RE-MYCE: Landslide-Responsive Design, Mountainous Region, Biocomposite Structural System (MArch)

RE-MYCE LANDSLIDE-RESPONSIVE DESIGN MOUNTAINOUS REGION

BIOCOMPOSITE STRUCTURAL SYSTEM

Chuheng Tan | Haipeng Zhong 2

ARCHITECTURAL ASSOCIATION SCHOOL OF ARCHITECTURE GRADUATE SCHOOL PROGRAMMES PROGRAMME EMERGENT TECHNOLOGIES AND DESIGN

YEAR 2022-2023

COURSE TITLE MArch. Dissertation

DISSERTATION TITLE Re-Myce

STUDENT NAMES Chuheng Tan (MArch) Haipeng Zhong (MArch)

DECLARATION “I certify that this piece of work is entirely my/our and that my quotation or paraphrase from the published or unpublished work of other is duly acknowledged.”

SIGNATURE OF THE STUDENT: Chuheng Tan

Haipeng Zhong

DATE 12 January 2024

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Chuheng Tan | Haipeng Zhong 4

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT We would like to thank all the people who, in one way or another, have contributed their knowledge and experience to this work.

The great support, assistance and critique havehelped us commit ourselves to the fulfilment of this project. Firstand foremost, we would like to express our gratitude to our coursedirectors, Michael Weinstock, for his kind supervision, support and valuable guidance throughout the pursuance of this work. Many thanks to Programe director Dr. Elif Erdine, Dr. Milad Shawkatbakhsh, course tutors Felipe Oeyen, Lorenzo Santelli, Fun Yuen and Paris Nikitids for their constant support and commitment throughout our EmTech course. Their experience and assistance has greatly helped us to further our knowledge, skill and understanding in the field of architecture.

We also thank our Msc team members Ran An and Shengyao Zhang for their contributions to the research.

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CONTENTS 01. INTRODUCTION

08

02. RESEARCH DOMAIN

10

2.1 Context: Malong district,Qujing city, Yunnan province

11

2.2 Vernacular building

26

2.3 Landslide problem and remediation measurement

35

2.4 Landslide damage to buildings

50

2.5 Rigid and flexible protection

54

2.6 Mycelium biocomposites

55

2.7 Local agriculture industry

60

2.8 Case study

61

03. METHOD

67

04. RESEARCH DEVELOPMENT

72

4.1 Landslide prediction

74

4.2 Context learning

76

05. DESIGN DEVELOPMENT

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80

5.1 Land use comprehensive arrangement

81

5.2 Urban infrastructure development

95

5.3 Structural system

107

06. DESIGN EXPANSION

128

07. LIMITATIONS AND CONCLUSION

136

08. BIBLIOGRAPHY

138

ABSTRACT This project is about landslide-responsive design in the mountainous region of Yunnan, China. It aims to mitigate the effects of landslides on slope constructions by studying and strategizing slope remediation and planning. The method focuses on exploring the resilience of structural systems based on mycelium biocomposites, assessing their potential to withstand landslide impacts.

The primary cause of landslides is the absorption of excessive moisture by the rocks and soil on slopes, which diminishes the soil's internal friction, thereby reducing slope stability and eventually triggering landslides. Buildings situated on mountainous slopes are particularly vulnerable to damage from debris flow erosion, resulting in significant loss of life and property. The current landslide resistance structure strategy can be summarized as rigid protection and flexible protection. Rigid protective structural materials rely on overall stiffness to resist dynamic forces; flexible protective structural materials are lightweight and cushioned, distributing forces through their deformability.

The project is anchored at Malong County, Yunnan Province, China, and begin with slope remediation and protection. The team has evaluated existing methods in slope engineering and drainage systems, integrating these with a thorough mudflow assessment approach.

The proposal includes altering the slope's geometry, incorporating retaining structures and stepped terraces to enhance slope stability. Additionally, we plan to implement a drainage system to remove excess moisture from landslides, thereby increasing soil internal friction.

The project also proposes a land use comprehensive rearrangement method, aiming to restructure urban infrastructure and amenities in a way that can either redirect or lessen the effects of landslides.

Moving to the building structural level, the team incorporates the use of Mycelium biocomposites and introduces sandwich panel modular system. It employs genetic algorithms and topology optimization to create a structural system that can effectively be resistant to landslides. This system can be further developed to encompass more complex customized material systems and structural optimization based on simulations of other extreme environmental conditions.

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01. INTRODUCTION This thesis investigates the profound effects of landslide on urban infrastructure and the environment in Malong District, Yunnan Province, a region threatened by unstable geological and climatic conditions. Situated at the region of the Himalayan volcanic earthquake belt and experiencing escalating geological disruptions due to climate change, Yunnan is increasingly vulnerable to frequent and devastating landslides. These events threaten not only the architectural stability of the region but also its socio-economic conditions.

The study commences with a thorough examination of landslide hazards, delving into their origins, classifications, and the potential widespread ramifications of these geological disturbances. It then explores the vernacular building elements of the region, particularly the courtyard layout and interlocking morphology, and how these traditional building structure and design elements can be adapted and integrated into modern landslide-responsive strategies. Then an important focus of the research is on developing innovative strategies for slope protection and remediation in response to landslide flow. This includes modifying slope geometries, implementing effective drainage systems, stepped terraces, and introducing innovative building materials and construction methods.

The specific strategies outlined in this research encompass a comprehensive approach, beginning with the optimization of land use arrangements. Then detailed urban infrastructure development and optimization are introduced that response this region's unique geological context. The use of local but novel materials such as Mycelium biocomposites is a key aspect of this approach. Throughout the process, advanced design tools including genetic algorithms, Geographic Information Systems (GIS), Finite Element Analysis (FEA), Houdini rigid body dynamics (RBD), and heightfield erosion simulations are employed. These tools not only aid in the design and optimization of the proposed solutions but also ensure their feasibility and effectiveness in mitigating the impacts of landslides.

In summary, this thesis presents a multifaceted and in-depth exploration of landslideresponsive design strategies, tailored specifically to the challenges of Yunnan. By integrating traditional architectural elements with innovative materials and modern engineering techniques, it aims to offer sustainable and effective solutions to mitigate the risks associated with landslides in this region.

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02. RESEARCH DOMAIN In the literature review, we explored Yunnan's unique attributes, from its climate and economy to its geophysical nuances. Using Geographic Information System(GIS), we assessed land-use in landslide-prone areas, prioritizing safety and sustainability.

Our analysis spotlighted structural strategies for landslide resilience, namely Rigid and Flexible Protection. Furthermore, we studied the potential of mycelium biocomposite as an ecofriendly cushion in construction, especially within sandwich panels. Together, this review harmoniously blends Yunnan's distinct features with modern architectural insights, charting a course for constructing buildings that withstand landslides while complementing Yunnan's environmental and urban landscape.

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2.0 Research domain

2.1.1 Yunnan

The research commences in Yunnan Province, China, known as the “South of the Clouds”. This province locates in the southwestern part of China, which topography is ranging from the world’s deepest valley to the highest peaks in the Himalayas (Xiwen and Walker 1986). Our specific site for investigation is situated in the Malong District, Qujing City, the northeastern part of Yunnan province (Figure 2.1.1).

Site: Malong District, Qujing City, Yunnan Province, China

Yunnan’s varied terrain, transitioning from the alpine mountains in the north to the subtropical rainforest in the south, creates a myriad of microclimates.

These unique microclimates and have a pronounced influence on the province’s abundant plant and animal life, the rich cultures of ethnic groups, and the varied agricultural practices in this region(Sun et al. 2021). Yunnan is home to more than seven ethnic minorities, each possessing its own distinct culture, language, and way of life. These diverse groups have crafted fascinating traditions, architectural styles, and agricultural practices that contribute to the rich tapestry of the region's cultural and physical landscape(Yang 2016).

Figure 2.1.1Site location and China Digital Elevation Model (DEM)

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2.1.2 The Climate in Yunnan

Figure 2.1.2 Yunnan climate

Figure 2.1.3 Temperature anomaly and precipitation changing

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2.1.2 The Climate in Yunnan

Figure 2.1.4 Bioclimatic stratification prediction Yunnan’s climate has a subtropical highland variety character, with average temperature ranging from 8°C to 22°C. The province experiences an annual average rainfall of about 1100 millimeters. The average annual length of rainy days ranges from 80 days to 180 days, concentrated primarily during the monsoon season(Shi and Chen 2018) (Figure 2.1.2).

Between 1961 and 2011, Yunnan observed a noticeable increase in temperature anomalies and annual precipitation.

These emerging unstable climatic trends intensify the province's environmental challenges, particularly the frequency and severity of droughts and flash floods (Shi and Chen 2018)(Figure 2.1.3). By 2050, some studies suggest a significant shift in Yunnan's bioclimatic stratification (Zomer et al. 2015). The mean elevation of these zones is expected to ascend by an average of 269 m. This shift would expand warmer zones, while colder, higher elevation zones would likely shrink.

The damage caused by these changes not only poses risks to the bioclimatic zones, vegetation types, and habitats currently present in the region, but also has the potential to significantly alter Yunnan's landscape, biodiversity, and overall livability. Additionally, it can lead to an increased occurrence of environmental disasters such as floods, landslides, and collapses. It is important to address and mitigate these risks to ensure the long-term sustainability and resilience of the region(Zomer et al. 2015) (Figure 2.1.4).

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2.1.3 Malong District Overview

Site location

Site: Malong District, Qujing City, Yunnan Province

Yunnan Digital Elevation Model (DEM)

Natural disaster types and distribution

Figure 2.1.5 Yunnan elevation and disasters

Figure 2.1.6 Malong district disaster evaluation (2000-2020)

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2.1.3 Malong District Overview

Malong district is affiliated to the eastern part of Yunnan Province, between Kunming and Qilin District of Qujing City. It borders Qilin District and Zhanyi County in the east and northeast, Luliang County and Yiliang County in the south, and Yuming and Xun in the west and northwest. This expansive district, spanning 1614 km2, is home to near 210,000 people (Figure.2.1.5). There were Yi, Bai, Hui, Yao and Buyi ethnic groups living in Malong district. Malong district is located at east longitude 103 ° 16 '- 103 ° 45', north latitude25 ° 08 '- 25 ° 37', and the average sea level is 2050 meters, and the annual average temperature is 13.6 °C. There are 5 districts and 5 towns in Malong Subdistrict of Qujing: Tongquan Subdistrict ( 通泉街道 ), Wangjiazhuang Subdistrict ( 王家庄街道 ), Jiuxian Subdistrict ( 旧县街道 ), Zhang'andun Subdistrict ( 张安屯街道 ), Jitoucun Subdistrict ( 鸡头村街道 ), Maguohe Town( 马过河镇 ), Maming Town( 马鸣乡 ), Yuewang Town( 月 望乡 ), Nazhang Town( 纳章镇 )and Dazhuang Town( 大庄乡 ). (‘Malong District Overview: Travel Information of Malong District, Weather, Climate, History, Administrative Division, Tourism, Landmarks, History & Culture – Yunnan Exploration: Yunnan Travel, Yunnan Trip, Yunnan Tours 2020/2021’ n.d..

Malong district belongs to the subtropical plateau monsoon type dry winter and summer wet climate zone. It has the characteristics of no cold in winter, no heat in summer, warm and dry in spring, and cool and humid in autumn.The annual average temperature is 14.7°C, the annual rainfall is 900-1000 mm, the frost-free period is 249 days, the annual sunshine hours are 2442.5 hours, and the annual solar radiation is 125.2 kcal/cm². (The Weather Channel China_https:// weather.com/en-GB/weather).

In terms of environmental challenges, Malong District contends with an array of severe weather conditions, such as rainstorms, hail, frost, ad disruptive floods. Landslides, however, stand out as the most frequent and disruptive occurrences, significantly affecting the daily lives and livelihoods of the local population. Over the past two decades, from 2000 to 2020, the district has identified 82 disaster-prone areas, including 76 susceptible to collapse and 6 prone to landslides. Additionally, there are 25 seismic intensity regions registering over 5 on the Richter scale. The disasters have resulted in significant damage to the built environment, with over 300 houses destroyed in milder events, and up to 500 in the most severe instances. (‘Malong District Overview: Travel Information of Malong District, Weather, Climate, History, Administrative Division, Tourism, Landmarks, History & Culture – Yunnan Exploration: Yunnan Travel, Yunnan Trip, Yunnan Tours 2020/2021’ n.d.)(Figure.2.1.6).

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2.1.4 Land Use Evaluation and Site Selection

Definition

Content

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2.1.4 Land Use Evaluation and Site Selection

In the pursuit of selecting a suitable site in Malong with both significant development potential and a higher risk of landslides, we've adopted a land use evaluation strategy. This strategy consists of two main parts.

1. Evaluation of Resource and Environmental Carrying Capacity: This assessment considers the maximum extent of human activities such as agricultural production and urban construction that can be supported by the local resources and environment. Factors such as the current developmental stage, economic and technological standards, and existing modes of production and lifestyle are taken into account.

2. Evaluation of Suitability for National Spatial Development: This assessment estimates the suitability of a specific geographic area for human activities like agricultural production and urban construction, always prioritizing the health of the ecosystem. It also considers location conditions and the status of resources and the environment.

The evaluation is based on regulations from the Chinese government. The aim is to analyze the conditions of regional resources and environmental endowment, to identify problems and risks associated with land space development and utilization, and to pinpoint crucial and ecologically sensitive spaces for ecosystem service functions. This process defines the maximum reasonable scale and suitable spaces for agricultural production and urban construction, providing a basis for improving the layout of the main functional areas, outlining the ecological protection red line, designating permanent basic farmland and urban development boundaries, optimizing the pattern of land space development and protection, and scientifically preparing for land spatial planning(Tinghai Wu et al. 2019).

Our comprehensive evaluation encompasses four primary areas: 1.

Land resource evaluation for agricultural production 2.

Land resource evaluation for building construction 3.

Climate evaluation for urban construction 4.

Disaster statistics to gauge vulnerability to landslides This strategy assures that our decisions regarding land development in Malong are both informed and sustainable.

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2.1.4 Land Use Evaluation and Site Selection

(1)Land resources evaluation for agricultural production

step 1: Land use distribution

+

step 2: Agricultural land

+

step 3: slope grading

Figure 2.1.8 Land resources evaluation for agricultural production Chuheng Tan | Haipeng Zhong 18

=

2.0 Research domain

2.1.4 Land Use Evaluation and Site Selection

(1) Evaluation Method: The condition for agricultural cultivation [Agricultural Cultivation Condition] is a function of [Slope] and [Soil Texture] ([Agricultural Cultivation Condition] = f ([Slope], [Soil Texture])).

This refers to the degree of suitability of land resources for agricultural production, which requires satisfying certain conditions such as slope and soil texture. Areas covered by rivers, lakes, and reservoirs are excluded during this evaluation.

(2) Evaluation Steps: Step 1: Spatial Data Standardization: Using the National Geodetic Coordinate System of 2000 (CGCS2000) as a basis, all kinds of spatial data projection coordinate systems are unified, forming a seamless connection and consistent boundary of regional spatial data series. Available agricultural land from the land use planning is extracted.

Step 2: Slope Element Analysis: Utilizing Digital Elevation Model (DEM), the terrain slope is calculated and divided into five levels according to ≤2°, 26°, 615°, 15~25°, >25°. These are respectively labeled as flatland, flat slope, gentle slope, moderately steep slope, and steep slope, generating a slope classification map.

Step 3: Land Resource Evaluation and Classification: Based on the slope classification results and combined with soil texture, The results of the evaluation of the suitability of agricultural production are categorized into five levels: suitable, more suitable, generally suitable, less suitable and unsuitable. The evaluation should take into account the current situation of agricultural development, and for areas where food security is very important, the degree of agricultural space suitability can be given some flexibility. Areas where the soil's silt content is ≥80%, the agricultural land resources are taken directly at the lowest level; areas where the silt content is between 60% and <80%, the slope classification is lowered by one level to be used as the agricultural land resource level (Figure 2.1.8).

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2.1.4 Land Use Evaluation and Site Selection

(2)Land resources evaluation for building construction

step 1: Land use distribution

+ =

step 2: Slope grading

Figure 2.1.9 Land resources evaluation for building construction Chuheng Tan | Haipeng Zhong 20

2.0 Research domain

2.1.4 Land Use Evaluation and Site Selection

(1) Evaluation Method: The condition for urban construction [Urban Construction Condition] is a function of [Slope], [Elevation], and [Terrain Roughness] ([Urban Construction Condition] = f ([Slope], [Elevation], [Terrain Roughness])). This refers to the degree of suitability of land resources for urban construction, which requires satisfying certain conditions such as slope and elevation. For regions with severe terrain undulations (such as the southwest region), the terrain roughness index should also be considered.

(2) Evaluation Steps: Step 1: Spatial Data Standardization: Using the National Geodetic Coordinate System of 2000 (CGCS2000) as a basis, all kinds of spatial data projection coordinate systems are unified, forming a seamless connection and consistent boundary of regional spatial data series. Available land for construction from the land use planning is extracted.

Step 2: Slope Element Analysis: Utilizing Digital Elevation Model (DEM), the terrain slope is calculated and generally classified according to ≤3°, 3~8°, 8~15°, 15~25°, >25°, generating a slope classification map.

Step 3: Land Resource Evaluation and Classification: Based on the slope classification results and combined with elevation, the conditions for urban construction are divided into five levels: Very High, High, Medium, Low, Very low. For areas where the elevation is ≥5000m, the urban land resource level is taken directly at the lowest level; for areas where the elevation is between 3500~5000m, the slope classification is lowered by one level to be used as the urban land resource level.

Step 4: Evaluation Result Adjustment for Complex Terrain Regions: In regions with severe terrain undulations, the terrain roughness index is further used to correct the urban land resource level. The terrain roughness is calculated using the DEM neighbourhood analysis function, with a neighbourhood range usually around 20 hectares (e.g., for a 50m×50m grid, a 9×9 neighbourhood is recommended; for a 30m×30m grid, a 15×15 neighbourhood is recommended). For areas with terrain roughness >200m, the evaluation result is lowered by two levels as the urban land resource level; for terrain roughness between 100~200m, the evaluation result is lowered by one level as the urban land resource level.

Adjustments can be made based on the terrain characteristics of each region (Figure 2.1.9).

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2.1.4 Land Use Evaluation and Site Selection

(3)Climate evaluation for urban construction

step 1: Land use distribution

+ = step 2: River level

+

step 3: temperature and precipitation

Figure 2.1.10 Climate evaluation for urban construction Chuheng Tan | Haipeng Zhong 22

2.0 Research domain

2.1.4 Land Use Evaluation and Site Selection

It reflects the relative ability of the atmospheric environment to accommodate major pollutants through the atmospheric environmental capacity index under the conditions of being able to maintain ecological balance and not exceeding the threshold value required by human health; Besides, it is the relative ability of the water environment to accommodate major pollutants under the conditions of being able to maintain ecological balance and not exceeding the threshold value required by human health

1) Evaluation Method: The [Urban Construction Environmental Condition] is a function of [Atmospheric Environmental Capacity] and [Water Environmental Capacity] ([Urban Construction Environmental Condition] = f ([Atmospheric Environmental Capacity], [Water Environmental Capacity])). [Atmospheric Environmental Capacity] is reflected by an index that represents the relative ability of the atmospheric environment to accommodate main pollutants under conditions that maintain ecological balance and do not exceed human health thresholds. [Water Environmental Capacity] refers to the relative ability of the water environment to accommodate major pollutants under conditions that maintain ecological balance and do not exceed human health thresholds.

(2) Evaluation Steps: Step 1: Calculation of atmospheric and water environmental capacity: The basic evaluation units are delineated by administrative units or watershed partitions. The atmospheric and water environmental capacity is calculated using the above method. Taking full advantage of related environmental capacity research experiences and according to the distribution characteristics of the data, the indicators of atmospheric and water environmental capacity are divided into high, higher, average, lower, low levels Sbased on the intensity per unit area. The levels for atmospheric and water environmental capacity are determined based on the lower level of the evaluation results of each index. Finally, the atmospheric and water environmental capacity classification map is generated through spatial overlay of level distribution maps.

Step 2: Division of urban construction environmental condition levels: The relatively lower results among the two evaluation indicators of atmospheric environmental capacity and water environmental capacity are taken as the evaluation unit to divide the urban construction environmental condition levels. Accordingly, the urban construction environmental condition is divided from suitable to not suitable (Figure 2.1.10).

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2.1.4 Land Use Evaluation and Site Selection

(4)Disaster Statistics to gauge vulnerability to Landslides

(1) Evaluation Method: Seismic intensity [Disaster Risk] = Max([Earthquake Risk], [Geological Disaster Susceptibility]) (2) Evaluation Steps: Step 1: Evaluation of earthquake risk: The highest level between active fault distance and peak ground acceleration is taken as the earthquake risk level. Areas with a statistical earthquake level greater than 5 are extracted.

Other disasters

Step 2: Geological disaster susceptibility: The high incidence areas of landslides and debris flows are statistically determined using main indicators such as slope, ruggedness, geomorphic type, engineering geological rock group, slope structural type, and historical development degree of geological disasters.

Step 3: Calculate the number of damaged houses, roads, and underground facilities (Figure.2.11).

Destroyed houses count

Figure 2.1.11 Malong district disaster evaluation (2000-2020) Chuheng Tan | Haipeng Zhong 24

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2.1.4 Land Use Evaluation and Site Selection

(5)Final comprehensive evaluation for site selection

Site selection

Figure 2.1.12 Comprehensive evaluation for site selection (1) Evaluation method: Step 1: Standardization of spatial data. Taking the 2000 national geodetic coordinate system (CGCS2000) as the basis, standardizing the projection coordinate system of various types of spatial data, forming a spatial data series of potentials and constraints that are seamlessly connected to the region and have consistent boundaries.

Step 2: The evaluation process begins with the removal of useless, invalid, or missing data. Afterwards, a weighted average calculation is performed on the GIS data with a weight distribution of 3:3:3:1. This is done to account for the various different criteria in the site selection process, ensuring that the evaluation is holistic and comprehensive [Comprehensive evaluation grade] = f (30% [LA]+30%[LB]+30%[CB]+10%[D]) LA = Land resource evaluation for agricultural production LB = Land resources evaluation for building construction CB = Climate evaluation for urban construction D = Disaster Statistics to gauge vulnerability to Landslides Guidance for this project: 1. The final evaluation results can support the delineation of the red line for ecological protection, permanent basic farmland and urban development boundary. The ecosystem service function is extremely important and ecologically sensitive areas are used as the spatial basis for the delineation of the ecological protection red line. Areas suitable for agricultural production and more suitable areas are used as preferred areas for permanent basic farmland; areas within areas suitable for agricultural production and unsuitable areas should be prioritized for returning farmland to forests and grassland.

Cultivated land in the less suitable and unsuitable zones for agricultural production should be prioritized in the delineation of urban development boundaries.

2. The final evaluation results can support the determination and decomposition of planning target indicators. The target indexes of arable land retention, scale of construction land and development intensity shall not exceed the maximum scale that can carry agricultural production and urban construction.

The comprehensive evaluation map is divided into five levels: Unsuitable, less suitable, generally suitable, suitable, and more suitable. Based on this evaluation, the site that exhibits both significant development potential and a higher risk of landslides is selected for further planning, as shown in Figure 2.1.12.

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2.2.1 Rural and Colony Life

Figure 2.2.1 Malong district overview

Yunnan, locates on the southwestern border of China, has a long history of settlement and migration development. This rich history stems from its diverse natural environment, intricate ethnic composition, unique social development, and multi-faceted cultural characteristics. As a result of its socio-economic development being somewhat underdeveloped, and significant regional development differences, Yunnan primarily remains a province underpinned by a traditional subsistence agricultural economy. The cities and towns in Yunnan have never fully escaped from the primitive state of the village to the modern city. Most of its towns are rural in nature, maintaining strong economic, social, and cultural ties with the countryside. Rural architecture in Yunnan encompasses two main categories: residential and non-residential buildings. Residential buildings primarily serve the daily needs of the residents, with their spatial structure and division influenced by people's living behaviours. Non-residential buildings, particularly religious structures, cater to the spiritual and lifestyle requirements of the community. These buildings follow spatial designs dictated by religious practices.

However, both types of buildings ultimately revolve around fulfilling the needs of daily life. It is common to find religious activities within residential buildings, while daily life activities can be observed within religious buildings (Gao 2008).

In Yunnan's Malong district, the towns predominantly exhibit the natural form of a village. As Lewis Mumford once stated, "The stable form of the village is a loose association woven together by numerous small population groups." The formation of the village as a cohesive entity is a result of spatial differentiation and aggregation. This differentiation of space is intricately linked to human behaviour and activities(Figure 2.2.1).

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2.2.1 Rural and Colony Life

Figure 2.2.2 Community behaviors space distribution

The spatial organization of the village reflects the cultural significance attributed to it by the people who inhabit it.

Various elements such as people, crops, livestock, grass, trees, and spiritual beliefs are intricately connected to the specific spaces within the village.

The selected site from GIS final comprehensive evaluation is a landslide-affected village in the suburbs of Malong District, 5 kilometers away from the city centre. The population is near 5000 residents (Figure.2.2.1). The settlement space becomes a backdrop for social, economic, religious, and recreational activities. Each aspect of village life occupies a distinct space, which can be broadly categorized as follows: 1. Mountain and forest space: Hilltops hold significance as sacred places for rituals and religious practices.

2. Countryside space: Hill slopes are dedicated to farming activities, serving as the living space for both farmland and livestock.

3. Settlement space: Located at the foot of the hills, this space encompasses the areas where people reside and engage in social interactions.

These spaces, shaped by the behaviours and practices of the local inhabitants, form the essence of village life in the Malong district (Figure 2.2.2).

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2.2.1 Rural and Colony Life

Figure 2.2.3 Community life and agricultural distribution

Situated in a remote location, the site presents significant transportation hurdles. Narrow, winding paths and limited infrastructure make accessing the region both time-consuming and treacherous. This isolation, however, hasn't deterred the local inhabitants. Vast stretches of land are dedicated to agriculture, where a diverse range of crops flourish, painting a vibrant tapestry across the terrain. Yet, this agricultural bounty comes with its perils. The juxtaposition of farmlands against the mountains creates vulnerable zones. It's in these transitional areas that landslides are most frequent, posing a constant threat to both the livelihoods and the safety of the local community (Figure 2.2.3).

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2.2.1 Rural and Colony Life

Figure 2.2.4 Yunnan terrace

Yunnan’s stepped terraces demonstrate a delicate balance between agricultural innovation and environmental stewardship. These terraces reflect a deep understanding of the natural contours of the land, facilitating paddy cultivation in the mountainous regions by optimizing water usage and conserving soil. The terraces have been ingeniously designed to hold water at various levels, which is essential for rice farming, and their structure helps mitigate soil erosion on sloped land.

In the context of vernacular living, the terraces are more than just an agricultural asset; they are integral to the community's culture and daily life. Houses are often built within these terraced landscapes, utilizing the same principles of harmony with nature that guide their farming practices. The terraces provide flat land which is scarce in mountainous regions, allowing for the establishment of homes and community spaces. This close-knit arrangement fosters strong communal bonds and facilitates the shared responsibilities of agricultural activities.

The benefits of the stepped terraces in soil control are manifold. By reducing the velocity of water runoff, they prevent soil from being washed away during heavy rains, maintaining soil fertility. The terraces also help in groundwater recharge and reduce the impact of seasonal fluctuations in water availability. Through these sustainable practices, the people of Yunnan have not only shaped their land but also ensured that their way of life can continue for generations to come.

Their living scene is a harmonious blend of culture, agriculture, and sustainability, with the stepped terraces at its heart.

(Wang et al. 2023)

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2.2.2 Vernacular Dwelling

Figure 2.2.5 Vernacular dwelling

The main traditional residential dwellings in Malong are “courtyard residence”, which exhibit variations in size. Regardless of their size, these dwellings are characterized by orderly combinations. The "courtyard" is composed of "rooms" and "courtyards," and multiple "courtyard groups" form the overall dwelling. The houses may be connected or separated by corridors, and each house features a solid outer eave decoration. The houses are situated around a spacious central open courtyard, with doors and windows facing the inner courtyard and thick walls on the exterior. The function of the rooms can be divided into 3 types as “service room”(kitchen, bathroom, living room, storage), “side room”(the rooms for children, sisters, and servants), and “master room”(the rooms for master and mistress (Figure 2.2.5).

The overall layout demonstrates central symmetry, with the courtyard positioned in the middle. The roof structure of these dwellings follows the raised-beam style. This architectural design allows for cool natural breezes and ample outdoor space during the summer while providing increased sunlight exposure and protection from cold winds in the winter. There are four main types of architecture found in the area: "Yikeyin" ( 一颗印 ), "Three workshops a screen wall" ( 三坊一照壁 ), "stilt building"( 干栏式建筑 ) and "Well-frame building" ( 井干式建筑 ).Each type has its own variations that have evolved to suit different environmental conditions(Gaochen Jiang 2001) (Figure 2.2.5).

The ‘Yikeyin' is considered to be one of the simplest, most basic and most functional of the traditional Yunnan houses.

It is a simple house with a square and symmetrical shape. The entrance gate is set in the centre of the main façade, and the main house and the rooms are dominated by a hard hill roof with a long and short slope, with the long slope facing inwards and the short slope facing outwards. The overall architectural form of the house is very closed, centripetal and secure.

The “Three workshops a screen wall” is courtyard house, also known as the 'palace', 'patio' or 'courtyard' style, which is characterized by the fact that it is an enclosed, domestic or family home. The following characteristics are common

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2.2.2 Vernacular Dwelling

Figure 2.2.6 Vernacular building layout features to the courtyard style dwellings: 1. the spatial layout of the courtyard 2. The traditional architectural concepts 3. The localization of wood construction techniques.

Stilt buildings are mainly small, simple buildings with wooden beams and pillars, but in some areas bamboo and wood are used instead of wood. The upper floor of a dry-pen dwelling is occupied by people, while the lower floor is a livestock pen or a miscellaneous room. This is one of the most distinctive features of dry-pen dwellings, where the ground floor is left empty for other uses and no one lives in it.

Well-frame buildings have a more primitive, rugged and simple method of construction than the dry-rail cabin, and has many similarities to the North American log cabin. The logs are roughly finished and joined into a rectangular frame, which is then rebuilt layer by layer into a wall, on top of which the roof is made.

The structure of some of the Stilt buildings and well-frame buildings can be called "Diaojiaolou" ( 吊 脚 楼 ). Deriving its name from the Chinese words “diaojiao” (meaning “hanging feet” and “lou” denoting “building”, the term "diaojiaolou" aptly translates to “hanging feet building”. This nomenclature alludes to its unique architectural design.

Diaojiaolou manifest as rectangular or square wooden structures characterized by their ganlan-style, signifying buildings elevated on wooden pillars or stilts. Typically rising to two or three stories, they feature prominent upper floors supported by robust wooden columns. At first glance, these stilts lend a seemingly precarious aspect to the structure.

However, their foundational integrity is fortified with stone blocks, ensuring that even if a pillar is compromised or a

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2.2.2 Vernacular Dwelling

Figure 2.2.7 Living scene of "Diaojiaolou" in Yunnan block is displaced, the overall edifice remains unaffected. Their construction showcases the brilliance of traditional carpentry, often devoid of nails or rivets. Instead, the building's stability and form are dictated by meticulously crafted groove joints that seamlessly interlock beams and columns.

The ground level, predominantly composed of the foundational columns, usually lacks walled enclosures. This space primarily serves functional purposes like housing livestock or storing essentials like firewood and agricultural tools. Also the elevated bottom can be for ventilation and mitigating the impact of water flow. The upper floors, in contrast, cater to habitation. On occasion, the topmost layer may be repurposed as an additional storage area. These residential levels come equipped with balconies or verandas, serving as convenient spots for drying clothes or enjoying the outdoors.

Affluent families occasionally invest in diaojiaolou variants equipped with attics or added extensions, providing additional room (Figure 2.2.7).

In synthesizing a solution for landslide protection, it is crucial to consider and adapt these traditional methodologies and styles, marrying them with innovative, sustainable materials and designs. This not only safeguards heritage but ensures the resilience and longevity of structures in this landslide-prone region.

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2.2.2 Vernacular Dwelling

Figure 2.2.8 Vernacular building material and shearing layer

The concept of “shearing layers”, introduced by architect Frank Duffy, recognizes that a building consists of multiple layers with different performances. In the context of traditional dwellings, we apply the concept of shearing layers to classify the material structure of these buildings. In this region, vernacular building materials encompass a range from timber to stone. The primary building materials include wood, tile, rammed earth, adobe wall, stone, brick, grass, sand, and bamboo. Each material forms a distinct "shear layer" with its own lifespan. For instance, grass used for interior purposes and other interior components have a lifespan of no more than 3 years before replacement. Bamboo, serving as space dividers and providing auxiliary and farming services, has a lifespan of 7-20 years. Load-bearing structures and exterior walls made of wood, stone, brick, and tile have a lifespan of over 20-30 years. But frequent natural disasters such as landslides, floods, pests, erosion, and earthquakes often result in varying degrees of damage to these building materials. It is essential to consider the resilience and durability of the shear layers when designing and constructing traditional dwellings in order to mitigate the impact of these disasters and ensure the longevity of the structures (Figure.2.2.8).

The foundation layer plays a critical role in anchoring the building to the ground, ensuring a stable base upon which the superstructure rests. Built using robust materials, this layer provides the primary resistance against any ground movement, such as that from landslides or seismic activity. The columns, often constructed from sturdy timber, rise from this foundation layer, serving as primary vertical supports and transferring loads from the floors above to the ground.

The middle layer, with its square plan brackets complexes, showcases the ingenuity of traditional architectural techniques. These brackets, typically crafted with intricate joinery details, are more than just functional elements;

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2.2.2 Vernacular Dwelling

Figure 2.2.9 Vernacular building timber structure form they often feature decorative motifs, reflecting the region's cultural and artistic sensibilities. The large cross-sectional dimensions of the beams ensure strength and stability. These beams span across columns, forming a rigid frame that both supports the upper layer and partitions the internal spaces. The lattice arrangement also allows for flexibility, enabling the structure to absorb and dissipate energy, thus enhancing its resistance to dynamic loads, a feature that is invaluable in regions prone to landslides.

The upper layer's sloping roof trusses are masterfully designed to provide protection and ventilation. The converging design ensures effective water runoff during heavy rainfall, preventing waterlogging and damage to the structure.

Additionally, the slope facilitates natural ventilation, keeping the interiors cool in the summer months. The trusses, usually constructed from lightweight yet durable timber, support a covering of local materials, ranging from clay tiles to thatch, depending on the specific architectural style and availability of materials.

However, despite the architectural wisdom evident in these vernacular buildings, they remain susceptible to the damaging forces of landslides. The very nature of landslides – a rapid downward movement of large masses of earth – means that even the most robust traditional structures can be overwhelmed by their sheer force. Therefore, while acknowledging the merits of traditional design, there is a pressing need to consider modern interventions. Local materials, although sustainable and culturally significant, may need to be supplemented or replaced by more resilient alternatives. Moreover, incorporating contemporary construction methods that enhance the foundation's depth or improve the structure's lateral resistance can offer increased protection against the destabilizing effects of landslides.

Combining traditional knowledge with modern engineering solutions may be the key to ensuring both the preservation of cultural heritage and the safety of inhabitants in this landslide-prone region (Figure 2.2.9).

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2.3.1 Landslide Classification

Level of danger Velocity Frequency

Rockfall Falls are sudden downward movements of rock or earth, detached from steep slopes or cliffs. They occur globally on steep slopes, including coastal areas and rocky river banks.

They can be extremely rapid and life-threatening.

Level of danger Velocity Frequency

Topple Forward rotation of soil or rock mass from a slope, common in volcanic areas and steep river banks. Speed varies from slow to rapid.

Level of danger Velocity Frequency

Rotational Landslide Spoon-shaped landslide, curved upward rupture surface with rotational slide movement along a contour-aligned axis. Occurs on slopes of 20-40 degrees. Speed ranges from very slow (less than 0.3 meters or 1 foot every 5 years) to moderately fast (1.5 meters or 5 feet per month) to rapid.

Level of danger Velocity Frequency

Translational Landslide Translational landslides move outward on a flat surface without rotation. They can cover long distances on inclined surfaces, occurring along geologic discontinuities with loose soil or rocks. They are widespread and vary in velocity from moderate (5 feet or 1.5 meters per day) to extremely rapid.

Level of danger Velocity Frequency

Lateral Spreads Lateral spreads occur on gentle slopes or flat terrain, typically when a stronger upper layer extends and shifts over a weaker layer below. known to occur where there are liquefiable soils. May be slow to moderate and sometimes rapid after certain triggering mechanisms, such as an earthquake.

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2.3.1 Landslide Classification

Level of danger Velocity Frequency

Debris Flows A form of rapid mass movement in which loose soil, rock and sometimes organic matter combine with water to form a slurry that flows downslope. Debris flows occur around the world and are prevalent in steep gullies and canyons. Can be rapid to extremely rapid (35 miles per hour or 56 km per hour).

Level of danger Velocity Frequency

Lahars (Volcanic Debris Flows) Lahars are also known as volcanic mudflows. Found in nearly all volcanic areas of the world. Lahars can be very rapid (more than 35 miles per hour or 50 kilometers per hour)

Level of danger Velocity Frequency

Debris Avalanche Debris avalanches are essentially large, extremely rapid, often open-slope flows formed when an unstable slope collapses and the resulting fragmented debris is rapidly transported away from the slope. Occur worldwide in steep terrain environments. Rapid to extremely rapid; such debris avalanches can travel close to 100 meters/sec.

Level of danger Velocity Frequency

Earthflow The mass in an earthflow moves as a plastic or viscous flow with strong internal deformation. Earthflows occur worldwide in regions underlain by fine-grained soil or very weathered bedrock. Velocity of travel is slow to very rapid.

Level of danger Velocity Frequency

Slow Earthflow (Creep) Creep is a slow earthflow characterized by the gradual, barely noticeable downward movement of soil or rock on slopes. It is a widespread and commonly observed type of landslide, often preceding faster and more destructive landslides. Typically, the movement is less than 1 meter (0.3 foot) per decade.

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2.3.2 Landslide in Yunnan

Figure 2.3.1 Landslide types in Yunnan

Yunnan landslides occur frequently due to the unique topography and climate. There are twofold reasons behind the landslides in Yunnan: natural causes and human activities(‘Landslide Classification’ 2023; ‘Landslides and Mudslides|CDC’ 2020; He et al. 2015).

Natural causes of landslide include: 1.

Yunnan's rugged mountainous geography Unstable weather patterns, alternating between heavy rainfall and snowfall 2.

3.

Saturation by rain water infiltration, snow melting, or glaciers melting 4.

Ground shaking caused by earthquakes, which can destabilize the slope directly Landslides are aggravated by human acivities: 1.

Unrestricted deforestation, cultivation forestry activities (logging), and construction for urbanization which change the amount of water infiltrating the soil.

Blasting and mining 2.

3.

Temporal variation in land use and land cover. Land degradation and extreme rainfall can increase the frequency of erosion and landslide phenomena

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2.3.3 Landslide On Slope (Site Investigation)

To study landslides in Yunnan Province, GIS technology is utilized to generate maps depicting the distribution of earthquakes and landslides in the region. The seismic intensity map displays red dots indicating areas where earthquakes with an intensity greater than 5 have occurred. The landslide map shows purple squares representing landslides and yellow diamonds representing areas of collapse. It is evident that landslides often coincide with regions experiencing seismic intensities greater than 5, and this relationship is particularly observed in mountainous areas and valleys. This correlation suggests that earthquakes can trigger surface instability and soil erosion, significantly increasing the risk of landslides. Therefore, it is crucial to prioritize these areas when assessing earthquake hazards and implementing effective mitigation measures to reduce potential impacts (Figure 2.3.1).

In Qujing City, nearly 100 hectares of forest land was cleared in 2020, leading to significant soil instability. Coal mining, another prevalent activity, further destabilizes the ground structure. Additionally, unrestricted land reclamation exacerbates landscape instability by transforming forest lands into residential or agricultural areas without implementing appropriate safety measure. Socio-economically, landslides disrupt agricultural productivity and cause property damage, affecting livelihoods. For instance, landslides during the last two decades resulted in agricultural losses and property damage impacting over 8,000 people in Malong (Wieczorek, Wu, and Li 1987; Zhu et al. 2018).

While the Yunnan government currently has many advanced top-down risk assessment and prediction models for landslides, including emergency response, temporary settlement, and post-disaster reconstruction, these methods often include engineering treatment technology for mine landslides, ecological restoration, monitoring and forecasting, relocation, and public management. However, bottom-up, resident-initiated self-recovery strategy are still limited and relatively underdeveloped (Li et al. 2011; Shao, Ma, and Xu 2022; Gao 2016).

These limitations stem from two primary issues: material and technological restrictions, and conceptual limitations.

When a landslide disaster occurs, local residents often either hope for government relief and reconstruction or resort to traditional materials like wood and brick for minor repair. The lack of alternative and sustainable materials and a broader awareness of how to handle such events limits the ability of residents to respond adequately. Hence, local-sourced materials like mycelium composites that are more sustainable, easily accessible, and have potential in post-landslides restoration. This introduction should be accompanied by an effort to shift residents' traditional perceptions towards embracing innovative and eco-friendly solutions for disaster management and reconstruction.

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2.3.3 Landslide On Slope (Site Investigation)

(1) Single slope safety factors Landslides can cause incalculable damage to a site, so before developing a slope, first a site investigation is needed, then the overall engineering design of the slope, and finally to construction.

During site investigation, slope stability needs to be analyzed. Methods for analyzing slope stability include simple equations, graphs, charts, spreadsheet software and slope stability computer programs, the simplest of which can be analyzed by using a simple algebraic equation to calculate a factor of safety (F). For example, for vertical slopes in cohesive soils (c), a simple expression for the factor of safety can be represented by Formula 1 Formula 1 The average shear stress (𝜏) on a slope is crucial for stability and can be calculated using equations (Formula 2) or (Formula 3).

Formula 2

Formula 3

The weight (W) of the soil, affecting shear stress, is found using the formula (Formula 4) Formula 4 The factor of safety (F) for cohesive soils can also be extended to the equation (Formula 5), where 𝛾 is the unit weight of the soil, which is supposed to be a known value. It can be concluded that the greater the angle of the slope, the less stable it will be for a constant 𝜏, W, and 𝛾.

Formula 5

The above formulas are derived from 'Soil Strength and Slope Stability' (Duncan, Wright, and Brandon, n.d.).

(2)Multi slopes risky level Since the stability formula corresponds to a single slope, and the actual slope is a part of the terrain which consists of countless slopes, it is very difficult to analyze the stability of the whole terrain. In order to have a better understanding of the safety performance of different slopes, the Institution of Engineers Malaysia (IEM) prepared a paper entitled "Mitigating the Risk of Landslide on HillSite Development" (IEM, 2000), in which they recommended that slopes in hill-site development be classified into three levels: low, medium and higher risk. The table below summarizes the classification information.

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2.3.3 Landslide On Slope (Site Investigation)

The report also describes the conditions for development in different risk areas, for example, in high-risk areas, in addition to the submission of a geotechnical report prepared by a "geotechnical engineer", the development team should also engage an "accredited inspector" for development. In medium-risk areas, a geotechnical report prepared by a "geotechnical engineer" must be submitted to the authorities. In low-risk areas, it is enough to comply with the existing legislative procedures.

Although this is a local strategy for dealing with slopes in Malaysia, it can be applied to different designs. When dealing with complex terrain, it is possible to roughly distinguish different risk zones according to different slope heights and angles, and then design for different risk zones.

(3) Landuse comprehensive arragement Due to the complexity of the terrain, the slope safety coefficient and the impacts of different risk areas should not be considered only. Different natural disasters, such as floods, droughts and earthquakes, can also directly or indirectly trigger landslides, so it is necessary to introduce the evaluation of the complexity of the terrain (integrated terrain evaluation) in order to recognize the frequency and intensity of disasters on the site and analyze the natural conditions such as hydro-meteorological, soil and vegetation conditions, as well as the amount of precipitation, We analyze natural conditions such as hydrometeorology, soil and vegetation, as well as precipitation, temperature, wind speed, and other conditions that trigger disasters, assign weights to each indicator, and evaluate the risk of a single disaster type based on ‘ Land Use Evaluation and Site Selection’ regulations in China.

In the evaluation of terrain complexity, it is necessary to give different evaluation objects, and the evaluation objects have different weights and proportions according to the needs, and finally the combination of different evaluation objects together to form the terrain complexity evaluation. For example, in the evaluation of terrain comfort, it is necessary to give slope angle, slope height, slope direction, landslide sedimentation and soil erosion and other evaluation objects. Because these evaluation objects affect the control of a series of production such as the growth of plants, the setting of buildings and the discharge of farmland, these evaluation objects are then combined in accordance with appropriate weights to form a comprehensive evaluation of terrain comfort. This type of evaluation not only facilitates the use and delineation of sites, but also serves as a theoretical basis for the identification of geological features, the extraction of hydrological information and the use of land resources.

The landuse comprehensive elevation and arragement will be further developped in design development chapter

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2.3.4 Landslide Remediation measures (Engineering Design)

At the engineering design stage,stabilization and remediation of slopes are necessary to reduce the disasters and frequency of landslides. When stabilizing and remediating landslides, permanent slope stability needs to be maintained (Cornforth, 2005). This permanent stability should be maintained for as long as the future conditions of the slope are reasonable, including heavy rainfall, snowmelt and landslide slides caused by extreme conditions. Permanent stabilization measures should result in the cessation of landslide movement or the reduction of landslide velocity to a lower value (Gaurina-Medjimurec 2015) .

Landslide stabilisation methods and repair remedies can be developed following two general principles of soil stabilisation: • Reducing the active forces that cause landslides.

• Increase soil and geotechnical resistance.

In terms of reducing the active forces of landslides, the active forces can be reduced by excavating unstable slopes and discharging surface and groundwater to reduce the pore pressure in the unstable zone. Increasing soil and geotechnical resistance can also be achieved by draining surface water and groundwater to increase the shear strength of soil and rock and by constructing retaining wall structures or other support structures to increase the shear strength of the slope (Abramson et al., 2002). In the workflow of landslide rehabilitation, the International Union of Geological Sciences Working Group on Landslides (IUGS WG/L) proposes a list of restoration measures (Popescu, 2001), which are categorised into modification of slope geometry, drainage, retaining wall construction and internal slope Reinforcement (Gaurina-Medjimurec 2015).

2.3.4.1 Modification of Slope Geometry The most effective way to increase the stability of a slope is by modifying its geometry (Gaurina-Medjimurec 2015), but there are two principles of modification that need to be followed. In soil excavation, excavating soil at the top of the slope will be more stable than excavating soil at the bottom of the slope. However, when adding material to a slope, it should be noted that adding materials such as retaining walls at the bottom of the slope will be more stable than adding them at the top of the slope (Figure 2.3.2) (‘Circular’ 2008).

Excavation principle Ground surface Ground surface

Slip surface Removing material from head Increases stability

Slip surface

Removing material from toe Reduces stability

Material adding principle Ground surface

Slip surface

Load applied at toe Increase stability

the slope. (‘Circular’ 2008)

Ground surface

Slip surface Load applied at head Reduce stability

The principle of excavation and the principle of material addition lead to two methods of modifying the slope geometry, including removing weight from the top of the landslide (Figure 2.3.3.a) and adding support at the bottom of the landslide (figure 23). Removing a portion of the soil from the top of the landslide reduces some of the landslide forces and balances the forces in the slope(GaurinaMedjimurec 2015). In practice, this method is often used to remediate existing landslides and is relatively inexpensive (Abramson et al., 2002). The addition of support or material at the toe (figure 3) can be used as a technique to counteract or reduce the forces acting on the landslide, using externally applied forces to increase the resistance at the base of the landslide. If combined, the two methods of modifying the geometry of the slope will result in a reduction in the total slope angle to some extent ( figure 24), resulting in a stabilization of

Figure 2.3.2 Slope modification principles ('Circular' 2008) Architectural Association School of Architecture | EmTech | Thesis | 2022-2023 41

a

2.3.4 Landslide Remediation measures (Engineering Design)

The principle of excavation and the principle of material addition lead to two methods of modifying the slope geometry, including removing weight from the top of the landslide (Figure 2.3.3.A) and adding support at the bottom of the landslide (Figure 2.3.3.B).

Removing a portion of the soil from the top of the landslide reduces some of the landslide forces and balances the forces in the slope(Gaurina-Medjimurec 2015). In practice, this method is often used to remediate existing landslides and is relatively inexpensive (Abramson et al., 2002). The addition of support or material at the toe can be used as a technique to counteract or reduce the forces acting on the landslide, using externally applied forces to increase the resistance at the base of the landslide. If combined, the two methods of modifying the geometry of the slope will result in a reduction in the total slope angle to some extent (Figure.2.3.3.C), resulting in a stabilization of the slope. (‘Circular’ 2008)

H

H

H

α1

High risk area

α2 < α1

B

A A. Removing material from area driving the landslide

B. Adding material to area maintaining stability

Suitable for Top

α2

C. Reducing general slope angle

Suitable for Toe

Suitable for Small length slope

Figure 2.3.3 Slope modification method ('Circular' 2008)

In high risk area, it often combines A and B to remove soil material on top and add material on the toe, which can reduce the gradient top and add on dangers. the toe of slope in high-risk areas, which is often complex andRemove involvesmaterial significaton excavation andmaterial associated Reducing the gradient of slopes in high-risk areas, In Medium risk area, it often takes method A to remove material on topsignificant that results in reducting slope angle. By reducing the whichsoil is complex and involves excavation and associated dangers angle of slope, the slope flatten out and there is no need to add material on the toe at this point. (Figure. 2.3.4)

High risk area risk area HighHigh risk area High risk area A A A A

Medium risk area High risk area A B A

B

B

B

B B

α1

α2

the angle Remove material on top and add material onmaterial the toe on top and add material Reduce Remove on the toe Remove material on top and add material on the toe Remove material onslopes top and add material ontoe the toe Remove material on top and add material on the Reducing the gradient of in high-risk areas, Remove material on top result in reduceing slope angle Reducing the gradient of slopes in high-risk areas, Remove material on top and add material on the toe Reducing the gradient ofReducing slopes Reducing inthe high-risk the gradient areas, of slopes in high-risk gradient of slopes in high-risk areas,areas,

which is complex and involves significant excavation andByassociated dangers reducing the angle dangers of the slope,excavation the slope flattens out and dangers which isinand complex involves significant and associated Reducing the gradient of dangers slopes high-risk areas, which is complex and involves significant is complex excavation and involves and associated significant excavation andand associated whichwhich is complex and involves significant excavation associated dangers thereand is no need to add material to the toe at this point which is complex and involves significant excavation associated dangers

Medium risk area area Medium Medium risk area risk area A Medium risk area A A A

Medium risk area A

α1

α2

α1

α2 α1

α2 α1 α1

α2 α2

α1

Reduce the angle

Remove material on top result in reduceing slope angle Remove material on angle top result in reduceing slope angle Remove material on top Remove result material inangle reduceing onslope, top slope result angle in reduceing Remove material on result in reduceing angle By reducing the of top the the slope flattens outslope and slope By reducing the angle of the slope, the slope flattens out and Remove material top result inslope reduceing slope By reducing the angle ofBy thereducing slope, By reducing the theflattens angle out theand slope, the flattens out and angle theslope angle of on theof slope, the slope flattens out and there is no need to add material to the toe at this point isthis no point need to add material to the toe at this point Bythere the angle of the slope, the slope out and there is no need to add material to need the is notoe need at this tomaterial add point material toe atpoint there isreducing no to add to theto toethe atthere thisflattens there is no need to add material to the toe at this point

Figure 2.3.4 Slope modification in high risk and medium risk area ('Circular' 2008) Chuheng Tan | Haipeng Zhong 42

α2

2.0 Research domain

2.3.4 Landslide Remediation measures (Engineering Design)

2.3.4.2 Drainage system Soil with different moisture content also has a great influence on slope stability. If excessive water is accumulated in the slope, it will reduce the resistance in the slope and decrease the stability of the slope, once the water in the slope is reduced, it will increase the stability of the slope and increase the resistance of the sliding surface. Therefore, drainage is also important in slope protection (Figure 2.3.5) ('Circular 2008').

Ground surface

Ground surface

Slip surface

Slip surface

Rising water table / pore pressure reduces resisting forces and reduces stability

Falling water table / pore pressure increase resisting forces and increases stability

Figure 2.3.5 The importance of water drainaging in the stability of a slope ('Circular' 2008)

The drainage system in the slope is an essential restoration measure, of which surface drainage (Figure 2.3.6.A) and underground drainage (Figure 2.3.6.B) measures are the most extensive, and underground drainage is the most effective way. These two methods can be used alone and at the same time and can be combined with the bottom of the placement of the material, which not only reduces the pore space of the water pressure but can effectively reduce the shear strength (Figure 2.3.6.C) and increase the mechanical effect of the bottom of the slope, thus improving the adequate shear strength of the soil (Gaurina-Medjimurec 2015).

A. Surface drainage

B. Underground drainage

C. Combine A+B

Figure 2.3.6 The common method of drainage system on slope

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2.3.4 Landslide Remediation measures (Engineering Design)

To achieve correct slope drainage, drainage paths should direct drainage by the most direct route and away from vulnerable areas of the slope. For slopes of moderate gradient, surface drainage and underground pipework are generally sufficient, but for slopes of greater gradient, surface drainage requires the use of stepped channels (Figure 2.3.7) rather than concentrating on one or two channels. This is an effective way of slowing down the flow of water and preventing the clogging of the pipes due to the splashing of liquids and debris (hill site). Table in Figure 2.3.7 shows the dimensional requirements for a catchment or sewage pit, with certain requirements for the slope and thickness of the steps. (Mbabali et al. 2023)

Gradient to be designed

Sump

Design channel depth Step 50mm Thick Concrete Apron

Suitably reinforced concrete

t

Nominal size of channel (mm) Thickness t (mm)

Stepped Channels ( Cascading Drains)

b

t

Thickness b (mm)

Splash allowance (mm)

225 to 300

100

100

200

375 to 670

100

150

350

750 to 900

125

200

400

Stepped Channels Detail

Figure 2.3.7 Step channel section and dimensions requirement

2.3.4.3 Retaining structures on slope Slope restoration initially focused on adding retaining walls at the base of landslides as a remedial measure, the stability of which is also affected by structural loads, which in mechanical analyses can be referred to as forces. The force can be mainly divided into lateral pressure and vertical pressure, and lateral pressure has two kinds of active pressure and passive pressure. The active pressure is usually located behind the retaining wall. On the other hand, the passive pressure in front of the retaining wall is an additional force on the retaining wall to prevent slope collapse. The vertical pressure on the retaining wall structure receives the influence of loads on the slope, which includes houses and trees Field (Sari, Sholeh, a(Sari, Sholeh, and Hermanto 2020).

This approach has been extended to the use of different and more complex structures, passive piles walls, gravity walls, counterfort retaining walls, and crib block walls. Different types of retaining structures are used to stabilize or reduce the impact of falling rocks in slopes.

A gravity retaining wall's stability hinges on its mass and the soil resting atop it (Figure 2.3.8.A). The wall's dimensions dictate its weight, which can be adjusted to ensure it sufficiently supports the load(Sari, Sholeh, and Hermanto 2020).

Crib walls, a type of gravity retaining wall shown in Figure 2.3.8.B, are built from precast interlocking concrete pieces, with gaps filled with soil for added stability (Lehmer and Ekwueme 2009).

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2.3.4 Landslide Remediation measures (Engineering Design)

Counterfort walls, depicted in Figure 2.3.8.C, are gravity walls distinguished by wedge-shaped vertical supports on the backfill side, apt for heavy loads, providing exceptional structural stability (Hazra and Patra 2008) Passive piles, shown in Figure 2.3.8.D, are driven into soil to counteract displacement loads, serving to fortify slopes against landslide forces and overtopping (Ti, n.d.)

Among the methods of internal slope stabilisation, non-structural stabilisation includes slope geometry modification and drainage, whereas structural repair measures use internal slope stabilisation methods such as incorporating rock bolts, soil nails rock bolts, micro-piles, soil nailing, passive or pre-stressed ground anchors, etc. (Gaurina-Medjimurec 2015) Although structural remediation measures can be more costly than non-structural remediation measures, a combination of both approaches is generally used for slope remediation, thereby increasing the shear stress of the soil.

A. Gravity retaining wall

B. Crib wall

C. Counterfort wall

D. Passive piles wall

Figure 2.3.8 Retaining structure types

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2.3.4 Landslide Remediation measures (Engineering Design)

2.3.4.4 Building Set Up Buildings on slopes transfer loads to the bottom of the slope with various loads and moments, which can increase the burden on the slope and lead to slope instability, which further increases the self-weight of the soil and then leads to slope sliding.

Constructing a building on level ground immediately adjacent to the slope, with a setback structure (meaning that the centre of gravity of the building load is biased towards the side of the slope), is preferable to a regular building (meaning that the centre of gravity of the building load is in the centre of the building) from the point of view of stability (Figure.2.3.9.A). The building is then constructed on the sliding surface of the slope, and the usual type of building is more stable than the receding type of building (Figure.2.3.9.B) (Paul and Kumar 1997)

A. Compare regular building and setback building on flatten ground heavier part

Regular building Factor of safety = 1.411

Setback building Factor of safety = 1.446

B. Compare regular building and setback building on sliding surface

Regular building Factor of safety = 1.518

Setback building Factor of safety = 1.125

Figure 2.3.9 Building set up comparasion

It is worth noting, however, that under seismic conditions, buildings with setback structures immediately on the side slopes can be less stable than usual buildings, whereas usual buildings constructed on the sliding surface of the side slopes are still more stable than setback buildings (Paul and Kumar 1997)

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2.3.4 Landslide Remediation measures (Engineering Design)

2.3.4.5 Planting Goals for Planting on Slopes Planting vegetation generally promotes the development of ecological habitats in the area and creates a sustainable vegetated environment capable of coping with different natural hazards. In slope remediation, different types of vegetation affect slope stability in different ways, including the ability of grasses to stabilize slopes, the supportive role of tree trunks and the ability of vegetation roots to reinforce the soil (Wu, n.d.). The choice of different planting techniques and varieties is influenced by site conditions, so a proper understanding of the site has crucial requirements for slope stability. (‘GEO Publication No. 1/2011’, n.d.)

Therefore, plant species should be selected wisely, and different plants should be planted on different slopes. For example, on vertical retaining walls, only climbers and groundcover should be planted, on slopes greater than 55 degrees, planter holes for climbers or mulching systems should be laid, and on slopes between 45 and 55 degrees, grasses, groundcover, climbers and ferns are recommended. On slopes from 35 to 45 degrees, it is possible to plant shrubs and to use site-specific biodegradable or nonbiodegradable erosion control mats compared to slopes from 45 to 55 degrees, and even small trees can be planted on slopes up to 15 degrees (Figure 2.3.10) (‘GEO Publication No. 1/2011’, n.d.)

Figure 2.3.10 Guidelines for planting and erosion control measures based on slope gradient

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2.3.4 Landslide Remediation measures (Engineering Design)

2.3.4.7 Stepped terraces in slope erosion control Terraces, a hallmark of agricultural ingenuity, have been integral to Chinese agriculture since the 2nd century B.C., with a significant presence in Yunnan Province due to its conducive climatic conditions of year-round rainfall and rolling hills. These terraces are far more than picturesque landscapes; they are recognized globally as an effective strategy for soil and water conservation across various mountainous regions.

Soil erosion is a critical environmental issue, often leading to landslides, diminished soil productivity, and extensive environmental degradation (Pimentel 2006).This degradation is characterized by the loss of soil resources and the downstream export of sediment, nutrients, and pesticides, adversely impacting ecosystems. Yet, terraces offer a solution by reconfiguring terrain morphology, reducing erosion, and stabilizing slopes (Wei et al. 2016). The Hani Terraces of Yunnan, China, exemplify this, having withstood the test of time for millennia, and showcasing the sustainability of such agricultural practices(Chen, Wei, and Chen 2017)..

Despite the agricultural production supporting, the environmental protection goal of terracing is to curtail runoff, soil loss, and erosion, thus improving soil and water conservation. These structures are particularly effective in flood control, retaining water and soil, and preventing soil disturbance, especially on slopes ranging between 3° to 35°. Notably, terraces are most efficient in controlling water erosion on slopes of 11°-15° and 26°-35°, indicating a significant positive correlation between slope degree and terrace effectiveness(Chen, Wei, and Chen 2017)..

Chen, Wei, and Chen’s research in 2017 not only underscores the value of terraces but also categorizes them into four types based on structural characteristics, detailing their suitable range and dimensions for various landscapes. These categorizations serve as a guide for employing terraces in complex slope remediation, emphasizing the importance of matching specific terrace types to appropriate slope gradients and heights to maximize their conservational benefits. This systematic approach to utilizing terraces ensures that they continue to play a critical role in sustaining agricultural productivity and environmental health.

Figure 2.3.11 Stepped terraces classcification

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2.0 Research domain

2.3.4 Landslide Remediation measures (Engineering Design)

2.3.4.8 Landslide remediation summary Before proceeding with construction, a comprehensive site survey is paramount to establish preliminary conclusions about site stability. It's essential to identify not just the areas with the lowest stability coefficients, but to perform a preliminary risk assessment, categorizing areas as high, medium, or low risk. The site's risk areas should be delineated based on a variety of factors including the elevation and angle of slopes, slope orientation, the presence of landslide debris, and the extent of soil erosion. This data allows for the creation of an adaptation map, which is crucial for planning different functional zones tailored to the local topography and geotechnical conditions.

Following the survey, the areas identified as risky need to be methodically redesigned to mitigate potential hazards. Slope remediation is a multi-step process that begins with altering the slope geometry to enhance stability. This often involves cutting back the upper portions of the slope and potentially adding material at the base, as depicted in the diagrams for high-risk areas. Once the slope shape is modified, drainage systems should be installed to prevent water accumulation, which can significantly impact soil stability and increase the likelihood of a landslide.

Further, retaining structures should be designed and constructed to provide additional support to the slopes. These structures might include retaining walls, terracing, and other engineering solutions that physically hold the slope in place. Beyond engineering measures, bioengineering techniques such as planting vegetation can also be employed. The root systems of plants help to bind soil, reduce erosion, and can absorb water, which contributes to slope stability.Terracing, as part of these measures, exemplifies a harmonious blend of ancient wisdom and modern engineering, upholding the integrity of landscapes and safeguarding the communities that dwell within them.

All these measures should only be implemented following a detailed site investigation and the preparation of a comprehensive slope remediation design. It's also critical that all local regulations and design procedures are strictly adhered to throughout the construction process. The safety and effectiveness of the remediation works hinge on the meticulous application of geotechnical principles, environmental best practices, and engineering standards. Only with a thorough understanding and careful planning can the construction be undertaken with confidence in the stability and long-term safety of the site.

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2.4.1 Damage Pattern Analysis

In this section, we studied two modes of damage caused by landslides to buildings. We studied how landslides can damage buildings under each mode, the varying parts of buildings that are affected by the damage, and the impact of landslides at different levels. We also analyzed the types and extent of damage that landslides can inflict on reinforced concrete (RC) structures. Finally, we presented two common principles for buildings to resist landslides and provided a structural analysis of these defensive measures.

According to the ways in which landslides affect buildings, they can be classified into direct impacts and indirect impacts.

(1) Direct impacts Direct impacts refer to the direct effects of landslides on the buildings themselves, resulting in structural damage or destruction. This includes the direct forces of impact, thrust, and compression exerted by landslides on the buildings.

Direct impacts can lead to tilting, displacement, collapse, or partial damage to the buildings. Due to the direct impacts of landslides, the damage caused to buildings can also be categorized into three levels(Figure.2.4.1): 1.Slight damage: This level of damage typically involves minor injuries, such as small cracks or localized displacement.

The overall structure of the building is not significantly affected and can maintain relative stability and functionality.

2.Moderate damage: At this level, the building experiences more noticeable structural damage. There may be wider cracks, wall tilting, or partial collapse. The stability and functionality of the building are moderately affected.

3.Severe damage: This level of damage is the most severe, where the building may undergo significant structural collapse, complete collapse, or complete loss of stability. In such cases, the building may be rendered unusable and require reconstruction or extensive repairs.

Figure 2.4.1 Direct impact of rock and mud from landslide on construction

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2.0 Research domain

2.4.1 Damage Pattern Analysis

(2) Indirect impacts Indirect impacts refer to the effects of landslides on the surrounding environment and foundation, which subsequently affect the buildings indirectly. Landslides can alter the topography and trigger geological hazards such as soil erosion, settlement, or soil liquefaction. These indirect impacts can indirectly affect the stability and safety of the buildings and may result in cracks in the walls and structural components.(Palmisano, Vitone, and Cotecchia 2018).

The indirect impacts of landslides on buildings primarily result in the formation of cracks, which can be categorized into I. Architectural, damaging the appearance of the facade; II. Functional, influencing the utility of the structure; III. Structural, affecting the stability of the building.

And the classification for recognizable damage on structures is differentiated into five levels: Very slight; Slight; Moderate; Severe; Very severe(Del Soldato et al. 2017) (Figure 2.4.2).

Figure 2.4.2 Geological Subsidence (indirect impact)

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2.4.2 Reinforced Concrete (RC) Building Damage Analysis

With the increasing income and raised safety awareness among residents in mountainous areas, people have higher expectations for housing. Masonry structures can no longer meet housing needs as they fall short in terms of safety and flexibility in spatial arrangement. As a result, frame structures, which offer higher safety and more adaptable spatial layouts, have gradually become the primary form of construction for houses in mountainous regions. Therefore, in this section, we will focus on analyzing the impact of landslides on RC frame buildings.

1. The damage to RC buildings varies according to different impact speed(Figure 2.4.3).

(1) Low impact level (low speed: 6m/s): Under low impact, RC buildings may show minor damage, such as small cracks or localized displacements. The overall structural stability of the building remains relatively intact, with no significant impact on functionality.

(2) Medium impact level (Medium speed: 8m/s): With a moderate impact, RC buildings may experience more noticeable structural damage. This could include wider cracks, wall tilting, or partial collapse. The stability and functionality of the building are moderately affected.

(3) High impact level (high speed: 10m/s): Under severe impact, RC buildings may undergo severe structural collapse, complete collapse, or total loss of stability. In such cases, the building may become uninhabitable and require reconstruction or extensive repairs。

Figure 2.4.3 Reinforced concrete (RC) building damage analysis

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2.0 Research domain

2.4.1 Damage Pattern Analysis

2. Different angles have different impact Landslides can have varying impact angles on buildings, and studying the angles of impact is important to understand the potential damage caused. By altering the angle of impact that the structure receives from a landslide, it is possible to increase the critical failure velocity of frame structures. Notably, when the angle of impact falls within the range of 45-75 degrees, the extent of damage is relatively lower. Changing the angle of impact allows for a more favourable distribution of forces within the structure. When the angle is within the mentioned range, the load is spread more evenly across the framework, reducing the concentration of stress, and minimizing the potential for severe damage(Figure 2.4.4).

Figure 2.4.4 The angle of impact also change the level of damage In this section, by studying the ways in which landslides can harm buildings, we can understand that the closer a building is to the source of a landslide, the higher the probability of it being directly affected by the landslide, although the area of direct impact is relatively small. Conversely, buildings located farther away from the landslide source are more likely to be indirectly affected by the landslide, with a relatively larger area of impact.

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2.5.1 Rigid and Flexible Protection

In current landslide resistance construction studies, there are two main principles: the rigid protection, and flexible protection, Currently, the protective measures against landslide impact on housing structures can be divided into two main strategies: strengthening the building itself and installing barrier structures. For strengthening the building, measures include increasing column cross-sections, reinforcing the facing walls on the impact side, reducing floor heights, and decreasing the span between supports. However, the drawback of these measures is that they require altering the structure of the building, which can affect its functionality and usability. Additionally, directly exposing the building to the impact may compromise its safety. The first impact of a landslide is the most energetic, and survivability is greatly improved by resisting the first impact(Zhao 2021)(Figure 2.5.1).

For local buildings in Yunnan, the main structure should firstly be strengthened so that it can withstand the first impact; secondly, the cushion structure should be integrated into the whole architecture, so that when the landslide strikes, it can be utilized to consume the energy of the first impact so as to protect the main structure.

Figure 2.5.1 Rigid and flexible protection

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2.0 Research domain

2.6.1 The Feature of Mycelium Biocomposite (MBC)

Figure.2.6.1 Diagrammatic representation of mushroom life cycle (Lull et al., 2005, p. 64) Mycelium is the root network of fungi, which can digest plant or agricultural waste, use it as a substrate, grow continuously, form a dense network, and bond with the substrate to form a composite material. The new material, which combines filamentous fungi and agricultural leftover by-products, is called a mycelium composite (Kuribayashi et al. 2022).

Mycelium composites can be used to replace plastic and expanded polystyrene (EPS) in known studies (Aiduang et al. 2022; Peng et al. 2023), because of its good cushioning properties (López Nava et al. 2016). In (Cai et al. 2023) experiments, it was found that the energy dissipation coefficients of mycelium composites with rice straw as substrate could all be higher than 90%, indicating that mycelium composites are suitable for use as impact-resistant materials, but they are also affected by the species of the substrate. As a building material it also has good thermal and acoustic insulation performance (Jones et al. 2020; Aiduang et al. 2022).

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2.6.2 Selection of MBC substrate

Sawdust

Corn silk

Sugarcane bagasse

Cotton

(Peng et al., 2023)

Yunnan local material

(Peng et al., 2023)

(Appels et al., 2019)

Beechwood sawdust

Chinese albizia

Coconut powder

(Schritt et al., 2021)

(Chan et al., 2021)

(Santos et al., 2021)

Oat husks

Lavender straw

Flax

(Tacer-Caba et al., 2020) (Angelova et al., 2021)

Rapeseed cake

(Tacer-Caba et al., 2020) (Tacer-Caba et al., 2020)

Rose flowers

Bamboo

Apple wood

(Angelova et al., 2021)

Yunnan local material

(Attias et al., 2019)

Hemp hurds

Miscanthus fibers

Hemp shives

Wood pulp

(López Nava et al., 2016) (Elsacker et al., 2019)

(Dias et al., 2021)

(Jones et al., 2017)

(Yang et al., 2017)

Wheat straw

Vinewood chips

Rice straw

Coir pith

Corn straw

Cotton stalk

Rice hull

Shredded cardboard

Shredded newspaper

Soy silk fibers

(Attias et al., 2019)

(Peng et al., 2023)

(Peng et al., 2023)

(Peng et al., 2023)

(Gou et al., 2021)

(Teixeira et al., 2018)

(Vašatko et al., 2022)

(Vašatko et al., 2022)

(Vašatko et al., 2022)

Figure.2.6.2 Mycelium substrates study Rice straw 0.35 μm

Bagasse 0.77 μm

Coir pith 0.69 μm

Sawdust 0.58 μm

Corn straw 0.55 μm

Figure 2.6.3 Mycelium diameters in different substrates (Peng et al., 2023, p. 82) Different combinations of mycelium species and substrate species result in composites with different physical properties (Appels et al. 2019), The team studied the different research results available for mycelial substrate selection, from single substrates to mixed substrates, and found that mycelium growth performed best when sugarcane was used as the substrate (Peng et al. 2023)(Figure2.6.3). Simultaneously, in conjunction with an inquiry into the primary agricultural products prevalent in the Yunnan region and their byproducts, a determination was made to employ sugarcane waste, a significant local crop, as the primary substrate.

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2.6 Mycelium biocomposites | 2.0 Research domain

2.6.3 Process of MBC Substrate and Growing

1. Boil the substrate for 30 minutes

2. Cooling substrates

3. Cut a big water bottle

4. Perforate

5. Scatter the seeds

6. Mix with substrates

7. Add more substrates and seeds

8. Fill the whole bottle

9.Seal the bottle with tape

10.Put all prepared bottle in a cool, ventilated place away from light.

11. Spray water everyday

12. 20 days to harvest

Figure 2.6.4 Home grown mycelium process

In the relevant studies so far, the processing of mycelium composites also has different effects on the physical properties (Appels et al. 2019; Aiduang et al. 2022; Nussbaumer et al. 2023). However, the team will choose the approach that requires less equipment, with the aim of controlling the overall cost of producing the composite and trying to be userfriendly(Figure 2.6.4).The method begins with boiling the substrate, then cooling it, cutting a water bottle, and making perforations for aeration. Seeds are scattered, mixed with the substrate, and more substrate is added before filling the bottle completely. The bottle is then sealed with tape, stored in a cool, ventilated place away from light, and sprayed with water daily. After 20 days, the mushrooms are ready to harvest. The process aims to be cost-effective and user-friendly .

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2.6.4 Compare with Other Material

The main difference between mycelium composites and other lightweight materials is that it is completely degradable, and the waste can be used for composting. If it is not baked dry, it can grow itself indefinitely, making it a very environmentally friendly material; secondly, it is quite lightweight. It including lightweight substrates like rice hulls (59 kg/m3), offer comparable weight to conventional synthetic insulation foams, including heavier variants like pine shavings or oak sawdust, have densities lower or similar to typical wood products used in construction, such as plywood, softwood, and hardwood(Jones et al. 2020).

Mycelium Composites WO2018068456A1 Bending strength(Mpa)

45.1

Compression strength(Mpa)

42.5

Tensile strength(Mpa)

18.9

Acoustic Absorption factor

0.33

In patent WO2018068456A1 shows that the compressive strength of mycelium composites is much higher than ordinary sintered bricks. More importantly, the mycelium substrate can produce spores, so that the mycelium can grow infinitely, and the waste mycelium composite can be composted and completely degraded (Peng et al. 2023). Based on the above information we know that mycelium can be used for packaging, transportation, construction filler and temporary construction materials.

The material is readily available, cost-effective, and easy to work with, requiring simple operations without the need for complex equipment.

This makes it easily understandable even for unskilled individuals.

Brencich, Antonio and Enrico Sterpi. “Compressive strength of solid clay brick masonry: calibration of experimental tests and theoretical issues.” (2006).

Advantages of the mycelium composites Environment

Construction

biodegradable

Light weight

suitable environment

Local material

Reduce carbon emissions

Affordability

Replacement of EPS

Infinite self-reproduction

Biomass production

Cushion material

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Structure Compressive strength of brick

2.0 Research domain

2.6.5 Sandwich Protective Envelope

The proposed protection envelope explores the innovative integration of mycelium composite into a sandwich panel design inspired by the intrinsic properties of both timber and mycelium composite materials. Traditional sandwich panels generally consist of two external, rigid sheets, usually fabricated from high-strength materials like metals or composites, adhesively bonded to a lightweight, low-density core material.

This configuration maximises the panel's stiffness and bending strength while minimising weight.

Mycelium composite, derived from the vegetative part of fungi, has garnered considerable attention for its unique cushioning capacities, biodegradability, and renewability.

However, its application in structural contexts has been limited due to its inherently low tensile and compressive strengths and its brittle nature. Nevertheless, these limitations can be mitigated through the sandwich panel configuration, which synergistically combines the strengths of timber and mycelium composite(Saez et al., 2021).

In this specific architecture, known as a "Mycelium-Timber Three-Layer Sandwich Panel," timber sheets are the external layers, providing the necessary bending strength and rigidity.

The central core comprises mycelium composite, contributing lightweight cushioning and insulation properties. The bonding between the layers could be achieved through a range of bio-adhesives, selected based on their compatibility with timber and mycelium and their environmental footprint.

Timber MBC Timber

Figure 2.6.5 Mycelium-Timber sandwich panel (Saez et al., 2021)

The incorporation of mycelium composite as the core material enhances the bending and compressive properties of the sandwich panel. The natural flexibility of mycelium composite can effectively distribute stresses across the panel, particularly under bending and shear conditions. This is crucial for applications that balance structural rigidity and the ability to absorb and dissipate impact energy(Saez et al., 2021).

From a sustainability standpoint, using mycelium composite introduces a renewable, biodegradable element into the building envelope. Mycelium composites can be used to replace plastic and expanded polystyrene (EPS) in known studies (Aiduang et al. 2022; Peng et al. 2023).

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2.7 Local agriculture Industry | 2.0 Research domain

2.7 Local Agriculture Industry

Figure 2.7.1 Agriculture productions in Yunnan Yunnan province, with its varied climate and fertile soils, has a thriving agricultural sector that forms the backbone of its economy. The region is best known for its production of paddy, tea, sugar cane, bamboo, mushroom, flower, silkworm and coffee, etc. (Figure 2.7.1). The distribution of agriculture in Yunnan is not uniform, with different crops being cultivated in different areas. In the mountainous regions of northern Yunnan, tea is the primary crop, particularly the famous Pu’er tea. In further south, in the subtropical zones, sugarcane and bamboo thrive. The cultivation of mushrooms, the most vital agriculture product in Yunnan, is scattered throughout the province, capitalizing on the diverse climate and rich biodiversity. Bamboo is also cultivated in areas with well-drained soil, typically on the slopes, valleys, and along the river banks. Yunnan’s paddy is also important for the local economy, the region’s terraced paddy fields are particularly notable and are often associated with the Hani and Yi ethnic groups(Yunnan Provincial Department of Agriculture and Rural Development, ed. Yunnan Agriculture Yearbook, 2022).

The most famous of these terraced landscapes are in Yuanyang County, where the stunningly intricate terraces are a testament to the profound agricultural wisdom of the local people and have been recognized as a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Yunnan's flower industry, centred mainly around the capital city of Kunming, known as the "Spring City," is thriving due to the city's year-round mild climate, which is ideal for flower growth. The city even hosts a large flower market, recognized as the largest in Asia. In recent years, coffee cultivation has expanded in the southwestern parts of the province, particularly in regions like Pu'er and Baoshan(Yunnan Provincial Department of Agriculture and Rural Development, ed. Yunnan Agriculture Yearbook, 2022).

In Malong County, Yunnan Province, where agriculture plays a crucial role in the local economy, significant amounts of agricultural waste such as bagasse and wood chips are generated. Traditionally, these wastes are disposed of through burning, resulting in environmental pollution and the release of harmful gases. However, due to their rich lignin content, these agricultural wastes can be effectively utilized as substrates for mushroom cultivation. By locally growing mushrooms using agricultural waste as a raw material, several benefits can be achieved. Firstly, it helps to reduce harmful emissions and environmental pollution associated with waste burning. Secondly, it creates a sustainable economic cycle by utilizing the waste as a valuable resource for mushroom production. This approach not only addresses waste management concerns but also contributes to the local economy and promotes sustainable agriculture practices in the region.

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2.0 Research domain

2.8 Case Study

Figure 2.8.1: Slope upgrading works

Figure 2.8.3: Terraced walls

Figure 2.8.2: Drainage system

Figure 2.8.4: Case 1(Hewawasam 2005)

Informed by the challenges of landslides in Yunnan, we learnt from Hong Kong, Japan, and Sri Lanka, regions with extensive experience in managing and defending against frequent landslides. The case studies from these areas reveal two critical strategies for addressing landslide hazards. Firstly, it involves a thorough analysis and repair of slopes based on the underlying causes of landslides. Secondly, from an architectural perspective, the development of impact-resistant structures is essential.

These strategies are fundamental in guiding the direction of our further research in landslide management.

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2.8.1 Case Study of Slope Protection Location: Sangalang Road, Hongkong Type: Slope remediation Based on the remediation of landslides, the team made reference to the treatment of different slope types in Hong Kong, and it is worth noting that in one of the remediation cases, the site is located at Sangalang Road in Hong Kong which is similar to the study site of the project, with an approximate slope angle of thirty-five degrees and a large difference in elevation between the sites(Figure 2.8.1.1).

Figure 2.8.1.1: Slope upgrading works

Figure 2.8.1.2: Soil nailing

In the referenced case study, two remediation strategies were evaluated: soil nailing with a grillage system, and excavation and re-compaction. Ultimately, the team chose to implement the soil nailing with grillage system in their construction strategy. This decision was primarily influenced by its lower construction costs compared to excavation and recompaction. Additionally, the use of soil nails (as shown in Figure 2.8.1.2) offers the advantage of stabilizing the soil with minimal disturbance to existing vegetation. This approach not only retains the existing trees but also allows for a more efficient and cost-effective landscaping project.

During the construction phase, the remediation team initially cleared the vegetation to prepare the site for soil nailing and grid work. Following the installation of the soil nails and concrete grid system, they constructed a surface drainage system and a maintenance access road.

The team emphasized the importance of protecting the surrounding vegetation during construction. Measures were taken to ensure that the placement of materials and equipment would not harm the nearby plants, thereby maintaining sustainability.

As illustrated in Figures 2.8.1.3 and 2.8.1.4, initial signs of repair work were evident at the onset of the slope restoration. However, over time, these signs diminished, blending the remediated area seamlessly with the natural environment. The slope, once vulnerable, achieved a level of stability that was not present before, with minimal visual indications of human intervention. This transformation highlights the effectiveness and subtlety of the remediation approach.

Figure 2.8.1.3: Slope upgrading works substantially completed (2009) Chuheng Tan | Haipeng Zhong 62

Figure 2.8.1.4: After remediation(2011)

2.0 Research domain

2.8.1 Case Study of Slope Protection Location: Bowen Road, Hongkong Type: Slope remediation Moreover, for slopes with significant elevation differences, terraced walls (as shown in Figure 2.8.1.6) were employed, similar to the approach used at Bowen Road in Hong Kong (illustrated in Figure 2.8.1.5). The construction team recognized that terraced walls can effectively slow down slope movement to a certain degree. This method not only enhances slope stability but also maximizes opportunities for planting. The terraced structure provides ample space for vegetation, contributing both to the ecological value and the aesthetic appeal of the slope, while simultaneously serving a crucial functional role in landslide mitigation.

Figure 2.8.1.5: Bowen Road

As depicted in Figure 2.8.1.7, the slope's stability significantly improved following the rehabilitation process. Although the slope did not regain its original appearance, the stability enhancements were substantial. Additionally, the greening of the terrace wall contributed further to the slope's stability. This integration of vegetation not only reinforced the structural integrity of the slope but also added an element of natural beauty. The combination of engineering solutions and ecological restoration in this approach underscores the balance between functional effectiveness and environmental consideration in slope rehabilitation projects.

Figure 2.8.1.6: Terraced walls sketch

Figure 2.8.1.7: Terraced walls

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2.8.1 Case Study of Slope Protection Location: Bowen Road, Hongkong Type: Drainage system One contributing factor to landslides is the reduction in soil friction caused by high moisture content. Figure 8 illustrates a major landslide that occurred in 1992. Subsequent investigations revealed that the soil on the affected slope was excessively moist and loosely packed, resulting in decreased friction between soil particles, which, combined with rainfall and other factors, led to the landslide.

As shown in Figure 9, the restoration team implemented a comprehensive drainage system while rehabilitating the hillside.

This system included a primary drainage channel, supplemented by several finer drainage channels. These channels were strategically aligned with the natural runoff direction, enabling water to be efficiently directed from the hillside into the main channel and then dispersed to surrounding areas. This design effectively reduced the soil's moisture content, thereby enhancing the friction between soil particles.

Figure 2.8.1.8: Large failure in 1992

Figure 2.8.1.9: Drainage system

By 2011, as evident in Figure 10, the hillside had significantly recovered. Seven years post-restoration, the landscape showed little to no visible signs of the previous landslide, demonstrating the effectiveness of the rehabilitation efforts in restoring the hill's natural state and stability.

Figure 2.8.1.10: Natural surroundings (September 2011)

Conclusion of slope protection When addressing landslide rehabilitation, it's crucial to tailor strategies to the specific angles and heights of slopes. For slopes with relatively gentle angles, soil stabilization can be achieved through retaining structures like nailing walls, which enhance the internal stability of the soil. However, for steeper slopes with greater relative heights, the focus should shift to reducing the slope angle, for example, by using terrace walls to level the hill.

In addition to considering the slope's geometry, it's essential to analyze the cause of the landslide. If excessive moisture in the soil is a contributing factor, installing drainage channels to remove excess water is a key strategy. Analyzing various case studies reveals that adding retaining structures and drainage systems primarily aims to increase slope stability. Planting vegetation serves as a supplementary measure, assisting in the rehabilitation process.

However, it is important to minimize damage to the existing vegetation during construction. Restoring the original topography and terrain should be a primary goal. This approach not only addresses the immediate issue of landslide prevention but also contributes to the ecological preservation and aesthetic restoration of the affected area.

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2.0 Research domain

2.8.2 Case study of Buildings on Risky area

Figure 2.8.3: Case 1(Hewawasam 2005)

Location: Sri Lanka Designer: Lowil Fred Espada In addressing hydro-geological hazards akin to those in Yunnan, the Ratnapura area of Sri Lanka implemented a comprehensive risk-mitigation program. This involved the construction of model residential and community structures equipped with erosionresistant foundations and systems designed to cope with flooding, high winds, and landslides. The initiatives also included sitespecific drainage solutions, soil stabilisation measures, and responsible well placement for preventing slope destabilisation.

Construction methodologies were particularly tailored to enhance structural resilience. Foundations were reinforced with concrete, and alternative materials like rubble masonry and clay mixes were employed for durability. Special attention was given to minimising topographical disruptions, including geotechnical investigations, contour-aligned road planning, and engineered retaining walls.

These measures are aimed at physical robustness and environmental conservation, evident from preserving natural vegetation and minimising excavation depths(Hewawasam 2005)(Figure 2.8.1).

Conclusion In this Sri Lankan case, we can see the general approach to the type of construction for landslide protection, i.e., the strengthening of slopes with traditional slope protection, which requires large quantities of concrete and other materials for pouring and deep excavation of slopes and building foundations. A considerable degree of material consumption and environmental damage can occur.

Although they eventually used some local building materials, pouring concrete for the berms and foundations could not be avoided.

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2.8.2 Case study of Buildings on Risky area

Figure 2.8.4: Case 2 (Simoncsics, 2006)

Location: Japan Designer: Irish. Mach In response to the Niigata-Chuetsu earthquake in 2004, architectural projects have been carried out to demonstrate "risk management" and "reconstruction activities." One such project is the "Landslide-proof Theatre and Exhibition Hall for Niigata," where the structure is anchored to the stable ground using anchor-foundations, and the access way is protected by a wall. The design of the shell structure was inspired by the shape of an eggshell, with angles that minimize the direct vertical impact of mountain landslide.

The shell structure is divided into multiple buffering plates with different angles using calculus(Simoncsics 2006)(Figure 2.8.2).

Conclusion In this case, instead of focusing on the overall manual rectification of the slope, the emphasis is on the building itself, which is cleverly mitigated by the landslide but is still protected by a rigid structure, and the degree of protection continues to depend only on how thick the rigid material is added to the building. However, the disadvantage of rigid protective structures is the wastage of materials, lack of environmental friendliness, and the indirect damage caused by the significant energy impact resulting from their rigid nature.

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RESEARCH DOMAIN CONCLUSION The thesis research undertaken in Yunnan Province, China—renowned as "South of the Clouds" for its diverse topography and rich cultural tapestry—was a comprehensive exploration into urban planning, architecture, and sustainability within a region vulnerable to landslides. The research meticulously evaluated the region's varied terrain and climate, the cultural practices of its many ethnic groups, and the distinct agricultural methods, all of which contribute to the region's unique identity. By assessing the increasing climatic instability and its implications for local bioclimatic stratification, the study underscored the urgent need for environmental resilience in the face of potential natural disasters.

The investigation into Malong District provided a detailed account of the local demographic, environmental challenges, and the region's agricultural richness, particularly the cultivation of mushrooms using local agricultural waste, highlighting the potential for sustainable economic development. A key part of the research involved a thorough land use evaluation and site selection process, considering resource and environmental carrying capacity, suitability for national spatial development, and vulnerability to landslides. This evaluation guided the strategic development and optimization of land use, ensuring informed and sustainable planning decisions.

The study of vernacular buildings revealed the intrinsic connection between local architecture, community life, and environmental adaptation. It showcased the ingenious integration of agriculture and living spaces, as seen in the terraced paddy fields, which are both a cultural icon and a testament to sustainable agricultural practices.

Addressing the frequent and disruptive landslides, the research ventured into engineering design considerations for slope stabilization and landslide remediation. It proposed innovative measures, including geometric modification of slopes, drainage systems, and retaining structures, all aiming to enhance the safety and longevity of constructions within landslide-prone areas.

A pivotal aspect of the research was the exploration of mycelium biocomposites (MBC) as a sustainable and innovative building material. MBC's unique properties offer potential in various applications, including packaging, transportation, construction fillers, and temporary construction materials. The research proposed the use of MBC in a sandwich panel design for protective envelopes to withstand landslide impacts, combining traditional and novel materials to create a synergistic effect in structural integrity and flexibility.

Architectural Association School of Architecture | EmTech | Thesis | 2022-2023 67

03. Method This section showcases the methods and tools we employ during research, analysis, and design.

The methods used at different stages assist us in conducting effective analysis, obtaining experimental data, and providing guidance for the next steps of the design process.

Chuheng Tan | Haipeng Zhong 68

3.0 Method

3.1 Geographic Information System(GIS) In the site research phase, we analyzed local geospatial information, population distribution, satellite imagery, and geographic data. We compiled and synthesized these data and transformed them into visual images to analyze and summarize specific design locations.

These findings serve as guidance for subsequent design processes. So that for the selection of a suitable site in Malong with both significant development potential and a higher risk of landslides, we've adopted a land use evaluation strategy by using ArcGIS(‘ArcGIS’ 2023).

ArcGIS provides a range of powerful tools and features for site surveys, enabling users to conduct detailed and comprehensive site analysis and evaluation. Firstly, ArcGIS offers robust spatial data management capabilities for integrating, organizing, and managing various types of site data. Users can import and process diverse geospatial data formats, including maps, satellite imagery, building layers, and terrain data. With ArcGIS's data management capabilities, users can efficiently organize and store large volumes of site data while ensuring data consistency and accuracy.

Secondly, ArcGIS provides powerful spatial analysis tools for site assessment and decision support. Users can utilize spatial analysis functions for site selection analysis, evaluating the potential and suitability of different sites by considering various factors such as transportation accessibility, land use, market demand, and more. Additionally, ArcGIS offers land use planning tools to analyze current land use conditions, develop optimal land use plans, and visualize them spatially.

3.2 Finite Element Analysis FEA (Finite Element Analysis) is a numerical analysis method widely used in the field of architectural structural engineering to evaluate and predict the performance of architectural structures under various load conditions(‘Finite Element Method’ 2023). We conduct the FEA analysis by using Karamba3 which is a powerful FEA software plugin specifically developed for architectural structural analysis and design, providing a range of functionalities and tools.

FEA divides the architectural structure into small finite element units and applies mathematical models to simulate the behavior of the structure.

It accurately calculates parameters such as stress, deformation, and vibration, providing critical design information.

Karamba3D is a finite element-based architectural structural analysis and design software plugin that integrates with modeling software such as Rhino or Grasshopper(‘Karamba3D’ n.d.). It offers a set of powerful features, including structural optimization, parametric design, and automated workflows, enabling to conduct structural analysis and design more efficiently.

Architectural Association School of Architecture | EmTech | Thesis | 2022-2023 69

3.3 Rigid Body Dynamics Rigid Body Dynamics, often referred to as RBD, is the field of study and application focused on analyzing and understanding the motion and behavior of rigid bodies(‘Rigid Body Dynamics’ 2023). The Houdini Rigid Body solver is a powerful tool used in physics simulations to replicate the motion and collisions of objects with the characteristics of rigid and solid bodies. Unlike fluid simulations, cloth simulations, or soft bodies, the Rigid Body solver treats objects as hard and inflexible entities. It accurately models the dynamics of objects that do not deform under external forces, making it suitable for simulating materials such as metal, wood, or stone. Conducting the RBD experiment in Houdini, we simulated the landslide in Yunnan, and studied how landslide impact the building in that area. In the simulation, we set the buildings and the rocks from the landslide as rigid body objects. We can adjust parameters such as the velocity, mass to simulate different types and scales of collisions to analyze how landslide impact the building

3.4 Evolutionary Multi-objective Optimization The multi-objective optimization genetic algorithm helps us achieve optimal solutions that align with multiple design objectives (Deb 2015). Unlike single-objective optimization, the multi-objective optimization genetic algorithm offers more selection strategies to cater to different scenarios and target solutions. Through WallaceiX, an engine for multi-objective optimization genetic algorithms, integrated with Grasshopper, we can set up the entire optimization process, define gene ranges, set genetic rules, and mutation probabilities to optimize the phenotype((Showkatbakhsh and Makki, 2022).

By using the analysis tools provided by WallaceiX, we can evaluate the performance of the design phenotype and further optimize the gene ranges to achieve the design objectives. This combined approach enables us to better understand and explore the design space and find the best solutions that align with multiple objectives.

Chuheng Tan | Haipeng Zhong 70

3.0 Method

3.5 Houdini Heightfield Erosion Houdini, developed by SideFX, is a powerful 3D animation software used extensively in the film, gaming, and VFX industries for procedural modeling, animation, and visual effects. One of the features it offers is the Heightfield system, which is specifically tailored for creating terrains.

The Heightfield system in Houdini allows users to generate terrains using a grid of values representing heights. It offers various tools to sculpt, modify, and erode these terrains, creating realistic and detailed landscapes. The erosion tools within the Heightfield allow users to simulate natural erosion caused by water flow and thermal processes, resulting in terrains that look realistic and believable.

This makes the Heightfield system especially useful for simulating phenomena like landslides, as it can replicate the natural forces and effects that shape landscapes over time. In this project, the Houdini heightfield system was employed to create and manipulate terrain data in a procedural manner. Using its scalable and integrated toolset, we accurately simulated the landscape's topographical features and potential vulnerabilities. The system's procedural nature enabled flexible, non-destructive workflows, allowing for iterative terrain modifications and refinements. Furthermore, real-world data integration capabilities facilitated the creation of realistic terrains, while erosion and hydrology tools helped simulate natural processes, vital for predicting landslides and assessing environmental impacts. This was instrumental in accurately mapping high, medium, and low-risk areas for informed urban planning and architectural interventions(‘Heightfield Erosion 2023).

Architectural Association School of Architecture | EmTech | Thesis | 2022-2023 71

04. RESEARCH DEVELOPMENT The urban planning phase required a deep understanding of the natural environment to predict and mitigate potential landslide risks, utilizing regional climatic and geological data. The Houdini heightfield erosion system modeled terrain response to environmental factors, allowing the categorization of the terrain into high, medium, and low landslide risk zones. High-risk zones were identified by steep slopes and loose soil, medium-risk zones had significant vulnerability during extreme weather, and low-risk zones were stable but monitored for long-term changes.

In Xia Village, expansive farmlands indicate a reliance on agriculture, while Zhong Village's factories, including a breeding farm and aquaculture, suggest a diversified economy. The highway between the villages marks a geographic and resource utilization boundary. Limited industrial facilities across both villages balance traditional life with modern practices.

Overlaying the landslide risk map with the current site assessment provides a clear understanding of the area's vulnerabilities. Demographic, economic, and agricultural data informs the community's needs, highlighting issues like poor housing conditions, inadequate drainage, and low skill levels among the labor force, requiring urgent attention and skill-enhancement programs.

The government's vision for rural development focuses on sustainable growth, housing expansion, diversification of agricultural facilities, and educational infrastructure, aiming to improve living standards and boost the local economy through targeted infrastructural enhancements.

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4.0 Research development

Research development

Design development

Landuse comprehensive arragement

Urban infrastructure

Structure system

Architectural Association School of Architecture | EmTech | Thesis | 2022-2023 73

4.1 Landslide Prediction

Bird view

Light

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Figure 4.1Landslide condition prediction for the site

Chuheng Tan | Haipeng Zhong 74

Plan view

4.0 Research development

4.1 Landslide Prediction

Simulation parameters Precipitation Amount: 1500mm Density:0.05 Evaporation rate: 0.04 Thermal erosion Removal rate: 0.07 Grid bias: 0.1 Hydro erosion Removal rate:0.1 Grid bias:0 Debris Flow Spread speed: 10m/s Water absorption: 1.0 Expand radius: 5.0m Bedrock Erosion rate factor: 1 Max height: 0.5

In the initial phase of urban planning, it was imperative to root our approach in an understanding of the natural environment, and to anticipate challenges that could arise from it. Drawing upon the region's climatic and geological data, we collated information on factors that directly impact the region's susceptibility to landslides. This included studying the local annual rainfall patterns, thermal erosion effects, debris flow velocities, bedrock erosion rates, evaporation tendencies, and water erosion statistics. Such a comprehensive analysis aids in painting a clear picture of the region's vulnerability to natural disasters.

To better predict the most severe landslides that could potentially afflict the area, we employed the Houdini heightfield erosion system. This advanced simulation tool allowed us to model the terrain's response to various environmental factors. By inputting the gathered data, the system generated scenarios showcasing how the landscape might evolve over time under extreme conditions.

Incorporating the Houdini heightfield erode system's predictions, we were able to delineate the terrain based on varying levels of landslide risks. This involved extracting zones that were categorized as high, medium, and low risk. Each risk category was determined by a combination of factors, such as the proximity to potential landslide origins, the slope of the terrain, and the underlying soil and rock types, among other factors.

The high-risk zones were areas with the most immediate and severe vulnerability to landslides, often characterized by steep slopes, loose soil, and frequently occurring erosional processes. Medium-risk zones, while not as critically exposed as the high-risk ones, still held significant vulnerability, especially during extreme weather events or rapid changes in environmental conditions. Low-risk zones were relatively stable, with minimal susceptibility to landslides, but still required consideration for potential long-term changes and safety precautions.

Segmenting the region into these risk zones was of paramount importance for the subsequent planning stages. High-risk areas were generally recommended to remain undeveloped or, if needed, to house structures that can withstand landslides, like retaining walls or diversion channels. Medium-risk areas required specific building strategies, incorporating robust foundation systems and erosion control measures. Meanwhile, the low-risk zones were the most suitable for more intensive development, although with continued monitoring and mitigation measures in place (Figure 4.1).

Architectural Association School of Architecture | EmTech | Thesis | 2022-2023 75

4.2 Context Learning

Figure 4.2 Current site context

In the present site map, a distinct highway bisects the valley, creating two separate settlements: Xia Village to one side and Zhong Village on the other. This division not only marks a geographic boundary but also signifies the differential utilization of resources and infrastructure between the two villages.

Xia Village is characterized predominantly by expansive farmlands, with fields stretching across significant portions of the landscape. This agricultural expanse suggests that the majority of Xia's residents rely heavily on farming, producing both staple and cash crops that likely serve as the primary source of livelihood for many.

While the Zhong Village appears to be more industrially oriented, as evidenced by its three major crop processing factories. Among these is a breeding farm, possibly specializing in poultry or livestock, and an aquaculture farm, indicating fish or other aquatic cultivation. The presence of these factories suggests that Zhong Village has a more diversified economy compared to Xia, with a production chain that extends from raw material cultivation right up to processing and potentially even distribution (Figure 4.2).

The presence of only a few factories and facilities across both villages implies a delicate balance between maintaining the traditional way of life and embracing modern industrial practices. It's crucial to note that these limited facilities play an essential role in sustaining the villages' infrastructure, enabling both Xia and Zhong to meet their basic needs and maintain a degree of economic activity.

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4.0 Research development

4.2 Context learning

Figure 4.3 Landslide risky mapping

Overlaying the landslide risk level map onto our current site assessment, we obtain a comprehensive picture of the challenges and vulnerabilities of the area. The map distinctly categorizes regions into high, medium, and low-risk zones, each indicative of the potential threat posed by landslides to the corresponding areas (Figure 4.3 ) A deeper dive into the current context of the site unveils more about the living conditions and socio-economic status of its inhabitants. Demographically, the area's population is broken down into age groups, family sizes, and occupational distributions. Economically, income levels paint a picture of the residents' purchasing power and standard of living.

This data is crucial for understanding the kind of solutions and interventions that would be most beneficial for the community.

Agriculturally, the main crops cultivated are catalogued along with their respective yields, shedding light on food security and potential export commodities. The expansive farmlands and their acreage further delineate the agricultural capacity and the dependency of the community on farming activities.

Architectural Association School of Architecture | EmTech | Thesis | 2022-2023 77

4.2 Context Learning

Figure 4.4 Current economic and living conditions

However, a closer inspection reveals several pressing issues that need immediate attention. Firstly, housing conditions are far from ideal. Many residences appear to be in a state of disrepair, signaling the need for safer and more sustainable housing solutions. The prevalent poor drainage system, likely a contributor to landslide vulnerability, needs a comprehensive overhaul to prevent water logging and the associated risks.

The low skill level among the labor force also emerges as a concern. This not only affects productivity but also limits the avenues for economic diversification and growth. Efforts to enhance skill training can potentially elevate the living standards of the community (Figure 4.4).

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4.0 Research development

4.2 Context learning

Figure 4.5 Design requirements

In addition to our initial observations and assessments, we delved into the government's vision for rural development to ensure our planning aligns with broader regional strategies. The government's roadmap for the area presents a blend of sustainable growth and infrastructural enhancement.

A salient feature of the government's rural development plan is the emphasis on housing expansion. With an increasing population and the present challenges surrounding housing conditions, there is a clear mandate to broaden the residential area. This expansion not only means increasing the number of homes but also ensuring they are built sustainably and resiliently, especially considering the landslide risks. Beyond housing, there's a highlighted need for diversified agricultural facilities, including establishing cattle sheds, chicken coops, and pigsties. In particular, Zhong village is prioritizing education with plans for more schools. Additionally, its water resources make it an ideal location for a new aquaculture factory, aiming to boost local jobs and the economy (Figure 4.5).

The understanding of current site information will help us know the requirement of site and landslide risk, it will benefit our expand our future research

Architectural Association School of Architecture | EmTech | Thesis | 2022-2023 79

05. DESIGN DEVELOPMENT In the MSc phase, we explored regional planning, morphological designs, and structural systems, uncovering a need for better integration of slope dynamics and stabilization in land-use planning. Moving to the MArch phase, we refined urban infrastructure to align with the region's geography and ecology, enhancing resilience. We used land use adaptation maps and function distribution maps for detailed site evaluations, considering terrain and slope risks, and applied an Evolutionary Algorithm to balance ecological and human needs. Bioengineering techniques improved slope stability, ensuring suitable land allocation.

We then integrated this knowledge into our structural design, combining ground treatment with building design for environmentally sound structures. This workflow transition from MSc to MArch addressed previous shortcomings and optimized our land use strategy.

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5.0 Design development

5.1 Landuse comprehensive arrangement

Research development

Design development

Landuse comprehensive arragement

Urban infrastructure

Structure system

Architectural Association School of Architecture | EmTech | Thesis | 2022-2023 81

5.1 Landuse comprehensive arrangement

Msc Recap

Reflecting upon the MSc phase, our review covered extensive ground from regional planning and morphological designs to structural systems. This phase was characterized by a foundational exploration of functional needs, landslide prediction, cellular automata in regional planning, spatial adjacencies in morphology, and the use of sandwich panels in structural systems. However, a reflective analysis revealed critical limitations and opportunities for improvement. It was evident that our initial planning required a deeper integration of slope processes, stabilization strategies, and a comprehensive approach to land-use planning that incorporated slope infrastructure.

Armed with feedback and insights, we embarked on a redefined workflow for the MArch phase, commencing with the redefinition of urban infrastructure. This step was pivotal in reconceptualizing the built environment to better fit the geographical and socio-cultural fabric of the region. Our focus was to realign urban development with the natural topography and the existing ecological systems, thereby enhancing resilience and sustainability.

For comprehensive site evaluation and land use optimization, we need to involve a meticulous site evaluation, utilizing land use adaptation maps and function distribution maps. These tools allowed us to scrutinize the terrain and its various facets, such as slope elevation, angle, orientation, and the challenges posed by landslide sediment and soil erosion. Through this evaluation, we aimed to optimize land-use rearrangement by employing an Evolutionary Algorithm (EA) approach to negotiate the complex interplay between built and natural environments.

This comprehensive land-use planning aimed to strike a balance between ecological integrity and human needs.

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5.0 Design development

5.1 Landuse comprehensive arrangement

Msc Recap

By employing bioengineering slope stabilization techniques, we intended to enhance slope stability while creating subdivisions of land-use that resonated with the local context. This planning ensured that land allocation was optimized for suitability, ranging from the most suitable for forest areas to the least suitable or reserved areas.

The final step of our design development was the integration of structural design. This stage combined ground treatment strategies with the design of residential and public buildings. Our structural system incorporated sandwich panels and bioengineering ground treatments, leading to designs that were not only environmentally responsive but also structurally sound. This is the workflow of how we develop from Msc phase to March phase, First, we review the design research from MSC phase, that covers from regional planning, morphology designs to structural design. And summarize the point we need to improve based on the limitations and feedback. In summary, we lacked slope process, slope stabilization, and comprehensive land use planning that integrated slope infrastructure. Then we summarize a new workflow and begin with redefining urban tissue, then to evaluate the site with land use adaptation map and functions distribution map to optimize the land use rearrangement process.

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5.1 Landuse comprehensive arrangement

Figure 5.1.1 Slope elevation

In Msc urban planning phase utilizing cellular automata revealed several areas for improvement. The method primarily addressed the spatial relationships between public areas and buildings but did not consider three-dimensional design implications or how slope conditions affect land use. Additionally, the analysis of cluster morphology did not adequately account for soil conditions, nor did it include slope treatment or a thoughtful distribution of residential and public buildings within the design. To address these limitations, the structural system requires enhancement through the integration of vernacular building techniques, which offer time-tested wisdom on constructing in harmony with the landscape.

The improvement summary is: Incorporate slope processing and stabilization into planning and develop a comprehensive land use strategy that includes slope infrastructure. To refine our urban planning, we must reassess the layout to align with the landscape, employ adaptation and distribution maps for land use optimization against topographical constraints, conduct a slope analysis considering elevation, angle, and risks like landslides, and ascertain construction altitudes to ensure accessibility and integration with the terrain.

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5.0 Design development

5.1 Landuse comprehensive arrangement

Figure 5.1.2 Slope angle

(1) The first one is the "slope elevation". It calculates the relative altitude of the terrain, which is essential for determining feasible construction heights. It is to ensure that buildings are not planned at too high an altitude, where the conditions might be less suitable for construction due to accessibility concerns or increased risk of environmental hazards.(Figure 5.1.1) (2) The second one is "slope angle", the angle is calculated by the neighbouring algorithm, The "neighborhood algorithm" is a method used to calculate the slope of a terrain at each point (or grid cell) based on elevation values. The algorithm operates in a 3 x 3 grid cell neighborhood. Each central cell's slope is computed by first determining the northsouth and east-west slopes using the elevations of the eight surrounding grid cells. It determines the building structure, slope process method, safety factors, and tree species. (Figure 5.1.2)

Architectural Association School of Architecture | EmTech | Thesis | 2022-2023 85

5.1 Landuse comprehensive arrangement

Figure 5.1.3 Slope elevation

(3) The third one is "slope orientation" is also called 'Aspect'. Slope orientation influences the microclimate of the area by determining exposure to sunlight and wind. It also affects vegetation types and distributions. It is measured clockwise in degrees from 0 (due north) to 360 (again due north), coming full circle. Flat areas having no downslope direction are given a value of -1 (Figure 5.1.3).

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5.0 Design development

5.1 Landuse comprehensive arrangement

Figure 5.1.4 Landslide sediment

(4) The fourth one is "landslide sediment", it comprises soil, rocks, and organic matter, it plays a pivotal role in determining soil fertility in agricultural fields. Their deposition can either boost or hinder crop yield based on their nutrient composition. We use Houdini's height field erosion tool to simulate and anticipate these sediment areas. It can measure the potential impacts on agricultural soil nutrients and strategize mitigation efforts (Figure.5.1.4)

Architectural Association School of Architecture | EmTech | Thesis | 2022-2023 87

5.1 Landuse comprehensive arrangement

Figure 5.1.5 Soil Erosion (5) The fifth one is "Soil Erosion", it is largely dictated by a field's topography , steeper and lengthier slopes typically result in heightened erosion. This erosion strips the field of its nutrient-dense topsoil. To assess long-term soil erosion rates, experts frequently employ the Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE), or its advanced counterpart, the Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation (RUSLE) (Figure 5.1.5).

USLE A=R×K×L×S×C×P A = the average annual soil loss (tons per ha) predicted by the equation; R = the rainfall factor; K = the soil erodibility factor (tons per ha per year); L = the length factor; S = the steepness of slope factor; C = the cropping and management factor; and P = the supporting conservation practice factor (terracing, strip cropping, and contouring).

Then we synthesize the five individual maps into a comprehensive land use adaptation map, categorizing the site into five distinct suitability levels, ranging from most suitable to least suitable areas. The proximity to the village center, situated in the valley, dictates the designated land use function. Areas close to the valley's heart are allocated for residential purposes and agriculture, while regions further from the valley are earmarked as reserved spaces and for forestry, aligning with the principles of strategic land use and conservation.(Figure 5 1.6) Chuheng Tan | Haipeng Zhong 88

5.0 Design development

5.1 Landuse comprehensive arrangement

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Figure 5.1.6 Land use adaptation map and land use functions distribution map Notes: This adaptability indicator prioritizes suitability for agricultural purposes.

Architectural Association School of Architecture | EmTech | Thesis | 2022-2023 89

5.1 Landuse comprehensive arrangement

Landuse comprehensive arragement optimization : Gene distribution

In our approach, we assign weightings to each map, conceptualized as gene domains, which influence the resulting adaptation level map. Our initial experiments with equal weightings for each map revealed that the maps detailing sediment and soil erosion exerted a predominant influence on land adaptability, aligning the distribution of the map with runoff trends and indicating the safety level of slopes.

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5.0 Design development

5.1 Landuse comprehensive arrangement

Landuse comprehensive arragement optimization : Gene distribution

Figure 5.1.7 Gene weightage remap

However, we observed that the other three maps, which provide insights into sunlight direction and its effects on building orientation and agricultural planning, as well as hydrological conditions and ecosystem types, also play critical roles. Recognizing that each factor's impact is distinct and should not be weighted equally in the adaptation map, we recalibrated the gene domains to ensure a balanced representation of all influencing factors, thereby achieving a more nuanced and equitable map of land adaptability.(Figure 5.1.7)

Architectural Association School of Architecture | EmTech | Thesis | 2022-2023 91

5.1 Landuse comprehensive arrangement Landuse comprehensive arragement optimization : objectives

Figure 5.1.8 Gene weightage remap

In terms of the optimization objectives, we carry forward the data statistics from MSC phase, that is the future construction needs of the village. And then compile the approximate land use proportion for each function. Then the four objectives are to make the final area distribution as close to this proportion.(Figure 5.1.8) Figure 5.1.9 EA Optimization process Chuheng Tan | Haipeng Zhong 92

5.0 Design development

5.1 Landuse comprehensive arrangement

Selected To achieve this, we deploy an Evolutionary Algorithm within Houdini, executing 100 generations with 10 individual simulations in each. Throughout this optimization process, our selection criterion centers on the individual that exhibits the best average fitness across the objectives.

Figure 5.1.10 Final selection Architectural Association School of Architecture | EmTech | Thesis | 2022-2023 93

5.2 Urban infrastructure development

Site selection

Moderately suitable area

Less suitable area Unsuitable area

Figure 5.2.1 Site selection

Upon optimizing and redefining the urban tissue through Evolutionary Algorithm (EA) techniques, our next step involves planning the spatial distribution for specific functions such as buildings, terraces, and public spaces, selecting sites in proximity to the original village. This spatial arrangement encompasses areas of medium, less, and unsuitable suitability.

NOTES: This adaptability indicator prioritizes suitability for agricultural purposes.(Figure 5.2.1) In our architectural design process, we seek to incorporate traditional design elements such as courtyards and interlocking patterns, while also allowing for sufficient space between buildings. This consideration ensures the optimal flow of energy and enhances safety, guided by principles derived from Betz's law. (Figure 5.2.2) To examine the effects of water flow on different layouts, we conduct simulations featuring a straight layout, an interlocking layout without gaps, and an interlocking layout with gaps. These simulations are performed using Houdini's water flow and Rigid Body Dynamics (RBD) system, with parameters set at a water flow speed of 6 meters per second and two viscosity strengths: 100 for clear water and 1000 for muddy water.

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5.0 Design development

5.2 Urban infrastructure development

Building morphology strategy

Figure 5.2.2 Building morphology strategy

Our findings indicate that in linear arrangements, energy flows in a direct path, potentially causing a chain reaction of collisions. Overly tight interlocking can lead to a domino effect. However, providing adequate spacing between interlocked structures allows energy to disperse, mitigating the risk of excessive kinetic transfer and maintaining the integrity of the interlocking design (Figure 5.2.3).

Therefore, it is crucial to determine an optimal gene domain for spacing that balances energy dissipation and the benefits of interlocking. Our criteria stipulate that distances less than 1 meter may lead to collisions, while distances greater than 3 meters may diminish the effectiveness of interlocking.(Figure 5.2.4)

Architectural Association School of Architecture | EmTech | Thesis | 2022-2023 95

5.2 Urban infrastructure development Building morphology strategy

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Figure 5.2.3 Three type of building layout simulation Chuheng Tan | Haipeng Zhong 96

5.0 Design development

5.2 Urban infrastructure development Building morphology strategy Water flow with mud 6m/s (viscosity strength 1000) Gap : 0 m 1

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Figure 5.2.4 Gene domain of building morphology Architectural Association School of Architecture | EmTech | Thesis | 2022-2023 97

5.2 Urban infrastructure development Evolutionary Algorithm Gene distribution

Less suitable area Gene 1: Buildings density: 0.2-0.5 Gene 2: Buildings morphology selection: 1-100 Gene 3: Buildings gap: 1.5 m to 2.5m

Building cluster distribution control

Unsuitable area Gene 4: Buildings density: 0.1-0.5 Gene 5: Buildings morphology selection: 1-100 Gene 6: Buildings gap: 1.5m to 2.5m

Building cluster distribution control

Moderately suitable area Gene 7: Buildings density: 0.4-0.8 Gene 8: Buildings morphology selection: 1-100 Gene 9: Buildings gap: 1.5m to 2.5m

Building cluster distribution control Chuheng Tan | Haipeng Zhong 98

5.0 Design development

5.2 Urban infrastructure development Less suitable area Gene 10: Slope treatment angle : 5-12 degree Gene 11: Slope treatment scope: 5-15 meter radius outside the buildings

Unsuitable area Gene 12: Slope treatment angle: 2-15 degree Gene 13: Slope treatment scope : 5-12 meter radius outside the buildings

Slope treatment control Moderately suitable area Gene 14: Slope treatment angle: 2-10 degree Gene 15: Slope treatment scope: 5-8 meter radius outside the buildings

Slope area Gene 16: Spacing of drainpipes: 8m to 18m Gene 17: Density of drainpipes: 0.015 to 0. 025

Plain area: Gene 18: Spacing of drainpipes : 8m to 18m Gene 19: Density of drainpipes: 0.01 to 0.02

Drainage system control

Private / public ratio Gene 20: Residential / Public space ratio: 0.75 to 0.95

Pulic / Private ration control Figure 5.2.5 Gene distribution Architectural Association School of Architecture | EmTech | Thesis | 2022-2023 99

5.2 Urban infrastructure development Evolutionary Algorithm Objectives Setup 1. For Slope Process Optimization

Slope safety factors (maximize ↑ )

FC1 : Maximize the compound number of =

Slope safety factors

Slope earthwork balance volume (minimize ↓ )

= •​ •​

= Total height of slope (m) = Localised height (m) ​ = Globe angle of slope (degree) = Localised angle of slope （degree）

•ℓ = Average shear stress (F/L ²) •W = Weight of the soil mass (kg) •γ = Total unit weight of the soil (kg) •V = the earthwork volume (m³)

Earthwork balance volume

2. For Drainage System Optimization

Drainage water capacity (maximize ↑ )

FC2: Maximize the compound number of =

Pipe construction volume (minimize ↓ )

Drainage water capacity

= Kb = hydraulic conductivity of the soil below drain level (m/day) d = equivalent depth, a function of L, (Di-Dd), and radius r (dimensionless) Di = depth of the impermeable layer below drain level (m) Dd = depth of the drains (m) Dw = steady-state depth of the water midway between the drains (m) Ka = hydraulic conductivity of the soil above drain level (m/day) L = spacing between the drains (m)

Construction volume

3. For Buildings Cluster Optimization

Area of Residential buildings

FC3: The ratio of Residential /Public is close to 0.8 =

Area of Public spaces

Residential buildings

= S1 = Area of residential buildings S2 = Area of public space

Figure 5.2.6 Optimization Objectives Chuheng Tan | Haipeng Zhong 100

Public space

5.0 Design development

5.2 Urban infrastructure development Evolutionary Algorithm Objectives Setup Figure 5.2.5 displays a set of maps detailing an urban infrastructure development plan, utilizing an evolutionary algorithm for gene distribution. The gene distribution is categorized into four main groups: 1. Building Morphology Cluster Control: This controls the density and morphology of building clusters and the gaps between them. The genes associated with this group (Gene 1, Gene 2, Gene 3, Gene 4, Gene 5, Gene 6, Gene 7, Gene 8, and Gene 9) dictate the building density, which ranges from 0.2-0.5 depending on the suitability of the area, and the buildings' morphology selection, which is consistently 1-100. The gaps between buildings are set to range from 1.5m to 2.5m.

2. Slope Treatment Control: This group focuses on the angle and scope of slope treatment surrounding the buildings, essential for mitigating landslide risks. Genes 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, and 15 are assigned to manage the slope treatment angle, ranging from 5-20 degrees, and the treatment scope radius outside the buildings, which varies from 5 to 12 meters.

3. Drainage System Control: These genes (Gene 16, Gene 17, Gene 18, and Gene 19) manage the spacing and density of drainpipes, ensuring proper drainage in slope areas and plain areas to prevent water accumulation and potential landslides. The spacing of drainpipes ranges from 8m to 18m, with the density varying from 0.015 to 0.025.

Public and Private Space Ratio Control: The final gene (Gene 20) controls the ratio of residential to public space, aiming for a balance for daily living and emergency shelter. The ratio target is set to 0.75 to 0.95.

This comprehensive optimization exercise aims to integrate all urban infrastructure elements across an entire village (Figure 5.2.6). To streamline and simplify the computational process, three sets of compound objectives have been formulated, focusing on key areas of slope stability, drainage efficiency, and building distribution: 1. The first objective aims to enhance slope stability factors while reducing the volume of earthwork required, ensuring safe and sustainable land development.

2. The second objective seeks to increase the capacity of the drainage system to handle water flow, concurrently minimizing the material volume needed for pipe construction, optimizing both functionality and resource use.

3. The third objective is to balance the ratio of residential to public spaces, tailoring the village layout to meet local community needs.

The simulation is conducted within Houdini, allowing for the rapid and concurrent processing of large datasets. For this simulation, we have programmed it to run through 100 generations with 10 individuals per generation.(Figure 5.2.7 & Figure 5.2.8)

Architectural Association School of Architecture | EmTech | Thesis | 2022-2023 101

5.2 Urban infrastructure development Evolutionary Optimization Processs

Figure 5.2.7 Optimization process

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5.2 Urban infrastructure development Evolutionary Optimization Pareto Front Solutions

Ind 04. Gen 99

Ind 05. Gen 98

Ind 09. Gen 99

Ind 01. Gen 97

Ind 06. Gen 99

Ind 02. Gen 99

Ind 01. Gen 97

Ind 02. Gen 97

Ind 04. Gen 92

Ind 08. Gen 92

Ind 01. Gen 98

Ind 06. Gen 96

Ind 06. Gen 94

Ind 01. Gen 90

Ind 05. Gen 93

Ind 09. Gen 93

Figure 5.2.8 Optimization pareto front solutions

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5.2 Urban infrastructure development Phenotype validation and selection

Phenotype selected √

Ind 04. Gen 99 Landslide affected area: 9408.7m²

Ind 05. Gen 98 Landslide affected area: 10114.2m²

Ind 09. Gen 99 Landslide affected area: 10233.2m²

Ind 01. Gen 97 Landslide affected area: 11245.3m²

Ind 06. Gen 99 Landslide affected area: 13425.9m²

Ind 02. Gen 99 Landslide affected area: 13899.4m²

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5.2 Urban infrastructure development Phenotype validation and selection

Risky area Soil stabilization and collapse prevention

Valley area Make the best use of sediment for farming

After running the EA optimization, six individuals are selected to undergo further validation of their landslide resistance capacities under the same landslide prediction. The most secure option that has less landslide affected area among these is then chosen for the next phase of structural design. In areas identified as slopes, the optimization anticipates the risk of soil erosion. Therefore, subsequent structural strategies in these zones will concentrate on enhancing slope stability and preventing cracks, crucial for maintaining the integrity of the infrastructure.

In the valley areas where sediment accumulation is prevalent, the strategy is to leverage this trait by adapting the land for agricultural use. The accumulated sediment can enrich the soil, potentially creating fertile ground ideal for farming activities. This dual-focus approach ensures that the village's infrastructure is not only safe but also utilizes the natural landscape features to the community's advantage.

Architectural Association School of Architecture | EmTech | Thesis | 2022-2023 105

Urban infrastructure development conclusion As we progress from optimizing and redefining the urban tissue with Evolutionary Algorithm (EA) techniques, the subsequent phase in our urban development involves arranging spatial distribution for buildings, terraces, and public spaces.

The chosen sites are strategically positioned close to the original village and are differentiated based on their suitability for agriculture, adhering to adaptability indicators.

Architecturally, we strive to blend traditional design elements with functional modernity, ensuring sufficient space between structures for optimal energy flow and safety. Simulations in Houdini have informed our understanding of how water flow impacts various layouts, influencing our approach to balancing structural spacing.

The urban infrastructure plan has been meticulously developed, taking into account building morphology, slope treatment, drainage, and the balance between public and private spaces. This comprehensive optimization aims to incorporate all elements of the village infrastructure. From the simulations, individuals have been selected for further validation of their landslide resistance capacities, with the safest option earmarked for future structural development.

The next step involves incorporating mycelium biocomposite into our structural designs. Focused on areas prone to soil erosion and slopes, mycelium biocomposite materials offer a promising solution for enhancing slope stability and preventing erosion. In valley areas, where sediment accumulation is notable, this approach will be harnessed to boost agricultural productivity.

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5.3.1 Mycelium biocomposite Production Step 01

Sugarcane bagasse

Into transparent boxes

High-temperature sterilization

Sealed by transparent film

Cooling in fridge for 1 hour

Add seeds Re-seal and close the cover

INGREDIENTS

Sugarcane bagasse

Pleurotus ostreatus seeds

Flour

waterproof coating

%

45%

45%

10%

YES

Step 02

Step 03

Microwave baking 100℃ 3-4 Hours Figure 5.3.1 Mycelium grow and composite production Our substrate treatment procedure employs a high-temperature steaming technique for sterilization. After approximately a ten-day maturation period, our material samples achieved a state conducive for the curing process. We then employed microwave baking to finalize the mycelium composites.

Architectural Association School of Architecture | EmTech | Thesis | 2022-2023 107

5.3.2 Sandwich Structure

Figure 5.3.2 Mycelium-timber sandwich panel

We fabricated wooden casings precisely tailored to the dimensions of the cured mycelium composite, thereby encapsulating the mycelial mass to create our specialized composite bricks. Our empirical evaluations will employ individual bricks, each weighing 2.7 kg, in a stacking configuration until either all available units are exhausted or structural integrity is compromised.

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5.3.3 Sandwich Components Physical Experiment Compression test

Minor deformation

Compressive stress: 81 kg/0.03m² =27000 N /m²​ Compressive strain: 0.002m​ Shear modulus: 13,500 Kpa

Compressive stress: 81 kg/0.03m² =27000 N /m²​

Shear stress:

Shear stress:

40.5 kg/0.03m² =13500 N /m²​ Shear strain: 0.03m​ Shear modulus: 450 Kpa

56.7 kg/0.03m² =18900 N /m²​ Shear strain: 0.002m​ Shear modulus: 9450 Kpa

Compressive strain: 0.002m​ Shear modulus: 13,500 Kpa

Shear test

Shear stress: 51.3 kg/0.03m² =18000 N /m²​ Shear strain: 0.005m​ Shear modulus: 3600 Kpa

The data presented in the figure elucidates that all three materials exhibit commendable compressive properties.

However, mycelium distinctly lags in shear resistance, while timber and the sandwich composite manifest superior shear attributes. Notably, under the influence of shear forces, timber exhibits greater displacement compared to the sandwich composite.

Architectural Association School of Architecture | EmTech | Thesis | 2022-2023 109

5.3.4 Digital experiment to evaluate sandwich panels performance Single plank

Dual planks

Sandwich panels with buffering core

1m

1m

1m

0.02m

0.02m | 0.02m

0.02m | 0.05m | 0.02m

1

1

1

2

2

2

3

3

3

Figure 5.3: Evaluate sandwich panels performance under water flow In evaluating the performance of sandwich panels, the team conducted digital simulations for single plank, double plank, and sandwich structures. The results demonstrated that under the same water flow conditions, the sandwich structure outperformed both the single and double plank configurations, highlighting its superior effectiveness in resisting water flow and reinforcing its suitability for use in areas prone to landslides.

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5.3.4 Landslide Resistance Structure Design Principles

Structure System Landslide resistance structure design principles

Rigid Protection

Flexible Protection

Have sufficient strength and rigidity to withstand the forces Envelop with internal buffer material Have a stable foundation and be designed to resist Have Deformation Capacity to deform under stress, and overturning absorb and dissipate energy.

From the studies that have been performed, it can be seen that there are two main methods to reduce the damage caused by landslides on buildings. The first is Rigid protective structures, which are characterised by having sufficient strength to counter the impact of landslides on buildings. The other is flexible protective structures, which are capable of spreading out the forces and allowing for a certain degree of deformation and are made of lightweight and buffer materials. These two types of protection will guide the subsequent design.

Architectural Association School of Architecture | EmTech | Thesis | 2022-2023 111

5.3.5 Rigid Protective Principles

Type A"Yikeyin"

Type B"Three workshop and a wall"

Type C"Bole fences building"

Type D"Muleng house"

Figure 5.3.5.1: Yunnan vernacular building

Ancient reference prototype

Figure 5.3.5.2: Timber structure transfer and dissipate the load

Topology optimization results

Topology optimization results - side view

Figure 5.3.5.3: Topology optimization in vernacular building In developing rigid protection for architectural designs, the team drew inspiration from braced structures found in vernacular building, known for their strong seismic and impact resistance. Researchers Duan, C. B., Shen, S. Y., Bao, and others applied topology optimization to these structures, enhancing their stability while minimizing material usage. This methodology was adopted by the team in designing their rigid protection structures.

Rigid protection optimization

1. Column and beam set up

2. Topology optimization

3. Structural rationalization

The process begins with establishing the basic beam-column framework. Then, topology optimization is employed to refine the structure, a step which not only conserves materials but also strengthens the overall construction. The final phase involves further rationalization of the structure, such as integrating a core within the topology-optimized framework to bolster its strength. This approach ensures a balance between material efficiency and structural robustness, reflecting a thoughtful fusion of traditional design principles and modern optimization techniques.

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5.3.5.1 Topology optimization

Displacement

0

231

Figure 5.3.5.1.1: Topology optimization in vernacular building 1

2

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Figure 5.3.5.1.2: Topology optimization iteration Upon establishing the beam and column structure, the team applied forces to the building and conducted a finite element analysis. As observed in Figure 5.3.5.1.1, the color similarity between the roof, walls, and columns indicated that the roof's displacement was comparable to that of the walls and columns, suggesting a need for reinforcement.

To address this, the team utilized topology optimization to enhance the connection between the roof and the columns. This process involved iterative adjustments, leading to a notable reduction in the building's displacement while also minimizing material usage. The optimization not only strengthened the structural integrity but also ensured material efficiency, highlighting the effectiveness of combining structural analysis with advanced optimization techniques in architectural design.

Architectural Association School of Architecture | EmTech | Thesis | 2022-2023 113

5.3.5.2 Structural rationalization Structural rationalization

Optimized structure

Rationalize structure

Mycelium as outer

Timber Core Figure 5.3.5.2.1: Topology optimization in vernacular building Disassembled

Rigid protection (Timber Core) Provides rigidity performance

Flexible protection (Mycelium) Provides cushioning for the column Figure 5.3.5.2.2: Rationalize structure The components created through topology optimization, while adhering to principles of force distribution, resulted in forms that were organically shaped and complex for practical fabrication. Therefore, a rationalization step was necessary. In this phase, the team disassembled the components and introduced a concept blending rigid and flexible protection.

Inside the component, wood was used as the core material, serving as part of the rigid protection structure.

Externally, mycelium composites were applied as a cushioning layer, wrapping around the wooden core to provide flexible protection, as depicted in Figure 5.3.5.2.2. This innovative combination of rigid and flexible materials not only made the components more practical to construct but also enhanced the building's impact resistance. This dual-protection approach effectively balanced the need for structural integrity with the adaptability required to absorb and dissipate forces, showcasing a sophisticated integration of materials in architectural design.

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5.3.6 Flexible Protective Principles Force direction Displacement

231

0 Figure 5.3.6.1 Finite element analysis (FEA)

The team selected a building as a paradigm to serve as a model for developing a protective façade. This involved conducting a Finite Element Analysis (FEA) on the structure to analyze areas experiencing significant displacements. The FEA facilitated the identification of displacement levels across different parts of the building, with a color-coded system where hues closer to pink indicated higher levels of displacement.

Based on these findings, the team was able to strategically determine the distribution of sandwich panels in the façade. The panels were allocated in a manner that corresponded to the varying displacement intensities identified in the FEA. Areas with higher displacement, indicated by the pinker shades, received thicker paneling to provide greater protection and structural support.

Figure 5.3.6.2 Bulge out the facade

This approach ensured that the façade system was not only uniform in appearance but also functionally tailored to the building's specific needs. By aligning the façade design with the structural analysis results, the team was able to create a façade that was both aesthetically pleasing and effectively reinforced against the identified stress points, enhancing the building's overall resilience.

Figure 5.3.6.3Final Generation

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5.3.6 Flexible Protective Principles Force direction Displacement

231

In order to get information about the displacement of the building under the influence of landslides, the team first performed a finite element analysis of the building.

The structure of the building is based on a frame structure and support structures were added to the walls to counter the landslide. After applying loads to the impacted surfaces, the maximum length of the building that was displaced was 231cm, which is the pink part.

0 South View

East View

North View

West View

Figure 5.3.6.1 Finite element analysis (FEA) Utilizing finite element analysis, the team determined the displacement values at different points of a building and adapted the façade design accordingly. In response, these areas of the façade were projected outwards more significantly. This projection was not just a visual marker but also a functional adaptation, as areas with higher displacement received more material, thereby enhancing the building's resistance to landslide impacts. This is illustrated in Figure 5.3.6.2, where the façade's varying projections across the building correlate with the displacement data.

South View East View

North View

West View

Figure 5.3.6.2 Bulge out the facade In summary, the façade design process is directly influenced by the displacement data obtained from the building analysis. This relationship is clearly depicted in Figure 5.3.6.3, where the façade's varying thicknesses and the placement of sandwich panels visually represent and respond to the building's structural needs. This method effectively combines practical safety considerations with architectural aesthetics, ensuring that the façade serves both as a protective layer and as an integral part of the building's design.

South View

East View

Figure 5.3.6.3Final Generation Chuheng Tan | Haipeng Zhong 116

North View

West View

5.0 Design development

5.3.7 Rigidity Test Under Landslide Simulation to Define Gene Domain 1

2

3

Water flow 6m/s (viscosity strength: 10)

1

Column and beam width: 20cm

2

3

Water with mud 6m/s (viscosity strength: 1000)

1

2

3

Water flow 6m/s (viscosity strength: 10)

1

Column and beam width: 60cm

2

3

Water with mud 6m/s (viscosity strength: 1000)

Figure 5.3.7 Rigidity test under landslide simulation Landslide simulation to get the size range of beam and column: Since the protective system of the building consists of both rigid protective structures and flexible protective structures, but there is no reference for the exact size of the structures, the team first used rigid body dynamics simulation(Figure 5.3.7) to derive a range of sizes for the structures, and then optimized them using a multi-objective algorithm to get a fitting size. The team firstly used rigid body dynamics simulation to get the size range of the structure, and then used a multi-objective algorithm to optimize the structure to get a suitable size. The calculation is shown in equation1.

From the simulation results, we determined the effective size ranges for both rigid and flexible protective structures in safeguarding buildings against landslides. For the rigid structures, such as columns and beams, it was found that if their size is less than 20 cm, the building is likely to sustain complete damage from a landslide impact. However, a size exceeding 60 cm ensures that the building remains undamaged, with no significant additional benefit from further size increase.

The peak impact force of landslide equation 𝐹𝐹! = 𝐺𝐺𝜆𝜆"!𝑣𝑣!#ℎ! 𝑏𝑏! sin 𝑎𝑎⁄g

𝑦𝑦! =17.248KN/m³， ℎ! = 1.8m， 𝑏𝑏! =9m， a = 75°, G =gravity(9.8N/kg)

𝐹𝐹𝑓𝑓 is the mudflow slurry impact force (kN); 𝑣𝑣!" is the mudflow velocity (m/s); 𝜆𝜆#! is the mudflow capacity (kN/m3); 𝑏𝑏! is the mudflow width (m); 𝑏𝑏! is the mudflow depth (m); sin 𝑎𝑎 is the angle (degree) between the facing surface of the building and the direction of the landslide

Architectural Association School of Architecture | EmTech | Thesis | 2022-2023 117

5.3.8 Flexibility Test under Landslide Simulation to Define Gene Domain 2 1 Panel Scale: 40cm

3

1

2

3

1

2

3

1

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1

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1

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40cm

Panel Scale: 60cm

60cm

Panel Scale: 80cm

80cm

Panel Scale: 100cm

100cm

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5.3.8 Flexibility Test under Landslide Simulation to Define Gene Domain Panel Scale: 120cm

1

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120cm

Panel Scale: 140cm

140cm

Landslide simulation to get the size range of Sandwich Panel For flexible protective structures like panels, a width less than 0.4 meters results in the building being completely compromised. In contrast, a panel width greater than 1.4 meters effectively protects the building without incurring damage from the landslide. Beyond this width, further increases do not substantially enhance the building's resilience.

These findings are crucial in guiding the design and construction of protective structures, ensuring optimal balance between material usage and structural safety.

Notably,when the panel width is less than 1 meter, the structure is more vulnerable to mud flow, which typically involves a mixture of water and soil with a higher viscosity and density. This vulnerability is likely due to the smaller panels' inability to effectively distribute and resist the force exerted by the denser mud flow.

Conversely, when the panel width exceeds 1 meter, the structure becomes more affected by water flow. This change in response could be attributed to the larger surface area of the panels, which offers a greater barrier to the relatively less viscous water flow. This distinction is crucial for designing protective structures in areas susceptible to different types of landslides, as it informs the optimal panel sizing for effectively countering the specific challenges posed by mud and water flows. Understanding these dynamics ensures that the protective measures are appropriately tailored to the environmental conditions and risks present.

Architectural Association School of Architecture | EmTech | Thesis | 2022-2023 119

5.3.9 Structure Optimization (Evolutionary Algorithm Set-up)

Optimization of Rigid Protection

Optimization of Flexible Protection

Optimised range of Columns (GENE) Column Height: 20-60CM Column Width: 20-60CM

Optimised range of Scale (Gene) Modular Height: 40 -140 CM Modular Width: 40 -140 CM

Optimised range of Beams (Gene) Beam Height: 20 -60 CM Beam Width: 20 -60 CM

Optimised range of Thickness (Gene) Modular Thickness: 10-40CM

FC1 Minimum Materials Usage

FC2 Minimum Displacement

Displacement Structure optimization In order to use less material while allowing less displacement to occur when the building is impacted by a landslide, the team inputs the resulting range of dimensions into an evolutionary algorithm for iterative optimisation, which then produces the dimensions of columns, beams, and sandwich panels.

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5.3.10 Result and landslide simulation

0

23

Displacement

FC1 Minimum Materials Usage 82.42

52.32 Minimum Materials

FC2 Minimum Displacement

Parallel Coordinate Plot

23.23

2.14 Minimum Displacement

Architectural Association School of Architecture | EmTech | Thesis | 2022-2023 121

5.3.10 Result and landslide simulation Average of objectives rank 0 (G27 I3)

Material Usage: 56.72 m3 Displacement: 3.41 cm

1

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1

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Panel Scale: 0.6m Panel Thickness: 0.2m

Average of objectives rank 1 (G15 I6)

Material Usage: 56.72 m3 Displacement: 3.41 cm

Panel Scale: 0.6m Panel Thickness: 0.2m

Average of objectives rank 2 (G29 I9)

Material Usage: 56.72 m3 Displacement: 3.41 cm

Panel Scale: 0.6m Panel Thickness: 0.2m

The Pareto front solution, a result of the Evolutionary Algorithm (EA) optimization, in order to thoroughly evaluate the efficacy of these optimizations, the team selected three representative results for detailed landslide simulation verification. These included the optimal results for FC1, FC2, and the average results of both FC1 and FC2.

Upon subjecting these selected optimization outcomes to landslide modeling, it was observed that the extent of damage under landslide conditions was comparably minimal across all three solutions. Given this similarity in performance, the team decided to proceed with the solution that utilized the least amount of material. This decision not only aligned with efficiency and cost-effectiveness but also ensured environmental sustainability.

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5.3.11 Construction process 1

2

Slope remediation

Insertion of piles and columns to make the building more stable while enhancing the stability of the slope

3

Installation of slabs and beams

5

Installation of flexible protection

4

Reinforcement of columns to roof and ground using topology optimisation

6

Installation of mycelium fence Architectural Association School of Architecture | EmTech | Thesis | 2022-2023 123

5.3.12 Result and landslide simulation 2 1

Connect between rigidity and flexibity

Mushroom growing between passive pile

Figure 5.3.12 Section and detail Detail Initially, the team enhanced slope stability using a passive pile system, drawing inspiration from the Eco-engineering techniques by Tardío and Mickovski (2016). This passive pile system was ingeniously integrated with the building's columns, effectively merging them into a unified structure that increased overall stability.

The choice of wood as the material for the passive piles played a dual role. Not only did it serve as a structural element, but it also created an environment conducive to mycelium growth. The mycelium, growing between the passive piles, strengthened the connections between them, thereby reinforcing the soil structure.

Furthermore, the material selected for the fencing was also compatible with mycelium growth. As illustrated in the accompanying figure, mushrooms were observed growing upward along the fence. This synergy between the chosen materials and the natural growth of mycelium demonstrates a thoughtful approach to ecological and sustainable design, enhancing structural stability while also fostering a living, growing environment.

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5.3.13 Construction process

Assembling and Detail

Figure 5.3.13 Construction process

In terms of the assembling process, The sandwich protective envelopes are composed of modular components, and these components are installed into a customisable frame structure for dismantling and installation. The connecting and framing parts are made of steel, and the layers of these modular components can be stacked and dismantled according to the user's actual needs and changing environment.

Architectural Association School of Architecture | EmTech | Thesis | 2022-2023 125

DESIGN DEVELOPMENT CONCLUSION This chapter combined a deeper integration of slope processes, stabilization strategies and comprehensive land-use planning, starting with the redefinition of urban infrastructure. This step was crucial in reimagining the built environment to align with the geographical and socio-cultural context of the region. Our efforts were directed towards realigning urban development with the natural topography and existing ecological systems to enhance resilience and sustainability.

For comprehensive site evaluation and land use optimization, meticulous site evaluation using land use adaptation maps and function distribution maps are introduced. These tools allowed us to thoroughly analyze the terrain, considering factors such as slope elevation, angle, orientation, and the challenges posed by landslide sediment and soil erosion. By employing an Evolutionary Algorithm (EA) approach, we optimized land-use rearrangement, aiming to achieve a balance between ecological integrity and human needs. This included employing bioengineering slope stabilization techniques and creating subdivisions of landuse that resonated with the local context.

The integration of structural design and ground treatment strategies with residential and public building designs is developed for structural system. It incorporates sandwich panels and bioengineering ground treatments, resulted in designs that were both environmentally responsive and structurally sound.

Throughout this chapter, we refined our urban planning to better align with the landscape and optimize land use against topographical constraints. We conducted thorough slope analyses and determined construction altitudes to ensure accessibility and integration with the terrain. The use of various simulation tools, such as Houdini's height field erosion tool, enabled us to strategically anticipate and mitigate the impacts of landslides on agricultural and residential areas.

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PHYSICAL MODEL

Architectural Association School of Architecture | EmTech | Thesis | 2022-2023 127

6 DESIGN EXPANSION We are expanding our method to encompass all the dwellings within a village. By conducting a comprehensive terrain analysis, we develop a landslide risk map, which serves as a guide for the strategic placement of mycelium biocomposite (MBC) sandwich panels on buildings, tailored to the specific risk levels of different areas. The deployment of these panels is directly correlated with the assessed landslide risk in each zone.

In this model, buildings are reinforced with rigid protective structures, such as interior walls, foundations, columns, beams, and crucial components of the ground floor and roof.

These reinforcements are meticulously designed based on the thresholds identified through Rigid Body Dynamics (RBD) analysis, ensuring structural integrity against landslide pressures.

The MBC layered system significantly bolsters safety and adapts efficiently to environmental changes. When applied throughout a village, the MBC panels' distribution can be dynamically revised in response to updated landslide risk assessments. This flexibility offers a proactive approach to the region's evolving landslide challenges. Furthermore, the modular nature of the MBC panels allows for easy reconfiguration, recycling, or replacement by residents.

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6.0 DESIGN EXPANSION

6.1 Village generation process first get the remediated terrain

Define public space

Get the risky map

Initial frame work set up

Assembling the facade

Final village

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6.1 Village section

Figure 6.1 Village section In this village section, the infrastructure includes elements like drainage systems and bio retaining strands, specifically designed to cater to the unique geographical features of the area.

In slope regions, building foundations are purposefully elevated. This elevation aids in the incorporation of mycelium both above and below the ground. The mycelium serves a dual function: it forms a sturdy base that strengthens the soil structure, and it contributes to an efficient drainage system. This natural integration plays a vital role in managing water levels, nurturing the soil, and providing robust protection against floods and slope erosion.

Conversely, in the valley areas, foundations are set lower. This design choice is intentional, aligning with the needs of daily life, production activities, and agricultural practices. The lower foundation level facilitates easier access and management of these activities, demonstrating a thoughtful consideration of the local topography and its influence on village life and infrastructure. This approach exemplifies a harmonious balance between construction, ecological sustainability, and community needs.

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6.0 DESIGN EXPANSION

6.2 Rendering

Architectural Association School of Architecture | EmTech | Thesis | 2022-2023 131

6.3 Life cycle vision

Landslide impact

Post-disaster reconstruction Chuheng Tan | Haipeng Zhong 132

6.0 DESIGN EXPANSION

6.3 Life cycle vision

Mycelium biocomposite structreu system assembling

Vernacular morpholgy recall Architectural Association School of Architecture | EmTech | Thesis | 2022-2023 133

6.3 Life cycle vision

Integration of ecological slopes and building foundations

Mycelium defence as a water-retaining fertilizer allows plants to grow Chuheng Tan | Haipeng Zhong 134

6.0 DESIGN EXPANSION

6.3 Life cycle vision

Mycelium defence as a water-retaining fertilizer allows plants to grow

Builidings can also serve as a fertilizer station for ecological preservation Architectural Association School of Architecture | EmTech | Thesis | 2022-2023 135

7 Limitations and conclusion The study acknowledges several limitations: 1. Landslide simulation reliability: The landslide simulations, conducted using Houdini, face limitations due to constraints in real-world data collection. The numerical definitions and accuracy in these simulations partly rely on assumptions, indicating a gap between the model and real-world scenarios. Future research should aim to bridge this gap by enhancing data collection methods, refining simulation parameters, and improving the realism and reliability of these models.

2. Mycelium biocomposite cultivation: Currently, the cultivation and development of Mycelium biocomposites are limited by laboratory conditions, preventing large-scale production. Additionally, there are unavoidable contamination risks, and the physical properties of Mycelium biocomposites require further enhancement. Future efforts should focus on overcoming these production challenges, improving the material's physical properties, and ensuring its suitability and durability for construction purposes.

3. Environmental Impact and Material Durability: Comprehensive assessments of the long-term environmental impacts of the proposed interventions, particularly in relation to local ecosystems and biodiversity, are yet to be fully explored.

Additionally, the long-term durability and effectiveness of Mycelium biocomposites in various environmental conditions remain areas for further investigation.

4. Implementation Complexity: The proposed solutions involve complex systems and technologies, which may pose practical implementation challenges, especially in resource-limited settings.

5. Scalability and Adaptability: The scalability of these solutions to larger or more diverse regions and their adaptability to evolving climate and environmental conditions are areas for future research.

6. Regional Specificity: The strategies, while tailored to Yunnan's context, might have limited applicability in other regions with different characteristics.

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7.0 Conclusion and limitations

In summary, despite its limitations, this study makes clear contributions and outlines directions for future work at the current stage: The thesis represents a comprehensive exploration of designing for landslide-prone environments, tailored in Yunnan, China.

The study has addressed the multifaceted challenges of landslides, integrating regional planning, morphological designs, and structural systems into a cohesive strategy. It provides an efficient tool to assist designers and local residents in rapidly constructing landslide-resistant architectural systems.

The thesis provides a comprehensive exploration in designing for landslide-prone areas, with a focus on Yunnan, China. It integrates regional planning, morphological designs, and structural systems to address the challenges posed by landslides. The study successfully introduced innovative land-use planning methods, advanced structural systems featuring Mycelium biocomposites and sandwich panels, and utilized modern tools like genetic algorithms, GIS, and simulation techniques.

This holistic approach underscores the need for aligning urban development with natural topography and ecological systems, highlighting a multi-disciplinary strategy for disaster-resilient architecture and urban planning. Moreover, this study can be extended to incorporate various user—customized materials, creating more intricate composites in further research. Beyond landslide scenarios, the mode’s utility can extend to offer optimization solutions for buildings in other extreme conditions like snow loads, typhoon, fire, and floods.

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