Scope 2023

SC PE The Science and Technology Journal of Haberdashers’ Boys’ School, Elstree

2023 I ssue 34

Energy Celebrating the centenary of the Compton Effect The Compton Effect Mitochondria: The Energy Converters Nuclear Fusion in the Future

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Letter from Editors Dear Reader, From the inhalation of our first breath to the exhalation of our last we need energy. Indeed, it is the complex and intricate biochemical processes within our cells that keep us alive each moment of our lives, but they necessitate energy the very driving force of our ecosystems. In addition, all the myriad of comforts we have grown accustomed to in our surroundings would be impossible without the reliance on an external energy source. However, it is this need for energy and its overuse by mankind that has brought on global warming and, in turn, climate change. As we become increasingly aware of the catastrophic effects of climate change, the scramble to find environmentally friendly sources of energy gains a greater sense of urgency, especially as we look for answers beyond our planet.

As life on Earth would not have flourished without solar energy, it is unsurprising that humans have always had a fascination with energy and its origins. Although Dark Energy is thought to constitute around 70 percent of the Universe, numerous scientists over the decades have pursued the discovery and understanding of the different forms of energy found in the spectrum of electromagnetic radiation. From Albert Einstein’s famous mass-energy equation to the discovery of the Compton Effect, knowledge of how matter and energy interact has given us a deeper insight into quantum physics.

The publication of the Compton Effect in 1923 was a crucial event in the development of theoretical quantum mechanics as it accounted for the wave and particle properties of radiation and matter. As we celebrate the centenary of this milestone, our front cover depicts an artist’s representation of the wave-particle duality; and as ever we are indebted to our authors for their superb contribution to SCOPE 2023.

Aran Asokan (L6M2) Suleman Maududi (L6R1)

Dr A. Perera

Sohan Das (L6S2)

Staff Editor

Haberdashers’ Boys’ School Butterfly Lane, Elstree, Hertfordshire WD6 3AF Telephone: 020 8266 1700 Registered charity no: 313996

SC PE

2023 Issue 34

The Science and Technology Journal of Haberdashers’ Boys’ School, Elstree.

Contents 2

Letter from Editors

Aran Asokan (L6M2) Suleman Maududi (L6R1) Sohan Das (L6S2) & Dr A. Perera

4

Energy: the driving force

6

The Compton Effect: How Quantum Physics has helped Cancer Treatment Aran Asokan (L6M2)

10

Global energy production: Problems and solutions Aryan Agarwal (7J)

14

Mitochondria: the energy converters

Zachary Oladuji (8C2)

17

Nuclear Fusion: the holy grail of energy production?

Devarshi Mandal (11J2)

20

The heart and spark of the beautiful game Suleman Maududi (L6R1)

23

Geothermal Energy: a hidden treasure for the future?

Aarav Rajput (9H1)

26

Production of energy in living organisms Marco Vann (L6J1)

30

Defeating Electrical Resistance

Shiv Gohil (10M2)

34

The Prime example of energy drinks Aamir Salim (8S1)

36

How optimising our energy production is the key to combatting climate change

Shaylan Pancholi (L6J2)

39

Is Nuclear Fusion a Viable Future Energy Source ?

Hari Das (9C2)

42

Aerobic respiration and the chemistry within us

Burhan Yurtseven (L6C1)

45

How can we Harvest Energy from Space?

Shaunak Gupta (9S2)

48

Energy Storage and its Future

Sohan Das (L6S2)

51

The promise behind tokamak fusion reactors Dinil Rodrigo (9S2)

54

Work Experience: Impressions of a Cardiac Critical Care Unit Sohan Das (L6S2)

55

Visit to a Pharmaceutical Factory in Kenya Rhidai Akhil Shah (7M)

56

The 2022 Nobel Laureates

57

The 5th Solvay Conference on Quantum Mechanics, 1927

58

Citations

Energy: the

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driving force

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The Compton Effect: How Quantum Physics has helped cancer treatment Aran Asokan (L6M2) What is the Compton Effect?

T

in advancing our conceptualisation of quantum physics.

he Compton effect describes one of the fundamental

quantum

interactions

between

photons and matter. Quantum interactions

denote those involving the smallest discrete units

radiography, the practice of imaging internal body parts

using radiation, and in radiation therapy, a valuable technique in cancer treatment methods [2].

of energy and matter, occurring at a subatomic level.

Compton’s findings also acted to validate Einstein’s

quantum physics and provides an interesting insight to

duality, a concept proposed by Louis de Broglie in late

The discrete nature of energy is the defining factor of

photon model proposed in 1905 [3]. Wave-particle

how energy works in the universe [1].

1923 stating that light sometimes acts as a wave and

The discovery of the Compton effect has served two primary purposes to humanity: firstly, to provide solid evidence of the existence of photons – packets of energy that behave as particles. This has been an integral step

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Secondly, to supply immensely useful knowledge in

other times as a particle, would also have a lot of its foundation upheld by Compton’s work.

For his ground-breaking research in the field of quantum physics Compton was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1927 [20].

The Compton Effect: How Quantum Physics has helped cancer treatment

Figure 2. Compton Scattering [21].

Compton observed that at all angles of x-ray scattering (omitting 0°), the spectrometer yielded two intensity peaks. With λ’ as the wavelength of the detected ray

and λ as the wavelength of the ray incident on the

carbon target, one peak was at λ’= λ, and the other was at an intensity where λ’ > λ [7]. This means that perfect

constructive interference was occurring for two different Figure 1. The American physicist Arthur Holly Compton who published his findings in 1923 and was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1927 [20].

How was it discovered?

wavelengths, forming the most intense waves as they had the greatest amplitudes.

But why were there two peaks?

Under Electromagnetic theory, the oscillation of the rays’

Compton’s aim was to investigate the absorption and

electric fields cause electrons in the calcite to oscillate at

rays). The experimental procedure was conducted

of radiation of equal frequency, and therefore equal

investigate the effects of scattering, he carried out an

intensity peak at λ’= λ.

scattering of high-frequency radiation (x-rays and gamma

equal frequencies. This would culminate in the emission

under the assumption that the rays acted as waves. To

wavelength as the initial x-ray, accommodating the

experiment where x-rays were fired through a series of

The second intensity peak was caused by some of the

slits, to isolate them to a fine linear path, and not a radial path, at a carbon target. The x-rays would be scattered in all directions around the chamber the experiment was conducted in [4].

electrons that were travelling at relativistic speeds compared to their surroundings according to Einstein’s

theory of special relativity. The Doppler effect would then alter the wavelength of the emitted x-rays, which

Analysis of the scattered rays was then setup by rotating

a Bragg spectrometer to different angles, relative to the

path of a ray that has not been scattered, as illustrated in Figure 2 [5]. Incoming radiation was analysed by

identifying peak intensities once the x-rays entered

the ionization chamber and produced sparks, creating pulses of current to be detected. The intensity peaks

corresponded to the wavelengths of x-rays that were scattered (calculated using Bragg’s law), rather than

undergoing a different quantum interaction, which would leave less energy remaining in the photon [6] [22].

the second intensity peak could be attributed to [8].

However, Compton also noted that the differences between λ’ and λ (and the general graphic patterns)

were independent of the x-ray intensity [9]. If the electromagnetic theory were true, a lower intensity of

x-rays would mean a decreased amplitude of both the incoming wave and the oscillating electron. The electron

would then move at a lower relativistic speed, so the Doppler shift acting on the system would tend to zero, meaning the difference between λ and λ’ would become negligible. Because the difference between λ and λ’

The Compton Effect: How Quantum Physics has helped cancer treatment

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was independent of the x-ray intensity, the wave theory

Δλ – the difference between the two wavelengths of

Instead, the scattering phenomenon was explained in

h – Planck’s constant

could not be true within the realms of his endeavours. terms of Einstein’s photon model.

How does it work?

In this new interpretation, x-rays were regarded as pulses of energy in accordance with the Planck radiation law,

formulated by the German physicist Max Planck in 1900

[10]. The law states a direct proportionality between the energy of a particle and its associated frequency, this is represented by the equation

E=hf

the x-rays scattered (Compton shift)

θ – the angle between the path of the photon emitted by the electron and the horizontal plane

mo – the mass of the particle the photon interacts with c – the speed of light Compton derived the equation by considering the conservation of momentum and energy in the system and by using Einstein’s complete formula for special relativity:

E2 = (pc)2 + (moc2)2, with p being the momentum of a

particle [4]. Within Compton’s equation, the term before the

where E is the energy of a particle, h is Planck’s constant, and f is the frequency of the particle.

Compton described the effect as a partial transfer of

energy from one inbound photon to one electron.

Initially the electron would be bound to the outer shell

of an atom in the target entity. Upon collision with the

photon, some of the photon’s energy is transferred to the electron, liberating it from its corresponding atom.

Finally, the electron recoils and emits a photon with an

energy equal to the leftover energy the electron has.

Using Planck’s radiation law, a photon of a lower energy

parentheses remains constant, unless the inbound radiation interacts with a different particle. This value is known as the Compton wavelength of said particle involved.

To explain the first peak in his graphs, where λ’=λ,

Compton concluded that some of the photons collided with electrons bound to inner shells of their atoms. If an

electron is in an inner shell, it has a stronger electrostatic attraction to the nucleus, meaning more energy is needed to liberate the electron. If the photon’s energy is insufficient to do this, the photon will instead interact with the entire entity (atom/molecule) [13].

will have a lower frequency, and therefore a greater

Now, in the Compton equation, the value of mo

speed of light. This change in wavelength is known as

The Compton wavelength becomes virtually nil, so

wavelength since the speed of an x-ray is fixed at the

becomes significantly larger: around 104 times larger.

Compton Shift [11] [12].

there will be no change in the x-ray’s wavelength. The interaction between a photon and a molecule with no

noticeable change in wavelength depicts a different type of scattering called Thomson scattering, which had preceded Compton scattering and could be explained using Electromagnetic theory [14].

Notably, at 0°, there is no change in wavelength at all.

Because cos 0 = 1, the Compton shift becomes 0. In this

case, the photon has essentially passed directly through any molecules in its path without interaction because there has been no change in the photon’s energy, so

no energy could have been transferred in recoiling a molecule it meets (explaining why there was only 1 peak on the intensity graph for 0°). Finally, a concrete Figure 3. Compton scattering simplified [23].

Now an explanation for the first peak was needed, which required the Compton equation to be analysed, it followed that: Where:

explanation of the experiment was reached.

How is the Compton Effect Useful?

Though Compton scattering has found many purposes

within astrophysics and material physics, its places of

utmost importance are in radiotherapy and radiography [15]. In both medicinal fields, Compton scattering is the predominant quantum process. Because extremely high

Δλ=h/(mo c)(1-cos θ)

frequency x-rays are used, very little Thomson scattering

occurs as most of the photons emitted can liberate any electron they contact. However, Compton scattering is unfavourable in radiography.

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The Compton Effect: How Quantum Physics has helped cancer treatment

Figure 4. Efficacy of virtual grid (image enhancement) [24]

During x-ray scans for patient diagnoses, image contrast

administering high-frequency radiation to the patient

the patient’s condition inside their body. As illustrated

area in their body. For example, in External Beam Radiation

must be optimised for more reliable examination of

in Figure 4, right side, (C), x-rays are emitted below the patient, and different quantities of radiation are absorbed by different parts of the body because of their

varying thicknesses and densities (factors also affecting Compton scattering likelihoods) [12]. The remaining

(internally or externally), which is targeted at the cancerous

Therapy (Figure 6) a linear accelerator delivers the radiation beams [26]. Cancer cells that are exposed to the radiation

are either killed or have their growth stunted by DNA damage induced by the radiation [18] [19].

radiation passes through the patient up to a detector.

Compton scattering counteracts this by offsetting emitted photons from their original trajectories. As such, scattered photons land on different pixels along the detector plane, instigating film fogging. Information about the body along the scattered photon’s initial

path and along the path it intercepted is therefore

jeopardised, leaving radiographers with low contrast, blurred images, and with uneasy patients [16].

To mitigate the qualitative impact on the image, antiscatter grids are placed below the detector (Figure 5, left side). Most scattered photons will then contact the grid before reaching the detector, resulting in less fogging [17].

Figure 6. External beam Radiation Therapy [26].

If a significant portion of a given area in the patient’s body

is cancerous, Compton scattering can be advantageous as a single photon can ionize a cancerous cell and can

further ionize another one upon being scattered during the first interaction. The compounding of these minute

chain reactions reduces the overall dose of radiation the patient must be exposed to. The flip side of this is that if

only a small portion of an area in the body is cancerous, Compton scattering can result in non-cancerous tissue

(that was not initially targeted) being ionized and damaged, which even carries a miniscule chance of a second cancer developing.

The Compton effect itself has acted to enhance

nuclear medicine, and our understanding of it has led to preventative measures that make treatments Figure 5. Angiography (a type of X-ray used to examine blood vessels) with (A) or without (B) anti-scatter grids [25].

However, during radiotherapy Compton scattering can have adverse effects on the recipient. Radiotherapy involves

more efficient and less harmful to those exposed to the radiation being used. To commemorate Arthur

Compton for his impactful work, the Compton crater (on the moon), and the Compton Gamma Ray Observatory were named after him.

The Compton Effect: How Quantum Physics has helped cancer treatment

9

Global energy production: Problems and solutions Aryan Agarwal (7J) What are Fossil Fuels?

W

hether it be driving a car or turning on a

decomposing organic matter [3].

light switch, our daily activity has become

Similarly, oil formation takes place at the bottom of the

pertinent question remains; where does this energy

decomposers (typically bacteria and algae) will respire

subservient to the use of energy. But one

originate?

Fossil fuels are the most used energy source, with the

National Academies of Science stating that 81% of the energy consumption in the USA comes from coal, oil and

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from a combination of both heat and pressure acting on

seabed where the conditions are anaerobic [4]. The aquatic

using the chemical energy of these expired organisms. One

product of this metabolic process is kerogen, which will

form oil and gas under the high pressures and temperatures that can be experienced at the bottom of the seabed [4][5].

natural gas [1]. These resources are produced from the

The chemical potential energy in these fossil fuels can be

of carbon and hydrogen, these fossil fuels undertake a

electrical energy. Conversely, the non-renewable nature of

gas [2]. Firstly, coal is an organic material which results

Additionally, fossil fuels have been responsible for over

remains of decaying plants and animals. Typically composed

transferred into several forms including thermal energy and

plethora of different forms, including coal, oil and natural

fossil fuels renders it an unsustainable source of energy.

Global energy production: Problems and solutions

75% of greenhouse gas emission, and almost 90% of all

carbon dioxide emissions, as a result of human activities [6].

However, researchers have primarily been investigating

the thermal radiation received from the Sun. Over time, this

be exploited instead of fossil fuel combustion, the more

The greenhouse gases emitted blanket the Earth, trapping

effect has led to global warming and subsequent climate change, which threatens to have a negative impact on life on Earth [6]. Hence, scientists have recently focussed on ascertaining alternative methods of energy production to inevitably diminish our reliance upon fossil fuels.

the efficacy of other renewable energy sources which can orthodox solution.

What is Renewable Energy?

The United Nations defines renewable energy as “energy derived from natural sources that are replenished at a higher rate than they are consumed,” serving as a long term and

sustainable solution. The common sources of renewable

energy are solar, wind, geothermal, hydro and biomass [11].

Solar Energy

As early as the 7th century B.C. humans used sunlight to

light fires by reflecting the Sun’s rays onto shiny objects. By

the 3rd century B.C., harnessed solar power with mirrors

was used to light torches for religious ceremonies by the Greeks and Romans. In 1839 a photovoltaic cell was

discovered by the French physicist Edmond Becquerel, when the cell produced more electricity when exposed to

light. Finally in 1954 Bell Laboratories produced the first

solar cell capable of absorbing and converting enough Figure 1. Fossil Fuels [2]

solar energy to electricity for appliances used daily [12].

Solar energy is now used to power satellites and spacecraft which orbit the Earth.

The conversion of sunlight into electrical energy is through

the use of solar panels, which can either be on rooftops of

residences or in ‘solar farms’ on rural land [13]. The solar farms or solar parks are found in many parts of the world and, the Bhadla Solar Park in the Thar Desert of Rajasthan, India, is reported to cover an area of 56 square kilometres and is the largest in the world as of 2023 [14]. Solar power does not create harmful greenhouse gas emissions and the

panels only have a small carbon footprint as they can last up to 25 years. In addition, the panels are usually made from

silicon and are increasingly recycled. The semiconductor

materials in the panels when exposed to sunlight release electrons which conduct electricity.

Figure 2. Carbon Capture Technique [9]

Moreover, Researchers at Stanford University have been

using more ecologically considerate technologies to burn

fossil fuels [7]. One solution that was suggested was

utilising natural gas which produced 50% less CO2 into the environment than similar coal combustion [8]. Further efforts made by the Stanford team include research into

carbon capture and sequestration which aim to remove

carbon dioxide in the atmosphere and store this gas below the surface [7][9]. Finally, the Stanford and Bath universities have collaborated to observe the extent to which sugar and carbon dioxide can be utilised in plastic production [10].

Figure 3. Energy from the Sun is converted to electricity by a solar panel [13].

Global energy production: Problems and solutions

11

the electrical grid. Indeed, in 2022 over 7% of the world

electricity and 2% of world energy was supplied by wind

[18]. Land-based (onshore) wind farms are cheaper to build and maintain compared to their offshore counterparts.

However, offshore wind turbines are more efficient due to the higher wind speeds and generally greater consistency of direction [19].

Geothermal Energy

For over 100 years there has been a quest for geothermal

electricity generation from hydrothermal reservoirs in the Earth’s crust, where thermal energy originates [20].

Figure 4. The Bhadla Solar Park in Rajasthan, India. The largest

Hydrothermal reservoirs are sufficiently hot and permeable,

solar farm in the world [15].

whereas enhanced geothermal systems have been

Wind Energy

generated from geothermal energy is possible due to the

improved with hydraulic stimulation. Geothermal power

Wind power captures the kinetic energy of the wind by

using large wind turbines stationed on land or in sea.

convection currents of the mantle and the temperature of the core-mantle boundary being around 4000oC [21].

With the development of modern technology, the useful energy output harnessed through this technique has dramatically increased. Furthermore, a distinct advantage to this method is that it has the potential for worldwide application, particularly in offshore regions where higher wind speeds can be experienced [16].

Figure 7. Dry steam (left) and flash steam (right) geothermal power stations [21].

The world’s first commercial geothermal power station Figure 5. A wind turbine [17]

was built in Larderello, Italy, in 1911 and geothermal

electricity generation is currently used in 26 countries, while 70 countries use geothermal energy for heating [21]. It is estimated that as a source of renewable energy

geothermal has the potential to reach 3-5% of the global

demand by 2050 and perhaps 10% by 2100. In addition, the

greenhouse gas emissions of geothermal electric stations is less than 5% of what a conventional coal-fired plant would produce [21].

Figure 6. A full-scale floating wind turbine approximately 5 km offshore off the Portugal coastline [18]

Wind power has been utilised for centuries to convert wind energy into movement in sails, windmills and wind

pumps. However, with the increasing need for a sustainable renewable energy source, wind power is now used to generate electricity, by using wind turbines connected to

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Global energy production: Problems and solutions

Figure 8. Krafla geothermal power plant in Iceland [21]

In dry steam geothermal power stations heat from the Earth’s core is used to heat water and produce dry steam

at 150oC. The steam is then used to turn a turbine of

a generator to produce electricity and is subsequently condensed back to water and passed on to the deep wells

for re-heating. As shown in Figure 7, both dry steam and

flash steam power stations use similar technology with flash steam power generation the most common at present [21].

Hydropower

Hydroelectricity is produced by hydropower which is a result of either water moving from a higher elevation to

one that is lower or due to fast moving water [20]. In each

case either the gravitational potential or kinetic energy of a water source is used to spin a turbine connected to a

generator that produces electricity [23]. The water source is either a reservoir or river and hydropower relies on stable rainfall patterns. The building of hydroelectric plants can also have a negative impact on ecosystems. However, the

Bioenergy

Bio energy is made from a variety organic materials, such as wood and charcoal [20]. These natural fuels can be used for heat and power, like the operation of fossil fuels. Moreover,

agricultural crops can be used to make biofuels, for example bioethanol. This process is often referred to as carbon

neutral as the crops will absorb the same carbon dioxide

as they release during combustion [24]. Furthermore, biofuels do not require the extensive distillation processes

of fossil fuels which also involve the release of carbon dioxide and the contribution to the enhanced greenhouse

effect. Contrastingly, biofuels require substantial farmland to cultivate the necessary crops. Moreover, one may argue that the term “carbon neutral” is factually incorrect

as it disregards the carbon dioxide released during the

production of fertilisers. However, bioenergy accounts for 55% of global renewable energy and over 6% of the global energy supply [25].

reservoirs are a source of water for drinking, irrigation, flood and drought control. [22]

Hydropower has been used for thousands of years and more than 2,000 years ago the Greeks used water to grind

wheat into flour [22]. The modern hydropower turbine began its evolution in the mid-1700s and through the

first half of the 19th century there were many further key

developments. In terms of renewable energy, hydropower is the largest contributor to the generation of electricity at

present and it does not directly produce carbon dioxide or other atmospheric pollutants [23]. In terms of global use

of electricity hydroelectricity generates about 15% of the

demand and in more than 35 countries, it provides at least

Figure 11. Biofuel demand growth by fuel and region, 2022-2024 [25]

50% of the total electricity supply.

Figure 12. Colour key for Figure.11

Conclusion

There appears to be an array of renewable energy sources

which all have the potential to diminish the overwhelming reliance humanity has developed upon fossil fuels. Hence, scientific research and evaluations into this matter can orientate itself around two fundamental objectives.

Figure 9. The Three Gorges Dam in China is the world’s largest hydro power station [23].

Either attempting to decipher the optimal renewable energy source with the least drawbacks or develop an

understanding of the correct balance between different renewable methods, for example hydro and wind power.

Figure 10. The design of a conventional and most common type of hydroelectric dam, used for hydroelectric power generation [23].

Global energy production: Problems and solutions

13

Mitochondria: the energy converters Zachary Oladuji (8C2)

W

ith every breath, we are like a pendulum

is still present up to this day. Instead of being created,

second, our cells fight to keep us alive,

energy from food is transferred into kinetic energy to

swinging between life and death. Every

and this fight can never stop. To be alive, is an elegant

dance, that involves huge amounts of co-ordination to

continue. This ultimately comes down to the building blocks of all life: cells. Cells are the smallest unit of life than can function independently and make up the entirety of the human body. Inside these cells, thousands

of unimaginably complex processes are happening every second. However, to do this, cells need energy.

As the law of conservation of energy states, energy can neither be created nor destroyed [1]. This concludes that all the energy present at the beginning of the universe

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Mitochondria the energy converters

energy is transferred and stored. For example, chemical

move limbs. Crucially, cells need a way to find and use

energy to carry out the unfathomably complex processes they undertake [2].

Recognised at all levels of biological understanding, energy is a vital fragment to the complex jigsaw which

enables all organisms to survive and function. From the gradual division of cells to the rapid transmission of

nervous impulses; all mechanisms in the body necessitate

the release of energy [2]. Adenine Triphosphate (ATP) is the primary molecule utilised by cells for the temporary

carrying and storage of energy. As shown in Figure 1,

ATP is composed of three fundamental components: an adenine base; three phosphate groups and a ribose

sugar [3][4]. Hence, this nucleic acid shares significant characteristics with DNA and RNA, which operate in co-ordinating various cellular processes. However, this

provokes a pertinent question; where does ATP originate from within a cell?

Figure 1. Structure of adenosine triphosphate (ATP),

Figure 2. The evolution of cells is thought to be from a common prokaryotic ancestor (red line) which gave rise to bacteria (purple and red) and all other eukaryotic cells (blue). The theory states that mitochondria and chloroplasts originated from the endosymbiotic association of bacteria with the ancestors of eukaryotes [5].

protonated. [4]

The origin of mitochondria and chloroplast in eukaryotic

Evolution of cells and mitochondria

It is generally believed that the two main classes of cells found today, Prokaryotic (bacterial cells with no nucleus) and eukaryotic (nucleated cells), descended from a

single primordial ancestor approximately 3.8 billion years ago and around 750 million years after the Earth was

formed [5]. Present-day cells evolved from a common prokaryotic ancestor and mitochondria originated from

the endosymbiotic association (a symbiotic relationship in which one organism lives inside another) of aerobic

bacteria with the ancestors of eukaryotes. Approximately 1.45 billion years ago, primary endosymbiosis took place

which resulted in the formation of the first mitochondrion,

“the powerhouse of the cell.” However, although many sources appear to accept this theory there are many

alternative suggestions regarding the evolution of

eukaryotic cells and the endosymbiotic association, which

cells is thought to have been the result of an ancient

symbiosis when a nucleated cell engulfed an aerobic

prokaryote [7]. As shown in Figure 3 the host cell does not digest the bacterial cell and instead keeps it because

it contributes to the functioning of the host cell, mainly as an effective energy converter [8][9]. In return, the bacterial

cell becomes reliant on the protective environment of the host cell, a case of true symbiosis where both parties benefit from the interaction [7]. Although it is generally

thought that over time the descendants of the engulfed prokaryotic cell developed into mitochondria, some theories argue that the eukaryotic ancestor already contained mitochondria [6].

Figure 3. An eukaryotic cell engulfing aerobic and photosynthetic prokaryotes, which then form endosymbiotic relationships with the host cell, which eventually results in the formation of mitochondria and chloroplasts respectively [9]

resulted in the formation of mitochondria.[6].

Mitochondria the energy converters

15

Evidence to support the theory of endosymbiotic association comes from the observations that mitochondria

have striking similarities with some modern prokaryotes, such as having their own genome as well as having an inner

membrane which contains electron transport proteins [7].

In addition, both mitochondria and chloroplasts reproduce

by dividing in two and are of a similar size to bacteria [5].

The ability to carryout aerobic cellular respiration as well as

Figure 6. The conversion of energy and the formation of ATP by the two metabolic pathways in the cell [13].

endosymbiotic associations for the eukaryotic cells and

The highly complex aerobic metabolic pathways that

photosynthesis was clearly the result of highly advantageous

as seen in Figure 4, the cells eventually gave rise to the present-day animals and plants [10]. Although only plant

cells contain chloroplasts, with the exception of some, all animal and plant cells contain mitochondria which are found in the cytoplasm of the cell (Figure 5) [11].

lead to the production of ATP from glucose occur in

the matrix of mitochondria which is found inside the inner membrane of the mitochondrion (Figure 7) [14].

The biochemical reactions that occur in the matrix

are catalysed by enzymes which are embedded in the mitochondrial inner membrane. The ATP generated by mitochondria hold the energy needed by the cell in their

chemical bonds, which can be used to transfer energy in further chemical reactions [7]. The average human

requires an exponential number of ATP molecules to

function per day. Whilst ATP is efficient at transferring energy, the molecule is a poor storage material. Hence, Figure 4. As all eukaryotes contain mitochondria it is presumed that endosymbiotic association occurred early in the history of eukaryotes. The similar event that brought chloroplast into some eukaryotic cells led to the lineage that formed plants [10]

a constant stream of ATP is necessary for survival and

mitochondria divide inside cells, using their own DNA [12] [8]. As a result, there can be many mitochondria in one cell and large numbers of mitochondria are found in cells

where there is a high demand for energy. For example in heart muscle cells mitochondria occupy about 40 % of the

space available and in liver cells there are around 1000 to 2000 mitochondria per cell [8].

Figure 5. A typical animal and plant cell, both containing mitochondria [11].

Mitochondria and energy conversion.

Energy from sunlight is converted to food (carbohydrate)

by the biochemical pathway of photosynthesis, which uses

Figure 7. Structure of a mitochondrion [14]

[12]. As shown in Figure 6, glucose is converted to ATP by

Conclusion

other aerobic pathways in mitochondria [13]. Glycolysis

but wonderful world of energy at a cellular level. The

molecules per molecule of glucose, whereas the aerobic

encounter changed the course of life forever. This is the

molecules per glucose molecule.

When either in the

a part of the fundamentals of all life on Earth. A dynamic

glycolysis will still occur, but the products will be ethanol in

that linked cells, adenosine triphosphate and mitochondria,

carbon dioxide and water to produce glucose and oxygen

16

two metabolic pathways, glycolysis which is anaerobic and

In conclusion, this was a tiny glimpse into the confusing

takes place in the cytoplasm and produces just two ATP

elegant dance between life and death, and how one fateful

pathways that occur in mitochondria produce 34 ATP

story of a tiny molecule and a cellular organelle that forms

absence, or low levels, of oxygen inside a mitochondrion

partnership that is vital for our survival. This was a narrative

plant tissue and lactic acid in animal cells [12].

which forms the basis of energy conversion in cells.

Mitochondria the energy converters

Nuclear Fusion in the Future: The holy grail of energy production?

Devarshi Mandal (11J2)

A

t 01:00, on Monday the 5th of December 2022,

fusion (ICF) research device, which was used by a team

highest energy laser facility, achieved a historic

fusion experiment surpassing the milestone of an energy

the National Ignition Facility (NIF), the world’s

breakthrough in nuclear fusion research; hailed as ‘one of the most impressive scientific feats of the 21st century,’

the NIF’s performance is paving the way for the future of clean energy [1][2]. Located at the Lawrence Livermore

National Laboratory (LNLL) in Livermore, California, USA, the NIF is a laser-based inertial confinement

of researchers for the first time to conduct a controlled breakeven [3]: more energy was released from the fusion

reaction than input energy used to power the lasers that

initiated it. Scientists at this facility have achieved fusion ignition, what is being referred to as the ‘holy grail’ of fusion research [4][5].

Nuclear Fusion in the Future: The holy grail of energy production?

17

Figure 1. To create fusion ignition, the National Ignition Facility’s laser energy is converted into X-rays inside the hohlraum, which then compress a fuel capsule until it implodes, creating a high temperature, high pressure plasma [4].

What does this all mean?

Figure 3. The difference between nuclear fission and nuclear fusion. Nuclear fission is the process used to generate electricity and it was also used to create the atomic bomb.

Fusion is used to create thermonuclear weapons and holds the hope of future electricity production [10].

Firstly, what is fusion? Fusion, broadly, is the merging of two

This is in contrast to fission, the current process which

the process that occurs in stars [6]. It occurs when two light

splitting a large nucleus, such as that of uranium-235, into

nuclear force, an attractive force which holds together the

This is achieved by firing a neutron at the uranium nucleus,

electrostatic forces of repulsion between the two nuclei,

fusion, vast amounts of energy are released, converted

results in the two nuclei ‘fusing’ to thus form a single larger

it is related by the same Einsteinian equation described

this single, resulting nucleus is less than the total mass of

unlike fusion, fission suffers from producing extremely

been converted to energy during the reaction: a quantity

significantly less energy per unit mass than fusion,

energy equivalence equation E = mc2. As such, substantial

the future of nuclear power [11].

smaller atomic nuclei into one larger nucleus, describing

occurs in nuclear reactors. Fission is the process of

nuclei have sufficient energy upon collision for the strong

several smaller daughter nuclei, and a few neutrons [10].

neutrons and protons of the nucleus, to overcome the

leaving it in an unstable state, causing fission. Similar to

caused by the positive charges of their protons. This

from a small amount of the mass of the nucleus to which

nucleus of a heavier element [9]. Post-fusion, the mass of

earlier. However, a disadvantage to this process is that,

the two original nuclei, with the mass difference having

radioactive waste products. Additionally, fission releases

which may be calculated by Einstein’s famous mass-

indisputably establishing fusion as the superior choice for

amounts of energy are released by fusion across hundreds

Because of the huge benefits fusion presents, teams of

of thousands of nuclei, with this potency being what enables the reaction to be the fundamental mechanism

that powers stars during their lifespans [6]. Typically, due to the requirement of immense heat and pressure, fusion occurs in the cores of stars, fusing two light hydrogen nuclei to form a single, heavier helium nucleus [9] [10].

researchers have been trying to create a controlled fusion reaction, which may be used in a new form of nuclear reactor. Accomplishing this would revolutionise nuclear

energy as a sustainable means for power generation, yet previous attempts to do so have all required a net input of energy; that is to say more energy was put into the

system to trigger the fusion

Figure 2. The release of energy when nuclear fusion reactions occur in the Sun and other stars. The Sun fuses 500 million tonnes of hydrogen into helium every second [7][8]

reaction, than the energy released as output by the

fusion reaction, rendering the process useless [12]. With

the NIF’s breakthrough, the creation of a self-sustaining fusion reaction, this is no longer the case.

In nuclear physics, a fusion

reaction can, given the right conditions, reach a stage

18

Nuclear Fusion in the Future: The holy grail of energy production?

known as fusion ‘ignition.’ At the ignition point, energy released from the controlled fusion reaction outweighs the rate of cooling of the implosion by x-ray radiation

losses and electron conduction. This causes an increase in temperature of the system over time, facilitating further

fusion, thereby making the reaction self-sustaining. During

the experiment at the NIF, 3.15 MJ of fusion energy was released, while the lasers provided an input of 2.05 MJ

of laser energy, causing a gain approximately 1.54 times the energy input, thus achieving for the first-time fusion ignition, the ‘holy grail’ of fusion research [1][3].

As for the experimental details, most fusion reactors utilise magnetic confinement to maintain pressure in the fusion

mixture. This takes the form of copper coils in a toroidal arrangement, which create strong magnetic fields in the reactor to drive fusion. A lesser-known way of achieving confinement of the mixture is inertial confinement. This entails energy being supplied rapidly to a miniscule fuel

pellet, causing a rapid heat and pressure increase. The

pellet blasts outwards, but a parallel reaction force creates inwards-bound shockwaves, compressing the fuel inside the pellet. The process is inertial as the compression of

the fuel happens so quickly that the fuel molecules do not have enough time to overcome their own inertia and

to be repelled from one another, achieving fusion. This all takes place on the pico-nanosecond scale. [13]

With respect to the specifics of the experiment

conducted at NIF, 192 giant lasers are fired at the walls of

a 1cm long gold cylinder, known as a hohlraum, heating the container to temperatures greater than those of the Sun, that being over 3 million °C. Due to the immense

heat, the walls emit high frequency electromagnetic waves, X-rays, which are fired at a ‘peppercorn-sized’ fuel

capsule within the hohlraum. The fuel used is usually a

fuse, a small portion of the initial mass is converted to energy and a high-energy neutron is emitted. [14].

This result, after previously unsuccessful near misses, has

been accredited by researchers to numerous factors,

including advances in target pellet design, predictive modelling endorsed by ‘cognitive simulation’ and machine learning, and laser capabilities [1]. According to Annie Kritcher, the principal designer for the experiment, the

introduction of a new laser capability and a thicker hohlraum expanded the margin for accomplishing ignition. Aside from this, various adjustments were made to enhance implosion symmetry, subsequently fed to the cognitive simulation

design team to be optimised, allowing the arrangement with the highest probability of a yield gain to be determined

[1]. Following the experiment, the team established “high confidence” in the net energy yield by employing several independent

diagnostic

techniques

-

encompassing

radioactive decay and a magnetic spectrometer - to quantify the number of neutrons which escaped from the reaction, thereby contributing to the validation of the results [1].

No matter the significance of reaching ignition, questions have been raised about the future of fusion, considering

the minute energy gain of 1.1 MJ. Tammy Ma, the director

of the LLNL’s Inertial Fusion Energy (IFE) Institutional Initiative, stated ignition ‘lays the groundwork’ for IFE,

a proposition for a nuclear fusion power plant centred around executing inertial confinement fusion on a

commercial scale. Nevertheless, continued research and funding are crucial in the development of IFE. According

to Ma, further investment will be required to simplify the process and improve the efficiency of the equipment,

with the hope of establishing the most suitable design for future fusion energy [1].

mixture of deuterium and tritium, isotopes of hydrogen.

But what is the significance of all this? Ignition is a major

activates an implosion, thereby compressing the fuel,

stands on the brink of an era reliant on a new form of

The emitted X-rays ablate the surface of the capsule, and

milestone in attaining a sustainable future. Humanity now

consequently

triggering

clean energy, rather than

and

akin

fuels. If the technology

a rise in temperature

one powered by fossil

that of stars, creating

for

required for fusion. The

on an industrial scale

speeds up to 400kms ,

provide

isotopes, deuterium and

with

pressure

to

performing

the extreme conditions

fusion

implosion

is

may

reach -1

inertial

confinement

achieved,

it

humanity

would

with

hydrogen

an abundance of energy,

tritium, to fuse into a

fulfilling energy demands

causing

the

helium nucleus. In each

pair of isotopes which

Figure 4. The production of excess energy from nuclear fusion by the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, USA [14]

the

capacity

of

across the world [12].

Nuclear Fusion in the Future: The holy grail of energy production?

19

The heart and spark of the beautiful game Suleman Maududi (L6R1) Fabrice Muamba at the FA Cup quarter-final

One would think that the endless hours of training that lead to lean and athletic bodies of footballers limit their risk of contracting a plethora of illness. However, one genetic condition remains that threatens even the healthiest

20

into its normal rhythm. After receiving a further 12 shocks in the ambulance and an admission to the local hospital,

his heart miraculously restarted. Although, this event culminated in his retirement, there was one fundamental

question that remained. What caused his sudden cardiac arrest?

of individuals. Unfortunately, the manifestations of this

Cardiac arrest is significantly different from a heart attack,

the FA cup quarter finals match [1]. Shortly before the half-

blocked and the heart muscle is deprived of its blood

suffered a cardiac arrest. This meant Muamba’s heart was

around the body and the patient stops breathing normally.

his immediate collapse. Whilst the 35,000 fans pleaded for

mechanisms becoming temporarily irregular [2]. In order to

for a staggering 78 minutes with every minute reducing his

is performed, but the heart needs to be forced to re-start,

his heart, medical staff conducted CPR (cardiopulmonary

Fabrice Muamba’s heart remained dormant, he received a

disorder were observed on the 17th of March 2012 during

which occurs when one of the coronary arteries become

time whistle was to be blown, Fabrice Muamaba tragically

supply. In cardiac arrest, the heart stops pumping blood

unable to circulate enough oxygen to his brain resulting in

This is usually the result of the heart’s internal electrical

Muamba’s recovery; Muamba’s heart remained dormant

persuade the heart to pump oxygen around the body, CPR

chance of survival by 10% [2]. In a desperate effort to restart

usually with a 300-joule electric shock. In the 78 minutes

resuscitation) and attempted to defibrillate his heart back

total of 4,500 joules [2].

The heart and spark of the beautiful game

Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy

consumption and hence demands of the heart [6].

(HCM) which is an inherited condition that has a prevalence

experiment [6].

He was later diagnosed with Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy of 1 in 500 people worldwide and is characterised by part of the heart muscle becoming thicker, as seen in Figure

1. Although, most patients will not encounter any severe symptoms, the hereditary nature of the condition poses

significant risk to the offspring of these individuals [3].

Furthermore, the causes of this disorder are multi-faceted.

Firstly, the cardiac muscle cells of patients diagnosed with

HCM appear disorganized and irregular. This contributes to a disarray in the electrical signals travelling through the

lower chambers of the heart and may lead to an abnormal heart rhythm; a condition called ventricular arrythmia.

Although most patients have a low risk of death, this does not negate the fact that HCM is the most frequent cause

of cardiac death in individuals under the age of 35 and is more common in males than in females [4][5].

This hypothesis was reinforced by the following Heart samples were taken from patients with HCM with defined genotypes and the results were compared to

the samples from the septum (a muscular wall separating the right and left sides of the heart) of non-failing control hearts. A uniform and marked depletion of fatty acids

derivatives was observed in all HCM groups compared to the control hearts, particularly long chain acyl carnitines [6].

This suggests a decrease in fatty acid derivatives in patients

with HCM. Hence the heart muscle cells of patients with HCM shifted away from the lipid-metabolism as a source of energy. Moreover, evidence for the alternative use of

fuel was demonstrated when notable increases in lactate,

three branched chain amino acids and ketone body 3-hydroxybutryrate were observed [6]. This suggests

that the cells shifted away from the lipid metabolism and attempted to exploit other sources of energy.

Further evidence to suggest this shift is demonstrated when the abundance of enzymes involved in the oxidation

of fatty acids decreased in the cardiac cells. This is because the expression of the genes that code for the enzymes required for the beta-oxidation of fatty acids

were all reduced. Consequently, fewer lipid substrates can be broken down, affecting the production of ATP in a cell. Thus, the energy supplied by the lipid metabolism decreased [6].

Additionally, the main form in which lipids are stored in

the heart was lower in patients suffering from HCM. This suggests that the overall storage of energy was lower in HCM patients.

Figure 1. Thicker heart muscle, especially of the ventricles, reduces blood flow to the aorta [4].

Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy and the production of energy for the heart muscle cells

Moreover, significant energetic defects have been noticed

in patients with HCM. Most of the energy that a healthy heart receives comes from the beta-oxidation of fatty

acids (breakdown of fatty acids) as the products of this reaction are important in the making of ATP (adenosine

triphosphate). In conditions that lead to heart failure, metabolic reprogramming from fatty acid breakdown to

glycolysis occurs, as an adaptive mechanism to reduce oxygen consumption. However, over time this change

results in insufficient ATP production to meet the energy

Hence one may ask themselves: what effect does this have?

It is believed that during intense exercise, metabolic reprogramming takes place in which the cardiac muscles of HCM patients which shift from using fatty acids to using glycolysis. This ensures the heart can adapt to the decreased consumption of oxygen. Over time, it is thought

that this shift results in insufficient ATP production to meet the energetic demands of the heart. Furthermore, in the

study mentioned previously, ATP, NADP and NADPH were

all severely depleted in HCM hearts [6]. This reduction of

ATP is significant because 60-70% of the ATP in the heart is used to fuel the contractions of the cardiac muscle. The

30-40% left is used in ion pumps. which is necessary in the creation of an electrical current in the heart required for the heart to beat [7].

The heart and spark of the beautiful game

21

Furthermore, this depletion of cardiac energy is expected

Moreover,

ions’ metabolism. This is important because the contraction

HCM patients are swollen with the cristae density being

to impair the cellular mechanism that regulates the calcium

and relaxation of the heart is initiated by the entry of Ca2+

ions into the muscle’s cells [8]. As shown in Figure 2, these Ca2+ ions will bind or detach from the myofilaments (three

protein filaments that make up the contractile fibres) found in muscle cells. Furthermore, the movement of ions including Ca

2+

ions across the membranes of cells

in the sinoatrial (SA) node is important in the creation of

an electrical potential. This is achieved via the opening and closing of ion channels. The SA node generates an electrical signal that causes the atria to contract and is considered the pacemaker of the heart.

HCM

has

also

been

associated

with

mitochondrial dysfunction. Firstly, the mitochondria of

disorganised and reduced [9]. Furthermore, whilst the number of mitochondria increases there was an overall

decrease in the size of mitochondria. This is explained when

the regulators of both mitochondrial fission and fusion showed no signs of activation. Hence the exponential production of defective mitochondria caused by HCM was

due to the inhibited regulation of both mitochondrial fusion and fission [10]. Mitochondria are the main site of aerobic respiration in cells. Hence there is an insufficient energy to supply the increased demand during intense exercise, potentially culminating in cases like Fabrice Muamba.

However, all hope is not lost. A plethora of studies and clinical trials have been undertaken which have given rise to various treatments.

Firstly, metabolic drugs are now being prescribed to patients with HCM. An example is trimetazidine which

is currently being used to treat angina [11]. Whilst this medication inhibits beta-oxidation of fatty acids,

trimetazidine shifts the metabolism towards carbohydrates which provide more energy per oxygen molecule [12].

Hence the ATP supply would increase, correcting the energy deficit prevalent in patients diagnosed with HCM. Figure 2: Excitation and contraction coupling in the healthy heart [8].

However, in patients diagnosed with HCM, the Ca2+ ion

concertation was increased in both the cytoplasm of the

cells and in the sarcoplasmic reticulum (an intracellular

store of calcium ions). As shown in Figure 3, there is a high myofilament Calcium sensitivity, which reduced the concentration of Ca2+ ions in the intracellular space.

Furthermore, the rate of short-time decay was slower.

This may further contribute to the abnormal rhythm of

the heart, increasing the likelihood of a cardiac arrest as witnessed on the 17th of March.

Secondly, a preclinical examination has been conducted to assess the efficacy of embryonic gene editing on

mouse models to treat HCM using a novel adenine-based platform. A successful gene editor called ABEmax-NG system was created that was able to remove the Myh6

mutation responsible for HCM [13]. If similar success is observed in clinical trials on humans, it has the potential of eliminating this hereditary illness that annually brings

distress to households all over the country. Furthermore,

the trial indicated that ABE-max-NG has the potential to correct the HCM mutation in living organisms. Hence,

patients who are diagnosed with HCM later in their life can

receive treatment. For example, Muamba’s three sons who

have inherited the condition may receive future treatment saving them and their families from the agony that their father went through [14].

Figure 3: Excitation and contraction coupling in the diseased healthy heart and possible targets for therapy [8].

22

The heart and spark of the beautiful game

Geothermal Energy: a hidden treasure for the future?

Aarav Rajput (9H1) Geothermal energy is a form of renewable energy that

centre of the Earth; through convection heat permeates

that are poisoning our planet. This energy source is

it [5]. The heat trapped in the Earth’s inner layers stems

can be used as a replacement for the energy sources

completely renewable, clean, and abundant, whilst also

lying beneath our feet [1]. One of the greatest benefits of

geothermal energy is its year-round availability. In contrast,

other renewable energy sources such as solar power and wind power can only be relied on in certain seasons

[2]. Additionally, excess energy is often generated and therefore wasted due to the inefficiency of current storage

methods. Batteries aren’t yet developed enough to store

this much energy without using vast arrays of them, which can cost billions [3][4].

Geothermal energy is generated from the heat at the

through the layers of the earth such that we can access

from two primary sources. Firstly, some of the heat is primordial, meaning it was released during the formation

of our planet due to collisions between matter that was

experiencing gravitational attraction towards the Earth’s core [5][6][7]. Secondly, a lot of the heating arises from the decay of radioactive species, such as Potassium, Uranium,

and Thorium. Heating from radioactive decay is estimated to constitute 50% of the planet’s heat [8]. Nearer to the

Earth’s crust, geothermal activity is mainly prevalent in areas where the borders of tectonic plates meet such as

Iceland, heavily volcanic areas such as Turkey, and areas where the Earth’s crust is thin [9][10][11].

Geothermal Energy: a hidden treasure for the future?

23

The most rudimentary type of geothermal site is a dry steam plant, in which pre-existing geothermal stores containing steam are tapped into; the steam is directly

extracted and is used to turn a turbine. Dry steam plants,

while simple in practice, are rarely used to the scarcity of

steam-containing geothermal stores but are useful when extracting energy from geysers in particular [17][22].

In other cases, where there is no steam (only hot liquids),

but temperatures are sufficiently high, a flash steam plant is used instead [16]. The liquid itself is unhelpful in the

context of turning a turbine, and it is not naturally stored as a gas due to the high pressures underground. Provided

that the geothermal liquids are hotter than 182°C, their

energy is released by sending them through a flash tank.

A flash tank is a low-pressure container, so a pressure drop

is created when the liquids reach surface levels, creating rapid vaporization. The newly formed steam then drives the turbines as before [18][15].

Figure 1. Thermal energy in the Earth’s crust is continuously replenished by heat conduction from the mantle below.

In volcanic areas and at some tectonic plate boundaries temperatures of several hundred degrees can be found within 2000m (2km) of the surface [12]

Foremost

among

the

few

problems

surrounding

geothermal energy is that not all areas are able to produce water which is hot enough to become steam when using a flash tank to power a turbine when specific filters are used.

This is overcome by using the third type of geothermal generators: a binary cycle powerplant [16]. A binary cycle powerplant uses hot water which exchanges heat to a working fluid in a closed loop using a heat exchanger

[15]. This fluid would be of a substance such as pentane which has a boiling point of 36°C, meaning that the heat from water can be used to boil the pentane for use in the generator [19]. The benefits of this arrangement are clear:

lower subterranean temperatures are needed, and hence geothermal site selection is less strenuous (greater areas

can be used). Take the case of the springs in Bath: they only reach temperatures of 45°C, far below the boiling point of

water [20]. As such, a binary cycle would be necessary to generate electricity.

Figure 2. The Svartsengi geothermal energy plant in Iceland was the first to combine the generation of electricity and production of hot water for district heating [13].

24

How cost effective a geothermal well would be is largely determined by the geothermal gradient of the area, this

is a measure of how much the temperature increases per

In order to harness geothermal energy, steam or hot

kilometre [21]. This is important because it shows how

electricity. There are three main types of generators used,

Typically, geothermal energy is accessed wherever the

3) [16]. First, heated fluid is extracted from underground

enough to allow convection to happen [18]. Permeability,

into the ground. A gas is then fed through a turbine

energy, yet it is often the case that there is heated water

underground [14][15].

of impermeable rock (a geothermal reservoir) [22][23].

water is used to rotate industrial turbines, which generate

deep a hole must be drilled to access sufficiently hot water.

but across them the underlying principle remains (Figure

landscape’s geology consists of rocks that are permeable

through a production well, essentially a large hole drilled

as well as heat and water are the foundations of geothermal

(where it condenses), and the remaining fluid is returned

trapped in permeable rocks, but it is trapped below layers

Geothermal Energy: a hidden treasure for the future?

Figure 3. Types of geothermal power plants [16]

The overall methodology to tackling this is called enhanced

However, this is a very risky endeavour as the formation

into the reservoir. Fluid is then sent down to form cracks

effects of this were seen during earthquakes that took place

geothermal systems [15]. An injection well is first drilled

due to the pressure being built up. This allows convection to happen, as heat is transferred from the reservoir to the injected fluid. As the fluid is continually pumped down, the

pressure exerted on the rock formation increases, which onsets greater cracking, increasing the rate of convection.

Additional holes are drilled as outlets for the hot water once enough cracks are made. A flash tank can then be integrated with the usual turbines [23].

of underground cracks can lead to seis disturbances. The in Pohang, South Korea and Basel, Switzerland in 2017 and 2009 respectively [23][24]. Therefore, geothermal well projects have been halted at times, and there has been a

growing sense of resentment surrounding them. To combat this issue, greater attention is being placed on monitoring

seismic activity in areas geothermal wells are erected. This will help alert operators of any hazards imposed by the wells, especially if they are constructed on seismic faults,

which was the cause of the Basel earthquake [23]. A fault is a geological feature where large sections of rock shift relative to adjacent sections, releasing seismic energy and

potentially causing an earthquake. The pressure created along the fault boundary, due to the pumping of fluid down a well, negated the friction that prevented the faults from slipping [25].

Despite the current unpopularity of the utilization of geothermal energy stores, their implementation in energy

generation infrastructure will be inevitable in the coming

years. As private funding grows for these projects, the

consensus will shift as people foresee their lasting impacts on the goal of a carbon zero world. Geothermal energy harnessing as a concept has already proven successful in many parts of the world, and this will only grow with time.

Figure 4: The geothermal gradients across the UK. Sites that are favourable for geothermal plants are more intensely orange: North-Eastern and South England in particular. [21]

Geothermal Energy: a hidden treasure for the future?

25

Production of energy in living organisms Marco Vann (L6J1) Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is the molecule that drives energy production in all living organisms on Earth. The phosphate bonds in ATP have high bond enthalpies meaning they require a significant amount of energy to be broken. For example, when one phosphate group is removed from ATP to form ADP (adenosine diphosphate) 30.5 kJmol-1 of energy is released [1].

26

Production of energy in living organisms

Figure 1. The chemical structure of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) [2]

The production of ATP

Figure 2. Glycolysis: “splitting or lysis” of glucose which takes place in the cytoplasm of cells [1][3]

Glucose is a common monosaccharide (single molecule sugar) found in most foodstuffs [4].

When glucose is ingested some of it will be stored as glycogen granules in the liver and muscles whilst some ingested sugar undergoes a process called glycolysis (“sugar breaking”) which occurs in the cytosol [3]. In this process one molecule of glucose becomes two molecules of pyruvate, a three-carbon molecule used subsequently in further biochemical processes to produce energy.

The process of glycolysis requires some ATP but produces a net two ATP molecules. Glycolysis also produces two NADH (reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide) molecules which become more useful later in oxidative phosphorylation [1] [5]. As seen in Figure 3, glycolysis is the first step in the sequence of events which constitue aerobic respiration, which is the source of ATP production in cells [1].

The link reaction In order for energy to be produced, pyruvate molecules must be decarboxylated (carboxyl groups removed) and dehydrogenated (hydrogens removed). No ATP is produced during the link reaction, however, the products of the aforementioned processes carried out on two pyruvate molecules are carbon dioxide, two molecules of NADH (which help the catalyst pyruvate dehydrogenase), and two molecules of acetyl CoA. This is a molecule formed when a pyruvate molecule loses its carboxylate ion (O=C-O-) and the resulting molecule combines with coenzyme A (CoA) to form acetyl CoA, which then carries the acetyl group onto the next stage of respiration: the Krebs cycle [1][7]. Figure 4 shows how the product of glycolysis, pyruvate, forms Acetyl CoA which is then used subsequently in the Krebs cycle [8].

Figure 3. The sequence of events in cellular aerobic respiration and the production of ATP [6]

Production of energy in living organisms

27

substrate-level phosphorylation occurs where one molecule of ATP is produced from ADP and Pi (inorganic phosphate). The four-carbon compound which forms at this stage, called succinate, is then dehydrogenated, producing another four-carbon compound called fumarate and one molecule of FADH (Figure 4). The atoms in fumarate are rearranged by isomerase enzyme and further dehydrogenation occurs. Finally, a molecule of oxaloacetate is produced to ensure the cycle continues. It is important to remember that for every molecule of glucose, there are two turns of the Krebs cycle because one molecule of glucose produces two pyruvate molecules [1]. Table 1 summarises the information in Figure 4.

Figure 4. The link reaction and Krebs cycle (citric acid cycle) [8]

The Krebs cycle The Krebs cycle, also known as the citric acid cycle, is a biochemical process that produces several molecules, namely ATP, CO2, NADH and FADH (reduced flavine adenine dinucleotide) [1].

The cycle begins with the acetyl CoA molecule produced in the link reaction. Acetyl CoA is a two-carbon molecule, and it combines with oxaloacetate (a four-carbon compound) to produce citrate (a six-carbon compound). This citrate molecule undergoes various reactions to produce NADH, FADH, CO2 and ATP molecules, all needed so the cycle can renew itself to repeatedly generate energy. Both the Krebs cycle and link reaction occur in the mitochondrial matrix which is the fluid-filled inner part of a mitochondrion [1]. As seen in Figure 4, the citrate molecule is decarboxylated and dehydrogenated producing a five-carbon compound called α-ketoglutarate, one molecule of CO2 and one molecule of NADH. The α-ketoglutarate is then further decarboxylated and dehydrogenated to produce a four-carbon compound called succinyl CoA, one molecule of CO2 and another NADH molecule. The succinyl CoA now joins temporarily with CoA and

28

Production of energy in living organisms

Product/mol glucose

Link reaction

Krebs cycle

NADH

2

6

FADH

0

2

CO2

2

4

ATP

0

2

Table 1. Summary of the different products formed in the link reaction and Krebs cycle.

Oxidative Phosphorylation There is only one stage of aerobic respiration remaining and that is oxidative phosphorylation where the majority of our ATP is produced. This process results in the formation of ATP molecules, in the presence of oxygen, using energy released from the electron transport chain [9].

Part 1: The electron transport chain Electrons from hydrogen atoms are passed along a chain of electron carrier proteins in the inner mitochondrial membrane. Each carrier protein has an Fe3+ ion at its core and when it gains an electron, it is reduced to Fe2+. The reduced iron ion donates the electron to the Fe3+ ion in the adjacent carrier protein in the chain and the first ion is reoxidised to its original charge of 3+. As electrons move across the chain, some of their energy is used to actively pump protons across the inner mitochondrial gradient into the inter membrane space [10].

Figure 5. The electron transport chain and oxidative phosphorylation by chemiosmosis [11].

Part 2: The proton gradient and chemiosmosis As seen in Figure 5, the protons that were actively pumped into the inter membrane space begin to accumulate, causing a proton gradient to form across the membrane. This gradient generates a chemiosmotic potential, or a ‘proton motive force’, which is a source of potential energy. This energy is used to produce ATP. Protons cannot easily diffuse through the phospholipid bilayer as the outer layer has a low degree of permeability to protons and the inner layer is completely impermeable to them [12]. Therefore the only way for protons to exit is through protein channels (associated with ATP synthase enzyme) in the inner membrane. The flow of protons causes a conformational change in shape of the synthase enzyme allowing ADP and Pi (inorganic phosphate) to combine to produce ATP [12]. The electrons coming off the electron transport chain are ‘mopped up’ by hydrogen ions and react with oxygen molecules to produce water as seen in Figure 5 and illustrated by the equation:

the theoretical maximum yield from oxidative phosphorylation is 28 ATP, although this maximum is rarely achieved for 3 main reasons: 1. Some ATP is used to transport pyruvate molecules to the mitochondria.

2. Some ATP is used in shuttle system that transports NADH, produced in glycolysis, to mitochondria.

3. Some protons may leak out through outer mitochondrial membrane due to very slight permeability.

Therefore, our final theoretical ATP yield through the whole of aerobic respiration is as shown in Table 2 [1].

Stage

Net ATP produced per molecule of glucose

Glycolysis

2

Link reaction

0

Krebs cycle

2

Oxidative phosphorylation

28

4H+ + 4e- + O2 A 2H2O

TOTAL

32

Assuming ideal conditions, 10 NADH molecules can theoretically produce 25 ATP molecules and FADH can theoretically produce 3 [12]. Therefore,

Table 2. The number of molecules of ATP produced per glucose molecule at each stage of aerobic respiration [1].

Production of energy in living organisms

29

Defeating electrical resistance Shiv Gohil (10M2)

E

lectrical resistance is the frictional force that opposes the flow of electrical current [1]. As this resistive force increases, a greater electromotive

force must be supplied by a battery to make the

electricity flow (a greater voltage is needed). All the while, valuable energy is converted to heat, which causes the deterioration and breakdown of components: this can be costly, especially when high-grade industrial components

are damaged [2]. The greater the resistance in the wires

in an electrical circuit, the more energy we lose as heat,

and the less efficient power supplementation is [3].

Imagine how much less energy we would need if there was a conductor that could achieve zero resistance. The

solution? Superconductors. A superconductor is a material which demonstrates no resistance to electrical current below a certain temperature, its critical temperature [4].

30

Defeating electrical resistance

How is Electrical Resistance Bypassed?

The reason useful energy is ‘lost’ when electricity is being conducted, is due to resistance. In metals, when

conducting electrons pass through the lattice of positive ions, they move in random directions and inevitably

collide with the positive ions. These collisions transfer some of their kinetic energy to the ions, hence they lose some kinetic energy. Therefore, the further the electrons

travel through a conductor (over long distances), the

more often they collide and so the greater the loss of energy [5][7]. When energy is generated and transported kilometres across the national grid, the amount of energy

lost to resistance has been calculated to be approximately 5-8% of the input [6].

In a superconductor cooled to its critical temperature or lower, a quantum phenomenon occurs where electrons form Cooper pairs with one another. At these

temperatures, the metallic ions have such low kinetic energy that they effectively do not vibrate. Because

provided the technology can deliver production at a price competitive with current batteries [11].

The Rise of High Temperature Superconductors

the ions have very little energy, they are attracted to nearby Cooper pairs, creating areas of localised positive

charges. These localisations then oscillate as the pairs travel towards and away from different areas of the lattice, creating a phonon, which is the name given to the collective motion of the positively-charged lattice [8].

Figure 2. The elements known to display superconductivity under different conditions. Note that Carbon is highlighted differently as it does not superconduct in allotropes containing bulks of carbon atoms but will do so under certain arrangements of nanotubes.

The specific requirements for a material to reach superconductivity is not well understood at the moment [12].

Figure 1. The movement of Cooper (electron) pairs (in red) within a metallic lattice. At extremely low temperatures the metallic ions (in blue) have limited vibrations and electrons move freely in pairs [7].

Due to electron-phonon quantum interactions, these pairs

of electrons move collectively as a lattice, called a BoseEinstein condensate, a state of matter in which separate subatomic particles coalesce into a single quantum

The first superconductor was discovered only a century ago. Dutch physicist Heike Onnes and his team discovered

that the electrical resistance of mercury fell to zero at

-269°C in 1911, when cooled in liquid helium [13]. The

scope for practical applications of the superconductors was limited at the time due to the extremely low temperatures needed for their function.

mechanical entity [9]. The condensate then flows without

With the discovery of carbonaceous sulphur hydride

individual electron would. A useful analogy to visualise

compound conducts electricity at just 15°C. However,

being scattered by the metallic lattice in the same way an this is a pair of race cars on a track drafting each other to

go faster, where no energy is lost to air resistance, except

in superconductors, no energy is lost from collisions with the positive ion lattice. In theory, a superconductor would allow you to circulate a current in a wire indefinitely [7].

These superconductor circuits have been proven to keep

the same energy in their loop for up to 10 years, making it the closest we have reached to perpetual motion [10].

At room temperature, this would revolutionise batteries.

Batteries made of superconductors, the spectacular

sounding ‘supercapacitors’, would render the lithiumion batteries that are so ubiquitous in our society

superconductor in India in 2019, it was found that the the trade-off was that a pressure of 270 GPa was needed

[14][15], which was achieved in a diamond anvil (barely)

and is yet to be recreated since. The diamond anvil

setup consists of two diamonds facing one another, and a set of screws and backing plates that tightened the

diamonds together (Figure 3). This allows for extreme

pressures to be exerted on samples placed between the

diamonds, though the anvil is undoubtedly expensive at greater scales. Although this may have halted progress

temporarily, with perseverance, funding and technology, the pattern shown in Figure 4 supports the discovery of a viable superconductor with time [10].

almost obsolete. Supercapacitors would greatly surpass their efficiency, power density, life cycle, and shelf life,

Defeating electrical resistance

31

One key innovation superconductors are crucial in is MagLev (magnetic levitation) trains [16]. These are a revolutionary mode of transport that utilise

superconductors’ ability to levitate when placed in a magnetic field. Superconducting plates are positioned on the bottom face of the train (with coolant continually

being pumped around them), while there are magnets

along the track that alternate in polarity, propelling the train forward. Because of the frictionless levitation of the train, it can attain speeds of up to 375mph [18]. Once

more, the need for low temperatures is what limits the use

of MagLev trains globally. The main use of this technology being implemented commercially is in China, South Korea Figure 3. Room Temperature Superconductor Under Diamond Anvil Pressures [15]

and Japan, but it will soon become a worldwide transport

system [18]. Currently, research involves the use of lightweight materials to reduce the weight of the vehicles (as the weight of the large electromagnets is an issue)

and superconductors, to improve their efficiency and the energy cost of maintaining the magnetic field [19].

Figure 4. A graph relating the evolution of superconductors with higher critical temperatures over time [10]. Colours represent different classes of materials: BCS (dark green circle) Heavyfermions-based (light green star) Cuprate (blue diamond) Buckminsterfullerene-based (purple inverted triangle) Carbonallotrope (red triangle) Iron-pnictogen-based (orange square) Strontium_ruthenate (grey pentagon) Nickel-based (pink sixpoint star)

Figure 5A. A brief outline of the principles involved in a MagLev train, showing the use of superconductors (A) [17].

Observe the trend in the highest critical temperatures recorded [10]:

o 1911: 4.2K o 1980s: 30K o 1990s: 164K o 2020s: ???

What is the Current Hype About Superconductors?

A room temperature superconductor would help solve

the global energy crisis in many ways: eliminate resistive

losses during electricity transportation, allow fully

functional quantum computers to exist, and improve MRI scans [7] [10].

32

Defeating electrical resistance

Figure 5B. A brief outline of the principles involved in a MagLev train, showing how levitation and propulsion are achieved (B) [16].

Figure 6. The Shanghai maglev, in China, is the world’s first commercial high-speed maglev and has a maximum cruising speed of 268 mph [20].

Figure 7. A magnet levitating above a superconductor due to repulsion caused by Meissner’s Effect [23].

Superconductors also create a novel technology called

Superconductor Success so Far

SEMS (Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage),

which stores electricity from the grid within the magnetic field of a coil comprised of superconducting wire, with near-zero energy loss [21]. Alternatively,

quantum levitation bearings could be designed to allow a large mass to rotate freely in a vacuum, without any

energy loss. This allows significant amounts of energy

to be quickly extracted using a flywheel, a mechanical

Current superconductors which show the most promise include hydrogen compounds, which at high pressure, form metallic hydrogen compounds [24]. Another key

contender for worldwide superconductive technology

is Yttrium Barium Copper Oxide, which has a critical temperature above the boiling point of liquid nitrogen, allowing their safe use in scientific demonstrations [25].

device which stores energy in the form of rotational

Another superconductor with a huge potential is

superconductors exhibiting zero electrical resistance and

atoms in a hexagonal arrangement. In 2018, physicists

phenomenon observed with superconductors as a result

1.1-degree twist between them could enable the material

expels magnetic fields, itself becoming an opposite

temperatures [26]. But, as with all superconductors so far,

impractically low temperatures these conductors need

precision is very difficult, and graphene manufacturing is

require a critical temperature of below 20 K, or -253°C.

Within a century, superconductors have gone from an

momentum. Both energy storage methods rely on

graphene, which is made up of single layers of carbon

quantum levitation [22]. Quantum levitation is another

discovered that two stacked sheets of carbon, with only a

of the Meissner effect. This is when a superconductor

to conduct electricity with zero resistance at near room

magnet [22]. Although the possibilities are boundless, the

it has flaws: stacking and twisting to the right degree of

for superconductivity is a major obstacle. Most materials

rather expensive [27].

exciting lab-based phenomenon to a highly accessible innovation

that

inspires

scientists,

students,

and

researchers to explore the properties of more elements

to go beyond the boundaries of physics. The question is not whether we will supersede the superconductor of today, but when. When will we finally overcome electrical resistance efficiently and affordably?

Defeating electrical resistance

33

The Prime example of energy drinks Aamir Salim (8S1)

O

n January 4th, 2022, the

launched in 2022, Prime Hydration,

(Logan

from caffeine [3][4]. The success of the

creators of Prime Hydration Paul

and

contains artificial sweeteners, it is free

KSI)

released their first product to the

sports drink led to the subsequent

public, known as a drink that should

launch of the ultra-caffeinated (and

be used for high-intensity workouts

controversial) energy drink called Prime

[1]. Within days it was sold out across

Energy, which contains 200 milligrams

America and was a sensation to the

of caffeine per 12-ounce can, which is

energy drink industry introducing a new arrival that was low in calories, healthy and tasty. Seen as the perfect

six times the caffeine content in a can of Figure 1. Prime Energy drink which contains caffeine [6]

energy drink for any consumer, within

Bull or three large cups of coffee [5].

and, at the early stages, forced the

Due to the increased concern over

Aldi supermarket to limit purchases to

caffeine levels in the energy drink,

one bottle per person [2]. By August

the Prime website has stated that the

2023 Prime Hydration had become

beverage is not suitable for children

an official sports drink partner of the

under 18 years and pregnant women.

Football Clubs Barcelona and Bayern

34

Energy has the equivalent amount of

caffeine as two-and -a-half cans of Red

its first year it generated £209 million

Munich [1]. Although the product

Coca-Cola [2]. In addition, a can of Prime

Figure 2. Prime Hydration, a sports drink, which does not contain caffeine [7]

The Prime example of energy drinks

However, it appears that the brand is

particularly targeted towards young

adults and teenagers [5]. The energy drinks industry, which

caffeine, can improve physical performance and increase

is estimated to be worth around 21 billion dollars with

varies from one individual to another and it is possible

includes brands such as Prime, Red Bull and Monster,

marketing campaigns targeting youth by advertising on children’s websites, computer games, television,

supermarkets and sporting events [8]. It is, therefore, not surprising to learn that adolescents are among the

largest consumers of energy drinks, with around 68% of 10–18-year-old Europeans considered to be regular drinkers and around 10% classified as chronic consumers [9]. Equally,

around 12% of all adult Europeans described themselves as

regular consumers, drinking on average 4-5 litres of energy drinks per month. The temporary improved alertness and reversal of fatigue offered by an anergy drink would be most beneficial when revising for exams or preparing for

a sporting challenge. However, the majority of scientific

evidence has shown a correlation between the consumption energy drinks and negative health effects, which include

increased stress levels, aggressive behaviour, increased blood pressure, sleep disturbance and stomach irritation [8].

What does Prime Energy contain and why is it so controversial?

A 12-ounce can of Prime Energy contains 200 milligrams of caffeine as well as sucralose, taurine, inositol, 1-theanine and glucuronolactone [4][10]. Although there does not appear to be any major reports of the harmful effects of inositol,

1-theanine and glucuronolactone, the legal stimulant taurine

is thought to cause dehydration, anxiety, insomnia and heart complications [10]. In addition, the artificial sweetener

endurance, but the body’s ability to metabolise caffeine that some could experience undesirable side effects such as nausea, anxiety and heart palpitations. Caffeine consumption in children has also been linked to mood disturbances and poor quality of sleep [4].

The rapid response of the nervous system to caffeine

is attributed to the rate of absorption of the chemical,

which is about 45 minutes after consumption. The levels are thought to peak in the blood from around 15 minutes

to 2 hours and is subsequently broken down, mainly in the liver [8]. Regular consumption of caffeine can lead to

“caffeine tolerance” and perhaps addiction, where larger amounts are required to generate similar stimulant effects.

In addition, withdrawal symptoms such as irritability,

headache, agitation, depressed mood and fatigue can occur if caffeine consumption is suddenly stopped [8].

The artificial sweetener sucralose is a sugar substitute but is noncaloric as the majority of it is not metabolised

by the body. Known under the E number E995, sucralose is produced chemically by substituting three chlorine

atoms to sucrose as shown in Figure 4 [12] [13]. Sucrose

is a disaccharide (double sugar) composed of a molecule

of glucose and fructose. When consumed, sucrose is rapidly broken down to glucose and leads to the blood

sugar levels rising. Fructose is the component that gives

the sweet taste, and it is a naturally occurring simple sugar found in fruit and honey [14].

sucralose has been linked to DNA damage [4].

Figure 4. The chemical structures of sucralose and sucrose [13]

Sucralose is widely used as an artificial sweetener as it is 600

times sweeter than sugar. Although it is generally considered

safe for consumption, there have been some concern recently Figure 3. The chemical structure of caffeine (1,3,7 -trimethylxanthine) [8]

about possible health risks of sucralose [15].

Caffeine is found naturally in coffee beans, certain types

of tea leaves and cacao beans. It is a stimulant affecting the central nervous system and is the most widely taken psychoactive stimulant globally. It promotes mental

alertness and and enhances the ability to focus and concentrate [11]. However, it is recommended that children

under 12 should avoid caffeine completely and older children should consume only a maximum of 100 milligrams

Figure 5. The chemical structure of taurine [17]

per day. Although adults can have up to 400 milligrams of

Taurine is an amino acid that is believed to support the

consumption, can lead to toxic effects such as seizures

appears to be no clear logic or justifications for many

caffeine daily, exceeding levels of 1200 milligrams, by rapid

function of the nervous system [16]. However, there

[10]. A can of Prime Energy, containing 200 milligrams of

companies to add taurine to energy drinks [18].

The Prime example of energy drinks

35

How optimising our energy production is the key to combatting climate change Shaylan Pancholi (L6J2) Introduction

Understanding fossil fuel consumption

The foundations of modern civilisation have orientated

As the world faces the threat of global warming, one

electrical energy used to power our ovens to the light

to expand their arsenals of energy sources. If countries

themselves around the consumption of energy. From the energy required in our living rooms; humanities existence

necessitates its presence. Although we are pushing for more and more electrical usage in lieu of using fossil

fuel directly, it is important that this electricity is derived from “clean” methods. In mid-November 2022 the global

population surpassed 8 billion, and hence the demand for electricity has dramatically increased [1].

36

of the goals posed by international administrations is are still primarily using fossil fuels to provide energy, the

switches we are making to electric alternatives will not generate the desired effect. Take the example of using an electric car. If the car is powered by electricity that has been derived from fossil fuels, negligible benefits would have been achieved in counteracting the human contribution to greenhouse gases.

How optimising our energy production is the key to combatting climate change

Figure.1 shows the total consumption of fossil fuels, in

an underground reservoir,

electricity produced globally from fossil fuels is shown in

The hot rocks beneath

different countries [2]. Furthermore, the percentage of

typically

Figure 2 [3].

2km

deep.

will heat the water via

conduction and radiation.

This transfer of energy will occur until the water has

sufficient thermal energy to form steam. The hot and pressured steam will

rise and cause the turbine Figure 3. Geothermal energy producing electricity [4]

of the generator to rotate.

Attached to the turbine

will be a magnet which is

situated within a metal coil. As the turbine rotates the Figure 1. Global fossil fuel consumption in 2021[2]

magnet will also spin resulting in a changing magnetic field within the coil. As the magnet rotates, the magnetic

field lines will cut through the coil, inducing a current

in the metal. This current will be outputted to the rest of the circuit via slip rings and brushes [5][6]. Hence,

geothermal energy production is an evident solution for electrical energy production, potentially producing up

to 8.3% of the world’s electricity and supplying 17% of

the world population. In addition, there appears to be the possibility that thirty nine countries, mainly in Africa, Central/ South America and the Pacific could produce 100% of their electricity using geothermal power [7].

Figure 2. Global electricity production from fossil fuels [3]

Upon analysing these diagrams, it is important to identify that many countries that use ≥80% fossil fuels

for electricity production don’t consume the most fossil fuels. Due to their relatively small population sizes,

their expenditure is low in comparison to populated

countries such as China, U.S.A., India, and Russia. Hence the fundamental issue encountered is trying to reduce

the global reliance upon fossil fuels through opting for alternative sources of energy. These sources must be both renewable and ecologically considerate.

Whilst the commonly assumed remedy to this challenge

Furthermore, this method can be used to directly

heat homes; a use which has been employed for many

generations. However, geothermal energy production is

accompanied with one major limitation. The volcanoes, hot springs, or geysers which are essential for geothermal

energy production are only found in a few geographical

locations [8]. These are mainly found near the boundaries

of tectonic plates, such as the ‘Ring of Fire’, an active geothermal area around the Pacific Ocean [9][10]. From

this, one can infer that geothermal is not a suitable source of energy for worldwide application, but rather can only be exploited in specific regions.

is investment into other energy production mechanisms, it is the efficiency with which this money is managed that will determine the success of this transition.

Geothermal Energy Geothermal energy production has recently gained popularity, particularly in the Nordic countries [3]. The advantage that this renewable method offers is its

independence of atmospheric conditions such as light intensity and wind speed which significantly reduce the efficacy of other weather dependant sources.

Figure 3 illustrates the sequence of events which gives rise to geothermal power. Firstly, cold water is pumped to

Figure 4. The ‘Ring of Fire’ is around 24,900 miles (40, 000 kilometres) long and is found in the Pacific Ocean. It is infamous because most of the world’s earthquakes and volcanic events occur in this region [9].

How optimising our energy production is the key to combatting climate change

37

Hydroelectric Power Contrastingly, hydroelectric power has recently been

gaining popularity in the media. The largest source of renewable energy in the world, hydroelectric power has

existed since 1881 with its prospect for worldwide use

[11] .This process involves storing water in an elevated reservoir which provides the water with gravitational potential energy. As the water passes through the dam, the

gravitational potential energy is converted to kinetic energy

of the water which is transferred to the blades of a turbine.

Thus, the turbine begins to rotate and generate electricity

Figure 6. The Glen Canyon Dam, which created Lake Powell, provides electricity to tens of millions of people in Nevada, Arizona, California, Wyoming, Colorado, New Mexico and Mexico [15] [16]

As the falling of water on to turbine blades is essential

Nevertheless, building new dams can sometimes be

as described previously, under geothermal energy [12].

for the generation of electricity by hydropower, it is

not surprising that most hydropower plants are built

on or near dams and reservoirs. In addition to electrical power generation, the reservoirs created by dams

provide many further benefits such as helping to control flooding, creating a source of a stable water suppy for

drinking and industry use as well as supporting habitats for a variety of wildlife (Figure 5) [12][13]. Hydropower

is gaining in popularity in the United States and 43.5% of the total renewable electricity generation in 2017

was by hydropower. It is estimated that the U.S could double its current hydrolectric generation by 2030 in an environmentally friendly manner [12]. Hydropower plants are also gaining in number in Europe and according to

the World Wildlife Fund there were over 21,000 power generating facilities, of various sizes in operation in 2019.

The majority of the power plants were small, generating less than 10MW of electricity [14].

detrimental to the biodiversity in the local area recognised

through significant impacts to the food chains. This is noticeable when fish are prevented from travelling upstream where they typically spawn leading to a critical

reduction in their population [14]. This will reduce the population of organisms which predate on the fish and simultaneously allows for the prey of the fish to rapidly increase in number. Hence, the inter-trophic interactions will be severely disturbed, affecting the entire ecosystem.

Moreover, the strong selection pressure imposed by the

dam will result in many species being unable to adapt. This may culminate in the migration or extinction of such species.

Hence, from a biological perspective, hydroelectric power should be avoided regardless of the economic benefit they pose, unless measures are taken to avoid harming the biodiversity of the surrounding area [14].

Also, it is questionable if hydropower is a good long-

term source of energy as climate change has shown to increase the frequency of extreme weather, including dry

seasons. Drought is a major obstacle; in fact, the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) has stated that because of more than a decade of dry weather in western

USA the two largest hydroelectric reservoirs, Lake Mead in Nevada and Arizona, as well as Lake Powell in Utah

and Arizona are at their lowest levels ever [15]. This is worrying as a great number of people rely on these two reservoirs for energy. With the continued rate of global Figure 5. The Seli’š Ksanka Qlispe’ Dam provides an adequate source of electricity for around 147,000 homes in the Flathead Indian Reservation in Montana, USA [13].

However, there are many dams across the world that have already been built which do not yet have the ability to

produce hydropower. According to an article published

by Cube Hydro Carolinas, there are around 80,000 dams in the Continental US, with only a meagre 3% of them with hydroelectric capabilities [12]. Increasing this percentage by modifying dams to generate electricity will help create

warming, such energy sources will soon be inviable.

Conclusion To conclude countries should be utilising their own

regional climates and existing structures to source their energy. Moreover, greater collaboration is required between countries to organise this effort to reduce the

burden upon an individual country. It is only through this high level of co-operation that the environmental goals created are attainable.

a source of cheap, renewable energy without the large capital investment of a new dam.

38

How optimising our energy production is the key to combatting climate change

Is Nuclear Fusion a Viable Future Energy Source?

D

Hari Das (9C2)

eveloping a reliable and renewable energy source

Fusion presents itself as a promising solution to this issue.

towards a more sustainable future. In our current

scientists, chiefly Mark Oliphant and Hans Bethe; since

is essential for humanity if it wishes to transition

state, we are on course to run out of fossil fuels by 2060.

[1] This would initiate the onset of the worst energy crisis ever seen, with soaring energy prices and extreme costs of living. We are already experiencing this, though on a

smaller scale, due to the Russian invasion of Ukraine, leading to unprecedented energy prices. [2]

Nuclear fusion was first discovered in the 1930s by several the 1940s, researchers have been trying to harness it as a clean, reliable source of electricity. [3]

It quickly became clear that this was no easy task, requiring

temperatures of hundreds of million degrees, to start fusion. [4] This is needed to create plasma, the mixture of

positively charged ions and free electrons formed when a gas is superheated. [5] Once the plasma is created, it cannot be compressed using a solid container. Instead, it

must be contained in a magnetic field where, because of

the Pinch effect, the plasma is forced together, starting fusion. The Pinch Effect is where electric currents moving in the same direction are attracted to one another through

their magnetic fields interacting, pinching the charged particles together. [3]

Initially, fusion research was kept secret between the US, Figure 1. A graph of annual electricity bills in the UK by year.

Energy prices have skyrocketed since the start of the war in Ukraine. [2]

UK, and USSR because of its perceived potential military use. In the early 1950s this potential was fully realised

Is Nuclear Fusion a Viable Future Energy Source?

39

when the first thermonuclear weapons or Hydrogen

(H) bombs were detonated. [3] A ‘normal’ atomic bomb creates an impact explosion using nuclear fission and Uranium or Plutonium to release large amounts of energy when detonated.

A (H) bomb differs from this as it has hydrogen contained inside the core. The hydrogen inside the core is put under intense pressure and heat which is generated from the fission caused by the bomb’s ignition. This in

due to safety and logistical concerns.

Fundamentally, nuclear fusion reactions merge two lighter

elements into a single heavier element, converting some of the system’s mass into energy. Fusion can involve many different elements on the Periodic Table; however,

fusion cannot occur between elements past iron. This is because the elements become too heavy to bind together.

The reaction does not generate energy as the binding

force required in the new nucleus becomes too high, as

Figure 2. The stages of a hydrogen bomb’s detonation. Once the fission unit (at the top of the bomb) initiates, X-rays are emitted towards the fusion cell. The fusion cell is heated and compressed, starting the fusion reaction, which supplements the blast created by the fission reaction being released. [7]

turn starts the fusion reaction creating a much larger

illustrated in the graph below. This means that it takes

was the first case of fusion creating more energy than

of it, so fusion does not occur. [8]

explosion than a conventional nuclear bomb. [6] This

was used to initiate the reaction. However, this form of

more energy to combine two iron atoms than you get out

energy release is not used to generate electricity largely

Figure 3. A diagram showing deuterium and tritium (isotopes of hydrogen) fusing together to form helium. [9]

40

Is Nuclear Fusion a Viable Future Energy Source?

Figure 4. A graph showing the binding energy per nucleon in the new nucleus formed during fusion. Fusion can only support reactions up to iron because past this point there are too many nucleons that must be bound together, so the reaction cannot release energy and therefore does not occur. [8]

The pros and cons of nuclear fusion There are some disadvantages when it comes to nuclear fusion. One is that nuclear fusion is extremely difficult to

achieve in its full capacity. Stars create the ideal fusion environment using their incredibly strong gravitational

forces to provide high pressures. Here on Earth, in comparison, we must try an artificially created enviroment

by superheating plasma. [4] This may result in us only

reaching a less efficient type of fusion, and we may never achieve the type of fusion found in stars.

Another con of nuclear fusion is that while nuclear waste

is minimal it is still produced and therefore must be dealt with. Though the nuclear waste is much less radioactive than that formed during fission, with half-lives less than 10 years, it will still have residual radiation levels. Therefore, it

must be kept safely for 100 years before that radiation has become so weak that it can be reused in a nuclear fusion reactor again. [10]

stop being emitted as soon as the fusion reaction stops,

so there is no long-term nuclear waste. Fusion is also

intrinsically safe because if the apparatus maintaining the reaction’s magnetic fields fails, the reaction cannot continue as the pressure in the plasma mixture is lost. [14]

Is it a viable option for future energy production?

The first question to ask is whether we need fusion.

After weighing up the positives and negatives surrounding

fusion, it is clear that we do. There is currently a lack of a reliable clean energy source to use instead of fossil fuels.

Our two closest options on this front are solar power and

fission, which each have their drawbacks. One suffers from large space requirements and favourable weather, and the other creates long-living, highly radioactive waste.

This leaves us with a gap in the renewable energy field,

which, for the time being, only nuclear fusion can fill. With an increasing need to transition away from fossil fuels, we need fusion now more than ever.

Figure 5. Radioactive waste from fission is often stored underground in concrete containers for security purposes.

Alternatively, the concrete casks can be kept on-site, seen at the Zion Nuclear Power Station Illinois, U.S.A [11]

Regardless, the biggest benefit of using nuclear fusion is that if we can create a functional process that generates sufficient energy, we will have a clean and extremely reliable

supply of energy. This is a necessity in weaning our world off fossil fuels and lead us to a more sustainable future.

Another distinct incentive of nuclear fusion is that if we can

develop it to be close to a stellar-fusion process, we would

have unlimited energy. Once the reaction starts, it is practically self-sustaining, except for technicians having to contain plasma streams with magnetic fields or having to fire lasers at the fusion mixture. [12] This excess in energy would drive down the cost of living and help drive technological evolution.

Figure 6. Despite the positive images surrounding solar power and fission, solar power is not reliable everywhere in the world, and fission produces highly radioactive waste. [15]

Another key question is whether nuclear fusion will be ready soon enough to reach our goal of becoming net zero by 2050. [16]

Considering the rate of research into fusion, some form of fusion will be ready, but it may not be fully fledged yet. Some estimates put the development of nuclear fusion into a reliable commercial energy source at a bare minimum of 20 or even 30 years. [17] I disagree as the

recent achievement of ignition proves that we are well on track to developing it in time. [18] It must be remembered, however, that the recent success is on a very small scale.

Finally, fusion is an attractive energy source as it is good

Therefore, if we want to use fusion to power homes, it

greenhouse gases. The waste is minimal compared to that

will undoubtedly require immense dedication from the

element formed during the reaction. While fission produces

Therefore, nuclear fusion could be a viable future energy

low radioactivity and short half-lives. Only the fusion reactor

resolved. However, it will be an onerous challenge to reach

for the environment, since the process itself produces no

must be developed into a scalable technology which

of nuclear fission, and the residual mixture is simply the new

scientific community.

highly radioactive waste, fusion produces waste that has very

source as it has no fundamental flaws that cannot be

itself is irradiated and even this is extremely short-term. [13] During the reaction, the fusion chamber is bombarded by

free neutrons being produced. However, the radiation will

the full potential of fusion technology, requiring massive investments. If we do succeed, we will reap the rewards of a cleaner and more sustainable future.

Is Nuclear Fusion a Viable Future Energy Source?

41

Aerobic respiration and the chemistry within us Burhan Yurtseven (L6C1)

A

erobic respiration is a biochemical process which occurs in our cells. It involves the conversion of organic molecules, in a series of steps, to release

chemical energy which is used to make ATP (Adenosine triphosphate) the universal energy currency of cells. The

organic compound used to provide energy in most cells is glucose and some cells such as nerve cells can only use this

molecule for cellular respiration. Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is an organic compound which provides energy for

all of our body’s functions [1]. There are three stages in aerobic respiration which produce ATP:

Figure 1. The process of glycolysis which occur in the cytoplasm of cells [2]

42

Aerobic respiration and the chemistry within us

ATP is produced by glycolysis which is the first step in breaking

The Krebs Cycle (also known as the citric acid cycle) is the

splitting the glucose molecule in half by phosphorylation,

series of oxidation and reduction reactions which take

down glucose for energy. It occurs inside the cytoplasm by adding two molecules of ATP to form fructose biphosphate

and two molecules of ADP. This molecule is then split into two molecules of triose phosphate which are oxidised to make two molecules of pyruvate. This reaction also creates

four ATP molecules and two reduced NAD (nicotinamide

adenine dinucleotide) molecules, which are subsequently used in oxidative phosphorylation. This highlights that

although energy is required at the start, there is an overall positive net gain of ATP [2]. Figure 2 shows the conversion

next step which creates ATP molecules. It is a continuous

place in the matrix of the mitochondria [4]. The pyruvate that was produced in glycolysis is converted to citrate,

which is in turn eventually metabolised to oxaloacetate.

During this cyclic process carbon dioxide is produced as a waste product, NAD (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide) is converted to its reduced form NADH and FAD (flavin adenine dinucleotide) is also reduced to FADH2,( as shown in Figures 2 and 4) [1][3].

of NAD to NADH, which is a reversible redox reaction [3].

Figure 2. The reversible redox reaction which converts NAD to NADH [3]

Figure 5. Oxidative Phosphorylation: the electron transfer chain [5].

Figure 3. The Krebs cycle or citric acid cycle which occurs in the matrix of the mitochondria in cells [4].

Figure 4. The reversible redox reaction which converts FAD to

Figure 6. Electron transfer and proton flow in Complex III [6].

During the electron transport process the heme group, containing iron, in cytochrome c (cyto c) transfers one electron at a time, from the third complex to the fourth complex (Figure 5). The transfer is possible due to the two oxidation states of iron (Fe2+ and Fe3+), interconverting in a reversible redox reaction [Fe3+ + eFe2+][7].

FADH2 [3]

Aerobic respiration and the chemistry within us

43

Oxidative phosphorylation takes place in the inner

This is due to the vast amounts of ATP, which is used in the

for humans. The process begins by releasing hydrogen

structures [1].

mitochondrial membrane and is the main source of ATP atoms from reduced NAD and FAD molecules, which then split into protons and electrons, as shown in Figure 5. The

electrons enter an electron transport chain, releasing their energy throughout it. This energy is used to

transport protons from the matrix of the mitochondrion into the space between the inner and outer membranes

(the intermembrane space), establishing a concentration gradient

of

ions

(electrochemical

gradient).

The

movement of protons, by facilitated diffusion through

ATP synthase molecules, helps the production of ATP. The energy of the protons is used by ATP synthase to add a phosphate group (Pi) to ADP to form a molecule of ATP, as shown in Figure 7 [5].

phospholipid bilayer, the area of cells which maintains their

Now that we know how it’s made and how important it is for us, let’s look at how ATP is used by cells. ATP is a type

of phosphorylated nucleotide, meaning it is made up of three phosphate groups, the base adenine, and the sugar

ribose. As ATP has three phosphate bonds in comparison to ADP’s two, it stores the energy in the spare bond. When the energy is needed by a cell, this third bond is broken

down to form ADP and the energy is released and used by the cell. This process is called hydrolysis [1].

ATP is used in cells for many different functions. The

hydrolysis of ATP provides the energy required for

intracellular signalling, DNA and RNA synthesis, synaptic signalling, active transport and muscle contraction [8]. It

is used in active transport, which is the net movement of molecules against a concentration gradient. The process

helps to transport lipids and proteins into and out of cells by binding to carrier proteins [9]. As it moves against a concentration gradient, it requires energy (ATP) to

move the solute across. Active transport is also used in translocation, the movement of dissolved substances. In companion cells, ATP is used to actively transport H+ ions out of the cell and into the surrounding tissue to set up a

concentration gradient [10]. ATP is used in cell signalling as it is used as a substrate for kinase, an ATP-binding

protein. Kinase is essential to intracellular cell signalling, so ATP is vital to regulating this process [11].

In summary, the production and use of ATP in the human

Figure 7. Oxidative Phosphorylation: the synthesis of ATP [5].

These three processes emphasise the significance of ATP

in our bodies, so what would happen if we didn’t have enough? If there were to be a lack of ATP production in your body, it would slow down your body functions, potentially leading to severe and permanent brain damage.

44

Aerobic respiration and the chemistry within us

body is hugely significant. Adenosine triphosphate is produced by aerobic respiration in three processes

which are glycolysis, the Krebs cycle, and oxidative

phosphorylation. ATP is needed by all cells to function, and it is essential for cell signalling, and active transport.

Without it, the human body would ultimately collapse, emphasising the large significance of ATP on our lives.

How can we harvest energy from space?

Shaunak Gupta (9S2)

O

ur understanding and use of energy has changed

and developed drastically over the last few

centuries, leading to many innovations but also

many catastrophes. Records of the first time “energy” was

used dates to 200,000 BC when people used controlled fires for warmth and cooking. Early solar power was introduced

in ancient Greece, around 500 BC, when they built south-

facing homes to benefit from solar heating. In 1954, the

first practical silicon photovoltaic cell was developed for harnessing solar energy in the US. In 1986, the Chernobyl

nuclear meltdown claimed the lives of dozens and leaves the Ukrainian sector intensely radioactive to this day. [1]

Figure 1. A graph of the contributions of different energy sources to global supplies with time. With increased awareness of climate change, renewables have begun to take up a greater percentage of global energy supplies. [3]

Mankind now finds itself faced with a climate crisis brought

What’s more, as technologies evolve, they naturally start to

on by our reliance on fossil fuels. However, thanks to both empirical and factual evidence, a greater urgency has been

placed on changing how we generate power. Although

most energy is still sourced from coal and oil in 2023, solar energy is predicted to make up 60% of global renewable energy and 30% of all energy in coming years. [2]

demand more power. This makes our energy crisis twofold: find a clean source of energy, and find a sustainable, abundant source of energy. Harvesting energy from space will be instrumental in achieving these aims. Conventional

energy sources will simply not be enough to power our future. Therefore, we must look elsewhere, beyond the

How can we harvest energy from space?

45

scope of our planet. For many decades now, space has

been recognized as a vast and promising source of energy,

but we have not been able to achieve energy extraction from the large vacuum. Tapping into the abundance of energy in space will provide more than enough energy to satisfy our society.

The first step in harvesting energy from space originates

in our Sun. Every second, 173 thousand terajoules of solar energy reaches the Earth. [4] To put this figure into perspective, global energy consumption annually

is estimated to be around 580 million terajoules. [5] This means that every hour, enough solar energy reaches the Earth to fuel the activities of everyone on the planet for an entire year.

be able to construct objects in the extreme conditions of space. [11]

Nevertheless, there are many reasons why solar satellites

are a viable energy option. Aside from the renewable nature of solar energy, global support for creating this

infrastructure has grown hugely due to stricter climate

goals. China, the UK, and many European powers are already conducting heavy research, with the hopes of producing working prototypes in the region of 2030-50.

[12] [13] The USA, too, has expressed interest through the Space Solar Power Project, which has been developing high efficiency solar cells. The US Naval Research Laboratory has also been testing solar modules and power transmission and conversion systems. [10]

Many factors inhibit us from taking advantage of all the

Space-based solar panels are also more reliable than

reflected straight into space, and a further 16% is absorbed

exposure to sunlight and their lack of an atmosphere,

incoming energy as 30% of the incoming radiation is by the atmosphere. [6] Large areas of land must also be

identified and cleared out for solar panel farms to be constructed, posing a threat to indigenous wildlife. Even

if a solar farm is constructed, it still suffers from the trivial problem of being ineffective for half the year, whenever it

is nighttime. Evidently, we require an alternative approach to solar power.

Currently, the most popular concept surrounding ‘space energy’ is a solar power station based in space. The

European Space Agency is looking to fund this project,

conventional ones. This is in part because of their constant allowing them to provide massive amounts of energy

indefinitely. It is estimated that solar satellites, at least in their early stages, will be able to generate electricity at a rate of 2000 gigawatts, around 40 times more than the solar

power globally being generated annually. [14] Moreover, the project is becoming increasingly economically stable

due to declining costs of launching spacecrafts and of solar panel technology, something that was previously a glaring issue. Therefore, we find ourselves at the start of a pivotal point in power generation.

with the hopes of generating ‘beamed power’. [7] The central idea is to generate power from normal space-based

photovoltaic cells, and to beam the power as microwaves directly to Earth via the use of antennae. The incoming microwaves would be received at a fixed point on Earth,

where they are turned back into electricity for power

grids. This manifestation of renewable energy is especially

exciting as it requires no new theoretical understanding, it is simply a case of practical implementation. [8]

One challenge that was at the forefront of solar satellites

was the weight of the solar panels. This made component transportation unfeasible due to the huge fuel demands.

However, nanomaterials and advanced screen-printing

techniques have created ultralight PV cells that generate 18 times more power per kilogram (of panels) than traditional PV cells. [9]

46

Figure 2. A conceptual image of what a solar satellite may look like when fully functional. [15]

The lead contender in the race for space-based power is,

The current reason solar satellites do not exist yet is that

at the moment, China, which created a solar power plant

solar power station would occupy as much as 10 square

They expect to have a 1-megawatt station by 2030 and

Instead, the use of autonomous robots is being explored; in

and Japan also intend to be trailblazers in space-based

created in the form of the HRP-5P. The question is now

2035 and 2025 respectively. [10] The UK has been trying

assembly in space has not been addressed. Ideally, one

in the city of Chongqing to run preliminary tests in 2019.

kilometers, making human labor unreasonable. [10]

hope to finish the ambitious project by 2050. [13] The UK

Japan, autonomous construction robots have already been

solar panels, aiming to study working demonstrations by

whether we can expand these existing robotic systems to

to encourage accelerated progress through a £16bn grant

How can we harvest energy from space?

to help reach our goal of becoming net-zero by 2050. The

a mass is approaching the event horizon and it exits the

for space-based solar power called SOLARIS. Through

more energy than it started with. [20] There have been

ESA (European Space Agency) has created an initiative financial incentives, SOLARIS would help fund in-depth

research and feasibility assessments, and would aid the creation of a prototype as soon as possible. [16]

ergosphere before reaching the horizon, it will leave with a few processes hypothesized to achieve this outcome,

one of which is the Penrose process, which instead uses electromagnetic waves.

But what if we want all the Sun’s energy? A Dyson Swarm

By creating a large mirror that encapsulates a black hole,

Much like the Dyson Sphere, the Swarm is a hypothetical

black hole’s angular momentum is transferred to the

would be the next iteration in space energy collection. megastructure, comprised of tens of millions of solar satellites that orbit very close to the Sun. This is very close

in functionality to a Dyson Sphere, though the Sphere design would be more susceptible to shattering because of the pressure inwards and the Sun’s heat. Alternatively, the Swarm satellites could act as mirrors that focus solar energy onto a few key collectors. [17]

Inevitably, manufacturing millions of satellites is extremely

costly at this stage of our society, meaning that Dyson megastructures will likely take over a century to be fully

conceived. Attention has also been drawn towards the cooling of the satellites, which may be dealt with using a radiative cooling paint to prevent electronic components

and firing the EM waves inside the mirror, some of the

waves. This causes them to speed up continually as they reflect off the mirror, back towards the ergosphere and

return to the mirrors. The waves become more energetic due to a phenomenon called superradiant scattering, in

which waves scattering off a rotating body are amplified.

Although some of the waves will travel to the event horizon and will be lost, most of them will remain in the ergosphere.

Once the waves have gained sufficient energy, the mirror

can be re-opened and the waves can be transformed back into electricity, with a net gain in energy being the output.

[21] This will leave us with massive amounts of energy, an

interesting asset as we are faced with a marginally larger, multi-planetary population.

from melting. [18] Another key issue associated with Dyson Swarms is defence mechanisms against solar flares.

Solar flares are bursts of radiation emitted from the Sun

due to the release of magnetic energy in certain spots on its surface. This can cause rapid degradation of the entire

Swarm system, making it a serious concern. In principle, the panels would each be equipped with an electromagnet (EM), allowing them to make their own EM fields to expel

any incoming radiation, but the economic feasibility of such a solution is yet to be proven.

Figure 4. An illustration of the Penrose Process. The blue decagon represents the ‘mirror’ surrounding the black hole. The light blue ray in the bottom left shows the EM waves travelling in and out of the ergosphere, where they become more amplified as they return to the mirror. [22]

In conclusion, although space energy will not be a likelihood

in the next decade, beyond that it is looking like a real possibility. Through the efforts of countries such as China and the US, we may see this technology fully operational by 2050. If we can tackle the issue of assemble, space-

based solar power will be a clean, constant, and powerful Figure 3. A rendered image of a theoretical Dyson Sphere. [19]

Beyond mastering solar energy, we could someday harvest

energy from black holes using their spin to generate massive amounts of energy. Within a black hole, one of the innermost layers is the event horizon, a point of no

return, and the outermost (and ‘weakest’) layer is the ergosphere. The physics of an ergosphere show that if

way to provide electricity to homes across the world. In the

coming centuries, this may be extended to the creation of a Dyson Sphere where we harness the entire energy of the Sun. Though renewable energy sources are still emerging,

as environmental pressures become more extreme, we will see a swift change towards clean energy. Then, and only then, will we look to space for our energy.

How can we harvest energy from space?

47

Energy Storage and its Future Sohan Das (L6S2)

E

nergy exists in many different forms, such as

significant over the years. This need has naturally resulted

spent millennia attempting to harness energy to

which is why large sums of money are being devoted to

chemical, electrical, and nuclear. Humankind has

use it for our own devices. Many of the most important

scientific milestones in human history revolve around

our ancestors gaining the capacity to control or start the transfer of energy from one form to another. The discovery

of fire led to the conversion of chemical energy contained within organic matter into thermal energy for cooking and heating homes.

The invention of the electric motor by Michael Faraday in 1821 can similarly be described as the discovery of how to convert electrical energy into mechanical energy [1]. In

more modern times, human mastery over the conversion

of energy has increased greatly, and its dependence on energy, in particular electrical energy, has become

48

Energy Storage and its Future

in a greater demand for the generation of electrical energy,

projects such as nuclear fusion, which would represent another landmark in the generation of energy. However,

the need for electrical energy fluctuates greatly across

time, seasonally we use more energy in the winter than in the summer, with an estimated 36% increase in demand in

the winter [2]. Even on a daily basis, the need for energy fluctuates, with greater demand in the evenings compared

to the mornings. The difference in supply and demand means the price of energy can vary from €0.04/kWh to

€0.35/kWh [3]. Thus, the ability to convert energy is not enough for a functional electrical infrastructure, we must be able to store energy to be able to distribute it when necessary.

The reactions at each electrode are reversed during

charging, thus the cathode becomes the anode, and the anode becomes the cathode. However, there are a few technicalities to work around: during electrolysis, a small

amount of water will dissociate into hydrogen and oxygen,

creating a potentially explosive mixture, this is solved by sealing the battery so that the gasses recombine within the cell, removing the danger [9]. Additionally, lead

sulphate deposits can form around the electrodes, making recharging very difficult. Pure lead is too soft to create

the grid in the battery (Figure 1), so it is often hardened

with 4-6% antimony, however this results in frequent maintenance of the battery being required. This problem is resolved through the use of alkaline earth metals, such as

calcium, to stiffen the lead. The cheap production cost and reliability of lead batteries mean they are now the second most used battery globally, as it is cheap and reliable [9].

Batteries continued to be developed as electronics Figure 1. Construction of a lead-Acid battery [9]

Energy is stored in “batteries”, which take many different

shapes and sizes. The first discovered batteries, Baghdad batteries, date back to 250BC – 224AD, and consist of a

ceramic pot, a tube of copper and a rod of iron. Although their purpose is purely hypothetical, it is thought these

artifacts would have formed a galvanic cell which would output 1-2V [4]. The first true battery, however, was invented in 1800 by Alessandro Volta, and consisted of

pairs of copper and zinc discs piled on top of each other, separated by a layer of cloth or cardboard soaked in brine

[5][6]. Otherwise known as a voltaic pile, the invention was the first of its kind to produce a stable usable current [5]. This was followed by Sir William Grove in 1842 who

invented the first simple fuel cell by mixing hydrogen and oxygen in the presence of an electrolyte, generating water and electricity [7]. This very same principle is currently being

investigated as a potential fuel source for cars [8]. The first rechargeable battery came around 20 years later in 1860 and worked on the basis of lead-acid chemistry, where the battery uses lead as the anode and lead dioxide as the

cathode, with an acid electrolyte [9]. During discharge, the following half-cell reactions take place: +

with lithium as the anode of a battery began [10]. Lithium

is the most electronegative metal, with a very low density, resulting in the largest electrical unit per unit weight of

all the solid elements [11]. Lithium’s high reactivity means

the pure metal cannot be used as an electrode, instead lithium-ion accepting compounds are used at the cathode, for example LiMn2O4, and a non-metal lithium ion storing compound is used at the anode, for example Li0.5C6. The

ions are exchanged between the electrodes, “rocking” back and forth, resulting in the nickname “rocking chair

battery”. Another problem posed by lithium’s reactivity is that it reacts violently with water so a non-aqueous electrolyte must be used, such as LiPF6 dissolved in an ethylene carbonate and dimethyl carbonate mixture [11].

Anode: LixC6 → xLi+ + 6C + xe-Cathode: xLi+ + Mn2O4 + xe- → LixMn2O4 Overall: LixC6 + Mn2O4 → LixMn2O4 + 6C Further developments resulted in the use of thin films of polymer electrolytes to bypass problems created by

lithium’s reactivity. Sony released the first rechargeable

Li-ion battery in 1991 and over time, these batteries have been improved and have thus become lighter, more

Anode: Pb + HSO → PbSO4 + H + 2e – 4

became more complicated, and in 1912, experimentation

–

Cathode: PbO2 + 3H+ + HSO4– + 2e– → PbSO4 + 2H2O Overall: Pb + PbO2 +2H2SO4 → 2PbSO4 + 2H2O

efficient, longer lasting, and cheaper to produce [12].

Figure 2 shows the typical components and processes that are found in a lithium-ion battery [13]. Lithium-ion batteries

are now used in all common electronics, from phones to

laptops to electric vehicles. The lithium-ion battery was so

Energy Storage and its Future

49

Figure 2. The lithium-ion battery (LiB) showing the movement and insertion of lithium-ions (yellow spheres) into the anode and cathode matrices upon charge and discharge, respectively. [13] revolutionary that in 2019, John B. Goodenough, Stanley Whittingham, and Akira Yoshino were awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for ‘the development of lithium-ion batteries’ [14]

Whilst Lithium-ion batteries were revolutionary, as our demand for energy grows, so does our need for better batteries and Figure 3 illustrates the negative correlation

between lithium-ion technology improvements against the cost of production [15]. The future seems to lie in all-solid-

state batteries, where the liquid electrolyte is replaced

by a solid compound which still allows lithium ions to migrate within it. In the last 10 years, new families of solid

electrolytes have been discovered, allowing scientists to

create batteries with very high ionic conductivity [16].

Solid state batteries would bring many advantages over

their predecessors. Solid electrolytes are non-flammable when heated, unlike their liquid counterparts, resulting in a marked improvement in safety at cell and battery levels.

Furthermore, they allow for the use of innovative, high-

voltage, high-capacity materials, resulting in denser, lighter batteries with an increased shelf-life as a result of reduced

self-discharge. Moreover, at system level, it will simplify mechanics as well as thermal and safety management [16].

The production and release of solid-state batteries will

represent another landmark in human control over energy, and this is rapidly approaching alongside all of its benefits.

50

Energy Storage and its Future

Figure 3. Lithium-ion battery technology improvements and the corresponding decline in costs [15]

The promise behind tokamak fusion reactors

T

he

Dinil Rodrigo (9S2) growth

in

nuclear

fusion

research

and

‘tokamak’ is derived from the Russian: Tокaмáк and means

production of the tokamak which is an experimental

magnetic field to produce controlled thermonuclear

development, since the 1990s, has led to the

machine that absorbs energy released by the fusion

of atoms [1]. Tokamak Energy Ltd is a nuclear fusion

technology company which has collaborated with the

Princeton Plasma Physics Laboratory and the Oak Ridge National Laboratory to develop a compact spherical

Tokamak, which is currently the most advanced of its kind [2]. Aimed at reaching the hottest temperature in our solar

system at an astounding 100 million degrees the Tokamak

will provide a key step in achieving sustainable nuclear fusion, something first recognised by Soviet scientists in the 1960s [1][2]. The Tokamak is the approach to fusion

energy that has been most thoroughly studied and is best understood [3].

A Tokamak is a magnetic confinement device, in the form of a doughnut shaped torus, that contains a hot plasma

which consists of a gas which has been partially ionised. As seen in Figure 1 the plasma, which contains ions, electrons

and neutral atoms, is in the central region [4][5]. The word

“toroidal chamber with magnetic field” as it uses a strong fusion power [6]. The plasma formed is a state of matter created when a substance is heated to extremely high temperatures. Upon heating, the substance’s electrons

are provided enough energy to leave the outer shells of the atoms present, creating a chaotic soup-like mixture of positively charged ions and electrons [5].

In essence a Tokamak reactor is an experimental machine

designed to replicate the conditions necessary for nuclear fusion. The device shown in Figure 1, called the ST40, has

a radius of 40 cm and has achieved a temperatures of 15 million degrees Celsius for a quarter of a second [4]. Inside a Tokamak, the thermal energy released during fusion

is absorbed through the walls of the vessel. Similar to a conventional fission-driven power plant, a fusion power

plant uses this heat to produce steam and, in turn, to generate electricity by way of turbines and generators [7].

It is a current front-runner for a workable fusion reactor [4].

The promise behind tokamak fusion reactors

51

Figure 1: Cross-sections of the ST40 Tokamak reactor built by Tokamak Energy Ltd, with different parts highlighted: poloidal coils (left), toroidal coils (centre) and the plasma confinement region (right)[4].

Magnetic fields are vital in Tokamaks as they trap electrically charged plasma particles and maintain a high temperature

for the fusion fuels they contain [8]. The confinement of

the flowing plasma is key to initiating fusion as we must provide a way of overcoming the electrostatic repulsion

between positively charged nuclei for them to fuse. This

means the plasma has to be pressurised somehow: this is the role of the magnetic fields (Figures 2 and 3 [10][14]).

Another essential consideration in fusion reactors is the balance between the energy that must be supplied to

create the plasma and the energy released during fusion, to produce energy as efficiently as possible [8]. Through smaller scale laboratory-based testing, it was determined that Deuterium and Tritium, two ‘heavy’ isotopes of Hydrogen, released the greatest amount of energy during

fusion while needing the lowest input temperature [9]. This Figure 2. Schematic of a tokamak fusion reactor showing how the strong magnetic fields are generated by passing large electric currents around arrays of electromagnet coils that circle the plasma.[10] [11]. Figure 3 provides further explanation of how the tokamak works [14].

makes them the number one candidate for fusion fuels to be used in the reactors.

To optimise the magnetic fields working in a Tokamak, superconductive materials are used because of their

extremely low resistances. Rare Earth barium copper oxide

is used to create high temperature superconducting (HTS) magnets, which are produced as thin tapes no thicker than 0.1mm [8].

The tapes are far more compact when twisted into

coils than traditional superconductor magnets and can produce magnetic fields that are significantly stronger [11]. Although HTS materials still operate at relatively low temperatures around -250°C, like regular superconductors,

the energy savings, and economic benefits to using these temperatures compound over time. Tokamak Energy Ltd

have developed revolutionary tapes that allow compact fusion because they can carry electrical currents with no electrical resistance. They make for ideal electromagnetic Figure 3. How a tokamak works. The red arrows show the current, through the plasma column, which is driven by the electric field induced by a transformer. This in turn generates the poloidal magnetic field shown in green vertical circles. The magnetic field around the length of the doughnut shown in green horizontal circles is called the toroidal. The two fields ensure the plasma is highly confined [14].

52

The promise behind tokamak fusion reactors

conductors since the strength of the field is determined by

fusion energy in small reactors is to combine the better

means the coils can operate without overheating. For most

magnet technology with the greater efficiency of the

the current flowing, and the superconductivity of the tapes

practical superconductors, this property is only exhibited

at very low temperatures, around -269°C, with limited magnetic fields. The latest model of HTS tapes exceed

these limitations, operating at higher temperatures with extremely high magnetic fields [11].

magnetic confinement made possible by high-field HTS spherical Tokamak [13] [14].

Another alternative arrangement of the confining field is the Stellarator (Figure 5, [15]). One of the issues with

the Tokamak is that the magnetic field is weaker on the outer rim of the ‘doughnut’ than on the inner rim. This

discrepancy causes plasma particles to drift off-course and to hit the walls of the magnetic field more frequently [13].

Stellarator addresses this issue by forcing the plasma to twist as it travels in its circular path [13]. This is done by winding more coils of HTS tape in a complex arrangement to create the altered magnetic field, a world of difference

from the transformer-like setup used in Tokamaks. As a result, Stellarators tend to be better at maintaining a stable

plasma flow for fusion, but Tokamaks are preferrable at keeping the plasma hot [14].

Figure 4. A close-up image of the HTS tapes used to create stronger magnetic fields [11]

One of the main challenges associated with the magnets is the cryogenic cooling system (one that operates at

temperatures close to absolute zero). Supplying the magnets with electrical power creates a significant

load on the cooling system as it must maintain the low temperatures needed for superconductivity [11]. The system is largely comprised of Helium and Nitrogen refrigerators, connected to a loop going around the reactor

that contains more Helium [12]. The system is all contained

within a cryostat, a vacuum-pressured structure used to

house the magnets, with it operating in the range of 5-80K.

Significant improvements have been made in meeting the demands of cooling the magnets, with the successful development of a new power converter demonstrated to reduce heat production in the magnets by 50% [11].

Further exploration of improvements to fusion reactors have been done around the shapes of the plasma

confinement field. A theoretical study conducted in the 1980s by Alan Sykes, a founder of Tokamak Energy Ltd,

demonstrated that changing the Tokamak’s shape would significantly affect performance [8]. The main conclusion

drawn from the experiment was that the plasma is contained more effectively as the confinement field

Figure 5. A visualisation of the differences between a Tokamak’s and Stellarator’s magnetic fields for plasma confinement [15].

The future for Tokamak energy: “Our aim is to have commercial fusion power plants

deployed in the mid-2030s. The ST80-HTS, with build

completion planned in 2026, will be the world’s first high field spherical tokamak to demonstrate the full potential of high temperature superconducting magnets. This in turn

will demonstrate the capability to deliver electricity into

the grid in the early 2030s, producing up to 200 MW of net electrical power” [16].

The creation of the hottest point in our solar system using a Tokamak is truly an inspiring feat of engineering, more so when considering this was achieved by an independent company. Having overcome some of the greatest challenges posed by fusion, they will surely manage to

scale the Tokamak up to a global energy producer. The minds of these scientists and engineers will play a pivotal role in helping to tackle the energy crisis.

transforms from a doughnut-shaped plasma to a ‘cored apple’. The most practical path to producing affordable

The promise behind tokamak fusion reactors

53

Work Experience: Impressions of a Cardiac Critical Care Unit Sohan Das (L6S2)

I

n December 2022, I was fortunate to secure a one week’s

through the various steps of the procedure, showing me

University Hospital. On my arrival I was given a quick tour

used to help guide the surgeon. Over the week I would

work experience in Cardiology at the Luton and Dunstable

of the various cardiology wards, and I was introduced to the team of doctors and nurses I would be learning from for the

rest of the week. The ward I was primarily placed on was the Cardiac Critical Care Unit, which was a small surgical ward with 6 beds and 2 side rooms, which meant the doctors were able to spend a lot of time talking to patients

during the ward round. The consultant was able to strike

up a rapport with every single patient, almost instantly, with jokes and a friendly manner. However, on the flip side, I also saw the contrast to the patient interaction with just

how much of a junior doctor’s time is taken up by admin work, such as writing up notes, ordering prescriptions and obtaining consent for various discharge or DNR forms. As

a consequence of the COVID-19 pandemic, most of the hospital systems are currently online, which has increased

the efficacy of interdepartmental communication, and also made it easier to treat patients, due to the quick access to their information.

Due to the small size of the ward, much of the day was calm.

However, I was able to witness quick decisions being made

under pressure when the consultant was called to Resus

in A&E, where the most critical patients were admitted.

The consultant was initially called into A&E to deal with just one patient; however, we stayed longer as there

were a seemingly infinite number of cases that required a

cardiac review, which the consultant was able to do before returning to the ward round. My realisation that hospitals are never predictable was further strengthened when the

ward round was once again interrupted by a patient who went into shock in the operating theatre.

I saw how fast a team of doctors and nurses were

assembled, with people seemingly appearing out of nowhere to help. The patient was quickly stabilised, and

the entire operation via the X-ray image that was being spend a lot of time in the control room, where I saw the most common procedures done in the CATHLAB, ranging

from angiograms to angioplasties to pacemaker implants.

However, on the final day of my placement I was able to

enter the operating theatre and watch the surgery from

just a few steps away. The sight of a human body being operated on is one that I will not forget, and neither is the

infallible skill of the surgeons that I watched throughout the week, demonstrating consistent technical excellence in every single procedure.

Nevertheless, there were some aspects of the work experience that highlighted the challenges in everyday healthcare. For example, I saw a patient who was unable to

lie flat and therefore was unable to undergo surgery and had

to endure pain and risk a second coronary event. Another patient was unable to undergo surgery because an ECG, with evidence of the need for a pacemaker implant, was lost in

transit and the doctors lacked vital information. Unfortunately,

although the patient appeared to be of excellent health, they were kept in hospital for an entire week, due to the risk of being discharged without adequate treatment.

Overall, the knowledge I gained that week was significant

and invaluable. I learnt how every single individual in the team was integral to a patient’s recovery, from the nurses

who worked tirelessly to provide care to the patients, to the echocardiographers who identified cardiac blockages

and help in diagnosis, to the doctors who diagnosed and managed the patients, to the dieticians who helped patients

in their long-term recovery. I also understood how valuable

multidisciplinary teams are to providing holistic care to patients. The experience was enlightening and my time on the ward only strengthened my desire to study medicine.

I was able to watch the rest of the surgical procedure from the control room. The nurses taught me about the surgery the patient was undergoing; it was one I would see multiple times throughout the week: a LAD CTO PCI

(Left Anterior Descending Artery Chronic Total Occlusion Percutaneous Coronary Intervention). They walked me

54

Luton and Dunstable University Hospital.

Work Experience: Impressions of a Cardiac Critical Unit

Visit to a Pharmaceutical Factory in Kenya

I

Rhidai Akhil Shah (7M)

n May 2023, I was very fortunate to have the opportunity to visit a pharmaceutical factory in Nairobi, Kenya. The experience gave me a fascinating and interesting insight

into the different processes involved in producing a therapeutic substance. The factory I visited manufactures

eyedrops, for conditions such as glaucoma, eye infections, inflammation and dryness. Although only 60 people are

employed in the factory, its products are supplied to all countries in Africa and hold 66% of the total market share, in eye drops, in the continent. Located around thirty miles

outside Nairobi, the capital city of Kenya, the industrial plant provides employment to the local area.

Upon entering the facility, we were instructed to wear

safety suits, which provided a sterile surface that prevented any bacterial contamination of the material

contained inside the rooms of the factory. As I walked through the building, I saw the various processes that

Ivee Aqua EPZ Ltd, Epz, Athi River, Kenya

were necessary for the final production and distribution

of the pharmaceutical; from the raw materials and key ingredients that were imported, to the production centre that contained large machines which were dispensing the steroid and non-steroid eyedrops. Before the final product was packaged for distribution, there was testing

of samples for quality control, this was also the case for the raw materials that entered the factory. The water that

was used to make the eyedrops was softened, in order, to remove dissolved calcium and magnesium salts and finally distillation ensured that the water was pure and free of

all other minerals. Even the plastic bottles that contained

the eyedrops were made in the same factory. Finally, once the bottles were packaged into different boxes using the shrink-wrapping process, they were sent for distribution to wholesalers in Kenya and East Africa.

Photograph taken by the author

Once I had seen the production processes from start to

completion, I was presented with the opportunity to undertake my own experiment. The investigation was

to prove if the water that was used was indeed pure or contaminated with minerals. We used the reagents mordant black 11 titurate and disodium edentate to test the water samples and the highlight of my day was discovering that the water was indeed pure!

Visit to a Pharmaceutical Factory in Kenya

55

The 2022 Nobel Laureates The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 2022 The Nobel Prize in chemistry for 2022 was jointly awarded to

Carolyn R. Bertozzi, Morten Meldal and K. Barry Sharpless[1] for the development of “Click chemistry and bio-orthogonal

chemistry.” Bertozzi developed bio-orthogonal reactions to

take place in living organisms without harming the cell. These reactions help to explore cells, track progress, and improve targeting of cancer pharmaceuticals. Sharpless and Morten

independently developed copper catalysed azide-alkyne cycloaddition used in DNA mapping.

Figure.1: K. Barry Sharpless (left), Carolyn R. Bertozzi (Centre), Morten Meldal (Right) [1]

The Nobel Prize in Physics 2022 The Nobel prize in physics for 2022 was jointly awarded to Mr Alain Aspect, Mr John F Clauser, Mr Anton Zeilinger for “experiments with entangled photons establishing

the violation of Bell inequalities and pioneering quantum

information science”. Through extensive experimental

analysis they successfully proved quantum mechanics (where two or more particles can exist in an entangled state).

Figure 2: Mr Alain Aspect (left), Mr John F Clauser (centre), Mr Anton Zeilinger (right)) [1]

56

The 2022 Nobel Laureates

The 5th Solvay Conference on Quantum Mechanics, 1927

B

elow is an image of the scientists present during the

They are often oriented around tackling fundamental issues

intelligent photograph ever taken’, with seventeen

is of particular interest as it focused on photons, electrons,

Fifth Solvay Conference, often deemed the ‘most

of the twenty-nine delegates present being Nobel Prize

winners. The Solvay Conferences are a series of ongoing gatherings of scientists in Brussels every three or so years.

in the fields of Chemistry and Physics. The fifth conference

and the newly proposed quantum theory, a true turning

point in our understanding of atomic and subatomic-level interactions [1].

The layout of those in the image are as follows [2]: A. Piccard, E. Henriot, P. Ehrenfest, E. Herzen, T. De Donder, E. Schrödinger, J. Verschaffelt, W. Pauli, W. Heisenberg, R. Fowler, L. Brillouin P. Debye, M. Knudsen, W. Bragg, H. Kramers, P. Dirac, A. Compton, L. de Broglie, M. Born, N. Bohr I. Langmuir, M. Planck, M. Curie, H. Lorentz, A. Einstein, P. Langevin, C. Guye, C. Wilson, O. Richardson

The 5th Solvay Conference on Quantum Mechanics, 1927

57

Citations Front Page Image

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[2] Wave-Particle Duality Debunked [online] Available at: Wave-Particle Duality Debunked. Particles are never waves | by Fermion Physics | Medium (Accessed: 21 July 2023).

Double page Images

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[Fig 10] Williams, J. (2023, July 14). Climate Change: Understanding the Impact and Solutions

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[Fig 13] nana. (n.d.). transmission of electrical energy from outer space wireless power transfer extraterrestrial solar cells Solar receiving satellite solar panel 3d illustration. Adobe Stock.https://physicsworld.com/a/space-basedsolar-power-could-beaming-sunlight-back-to-earth-meet-our-energy-needs/ (Accessed: 09 December 2023).

[Fig 14] Electronics Online (2023) Niobium-graphene batteries developed with 30-year lifecycles [online] Available at: https://www.electronicsonline.net.au/content/power/news/niobium-graphene-batteries-developed-with-30-year-lifecycles-553938994 (Accessed: 09 December 2023).

[Fig 15] Aliaksandr, M. (n.d.). 3D Render fusion reactor nuclear fusion, tokamak inside heated plasma, toroidal shape, clean energy. Shutterstock. https://www.shutterstock.com/image-illustration/3d-render-fusion-reactor-nuclear-tokamak-1673334088 (Accessed: 09 December 2023).

The Compton Effect Aran Asokan [Title image]

Jones, A. (2018, March 25). What the Compton Effect Is and How It Works in Physics. Retrieved from ThoughtCo: https://www.thoughtco.com/thecompton-effect-in-physics-2699350 (Accessed: 09 December 2023).

Images:

58

Citations

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Improvement in Image Quality and Workflow of X-Ray Examinations using a New Image Processing Method , “ Virtual Grid Technology ”. Semantic Scholar. https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Improvement-in-Image-Quality-and-Workflow-of-X-Ray-Kawamura-Naito/d16234a149af41701dc3d2d35ea0a3f4c45bbd1f (Accessed: 09 December 2023).

[Figure 5] [25] Orru, E., Mekabaty, A. E., Millan, D. S., Pearl, M. S., & Gailloud, P. (2020). Removal of Antiscatter Grids for Spinal Digital Subtraction Angiography: Dose Reduction without Loss of Diagnostic Value. Radiology, 390-396. [used in explaining anti-scatter grids] https://pubs.rsna.org/doi/ full/10.1148/radiol.2020191786 (Accessed: 09 December 2023).

[Figure 6] [26] BC Cancer. (n.d.). External Beam Radiation Therapy (EBRT).

Retrieved from BCCancer: http://www.bccancer.bc.ca/our-services/treatments/radiation-therapy/external-beam-radiation-therapy (Accessed: 09 December 2023).

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[2] National Cancer Institute. (2020, August). Milestones in Cancer Research and Discovery. Retrieved from cancer.gov: https://www.cancer.gov/research/progress/250-years-milestones [3] Labster Theory. (2022, June 23). The Photon Model of Light. Retrieved from Labster Theory: https://theory.labster.com/particle-model-pef/

[4] Libre Texts Engineering. (n.d.). Compton Effect. Retrieved from Libre Texts: https://eng.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Materials_Science/Supplemental_Modules_(Materials_Science)/Electronic_Properties/Compton_Effect

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[8] the Physics Classroom. (n.d.). The Doppler Effect. Retrieved from Physics Classroom: https://www.physicsclassroom.com/class/waves/Lesson-3/ The-Doppler-Effect [9] wikilectures. (2014, December 8). Compton’s effect. Retrieved from WikiLectures: https://www.wikilectures.eu/w/Compton%27s_effect#:~:text=Compton’s%20effect%20is%20important%20because,explain%20 low%2Dintensity%20Compton%20scattering [10] Nave, R. (n.d.). Compton Scattering. Retrieved from hyperphysics: http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/quantum/comptint.html [Planck’s relationship]

[11] Jones, A. (2018, March 25). What the Compton Effect Is and How It Works in Physics. Retrieved from ThoughtCo: https://www.thoughtco.com/ the-compton-effect-in-physics-2699350

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[17] Nett, B. (n.d.). X-ray scatter (collimation, kVp, air gap, thickness, anti-scatter grids) factors every technologist should know. Retrieved from How Radiology Works: https://howradiologyworks.com/scatter-in-x-ray-imag-

ing/#:~:text=For%20anti%2Dscatter%20grids%20an,septa%2C%20to%20 the%20grid%20width [18] American Cancer Society Medical and Editorial Content Team. (2019, December 27). How Radiation Therapy Is Used to Treat Cancer. Retrieved from American Cancer Society: https://www.cancer.org/cancer/managing-cancer/treatment-types/radiation/basics.html

[19] National Cancer Institute. (2019, January 8). Radiation Therapy to Treat Cancer. Retrieved from National Cancer Institute: https://www.cancer.gov/ about-cancer/treatment/types/radiation-therapy#:~:text=At%20high%20doses%2C%20radiation%20therapy,kill%20cancer%20cells%20right%20away [20] The Nobel Prize. (2023, September 20). Arthur H. Compton. Retrieved from The Nobel Prize: https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/physics/1927/ compton/facts/

[21] Nave, R. (n.d.). Compton Scattering Data. Retrieved from hyperphysics: http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/quantum/compdat.html [22] byjus. (n.d.). Bragg’s Law. Retrieved from Byju’s: https://byjus.com/ physics/braggs-law/ [23] Saad, F. (n.d.). Compton Scattering. Retrieved from shutterstock: https://www.shutterstock.com/image-vector/compton-scattering-687320200?consentChanged=true

[24] Kawamura, T., Naito, S., Okano, K., & Yamada, M. (2015). Improvement in Image Quality and Workflow of X-Ray Examinations using a New Image Processing Method , “ Virtual Grid Technology ”. Semantic Scholar. https:// www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Improvement-in-Image-Quality-and-Workflow-of-X-Ray-Kawamura-Naito/d16234a149af41701dc3d2d35ea0a3f4c45bbd1f

[25] Orru, E., Mekabaty, A. E., Millan, D. S., Pearl, M. S., & Gailloud, P. (2020).

Removal of Antiscatter Grids for Spinal Digital Subtraction Angiography: Dose Reduction without Loss of Diagnostic Value. Radiology, 390-396. [used in explaining anti-scatter grids] https://pubs.rsna.org/doi/full/10.1148/radiol.2020191786 [26] BC Cancer. (n.d.). External Beam Radiation Therapy (EBRT). Retrieved from BCCancer: http://www.bccancer.bc.ca/our-services/treatments/radiation-therapy/external-beam-radiation-therapy Global energy production: problems and solutions Aryan Agarwal [Title Image]

Georghiou, C. (n.d.) Different power generation ways nuclear fossil stock vector (royalty free) 104628161, Shutterstock. Available at: https://www. shutterstock.com/image-vector/different-power-generation-ways-nuclear-fossil-104628161 (Accessed: 06 December 2023).

Figures

[Fig.1] [online] Available at: https://www.chegg.com/learn/topic/fossil-fuel (Accessed: 21 July 2023).

[Fig.2] Fisher, J. (2023a) What is carbon capture and how does it fight climate change?, BBC News. Available at: https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/ science-environment-64723497 (Accessed: 06 December 2023).

[Fig.3] Xia, S. (2021) How solar panel works on solar lighting system?, LinkedIn. Available at: https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/how-solar-panel-workslighting-system-solar-panel-products/ (Accessed: 06 December 2023).

[Fig.4] Sraisth, N.N. (2018) Bhadla 750 MW Solar Project winners revealed, pv magazine India. Available at: https://www.pv-magazine-india. com/2018/04/03/bhadla-750-mw-solar-project-winners-revealed/ (Accessed: 06 December 2023).

[Fig.5] Valley A, T. (no date) File:wind turbine diagram.svg, Wikipedia.

Available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wind_turbine_diagram.svg (Accessed: 06 December 2023).

[Fig.6] ‘Floating Wind Turbine’ (2023) Wikipedia. Available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Floating_wind_turbine (Accessed: 6 December 2023).

[Fig.7] ‘Geothermal Power’ (2023) Wikipedia. Available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geothermal_power (Accessed: 6 December 2023).

[Fig.8] ‘Geothermal Power’ (2023) Wikipedia. Available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geothermal_power (Accessed: 6 December 2023).

[Fig.9] ‘Hydropower’ (2023) Wikipedia. Available at: https://en.wikipedia. org/wiki/Hydropower (Accessed: 6 December 2023).

[Fig.10] ‘Hydropower’ (2023) Wikipedia. Available at: https://en.wikipedia. org/wiki/Hydropower (Accessed: 6 December 2023).

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[25] International Energy Agency (2023). Bioenergy. [online] IEA. Available

Citations

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at: https://www.iea.org/energy-system/renewables/bioenergy.

Mitochondria: the energy converters Zachary Oladuji [Title Image]

Shutterstock and Mcdowell, S. (n.d.). Mitochondrion mitochondria mitochondrium with blue light on dark background with lens effects. 3d render.

[Online] Available at: https://www.shutterstock.com/image-illustration/ mitochondrion-mitochondria-mitochondrium-blue-light-on-1783218587 [Accessed 6 Dec. 2023]. ‌Figures

[Fig.1] Wikipedia. (2023). Adenosine triphosphate. [online] Available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adenosine_triphosphate#/media/File:Adenosintriphosphat_protoniert.svg. [Accessed 9 Dec. 2023].

[‌Fig.2] Cooper, G.M. (2000). Figure 1.8, Evolution of cells. [online] www.ncbi. nlm.nih.gov. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK9841/ figure/A103/?report=objectonly. [Accessed 9 Dec. 2023].

[Fig.3] Nature.com. (2014). The origin of mitochondria and chloroplasts | Learn Science at Scitable. [online] Available at: https://www.nature.com/ scitable/content/the-origin-of-mitochondria-and-chloroplasts-14747702/ [Accessed 9 Dec. 2023]..

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Nuclear Fusion in The Future: The holy grail of energy production?

Devarshi Mandal [Title image]

60

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[12] Chatzis, I., & Barbarino, M. (2021, May). What is Fusion, and Why Is It So Difficult to Achieve? Retrieved from International Atomic Energy Agency: https://www.iaea.org/bulletin/what-is-fusion-and-why-is-it-so-difficult-toachieve [13] Islam, R. (2015, February 18). Inertial Confinement Fusion: A Promising Alternative? Retrieved from Stanford University: http://large.stanford.edu/ courses/2015/ph241/islam1/ [14] Sample, I. (2022, December 13). US scientists confirm ‘major breakthrough’ in nuclear fusion. Retrieved from The Guardian: https://www. theguardian.com/environment/2022/dec/13/us-scientists-confirm-major-breakthrough-in-nuclear-fusion The heart and spark of the beautiful game Suleman Maududi [Title image]

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[Fig.1] Cleveland Clinic (2019). Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy | Cleveland Clinic. [online] Cleveland Clinic. Available at: https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/dis-

eases/17116-hypertrophic-cardiomyopathy. [Accessed 9 Dec. 2023].

[‌Fig.2] Jolanda, Tocchetti et al (2018). Metabolic changes in hypertrophic cardiomyopathies: scientific update from the Working Group of Myocardial Function of the European Society of Cardiology. Cardiovascular Research, 114(10), pp.1273–1280. doi: https://doi.org/10.1093/cvr/cvy147. [Accessed 9 Dec. 2023].

[Fig.3] Jolanda, Tocchetti et al (2018). Metabolic changes in hypertrophic cardiomyopathies: scientific update from the Working Group of Myocardial Function of the European Society of Cardiology. Cardiovascular Research, 114(10), pp.1273–1280. doi: https://doi.org/10.1093/cvr/cvy147. [Accessed 9 Dec. 2023].

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Aarav Rajput

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How optimising our energy production is the key to combatting climate change Shaylan Pancholi [Title image]

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Is Nuclear Power a Viable Future Energy Source?

Hari Das

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Aerobic Respiration and the Chemistry within us Burhan Yurtseven

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Shaunak Gupta [Title Image]

Aicrovision. (n.d.). Dyson Swarm - 3D rendering. Shutterstock [Accessed 9 Dec. 2023]. https://ourfutureenergy.co.uk/in-focus/how-to-build-a-dyson-sphere-theultimate-megastructure/ Images

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Energy Storage and its future Sohan Das

[Title image] Safety4Sea (2023) CINS and P&I Clubs publish guidelines for Lithium-Ion batteries onboard containers [online] Available at: https:// safety4sea.com/cins-and-pi-clubs-publish-guidelines-for-lithium-ion-batteriesonboard-containers/ [Accessed 9 Dec. 2023].

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[Fig 2] Ghiji M, Novozhilov V, Moinuddin K, Joseph P, Burch I, Suendermann B, Gamble G. (2020) A Review of Lithium-Ion Battery Fire Suppression.

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Citations

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[14] Picot, W. (2021, May). Magnetic Fusion Confinement with Tokamaks and Stellarators. Retrieved from IAEA: https://www.iaea.org/bulletin/magnetic-fusion-confinement-with-tokamaks-and-stellarators#:~:text=Both%20reactor%20types%20have%20certain,better%20at%20keeping%20them%20 stable [Accessed 9 Dec. 2023].

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The promise behind tokamak fusion reactors

Work Experience Impressions of a Cardiac Critical Care Unit

[Title Image]

Luton and Dunstable Hospital staffing warning over mandatory jabshttps:// www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-beds-bucks-herts-60029697 [Accessed 9 Dec. 2023].

Dinil Rodrigo

Sohan Das

Aliaksandr, M. (n.d.). 3D Render fusion reactor nuclear fusion, tokamak inside heated plasma, toroidal shape, clean energy. shutterstock. [Accessed 9 Dec. 2023].

Visit to a Pharmaceutical Factory in Kenya

https://www.shutterstock.com/image-illustration/3d-render-fusion-reactor-nuclear-tokamak-1673334091 Images

[Figure 1]. [4] Bond, O. (2022, August 12). Liquid Lithium Heat Flux Transport Inside a Tokamak Fusion Reactor. Retrieved from University of Oxford: https://www.maths.ox.ac.uk/study-here/postgraduate-study/industrially-focused-mathematical-modelling-epsrc-cdt/infomm-resear-13/infomm-cohort-five/bond-liquid-lithium-heat-flux-transport-inside-tokamak-fusion-reactor [Accessed 9 Dec. 2023].

[Figure 2]. [10] Cizek, J., Vilemova, M., Lukac, F., Koller, M., Kondas, J., & Singh, R. (2019). Cold Sprayed Tungsten Armor for Tokamak First Wall. Coatings. https://www.mdpi.com/2079-6412/9/12/836 [Accessed 9 Dec. 2023].

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Citations

Rhidai Akhil Shah

IVEE AQUA EPZ LTD [Accessed 9 Dec. 2023].

https://www.google.com/maps/uv?pb=!1s0x182f9ff001b711d1%3A0xf72b0e89f7d9ad3b!3m1!7e115!4s%2Fmaps%2Fplace%2Fivee%2Baqua%2Bepz%2Bltd%2F%40-1.4671755%2C36.9613654%2C3a%2C75y%2C255.34h%2C90t%2Fdata%3D*213m4*211e1*213m2*211s6R4GicnXkPjJutNycPClbw*212e0*214m2*213m1*211s0x182f9ff001b711d1%3A0xf72b0e89f7d9ad3b%3Fsa%3DX%26ved%3D2ahUKEwjKjvTl-Z-CAxX7WEEAHe7mDzgQpx96BAg7EAA!5sivee%20aqua%20epz%20ltd%20-%20 Google%20Search!15sCgIgAQ&imagekey=!1e2!2s6R4GicnXkPjJutNycPClbw&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjKjvTl-Z-CAxX7WEEAHe7mDzgQpx96BAhJEAQ The 2022 Nobel Laurreate

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https://www.alamy.com/belgium-brussels-institut-international-de-physique-solvay-in-leopold-park-solvay-conference-fifth-conference-participants-1927-image397026165.html?irclickid=We6wXZQuMxyNW5iwfH3il1clUkFSKWV9nTD8380&utm_source=77643&utm_campaign=Shop%20 Royalty%20Free%20at%20Alamy&utm_medium=impact&irgwc=1.

Back Inside Cover

stock. adobe. com (no date) Lightning Denver stock photo, Adobe Stock.

Available at: https://stock.adobe.com/gr_en/images/lightning-denver/294521053?prev_url=detail (Accessed: 06 December 2023).

LIghtning: the SparK of liFe

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Scope – The Scientific and Technical Journal of Haberdashers’ Boys’ School

2023 Issue 34