenges in the region.

Fig.102 Phenotypes selection from Paretofront solutions

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| MSc. Dissertation | HydroSocial

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Fig.104 Type A sectional detail.

Seasonal scenarios

The design intervention ‘type A’ operates in distinct ways during different seasons. In the winter and spring seasons, its primary function is related to collection, while in the later spring and summer seasons, it transitions into a preservation unit.

During the winter, the cascades serve as an embankment to facilitate the accumulation of snow. Additionally, the snow fence is optimized for collecting snow. These mechanisms work together to gather and store snow effectively.

WINTER SCENARIO Snow accumulation

Design Development

Cascades

As spring arrives, the accumulated snow begins to melt, complemented by the runoff from higher-altitude glaciers. During this time, all of this water is collected and stored in a preservation water tank. This stored water becomes a critical resource for use during the 90 days of summer when water availability is limited. Essentially, the design intervention transforms from a collector of winter precipitation to a preserver of this precious resource for the drier months ahead.

Snow fence with preservation structure

SPRING SCENARIO Surface run-off from glacial melt and accumulated snow melt

Cascades

Water tank Fig.105 Type A quantification data

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| MSc. Dissertation | HydroSocial

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Design Development

TYPOLOGY B AGRICULTURAL DESIGN

FUNCTION: Supplying water to agricultural fields and livestock FEATURES: Snow fence, embankment, production units, storage facilities WINTER/SPRING ROLE: Snow accumulation LATE SPRING/SUMMER ROLE: Water preservation and agricultural use

‘Type B’ serves as the agricultural design intervention within the water system. Its primary function is to supply water directly to agricultural fields and for cattle. This intervention is carefully designed to optimize its effectiveness.

In this design, a snow fence is strategically placed in the direction of the prevailing wind.

Simultaneously, an embankment is positioned parallel to the snow fence at a calculated distance. This arrangement serves a dual purpose: it reduces wind velocity with the help of the snow fence and further obstructs wind due to the presence of the embankment. This helps accumulate snow during the winter season.

Fig.106 Spatial organization diagram for B Typology

| GAUTAMI BHOITE | SHRADDHA NEPAL | OXANA NAGUMANOVA | MEHUL SHETHIYA 154

Beyond its water-related functions, the building includes various features such as production units for agricultural products, storage facilities, sheds, and space for animal shelter. Additionally, it incorporates a water preservation unit to ensure a reliable and sustainable water supply for agricultural needs and livestock.

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Design Development

MULTI-OBJECTIVE OPTIMIZATION TYPOLOGY B

Type B, designed for flat terrain, incorporates various essential building elements such as snow fences, snow pits, and embankments. Given its specific location requirements, Type B serves multiple functions, including the need for storage and the production of raw materials. This comprehensive approach aims to stimulate the economy of the existing settlement and provide opportunities for the migrating population. To achieve these objectives, the design incorporates agro-based functions, as well as a water harvesting and preservation area.

Goal

To design a multi-funtional area with snow harvesting and preservation area.

Objectives

Development of morphology with base curvature and snow fence to accumulate snow.

Fitness criteria

Maximize snow pit Minimize surface area to volume ratio Minimum solar radiation Maximize wind hits

Phenotype

A curved surface along the curvature with arches for supports.

Genes

Fig.108 Primitive development and Fitness objectives

In the development of the primitive structure, a fundamental base curve serves as the foundation, defining multiple functions around its contour. A covering or shell structure is then constructed along this curve, with its dimensions adapting to accommodate various functions. To reinforce the structural integrity of this shell, a series of arches are introduced along the curvature, aiming to maximize the compressive strength of the shell structure.

Additionally, a snow fence is proposed to be positioned along the southern aspect of the building morphology, strategically placed to accumulate snow.

To optimize the morphology of this structure, a multi-objective algorithm is employed, considering the following criteria: Minimize the surface area-to-volume ratio: This objective is particularly relevant for the summer season, as it aims to minimize solar radiation exposure and enhance thermal insulation. Maximize the snow pit area: This objective focuses on maximizing the collection of snow within the pit area. Maximize wind exposure on the snow fence: To maximize snow accumulation, the snow fence is oriented to capture the maximum amount of snow by facing the prevailing wind direction, which is typically from the southwest. Minimize solar radiation on the surface: This objective is crucial as the snow pit is exposed to solar radiation, counteracting the fitness criteria of maximizing snow pit area.

Fig. 107 Multi-objective experiment for typology B

Base area of funtions Snow fence curvature distance No. of arches Rise of arches Width of arches Height of snow fence

Fig.109 Standard deviation graphs of experiments

| GAUTAMI BHOITE | SHRADDHA NEPAL | OXANA NAGUMANOVA | MEHUL SHETHIYA 156

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Fig.110 Phenotypes selection from Paretofront solutions

Design Development

In the context of Typology B, the primary objective is to optimize the allocation of space for the snow pit, ensuring its maximum capacity to accumulate snow during the winter months. This primary goal serves as the basis in selecting the most effective phenotypes, prioritizing those that excel in providing a substantial area for snow collection.

Moreover, it paves the way for innovative solutions to preserve this accumulated water resource throughout the scorching summer months. This multifaceted approach embodies a commitment to sustainable and efficient water management while bolstering the resilience of the community and its ecosystem.

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Design Development

WINTER SCENARIO Snow accumulation Fig.111 Type B seasonal scenarios

Snow pit

The versatility of ‘Type B’ design intervention is evident in its varying functions across different seasons. The open area designated as the snow pit serves a specific purpose during the winter months when snow accumulates, with the assistance of the snow fence and embankment. In winter, this area efficiently collects snow, which is then naturally channeled into the water tank due to the site’s natural slope.

However, as the spring and summer seasons arrive and the snow melts, the snow pit is left empty. During this time, it can be repurposed to serve various agricultural needs, such as segregation, auctioning, or hosting a farmers’ market. This adaptability ensures that the space remains productive and useful throughout the changing seasons.

Snow fence

WATER PRESERVATION STRATEGY

Fig.112 Type B sectional detail

During the spring season, as accumulated snow begins to melt, it naturally finds its way into the water tank within the typology. This stored water is then utilized to meet the irrigation requirements of farmlands, ensuring optimal crop growth. Additionally, a portion of this water resource is allocated to provide for the hydration and well-being of local cattle, supporting the agricultural and livestock needs of the community.

SPRING SCENARIO Accumulated snow melt collection in underground water tank

SPRING SCENARIO Accumulated snow melt collection in underground water tank

Adaptable snow pit Snow pit

Covered water tank Covered water tank

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| MSc. Dissertation | HydroSocial

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Design Development

CONCLUSION In conclusion, the development of Type A and Type B structures was rooted in the concept of utilizing the principles of snowfence and embankment to address the pressing issue of water preservation in the challenging terrain of Spiti Valley. It became evident that the region’s existing methods of water preservation were inadequate, exacerbated by scorching heat and direct solar radiation. Our approach sought to not only preserve water but also design thermally insulated building structures to meet the needs of both summer and winter seasons.

Type A structure embodies a self-sustaining design that functions differently during various seasons, offering a promising solution for long-term water preservation in the settlement. On the other hand, Type B structure integrates additional functions, fostering public activities and supporting agricultural development, further enhancing its impact on the community.

This holistic development of morphology, combined with the establishment of a water network system, stands as a beacon of hope for the people of Spiti Valley, offering protection and conservation for the future. To realize the full potential of this endeavor, further refinement and expansion of water distribution typologies within the valley are essential.

Fig. 113 Conceptual site model showing how the collection, preservation and distribution come together

| GAUTAMI BHOITE | SHRADDHA NEPAL | OXANA NAGUMANOVA | MEHUL SHETHIYA 162

Our vision extends beyond Spiti Valley, as we aspire to establish a circular network for water collection, preservation, and distribution that can be replicated in similar terrains and villages, contributing to the sustainable development and resilience of communities facing water scarcity challenges worldwide.

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| MSc. Dissertation | HydroSocial

| GAUTAMI BHOITE | SHRADDHA NEPAL | OXANA NAGUMANOVA | MEHUL SHETHIYA 164

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Design Development

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Rectangular cuboid block

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Defining the block geometry

Height changes of corner points

Design Development

Lowering the points creates friction in both directions

Fig.115 Friction forces along X and Y axes in a block interlocking system

BUILDING BLOCK​ FORM FINDING

The development of the block started with the utilization of a conventional Fig.114 Development of the block rectangular cuboid as the base form. An essential objective in the block’s design form was to develop an assembly system while minimizing or completely eliminating the necessity for mortar, which consumes a significant amount of water. The block’s formation began by adjusting the heights of its corners, which generated friction forces along both the X and Y axes, giving the block its inherent interlocking system.​ Furthermore, the block’s design was carefully considered to ensure that the internal thermal insulation layers could fit together, ensuring optimal thermal performance.

Additionally, masonry is carried out with the displacement of the next row by half a block, which also contributes to robust interlocking system.

These thoughtful design and construction strategies collectively contribute to the block’s efficiency and suitability for the construction of arched structures with different spans and curvatures.

| GAUTAMI BHOITE | SHRADDHA NEPAL | OXANA NAGUMANOVA | MEHUL SHETHIYA 166

Front view of masonry

Back view of masonry

Fig.116 Masonry with a developed block

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Fig.118 Block topologies for construction of a snow fence

BUILDING BLOCK​ TYPOLOGIES In the embankment construction, two primary block configurations were employed.

The first was a straight block, incorporating a previously developed interlocking system (Type 4). The second featured beveled ribs, strategically designed to facilitate the creation of arched structures (Type 2). The same interlocking system works for beveled blocks.

| GAUTAMI BHOITE | SHRADDHA NEPAL | OXANA NAGUMANOVA | MEHUL SHETHIYA 168

Fig.117 Block topologies for the construction of an embankment

the

Design Development

Notably, each of these block types was accompanied by two distinct variants.

One variant was developed with a focus on augmenting thermal insulation properties through the integration of functionally graded materials. The second variant retained its full structural integrity. Additionally, a half block was added to facilitate construction and form doorways and windows.

It is worth noting that these versatile blocks found application beyond embankment construction. They were also effectively utilized in the assembly of snow fences.

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Design Development

Fig.119 Maximum and minimum arch span

BUILDING BLOCK​ CURVATURE AND LIMITATIONS

In the context of our developed block and the chosen material composition, it was crucial to enable the construction of a variety of arched spans. By adjusting the inclined edges’ geometry of the block, it becomes feasible to create both steeper and more gradual arches.

Additionally, when employing the inclined masonry technique with the straight block, we could extend the potential span width. After conducting a thorough analysis of various span possibilities, we determined the maximum achievable span, which, stands at a ratio of 1:1.5.

Maximum span ratio of curvature 1:1,5

Medium span ratio of curvature 1:1,8

Minimum span ratio of curvature 1:2

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Design Development

CONSTRUCTION DETAILING

For further development of the project, we have studied in more detail the possibility of installing door and window frames. Half blocks with flat faces simplify the organization of door and window openings. Narrow window openings ensure the structural integrity of the shell, providing a uniform distribution of loads.

Additionally, for every three rows of blocks, the shell receives reinforcement through the insertion of metal rods into pre-made holes within the blocks.

Fig.120 Construction detailing

The water storage tank is thoroughly waterproofed and two pipes are connected. One pipe serves the purpose of collecting water from the pit, while the other is intended for connection to the existing water supply system.

| GAUTAMI BHOITE | SHRADDHA NEPAL | OXANA NAGUMANOVA | MEHUL SHETHIYA 172

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Production of a reusable mold for forming a block

GSPublisherVersion 0.86.100.100

Design Development

Assembling the mold for the block

GSPublisherVersion 0.86.100.100

GSPublisherVersion 0.86.100.100

Inserting tubes for quick drying of the block

Forming the block

Heating the block for drying

BUILDING BLOCK PRODUCTION METHODOLOGY​ The production process of the block commences with the creation of a reusable mold, precisely cut using CNC. This mold is designed in such a way that it can be easily disassembled, facilitating the effortless removal of the finished block. Once the mold is assembled, two pipes are inserted to create two voids within the block. These voids serve multiple purposes, including enhancing the drying process of the block and providing space for reinforcement if needed.

Fig.121 Production methodology​

The next step involves filling the prepared mixture into the mold, which is then compacted. Following this, the block is removed from the mold and subjected to a drying process in an oven at a temperature of 150 degrees Celsius for a duration of 4 hours. Alternatively, the drying phase can be substituted with natural sun-drying. The drying time in this case should be tested in the local climate.

Fig.122 Block production process | GAUTAMI BHOITE | SHRADDHA NEPAL | OXANA NAGUMANOVA | MEHUL SHETHIYA 174

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Design Development

Fig.124 Section of FGM block

CONCLUSION In conclusion, the development of a brick utilizing local agricultural waste materials has proven to be a promising innovation. This brick not only exhibits ease of assembly, embedded thermal insulation properties but also showcases a remarkable capacity for substantially reducing water consumption in its production process.

Fig.125 Comparison of the developed block with RCC

To put this into perspective, while traditional reinforced concrete construction typically requires 70 liters of water per cubic meter, our devised block demands 40 liters per cubic meter. These findings hold immense potential for addressing the pressing issue of water scarcity in construction activities within the targeted region. By offering a sustainable and resource-efficient alternative, our approach holds promise for both environmental conservation and the continued development of infrastructure in water-scarce areas.

Fig.123 Final Assembly of the blocks

| GAUTAMI BHOITE | SHRADDHA NEPAL | OXANA NAGUMANOVA | MEHUL SHETHIYA 176

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Design Development

Fig.126 Final assembly of the blocks

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| ARCHITECTURAL ASSOCIATION | EMTECH | 2022-2023 179

| MSc. Dissertation | HydroSocial

| | | | | | Discussion

DISCUSSION

The project acknowledges the pressing global issue of climate change and its gradual yet impactful alterations to ecological patterns. Climate change is an undeniable reality, and its effects have become increasingly evident over the years. It is indeed urgent to address these challenges, and the project’s recognition of this urgency is a step in the right direction.

One of the project’s notable strengths is its focus on developing a networked system designed to convert snow into water and distribute it to households. This concept holds great promise, particularly in regions where water scarcity is a growing concern. However, there are aspects of the project that could be further enhanced to maximize its effectiveness.

Firstly, the project could benefit from a more comprehensive depiction of the entire network’s functioning. While the individual systems have been thoughtfully designed, it is crucial to understand how these systems work in tandem within the network. A holistic view of the hydrological system’s operation would provide a more complete understanding and help ensure the seamless integration of various components.

Furthermore, the project’s quantification of current water supply requirements is a significant step. However, it may be prudent to consider the potential for future growth in demand. Anticipating and planning for increased water supply needs due to population growth or other factors is vital for the long-term sustainability of the system.

The introduction of a new building block as part of the project is a promising development.

Sustainable construction practices are essential for reducing the environmental impact of infrastructure projects. To further strengthen the project, providing detailed structural information about the building block and conducting a thorough assessment of its lifespan would be valuable. This information would ensure that the block meets the necessary structural requirements and can endure the test of time.

In terms of presentation, the project could enhance its clarity by providing a more detailed overview of how the entire network functions as a cohesive system. This would aid in communicating the project’s holistic approach to addressing water scarcity.

In conclusion, the project demonstrates a commitment to addressing critical environmental challenges, particularly in the mountainous regions susceptible to water scarcity. With some refinements in its approach and presentation, it has the potential to make a significant positive impact on the community and the environment. By considering future demand, providing structural details, and offering a comprehensive view of the network’s functioning, the project can further enhance its effectiveness and sustainability.

| GAUTAMI BHOITE | SHRADDHA NEPAL | OXANA NAGUMANOVA | MEHUL SHETHIYA 180

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Design Development

HYDROSOCIAL​ | GAUTAMI BHOITE | SHRADDHA NEPAL | OXANA NAGUMANOVA | MEHUL SHETHIYA 182

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Design Development

HYDROSOCIAL​ | GAUTAMI BHOITE | SHRADDHA NEPAL | OXANA NAGUMANOVA | MEHUL SHETHIYA 184

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Design Development

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BIBLIOGRAPHY Bajracharya, Samjwal & Maharjan, Sudan & Shrestha, Finu & Guo, Wanqin & Liu et al. “The glaciers of the Hindu Kush Hi malayas” International Journal of Water Resources Development, 31 (2015): 11-12.

Lee, E., Carrivick, J.L. et al. “Accelerated mass loss of Himalayan glaciers since the Little Ice Age” Sci Rep 11, 24284 (2021).

Biemans, H., Siderius, C., Lutz, A.F. et al. “Importance of snow and glacier meltwater for agriculture on the Indo-Gangetic Plain” Nat Sustain 2, 594–601 (2019).

Yashwant E., “Climate Change Altering Farming in Spiti” (2018). https://www.thethirdpole.net/en/climate-change-altering-farming-in-spiti/ Eriksson, Mats & Xu, Jianchu & Shrestha et al. “The Changing Himalayas: Impact of Climate Change on Water Resources” (2009).

Husain, Md & Kumar, Pankaj & Singh et al. “Snow Cover and Snowline Variation in Relation to Land Surface Temperature in Spiti Valley” International Journal of Ecology. 49. (2022).

Government of India, “Tehsils in Lahul & Spiti District, Himachal Pradesh - Census India”(2011). https://censusindia.gov.in/census.website/ Mishra, Amit, “Tabo Monastery (996 CE) A Vernacular Architecture of Lahaul and Spiti Region of Himachal Pradesh” Journal of Environmental Design and Planning, 22. 304. (2023).

“Spiti Valley: Recovering the Past and Exploring the Present”, Proceedings of the First International Conference on Spiti, Wolfson College, Oxford, (2016).

Dar J. & Dubey R., “Desertification of Trans-Himalayan Glacial Valleys-An Indicator of Climatic Fluctuation and Instability”(2015).

Sonawani, Sanjay, “Ancient Trade Routes Passing through Northern India to Connect with Central Asia” (2021).

Government of India, “Tehsils in Lahul & Spiti District, Himachal Pradesh - Census India”(2011). https://censusindia.gov.in/census.website/ “Lahul and Spiti District Population Census 2011 - 2021 - 2023, Himachal Pradesh Literacy Sex Ratio and Density” (2023).

Government of India, “Spiti Tehsil Population, Religion, Caste Lahul & Spiti District, Himachal Pradesh - Census India.”

Mukherjee, Sumit, “Changing Economy and Culture of Food in Spiti” (2020).

Chauhan, “Keen to Improve Basic Infra in Spiti to Facilitate Locals” (2022).

“Weather report for Kaja” https://www.meteoblue.com/en/weather/kaja_india Yashwant E., “Climate Change in Spiti.” (2019). https://www.thethirdpole.net/en/climate-change-spiti/

| GAUTAMI BHOITE | SHRADDHA NEPAL | OXANA NAGUMANOVA | MEHUL SHETHIYA 188

| | | | | | Introduction

Eriksson, Mats & Xu, Jianchu & Shrestha et al. “The Changing Himalayas: Impact of Climate Change on Water Resources” (2009).

Husain, Md & Kumar, Pankaj & Singh et al. “Snow Cover and Snowline Variation in Relation to Land Surface Temperature in Spiti Valley” International Journal of Ecology. 49. (2022).

Government of India, “Tehsils in Lahul & Spiti District, Himachal Pradesh - Census India”(2011). https://censusindia.gov.in/census.website/ Mishra, Amit, “Tabo Monastery (996 CE) A Vernacular Architecture of Lahaul and Spiti Region of Himachal Pradesh” Journal of Environmental Design and Planning, 22. 304. (2023).

“Spiti Valley: Recovering the Past and Exploring the Present”, Proceedings of the First International Conference on Spiti, Wolfson College, Oxford, (2016).

Dar J. & Dubey R., “Desertification of Trans-Himalayan Glacial Valleys-An Indicator of Climatic Fluctuation and Instability”(2015).

Sonawani, Sanjay, “Ancient Trade Routes Passing through Northern India to Connect with Central Asia” (2021).

Government of India, “Tehsils in Lahul & Spiti District, Himachal Pradesh - Census India”(2011). https://censusindia.gov.in/census.website/ “Lahul and Spiti District Population Census 2011 - 2021 - 2023, Himachal Pradesh Literacy Sex Ratio and Density” (2023).

Government of India, “Spiti Tehsil Population, Religion, Caste Lahul & Spiti District, Himachal Pradesh - Census India.”

Mukherjee, Sumit, “Changing Economy and Culture of Food in Spiti” (2020).

Chauhan, “Keen to Improve Basic Infra in Spiti to Facilitate Locals” (2022).

“Weather report for Kaja” https://www.meteoblue.com/en/weather/kaja_india Yashwant E., “Climate Change in Spiti.” (2019). https://www.thethirdpole.net/en/climate-change-spiti/ Dar J. & Dubey R., “Desertification of Trans-Himalayan Glacial Valleys-An Indicator of Climatic Fluctuation and Instability”(2015).

Department of Agriculture, Himachal Pradesh, “District Agriculture Plan: Lahaul-Spiti, H.P.” (2009).

Sharma H., Chauhan S., “Agricultural Transformation in Trans Himalayan Region of Himachal Pradesh: Cropping Pattern, Technology Adoption and Emerging Challenges”. Agricultural Economics Review. 26 Conference (2013): 173–179.

Indian Council of Agricultural Research, “Agriculture Contingency Plan for District: Lahaul & Spiti.” (2018).

Pollock J., “Concrete vs. Earth in the Spiti Valley” (2013).

Joshi, Phartiyal, and Joshi, “Hydro-Climatic Variability during Last Five Thousand Years and Its Impact on Human Colonization and Cultural Transition in Ladakh Sector, India.” (2021).

N. Engin, N. Vural, S. Vural, M.R. Sumerkan, “Climatic Influences on Vernacular Architecture” Building and Environment, 42 (2007).

Rashmi A. “Spiti: Responsible tourism in Spiti Valley, Himalayas”.

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| | | | | | Introduction

BIBLIOGRAPHY Rohan Jain, “A Brief History of Lahaul and Spiti Valley”, https://renokadventures.com/history-of-lahaul-and-spiti-valley/ Auer, C.E., “Measure for measure: Researching and documenting architecture in Spiti” 41, (2021): 181-201.

Sharma H., Chauhan S., “Agricultural Transformation in Trans Himalayan Region of Himachal Pradesh: Cropping Pattern, Technology Adoption and Emerging Challenges”. Agricultural Economics Review. 26 Conference (2013): 173–179.

Dar J. & Dubey R., “Desertification of Trans-Himalayan Glacial Valleys-An Indicator of Climatic Fluctuation and Instability”(2015).

Rashmi A. “Spiti: Responsible tourism in Spiti Valley, Himalayas”.

Sharma, Indu and Rani Dhanze. “Lahaul-Spiti (Himachal Pradesh), India.” (2013).

Government of India, “Population by State of Last Residence and Place of Enumeration (Migrations)”.

Dipender J., “Atal Tunnel Will Check Winter Migration.” (2015).

Dolker K., “Impact of Ice Stupa in Mitigating the Obstacles to Agriculture in Ladhakh” (2018).

Maher Salman, “Strengthening Agricultural Water Efficiency and Productivity” Irrigation and Drainage. 10.1002 (2021).

Spanner H., “Ice stupas: The artificial glaciers helping combat the effects of climate change” Scientific Focus (2022).

Jairell, R; Schmidt, R., “Snow Management and Windbreaks” University of Nebraska (1999).

Jairell, Robert L. and R. A. Schmidt “Constructing scaled models for snowdrift tests outdoors” Vancouver, BC (1987).

Sharma, Pawan & Srivastava, “Water Harvesting Systems : Traditional Systems” (2018).

“Stepwells of Ahmedabad: A Conversation on Water and Heritage | Aζ South Asia”

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| MSc. Dissertation | HydroSocial

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