Certificate in Advanced Kickboxing Instruction
C.A.K.I Certificate in Advanced Kickboxing Instruction
VERSION 2.0
MODULE 3
Movement Mechanics
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Certificate in Advanced Kickboxing Instruction
Section One – Training for Function ......................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined. Overview – Training for Function ........................................................................................................... 3 Physical Science ................................................................................................................................................ 5 Biological Science ............................................................................................................................................. 9 Real, Relative and Resultant Joint Motion ........................................................................................... 12 Proximal-to-Distal Sequencing ................................................................................................................... 15 Neurology ....................................................................................................................................................... 16 Proprioceptors: .............................................................................................................................................. 17 The Sensory detectives ............................................................................................................................... 17
“unnatural naturalness, or natural unnaturalness. It is a combination of both. I mean here is natural instinct and here is control. You are to combine the two in harmony. Not if you have one to the extreme, you'll be very unscientific. If you have another to the extreme, you become, all of a sudden, a mechanical man. No longer a human being. It is a successful combination of both. That way it is a process of continuing growth. Be water, my friend.” .................................. 21 Psychological Science ..................................................................................................................................... 22 Principles of Training for Function ....................................................................................................... 23 Biomechanical Capabilities of the Major Joints during various Activities: The Gait Cycle .................. 26 The Foot and Ankle ........................................................................................................................................ 26 The Knee Joint ................................................................................................................................................ 29 The Hip Joint ................................................................................................................................................... 30 The Spine ........................................................................................................................................................ 31 Scapulothoracic and Shoulder Joint ............................................................................................................... 32 Biomechanical Capabilities of the Major Joints during Various Activities: Cross Punch Cycle ........... 34 Drivers ............................................................................................................................................................ 34 Triangulation .............................................................................................................................................. 35 Angulation Coordinate (direction) ......................................................................................................................... 35 Horizontal Coordinate (distance) ........................................................................................................................... 35 Verticality Coordinate (height) .............................................................................................................................. 35 Martial Movement: ................................................................................................................................................ 36 Jumping Spinning Back Kick – Position vs Motion - Analysis ................................................................................. 38 TRI-MAT – Triplanar Movement Analysis Table .................................................................................................... 38 CAT – Coaching Analysis Table ............................................................................................................................... 40 TASK ....................................................................................................................................................................... 42
References ............................................................................................................................................ 45
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Certificate in Advanced Kickboxing Instruction
Overview – Training for Function Objectives: By the end of this unit you will be able to: • • • • • • •
Define training for function Discuss factors relating to the field of Applied Functional Science Describe the SAID principle Describe and discuss the importance of the three movement planes Describe the role of joint and muscle proprioceptors during movement List the five possible movements at joints and give examples Explain real and relative joint motions and give examples
Introduction – Defining Function Enhancing function is frequently a goal for health and fitness professionals. In response, Functional Training methods have become popular across health clubs and fitness centres, with many trainers using tools promoted by fitness industry educators; such as stability balls, wobble boards and cable machines. In this respect there is a need to clarify and define Functional Training. Although various health care professions define function differently within their disciplines, to the fitness trainer function can be thought of as goal directed movement (Cech and Martin 2002), or more simply stated, “doing what you do.” For example, walking can be considered functional as it is the method of moving from one place to another. Other examples include kicking a ball, a back hand in tennis or lifting a weight from the floor. In our case the function may be a specific punch or kick, even holding the pads and moving like a fighter for our partner. Therefore, it is wise to use training techniques and tools that reflect a person’s desired functional movement goal. Trainers can then develop through movement optimal levels of power, strength, cardiovascular fitness, muscle endurance or flexibility in their students/clients The concept of Functional Training therefore, becomes redundant as it is too vague a description, a more precise description would be “Training for Function.” Some authors and professionals have gone further in their description of function. Cech and Martin 2002 state... “...the capacity to exist within the environment is influenced by our ability to function, and the quality of our functional ability is related to all aspects of development: physical, social and emotional.” In addition, Physical Therapist Gary Gray and the Gray institute faculty have suggested an individual’s functional status can be firmly found within the field of ‘Applied Functional Science (AFS).’ AFS is the practical application of movement science to the individual and is divided into three domains. They include: • • •
Physical science Biological science Psychological science
Gray describes how or why the function occurs by listing a number of related components within each of the sciences (table 1.1). He states that by accurately reproducing each of these components you would be truly training for the client’s specific function.
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Certificate in Advanced Kickboxing Instruction Physical Science: Force Space Biological Science: Biomechanics Physiology Psychological Science: Body Mind Table 1.1 – Applied Functional Science In simplifying the thoughts of the above table, the Physical Science is the physics of the environment in which we live, Biological Science is the machine we live in and the Psychological Science is the operation of that machine. All nine components are linked and reflect a person’s functional status. Training for function must take into account the individual (anatomical, physiological, mechanical and psychological), the intended task, and the environment (physical and social). In consideration of this it is useful to adopt the SAID principle (Specific Adaptation to Imposed Demands) from the field of Exercise Science. The SAID principle explains why certain exercises, types of training or activities produce adaptations. Meaning, for training to have the greatest transfer to an activity the body must be targeted in ways very similar to the activity performed (e.g. body position, movements of segments, muscles used, force, velocity energy systems used and environment). Consider, for example, the conventional approach to conditioning the abdominals, which is to contract the abdominals concentrically in isolation where either the distal or proximal muscle attachments are fixed. However, the abdominal muscles have evolved to work reactively (Bosch and Klomp, 2005) with both distal and proximal attachments moving simultaneously at different speeds, either in the same, or in different directions. There is a large gap in conditioning between a concentric muscle contraction through one movement plane versus a reactive eccentric to concentric muscle contraction in multiple planes. As a result, Bosch and Klomp (2005) contend that, by isolating muscle the symbiotic relationship between a muscles function and the total pattern of movement may be lost. In recommendation, they state that it is better to select exercises or movements to stimulate muscles in a manner relevant to their function. In order to ‘train for function’, decisions (and therefore techniques) need to be based on careful analysis of a client’s functional movement goal rather than following a cook book approach to training. It is therefore, the purpose of this chapter to explore key concepts in the field of ‘Applied Functional Science,’ thereby, establish a principle-based approach to assist trainers in choosing the correct techniques specific to each person’s intended movement goal. Human movement begins with function.
“No function-no performance……….. know function-know performance”. Gary Gray 2006
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Certificate in Advanced Kickboxing Instruction Physical Science The human body has adapted to react to the environment within which it lives. Meaning it reacts to physics. In order to understand this, knowledge of muscle function (as it relates to the intended function), resultant forces acting on the body, mass and momentum is essential, as these in part, form the rationale behind training for function. However, it is common for training environments to be created in a way that the body is not accustomed to during many functional tasks. The possible consequence is joints and muscles that are made to behave in a manner that is different from how they have evolved may not function efficiently (Bosch and Klomp, 2005). The physical science explains the relationship between force and motion and includes the following: • • •
Force Time Space
Force Generally speaking a force can be thought of as a push or a pull and accounts for the motion and changes of motion of all things in the environment, including the human body (Kreighbaum and Barthels 1996). When the body moves it is because forces are acting upon it. Forces are classified as either internal or external. For instance, when considering the human body muscles contract and generate force, which is then transferred into the bones to which they attach; this would be an example of an internal force. On the other hand, an external force would be from outside the body, such as a push or a pull from an opponent during a Judo match. The body uses muscle forces to stand upright against another force called gravity (external force). Gravity is defined as the force of attraction between two masses and always acts in a downward direction towards the earth’s centre. Taking advantage of the earth’s gravitational pull allows individuals to interact with the surrounding environment. 1. Magnitude-how much force is applied 2. Direction-the direction in which the force is applied 3. Point of application-the point where the force is applied 4. Line of action-a straight line acting through the point of application along the direction of force
Image from ‘The Matrix: Revolutions”
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Certificate in Advanced Kickboxing Instruction
Figure 1.4 Properties of Force Forces applied in practice to the human body means muscles must generate internal forces to move body segments, either to slow them down or to get them moving. As a result the body is able to overcome external forces. The resultant affect of the forces acting on the human body pertaining to movement can be found within Newton’s three laws of motion and warrant mention here.
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Certificate in Advanced Kickboxing Instruction 1. Law of Inertia “An object at rest will remain at rest unless acted upon by an external and unbalanced force. An object in motion will remain in motion unless acted upon by an external and unbalanced force.” - Newton’s First Law Inertia is defined as the resistance of an object or body to a change in motion in any direction and is a property of the objects or a body’s mass. More mass equal’s greater inertia, therefore, the greater the force that is needed to move it. Basically if you need an object to move then push it! Furthermore, if an object is moving it will continue to move unless another force is applied to it, either with it to increase its speed or against it to change its direction or stop it. 2. Law of Acceleration “The rate of change of momentum of a body is proportional to the resultant force acting on the body and is in the same direction”. – Newton’s Second Law or F=MA (Where F= Force, M= Mass and A=Acceleration) Production of any force can be described by utilising the above equation. It does this by effecting both Mass and Acceleration and has wide application for trainers, since many functional tasks involve increasing and decreasing the speed of body segments. Consider, for example, pushing a light door open, then you probably self select to use mainly a hand and not to lean in to it. However when you have to open a very heavy door, it is more likely that you select your shoulder to get some weight behind it, with the aim to hit the door with more pace, certainly this would be the case if you happened to be a TV cop knocking a door down. Acceleration and momentum, used appropriately, increases the safety of an exercise due to stimulating the body’s sensory systems (thus reducing resistive torque around joints), thereby increasing joint stability. 3. Law of Action/Reaction “All forces occur in pairs, and these two forces are equal in magnitude and opposite in direction”. – Newton’s Third Law When two bodies interact, such as a football player kicking a football, landing from a jump, a tennis player hitting a forehand, or, the sweet connecion of a hook punch to the opponent’s head, they exert equal and opposite forces on each other for the same length of time (Watkins 2007). Moreover, in each of the previous examples there is constant subjection to the gravitational pull of the earth. Although impossible to see, its effects are evident; hence, if you jump into the air, your body weight will quickly bring you back to the ground. What's more, there is an equal and opposite reaction force between the surface upon which we move and the individual. The equal and opposite force supplied by the ground is specifically called the ground reaction force (GRF), and is basically the reaction to the force the body exerts on the ground which is reflected back up into the feet through the same action line with the same magnitude (van Deursen and Everett 2003). Gravity and GRF are key drivers of human movement and their effect must be considered in training
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Certificate in Advanced Kickboxing Instruction Space Reaching for an object from the top shelf, twisting in the car seat to grasp the seat belt and lifting an object from the floor all have something in common, they are all performed in space. Space can be thought of as the environment or three dimensional areas that exercise or activities are taking place in. Consider for example, the difference in technique of someone running fast in an open field compared to the technique needed to move on a tennis court or over a speed ladder placed on the floor. Three dimensional space incorporates movement direction, movement distance, and movement verticality (or height). The environment, or space, can be manipulated for results; in fact, it may be necessary to create an environment which is a more extreme version of what might normally be encountered in daily activities. Take for example a recreational squash player wanting to improve strength and power in their forehand or backhand. The game of squash dictates that players will be required to reach for the ball in different directions, different distances and at different heights; therefore, in accordance with the SAID principle, selecting movements similar to how they are performed would be wise. In this way speed, strength, power or endurance is developed in a similar fashion to the intended movement goal. Time When forces act on the body the resulting motion is not only determined by its magnitude but also on the duration for which the force is applied. Taking into account both force and time is referred to as an impulse. Movement occurs either from a large force acting over a short period of time, or, a relatively small force acting over a long period of time. Take for example the act of vigorously hitting a tennis ball, the resulting speed of the ball is determined by the amount of force imparted on the ball during its brief contact with the racket.
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Certificate in Advanced Kickboxing Instruction Biological Science The Biological Sciences depicts the machine that we live in and includes: • • •
Biomechanics (lit. mechanics applied to biology, Fung, 1993), Physiology (movement support systems such as digestion and bioenergetics) and Neurology (neuromuscular control).
Although, the physiological component is important in supporting movement, only Biomechanics and Neurology is considered here. In this section a number of key concepts relevant to functional training are discussed. They include: • • • • • •
Planes of motion Real, relative and resultant joint motion Position versus motion Proximal-to-distal sequencing Proprioceptors Functional muscle function
Planes of Motion Joints (depending on the type) move in a number of different directions. To make the description and analysis of movement simpler, joint and body movements are said to occur in three planes with movements occurring around an imaginary point called an axis. A plane is defined as an imaginary flat surface used to describe the direction of movement or anatomical crosssections. Almost all joints move in three planes (McArdle et al, 2006, Thibodeau et al, 2006) which include: Sagittal Frontal Transverse (AKA Horizontal)
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Certificate in Advanced Kickboxing Instruction Sagittal Plane: Invisible plane which divides the body or segment into right and left parts • •
Movements are flexion and extension Influenced by gravity
(McArdle et al, 2006, Thibodeau et al, 2006). Frontal Plane: Invisible plane which divides the body or segment into anterior and posterior parts • •
Movements are abduction, adduction, lateral flexion, eversion and inversion Influenced by gravity
(McArdle et al, 2006, Thibodeau et al, 2006). Transverse Plane: Invisible plane which divides the body or segment into upper and lower parts • • •
Movements are rotational Minimal influence from gravity Requires muscle to decelerate and accelerate motion
(McArdle et al, 2006, Thibodeau et al, 2006). Sagittal Flexion Extension
Frontal ABduction ADduction Inversion (When discussing foot/ankle) Eversion (When discussing foot/ankle)
Transverse Internal / Medial Rotation External / Lateral Rotation
During many functional movements it is common to find body segments moving simultaneously, or, in sequence through the three movement planes. During walking, for example, dorsiflexion (sagittal), eversion (frontal) and internal rotation (transverse) occurs simultaneously at the foot and ankle (Hintermann et al, 1998) at heel strike. According to Gray (2003), tri-plane motion at joints is necessary to proprioceptively stimulate the muscles to react, therefore, creating the necessary stability needed to protect them. .
Certificate in Advanced Kickboxing Instruction ‘Position’ versus ‘Motion’ Understanding the difference between ‘position’ and ‘motion’ opens up the strategies and technique possibilities for assessment, rehabilitation, performance and conditioning. •
Position refers to the position of a joint at any one moment and ends with the suffix- ‘ed,’ as in abducted.
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Motion on the other hand refers to the movement itself and ends in either ‘ion’ or ‘ing’ such as abduction or abducting.
Position Flexed, Extended Abducted, Aducted Laterally Flexed Internally Rotated, Externally Rotated Inverted, Everted Pronated, Supinated
Motion Flexing, Flexion – Extending, Extension Abducting, Abduction – Adducting, Adductin Laterally Flexing, Lateral Flexion Internally Rotating, Internal Rotation Externally Rotating, External Rotation Inverting, Inversion Everting, Eversion Pronating, Pronation Supinating, Supination
A joint may look like it is in an adducted position but is actually moving through abduction, only movement occurs from an adducted position; however, it may never actually get into an abducted position. This point becomes important if a client experiences pain on certain joint positions and/or motion. For example, if a client finds lumbar spine extension uncomfortable when extending from a normal standing position an appropriate a reasonable strategy could be to place one foot onto a high step, thereby, causing the pelvis to move into a posteriorly rotated position and the lumbar spine to flex. This reaction occurs from the bottom up. Extension would now be possible without ever moving into an extended position.
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Certificate in Advanced Kickboxing Instruction
Real, Relative and Resultant Joint Motion The concept of ‘real, relative and resultant’ joint motion is central to understanding functional biomechanics. In most anatomy text books motion at joints is described as either the distal bone moving on a fixed proximal bone, or, a proximal bone moving on a fixed distal bone. However, in most functional activities bones not only move in space, termed real motion, but move relative to each other, referred to as relative motion. Real motion This is defined as the actual movement of a bone in real three dimensional space, such as the movements of abduction, adduction, flexion and extension. Consider for example, a double-handed backhand for a right handed tennis player, the trunk and arms must first rotate in space to the left to hit the ball. This allows the racket head to move a greater distance in space (combined movement of the trunk and arms), thereby being able to accelerate over a greater range, hence, enough velocity cab be achieved to hit the ball at pace. Relative motion This is defined as the movement of bones relative to each other irrespective of their movement in space. Consider for example the downward phase of the squat exercise in the sagittal plane, the pelvis and femur move with proximal and distal bones moving in opposite directions. It is recognised that there are five possible ways adjacent bones can move relative to each other; for example, flexion and extension, abduction and adduction. In fact, if all the different combinations of relative joint movements are considered, possibilities of movement at many joints are almost infinite. Resultant motion This is defined as the actual joint motion occurring between bones irrespective of their movement in space but depending on their movement relative to each other. Using the same squat movement down phase as above it can be seen that in the sagittal plane, for example, the femur and pelvis move in opposite directions, therefore, the resultant motion is flexion. To further illustrate the notion of relative and resultant motion, let’s return to the previous example of the tennis backhand. As the trunk and arms rotate to the left, the trunk, scapular and humerus move at different speeds relative to each other. In examining this movement more closely, it can be seen that the humerus travels faster to the left than the scapula, and the scapula is moving faster than the trunk, which is also rotating to the left. Relative movements are important as they cause the muscles which cross them to lengthen, thereby, loading them eccentrically, hence, proprioceptively switching them on. It is noted that describing movement of a joint is based on how it is perceived from inside the joint (joint proprioceptors). A joint senses movement by where the distal bone moves relative to the proximal bone. This means that an externally rotating tibia and femur could be perceived by the knee joint as internal, external or no rotation at all depending on the speed of the bones in relation to each other. Working Example: At the right hip joint during right heel strike there is ‘real motion’ as both the pelvis and femur rotate to the left in space. However, ‘relative motion’ occurs between the bones because the distal femur rotates faster to the left than the proximal pelvis; therefore, the ‘resultant motion’ is internal rotation Possible movements at the knee joint when both the tibia and femur are externally rotating
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Femur (Proximal)
Tibia (Distal)
Joint Motion
Same Speed
Same Speed
None
Faster
Slower
Internal Rotation
Slower
Faster
External Rotation
Certificate in Advanced Kickboxing Instruction Determining Proximal and Distal Bones in Joints The pelvis is the proximal point in the body (figure 1.15). The nearest bone to the pelvis will be described as proximal and the furthest away would be distal. For example, the calcaneus is distal to the talus and L4 lumbar vertebra is distal to L5.
DISTAL
DISTAL
PROXIMAL
DISTAL
DISTAL
Five Ways to get Motion at a Joint Proximal Still, Distal moving Distal Still, Proximal Moving Both Proximal and Distal move in Opposite Directions Both Proximal and Distal move in the same direction but DISTAL moving faster Both Proximal and Distal move in the same direction but PROXIMAL moving faster. NB. That image is completely irrelevant to what is written but it’s just a cool image!!
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Certificate in Advanced Kickboxing Instruction Proximal Still, Distal moving
Distal Still, Proximal Moving
Both Proximal and Distal move in the same direction but DISTAL moving faster.
Both Proximal and Distal move in the same direction but PROXIMAL moving faster.
Both Proximal and Distal move in Opposite Directions = JOINT
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Certificate in Advanced Kickboxing Instruction
Proximal-to-Distal Sequencing In general, it is recognized (through motion analysis techniques) that there is a sequential pattern of motion progressing from the proximal (trunk, hips) segments to the distal segments; this is termed ‘proximal-to-distal sequencing.’ Success in many activities such as running, golf, kicking and hitting relies on the body being able to create enough speed in distal segments. For example, in golf, the ball will travel faster and further if it is hit at greater speed if the club head is accelerating with enough velocity at impact. Enough club head speed can be achieved if there is sequential real, relative and resultant motions in joints and a transition in the opposite direction of the proximal pelvis prior to the trunk and distal segments. When observing movement it is often necessary to observe the sequence of events from proximal to distal, as a lack of performance often comes from poorly sequenced motions between joints. In the golf swing for example, it has been observed that professional versus amateur golfers’ exhibit differences in proximal-to-distal sequencing, in that, amateur golfers hit the ball at lower speeds with poorer accelerations and decelerations. This is due to a less than favourable sequence of joints motions.
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Certificate in Advanced Kickboxing Instruction Neurology Human movement is controlled by the nervous system. Movement is achieved through the cooperative effort of many feed forward and feedback mechanisms within the peripheral and central nervous systems (Shumway-Cook and Woollacott 2001). Feed forward control is the pre-programming of a movement into the central nervous system before that movement begins. However, important to the discussion here on neural control, is sensory feedback (Kawakami et al, 2006, Leonard, 1998). For example, if a client is asked to lunge onto an unstable surface, they will lunge using a feed forward strategy. During the lunge action feedback processes are needed to refine, control, maintain balance and initiate further movement. The term used to describe sensory information from muscles, tendons, ligaments and joints is proprioception, and is defined as the sense of position of body parts (McArdle et al, 2006, Thibodeau et al, 2006). Proprioception therefore, is an important part of the movement information system. Proprioceptors are categorized into three different groups: muscle proprioceptors, joint & skin proprioceptors and labyrinthine & neck proprioceptors. Stimulation of all proprioceptors allows information to be relayed about static and dynamic joint positions; hence, the body can respond to environmental perturbations and refine on a continuous basis centrally generated movement patterns (Shumway-Cook and Woolcott 2001). In this way movement is modified (if necessary) and soft tissues protected (Siff 2003). In addition, joints and muscles are further protected if the ensuing movement is first decelerated providing the stability necessary to protect them (Hasan 1988). Human movement is driven by the conscious desire to move; however, the body reacts to its movement environment predominately on a subconscious level (Gray and Tiberio 2003). Meaning, to perform a movement such as running, muscles lengthen and shorten in sequences without conscious thought. It is through the proprioceptive system that the body becomes aware (subconsciously) of the whereabouts of its joints in space and relative to each other. To illustrate further the importance of the proprioceptive system, it perceives red light situations such as when the joints are near or at end range. It is important to note that every proprioceptor communicates to some degree at the same time. Proprioceptors located distally such as the pacinian corpuscles send their sensory information at a faster rate for processing than more centrally located proprioceptors such the raffini endings. However the central nervous system receives the information from both types of proprioceptors at the same time. Why does this make sense? As the foot hits the ground, motion is accelerated from the bottom up due to gravity and ground reaction force. A rapid response is, therefore, needed to control distal motion. Recognizing what happens at one part of the body and how it affects movement in another is important. Although we are unable to turn the proprioceptive system off, it is possible to reduce the amount and type of feedback to the CNS. For example, comparing the differences between horizontally extending the arm in sitting, verses standing position, it is apparent, whilst standing, the arm moves further in space reaching end range later. Whilst sitting you are inhibiting movement at the hips, so proprioceptive feedback is reduced. Consequently, with the shoulder at end of range the muscles around the shoulder restrict its range of movement (Settings, 2006, Kee et al, 2001), thus, protecting it from getting injured. In many functional movements (certainly upright functional activities) deceleration of shoulder occurs further down the body i.e. from the abdominals, hip flexors, adductors and other assisting muscles. In this way movement is decelerated and forces transferred throughout the body appropriately. If this didn’t happen, greater deceleration forces would occur at the shoulder. Since sitting down doesn’t facilitate adequate proprioceptive input from the hips and lower body; the result is these muscles may not engage when needed. Consequently, using techniques such as passive stretching (especially in the sitting position) to increase range of motion more than the body will allow, results in the golgi tendon organs (GTOs) being stimulated over other muscle and joint proprioceptors. Stimulation of the GTOs decreases nervous system activity to muscle being stretched; this in turn causes a greater relaxation response in muscle, hence, joint range of motion is increased. However, passive stretching is contrary to the functional movement requirement at a joint where maximum sensory .
Certificate in Advanced Kickboxing Instruction activity (muscle, ligament and joint receptors) is necessary. The proprioceptive system protects joints via feedback, causing muscles to respond by returning joints back to a safer zone. Another example where proprioceptive information is reduced is when a joint is hypomobile. The lack of motion causes a change in motor programming leading to dysfunction, and will only return when joint motion is restored (Hiss, 1949). Proprioception enables movements to be more successful in terms of pattern, velocity, acceleration and timing (Siff 2003); as a result they are fundamental to functional movement success. Many different types of proprioceptors live within the body’s muscles, tendons, ligaments and joints, and each has a specific role in the type of sensory information it feeds back. The following provides a basic description on what is currently known about the body’s most common proprioceptors
Proprioceptors:
The Sensory detectives
Golgi Ligament Endings
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Golgi Tendon Organs
Muscle Spindle Pancinian Corpuscles
Ruffini Endings Golgi Menzzoni
Certificate in Advanced Kickboxing Instruction Pacinian Corpuscles: • • • •
Live in the fibrous layer of the joint capsule Found mainly in the Hands, Feet and Ankles Respond to high velocity changes Low mechanical threshold but quick recovery Send their messages in to the spinal cord
(Pawson et al, 2002, Bell et al, 1994, Spencer et al, 1973, Loewenstein et al, 1966) Golgi-Mazzoni Corpuscles: • • • •
Based in Joints Responds to perpendicular compression on the joint, not necessarily distraction or stretching of the joint capsule. Responds to compression at end range of movement. Low mechanical threshold, it responds to the first position then change of position.
(Cavalcante et al, 2004, Grigg et al, 1982, Chouchkov 1978) Ruffini Ending: • • • •
Live in fibrous layer of the joint capsule and some extrinsic ligaments Live mainly proximally, close to the core Shout when static and dynamic things happen. Senses weight bearing and subtle posture changes. Discharges increase with motion and also in the transverse plane.
(Lephart et al, 1995, Zimny, 1988, Grigg et al, 1982) Golgi Ligament Endings: • • •
Live in the intrinsic and extrinsic ligaments of joints. Sensitive to tension or stretch on the ligaments, monitor position and motion in the joint. Full mechanical threshold both small and large motions and position changes turn it on.
(Masae 2004, Halata et al, 1989, Zimny 1988, Ralston et al, 1960) Golgi Tendon Organ: • • •
Musculotendionous Junction where the muscle and tendon meet. Shuts the system off, if isolated Responds to concentric and eccentric passive stretch
(Mileusnic et al, 2006, Jami, 1992, Zimny 1988) Muscle Spindles: • • • •
Middle of the muscle Amount and rate of change of length Sets the system for muscle stiffness Goes straight to the muscle
(Brumagne et al, 2000, Hoffer et al, 1989, Hulliger, 1984, Zimny 1988)
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Golgi Tendon Organs
Muscle Spindle
Pancinian Corpuscles
Ruffini Endings
Golgi Ligament Endings
Golgi Menzzoni
Detect Connective Tissue Force
Detect Range of Motion
Detect Muscle Force
Detect Muscle Length
Detect Pressure
Detect Joint Position & Velocity
Muscle Activation and Chain Reaction As discussed in the previous section, muscle and joint proprioceptors respond to motion (Hasan, 1988), stimulating them, thereby, aiding movement control. Apart from the Golgi Tendon Organs, every proprioceptor helps the body slow down unwanted or dangerous motions (Jami, 1992, Hasan, 1988, Zimny, 1988) through muscle response. The more dangerous the motion, the greater the proprioceptive response should be. Function is the ability to perform a required movement. Through repetition, movements become smooth, efficient and more economical; for example, observe a baby tentatively taking their first steps to the more fluid like walk of a young child. In order to select the appropriate movement pattern for any given function, the body uses functional ranges it knows it can control allowing muscles to contract at lengths in which they like to operate. In accordance with the SAID principle the body can be trained to move in ways that are not efficient. Hence, there can be a loss of movement range if not used regularly, resulting in new ranges to compensate. This can happen in a different plane at the same joint or in another joint. During assessment it becomes essential to observe ways in which the body compensates (hypomobility and restricted planes at joints), as movement patterns which initially do not appear faulty may lead, or may have contributed to injury, or at best reduce muscle strength potential. In fact, unless joint function is restored muscles may not respond to a strengthening programme (Cibuka et al, 1984 and Muckle, 1982). With gravity, ground reaction and momentum providing power, muscles are recruited to drive joints away from danger and contract before they reach the end point of their stretch. It is important to note that all muscles stretch in three dimensions and so in theory they could be shortening in one plane while still lengthening in the other planes (Blazevich et al, 2003, Lieber et al, 2001, Abe et al, 2000). .
Certificate in Advanced Kickboxing Instruction For example, during gait the lateral and medial hamstrings shorten in the sagittal plane during knee flexion but lengthen at the hips, causing the tibia and fibula to move towards the femur. The tibia and fibula also abduct in relation to the femur in the frontal plane lengthening the medial hamstrings. In addition they also lengthen in the transverse plane, as the tibia and fibula have to internally rotate to allow the knee to flex. Training for function requires knowledge of muscle function as it pertains to the clients movement goals. Unfortunately, according to most standard functional anatomy textbooks a muscles action is depicted at the joint or joints that they cross. However, it should not be assumed that a given muscle performs the same joint action in multijoint tasks, as a muscle can have a profound effect elsewhere at a joint not crossed by that muscle (Siff 2003). When a muscle contracts it creates a moment of force, which then carries a movement (Fukunaga et al, 1996). The above meaning, movement at a joint may be caused by a muscle below that joint, which can decelerate the bone above or below it. For instance, when the heel of the front foot strikes the floor during gait, the tibia and fibula are driven forward due to momentum causing dorsiflexion at the ankle. This dorsiflexion is decelerated by the soleus muscle, which as it contracts slows down the forward momentum of the tibia. However, due to the femur accelerating over the tibia, the resulting joint action at the knee is extension (proximal femur travelling faster than the distal tibia). Therefore, despite not actually crossing the knee, it could be said that in a functional task such as gait, the soleus muscle can be considered a primary knee extender. For example, compared to fast walking, walking slowly requires greater contraction of muscles over a longer period of time. This causes a reduction in forward momentum, thereby leading to less efficient energy transfer through the body. However, at higher walking speeds greater momentum is achieved resulting in more efficient muscle activity. For example, the quadriceps contract to assist momentum with knee extension at lower speeds. During running however, the momentum of the body drives the knee in to extension, so there is less need for the quadriceps to be as active (Ferber et al, 2003, Detrembleur et al, 2000, Lacquaniti et al, 1999, Martin et al, 1992, McMahon, 1984). When muscles contract concentrically they produce force. The effectiveness of this force is influenced by the prior state of musculotendonous structures. Meaning, a concentric force can be enhanced if it is preceded by a rapid stretch causing eccentric tension. This eccentric tension increases muscle stiffness so that the muscles and tendons elastic components (known as series elastic component) can store more elastic energy. Moreover, the greater the velocity of stretching during an eccentric contraction the greater the storage of elastic energy (Siff 2003).This is often referred to as the muscle stretch-shortening cycle and is the normal pattern of human muscular function (Komi 1984). According to Tiberio (1996), eccentric lengthening is a key feature of the human body’s muscles and that under normal circumstances they are highly efficient at capturing energy through eccentric lengthening (loading) and converting it to concentric (unloading) movement. He further states if the body is unable to load eccentrically there will be no effective concentric unload. For example, if during movement a client lacks the ability to adduct in the frontal plane and internally rotate in the transverse plane at one hip, the hip abductors and hip rotators of the same side hip along with the opposite side hip adductors will not be loaded eccentrically, therefore, the same muscles will be unable to capture the energy necessary to transform or explode into motion in the opposite direction. This inevitably leads to inefficient movement patterns, early fatigue and decreased function.
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Certificate in Advanced Kickboxing Instruction Physical movement occurs on a neurological level, and although there may be a conscious intent to move, such as a
Task
Part 1 - Observe the differences in jump height between a jump with a preceding countermovement versus a jump with no counter-movement. Part 2 – Explain why there is a difference in jump height between the two? Part 3 - Explain briefly why restricted motion or planes leads to a decrease in muscle functional performance?
decision to run one mile, muscles are recruited at a subconscious level. Just watch world class runners, they are not thinking about putting one foot in front of the other. Therefore, it can be said the majority of human function is orchestrated on a subconscious level. For that reason clients should be encouraged to exercise without rigidity or confinement. “unnatural naturalRI-MATness, or natural unnaturalness. It is a combination of both. I mean here is natural instinct and here is control. You are to combine the two in harmony. Not if you have one to the extreme, you'll be very unscientific. If you have another to the extreme, you become, all of a sudden, a mechanical man. No longer a human being. It is a successful combination of both. That way it is a process of continuing growth. Be water, my friend.” Tiberio, 1996 recommends using a variety of techniques and body drivers to create a desired chain reaction with the client being oblivious to the trainer’s intended goal. Consider, the following example, a client needing to generate more power in a cross punch. Understanding that the main driver is a cross punch is the back foot as it meets the floor, using the above strategy we would ask the client to perform a lunge backwards onto that back foot whilst reaching posteriorly overhead, to create better reaction with the ground and grater reactive muscle length by stimulating the proprioceptors of the major hip flexors, the quads, tibialis, rectus abdominis, pectorals, lats and triceps (naming a few).. Load to EXPLODE.
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Certificate in Advanced Kickboxing Instruction Psychological Science The psychological science component of this system could be a whole course in its own right, however to ignore it for that reason would not allow you to fully understand the thought process. This section should give an appreciation of the importance in considering that just because physical and biomechanical science suggest something should happen, sometimes the ‘Human factor’ intervenes and creates a more unpredictable response. Mind, Body and Spirit Although not covered in detail, the effect of mind, body and spirit must be taken into consideration when training a client. It is these, often non-quantifiable variables which make everyone unique. A simple approach to dealing with clients is to be non-judgemental and to work from a place whereby you encourage success during training sessions. By adapting teaching styles and coaching techniques, an environment which is conducive to success is more likely going to lead to client success. For example you may want to improve your client’s ability to dorsiflex at the ankle. Usually you may give them a stretch to do without you being there. This would require that they focus on the correct muscle and spend time remembering and looking at technique. An alternative you might now use could be to ask them to perform a one leg balance with the opposite foot reaching anteriorly at ankle height with maximum reach. By asking the client to record the distance they manage to achieve each time and encouraging them to try to better their previous score, we can create a goal-driven task which results in them subconsciously performing dorsiflexion, which will activate the soleus to be able to allow a greater range of movement at the ankle than was previously possible. According to the principles of function, movement should be goal-driven and subconscious, so with this exercise we have achieved training for function (Kyllo et al, 1995, Locke et al, 1985). On a broader level, by recreating the psychological variables of the functional activity that the client is looking to improve, we add the fourth dimension to their training experience. On one end of the spectrum, by adding time-oriented goals it is possible to psychologically recreate the pressure and focus required for certain sports, whilst at the other end there is much evidence to support the link between enjoyment of an activity and the mastering of that particular activity. In short, we learn better when we are having fun, and any parent observing their children will understand this simple fact. We can also help promote greater adherence to health and fitness programmes if our participants are stimulated, challenged and enthused by what we have prescribed them (Verplanken et al, 1999, Kyllo et al, 1995, Locke et al, 1985). If motivation is defined as ‘the direction and intensity of one’s efforts’ (Sage 1977), then we can certainly go a long way in encouraging this, as well as increasing the value attached to achieving certain lifestyle goals. Simply by creating the appropriate learning environment, we can have a significant impact on our clients’ chances of success. Lesson Summary Applied Functional Science is the practical application of movement science to the individual. As human function is both fascinating and complex, training programmes must take a multidimensional approach if functional movement performance is to be improved and protected from injury. This requires sufficient knowledge of the body’s anatomical structures and their relationship to each other during movement, mechanical factors involving force, time and space, physiological factors including the control of movement and finally, psychological and environmental factors, or the motivations behind and the influences the environment has on movement. Many forces act on the body from different directions, magnitudes and time. As a result the muscles of the body have evolved to deal with this and should be trained accordingly; moreover, in accordance with the SAID principle training will have the greatest carry over if techniques used are specific to each person’s intended movement goal.
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Principles of Training for Function These principles are reflected within the 3 sciences earlier described, and whilst repeat earlier concepts, serve to illustrate the conditions under which a movement or exercise can be considered truly “functional”. Principle 1 - Gravity, Ground Reaction Forces (GRF), Mass and Momentum Gravity: •
The attraction between two masses.
Ground Reaction Forces: • •
The reaction force supplied by the ground is specifically called the ground reaction force (GRF), which is basically the reaction to the force the body exerts on the ground (White et al, 1998) Force is reflected back up into the feet through the same action line with the same magnitude (van Deursen and Everett, 2003).
Momentum: • •
Is the product of the mass and velocity of an object (Newton, 1686) In general the momentum of an object can be conceptually thought of as the tendency for an object to continue to move in its direction of travel (Newton, 1686)
Principle 2 - Three Planes of Motion A plane: an imagery flat surface used to describe the direction of movement or anatomical cross-sections. Almost all joints will move within the three planes (McArdle et al, 2006, Thibodeau et al, 2006). Sagittal Plane • • •
Invisible plane which divides the body or segment into right and left parts Movements are flexion and extension Influenced by gravity
(McArdle et al, 2006, Thibodeau et al, 2006). Frontal Plane • • •
Invisible plane which divides the body or segment into anterior and posterior parts Movements are abduction, adduction, lateral flexion, eversion and inversion Influenced by gravity
(McArdle et al, 2006, Thibodeau et al, 2006). Transverse Plane: • • • •
Invisible plane which divides the body or segment into upper and lower parts Movements are rotational Minimal influence from gravity Requires muscle to decelerate and accelerate motion
(McArdle et al, 2006, Thibodeau et al, 2006). .
Certificate in Advanced Kickboxing Instruction It should be noted that, in function, movement occurs in all three simultaneously. Isolating a single plane of movement may not be considered functional. For example, dorsiflexion (sagittal), eversion (frontal), internal rotation (transverse) occurring simultaneously at the foot and ankle would be described collectively as pronation (Hintermann et al, 1998). Principle 3 - Neurologically Driven Human movement is under the control of the nervous system. The foundation of neural control is feedback (Kawakami et al, 2006, Leonard, 1998). This feedback must first be interpreted before any response is initiated. It is motion that initiates this feedback! Sources of feedback include: the muscles, joints, eyes and ears. Proprioception is defined as the sense of position of body parts(McArdle et al, 2006, Thibodeau et al, 2006) . Understanding the role of the body’s proprioceptors is fundamental to understanding functional movement and exercise. It is the proprioceptors that drive all types of functional activity. Many different proprioceptors are found within muscles and joints, the most well know include: • • • •
Muscle spindles - important for detecting muscle length and velocity Golgi tendon organs - detect muscle force Pacinian corpuscles – detect pressure Ruffini endings – detect joint position and velocity
To stimulate the proprioceptors, real and relative motion must occur in all joints in all three planes; this in turn switches the muscles on to decelerate joint motion in all three movement planes, then motion is accelerated in all joints in all three planes (McArdle et al, 2006, Thibodeau et al, 2006). Therefore, training should aim to facilitate and encourage input from the proprioceptors and not to inhibit. Principle 4 - Transformation The muscles of the body react to gravity and ground reaction forces. First, muscles eccentrically load in all three planes (tri-plane loading), then, concentrically unload in all three planes (tri-plane unloading). This zone between loading and unloading is referred to the “ZONE OF TRANSFORMATION. “ Principle 5 – System Flexibility If two individuals were to perform the same exercise there would be slight differences in technique due to individual characteristics, such as gender and bone lengths. System flexibility ensures that individuals adapt to a variety of functional tasks. Principle 7 – Subconsciously Driven There is a conscious intent to move, for example, to run one mile. However, during running the muscles are working subconsciously. No thought or focus is given to placing one foot in front of the other. The majority of function is subconscious; therefore, clients should be encouraged to exercise without rigidity or confinement. Principle 8 - Fun Due to variety and the potential for different movement strategies, functional exercises should always be stimulating and enjoyable.
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Certificate in Advanced Kickboxing Instruction Principles and Strategies of Function of Applied Functional Science: A Summary Principle 1 – Gravity, ground reaction, mass and momentum Strategy 1 – Use gravity, ground reaction forces, mass and momentum to facilitate motion Principle 2 – Movement is three dimensional Strategy 2 – Create motion that is three dimensional Principle 3 – Drivers facilitate chain reactions Strategy 3 – Use authentic drivers to create the desired biomechanical reaction throughout the body Principle 4 – System Flexibility Strategy 4 – Develop a system that can adapt Principle 5 – Zones of Transformation Strategy 5 – Facilitate the explode through an effective load Principle 6 – Proprioceptors Strategy 6 – Create the same response in the proprioceptors as the proprioceptors get during function Principle 7 – Subconscious Reactions Strategy 7 – Use a conscious task to drive a subconscious reaction Principe 8 – Have fun Strategy 8 – Use variety of movements to facilitate enjoyment
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Biomechanical Capabilities of the Major Joints during various Activities: The Gait Cycle Something that we’re all programmed to do, walk.
In the following gait cycle description, reference is made to the motions in the sagittal, frontal and transverse planes respectively. If not stated, movement is described at the time of right heel strike to the ground. This knowledge will enable you to predict the sequence events occurring from one joint to the next, or, for any joint for that matter. For example, at right heel strike calcaneal eversion takes place, during this time motion in the upper thoracic would be laterally flexing to left and rotating to the right. Consequently, knowledge of joint relative motions and sequencing is therefore essential to understanding gait
The Foot and Ankle The foot and ankle contain 26 bones (plus 2 sesamoid bones) with 55 articulations. The foot functions to dissipate ground reactive forces at heel strike. It does this by becoming mobile (floppy) to enable it to adjust to differences in terrain. However, prior to heel lift it must transform back into a rigid structure which is necessary to transfer body weight from rear foot to forefoot (Michaud, 1997). Gray, 2005 makes reference to the importance of good foot function, stating that it is the motion of the foot that proprioceptively switches on the powerful hip muscles. As a result the hip muscles are able to decelerate the lower body, thus protecting its joints (particularly the knee). The foot is divided up into the forefoot, midfoot and rearfoot and contains a number of important joint articulations (It is noted that the description of resultant motion in the frontal and transverse planes differs between the midtarsal and subtalar joints. This is due to the orientation of the bones that make up both these joints. The subtalar joint bones of the talus and calcaneus are orientated in a vertical direction; whereas, the bones of the midtarsal joint lie one in front of the other. Furthermore, for simplicity, in the summary of movements table at the end of this chapter, the terms ‘pronation’ and ‘supination’ is used to describe the tri-plane loading (front foot) and unloading (back foot) actions of the foot in gait.
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Certificate in Advanced Kickboxing Instruction Midtarsal Joint The midtarsal joint is the articulation between the calcaneocuboid and talonavicular bones. During stance the midtarsal joint unlocks (unlocks due to subtalar eversion) and becomes flexible to allow for increased shock absorption. Sagittal Plane Prior to right heel strike the midtarsal joint drops. When the tarsal bones eventually make contact with the ground they remain stationary with the rest of the foot carries on moving. With the distal bone(s) stationary and the proximal bone still moving, the resulting action is midtarsal joint dorsiflexion. The forward momentum of the upper body displaces the centre of mass over the forefoot, therefore reducing ground contact forces at the heel. In addition, contraction of the lower leg muscles are decelerating ankle dorsiflexion and slowing down the tibia. However, the knee joint continues to push through and upwards causing the midtarsal bones to eventually move in opposite directions relative to each other. The resulting action is midtarsal joint plantarflexion. Frontal Plane The calcaneus hits the floor on its lateral posterior aspect; as a result it falls down and in so doing takes the talus with it. This action causes the midtarsal joint to unlock lowering the arch of the foot towards the ground (the foot is now a mobile adaptor). As the arch continues to lower on a fixed forefoot the more proximal segments move faster than the distal segments resulting in abduction at the midtarsal joint in the frontal plane (figure 2.7). As the front foot becomes the back foot the opposite side pelvis drives from the top down the stance limb into external rotation. This causes the midtarsal bones to change direction relative to each other. With the proximal bones moving faster than the more distal bones in the resulting frontal plane action is midtarsal joint adduction. Transverse Plane As the forefoot makes contact with the ground it spreads out, and is held in place by ground reaction force. This action allows the arch of the foot to lower towards the ground as the rest of the body moves over it. At this time the calcaneus continues to move through eversion (until just prior to midstance). With the forefoot (distal) being held in place by GRF the rearfoot (proximal) continues to move, resulting in inversion of the midtarsal joint in the transverse plane motion. Prior to heel lift the calcaneus is inverting due to the opposite side pelvis moving forward and externally rotating the stance limb. At this point the tarsal bones are still fixed by the ground, however, the midtarsal joint is now everting. This is due to the proximal subtalar joint moving in the opposite direction in relation to the fixed distal fore and midfoot.
Subtalar Joint The subtalar joint is located between the proximal talus and the distal calcaneus. Motion at the subtalar joint is significant as it is directly and indirectly responsible for shock absorption (Michaud, 1997). Any condition that prevents the subtalar joint from going through its normal range of motion will result in abnormal amounts of stress being transmitted up the leg into the pelvis and spine (Root et al. 1997). A noteworthy point is that the talus doesn’t have a single muscle insert on to it. This bone reacts purely to the effects of gravity and ground reaction force during foot contact. Sagittal Plane At heel strike the talus slides forward over the top of the calcaneus due to the distal calcaneus being held in place by ground reaction forces and rest of the body coming over the top. This forward momentum causes the more proximal talus to slide forward resulting in dorsiflexion in the sagittal plane. As the front leg becomes the back leg eventually there is a release of the heel as the body’s centre of mass passes forward over the forefoot. This results in the tibia and fibula driving the talus backwards over the top of the calcaneus. The distal calcanueus and the proximal talus bones are now moving in opposite directions resulting in plantarflexion in the sagittal plane. Frontal Plane At right heel strike the calcaneus contacts the ground on its posterior lateral aspect. Of significance also, is that at this point the calcaneus is slightly inverted in the frontal plane. This is due to the concentric action of the tibialis anterior muscle and forward motion of the leg during its swing phase. However, immediately on contact the calcaneus starts to roll through eversion. The talus has no choice but to go along for the ride and move with the calcaneus. Even though both distal and proximal bones are travelling in the frontal plane in the same direction the more distal calcaneus is moving faster than the proximal bone, resulting in subtalar eversion. Prior to heel lift the opposite action occurs. This is necessary for propulsion of a stable foot. Driven from the top down the tibia and fibula cause both the talus and calcaneus to travel in the same direction in the frontal plane. However, the more proximal talus is travelling slightly faster than the distal calcaneus resulting in subtalar inversion in the frontal plane. Transverse Plane During heel contact the calcaneus rotates outwards and the talus falls in towards the arch of the foot. The proximal talus and distal calcaneus, therefore, move in opposite directions. The resulting subtalar joint motion is external rotation in the transverse plane. As the front foot becomes the back foot the calcaneus and talus change direction resulting in talocalcaneal approximation. The talus is driven from the limb above. The resulting .
Certificate in Advanced Kickboxing Instruction motion is internal rotation of the subtalar joint in the transverse plane.
The Ankle Joint The ankle or the talocrural joint is located between the talus and distal tibia and fibula. This joint allows for almost pure dorsiflexion and plantarflexion in the sagittal plane; however, there is a small but significant amount of motion in the frontal and transverse planes. Sagittal Plane At right heel strike the forefoot is lowered to the ground. At this time the ankle joint is plantar flexing, because the talus is travelling faster forward and down in the same direction as the tibia and fibula. Eventually the forefoot makes contact with the ground and starts to become the back foot. During this time the tibia and fibula are carried forward over the talus. Even though the three bones are travelling in the same direction the more proximal tibia and fibula are moving faster than the distal talus resulting in ankle dorsiflexion in the sagittal plane. As the foot leaves the ground both the tibia and fibula are driven upwards and forward by the pull of the hip flexors on the femur. With the foot still on the ground the proximal distal talus and proximal tibia and fibula bones move in opposite directions. This results in ankle plantarflexion in the sagittal plane. Frontal plane The talus is driven by ground reaction forces and gravity and follows the calcaneus in the frontal plane. This in turn causes the tibia and fibula to also follow in the same direction as the talus albeit a little slower. With the distal talus travelling faster than its proximal neighbours the resulting motion at the ankle joint is eversion in the frontal plane. As the front foot becomes the back foot the tibia and fibula (driven from the top down) start adducting. This causes the talus to move in the same direction in the frontal plane resulting in inversion at the ankle joint in the frontal plane. Transverse Plane At heel strike driven by the calcaneus, the talus dives down taking the tibia and fibula with it in the same direction. However, distally the talus travels faster than the tibia and fibula resulting in internal rotation at the ankle in the transverse plane. As the front foot becomes the back foot the tibia and fibula are driven from the top down by the pelvis into externally rotated position. This motion causes the talus to move in the same direction, resulting in external rotation at the ankle joint in the transverse plane.
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Certificate in Advanced Kickboxing Instruction The Knee Joint The knee joint is located between the femur and the tibia. Also of importance is the articulation between the femur and the patella, which Gray, 2005 refers to as the track and the train. The knee functions to absorb potentially damaging ground reaction forces which would otherwise accumulate in the hips and spine. For the knee to function effectively it must be appreciated that its motion is influenced by the foot, hips and thoracic spine, so is dependent on good functioning of these joints. 27 different muscles control and protect the knee; however, many of them do not directly cross the knee joint. Sagittal Plane At heel strike ground reaction forces, gravity and momentum cause the tibia and fibula to move forward, whilst the proximal femur rotates in the opposite direction. The result is knee flexion in the sagittal plane (also the patella is smashed into the femur and moves laterally against the femoral condyle). At this time muscles (all 27) are lengthened to perform a breaking action before acceleration occurs. Due to momentum, the body is carried forward over the stance foot causing both the femur and tibia to start travelling in the same direction. However, the proximal femur travels faster causing knee extension in the sagittal plane. This is due to the tibia and fibula being decelerated by the soleus and peroneal muscles. Frontal Plane At heel strike eversion of the calcaneus unlocks the midtarsal joint causing the tibia and fibula at the knee joint to move towards the body’s midline. This in turn affects the femur which also moves towards the midline at the knee joint (driven from below). As a consequence the proximal femur and distal tibia move in opposite directions resulting in knee abduction in the frontal plane (the patella is pulled to the lateral border of the femoral groove). Beyond midstance the knee starts adducting. This is due to the contralateral side (swing phase) pelvis rotating to the left which drives both right side femur and tibia outwards (driven from the top). This movement also unloads the patella. Transverse Plane At heel strike the tibia and fibula internally rotate from the bottom up. The femur also rotates internally, however, the distal tibia moves faster than the more proximal femur. Therefore, the resulting joint motion is internal rotation. Beyond midstance the femur and tibia start to externally rotate. This is due to the contralateral side (swing phase) of the pelvis rotating to the left which drives both right side femur and tibia outwards. With the pelvis driving the lower leg bones from the top down the femur now moves faster than the tibia, again the motion at the knee is internal rotation. When the rear foot eventually enters its swing phase, the elastic component of muscles cause the tibia and fibula to externally rotate at the knee in preparation for heel strike.
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The Hip Joint The hip is considered to be the power source of the body and is surrounded by some of the body’s most powerful muscles. It is no coincidence that there is more muscle mass posteriorly compared to anteriorly. Also, the hip muscles attach to the skeleton in a manner to allow effective deceleration of the lower limbs. In addition, they contribute heavily to successful abdominal, trunk, scapulothoracic and shoulder function. Many pathological conditions of the extremities (i.e. lateral epicondilitis, patellofemoral disorders) have their roots in the hips (Gray, 2005). Sagittal Plane At right heel strike the knee drives forward with the upper body. As a result the proximal pelvis quickly anteriorly (due to gravity and ground reaction force) rotates on a flexing distal femur resulting in hip flexion. As the body passes over the weight bearing leg the hip joint rotates in a clockwise direction. At this point the hip starts to posteriorly tilt while travelling over the top of the femur. The result is proximal and distal bone moving in opposite directions, with the resultant movement being hip extension. Frontal Plane At right heel strike, the femur travels medially and the pelvis travels laterally due to gravity and GRF and the need to balance the body’s COG over the stance foot. The proximal and distal bones are moving in opposite directions resulting is hip adduction. At this time the rear leg (left) the femur is moving laterally and the hip (left side) is moving medially. As the proximal and distal bones move in opposite directions the resulting joint action is hip abduction. Transverse Plane At right foot strike the pelvis and the femur rotate to the left in space. However, the femur rotates faster than the pelvis due to ground reaction forces resulting in relative hip internal rotation. As the front leg becomes the back leg the femur externally rotates in space due to the opposite side pelvis moving forward and (left) rotating to the right. However, the pelvis now drives the femur from the top down causing right hip internal rotation. Prior to right heel lift the pelvis and femur are maximally rotated to the right (relative hip internal rotation). Elastic properties from muscles now cause the hip and knee to flex allowing the femur to swing forward faster than the pelvis. Whilst the right femur moves forward through its swing phase the hip externally rotates, this is due to the pelvis rotating to the left.
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Certificate in Advanced Kickboxing Instruction The Spine The spine can be likened to a flexible rod consisting of 33 bones. The spine therefore, is complex as defining movements during different functions is challenging. Sagittal Plane At right heel strike the lumbar and lower thoracic spine move in to relative extension. For example, at S1, L5 joint the S1 spinal processes are travelling forward quicker than the L5 spinal processes. The two bones move in the same direction, however, the lower bone driven by the anterior tilt of the pelvis moves faster than the upper bone. In the upper thoracic and lower cervical the opposite happens, relative flexion. Due to the position of the head (forward gaze) the rest of the cervical spine is extending. Frontal Plane At right foot strike the lumbar and the lower thoracic spine are laterally flexing to the right driven by the pelvis from the bottom up. However, the upper segments of the thoracic spine are laterally flexing to the left with the cervical spine laterally flexing right. For example, the pelvis and left side sacra1 facets drop inferiorly on the left hand side during right leg stance. L5 facet follows but not as fast. Although the two bones travel in the same direction, the left side of the sacrum is moving inferiorly faster than L5 resulting in lateral flexion to the right. The opposite happens when the left foot hits the floor. Transverse Plane At right heel strike the lumbar and lower thoracic spine are rotating in space to the left; however, even though the lumbar and lower thoracic bones are travelling in the same direction the lower bone, relative to the bone above, rotates faster to the left resulting in relative right rotation. For example, L5 rotates faster to the left than L4. The upper thoracic spine is driven by the swing of the arms causing the bones to counter rotate to the right. However, the top segments of the thoracic spine actually rotate left, this is due to the head facing forward feeding motion into the top of the thoracic spine.
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Certificate in Advanced Kickboxing Instruction Scapulothoracic and Shoulder Joint The scapulothoracic joint is not a true synovial joint. Rather, the scapulothoracic articulation is formed by the convex surface of the posterior thoracic cage and the concave surface of the anterior scapula. The scapula is a flat bone, with the gliding surfaces formed by the subscapularis and the serratus anterior. It can be pivotal in movement when conscious thought is placed upon it. Sagittal Plane Just prior to right heel strike the right shoulder joint is extending with the scapulothoracic joint elevating. At this time the left shoulder joint is flexing and the scapulothoracic joint is depressing. Frontal Plane Just prior to right foot strike the right shoulder joint is abducting with the scapulothoracic joint downwardly rotating. At this time the left shoulder joint is adducting and the scapulothoracic joint is upwardly rotating. Transverse Plane Just prior to right foot strike the right shoulder joint is internally rotating and the scapulothoracic joint is retracting. At this time the left shoulder joint is externally rotating and the scapulothoracic joint is protracting.
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Certificate in Advanced Kickboxing Instruction Tri-Planar Motions during Gait TRI-MAT Gait - Walking
Sagittal
Frontal
Right Foot & Ankle
PRONATION
Left Foot & Ankle
SUPINATION
Transverse
Right Knee
Flexing
Abducting
Internally Rotating
Left Knee
Extending
Adducting
Internally Rotating
Right Hip
Flexing
Adducting
Internally Rotating
Left Hip
Extending
Abducting
Internally Rotating
Lumbar Spine
Extending
Laterally Flexing Right
Rotating Right
Lower Thoracic Spine
Extending
Laterally Flexing Right
Rotating Right
Upper Thoracic Spine
Flexing
Laterally Flexing Left
Rotating Right
Right Scapulothoracic
Elevating
Downwardly Rotating
Retracting
Left Scapulothoracic
Depressing
Upwardly Rotating
Protracting
Right Shoulder
Extending
Abducting
Internally Rotating
Left Shoulder
Flexing
Adducting
Externally Rotating
Cervical Spine
Flexing
Laterally Flexing Left
Rotating Left
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Biomechanical Capabilities of the Major Joints during Various Activities: Cross Punch Cycle Objectives: By the end of this chapter you should be able to • • • • • •
Define the Cross Punch cycle Identify the different phases of a technique Identify the major joint articulations in the body Describe chain reaction biomechanics of the Cross Punch cycle from back foot to back hand including the spine Describe joint motion in all three movement planes during the cycle Identify major muscles and their functional significance during this strike
In this chapter we present a general framework for understanding the chain reaction biomechanics of the Cross Punch cycle and it’s application to all types of martial arts strikes in function, including drivers. C.A.T Jab
Straight
First Driver Last Driver
Left Shoulder Left Hand
Drivers During function, as previously explained at length, real and relative movement in the body’s joints occurs due to drivers. It is the action of drivers that facilitates the different biomechanical reactions throughout the body. For example, rotating the head to the right causes inversion at the right foot and ankle, and eversion on the left. Although this movement may be subtle, as the eyes are the most distal driver from the foot and ankle, it is significant to stimulate motion in the foot and ankle. This is an important concept to grasp, as in some cases, such as recovery from an acute ankle inversion sprain, full weight bearing may not be appropriate; however, this strategy adheres to the principles of function. Using authentic drivers the body’s joints can be driven to create the desired chain or biomechanical reaction. Any part of the body can be a driver with the main drivers listed in the table 4.1 below. Drivers - external • Gravity • Ground reaction force • Impact • Ground Surface Drivers - Internal • Foot • Hand/Arm • Eyes • Knee • Shoulder • Head • Hips • Chest .
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The closer the driver is to the joint, the greater its effect and intensity. Drivers can be considered as either coming from the top down or from the bottom up. For example, thoracic spine extension can be created with a bi-lateral hand posterior overhead reach (top down), or, from stepping down from a riser or stair whilst keeping the eyes fixed on the horizon (bottom up). What’s more, drivers can magnify the effects of gravity, ground reaction and momentum, but are also used to decrease their effects. This is important to keep in mind when considering the type of proprioceptive response, such as stepping down from a step.
Triangulation
As human beings we are able to move anywhere in three dimensional space. By using the previously mentioned drivers quite literally infinite numbers of movements are possible. When describing these movements it is useful to document using the following headings and visualised through what Gray calls the functional compass. (figure 4.3) • Angulation coordinate - What Direction • Horizontal coordinate - How Far • Vertical coordinate - How High
Angulation Coordinate (direction)
Angulation coordinates, or “in what direction” movement occurs, is measured as either a relative or absolute measurement. Relative angulations describe movement in relation to terms. An Example would be ‘a right foot ‘right lateral’ rotational lunge. Using the functional compass it is possible to visualise the different relative angulations.
Horizontal Coordinate (distance)
Horizontal coordinates or “how far” out does a movement occur. Once again this is measured as either a relative or absolute measurement. The relative horizontal coordinate is dependent on the individual’s stature, bones, joints, flexibility and pathology. Relative coordinate measurements can be divided into the following: • Initial range client’s beginning range • Mid range range between the client’s initial and end range • End range client’s maximum range Absolute horizontal coordinate is movement occurring at a given distance, and is measured in metres and centimetres. For example, lunge along the anterior vector to a distance of 50cms.
Verticality Coordinate (height)
Verticality coordinates, or “how high” does a movement occur, is measured as either relative or absolute movement. Relative verticality describes movement height relative to the individual. On the other hand, absolute verticality is movement occurring at a given height, and is measured in metres and centimetres. For example, two individuals of different height are given the command to perform a bi-lateral hand reach along the anterior vector at knee height. In this case, the height of the reach will be dependent on the length of the lower leg bones in both individuals. Whereas, a bi- lateral hand reach at 50cms is a measure in absolute terms.
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Certificate in Advanced Kickboxing Instruction As previously mentioned, a driver is a Sub conscious action to create certain movements, through a chain reaction with in the body. We want to take this notion and add conscious thought to which drivers to focus on for optimal performance and power. It is the action of drivers that will facilitate different biomechanical reactions throughout the body. For example if you start in an Orthodox Full Guard Fighting Stance and rotate your left foot to the right (internal rotation), imagine ‘stubbung a cigarette out’, you will in turn cause the ankle, knee, hip, torso and shoulders to follow. An extremely relevant chain of events for the lead hook punch. Namely in the martial arts and martial sports, any individual technique thrown will have a selected amount of drivers used for execution. In a Straight Jab punch from a static Orthodox Full Guard Fighting Stance, description of the sequence of drivers (between the first driver and the last driver) will include (but are not limited to): Right Foot, Right Knee, Both Hips, Spine (L/T/C) Right Shoulder, Right Elbow, Right Hand, Left Knee and your Head.
Martial Movement: As human beings we are able to move anywhere in three dimensional space. By using the previous mentioned drivers, including gravity and ground reaction force, quite literally an infinite number of human movements are possible. I have tried to adapt this theory to the teaching of Martial arts. The following diagram is a slightly different version of what Gary Gray (The Gray Institute) calls the functional compass:
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Certificate in Advanced Kickboxing Instruction In Kickboxing and Martial Arts, I have pictured it from the following Fighting Stances FS1.0 and FS2.0. This will allow you to determine which direction the body will move, which way the fighter’s tool will move and which way they will move relative to each other. Anterior is labelled. FS1.0 Full Guard Fighting Stance
ANTERIOR (0°)
FS2.0 Half Guard Fighting Stance
ANTERIOR (0°)
ANTERIOR (0°)
Many techniques your body will be moving in an Anterior Direction (forward) and so will your tool. However techniques such as a Spinning Back Kick will require your body to move forward (towards your target), spin internally, and throw your kicking leg (your tool) behind you, which is posterior in relation to your body. (See Below)
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Certificate in Advanced Kickboxing Instruction Jumping Spinning Back Kick – Position vs Motion - Analysis
TRI-MAT – Triplanar Movement Analysis Table
The table below is what we call the TRIMAT, The Triplanar Movement Analysis Table. We take a technique and analyse the joint positions and/or motions at each Major joint. Or at least the ones responsible for the task in the reference image or video. TRI-MAT Sagittal Frontal Transverse JumpSpinBackKick Position / Motion Position / Motion Position / Motion Right Foot & Ankle Dorsiflexed / Plantarflexing Inverted / Inverting Externally Rtd / Rtng Left Foot & Ankle Dorsiflexed / Dorsiflexing Inverted / Inverting Externally Rtd / Rtng Right Knee Extended / Extending Abducted / Abducting Internally Rtd / Rotating Left Knee Flexed / Flexing Adducted / Adducting Internally Rtd / Rotating Right Hip Extended / Extending Adducted / Abducting Int Rtd / Ext Rtng Left Hip Flexed / Flexing Adducted / Abducting Externally Rtd / Rtng Lumbar Spine Extended / Extending R Lat Flexed / Flexing Right Rotated / Rotating Thoracic Spine Extended / Extending R Lat Flexed / Flexing Right Rotated / Rotating Right Shoulder Flexed / Extending Adducted / Adducting Internally Rtd / Rotating Left Shoulder Flexed / Flexing Abducted / Abducting Externally Rtd / Rtng Cervical Spine Flexed / Extending R Lat Flexed / Flexing Right Rotated / Rotating Right Elbow Flexed / Extending Adducted / Abducting Internally Rtd / Rotating Left Elbow Flexed / Flexing Abducted / Abducting Externally Rtd / Rtng
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Certificate in Advanced Kickboxing Instruction Jumping Spinning Back Kick – Full Movement Analysis
Click Image to see the video PWR Pad is 0° (Anterior) Full Guard Orthodox
LOADING • First Driver: Left Shoulder forward • Then…. Both Feet Right Rotation 90° • • • •
• •
•
•
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Both Knees flexing and rotating right 45° Hips flexing and rotating right Left Shoulder Extension Right Shoulder Flexion
EXPLODING • Both Hips from flexion into extension • Both knees into extension • Both Foot/Ankle Joint Dorsiflex • Left shoulder flexing • Right shoulder extending • Torso rotating to the right 270° • Causing a twist as you jump • • •
As torso facing 270° after jumping into right rotation Right hip Extends posterior to Pelvis Right Knee Extends posterior to Pelvis driving foot towards target at 0° Left Hip Flexes Left Knee flexes as foot faces 180° from anterior/start to provide counter balance. Upon Impact the right hip is extended, abducted and externally rotated, as is the knee of the same leg to provide maximal force. Cervical, thoracic and lumbar spine are all rotating to the right and causing the torso to move into right lateral flexion
Certificate in Advanced Kickboxing Instruction The previous break down is not an exact science but merely an application of scientific thinking in a non scientific world. When we can see the motion of the joints and we know the muscles that cross those joints, we can then make an educated choice to train those muscles both eccentrically and concentrically for maximum loading AND exploding for our function. We can factor in speed, Tempo, External Load, flexibility etc and replicate these movements in the gym / dojo.
CAT – Coaching Analysis Table With this in mind, Drivers and Movement, the following technique can be broken down in the following way using our coaching analysis table. C.A.T Back Kick Jumping, Spinning
Guard
Full guard
Hand / Foot / Knee / Elbow
Right Foot
Strike Point
Sole of foot
Target Area
Mid Torso
Direction of Movement
Up / Right Rotation / Anterior
% of Body Weight on Impact
100%
First Driver
Both Feet – Right Rotation
Last Driver
Right Hip, Knee, Extension
Pre Technique Combination
Lead Side Kick
Post Technique Combination
Lead Back Fist
Defence Against….
Step Slide backwards and Sweeping Parry
Counter To….
Axe Kick following the above defence
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Certificate in Advanced Kickboxing Instruction An easier example of a C.A.T technique: C.A.T Cross Straight
Guard Hand Strike Point Target Area Direction of Movement % of Body Weight on Impact First Driver Last Driver
Pre Technique Combination Post Technique Combination Defence Against…. Counter To….
Full guard Right Hand Index & Middle Knuckles Nose, Forehead, Chin Anterior 80% Right Foot Right Hand
Jab Punch Lead Hand Hook Punch Outside Slip Slipping Jab
Using the cross punch in the following TRI-MAT we are ONLY looking at the motion of the limbs in 3 planes, NOT the position you see in the image. Tri-Planar Motions during a Cross Punch from Orthodox. TRI-MAT Cross Punch - Straight Right Foot & Ankle Left Foot & Ankle Right Knee Left Knee Right Hip Left Hip Lumbar Spine Thoracic Spine Right Scapulothoracic Left Scapulothoracic Right Shoulder Left Shoulder Cervical Spine .
Sagittal Plantarflexing Dorsiflexing Extending Flexing Extending Flexing Extending Flexing Depressing Elevating Flexing Flexing Flexing
Frontal Inverting Everting Abducting Adducting Adducting Adducting Laterally Flexing Right Laterally Flexing Right Downwardly Rotating Upwardly Rotating Adducting Adducting Laterally Flexing Right
Transverse Internally rotating Externally Rotating Internally Rotating Internally Rotating Internally Rotating Internally Rotating Rotating Left Rotating Right Protracting Retrtacting Internally Rotating Externally Rotating Rotating Right
Certificate in Advanced Kickboxing Instruction TASK Complete the C.A.T tables below with how you perceive the Jab Punch and the Snap Kick C.A.T Jab Punch
Straight
Guard
Hand
Strike Point
Target Area
Direction of Movement
% of Body Weight on Impact
First Driver
Last Driver
Pre Technique Combination
Post Technique Combination
Defence Against….
Counter To….
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Certificate in Advanced Kickboxing Instruction C.A.T Snap Kick
Guard
Hand
Strike Point
Target Area
Direction of Movement
% of Body Weight on Impact
First Driver
Last Driver
Pre Technique Combination
Post Technique Combination
Defence Against….
Counter To….
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Certificate in Advanced Kickboxing Instruction Biomechanical Capabilities of major joints in cycles of various activities: A Summary Objectives: By the end of this chapter you should be now be able to • • • • • • • • • • •
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Define the Gait cycle Define the Cross Punch Cycle Define the Jumping Spinning Back Kick Cycle Understand Martial Movement and the Movement Compass Identify the different phases of a technique Understand the TRI-MAT Understand the CAT Describe chain reaction biomechanics of the Strike cycles Describe joint motion in all three movement planes during the cycles Identify major muscles and their functional significance during these strikes with the ability to training these muscles for performance output Understand the relevance of each strike for training athletes.
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Certificate in Advanced Kickboxing Instruction 1709-1802 Munn, J., Herbert, R. D., Hancock, M. J., Gandevia, S. C., “Resistance Training for Strength: Effect of Number of Sets and Contraction Speed”, Med. Sci. Sports Exerc., Vol. 37, No. 9, pp. 1622–1626, 2005 Nelson, E., “Derivation of the Schrödinger Equation from Newtonian Mechanics”, Physical Review, 1966, 150 (4), 1079-1085 Newton, I., (1686) “Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica” Pawson, L., Bolanowski, S. J., “Voltage-gated sodium channels are present on both the neural and capsular structures of Pacinian corpuscles “ Somatosensory and Motor Research, 2002, 19 (3), 231-237 Ralston, H. J., Miller, M. R., Kasahara, M., “Nerve endings in human fasciae, tendons, ligaments, periosteum, and joint synovial membrane”, The Anatomical Record, 1960, 136 (2), 137147 Settings, M., “Intraobserver reliability of 4 physiologic movements of the shoulder in subjects with and without symptoms”, Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, 2006, 87 (9), 1242-1249 Shumway-Cook, A., Woollacott, M.H., 2001. Motor Control: Theory and Practical Applications. 2nd ed.Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. Siff, M. C., 2003. Supertraining. 6th ed. Denver, United States: Supertraining Institute. Spencer, P. S., Schaumburg, H. H., “An ultrastructural study of the inner core of the Pacinian corpuscle”, Journal of Neurocytology, 1973, 2 (2), 217-235 Spina, R. J., Ogawa, T., Coggan, A. R., Holloszy, J. O., Ehansi, A. A., “Exercise training improves left ventricular contractile response to beta-adrenergic agonist”, Journal of Applied Physiology, 1992, 72, 307-311 Thibodeau, G. A., Patton, K. T., (2006) “Anatomy and Physiology”, 6th Edition. Mosby, United States Van Deursen, R.W.M., Everett, T., 2003. Biomechanics of human movement. In Trew, M., Everett, M., eds., 2003. Human Movement: An Introductory Text. 4th ed. Churchill Livingstone ch. 3. Vaz, G., Roussouly, P., Berthonnaud, E., Dimnet, J., “Sagittal morphology and equilibrium of pelvis and spine”, European Spine Journal, 2002, 11 (1), 80-87 Verplanken, B., Aarts, H., “Habit, attitude and planned behaviour: Is habit an empty construct or an interesting case of goal “, European Review of Social Psychology, 1999, 10, 1046-3283 Watkins, J., 2007. An Introduction to Biomechanics of Sport and Exercise. Churchill Livingstone. White, S. C., Yack, H. J., Tucker, C. A., Lin, H. Y., “Comparison of vertical ground reaction forces during overground and treadmill walking”, Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 1998, 30 (10), 1537-1542 Zefran, M. Kumar, V. Croke, C.B. “On the generation of smooth three-dimensional rigid body motions”, IEEE Transactions on Robotics and Automation, IEEE Robotics and Automation Society, 1998, August, (4) 576-589 Zimny, M. L., “Mechanoreceptors in articular tissues”, American Journal of Anatomy, 1988, 182 (1), 16-32
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