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WITCHCRAFT AND THE OLD WORLD
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of a vengeful nature themselves. This type of magic has come to be viewed as black or dark magic. Another interesting aspect of Witchcraft in the Aegean/Mediterranean is the Witches’ preference for bronze over iron or steel. Even well into the late Roman period writers describe Witches cutting herbs with bronze sickles, and iron is considered taboo. The aversion to iron in association with magic is widespread through most of continental Europe and the British Isles.
Witchcraft and the World of Northern Europe Due to the lack of written records it is difficult to describe or establish what Witchcraft was like in northern Europe before the arrival of the Romans. However, we can look for clues about the religious and magical practices of northern European tribes in the written accounts of various Greek and Roman writers. We can also look at the unique elements found in northern Europe and apply the principle of “transmitted generational teachings” from which we can work backwards to reconstruct a reasonable model. As in southern Europe, the world known to the Witches of the north was one of magic. The inherent powers and forces residing in Nature directed the course of things for better or worse. Spirits controlled or greatly influenced various events, and certain people possessed the ability to work in partnership with them. These people came to be known as Witches. The Roman historian Tacitus wrote that the Germanic tribes were divided into two main cults. One formed around the theme of symbolic atonement and the other had more of a shamanic nature. According to Tacitus, the Germanic people regarded women as predisposed to prophetic powers, and the priestesses held significance in the tribal structure. Divination was performed using strips of wood cut from nut-bearing trees. Symbols or sigils were marked on the strips, and over the course of time these evolved into runic symbols we know today (Greenwood, Susan. The Encyclopedia of Magic & Witchcraft. London: Lorenz Books, 2001).