Issuu

December 2021

ISSN 1747-1826

CONTENTS 03 Comment

DECEMBER 2021

25 Tricks of the towing trade

Berit Vincentz Andersen, Svitzer, Denmark, outlines how the towing of LNG carriers in challenging conditions requires the best people, equipment, and a focus on safety.

04 LNG news

29 Channels of data

08 The world of LNG stands

strong

Soorya S. Tejomoortula, GlobalData, India, considers the global LNG industry over the past year and looks to the future, outlining trends, perspectives, and providing a capacity outlook.

Andrew Stafford, Technical Director at Trelleborg’s marine and infrastructure operation, UK, details the use of mooring tension data to ensure the safety and longevity of equipment on vessels.

32 Big plans for small scale

Daniel Benavides, FNX Liquid Natural Gas, Spain, describes the growing importance of small/mid liquefaction plants for the worldwide LNG market, and demonstrates the different technologies applicable to these kinds of plants.

37 Protection anywhere in the world

Ana Juraga Oluic, Cortec® Corporation, Croatia, explains how vapour phase corrosion inhibitor technology can aid in the protection of pipelines from corrosion.

41 Predict the performance

08 14 Small plants, big gains

Sasha Strasser, Head Gas Solutions (Switzerland), and Toby Hahn, Global Technical Expert LNG (USA), Sulzer Chemtech, look at why small scale plants offer an ideal platform to enter the market for LNG fuel.

Kenichi Matsuoka, Azbil Corp., Japan, Daichi Watanabe, MTI Co., Ltd, Japan, and David Hill, Carla Lara, and Aaron Herrick, Chemstations, USA, detail the development of LNG cargo tank simulation technology for ballast voyage.

45 More brains are better than one

Danny Constantinis, EM&I Group, Malta, explains how a group effort to identify asset integrity challenges in the LNG sector can help achieve a safer, greener future.

48 15 facts on... 2021

17 A new gateway for LNG

20 The polar pioneers

Mathieu Petiteau, PONANT, France, describes the engineering involved in equipping the first LNG-powered ship to reach the geographic North Pole.

ON THIS MONTH’S COVER Sulzer Chemtech is a leading provider of separation and mixing technologies for a wide range of applications. A global specialist in small scale LNG plants, the company provides fully integrated, licensed solutions that utilise best-in-class processing equipment. The company strives to enhance the competitiveness of its customers by providing advanced, fully customised products, extensive engineering expertise, and comprehensive technical support. www.sulzer.com

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Copyright © Palladian Publications Ltd 2021. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the copyright owner. All views expressed in this journal are those of the respective contributors and are not necessarily the opinions of the publisher, neither do the publishers endorse any of the claims made in the articles or the advertisements. Printed in the UK.

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LYDIA WOELLWARTH EDITOR

COMMENT T

aking the opportunity to mention the over-used phrase ‘time flies’, it seems a lifetime ago when I was writing the December 2020 comment from my work from home ‘office’ surrounded by festive scents of gingerbread being baked and dried orange slices awaiting their addition to the front door’s wreath. The December 2021 comment is being produced rather differently – normal routines have resumed, offices are open, and I seem to have misplaced the gallons of hand sanitiser that, a mere few months ago, was as glued to me as my mobile phone. The recent, unwelcome arrival of Omicron, however, could disrupt life yet again, as COVID-19 proves that no one should get comfortable and think tranquillity has returned to the health of the global population. In the UK, the current panic is that our Christmas parties shall be cancelled in the wake of this new variant, and that there will be too few turkeys to feed us all on Christmas Day (blame here is on Brexit). First world problems perhaps. To say this year has been a rollercoaster is to put it politely. One week we are entering shops without face masks, the next we require them; another week I can arrive freely in Paris, the next I am denied entry without a PCR test (not the highlight of my weekend). Whilst our personal and professional lives have taken somewhat of a battering this year, at least we can draw positives from the glimmers of progress witnessed in the LNG industry. 2019 was a record-breaking year for the LNG industry, and with the onset of COVID-19, 2020 did not exactly improve upon the 70 million tpy of new LNG capacity generated in 2019. In fact, 2020 produced just one Final

Managing Editor

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Production

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Investment Decision (FID) for a project, thus all eyes were on 2021 for any ounce of improvement. Fortunately, this year has delivered, with 50 million tpy of new LNG supply taking FID (an impressive 47 million tpy increase on last year), for projects including Baltic LNG and North Field East. Asia – specifically China – is really carrying the team for global LNG demand. GlobalData’s report (p.8), outlines how global LNG regasification capacity is expected to add more than 28 000 billion ft3 during the period 2021 - 2030, and Asia will dominate this, being responsible for 80% of the capacity additions by 2030. China will be one of the primary drivers of these additions, due to a combination of factors that include rapidly increasing industrial demand for gas, strong policy support providing scope for LNG demand, and lack of sufficient natural gas production. Chinese buyers have been unbelievably active this year, with the likes of CNOOC, Sinopec, and Sinochem concluding deals, and emerging buyers also standing in the limelight, including Shenergy Group and ENN. My December 2020 comment concluded with hopes of recovery and optimism, and this is somewhat reflected in the choice of Word of the Year 2021 by the Oxford dictionary: Vax. With 43% of the global population fully vaccinated against COVID-19, and travel only allowed once vaccinated, the choice of word does make sense. As a bizarre 12 months comes to an end, LNG Industry thanks all our readers for their support and positivity, and we look forward to continuing to deliver our informative products to you in 2022. We wish you all a healthy and prosperous holiday season.

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LNGNEWS USA Canada

McDermott awarded EPFC contract for Woodfibre LNG

Fourth LNG export facility to be developed in US State of Louisiana

oodfibre LNG has signed an EPFC contract with McDermott International. The EPFC contract is an important step in advancing detailed engineering and construction scheduling work in advance of Woodfibre LNG issuing a Notice to Proceed. Responsibly produced natural gas is a necessary part of making a successful global transition from heavy-emitting fuels to renewables. By harnessing the low-carbon gas resources of British Columbia’s (BC) Montney region, Canada, to replace coal-fired energy sources in Asia, Woodfibre LNG will reduce global emissions by 3.5 million t CO2e/yr, equivalent to removing 5% of BC's annual emissions from the atmosphere each year. McDermott and Woodfibre’s collaboration on front-end engineering and facility design, relative to typical LNG facilities, will result in an approximately 86% reduction in CO2 emissions per tonne of LNG produced. Woodfibre LNG aims to be the cleanest LNG export facility on Earth, achieved through the adoption of a low-emission philosophy across every element of engineering and design. The facility will use hydroelectricity for the main liquefaction process, and includes state of the art technology that enables liquefaction machinery to restart without flaring, a recycling system for boil-off gas, and additional transformers, switchgear, and transmission lines. Altogether, this results in a remarkable technical achievement in the world of LNG, and sets a new standard for efficient plant design. Woodfibre LNG has two offtake agreements signed with BP, thus over 70% of Woodfibre’s annual throughput has already been sold.

enture Global LNG and Louisiana Governor John Bel Edwards have announced the company will invest more than US$10 billion to develop a fourth LNG export facility in the State of Louisiana, US. The new project, CP2 LNG (CP2) will be located in Cameron Parish, adjacent to Venture Global’s first facility, Calcasieu Pass. This announcement brings Venture Global’s total planned capital investment in Louisiana to more than US$20 billion. CP2 will result in thousands of jobs and an estimated US$2 billion in new local revenue during the life of the project. “Venture Global is proud to continue our expansion in Louisiana with the launch of our next project, CP2 LNG. [The] projects, combined with our Plaquemines LNG facility now under construction, represent more than US$20 billion of investment in the State of Louisiana and will create thousands of jobs,” said Venture Global CEO Mike Sabel. “With two major LNG export projects currently under active construction, Venture Global is on a mission to produce the cleanest, low-cost LNG in North America. We are proud to partner with Louisiana in these efforts and in developing carbon capture and sequestration for our facilities. Under the leadership of Governor John Bel Edwards, Louisiana is enhancing its status as an international hub for innovation to tackle the energy and climate challenges of our time.” The company has submitted an application requesting authorisation from FERC to site, construct, and operate the CP2 LNG facility and the CP express pipeline. CP2 LNG will build, own, and operate an LNG terminal with a liquefaction capacity of 20 million tpy of LNG. The CP Express pipeline will provide natural gas to the CP2 LNG facility.

Vietnam

NOVATEK and PetroVietnam Power sign agreement

uring the official visit of the President of the Socialist Republic of Vietnam, Nguyen Xuan Phuc, PAO NOVATEK and PetroVietnam Power signed a Co-operation Agreement on LNG and power projects in Vietnam (the ‘Agreement’). President Nguyen Xuan Phuc and NOVATEK’s Chairman of the Management Board, Leonid Mikhelson, held a meeting to discuss the supply of LNG from the company’s projects to the Vietnamese market. Parties to the Agreement intend to co-operate on LNG infrastructure projects with the view to meeting the growing demand for electricity in Vietnam. The Agreement represents an important step in the development of the company’s

December 2021

co-operation with Vietnamese corporations. “Russia and Vietnam share a long-standing friendship, and we will continue developing co-operation between our countries,” noted Leonid Mikhelson. “Vietnam's electricity consumption has been growing at an average annual rate of 10% over the past 10 years, and NOVATEK is ready to meet this growing market’s needs. We intend to become a reliable partner for Vietnam in realising its announced goals of phasing out coal-fired power generation, and facilitate the country's transition to clean energy of natural gas. This is in line with our strategy to expand our presence in the Asia-Pacific gas markets.”

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LNGNEWS Malaysia USA

Wärtsilä to supply cargo handling system for LNG bunker vessel

ärtsilä will supply a new 103 m (340 ft) long LNG bunker barge with a complete LNG cargo storage and handling system. The ship will be built at Fincantieri Bay Shipbuilding (FBS) in Wisconsin, US, for Polaris New Energy (PNE). This is the second of two such barges built at the yard for PNE, the same Wärtsilä solution having been ordered for both. The first barge is scheduled for delivery from FBS in December 2021. This latest order with Wärtsilä was placed in November 2021. In addition to the equipment scope, Wärtsilä will also provide the detailed design for the system as well as all necessary integration requirements. The second barge will be able to load LNG from the major terminals due to an elevated manifold feature. Wärtsilä’s leading position as a provider of LNG systems for the marine sector enables the company to offer solid support for owners and operators as the acceptance of LNG fuel continues to grow. “When delivered, these two barges will be the largest LNG bunker barges in the US, which further solidifies FBS’s reputation as the ‘go-to’ shipyard for LNG bunker vessels. We are very pleased to once again partner with Wärtsilä for this second PNE barge, and we thank them for the excellent way in which the first vessel project was executed,” said Justin Slater, Director of Sales and Marketing at FBS. “This repeat order comes based on the success of the first vessel’s cargo handling project, and Wärtsilä’s unmatched reputation for high quality LNG system solutions. The North American maritime sector is increasingly turning to LNG fuel as a means to reduce its carbon footprint, and this project represents an important addition to the supply infrastructure. Our depth of experience certainly adds significant support to this trend,” said Kjell Ove Ulstein, Sales and Marketing Director for Wärtsilä Gas Solutions. The Wärtsilä scope includes four 1350 m3 insulated LNG cargo tanks, the cargo control system, deepwell pumps, a ship-to-shore transfer system, a nitrogen generator, all necessary safety equipment and systems, a custody transfer measurement system, and the gas combustion unit. Deliveries to the yard will commence in November 2022. The two barges will be capable of delivering fuel to both ocean-going and inland waterway vessels operating on LNG.

December 2021

PETRONAS awards LNG project FEED contracts

ETRONAS has awarded two front-end engineering design (FEED) contracts to a JGC Corporation-Samsung Heavy Industries consortium and to Saipem S.p.A as part of an international dual FEED competition for a nearshore LNG project in Sabah, Malaysia. The project, with a minimum capacity of 2.0 million tpy, is a first of its kind in Malaysia. The FEED competition is expected to take place over the course of 10 months with the Final Investment Decision (FID) planned for the end of 2022. Subject to FID, the winning FEED contractor will be rolled over to the engineering, procurement, construction and commissioning (EPCC) phase. The nearshore LNG plant is planned to be ready for start up by the end of 2026. The design and construction of the nearshore plant is expected to be simpler and upon completion, has the potential for improved production uptime as it will be located within a protected bay area as compared to an offshore floating LNG facility in the open seas. Upon completion, the nearshore LNG plant will increase PETRONAS’ LNG production from floating LNG (FLNG) facilities from 2.7 million tpy to 4.7 million tpy. Currently, PETRONAS operates two FLNG facilities, the PFLNG SATU and PFLNG DUA, at the Kebabangan and Rotan offshore gas fields respectively.

THE LNG ROUNDUP XX GTT to design tanks of LNG carriers for arctic waters XX Keppel secures FSRU and FPSO contract XX Study on net zero LNG construction completed for Shell Follow us on LinkedIn to read more about the articles

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LNGNEWS Russia

Brazil

Gazprom expanding production and use of LNG he Gazprom Board of Directors has expressed its approval of the company's ongoing projects for the production and supply of LNG. It was noted that the company's work in this promising direction will make it possible to strengthen the position of Gazprom in foreign markets and address, in a more flexible manner, the tasks related to providing reliable gas supplies to domestic consumers. Near the settlement of Ust-Luga in northwestern Russia, Gazprom and RusGazDobycha are building the complex for processing ethane-containing gas. The complex will include a large scale LNG production plant which, with its capacity of 13 million tpy LNG, is designed to become the biggest such plant in northwestern Europe. The project for the construction of the LNG production, storage, and shipment complex near the Portovaya CS in the Leningrad Region is in its final stage. The complex will produce 1.5 million tpy LNG. The possibility of building another mid scale LNG plant near Vladivostok is being considered. Gazprom pays special attention to the development of small scale LNG complexes, for instance, those designed to bring gas to localities that are situated far away from gas trunklines. The Gazprom Group is also planning to expand the use of LNG in its own railroad transport. For instance, an LNGpowered shunter was developed for Gazpromtrans. The first of such shunters is expected to enter pilot operation before the end of this year. The Management Committee was tasked with continuing the implementation of the projects for the production and supply of LNG.

Siemens Energy secures LNG power plant order iemens Energy has secured an order for the turnkey construction of the combined cycle power plant UTE GNA II in the integrated LNG-to-power project GNA II, located at Port of Açu, in the Brazilian state of Rio de Janeiro. The construction of the power plant is ongoing, and the customer is the project company Gás Natural Açu (GNA). Following the successful commissioning of GNA I in summer 2021, GNA II will be the second turnkey combined cycle power plant that Siemens Energy will build in the thermoelectric hub and will add further capacity of 1.7 GW. With a combined capacity of 3 GW, the two power plants will be able to provide enough electricity for the consumption of approximately 14 million households. The second order comes with the first application of the highly efficient HL class gas turbine in Brazil. The combined cycle plants powered by LNG will be some of the most efficient thermal power plants in Latin America. The total project amount is approximately €1 billion. The scope for Siemens Energy foresees the entire power island delivery, which consists of three HL class gas turbines, one steam turbine, four electric generators, and three heat recovery steam generators (HRSG), in addition to instrumentation and control systems. The services offered by Siemens Energy will also cover the long-term operation and maintenance (O&M) of the plant, including advanced remote monitoring and diagnostics by the Remote Operation Centre, located in Jundiaí, São Paulo, Brazil. The power plant is being built together with the consortium partner Andrade Gutierrez who will provide the civil works, the infrastructure, and the erection works.

31 January - 02 February 2022

08 - 10 March 2022

28 - 30 March 2022

Vienna, Austria

Rotterdam, the Netherlands

Dusseldorf, Germany

www.energycouncil.com/event-events/

www.stocexpo.com

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23 - 27 May 2022

06 - 10 June 2022

Daegu, South Korea

Athens, Greece

www.wgc2022.org

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European Gas Conference

StocExpo

8th International LNG Congress

european-gas-conference

10 - 12 May 2022

Canada Gas & LNG Exhibition & Conference Vancouver, Canada

World Gas Conference 2022

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December 2021

lobal warming and climate change have been pushing the global energy sector to look away from fossil fuels such as oil and coal to renewables and other clean energy sources. Still, fossil fuels have a major role to play as they currently account for the bulk of the global energy mix. Natural gas, a relatively low-carbon fossil fuel, is increasingly being viewed as a bridge fuel for many countries during their energy transition from coal and oil to other cleaner fuels. For countries shifting towards hydrogen, this can be mixed with natural gas and transported using existing natural gas pipeline networks. This saves the costs of constructing new hydrogen pipelines and makes transportation of large volumes of hydrogen feasible. With demand for natural gas expected to remain steady in the global primary energy mix for the next couple of decades, LNG will also continue to play an important role as more countries switch to natural gas to meet their environmental goals. LNG is the preferred mode of natural gas delivery over large distances involving seas and oceans. Besides, LNG also helps to mitigate geopolitical, environmental, and security issues, typically faced by cross-country gas pipelines, and helps to serve a greater number of markets than pipelines. Though LNG is finding new markets globally, there is scepticism over carbon emissions in its value chain. Carbon-neutral LNG seems to be the answer to offset this issue. The LNG value chain – natural gas production, processing, liquefaction, transport, regasification, and final combustion – results in significant emissions of carbon into the atmosphere. To account for carbon emissions in the LNG value chain and to decrease its environmental impact, the idea of carbon-neutral LNG has emerged with the first such cargo sold in 2019.

Carbon-neutral LNG – decarbonisation of the LNG value chain

Carbon-neutral LNG essentially involves offsetting carbon emissions in the LNG value chain through the purchase of carbon credits, which can be used in projects that reduce carbon emissions such as afforestation, carbon capture, etc. The concept is still in its infancy stage with less than approximately 40 such cargoes agreed or delivered to date against more than 5000 cargoes typically delivered globally every year. Asian countries such as Japan and China, which account for the bulk of global LNG demand, are spearheading purchases of carbon-neutral LNG as part of their sustainability efforts. In Japan, 15 companies led by utility company Tokyo Gas, formed the Carbon Neutral LNG Buyers Alliance in March 2021. These companies, which cater to different sectors, have allied to contribute towards Japan’s planned move to become carbon neutral by 2050. Even before the formation of this alliance, a Japanese utility, Hokkaido Gas, signed a carbonneutral LNG purchase agreement with Mitsui & Co. in February 2021, which will constitute approximately 10% of the company’s annual LNG purchases. In China, Shell Eastern Trading signed a five-year contract with PetroChina in July 2021 for the supply of carbon-neutral LNG. LNG producers are also making conscious efforts to decrease carbon emissions during LNG production through different methods such as carbon capture and

Soorya S. Tejomoortula, GlobalData, India, considers the global LNG industry over the past year and looks to the future, outlining trends, perspectives, and providing a capacity outlook.

sequestration (CCS), using all-electric motors to drive compressors and pumps as well as sourcing electricity from renewable sources. In February 2021, while sanctioning the Final Investment Decision (FID) for the North Field East LNG Project (NFE) billed as the largest LNG project ever globally, Qatar Petroleum announced that a CCS system will be constructed to reduce emissions from the project. A jetty boil-off gas recovery system and dry low NOx technology will

also be used to further reduce emissions. In addition, the company plans to use solar power to meet a major portion of the project’s electricity needs. Such initiatives are expected to enhance the saleability of NFE’s LNG going forward. Carbon-neutral LNG is still in the infancy stage, but its share in regular cargoes is expected to grow in the future due to its differentiation as a sustainable and environmentally friendly LNG for both sellers and buyers. Pressure from investors and shareholders for environmentally friendly LNG and potential legal requirements may further drive the growth of carbon-neutral LNG in the future – keeping pace with increasing LNG demand which is fuelling the global LNG regasification capacity additions.

Asia leads proposed regasification capacity additions globally

Figure 1. Proposed LNG regasification capacity additions by key regions (%), 2021 - 2030. Outer doughnut represents regasification capacity of projects in construction and commissioning stages. Inner doughnut represents regasification capacity of projects in the pre-construction stage.

Table 1. List of major carbon-neutral LNG cargo deliveries

Supplier name

Purchaser name

Delivered country

Date

Shell

Tokyo Gas

Japan

June 2019

Shell

GS Energy

South Korea June 2019

JERA

India

June 2019

Shell

CPC

Taiwan

March 2020

Total

CNOOC

China

October 2020

Mitsui

Hokkaido Gas

Japan

March 2021

Gazprom

Shell

March 2021

Oman LNG

Shell

June 2021

BP Plc

CPC

Taiwan

August 2021

Petronas

Shikoku Electric Power

Japan

August 2021

Sakhalin Energy

Toho Gas Company

Japan

October 2021

December 2021

With more countries embracing natural gas in their shift towards clean energy, growth in LNG demand, and as a corollary, strong growth in global regasification capacity, is expected over the medium- to long-term. Based on known projects to date, the global LNG regasification capacity is expected to add more than 28 000 billion ft3 during 2021 - 2030. This includes projects ranging from those which are in preliminary development stages to those that are in construction. Asia would dominate with 80% of global regasification capacity additions by 2030. The announcement of key Asian importers – China, Japan, and South Korea – to become carbon neutral over the next 30 - 40 years would add further fillip to the region’s LNG demand. During the period 2021 - 2030, Asia would also dominate global regasification capacity under construction and commissioning, with a share of 75% of the total 4949 billion ft3 from known/reported projects. Lack of adequate natural gas production coupled with rapidly increasing industrial and domestic demand for gas make China and India primary drivers of LNG regasification capacity additions in Asia. Among global regasification projects under construction/ commissioning, Kuwait’s significant Al-Zour regasification project with a capacity of 1155 billion ft3 is in the commissioning stage and is expected to start operations in 1Q22. Billed as the largest upcoming greenfield LNG regasification project, it would help Kuwait to switch from oil-fired to gas-fired power generation and meet growing gas demand from its petrochemicals and refinery sectors. In Asia, the 365.25 billion ft3 Nong Fab terminal in Thailand is the largest regasification terminal under construction and is part of Thailand’s plan to transform itself into a regional LNG hub. With the country’s domestic gas production on the decline, Nong Fab is expected to help the country meet its natural gas needs, mainly for power generation. The 584 billion ft3 Tangshan II is the largest upcoming regasification terminal in China. Phase I of this project with a capacity of 341 billion ft3 is currently under construction in the Hebei province. With a total estimated CAPEX of US$1.1 billion, the Phase 1 terminal will complement the already existing Tangshan terminal to provide gas to Hebei, Beijing, and Tianjin through the Yongqing-TangshanQinhuangdao gas pipeline. Such massive regasification

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North America leads globally in terms of liquefaction capacity growth, accounting for approximately 63% of the total proposed capacity additions by 2030. Vast shale and tight gas resources, relatively low cost of gas production, Global liquefaction capacity strong gas processing, pipeline infrastructure, and booming expected to witness robust growth Asian demand are some of the factors driving LNG During 2021 - 2030, global LNG liquefaction capacity is production capacity growth in this region. expected to witness significant additions of more than Among key LNG liquefaction projects under construction/ 650 million tpy – including proposed projects in precommissioning, Qatar Petroleum’s NFE project with a construction and construction stages. North America, the proposed 48 million tpy capacity is the largest ever. The first Former Soviet Union (FSU), and the Middle East would drive phase of the project (32 million tpy) is expected to this growth. Many of these upcoming projects are still in the commence operations in 2025. FID of the first phase was preliminary stages and have yet to receive any approvals or taken in February 2021 and this phase will increase the start construction. liquefaction capacity of Qatar to 110 million tpy by 2025 and reinforce its stature as the leading exporter of LNG in the world. LNG produced from the project will be attractive to Asian and European companies as it is priced competitively and is relatively less carbon-intensive due to a dedicated CCS system and other emission reduction technologies. Russia has two ambitious LNG liquefaction terminals under construction, Arctic 2 and Baltic. These terminals, which are coming up in multiple phases, would together add 32.8 million tpy of liquefaction capacity, helping Russia to increase LNG exports to Asia-Pacific and Europe. Novatek’s Arctic 2 LNG project is being developed in the north of Siberia with gas sourced from the Utrenneye field. The gravity-based structures (GBS) concept and local manufacturing of the Figure 2. Projected LNG liquefaction capacity additions by region required equipment means LNG supplied from (million tpy), 2021 - 2030. this project would be highly competitive in terms capacity additions worldwide, in turn, mandates strong global liquefaction capacity additions as well.

Table 2. Duration of major long-term LNG contracts signed in 2021* Vendor

Purchaser

Contract signed year

Contract start year

Contracted Contract capacity end year (million tpy)

Contract duration

OAO Novatek

Shenergy Group Ltd

2021

2023

2038

3.00

Tellurian Investments

Vitol Group

2021

2026

2036

3.00

Tellurian Investments

Royal Dutch Shell Plc

2021

2026

2035

3.00

Qatargas Operating Company Ltd

Pakistan State Oil Company Ltd

2021

2022

2031

3.00

Petronas

CNOOC Gas & Power Ltd

2021

2025

2035

2.20

RasGas Company Ltd

Korea Gas Corp. (KOGAS)

2021

2025

2044

2.00

Qatargas Operating Company Ltd

China Petroleum & Chemical Corp.

2021

2022

2031

2.00

Qatargas Operating Company Ltd

CPC Corp.

2021

2022

2036

1.25

Qatar Petroleum

Vitol Group

2021

2030

1.25

Qatargas Operating Company Ltd

Royal Dutch Shell Plc

2021

2022

2032

1.00

Woodside Energy Ltd

RWE AG

2021

2025

2031

0.84

Chevron USA Inc.

Pavilion Energy Pte Ltd

2021

2023

2028

0.50

* Major contracts in terms of contracted volumes

December 2021

of price besides being exported to the Asia-Pacific markets through the relatively shorter Northern Sea route. In North America, LNG Canada, Golden Pass LNG, and Calcasieu Pass are the largest upcoming projects with total capacities of 28 million tpy, 15.6 million tpy, and 11.3 million tpy respectively. With an estimated US$18 billion, the first phase of the Royal Dutch Shell-led LNG Canada project with a capacity of 14 million tpy is one of the largest investments in the Canadian energy sector. The first phase is expected to start operations in 2025 and would firmly place Canada on the global LNG exporters list. The LNG Canada terminal is located in British Columbia, which has a relatively shorter shipping route to North Asia, a major demand centre for LNG. In the US, the US$10 billion Golden Pass LNG terminal is being constructed in Sabine Pass, Texas. This Qatar Petroleum and ExxonMobil joint venture is a three-train liquefaction terminal with a total capacity of 15.6 million tpy, and the first train is expected to start operations in 2024. The US$4.5 billion Calcasieu Pass project is being constructed in Louisiana, US, and is expected to start full operations in 2022. Its operator, Venture Global Calcasieu Pass LLC, plans to construct a carbon capture and storage facility, a first for existing LNG terminals in the US, and could offset approximately 500 000 tpy of carbon emissions. Apart from the aforementioned projects, there are other significant projects under construction such as the NLNG Expansion project in Nigeria, the Sabine Pass expansion in the US, and the Tangguh expansion in Malaysia, which would lead to considerable global liquefaction capacity additions. Some of these projects have taken FIDs and are being constructed without tying their entire liquefaction capacities under long-term contracts, as the global LNG market is witnessing changes in LNG supply contracts.

Strong demand supported by prolific LNG supply alters LNG contracts

Growing global LNG demand will have ramifications on the way LNG contracts are signed. Traditionally, LNG producers have signed long-term contracts typically extending 20 years or more before committing to develop liquefaction facilities. These long-term contracts have acted as guarantees for their investments and provided certainty to their production offtakes over longer periods.

However, with the global LNG market becoming more diverse with the entry of new suppliers and demand centres, some buyers are increasingly looking for flexible and shorter contracts, different pricing mechanisms, and flexibility on supply destinations. As a result, the typical duration of long-term LNG contracts has decreased from earlier 15 - 25 years to 5 - 10 years. However, this does not mean that the era of 10+ years of contracts is over. Some buyers are still interested in contracts with longer durations, as it offers supply security. These changes are prompting some of the suppliers to be more flexible by offering short- to medium-term contracts and taking FIDs on liquefaction projects without first contracting the entire proposed LNG capacity. This is especially true for large integrated oil and gas companies with diversified LNG portfolios, such as BP Plc and Royal Dutch Shell, as well as companies from gas-rich countries, such as Qatar and Russia. However, growing reluctance towards long-term contracts is impacting the plans of some of the US LNG developers, who are unable to secure contracts before taking FIDs on their projects. No FIDs have been taken in the US liquefaction sector in 2020 and to date in 2021. Failure to sign long-term contracts forced Annova LNG to cancel its 6.5 million tpy project in Brownsville (South Texas), despite receiving federal approvals. In Canada, Chevron withdrew from the Kitimat Project in December 2019 after failure to offtake LNG through long-term contracts. Woodside, another partner in that project, which initially wanted to move ahead despite Chevron’s withdrawal, announced in March 2021 that it is also planning to quit the project due to its inability to find buyers. The inability to secure long-term contracts for some LNG producers might get worse if there is a supply glut after 2025, as large LNG liquefaction capacities get operational. Buyers, especially from Asia, would increasingly like to purchase their LNG from spot markets or through short-term contracts, as an abundant supply of LNG provides these buyers with plenty of choices and purchase flexibility. Despite the changing dynamics of the global LNG market in terms of the emergence of new buyers and sellers and a shift towards short contract durations, given the importance of natural gas in meeting global clean energy goals, demand for LNG is expected to remain strong over the next couple of decades.

VACUUM JACKETED PIPE THE MOST COST-EFFECTIVE WAY TO TRANSFER CRYOGENIC LIQUIDS

lobal demand for LNG is hitting record highs, offering producers the opportunity to grow at a blistering pace. To quickly boost throughput with only minimal investment, new and existing industry players can set up small scale LNG facilities. These support a rapid, capillary penetration in regional markets as well as future expansion. The change to lower-carbon energy sources is driving the adoption of LNG, which is considered a transition fuel. This emits up to half the carbon dioxide (CO2) and offers a reduction of more than 90% in nitrogen oxides (NOx) and sulfur emissions when compared to conventional solutions. As a result, the LNG market is growing tremendously, with global demand for this resource expected to rise by 14% over the next four years and soar by 40 - 50% by 2031. Even more, 11 new potential import markets are predicted to be available by 2025. In order to meet increasing global demand, LNG production needs to enhance its throughput accordingly to supply the required 485 million tpy. Therefore, this sector offers several highly appealing opportunities to new and existing businesses in this field. Tapping into a new market often presents a number of technical challenges, but new players can rely on key chemical processing solutions to overcome them and provide a successful entry point. More precisely, to benefit from considerable profits, companies do not need to invest in large, expensive facilities that process millions of tonnes annually. Small scale LNG facilities with a production capacity below 1 million tpy, or even under 500 000 tpy, offer a highly lucrative solution. In effect, a

global annual demand of up to 100 million t from small scale LNG is predicted by 2030. This means that the small scale LNG market, which currently accounts for approximately US$30 billion, is expected to almost double in a very short time, reaching an estimated value of US$50 billion by 2026.

When going small means going big

There are many reasons behind the growing role of small scale LNG. Firstly, its compact footprint, typically associated with modular designs, results in lower investment requirements as well as more immediate returns. Costeffectiveness can be further enhanced when LNG from small scale LNG plants can be delivered to users in its liquid form, as the need for regasification equipment that can increase CAPEX is eliminated. The reduced cost of these facilities, which leads to more economical end-products, makes small scale LNG infrastructures highly attractive and strategic, even when the competition is fierce. Furthermore, these facilities can be expanded using a sustainable, modular approach to support the growth of the business, supply chain networks, and LNG market needs. Perhaps the biggest benefit to users and the businesses serving them, is that small scale LNG plants can also be purpose-built to support localised demand. In particular, to maximise revenue, they can be strategically located to support customers that are currently underserved because other forms of energy are expensive, unavailable, or their supply is unreliable. This is the case for three major end uses, namely fuel for heavy road transport, marine fuel (bunkering), and power generation in remote locations with no natural gas pipeline grid in the vicinity. More specifically, all these applications are expected to make up 42%, 32%, and 26% of the 2030 market, respectively. Similarly, small scale LNG facilities can be built close to the source, where the raw material is available. By combining this availability with scalability and the possibility to maintain LNG in its liquid form, businesses can turn their plants into a network of fuelling stations for long haul trucks and marine vessels. This means they can benefit

from reduced investment in regasification technologies, refrigerated pipelines, and fleets of vehicles to transport LNG. As a result, small scale LNG plants can maintain a low environmental footprint, making them profitable and competitive, even as carbon taxes become increasingly common worldwide.

Futureproofing the fuel industry

Ultimately, small scale LNG facilities support more flexible and agile operations, in line with just-in-time manufacturing, making these plants well-suited to meet growing customer demands and increasingly resilient to market fluctuations. Even more, they help producers to reduce their dependency on long-term offtake agreements with a single, large consumer in order to support the CAPEX of large scale infrastructures. Instead, companies leveraging small scale LNG can trade with numerous smaller end users on a spot or short-term basis, minimising investment risks. The nature of small scale LNG plants, their business model, and strategies greatly differ from their larger scale counterparts. Therefore, to succeed in this market companies must implement processing technologies and solutions that are tailored to the needs of small scale LNG facilities. To this end, businesses should partner with a company that has extensive experience in designing small scale LNG facilities. In effect, a specialist, such as Sulzer Chemtech, can leverage its unique, thorough understanding of what these plants require as well as the design and delivery of micro, small, and medium scale LNG plants globally. By simplicity of design the Sulzer small scale LNG process combines low CAPEX, low OPEX operations, and rapid returns for the customers. Sulzer Chemtech drives localisation of small scale LNG skid manufacturing as key to streamline project execution and minimise the required investment hurdles. As a gas technology licensor, Sulzer Chemtech provides a combined offering that includes feasibility studies; front-end engineering design (FEED); full basic engineering packages (BEP); proven, plug-and-play, skid-mounted process units with modular structures; as well as related commissioning and start up services. Sulzer Chemtech offers modular, skid-mounted, small scale LNG plants ranging from an average daily production capacity of 36 tpd up to 360 tpd of LNG. Almost any capacity in between can be economically realised.

Enter the small scale LNG market now

Figure 1. Sulzer Chemtech provides processing technologies and fully integrated facilities that address the specific needs of small scale LNG production plants to drive competitiveness.

December 2021

There are considerable opportunities in the small scale LNG market, even for new industry players. As the sector continues to grow exponentially, it is crucial for companies to gain access to it quickly and ramp up their production of highquality, cost-effective fuel. By partnering with a full-service technology provider that has extensive experience in delivering competitive small scale LNG plants, such as Sulzer Chemtech, companies can rapidly achieve this. They can leverage stateof-the-art modular solutions with streamlined project execution timelines that maximise the potential benefits by slashing investment risks and providing near to immediate returns.

Marko Grbić, Siniša Kovač, Dario Ferenčaba, and Marko Častek, LNG Croatia, Croatia, showcase the design elements of the Island of Krk’s LNG Terminal, a project which is helping to increase the energy independence of Croatia. he commissioning of the LNG Terminal on the Island of Krk at the end of 2020 and the arrival of the first LNG carrier at the beginning of 2021 marked a new era of natural gas market development and energy independence in the Republic of Croatia. The Terminal has a geopolitical and strategic dimension in the context of strengthening the European energy market by meeting its energy demands and increasing secure and reliable supply through the new natural gas route. This article will describe the Terminal’s design through several interconnected elements which form one strong and reliable unit.

The main elements of the Terminal

Construction of the Terminal lasted from April 2019 to December 2020 when it was successfully commissioned. The Terminal consists of several main elements while the process of regasification takes place on the FSRU vessel LNG Croatia. After the LNG is converted from a liquefied to a gaseous state, natural gas is further delivered to the natural gas transmission system of the Republic of Croatia throughout a connecting high-pressure pipeline.

A basic overview of the main elements of the Terminal is given in Figure 2. The Terminal consists of the following main elements: � FSRU vessel LNG Croatia. � Jetty with auxiliary facilities. � Connecting high-pressure pipeline. � Connecting water supply system.

The FSRU vessel

The FSRU vessel LNG Croatia was initially built by the South Korean shipyard Hyundai Heavy Industries in 2005 under the name of Golar Viking as a conventional LNG carrier. Following the successfully completed procurement procedure of the FSRU vessel, in early 2020 the Golar Viking sailed to the Hudong Zhonghua shipyard in China where its conversion from LNG carrier to FSRU vessel began. The two largest modifications related to installation of new equipment included the installation of a regasification module, which was installed on the bow of the vessel, and the installation of a power module,

Figure 1. Arrival of the FSRU LNG Croatia to the Terminal.

which was installed on the stern of the vessel. At the beginning of December 2020, the fully functional FSRU vessel LNG Croatia sailed to the location of the Terminal and successfully moored in the Special Purpose Port – Industrial Port LNG Terminal. After that, activities related to putting the Terminal into operation began (Figure 1). The first LNG carrier named Tristar Ruby, which arrived at the Terminal on 1 January 2021, marked the beginning of the commercial operation of the Terminal (Figure 3).

FSRU vessel LNG Croatia consists of equipment for the loading and unloading of LNG, four LNG cargo storage tanks, equipment for LNG regasification, equipment for waste gas handling (boil-off gas), equipment for natural gas send-out and measurement, an engine room intended for the production of electricity, propulsion equipment, a cargo control room, firefighting systems, and all auxiliary facilities. The total cargo storage capacity of the FSRU vessel is 140 206 m3, while the LNG regasification equipment includes three LNG regasification trains with a maximum regasification rate of 451 840 m3/h. The FSRU vessel operates with a maximum capacity of up to 300 000 m3/h, or 2.6 billion m3/y, in accordance with the current capabilities of the gas transmission system of the Republic of Croatia. The main technical characteristics of the Terminal are shown in Table 1.

The onshore part of the Terminal

Figure 2. Basic overview of the main elements of the

Terminal.

Table 1. Main technical characteristics of the LNG Terminal Total storage capacity of FSRU vessel (m3)

140 206

Maximum LNG regasification capacity (m3/h)

451 840

Minimum LNG regasification capacity (m3/h)

60 000

Total LNG regasification capacity (billion m3/y)

2.6

Maximum transfer capacity from LNG carrier (m3/h)

8000

Maximum operating pressure of the pipeline (bar)

100

Capacity of LNG carriers capable of berthing at the Terminal (m3)

3500 - 266 000

Figure 3. Arrival of the first LNG carrier to the Terminal – Tristar Ruby.

December 2021

The main infrastructure of the Terminal, apart from the mentioned FSRU vessel, consists of a jetty that is built on reinforced concrete pillars (piles). The berth itself consists of several elements that are connected into a functional unit with the main task of enabling safe mooring of the FSRU vessel, continuous and uninterrupted communication with the shore, and reliable send-out of natural gas from the FSRU vessel to the onshore part. At the same time, the task of the jetty is the indirect acceptance of the LNG carrier, which is moored laterally to the FSRU vessel during the transfer of LNG. The jetty itself is designed to be able to accept a wide range of vessels, from small scale feeder vessels to the largest LNG carriers, i.e. Q-Max vessels. On the central part of the jetty, i.e. the jetty head, high-pressure loading arms that connect the gas line between the FSRU vessel and shore part of the Terminal are located. Through the high-pressure loading arms which are located in the central part of the jetty, and then over the gas pipeline that is laid along the entire length of the access bridge, natural gas is transported to the onshore part of the Terminal. On the head of the jetty, in addition to high-pressure loading arms, there is also firefighting equipment and other auxiliary equipment necessary for safe and operational functioning of the Terminal. A set of breasting and mooring dolphins located on both sides of the jetty head, on which quick release hooks and fenders are installed, form the Terminal’s mooring system. The mooring ropes provide a connection between the FSRU vessel (and LNG carrier) and the shore. They are strong enough and at the same time sufficiently elastic to enable natural oscillations in the movement of the FSRU vessel along with the sea surface. With the help of the built-in mooring system, in case of danger, the release of the FSRU vessel can be carried out in a safe and fast way. On the onshore part of the Terminal, auxiliary facilities are located, without which the safe operation of the Terminal and thus the reliable send-out of natural gas to transmission system would not be possible. The control building, as a central facility of the shore part, is an administrative headquarter that ensures 24/7 continuous operational supervision of the entire Terminal and management of the Terminal through the control system. The auxiliary rooms of the control building serve to accommodate the instrumentation and electrical equipment of the Terminal. The fire water pump station together with the fire water tank and the built-in hydrant network provides fire protection to the Terminal area. From the aspect of protection and security of the Terminal and prevention of entry of

unauthorised persons, at the entrance of the Terminal there is a jetty guard house, while the Terminal itself is surrounded by a double fence. The security service and continuous video surveillance ensure a high level of security in the entire area of the Terminal. The pig launching station as a technological facility in the service of maintenance and cleaning of the high-pressure connection pipeline, is the entry point of the pipeline through which the Terminal is connected to the Omišalj gas hub, owned by the Croatian gas transmission system operator. The pig launching station at the Terminal and the Omišalj gas hub are connected with a high-pressure gas pipeline. The pipeline is constructed of seamless API 5L steel pipes with a nominal dia. of 1000 mm, with total length of 4.2 km and a maximum operating pressure of 100 bar. The entire length of the pipeline is under ground and is connected to above-ground facilities at its start and end points. The main function of the connecting high-pressure gas pipeline is to transfer natural gas from the Terminal to the Omišalj gas hub, where natural gas is delivered to the gas transmission system of the Republic of Croatia. The Terminal is connected to the public water supply system via a PEHD pipeline with a nominal dia. of 90 mm in a total length of 2.4 km. Its main purpose is the supply of drinking water for the sanitary needs of the Terminal and for the filling of the fire-fighting water tank.

Conclusion

The LNG Terminal represents a modern solution that allows a safe and reliable supply of natural gas to the gas transmission system of the Republic of Croatia. The onshore part of the Terminal provides support to the FSRU vessel in terms of safety

Figure 4. Jetty with auxiliary facilities. and operational capabilities. The FSRU vessel itself, from the aspect of safety and environmental protection, is equipped with the most modern systems according to industry standards, whereby the Terminal fulfills its purpose with minimal impact on the environment. In this way, the Terminal is providing quality co-existence with the local community. The onshore part of the Terminal and the FSRU vessel form an interconnected unit that represents one of the most important energy projects, both for the Republic of Croatia and for Central and Southeast Europe. From the beginning of its commercial operation until the 30 September 2021, (by the end of gas year 2020/2021), the Terminal has sent out over 1.11 billion m3 of natural gas to the gas transmission system. Considering the efficiency and reliability of the Terminal, it is expected that it will continue to operate for many years, all with the aim of secure and reliable gas supply while increasing the energy independence of the Republic of Croatia.

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Innovations for Greener Shipping

The Story behind the picture.

LNG fuel Bunkering Transport Storage-Tanks

Mathieu Petiteau, PONANT, France, describes the engineering involved in equipping the first LNG-powered ship to reach the geographic North Pole. Figure 1. Le Commandant Charcot has been made available to the scientific community and aims to provide a platform for observation, research, and analysis to study water, air, ice, and biodiversity in extreme polar regions. Image courtesy of PONANT – Nicolas Dubreuil.

hen PONANT, the French luxury exploration cruise company, first set its sights on polar explorations, as expected it would only consider sustainable, environmentally-friendly options. Based on this fundamental principle, the company started designing its polar exploration vessel, Le Commandant Charcot, six years ago. The aim: to explore the poles and all the remote areas of the Earth’s southernmost continent. Sailing under the French flag, with a capacity of up to 245 passengers and 215 crew members, Le Commandant Charcot launched in Le Havre, France, at the end of September 2021, before heading straight to her first Antarctic season from October 2021. Protecting the oceans, their ecosystems, and the environment in general is a priority for PONANT, which is why it incorporated cutting-edge technology and the latest

innovations available from the very beginning, right from the design stage. The ship had to not only have minimal impact on the environment but also outperform its rivals in a hostile and dangerous part of the world. After intensive study and research of the maritime propulsion systems available, PONANT selected a hybrid propulsion system powered by a combination of LNG and electric batteries. Once the decision was made to use LNG, the next challenge was how to store and make the most efficient use of this new fuel.

Overcoming a series of challenges

One of the conditions of allowing operations in polar regions is that the 150 m vessel is able to operate safely and with complete autonomy, in extreme ice conditions during cruises that can last up to three weeks.

Designing the LNG tanks was the first step – PONANT approached Gaztransport & Technigaz (GTT), a technology and engineering firm specialising in membrane containment systems for transporting and storing gas. GTT came up with a design offering both freedom from the usual difficulties caused by bunkering in very remote areas and an increased fuel storage capacity. For the design of the LNG tanks onboard Le Commandant Charcot to work properly, GTT had to overcome a large number of constraints and many challenges.

Autonomy and optimised space

One of the first challenges was to ensure that the LNG tanks would not take up too much room as the goal was to have as much space as possible onboard, as well as full autonomy. This autonomy should allow the ship to make all of its trips to the north and south poles, or the Arctic Circle and Antarctica, fuelled by LNG. GTT managed to develop a customised solution meeting the constraints of a very compact expedition vessel. As membrane tanks can adapt to the shape of a hull and to a vessel’s design, their placement can be adjusted, which helps optimise space and limit encroaching on areas that could be used for cabins. Two Mark III membrane tanks with a total capacity of 4500 m3 were placed in part under the waterline at the back of the vessel. This capacity is impressive compared to competing Type C storage solutions that go only to 2900 m3. The membrane solution thus yields an autonomy that exceeds the competing offering by 50%. The compactness of GTT’s

Figure 2. Sailing under the French flag, Le Commandant Charcot has a capacity of up to 245 passengers and 215 crew members. Image courtesy of PONANT – Olivier Blaud.

membrane containment system guarantees Le Commandant Charcot an autonomy of between one and two months, depending on navigation conditions. This compact design optimised LNG storage capacity in very small spaces and thereby increased the ship’s autonomy, allowing the vessel to make all of its trips powered by LNG.

Operational optimisation

An optimisation relative to an increase in pressure up to 2 barg in the membrane tank design was requested by the classification society and PONANT to guarantee compliance with the new IGF code, reduce environmental impact, and offer more operational flexibility, particularly during LNG bunkering. This makes it possible to load LNG at higher temperatures. Operators may also receive an additional pressure increase reserve in exceptional cases (for example, a safe return to the port with insulated LNG tanks).

Specific studies and new designs

Although the cryogenic containment systems that GTT has been delivering for nearly 60 years have proved their reliability, studies specific to these new LNG tanks were carried out to verify the lack of risk. The tanks’ insulation, which keeps the LNG at a temperature of -160˚C, was selected from the very latest types of foam certified by GTT. Its thermal performances and, in particular, thermal conductivity, were tested and verified by independent laboratories. The membrane is designed in a way that compensates for dilations and contractions to prevent it from being subjected to excessive constraint. Liquid movement studies specific to the characteristics of the vessel, the size and shape of the tanks, and the exterior conditions (sea movements, wave pressure, acceleration, extreme polar conditions, etc.) that Le Commandant Charcot will face were also carried out. The movement of the LNG inside the tanks, and its impact on the structural walls and their insulation system and internal pipes, was simulated using hexapods that reproduced the vessel’s movements and yielded insight into the fluid’s behaviour under real conditions. During the engineering phase, GTT’s teams developed new technology bricks, in particular for the domes. Two new configurations were deployed. The first, known as a liquid dome, contains all the pipework used to load LNG or transfer it to the engines. The second, called a material passing hole, is outfitted with a bolted flange of over 1 m dia. and is used to access the tank for inspections. A new mast design has also been developed that is much simpler than traditional LNG carrier masts that maintain the tank loading/unloading pumps and pipework.

A joint achievement

Figure 3. On 24 September 2021 in Le Havre, France, PONANT successfully completed the first ship-to-ship LNG bunkering operation to take place in the country in partnership with Gasum. Image courtesy of Gasum.

December 2021

Along with GTT, PONANT worked with other key partners including Finnish firm Aker Arctic which is behind the ship’s innovative hull design, and with Norwegian shipbuilder Vard, a subsidiary of the Italian group Fincantieri, which was ultimately tasked with the building of Le Commandant Charcot. Wärtsilä was selected to supply the latest generation of dual-fuel engines, which offer good performances and are specifically designed to run on gas. These latest-generation Wärtsilä 31DF engines are designed to work both with LNG and MGO but contrary to older models are specifically optimised for LNG, offering an increase of 13% in efficiency when on gas mode and a 5% increase when compared to older models.

Le Commandant Charcot not only meets the latest environmental requirements established by the International Maritime Organization (IMO) but does even better than the current regulatory thresholds. LNG cuts the vessel’s sulfur oxide emissions by virtually 100% compared to heavy fuel oil and reduces its fine particles emissions by more than 95%. Furthermore, using LNG allows Le Commandant Charcot to comply with future regulatory standards in terms of nitrogen oxide, reducing these emissions by 85%. Finally, LNG propulsion reduces carbon emissions by up to 20% compared to fuel oil. It should also be noted that LNG is an abundant and available resource. Oil company BP estimates that the world’s reserves will last another 230 years.1 The same cannot be said for low sulfur fuels, such as low sulfur heavy fuel oil (LSHFO). Another major innovation onboard Le Commandant Charcot, is a 4.5 MWh energy storage system – 50 t of Li-ion batteries with a 10-year lifetime (and a set recycling programme at end of life) ensure and improve the dual engine efficiency (optimum load), keep the engines running on gas, help recover energy in ice mode, provide back-up energy in case of a blackout, allow the ship to operate in zero emission mode for up to two hours, convert extra boil-off gas (BOG) into electricity maximising energy storage, and reduce underwater noise emission.

Figure 4. Wärtsilä was selected to supply the latest generation of dual-fuel engines, which are specifically designed to run on gas. Image courtesy of PONANT – Olivier Blaud.

Sailing into the future

On 24 September 2021 in Le Havre, PONANT successfully completed the first ship-to-ship LNG bunkering operation to take place in France on Le Commandant Charcot in partnership with Gasum. Since the ship’s delivery on 29 July 2021, the first LNG bunkering operation took place on 25 August in partnership with Gasum in Norway. It is in Le Havre, France, that the second LNG bunkering was completed Figure 5. Gaztransport & Technigaz (GTT) developed a customised on 24 September. LNG tank solution to meet the constraints of the very compact “These LNG bunkering operations are the expedition vessel. Image courtesy of PONANT – Julian Fabro. culmination of several years of analysis, engineering, and trials to find the safest and most efficient way to perform this operation. The ship reached the geographic In addition to four 14-cylinder and two 10-cylinder North Pole for the first time on 6 September 2021, using Wärtsilä 31DF engines, Wärtsilä also supplied the fuel gas LNG throughout the long voyage. We are completely satisfied supply system, chosen because of the company’s experience and particularly proud of the technical innovations and references in gas containment and gas fuel systems. This developed on this ship which have enabled us to achieve scope included the development of a very compact design for such outstanding results in terms of performance,” said Hervé the tank connection space (TCS), a sealed enclosure located Gastinel, CEO of PONANT. above each tank to contain the connections, equipment, and Le Commandant Charcot was designed as a ‘Ship of major control instruments (control valves, heat exchangers, Opportunity’. A Polar Class PC2 ship, its design includes all other valves, and tank insulation). the latest green technologies, such as 100% waste sorted PONANT ordered the building of a clean ship featuring onboard and waste treatment. Fitted with facilities and technologies that go beyo,nd current industry-standard equipment (wet and dry labs, weather station, computer and environmental regulations and Wärtsilä’s cutting-edge sonar rooms, sensors and transmitters fitted in the hull, etc.) technologies are making a huge contribution to creating the ship has been made available to the scientific cleaner, more efficient, and more environmentally sustainable community and aims to provide the scientific world with a shipping. platform for observation, research, and analysis to study water, air, ice, and biodiversity in extreme polar regions. The advantages of LNG propulsion PONANT’s decision to use LNG was not arbitrary, since designing its vessel to feature the latest innovations in environmental protection was one of its priorities.

December 2021

References 1.

BP Statistical Review of World Energy, 2016.

Berit Vincentz Andersen, Svitzer, Denmark, outlines how the towing of LNG carriers in challenging conditions requires the best people, equipment, and a focus on safety.

Figure 1. Svitzer tugs servicing the LNG terminal in Bangladesh.

ith roots stretching back nearly two centuries, global towage provider Svitzer is not only a company with a history, but a company with a strong heritage. Part of that heritage and part of the company’s DNA is doing difficult things in difficult places – be it port towage or oil and gas terminal towage, where Svitzer is involved in some of the most prestigious projects around the world and has long-term contracts with leading companies in the industry. LNG is an important fuel used worldwide and its use has surged exponentially over the last decade or so. In line with this, Svitzer’s experience with LNG projects has grown. Today, Svitzer’s LNG footprint has expanded to cover 18 operations in

11 countries, with a fleet of 102 vessels performing a multitude of services such as berthing and unberthing, pilotage, supporting ship-to-ship transfer, crew transfer, supply services, assistance with maintenance of an LNG terminal, channel buoy maintenance, safety and security standby, emergency response, and firefighting. The services provided vary from operation to operation and are tailor made to meet the customer’s specific needs as well as the conditions of the location in question – for instance whether it is a land-based import or export LNG terminal, a floating LNG terminal, or an FSRU. However, a common denominator for operating LNG terminals is that reliability,

safety, and timely performance is a must. LNG carrier ships are in high demand and so is the need for quick turnaround times.

Operating under challenging conditions

Adding to the complexity of operating LNG terminals are the often-challenging and complex weather conditions in many locations where Svitzer operates – for instance severe ice conditions in Russia, currents of up to six knots in Angola, 2 m swell and fog in Peru, and a sensitive and delicate ecosystem in Australia, to name a few. Each operation is very different from the next, hence each location must be carefully assessed as to which skills are required to ensure the operation is carried out safely and efficiently. Towing LNG carriers in icy waters compared to vessel manoeuvres in high winds and seas have their own individual challenges, and the masters and pilots must manoeuvre the ships in confined spaces as well as open seas. The tugs must therefore have state of the art equipment, including high-end complex winching systems, to ensure operations are completed with the utmost precision – in many cases with less than a few meters to spare. The interaction and communication must be precise and clear with each team member working closely together from start to finish. The most technical part is the complex way the masters have to handle the azimuth stern drive tugs (ASD) specifically designed for such manoeuvres with LNG vessels.

Figure 2. Svitzer’s operations in Angola.

ASD methods have changed dramatically over the years – particularly with regards to high-speed ships, where direct towage methods are no longer practicable and/or effective in many situations and scenarios. Therefore, the tug masters must be able to control the tugs at a very high speed while simultaneously towing very powerful vessels, hence striking the balance between power and manoeuvrability is crucial. No matter the location or type of terminal, extensive experience with operating under challenging conditions is needed, as Svitzer Global COO, Ingrid Uppelschoten Snelderwaard explains: “It requires a unique combination of skills, attitude, extensive training, and experience to complete operations in very challenging conditions. At Svitzer, we have vast experience as a result of working in the LNG sector for many years, but we have also invested time and resources – and will continue to do so – in extensive simulator trials with experienced masters and pilots who are familiar with each operation. This is to ensure that the correct tug configuration, tug type, and bollard pull are selected prior to and well in advance of the operation start up.”

Every day a safe day

Operating under challenging conditions not only requires the best people, but it also requires the best equipment and a relentless focus on safety. Svitzer strives for operational efficiency, which includes ensuring the correct vessel is used for each operation. In most cases, LNG vessels are escorted by LNG vessel compatible tugs which have escort notation and full firefighting capabilities with specific enhancements to handle LNG cargo, including positive pressure systems enabling the tugs to engage in emergency response in the unlikely event of an incident. In addition, since reliability is an important factor for LNG terminals, all tug designs are tried and tested and have high spec engines and equipment. Additionally, sister tugs are often used to allow redundancy in terms of maintenance in most operations. Svitzer works proactively together with its customers to ensure safe, reliable, and efficient services. The mantra is ‘safety first’ and Svitzer analyses each operation carefully and carries out extensive risk assessments together with the customer by bridging the standards of all parties involved in the operations, which then become the operational standard that ensures the safety of people, assets, and the environment. Ingrid Uppelschoten Snelderwaard explains: “We take our safety responsibilities very seriously and always strive to prevent incidents from happening as well as ensure we learn from those that unfortunately do happen. We live by these principles every day and everywhere we operate. Our crews and frontline leaders are the experts on operational safety, and we promote collaboration and encourage dialogue to make sure that we learn from the occasional incident when things go wrong – as well as from all the times that things go right.”

Looking ahead Figure 3. Svitzer’s LNG footprint.

December 2021

The future for LNG looks promising and as it is the cleanest fossil fuel, more and more consuming nations are looking towards

Worldwide Coverage

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LNG to replace coal, especially in Asia which is still operating on coal for producing power. According to the Shell LNG Outlook, global demand for LNG increased to 360 million t in 2020 and is forecast to reach 700 million t by 2040 as demand for natural gas will continue to grow at high speed in Asia until alternate or green fuel has been developed and scaled up. The past 10 years have seen an increase in countries with access to LNG, and with the development of FSRU technology, changes in local gas demand and supply can be met fairly

Figure 4. Svitzer operating in Angola.

Figure 5. Svitzer operating at the MLNG terminal in Bangladesh.

Figure 6. Svitzer operating at the LNG terminal in Idku,

Egypt.

December 2021

easily as FSRUs are quicker and easier to establish compared to land-based terminals. For Svitzer, this development represents promising growth opportunities and earlier this year, the company announced that it had signed a 10-year time charter party with FGEN LNG Corp. (FGEN LNG), a wholly-owned subsidiary of First Gen Corp. (First Gen) for the provision of towage and other vessel support services required by FGEN LNG’s Interim Offshore LNG Terminal (IOT) project, which will feature an FSRU located at the First Gen Clean Energy Complex in Batangas City in the Philippines. Svitzer will provide four new 75 t bollard pull tugboats to assist the FSRU and LNG carriers that will deliver LNG to the complex, for berthing, unberthing, navigation assistance, and will provide other services including firefighting, pollution control, port and vessel security services, pilot and boarding party transfer, and fender management. According to FGEN LNG, the IOT project as a whole will play a critical role in ensuring the energy security of the Philippines, particularly as the indigenous Malampaya gas resource is expected to be less reliable in producing and providing sufficient fuel supply for the country’s existing gas-fired power plants, and even less so for additional gas-fired power plants.

Becoming the preferred partner

The Maersk-owned company with headquarters in Copenhagen, Denmark, has firm growth ambitions and the goal is clear; to become the preferred LNG project partner – both when it comes to existing operational projects and greenfield projects such as FGEN LNG’s IOT project in the Philippines. Despite the positive growth perspectives for LNG projects, market conditions remain challenging for towage companies such as Svitzer. As towage and marine solutions are very much a commoditised business, companies need to stand out from the crowd and offer solutions different from those of the competition. When bidding for FGEN LNG’s IOT project, Svitzer explored alternative ways to put together an attractive offer that went beyond just delivering steel and manpower, as Pankaj Kankan, Regional CCO in Svitzer’s Asia/Middle East/ Africa (AMEA) region explains: “At Svitzer, we very much believe in partnerships and building fit for purpose solutions together with customers to cater to their specific needs. That was also the thinking when we prepared the solution for FGEN LNG, where we focused on addressing the critical elements for our customer – especially since this is a greenfield project and by nature these projects have many pieces that must all come together and most importantly on time.” “At the same time, we highlighted the Svitzer trademarks such as our solid experience with greenfield projects, our strong focus on safety, and our proven track record of delivering reliable and efficient services as well as showcasing how we would apply our global capabilities, know-how, network, and synergies locally to benefit the project.” Operations in the Philippines are planned to commence in 3Q22, and Svitzer is now working on preparations to meet the start deadline, which include assessing the operational area together with the partners and commencing building the four new vessels that will service the complex.

Andrew Stafford, Technical Director at Trelleborg’s marine and infrastructure operation, UK, details the use of mooring tension data to ensure safety and longevity of equipment on vessels.

ooring a vessel is not a trivial matter. As mooring loads securing the vessel to a berth are held within the mooring ropes, failure of a mooring line can result in a significant amount of tensile energy being released in a very short period of time, potentially leading to safety issues. This article will explore how mooring equipment guidelines highlight the importance of gaining access to accurate data on the condition of mooring equipment to ensure the equipment’s safety and longevity on vessels. It will also discuss the incompatibility of legacy infrastructure and the alternate solutions available to keep the mooring interface operational within a fleet.

Updated mooring guidelines

Following several incidents, the Oil Companies Marine Forum (OCIMF) updated its flagship mooring guidelines in 2018 to Issue 4 (MEG4) to now include actions around mooring safety. One of these actions was replacing steel-wired mooring ropes on larger vessels throughout the shipping industry, with safer, synthetic ropes of equivalent strength, such as those constructed from high modulus polyethylene (HMPE). Whilst these newer designs are inherently safer under snapback conditions, knowing the status of a mooring line, its operational history,

and safety inspection records are key to ensuring the safe continued use of the mooring rope. Compared to other vessels, LNG carriers have a unique feature. A dedicated hardwired communication cable between the jetty and vessel allows for the implementation of a data transfer channel to send accurate mooring load data for each mooring rope to the vessel. This can be used not only to manage safe mooring and cargo operations, but has the potential to record the duty data for mooring ropes, keeping accurate records of the ropes’ usage.

Mooring load monitoring

The usual causes of disruption to mooring at a berth include tidal change, strong berth currents, significant wave events, wind, ballast vs loaded draft, and winch slippage. Disruption issues are not only limited to the risk of ropes breaking. A vessel moving along or away from an intended jetty position, can affect the loading systems. This is especially relevant for marine loading arms, which have a limited operation window that can easily be exceeded if a vessel moves excessively from its required position. Pre-tensioning of mooring lines is important as it ensures that ropes have a minimum load applied. When set to an optimum tension, all the slack and material stretch are removed from the mooring rope. Quick release mooring hooks (QRH) can accurately measure the tensions of mooring lines by utilising a simple strain gauge in the hinge pin of the hook assembly. This allows terminal operators to have a full overview and control of a vessel’s mooring condition. However, one major issue is that the winches that control line tension are located and controlled onboard the vessel while the data is gathered onshore. If this data were available to the crew on the vessel, it could manage the mooring actively.

Communication channels

Unfortunately, there is a misconception that mooring load monitoring (MLM) data availability onboard LNG carriers comes as standard or that implementation is easy. There

are many ways that data can transfer between the jetty and vessel, and these multiple alternatives can cause incompatibility.

Ship-to-shore link options

The primary systems used to transfer MLM data are via the ship-shore link (SSL), which is capable of transmitting data directly over the link in either fibre optic or 37 W electric modes. This data transfer is usually displayed on a dedicated computer in the cargo control room and requires an application to be installed that can read the data transmitted by the terminal. There is no single MLM repeater application that includes all terminal data layouts, as each terminal is unique in terms of its mooring layout, metocean availability, and its data transmission regarding the data points it sends. There is however, no reason why the computer in the cargo control room cannot have multiple MLM repeater software programmes installed on it. The vessel is expected to send a correct POLL data string within a maximum time frame. If the POLL matches the terminal data requirements, the terminal will respond with a data transfer of the terminal specific live information. Typically this is repeated on a 30 sec. cycle. On the vessel, the data received can include status conditions that can be used as a status alarm. As well as YEWMAC format, other solutions include bespoke messaging arrangements that can contain alternative software communication handshaking and encryption to enhance data security. These terminals will have a specific decryption key and software installation available for LNG carriers visiting the terminal to install on their onboard hardware. The terminal will send data at pre-configured intervals, typically faster than the 30 sec. YEWMAC style, and a repeater application with a matching security key will be able to read and display the data. To utilise the SSL and existing infrastructure, the transmission of data between a terminal and an LNG carrier is a simple 1200baud RS232 serial data link. However, to accommodate the specific link interfaces, certain modems and converters are required and will be detailed below for the specific link types.

SSL – fibre optic and electric channel

Figure 1. Quick release hooks mooring a vessel at an LNG facility.

December 2021

In order to take the RS232 serial data and send it via a fibre link, the data first needs to be converted to a suitable telecom signal via a modem. For the purposes of existing terminal and fleet compatibility, these modems have a specific protocol matching the original NEC DATAX V.23 modem protocol. The original modem is no longer manufactured, however compatible modem solutions are available. The modulated data signal is sent over the link channel, where it is received and demodulated by a similar modem, and presented out as the data in the original RS232 1200baud format. So long as compatible modems are used, and the terminal QRH system and the vessel repeater application are capable of interfacing to the modems, then the data channel is transparent in terms of the SSL. Similar to the fibre solution, the electric solution simply converts the RS232 signal via MTL3058

equivalent converters into a format capable of being transmitted over longer lengths of cable that RS232 allows.

MLM repeater

The vessel repeater used by Trelleborg was originally developed to read data at Japanese terminals; a requirement in the LNG carrier build specifications issued by Korean shipyards. The development involved sending engineers on board trading LNG carriers to all terminals in Japan in order to ‘sniff’ the data of existing systems. The communication protocol was then reverse engineered to produce a computer application capable of fully communicating at the Japanese terminals without generating any connection alarms. As Trelleborg also produces QRH mooring systems, it was simple to add the various jetty data profiles into a single application for installation on LNG carriers. As a result of continuous development of this software, as well as displaying data real-time, functionality was added to record each piece of data received to allow offline review of the mooring at a later date. This repeater coupled with the full terminal database is one of the most complete MLM repeater solutions in the world.

New berthing arrangements

Recently there has been a noticeable shift to alternate trading practices within the LNG sector, which have led to some novel mooring solutions involving multiple assets with active equipment installed. The introduction of floating storage-based applications has changed the understood concepts of both SSL and QRH from traditional LNG carrier type applications. The addition of more complex process emergency shutdown systems (ESDs), telecom and data requirements, along with the new mooring arrangements of double banked vessels undergoing cargo operations, has led to the application of new and novel solutions. The situation is still fluid with new functionality requested on newer projects.

FSRU to LNG carrier MLM interface

The MLM repeater requirement for the FSRU to LNG carrier interface is exactly the same as for a standard terminal to LNG carrier. The LNG carrier is the lowest common denominator in these applications and needs treating as a vessel equipped with industry standard interfaces only; an LNG carrier should not have to install any additional equipment if it is trading with an FSRU. If the FSRU is equipped with QRH and has a requirement to transmit MLM data to the LNG carrier via SSL, it must have the standard shore interface of a V.23 modem and an RS232 data source.

FSRU to jetty MLM interface

FSRU to jetty interfaces have a subset of issues that can be catered for depending on the application: zz FSRU displays jetty hook data, exactly as an LNG carrier would. zz FSRU QRH controller communicates directly with the jetty QRH controllers. zz FSRU QRH controller communicates and controls the jetty QRH controllers.

Figure 2. A vessel moored at an FSRU facility. To expand on the SSL interfaces available in an FSRU to jetty connection, typically the principle follows: If there is an LNG product transfer, the interface has to be ISO28460 analogue fibre optic and 37 W electric links on defined pins. If it is a gas transfer, then the interface is via digital (SONET) fibre optic and an alternate 37 W electric pin configuration. The digital link adds an ethernet channel, which is capable of bulk data transfer from multiple sources. In the 37 W electric mode, there is also an ethernet option available, but this is via ethernet extenders. There are situations where an FSRU would read the data from the jetty QRH system and add this to the FSRU-LNG carrier QRH arrangement to create an overall view of the mooring. By using the ethernet channels on the SSL, this can be undertaken either with direct ethernet connection or via serial/modbus interfaces. This means the jetty data is received by the FSRU. The FSRU can then create the holistic overview and resend that data back to the jetty over the ethernet link and/or send the MLM data to the LNG carrier via the standard interface.

Mooring tension data

To conclude, as the mooring tension data can be received by the LNG carrier using standard equipment, it opens up the possibility to log and use the data as part of a rope management system. These systems can simplify the current methods of rope management, and would even allow for accurate, operational data to be used as part of the required recording programmes. As non-standard and different POLL strings in an open communication standard is not helping the industry, there is certainly scope for the mooring load monitor repeater system to be made easier in terms of jetty compatibility. However, just having this data channel available could allow for additional functionality to be applied.

December 2021

atural gas of fossil origin is a mix of gases where the main component is methane, which comprises between 75% - 95% of the mixture volume. The rest of the gases are ethane, propane, butane, pentanes, as well as traces of water, carbon dioxide, nitrogen, hydrogen sulfide, mercury, and others. At the moment, natural gas is the least polluting fossil fuel, and this translates into a lower environmental impact as a result of its high hydrogencarbon ratio in its composition. This means that natural gas has a very important role in the medium- and long-term as the main energy raw material since it will allow the significant reduction of pollutant emissions.

LNG market evolution

Although in 1818 Michael Faraday managed to cool a gas resulting in the gas liquefaction procedure, it was not until the middle of the last century that liquefaction plants began to be developed at an industrial level. The natural gas market has suffered several corrections during the last 50 years, mainly due to the low price of other fuels, but the LNG market remained constant although at a low level in regions such as North America, Asia-Pacific, and the Middle East. In recent years, the LNG trade has significantly grown caused by the reduction in transport and distribution costs and, above all, due to its use for transport itself against dominant fuels in the sector such as gasoline and diesel. The prospects regarding the gas market indicate that the demand might increase by up to 50% by 2035.

Small/mid liquefaction plants

The liquefaction process consists of lowering the gas temperature down to -160˚C, resulting in a phase change from gas to liquid. With this change of state, its volume is reduced by approximately 600 times, making it much more efficient to store and transport. Both for large and smaller liquefaction plants, gas pretreatment is required before the liquefaction process. The objective of this pretreatment is to remove those impurities that could have an impact on the LNG characteristics or could solidify causing significant damage to the equipment making up the liquefaction plant. Specifically, the main impurities that must be removed are the following: � H2O, CO2, and H2S: Cryogenic processes work at much lower temperatures. The water in these conditions either freezes solid or forms methane hydrates (H2O + methane and/or ethane). The CO2 and H2S, along with

Figure 1. FNX liquefaction plant – NBC 2000.

free water, form acids corroding pipes and other metal components. H2S is highly toxic. Carbon steel is highly susceptible to being eroded by the presence of a high content of CO2. When the gas is subject to cryogenic processes, CO2 removal is necessary because otherwise it solidifies and blocks the heat exchangers. zz Nitrogen (N2): N2 content does not affect the liquefaction process, but it is an inert gas and increases transportation costs and heat absorption during the process. It also reduces the Btu content of gas. zz Aromatics: Decrease the effectiveness of the gas purification processes (adsorption/absorption) and create operational problems by lacquering. zz Mercury (Hg): Under the high pressures and low processing temperatures of cryogenic gas, Hg condenses from the gas phase and accumulates in the bottom of the cold box. Hg degrades aluminium alloys, causing deterioration of welds (Hg + H2O), and cracking in heat exchangers. There are different technologies to remove these contaminants: zz Absorption (liquids desiccants): Chemical absorption such as amines and potassium carbonate, physical absorption such as glycols and calcium chloride, mix absorption, and the direct conversion process (REDOX). zz Adsorption (solids desiccants): Physical adsorption such as alumina, silica gel, or molecular sieve, TSA and PSA/ VPSA, and chemical adsorption such as scavengers. Table 1. Treated gas composition Compound

Units

LNG specification

Carbon dioxide

ppmv

Hydrogen sulfide

ppmv

Mercury

µg/Nm3

0.01

Nitrogen

ppmv

1.0

Butane plus (C4+)

ppmv

Water

ppmv

Figure 2. Fossil natural gas composition.

December 2021

zz Membrane permeability. zz Refrigeration (condensation). The final gas composition required before starting the liquefaction process must be as shown in Table 1. Regarding the liquefaction technologies applicable to small/mid scale plants, there are two large welldifferentiated groups, the open loop or the closed loop type. In the open loop case, the process is based on an expansion by a Joule Thomson valve (JT valve) or a turbo-expander to achieve gas temperature reduction and liquefaction. Within this technology there are two main possibilities: zz Option A: Straight expansion. zz Option B: Upstream compression stage to improve conversion rate. It is important to mention that these types of technologies are continuously under development to increase their efficiency. For example there is the possibility to use the flash flow to cool down the inlet gas to achieve a reduction in the compressor requirements with a considerable saving of energy. For closed loop technologies, there are different alternatives applicable to this process. On one hand, the first alternative is a nitrogen refrigeration cycle. This technology is based on the Brayton Cycle, or expander circuit, to lower the nitrogen temperature to use it to liquefy the natural gas or the biomethane. The main characteristics of this system are the simplicity, robustness, and reliability. It is even possible to improve the efficiency using the boil-off gas (BOG) to pre-cool the inlet gas or to increase the cooling stages. On the other hand, another usable technology for this kind of plant would be a mixed refrigerant cycle, in particular a single mixed refrigeration (SMR), instead of dual mixed refrigeration (DMR), due to its simplicity and good efficiency. This cycle is based on the reverse Rankine cycle and the refrigerant composition is a mix of hydrocarbons such as methane, ethane, propane, and iso-pentane. This mixed refrigerant improves the process efficiency in comparison with the nitrogen cycle but with a significant impact on the CAPEX and with more complexity into the operational section. Finally, within closed loop technologies, another kind of process is the cascade cycle. This system is based on a series of independent closed circuits with different refrigerant fluids such as propane, ethane, etc. The cascade cycle has a very good efficiency, but the CAPEX/OPEX is too high for a low production. This technology is used in large scale LNG plants, and for this reason it is not considered for small/mid scale plants. The FNX Liquid Natural Gas liquefaction plants’ NBC/BIO NBC/DNBC series use a nitrogen refrigeration cycle technology. This decision was made with the compromise between efficiency vs associated investment and operating cost in mind. The NBC/BIO NBC standard nitrogen closed loop refrigeration circuit is composed for the following equipment: main compressor, expander-compressor, air coolers, and a cold box main heat exchanger. The main difference with the DNBC is the integration of a two-stage expander-compressor into the closed circuit. Nowadays, to evaluate the efficiency the

factor considered is the quantity of LNG produced per kWh. With FNX Liquid Natural Gas’ NBC technology, where the company could produce 28 - 56 tpd, it achieves a range of 880 - 960 kWh/t of LNG. For bigger plants where the company uses DNBC technology, it could produce 82 -164 tpd with a range of 585 - 575 kWh/t of LNG. It is important to emphasise the enhanced efficiency when the DNBC technology is considered due to the implementation of the second expander-compressor into the circuit. Apart from these, other characteristics to help the company make the decision were the operation simplicity, robustness, and reliability. The nitrogen cycle allows the plant to work with standard process equipment for inert fluids, which also has a significant impact on both CAPEX and OPEX, and therefore becomes a very attractive option for plants below 400 m3/d LNG production. Finally, due to the plant size, the liquefaction facility could be configured with modular structures in a finished skid format. The individual modules, which conform the complete liquefaction plant, are installed and tested in the company’s facilities, which allows them to be assembled as a plug and play format with all guarantees. Another important advantage associated with this modular design is its simplicity to transport and the small plant footprint required, which reduces the associated costs and allows FNX Liquid Natural Gas to install its plants directly at source locations, even if they are not easily accessible.

BioLNG – an emerging market

There are several factors that are pushing Europe towards increasing bioLNG production. Mainly the commitments

reached for the ecological transition to reduce the carbon dioxide, the independence of fossil natural gas supply from third countries, and the increase of using LNG as reference fuel for long distance transport. BioLNG is achieved by increasing the quality standards of biomethane from biogas upgrading, through additional processing and then liquefying it in the same way as fossil fuels. However, the main distinguishing element with respect to fossil applications is the facilities, because in this case the production will be associated with waste digestion plants, whose biogas generation flows normally shall not exceed 2000 Nm3/h. Taking into account the implementation of different directives at a European level, emphasis is on the special importance of using gas produced from renewable energy. Biomethane has been identified as a possible solution to achieve the objectives set out in the Kyoto Treaty for the fight against climate change, establishing attractive economic subsidies for the gas. Therefore, the future scenario for bioLNG is a distributed production with a wide distribution and storage network that can be shared with existing fossil fuel facilities.

Conclusion

The clear and forceful commitment for the decarbonisation of the economy nowadays suggests that natural gas will be one of the best alternatives that exists for the transport sector. An LNG supply distribution network much more robust than the existing one shall be required, where small/ mid scale liquefaction plants shall have an important role.

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Ana Juraga Oluic, Cortec® Corporation, Croatia, explains how vapour phase corrosion inhibitor technology can aid in the protection of pipelines from corrosion.

orrosion is a natural force and significant problem for countless industries around the world from oil and gas, to marine, construction, and many more. The oil and gas industry has huge challenges in fighting the effects of corrosion – in economic loss and environmental safety. The total annual cost of corrosion in the oil and gas production industry is estimated to be US$1.372 billion, more specifically US$589 million in surface pipeline and facility costs, US$463 million annually in downhole tubing expenses, and another US$320 million in CAPEX related to corrosion. Deterioration due to corrosion of tubular structures is a persistent problem in industry. It causes direct as well as indirect material losses. Studies show that a significant number of liquid pipeline incidents were caused by corrosion. These studies show how important it is to protect oil and gas pipelines from the corrosion failures that can lead to expensive repairs, pipeline failure, or even loss of life. Unfortunately, corrosion of pipelines, including specifically LNG pipelines, is inevitable. Some pipelines will have corrosion problems in a very short time, but in other cases it will take years for corrosion to cause damage. This depends on different factors such as on the corrosiveness of the pipeline fluid, thickness of the pipe, and the method of pipeline maintenance. It is important to highlight that

corrosion precautions must be taken even prior to pipeline construction. Because of corrosion, time is diverted to handling complaints and customer loyalty is potentially lost. Corrosion weakens the structural integrity of a pipeline and makes it unsafe for transporting potentially hazardous materials. The increased risk of pipeline failure far outweighs the costs associated with installing, monitoring, and maintaining corrosion control systems. Preventing pipelines from deteriorating will save money, preserve the environment, and protect public safety. Therefore, planning for corrosion protection is a logical and above all necessary step to minimise these losses. Utilising corrosion-inhibiting technology will help companies within the LNG and oil and gas industries to comply with safety, health, and environmental policies as well as reduce unplanned maintenance and deferment costs. Unlike conventional methods, such as filming amine corrosion inhibitors, Cortec® vapour phase corrosion inhibitors (VpCIs) can be injected into any part of the system. The inhibitors work immediately and are self-replenishing. Continuous, uninterrupted protection in the liquid phase, interphase, and vapour phase can be added at multiple points. For example, the automatic injection of Cortec VpCIs into a system – with no attendance operator – provides protection immediately, even on pre-rusted or scaled surfaces. VpCI® technology has been designed to be an innovative, environmentally safe, cost-effective option for the protection of pipelines against corrosion. Inhibitors form a thin, monomolecular protective barrier. The barrier re-heals and selfreplenishes, and can be combined with other functional

properties for added protective capabilities. A VpCI forms a physical bond on the metal surface, creating a barrier layer against aggressive ions. VpCIs protect multi-metals in enclosed environments. VpCIs have a medium vapour pressure of approximately 10-2 to 10-7 mmHg that causes them to vaporise or sublimate into to the vapour phase. Sublimation continues until the enclosed space is saturated achieving equilibrium. The VpCI molecules diffuse from areas of high concentration to low concentration, reaching all areas of the enclosure. VpCI molecules can go wherever oxygen molecules can go, making VpCIs an effective protection method for hard-to-reach areas such as crevices. VpCIs have an affinity and are attracted to metallic surfaces where they condense to provide protection. VpCI molecules are based on amine carboxylate chemistry. These molecules are dipoles with non-uniform distribution of charges which translates into attractive forces that pull the molecules towards the metallic surfaces. The molecules arrange themselves parallel to one another and perpendicular to the metallic surface, forming a monomolecular layer. This layer adsorbs to the metal, displaces the water molecules, and protects the metal from corrosion. Being a dipole allows the protection of both the anodic and cathodic components of the corrosion cell. VpCI technology is developed to protect difficult-to-reach internal voids of pipelines, because of its ability to vaporise and diffuse throughout an enclosed space. VpCIs can be combined with a variety of different carrier materials for easier application. This technology is used in numerous projects around the world, including greenfield and brownfield preservation projects for major oil and gas companies. Under normal circumstances, a metal such as carbon steel would eventually react with oxygen and moisture to form rust on the metal surface. However, the VpCI layer interrupts this reaction because the metal ions are not free to interact with the oxygen or the electrolyte. Instead, they are occupied with a temporary attachment to VpCI molecules. VpCI inhibitors often can be used immediately without special cleaning or removal. This makes an application process significantly easier as well as reduces downtime when equipment is out of service. VpCIs can be applied in many different forms such as powders, fluids, gels, and more.

Pipeline spools preservation for long-term storage Figure 1. How vapour phase corrosion inhibitor chemistry forms a protective molecular layer on metals inside enclosed environments.

Figure 2. Materials reserved and ready to send for long-term

storage.

December 2021

Materials were received from Sadovniki outdoor storage. Spools arrived in good condition. External and internal surface flanges had been cleaned by Cortec cleaner VpCI 414, with some slight pockets of rust removed. Flange orifices were covered by Cortec VpCI 368 wax inhibitor, which protects metal for five years in case of indoor storage. Spools flanges were wrapped by Milcorr protection film and shrunk. These methods protect materials for up to five years in case of outdoor storage. Cortec pouches VpCI 609 were installed inside each spool, which will protect metal for two years. After that, another side of the spool was closed by Milcorr film and shrunk. The external surfaces of the spools were covered by anticorrosive compound. The non-tacky temporary coating VpCI 391 was applied, which became an invisible polyurethane coating after drying.

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Protection of pipes for Russian LNG project

The customer manufactures pipes for the construction of modules at an LNG project in Russia. Pipes, which were 28 - 60 in. dia., were transported from the production site to the construction site via roofless railway wagons. When the pipes reached their destination, they were bundled and stored outdoors for six to 12 months. The pipe manufacturer needed to protect the outer surfaces of the pipes against corrosion during both transportation and storage. Since the temporary coating needed to be easy to remove, a solvent-based waxy film coating could not be used. The pipes were coated with VpCI 369 using an airless Graco spray system. This was undertaken in two steps in order to provide the required film thickness. After the second spraying, a film thickness of 60 - 80 μm (2.4 - 3.1 mils) was achieved, corresponding to the required dosage of 1l/25 m2 (1 gal./113 yd2). The preservation was designed in a way that would allow protection of the pipes for 12 months outdoors, while also allowing the end user to remove the protective coating quickly. An economical solution was offered that met all of the customer’s requirements.

Preventing corrosion in an aggressive environment

The customer needed to prevent the progression of corrosion to the interior of 1300 pipes stored for several months in an outdoor, harsh environment. The pipes were exposed to high humidity, salt air, and gusty winds. Once protected, the pipes remained under the same unsheltered conditions for an additional 12 - 18 months. These pipes, 12 m long × 800 mm dia., will be used to transport LNG from a terminal station located on the Adriatic Sea bottom to the mainland, south of Venice, Italy. The protection was only for the internal surface of the pipes, externally the pipes are covered with cement, used to ballast them to the sea floor. The customer agreed to perform the internal protection regardless of the existing light, initial corrosion in some pipes. This was considered acceptable by the companies’ technical management. Cortec VpCI 609 powder, diluted 15% with water, was fogged inside each pipe with a specially designed pipe coater and VpCI 389 was then applied to the cut-back. Then both ends of each pipe, including the cut-back, were covered with VpCI 126 film and tightly secured with straps. The corrosion problem was solved using Cortec products. The customer was satisfied that their corrosion problems were addressed and solved in a timely manner. Recent inspections showed that no further corrosion has developed in the pipes which initially had some surface corrosion. In addition, the pipes that were initially corrosion-free have remained corrosion-free.

Conclusion

Figure 3. The pipes were coated in two steps with VpCI® 369 using an airless Graco spray system.

Figure 4. Annular spaces between the pipeline and the casing started trapping moisture, mud, and debris, and created a harsh environment that accelerated corrosion on the carrier pipe.

December 2021

Operations in the oil and gas industries are very prone to corrosion. The corrosive fluids flowing through the equipment make it only a matter of time before corrosion degrades surrounding metal surfaces to the point of failure. In situations where a pipeline is filled with liquids and gases, a traditional liquid phase corrosion inhibitor will only protect the metal indirectly in contact with the fluid while the empty space above the fluid will stay unprotected. VpCI treatments designed for the oil and gas industry offer combined corrosion protection in both liquid and vapour phase as well as critical liquid-vapour interface. This will ensure that the internal of the pipeline was completely protected. When a refinery, terminal, or rig is being built there is a very strong chance that some equipment will require preservation during storage or shipment. For example, when a new LNG terminal is being constructed, important assets often sit unused at a new facility for approximately a year before installation. This gives corrosion a chance to start its course and cause problems when it is time to install the parts. This creates huge financial losses, and the corrosion that occurs is a serious setback to launching operations. Due to the volatile nature of petrochemicals it is critical to ensure that corrosion does not get to this point. If a pipeline breaks, the leak could result in a fatal explosion, environmental contamination, and substantial remediation costs. Even if it is only a matter of equipment failure and unexpected downtime on a refinery or rig, the cost of corrosion in terms of lost production and assets can be enormous given the large scale of the industry. With adequate planning, utilising VpCI technology is considered an ideal method to avoid these issues and the consequent financial losses.

n the Asia Pacific region, LNG is transferred by specialised LNG vessels with cryogenic tanks intended for long-distance transportation. A significant fraction of the cargo LNG volume evaporates during the voyage as boil-off gas (BOG), particularly during spray operation. It is challenging to use generated BOG for LNG vessel operation efficiently, and especially to minimise (optimise) the LNG heel stock during a ballast voyage. These LNG vessels can increase both fuel efficiency and delivery capacity by optimising spray schedules for storage tanks. The article’s authors developed a dynamic simulation system to estimate LNG heel stock in the LNG cargo tanks of a Moss LNG cargo containment system, thus determining the required minimum LNG heel stock for a ballast voyage. The simulation model, built in CHEMCAD NXT, considers the effect of several process factors such as LNG compositions, ambient temperature, pressure, sloshing factor (ship motion), spray operation schedule, and LNG vessel voyage plan. Based on the dynamic simulation, the optimum LNG heel stock can be determined for long-distance LNG transportation. The dynamic simulation model can be applied for: � LNG ballast handling (including spray schedule) during the voyage. �

Thermo-economical voyage simulation of marine energy systems of LNG vessels.

Scope of process and process model

The most important operation during the ballast voyage is to cool down the LNG cargo tank wall, including at the end of the ballast voyage before reloading. This must be done while also satisfying the required fuel demand during the entire voyage. The process flow model is composed of the following equipment: LNG cargo tank, LNG forcing vaporiser (F/V), spray pump, piping system, control system, and fuel demand system (to engine or boiler for the vessel’s propulsion system).

Figure 1. Dynamic process modelling schematic for cargo tank system. LNG producing country Loading

Laden voyage

JAPAN Unloading Ballast voyage

Cargo tank model

Figure 3 shows the simplified tank model system of BOG generation from the LNG cargo tanks. The LNG cargo tank model is composed of the following sub-process models: ll Heat input from LNG cargo tank wall.

Before the ballast voyage, the

At the end of the ballast voyage,

heel stock for LNG tanks must be

the equator temperature for Moss

decided, taking into consideration

LNG tanks must be less than

the energy required for engine

-120˚C. Liquid spray into the vapour

and spray operation.

space lowers the vapour and wall

This decision is made by HQ on

temperature. The timing of this spray

land.

operation is decided onboard during the voyage.

Figure 2. Ballast voyage plan.

This article describes the rigorous and realistic dynamic simulation of BOG, considering cargo tank spray operation and vessel energy requirements.

Outline of heel stock estimation simulator for ballast voyage Before LNG is loaded into the LNG vessel, the tank wall temperature at the tank equator must be cooled down to at least -120˚C, to avoid metal brittle fractures. In addition, fuel gas must be supplied to the engine system (or boiler system) to satisfy the fuel energy demand required by the LNG vessel. Figure 1 shows the scope of processes to be conducted by dynamic process simulation. Each cargo tank has its own spray nozzle line to lower the temperature of the gas and the metal wall temperature. This process simulator can be used to estimate the required LNG heel stock in the following scenarios:

ll Heat input by spray pump. ll Heat accumulation on LNG cargo tank wall. ll Heat accumulation on LNG liquid phase. ll BOG generation from the interface between liquid and vapour. ll Heat accumulation on LNG vapour phase. ll LNG mist mass and heat balances in tank vapour phase by spray nozzle. ll Spray efficiency.

Vapour phase model in the tank The gas phase model is described as follows: ll Gas mass balance:

ll Mist mass balance:

ll Energy balance:

Where Wg (t); Gas weight in tank (kg). FBOG (t); BOG rate from leaving from liquid phase (kg/h). Fvms (t); Vaporised gas from mist in tank (kg/h). Fo (t); Suction pure gas flow at tank (w/o mist flow) (kg/h). Fm (t); Mist flowrate by spray (kg/h).

ll Planning heel stock for ballast voyage.

F(s,mist) (t); Entrained mist flowrate in suction gas flow (kg/h).

ll Controlling spray operation in real-time during ballast voyage.

Hg (Tg); Gas enthalpy at Tg (˚C) (vapour phase temperature).

December 2021

Tg; Gas phase temperature (˚C). Qin,g (t); Heat input to tank vapour phase (kcal/h).

Tank wall heat balance model in the tank

Figure 4 shows the process behaviour diagram of the tank wall in the cargo tank. Heat transfer between ambient and vapour phase (through tank wall) are shown as follows:

selected. If fuel oil mode is selected, forced vaporisation is not used.

System configuration

The model can be run as a standalone process control model, or it can be run with a fully integrated graphic user interface (GUI). The voyage input data for the dynamic simulation include:

ll Heat balance for tank wall:

ll Heat transfer coefficient between ambient and wall:

Where Cpw; Gas specific heat capacity [kcal/(kg.˚C)]. Ww; Gas weight in tank (kg). h(o,ins); Effective heat transfer coefficient between ambient and wall, including insulation [kcal/(m2.h.˚C)].

Figure 3. Simplified cargo tank system.

hi; Heat transfer coefficient between wall and gas phase [kcal/(m2.h.˚C)].

Liquid phase model in the tank The liquid phase model is described as follows: ll Mass balance:

ll Energy balance:

Figure 4. Tank wall model. Where Vl (t); LNG volume in the tank (m3). ρl; LNG density (kg/m3).

FBOG (t); BOG rate leaving from liquid phase (kg/h). Wl; LNG weight in tank (kg). Hl (Tl ); Liquid enthalpy at Tl (˚C) (liquid phase temperature). Hg (Tl ); Gas enthalpy at Tl (˚C) (liquid phase temperature). Q(in,l) (t); Heat input to tank liquid phase (kcal/h). Tl; Liquid phase temperature (˚C).

Control logics

The dynamic simulation system has the following major control logics: ll Tank pressure HH/LL logic:

Figure 5. TK#1 wall temperature at equator during ballast

voyage.

Pressure HH: Excess BOG is to be vented to protect LNG cargo tank. Pressure LL: Forced vaporisation is to start during fuel gas supply mode, and vaporised natural gas is to be supplied to the engine (or boiler). ll Tank LNG level LL logic: If spray pump for a tank with level LL is running, the pump stops operating to protect itself. When this occurs, a pump starts in another tank with adequate LNG inventory starts. ll Fuel oil and fuel gas mode operation: The model can be run either with fuel oil or with fuel oil and fuel gas. A priority combustion mode must be

Figure 6. TK#1 gas temperature during ballast voyage.

December 2021

ll Voyage plan with energy requirement for propulsion. ll LNG cargo tank initial conditions. ll Spray schedule.

ll The spray flowrate to satisfy the required minimum tank wall temperature (<-120˚C) at the end of the ballast voyage.

ll Ambient conditions (temperature, pressure).

ll The net BOG generation rate from tanks and the change of LNG inventory during the entire voyage.

Based on the aforementioned input data, the calculation result (at every time step) is sent to the user interface to show the dynamic behaviour.

The ballast voyage simulation was performed for the following spray patterns:

Dynamic process simulation for heel stock estimation Process study 1: Dynamic model validation

The dynamic process model was validated based on actual ballast voyage data including spray operation. The calculation results and the related actual voyage data are shown in Figures 5 and 6.

Process study 2: Effect of spray schedule on tank process behaviour Sensitivity studies were designed and executed to find the optimum spray schedule to consume the lowest amount of spray flow and satisfy the fuel needs for the voyage. The primary focus for these studies was on:

ll BASE-CASE: Actual spray schedule. ll CASE-1: Spray operation conducted throughout the entire voyage. ll CASE-2: Spray operation conducted only during for the final part of the voyage. As shown in Figure 8, the CASE-1 scenario is the longest duration of spray schedule to keep the cargo tank at lower temperature during the entire ballast voyage. This led to the highest BOG generation among the three cases. The CASE-2 scenario, which is the centralised spray operation at the end of ballast voyage, produced the lowest total BOG generation rate. In terms of heat transfer rate into tanks, cargo tanks with lower vapour temperature had higher heat intake through the tank wall, which led to higher required spray flow amounts. The optimum spray schedule uses the minimum amount of spray flow to cool down the tank wall. Other considerations must include voyage route and propulsion performance, both of which affect fuel usage.

Summary

Figure 7. TK#1 wall temperature, due to change of spray

schedule.

The dynamic process simulator with spray model for LNG cargo tank systems during ballast voyage was developed to estimate the required LNG heel stock and enable planning for optimum spray operation schedule during the ballast voyage. The dynamic model can be applied for LNG ballast handling (including spray schedule) during the voyage, and thermoeconomical voyage simulation of marine energy systems of LNG vessels. The LNG cargo tank model is a dynamic process model for the evaporation of LNG during marine transportation. The advantage of this model is that it can simulate BOG rate and the quantity of LNG stock in the tanks, while obtaining a unified heat and material balance for the entire voyage. This dynamic simulator, which can predict the behaviour of the LNG cargo tank process variables shown earlier, will be a part of the shipping voyage support system, with the aim of precisely understanding the fuel consumption and propulsion performance conditions of oceangoing vessels.

Note The work is supported by Nippon Yusen Kabushiki Kaisha (NYK) and MTI Co. Ltd.

References 1.

Figure 8. Total LNG inventory in cargo tanks, due to change of spray schedule.

December 2021

UMEYAMA, N., KAWASHIMA, M., and NAKAMURA, Y., ‘BOG control simulation during ballast voyage’, International Conference on Liquefied Natural Gas’, 1995.

2. UMEYAMA, N., MATSUOKA, K., IWATA, A., and HILL, D., ‘Development of dynamic process simulator on LNG vessel gas management system’, AICHE 15th Topical Conference on Gas Utilization, 2015 . 3. LUYBEN, W.L., ‘Process modeling, simulation and control for Chemical engineer’, second edition, McGraw Hill, USA.

Danny Constantinis, EM&I Group, Malta, explains how a group effort to identify asset integrity challenges in the LNG sector can help achieve a safer, greener future.

as is fast being considered an acceptable alternative to other fossil fuels, such as coal or oil, as it is cleaner and less harmful to the environment and is a largely acceptable intermediary source of energy until greener sources of energy can be developed, such as wind, hydro, or others. Until relatively recently, LNG was carried in specialised carriers and the product was delivered to shore-based storage and regasification facilities, mainly in places such as Japan and Korea. The regularity of supply was dictated by the demand ashore. As time progressed, companies recognised the advantages of placing the regasification plant on the carriers and to moor them, long-term, to purpose-built jetties. Land suitable for permanent LNG storage tanks was becoming scarce and the onerous regulatory regimes made it more difficult to get approval to develop such facilities. The regas vessel either acted as peak shaving facilities, where they plugged into the grid pipeline and provided gas as and when the demand arose, or baseload facilities, which were a primary source of gas to a power station or large industrial plant. These FRSUs benefit from lower capital and operating costs, the ability to operate profitably for smaller capacity requirements, faster project schedules, and commercial

flexibility as the units can be relocated after their contract termination. They are often leased, and this lease is usually a long-term agreement (e.g. 10 to 12 years), which includes the facility plus operation and maintenance. The FSRU concept developed into an opportunity to be less reliant on the pipeline gas from others and to be semiindependent in terms of gas supply and more in control of pricing. The model has therefore seen a significant growth, to the point where there are now over 40 facilities operating globally. A further development was to gather stranded gas using floating LNG (FLNG) where it was not economic to run pipelines to shore. The gas is compressed and stored on the vessel until it can be transferred to trading LNG vessels and shipped to onshore terminals or indeed FSRU units. There are many variations on the FLNG scene including gas-to-power units which take the gas from subsea fields and use it as fuel for electrical power generators installed on the floating asset. This concept is a highly flexible solution for example for near-shore power generation where there is little infrastructure or land availability onshore, or even for large

industrial plant wishing to change from onshore coal or oil burning power suppliers to greener gas. Taken a step further, there are jetty-free solutions being developed where the gas is offloaded to floating terminals. The integrity challenges faced by assets permanently moored offshore, or permanently moored alongside a jetty, are well established. More and more the emphasis on safety and efficiency is at the forefront of many operators’ minds, to eliminate fatalities or serious injury and prevent stoppages to production or send-out. The Hull Inspection Techniques and Strategy (HITS) joint industry project (JIP), which was set up by the Global FPSO Research Forum in 2012, set out to avoid the need to use divers and personnel working in hazardous areas, including at height and/or in confined spaces. This has led to the development of asset integrity technologies such as the ODIN© diverless under water inspection in lieu of drydocking (UWILD), and the NoMan® remote camera and synchronous laser systems. These methodologies, initially adopted and proven by the oil and gas sector, can also be adapted and used successfully in the LNG sector for floating production, storage, and regasification facilities. To help focus on identifying asset integrity challenges and solutions a JIP was formed called the FloGas JIP, which was started in 2019 and led by the EM&I Group. As with the oil and gas industry, the invitees to FloGas consisted of operators, classification societies, and service providers. The first two meetings were used to establish the

group and to identify which asset integrity challenges needed to be addressed when dealing with cryogenic containment systems. FloGas has recently held its third meeting and has already started to form working groups to develop safe and economical methods for the enhanced integrity of FLNG assets such as FSRU and FLNG vessels. These groups will be concentrating their efforts on dealing with the top three challenges identified in FloGas 3, namely: zz Remote inspection of LNG storage tanks without man entry. zz Hull inspection and integrity management (FSRU) alongside, in shallow, turbid, or potentially fast flowing water. zz Grow the competency and numbers of inspectors of LNG systems. The initial focus has been on item one, to avoid man entry into the LNG containment and other confined spaces. A working group was set up to explore new asset integrity methods using advanced technology such as robotic cameras and laser systems. These new technologies were adaptations of proven methods but because the structures to be inspected and monitored are so different to the oil sector structures, an extensive technology development programme was instigated. It will also involve the challenging of current methodologies and the reimagining of the regulatory framework in order to make the operation of FLNG assets as safe and efficient as possible. The group will be looking at issues such as the frequency and execution of tank inspections and whether putting people into these areas can be avoided in the first place. Prior to entering the dockyards, LNG trading vessels are warmed up, gas freed, and opened up for a visual inspection. The classification society surveyor will focus on areas such as the pump and pump tower, the tank bottom sides to look for deformations or bonding issues, and to establish leakage rates. For the FLNG units, where the systems remain live either by virtue of production or by send out, the time taken to take one tank out of service and bring it to a temperature for inspectors to safely enter can be onerous. Likewise, bringing the tank back into service can be risky, especially if the thermal gradient exceeds the design parameters of the containment system. Can this thermal cycling be avoided or minimised? It is an area the FloGas JIP will explore.

Study on LNG tank structure mapping Figure 1. NoMan® laser scan of an LNG tank membrane.

Figure 2. An FSRU asset.

December 2021

As a result of the success of the HITS JIP, EM&I commissioned a study to see how the laser technology can be used to map the tank structure and to identify any anomalies in the membrane containment system. The purpose of the first phase was to trial laser scanning on the various types of membrane containment using optical and laser systems such as the NoMan technology. Typical anomalies principally included sloshing damage and leaks through the membrane. Trials were carried out in China and Europe on representative full scale test pieces and a number of challenges became apparent. One challenge was the highly reflective nature of the membranes which had the effect of blinding the laser scanner so that certain parts of the lining were not sending the laser signals back to the transmitter. This was overcome by scanning from multiple locations and selecting suitable targeting

procedures so that areas that had been reflective in one position were now able to send back data for processing. The NoMan technology has now been successfully trialled on full scale containment system test pieces in China and the UK and the FloGas Working Group is now looking at the requirements to enable the system to work in LNG containment without person entry. Now that the basic physics has been proven, the next phase is to consider how these inspection robots can be introduced into the LNG storage space through the limited access available at the pump tower bend or potentially through the vapour dome. While still at the proof-of-concept stage, engineers working on this challenge feel confident that solutions are available and work is underway to try out these systems on live assets towards the end of 2022. When compared with traditional methods the system is expected to be safer, faster, and greener. Initially, the system is expected to be operated by a two-person team, followed by the development of remote inspection systems where the owner and classification society representatives will attend from onshore, possibly continents away. This may appear to be a long-term vision but in fact the concept of remote surveys is well established and tests and trials have been carried out to demonstrate the effectiveness of the method in 2020. Deployment methods for a resident robot system have already been designed for unmanned installations whereby a camera and laser system is located in a launch pod above each LNG tank and inserted into the tank remotely through an ODIN type access port. These ports have already been proven on numerous applications in different sectors of the industry so would need little adaptation to the LNG requirement.

It is hoped that, because of the output from the FloGas working groups, the industry will recognise the need for new designs so that tank entry by people becomes a thing of the past. However, EM&I’s interest in the future does not end here. As the world seeks a decarbonised alternative to fossil fuels, several other floating energy options are being seriously considered. Floating mini nuclear power plants are already being designed and could be an effective solution to providing energy to bridge the gap between fossil fuels and renewable energy. Developing and developed countries would find such methods attractive especially where there is a shortfall in existing infrastructure. The benefits of such power generation systems are that they are very compact and efficient, being capable of producing electrical energy without the potential weather uncertainties but can also produce hydrogen and ammonia, either as a primary product or as a byproduct. The hydrogen is created using electrolysis to convert water into hydrogen. Hydrogen is not an easy product to store and transport in bulk (liquefaction temperature of approximately -250˚C, which is close to absolute zero), so it needs to be carried in another product, such as ammonia. Storage and carriage of ammonia is an already welldeveloped technology and could possibly replace or lead to modified versions of facilities such as FSRUs in the future. Green hydrogen is also being developed by using unwanted energy from wind or solar power generation facilities and this can add to the energy mix as well as overcome the challenges of storing renewable energy. The technology developed by the LNG industry in producing, transporting, and storing energy will prove invaluable in the future needs for greener global energy.

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15FACTS North America is expected to account for approximately 63% of total proposed capacity additions by 2030

...ON

2021

The global LNG regasification capacity is expected to add more than 3

28 000 billion ft during 2021 - 2030

North America is expected to account for approximately 63% of the total proposed capacity additions by 2030

With an estimated US$18 billion, the first phase of the LNG Canada project is one of the largest investments in the Canadian energy sector Searching the web since 1995, Microsoft has decided to retire the Internet Explorer browser The Arctic 2 and Baltic terminals currently under construction are set to add 32.8 million tpy to Russia’s liquefaction capacity

10.07 million bags of coffee were exported worldwide in September 2021

The US won the most medals at the Tokyo Olympics with a total of 113

July 2021 was the world’s hottest month on record

During the period 2021 - 2030, Asia

This year, Wally Funk became the oldest person to fly into space at age 82

is expected to dominate global regasification capacity under construction and commissioning, with a share of 75% of the total 3

4949 billion ft from known/ reported projects

The Glasgow Climate Pact was agreed at COP26 this year setting forth a new global agenda for climate change

In Japan, 15 companies formed the Carbon Neutral LNG Buyers Alliance in March 2021 48

December 2021

The current global population is 7.9 billion

The United Nations declared 2021 the International Year of Fruits and Vegetables

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