CWEJournal Vol ume 6, Number 2 by Nilofar Iqbal

Current World Environment

Vol. 6(2), 201-206 (2011)

Effluent Loads From Different ECF Bleaching Sequences Used In Hardwood Kraft Pulp Bleaching MD. REZAUL KARIM Department of Chemistry, Chittagong University of Engineering and Technology, Chittagong - 4349 (Bangladesh). E-mail: rezaulkarim68@yahoo.com (Received: July 18, 2011; Accepted: August 25, 2011) ABSTRACT Effluent loads from different traditional and emerging ECF bleaching sequences were investigated. Oxygen delignified Eucalyptus camaldulensis and Acacia mangium kraft pulps having similar kappa number, ca 12.0 were used in this study. Different ECF bleaching sequences were compared with reference sequence, D0EopD1 in terms of effluent load, such as AOX, COD and TOC. Depending on the nature of sequences 6.0 to 63.0% chlorine dioxide consumption was reduced and as a result the amount of AOX formation was also reduced. The effluent from sequences (DZ)EopD1, DHTEopD1, AhotD0EopD1, Ahot(DZ)EopD1 and ZEopD1 showed marginally higher COD and TOC in comparison with reference sequence, D0EopD1. Sequences like, D0EopQ(PO) and (DZ)EopQ(PO) having (PO) instead D1 of reference sequence reduced AOX in effluent substantially; but COD and TOC loads were increased. In all cases acacia gave marginally higher effluent loads compared to eucalyptus.

Key words: Bleaching, Effluent loads, Elemental chlorine free bleaching, Absorbable organic halogens, Total organic carbon.

INTRODUCTION Due to environmental reason the use of elemental chlorine in pulp bleaching has been totally eliminated in most of the countries in the world. In the early 90â&#x20AC;&#x2122;s bleaching technology switched from elemental chlorine to chlorine dioxide based bleaching and reduced the formation of absorbable organic halogens (AOX) substantially; but still needs to improve. That is why researchers are looking for new bleaching technologies for further reduction of effluent load. To achieve the expected goals, researchers prefer more environmentally friendly bleaching chemicals, like ozone and hydrogen peroxide. Chlorine dioxide in prebleaching and in final bleaching stages are being partly or fully replacing by ozone and hydrogen peroxide respectively. Environmental benefits were achieved from the replacement of chlorine dioxide by ozone

in prebleaching in laboratory studies1,2. Homer et al.3 reported a reduction of 65% AOX in effluent when ozone utilized in combination with chlorine dioxide. The modification of a Do stage into (DZ) reduced bleaching chemical cost whilst maintaining pulp quality and reduced AOX in effluent due to the lower chlorine dioxide charge4. In some cases the consumption of chlorine dioxide is reduced by placing a hot acid pretreatment stage just before chlorine dioxide prebleaching or by performing chlorine dioxide stage at elevated temperature5. In the present work, eight different elemental chlorine free (ECF) bleaching options including the traditional sequence, which was considered as reference were evaluated for Eucalyptus camaldulensis and Acacia mangium kraft pulp bleaching. These two hardwood species are being considered as the most potential raw material for bleached pulp production in Southeast Asia and as well as in other Asia.

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KARIM, Curr. World Environ., Vol. 6(2), 201-206 (2011) MATERIAL AND METHODS

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Eucalyptus camaldulensis and Acacia mangium were collected from kraft pulp mills of Thailand and Indonesia respectively. Chips were cooked to get pulp with kappa number ca 20. Then the kappa number was reduced to ca 12 through oxygen delignification process. Both pulps were then prebleached with chlorine dioxide D 0 , ozone Z, chlor ine dioxide in combination with ozone (DZ), chlorine dioxide at elevated temperature (DHT), hot acid treatment before D 0 and (DZ) i.e., A hot D 0 and A hot (DZ) followed by alkaline extraction with oxygen and hydrogen peroxide reinforcement (Eop). All prebleached pulps finally brightened using chlor ine dioxide (D 1 ) stage. D 0 and (DZ) prebleached pulps also were br ightened with pressur i zed hydrogen peroxide (PO) stage. (PO) stage was followed by a chelation stage, Q. So, a total of eight ECF bleaching sequences, like D 0 EopD 1 (reference), (DZ)EopD1, ZEopD1, AhotD0EopD1, Ahot(DZ)EopD1, D HT EopD 1 D 0 EopQ(PO) and (DZ)EopQ(PO) were evaluated in this study. In all cases chemical charges were maintained in such a way so that the target brightness 89% ISO was achieved.

Chlorine dioxide consumption Chemical charges to different bleaching sequences and percent reduction of chlorine dioxide in other sequences compared to reference sequence, D 0EopD 1 are presented in Table 1. (DZ)EopD1 was able to save about 26% of total chlorine dioxide consumed by the reference sequence. The replacement of chlorine dioxide stage with pressurized peroxide stage in final brightening, i.e. D0EopQ(PO) and (DZ)EopQ(PO) resulted 35% and 60% reduction in chlorine dioxide consumption respectively. A considerable reduction of chlorine dioxide was found from the placement of hot acid treatment (Ahot) before prebleaching. Chlorine dioxide treatment in prebleaching at elevated temperature (DHT) was not able to bring much benefit in term of chlorine dioxide saving.

For a given bleaching sequence effluent samples were collected separately from the washing filtrates of prebleached, extracted and finally brightened pulps. Same amount of washing water for each ton of OD pulp was used for every stage of all pulps. Effluent COD load was measured according to standard methods for the examination of water and waste water6. Total organic carbon (TOC) content of effluent was deter mined according to same standard by using TOC analyzer, model VCSN. COD and TOC loads were measured individually for each stage and then added them together to obtain total load for a certain bleaching sequence. AOX in effluent was not deter mined directly in this study, but approximate amount for each bleaching sequence was calculated using the following equation according to Johnston et al.7: AOX (kg/ODt pulp) = (0.1 × ClO2 in kg as active Cl)/5.

The reduction of chlorine dioxide consumption in bleaching is more fruitful as most of the chlorinated compounds are formed in this stage. Chlorinated phenolics are the biggest threat. When chlorine dioxide reacts with hexenuronic acids (HexA) probably no chlorinated compounds are formed. If any chlorinated compounds are formed from HexA, those are not aromatics; those are simple, less dangerous than chlorinated phenolics. At similar kappa level acacia pulp always contains more lignin than eucalyptus pulp; as acacia pulp contains lesser amount of HexA. In lignin reactions always some chlorinated phenolics are formed and is thus more “dangerous”. As in the present study acacia pulp contained higher amount of lignin compared to eucalyptus pulp, there is a possibility to produce higher amount of chlorinated phenolics in chlorine dioxide prebleaching. Therefore, a reduction of chlorine dioxide in bleaching surely reduces chlorinated phenolics formation and thereby reduces the toxicity of effluent generated in a bleaching plant. The implementation of ECF technology in pulp bleaching has reduced organochlorines formation tremendously compared to elemental chlorine based bleaching. However, the formation of toxic dioxins in ECF bleaching has not been totally

KARIM, Curr. World Environ., Vol. 6(2), 201-206 (2011) eliminated. Swedish researchers7 have reported detectable level of toxicologically polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDDs) and polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDFs) in the effluent from mills that use ECF bleaching. The reduced use of chlorine

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dioxide in prebleaching and final bleaching would have surely the positive impact on chlorinated organics formation, though those toxic chemicals were not determined in this study.

Table 1: Chemical consumptions and chlorine dioxide savings in different bleaching options Sample

Eucalyptus camaldulensis

Acacia mangium

Bleaching sequence

D0EopD1 (Ref.) D0EopQ(PO) (DZ)EopD1 (DZ)EopQ(PO)ZEopD1 AhotD0EopD1 Ahot(DZ)EopD1 DHTEopD1 D0EopD1 (Ref.) D0EopQ(PO) (DZ)EopD1 (DZ)EopQ(PO) ZEopD1 AhotD0EopD1 Ahot(DZ)EopD1 DHTEopD1

Bleaching chemical consumption Percent ClO2 saving to achieve 89% ISO brightness compared to (kg/ODt pulp) reference sequence ClO2 (as act. Cl)

H2O2

40.2 25.2 30.1 15.1 15.0 30.8 23.5 37.7 42.8 27.8 31.7 16.7 17.0 31.8 24.1 40.3

2.3 2.3 5.7 1.7 2.5 2.5 6.2 1.7 -

5.0 15.0 5.0 15.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 17.5 5.0 17.5 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0

Absorbable organic halogens (AOX) The amounts of AOX in bleaching effluent which were calculated directly from total chlorine dioxide consumption in different bleaching options are illustrated in Fig.1. In general, AOX formation in an ECF bleaching sequence increases with increasing consumption of total chlorine dioxide. In practice, ECF bleaching is not free of elemental chlorine. So, the sequences consumed higher amount chlorine dioxide also produced higher amount of AOX. As shown in Fig.1, all the sequences except DHTEopD1 brought more or less benefits over reference sequence D0EopD1 in term of AOX formation. A significant reduction of AOX was reported from the sequential application of D and Z in (DZ), which was resulted partly due to reduced use of chlorine dioxide and partly due to the oxidation reactions between ozone and

37.3 25.1 62.4 63.0 23.4 41.5 06.2 35.0 26.0 61.0 60.0 26.0 44.0 06.0

chlorinated compounds formed in D o stage 8 . Therefore, the effluents from the sequence containing (DZ) in prebleaching should contain lower amount of AOX than that as calculated. Commercial chlorine dioxide generators in many cases co-generate molecular chlorine, and chlorine is formed in reducing reactions of chlorine dioxide. Prebleaching stage of a conventional ECF bleaching sequence is the major source of AOX. Because incoming pulp to the prebleaching stage contains higher amount of lignin compared to the pulp entering in to the following bleaching stages. It is well defined that AOX forms indirectly when chlorine dioxide reacts with residual lignin in pulp. In fact, the reaction between chlorine dioxide and lignin produces chlorite and hypochlorous acid simultaneously. At low pH hypochlorous acid

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conver ts in to chlorine and this chlorine is responsible to AOX formation.

plant the value is as low as 0.1 kg/ADt after biological treatment10.

However, the actual amount of AOX in effluent resulted from a sequence must be considerably lower than that as calculated. In calculation AOX was calculated out simply on the basis of total chlorine dioxide consumption to a certain sequence. Most of the AOX forms in D0 stage due to higher lignin content of pulp and as well as higher chlorine dioxide charge. On the other hand, almost negligible amount of AOX is formed in D1 due to very low lignin content of pulp. In this study 0.3 to 0.8 kg/ODt pulp AOX was calculated for the ECF sequences studied. Typical AOX levels in ECF bleach plant effluent is 0.9 to 1.7 kg/ADt pulp9. In a standard bleach plant like D(EO)DD, the figure is even below 0.5 kg/ADt and in modern ECF bleach

The contribution of residual lignin and HexA on AOX formation in prebleaching (D0E) was studied11. This study confirmed that the amount of AOX formed in prebleaching is incoming kappa number dependent. They also reported HexA as the major contributor of AOX in prebleaching effluent, but this AOX is unstable upon storage. AOX originated from Klason lignin is stable12. Thus, the effluent from acacia pulp bleaching in this study should contain lower unstable, but higher stable AOX compared to the effluent from the bleaching of eucalyptus pulp; in acacia pulp HexA content was substantially lower and lignin content was considerably higher than in eucalyptus pulp when both pulps have similar kappa number13. According

Fig. 1: Formation of AOX in ECF bleaching of eucalyptus and acacia kraft pulp

Fig. 2: Effluent COD loads from ECF bleaching of eucalyptus and acacia kraft pulp

KARIM, Curr. World Environ., Vol. 6(2), 201-206 (2011)

Chemical oxygen demand (COD) Effluent COD load is another important parameter that also be considered when pulps are bleached. COD loads from different ECF bleaching sequence are shown in Fig. 2. Partial replacement

TOC, kg/ODt pulp

Eucalyptus TOC

Acacia TOC

of chlorine dioxide with ozone (DZ) in prebleaching gave very marginal benefit over Do. Ahot or DHT was unable to bring any benefit in effluent COD load when compared with D0 or (DZ). Replacement of D0 completely with Z in prebleaching gave higher COD load to the effluent. A considerable higher COD load was observed when (PO) was applied in the final stage instead of D1.

Eucalyptus yield

Acacia yield

100

6 94

D0 E

op D1

(R e

f.) Z) Eo pD 1 ZE o Ah pD ot 1 D0 Eo Ah pD ot 1 (D Z) Eo pD 1 DH TE op D1 D0 Eo pQ (P (D O) Z) Eo pQ (P O)

Bleaching yield, % on incoming pulp

to that study 42.5% and 34.7% of total kappa number were contributed by HexA in oxygen delignified eucalyptus and acacia pulp respectively.

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Bleaching sequence

Fig. 3: Relation between effluent TOC load and bleaching yield from different ECF bleaching sequences COD load to the effluent depends on the kappa number of pulps entering in to the bleach plant. So, the higher the incoming kappa numbers the higher effluent COD load. Bleaching of acacia pulp resulted in little higher COD load to effluent compared to eucalyptus pulp in all cases. This is logical, because lignin kappa of acacia pulps was 1 unit higher than that of eucalyptus pulp while both of the pulps have similar total kappa number after oxygen delignification13. Total organic carbon (TOC) and bleaching yield In the bleaching of pulp, TOC load in effluent and bleaching yield are closely interrelated. Cellulose, as well as organic matters loss in bleaching operation decreases bleaching yield and increases effluent TOC load. In this study a clear relationship was found between TOC in effluent and bleaching yield (Fig. 3). Highest TOC in effluent and lowest bleaching yield was resulted from 100% replacement of chlorine dioxide with ozone in

prebleaching. Major environmental benefits from ozone come when it totally replaces chlorine dioxide in D0 stage and allow the recovery of effluents. For a certain pulp sample, 100% Z in prebleaching resulted in about 35% more TOC compared to D0. (DZ) gave slightly higher TOC in discharges because of yield loss compared to reference option D0. Ahot or DHT lost yield in bleaching and hence, an increment of TOC in effluent was found compared to D0 or (DZ). The application of Q(PO) in place of D1 in final bleaching resulted more carbohydrates loss and thereby the effluent got more organic carbon, which was measured as high TOC content. In the bleaching, acacia pulp contributed 0.5 to 1.0 kg/ODt more TOC to the effluent than that of eucalyptus. In the bleaching, yield loss is one of the most important cost items. (DZ) at 40% replacement resulted 0.3-0.4% less yield and 100% replacement

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decreased yield by ca 1% unit compared to D0. Ahot and DHT in prebleaching or (PO) instead of D1 in final bleaching stage resulted considerable reduction in bleaching yield. Similarly as TOC, acacia gave lower bleaching yield compared to eucalyptus. Ventorim et al.15 reported 1% percent less yield in bleaching associated with about 4 kg TOC/ODt of pulp present in effluent. CONCLUSIONS Environmental loads from different ECF bleaching sequences were evaluated in this study. The study was run for two pulpwood species, Eucalyptus camaldulensis and Acacia mangium. The results were fairly similar. The environmental benefits from (DZ) compared to D0 was marginal. In the case of (DZ), the COD load was almost similar as D0, but AOX was reduced due to the reduction chlorine dioxide charges in prebleaching and D1. A considerable increment in effluent COD load was resulted from the 100% replacement of chlorine dioxide by ozone in prebleaching. Only 100% replacement of D0 with Z would allow the filtrates to the recovery cycle.

A marginal benefit on chlorine dioxide consumption was obtained from prebleaching options of A hotD 0 and D HT and their other environmental impacts were negative compared to D0. The replacement of D1 with (PO) in the final bleaching was unable to bring benefits on TOC and COD loads to the effluent, though a huge amount of chlorine dioxide was saved. In this case, a considerable amount of AOX was reduced in effluent, yield loss was increased. The evaluation of environmental impact is one of the major criteria to evaluate the applicability of a newly developed technology in the bleaching process. In a modern bleached kraft mill 50-90% of total discharges originate from the bleach plant. The environmental load of a selected bleaching technology must fulfill the requirements of environmental legislation in a specific country. Although the modern pulp mills, which are using a traditional ECF sequence able to meet the present environmental legislations in terms of effluent discharges in most of the countries in the world, but the regulations will be stricter in future.

REFERENCES 1. 2.

4. 5. 6.

Colodette, J. L., Salvador, E., Shah, P. and de Brito, A. A. C., Appita J., 54(2): 226 (2001). Toven, K., Doctoral Dissertation,Department of Chemical Engineering, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Norway (2000). Homer, G., Johnson, S. and Epiney, M., In Proceedings of TAPPI Pulping Conference, 81 (1996). Chirat, C., In Proceedings of 53rd ATIP Annual Meeting, 7 (2000). Ragnar, M. and Lindstrom, M. E., Paperi Puu 86(1), 39 (2004). APHA, AWWA and WPCE, Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Waste Water. 20th Edition, Washington DC, USA (1998). Johnston, P. A., Stringer, R.L., Santillo, D., Stephenson A. D., Labounskaia, I. P., and McCartney, H. M. A., Technical report 7/96, Greenpeace Research Laboratories,

10. 11. 12. 13.

14.

University of Exeter, UK (1996). Chirat, C., Lachenal, D., Angelier, R., and Viardin, M. T., J. Pulp Paper Sci. 23(6): 289 (1997). McKague, A. B. and Carlberg, G., Effluent characteristics and composition. In: Pulp Bleaching, Principles and Practice. Eds. C.W. Dence and D.W. Re eve. TAPPI Press, Atlanta. 749 (1996). Ragnar, R., Dahllof, H. and Lundgren, S., Appita J., 58(6): 475 (2005). Bjorklund, M., Germgard, U., Jour, P. and Forsstrom, A., Tappi J. 1(7): 20 (2002). Bjorklund, M., Germgard, U. and Basta, J., Tappi J, 3(8): 7 (2004). Karim, M. R., Doctoral Dissertation, Pulp and Paper Technology Field of Study, Asian Institute of Technology, Thailand (2006). Ventorim, G., Collodette, J. L. and Eiras K. M. M., Nordic Pulp Paper Res. J. 20(1): 7 (2005).

Current World Environment

Vol. 6(2), 207-215 (2011)

Identification of Ambient Air Pollution Prevention Zones Using Remotesensing and GIS: A Model Study S.S. ASADI1, B.V.T. VASANTHA RAO2, M.V. RAJU 3 and M. ANAND SAGAR4 1

Department of Civil Engineering, KL University, Green Fields, Vaddeswaram - 522 502 (India). 2 Department of Civil Engineering, P.V.P. Siddhardha Institute of Technology, Kannure, Vijayawada (India). 3 Department of Civil Engineering, Vignan University, Vadllamudi, Guntur (India). 4 Research Scholar, Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University, Hyderabad - 500 072 (India). *Corresponding author: E-mail:asadienviron.asadi@gmail.com (Received: October 02, 2011; Accepted: November 18, 2011) ABSTRACT The present study has been carried out Air pollution zones and Risk area map for Air pollution Activities in nine mandals namely Nakkapalli ,Elamanchilli,S. Rayavaram, Achchutapuram, Rambilli, Anakapalle, Munagapaka, Kasimkota, Paravada of Visakhapatnam District, covering an area of 1355 Sq.km. The study area is located between north latitudes 17° 19’ and 17° 46’”and east longitudes 82°35’ and 83°10’ and is covered in the survey of India topographical map numbers 56H65 K/10,11,13,14,15M 65 O/1, 65O/2.The IRS-P6, LISS-IV geo coded Remote sensing Satellite data and the above top sheets from Survey of India (SOI) are acquired for primary analysis. Using Visual Interpretation technique different thematic maps are prepared like base map, drainage map, Geomorphology map. These thematic maps were scanned and digitized using AutoCAD and converted into GIS. Air samples are collected from sampling stations were established in the study area using this sampling analysis was carried out as per the national ambient air quality standards (NAAQS) , with respect to RSPM, TSPM, NOx, Sox. Based on the above data Topology is created by linking the spatial data file and attribute data file. GIS overlay analysis derived maps has been developed like Air pollution sensitivity map, Air quality map, Dispersion sensitivity map,Aerial sensitivity Mapwas carried out to find out the above parameters pollution lodes in the study area, Finally integrating of the all the above maps based on this maps Risk area map for Air pollution activities maps has developed. This kind of studies is very useful for Pollution Prevention in industrial areas and also useful for the planners decision makers for management and monitoring of industrial areas.

Key words: Air pollution prevention, Industrial area, Remote sensing, GIS.

INTRODUCTION The high density of population and industries in the cities lead to allied vehicular, industrial and domestic emissions affecting, adversely the health and property of inhabiting citizens. Keeping the air quality acceptable has become an important task for decision makers as well as for non-governmental organizations. Particulate matter and gaseous emissions of pollutant emission from industries and auto exhausts are responsible for rising discomfort, increasing airway diseases and deterioration of

artistic and cultural patrimony in urban centers. Emergence of remote sensing as a powerful technology for Mapping and modeling of pollution studies.Proper planning, management and monitoring of the pollution status depend on the availability of accurate information. The integration of data generated in the areas of etc. can lead to identification of pollution stress zones having unique combination of characteristics and hence specific suitability in terms of scientific methods to decrease the pollution load without compromising long term action plans for the environmental quality.In order to achieve the above-mentioned

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goal, a baseline environmental study has been conducted within the study area and interpreted with the help of GIS tools. GIS is best utilized for integration of various data sets to obtain a homogeneous composite land development units which helps in identifying the problem areas and suggest conservation measures. This study will set a new trend in the industrial sector with concern for sustainable development and clean environment. Study Area The study area is the part of the Visakhapatnam district, one of the nine coastal districts of Andhra Pradesh, is located in the northeastern part of the State situated adjacent to the coast and where rapid development will take place in terms of industrialization. The study area is located between north latitudes 17° 19’ and 17° 46’”and

east longitudes 82°35’ and 83°10’ and is covered in the survey of India topographical map numbers 56H65 K/10,11,13,14,15M 65 O/1 and O/2. The area is under influence for fast development of urban agglomeration and industrial growth with mega industries for petroleum, Pharma parks . The study area is covered in Narsipatnam and Visakhapatnam revenue divisions. The study area is situated along the coastline from Nakkapalli mandal to Paravada mandal where the future development for industrialization will take place. It also includes the Anakapalli, Kasimkota, Munagapaka, Achchutapuram, Rambilli, Elamanchili and S.Rayavaram Mandals. Out of 246 revenue villages, Anakapalle (Class-II) and Elamanchilli (Class-III) are the major towns in the study area. The study area is covered an area of 1314 Sq.Km.

Fig. 1: Location map

Study Objectives 1. Preparation of thematic maps using survey of India toposheet and satellite imagery using visual interpretation Technique. 2. Colleation of Air samples from air sampling stations analyze the samples as per the national ambient air quality standards (NAAQS) , with respect to RSPM, TSPM, NOx, 3. Collection of collateral data from different departments and creation of attribute data of thematic maps using GIS tools. 4. Preparation of Air quality map. 5. Identification of Air pollution sensitivity Map and Risk area map for pollution activities.

Methodology Data Used Different data products required for the study include the56H65 K/10,11,13,14,15M 65 O/ 1 and O/2 toposheets which are obtained from Survey of India (1:50,000) and fused data of IRS – 1D PAN and LISS-III satellite imagery from National Remote Sensing Centre (NRSC), Hyderabad. Database Creation IRS-ID PAN and LISS-III satellite imageries are georeferenced using the ground control points with SOI toposheets as a reference and further merged to obtain a fused, high resolution (5.8m of PAN) and colored (R,G,B bands of LISS-III) output

ASADI et al., Curr. World Environ., Vol. 6(2), 207-215 (2011) in EASI/PACE v6.3 Image processing software. The study area is then delineated from the fused data based on the latitude and longitude values and a final hard copy output prepared which is further interpreted visually for the generation of thematic maps. These thematic maps (Raster data) are converted to vector format by scanning using an A0-Flatbed Deskjet scanner and digitized in AUTOCAD 2000. The map is further edited in ARC/ INFO and final hardcopy output is prepared using ARC/VIEW GIS software. The methodology adopted for creation of database is given in Fig. 2. Spatial database Thematic maps like base map and drainage network maps are prepared from the SOI toposheets on 1:50,000 scale using AutoCAD and Arc/Info GIS software to obtain a baseline data. All the maps are scanned and digitized to generate a digital output was prepared using visual interpretation technique from the fused satellite imagery (IRS-ID PAN + LISS-III) and SOI toposheets along with ground truth analysis. Attribute database Fieldwork was conducted and Air samples were collected from predetermined locations based on the Landuse/Land cover map of the study area.

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The Air samples were then analyzed as per the national ambient air quality standards (NAAQS), with respect to RSPM, TSPM, NOx . The Air quality data thus obtained forms the attribute database for the present study (Table 1). Integration of Spatial and Attribute Database The spatial and the attribute database generated are integrated for the generation of Ground water pollution sensitivity map of selected Air quality parameters like RSPM, TSPM, NOx . The risks due to high density of population and industries in the cities leads to associate vehicular, domestic and industrial emissions affecting, adversely, the health and property of inhabiting citizens. The Air pollution sensitivity is determined based on the influencing factors of Aerial sensitivity, Dispersion Sensitivity, Air pollution Sensitivity, Air quality.The procedure involved is preparation of Air quality, Dispersion Sensitivity and Air pollution Sensitivity integrating them to arrive at the Air pollution sensitive zone map which depicts the areas of High-risk, zones Medium risk zones, and Low risk zones (CPCB, 1996). The procedure followed for integration of the theme maps to finally arrive at the Risk area map for Air polluting areas is given in the following flow chart.

Fig. 2: Methodology Flow chart

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Base map A topographic map is a representation of the shape, size, position and relation of the physical features of an area (IMSD Technical Guidelines 1995). The base map is prepared using SOI toposheet on 1:50,000 scale and updated with the

help of satellite imagery. It consists of various features like the road network, settlements, water bodies, canals, railway track, vegetation etc. delineated from the toposheet. The map thus drawn is scanned and digitized to get a digital output. The information content of this map is used as a baseline data to finalize the physical features of other thematic maps. Since the topo sheets are very old

80 80 360 120 1 0.1 5 40-80 40-80 180-360 60-120 0.05-1 0.05-1 2.5-5 0-40 0-40 0-180 0-60 15 15 70 50 0.5 0.1 1 7.5-15 7.5-15 0-35 0-25 0-0.125 0.05-0.1 0.5-1.0 0-7.5 0-7.5 0-35 0-25 0-0.125 0-0.05 0-0.5 60 60 140 60 0.75 0.1 2 0-30 0-30 0-70 0-30 0-0.375 0-0.05 0-1 Sulphur dioxideSO2 Oxides of nitrogen as NO2 Suspended Particulate Matter(SPM) Respirable Particulate Matter(RPM) LEAD(PB) Ammonia Carbon Monoxide(CO) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

30-60 30-60 70-140 30-60 0.375-0.75 0.05-1 1-2

Medium High Low Medium

Sensitive Areas

High Low Medium High No

Located the sources of air pollution on the base map viz. Industries, Industrial estates, Industrial clusters etc.The collected ambient air quality monitoring data analysis of samples

Residential,Rural&others Areas

Air Quality Map This map is prepared based on the ambient air quality data taken from State Pollution Control Board and analysis of samples collected from filed. The air quality map provides information about the status of ambient air quality. The ambient air quality is depicted as high, medium and low quality zones by describing the quantitative data in normative terms. ‘High’ air quality indicates that the level of concentration of pollutants in the ambient air quality is very well within standards and as such there is no air pollution problem. ‘Medium’ air quality indicates that the level of concentration of pollutants in the ambient air does not exceed the required standards but is very close to the standards. ‘Low’ air quality indicates that the level of concentration of pollutants exceeds the permissible limits prescribed and hence is polluted. The steps involved in the preparation of Air Quality Map are:

Parameter

Geomorphology The main geomorphic units in the study area are Structural Hills, Pediment Inselberg Complex (PIC), Shallow weathered Pediplain (PPS), moderately weathered Pediplain (PPM) Coastal Plains and associated coastal land forms.

Table 1:Ambient Air Quality Standards (National)

Drainage Network map The drainage pattern in the study area is mostly dendritic to sub-dendritic patterns controlled by fracture. The drainage map network of the study area is taken from SOI topo sheets. All the rivers, tributaries and water bodies shown on the toposheet are considered for preparation of the drainage map. Further these water bodies are updated from the latest satellite imageries for delineating the water spread in the tanks, reservoirs and rivers.

Industrial Areas

all the features like roads, railways, settlements etc are updated with the help of rectified and scaled satellite imageries of the area. The major settlements in the present study area are Nakkapalli, Elamanchilli, S. Rayavaram, Achchutapuram, Rambilli, Anakapalle, Munagapaka, Kasimkota, Paravada etc.

Low

ASADI et al., Curr. World Environ., Vol. 6(2), 207-215 (2011)

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ASADI et al., Curr. World Environ., Vol. 6(2), 207-215 (2011) collected from filed and taken from APPCB with details of RSPM, TSPM, SOX, NOX. ´ Less than 50% of permissible limit is categorized as Low ´ 50-100 % of permissible limit is categorized as Medium

211

> 100 % of permissible limit is categorized as High

The quality around industrial clusters at Paravada is under low due high air polluting industrial activities (NTPC, Visakha Steel Plant etc) up to Anakapalli and Quality is medium around Elamanchili due to Vehicular pollution.

Table 2: Air quality data Station Paravada Wada Cheepurupalle Tummapala Anakapalle Vissannapet S.rayavaram Pedda Gummaluru Chinna Doddigallu Elamanchili Narisingaplli Ammarajupeta

SO2_in_ug

nox__in_ug

rspm_in_ug

tspm_in_ug

23.00 23.17 14.04 24.48 12.04 13.31 10.48 11.66 23.00 24.48 14.04

66.60 32.41 33.20 42.90 40.51 37.64 34.69 38.49 66.60 32.20 33.20

63.79 64.12 62.08 61.04 56.02 57.92 55.00 57.70 59.40 55.40 54.30

165.62 150.49 156.80 154.29 142.98 158.00 173.37 165.00 170.00 153.90 142.45

Dispersion Sensitivity Map Dispersion sensitivity describes the ability of an area to disperse and dilute the air pollutants owing to its ventilating capacity, climate, vegetative cover and nature of the earth surface. Generally, micrometeorology doesn’t play a major role in determining the dispersion sensitivity. It is rather the climate that is more important in regional planning. The plain areas have very good circulation of air and hence dispersion is normal. Wellventilated regions can have relatively wholesome air, even though the rate of pollution is high, whereas poorly ventilated areas deteriorate with only moderate rate of pollution: The dispersion sensitivity map is prepared based on the Hypsography map. The dispersion sensitivity is categorized into ‘High’, ‘Medium’ and ‘Low’, AS per (CPCB, 1996) as under: High: ´ Areas up to 4.5 H around isolated hills (H is the height of the hill); ´ Up to 5 km from hill stretches (‘High’

co__in_ppm 0.47 0.49 0.33 3.67 0.58 1.04 1.29 0.71 0.83 0.66 0.88

Physiography areas) that act as barriers for dispersion of pollutants; Areas with frequent inversion conditions or having extreme climatic conditions.

Medium ´ Areas falling with in a distance of 5 to 15 km from the hill stretches (‘High’ Physiography areas). Low ´ Areas beyond 15 km from the hill stretches (‘High’ Physiography area) The Dispersion sensitivity map is prepared by buffering the ‘high’ Physiography zones as per the following guidelines: In the study area only Isolated Hills were available, no Hill stretches, and Areas with frequent inversion conditions or having extreme climatic conditions are available.For isolated Hills the relative Height of the hills with respect to the near

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by area is calculated (not MSL). A buffer of 4.5 times the height of the hill, around isolated hills is considered and categorized as High sensitive area.The hill stretches are along the western portion of the study area having high and medium dispersion sensitive areas. Hillocks are spread all the study area having only high dispersion sensitive zones. West of Elamanchili and Anakapalli is covered with high dispersion due to hill ranges. These hill ranges are running parallel to the national highway towards west direction. Aerial (Land Use) Sensitivity Map The aerial (Land use) sensitivity of an area indicates the likely impacts on the receiving environment due to air pollution. The aerial sensitivity map is prepared based on the sensitive zone map and the air quality map. The aerial (land use) sensitivity based on impact on the receiving environment is classified as High, Medium and Low risk zones. It is prepared using the buffering and overlay techniques of GIS. The coverage is prepared by taking the features such as Forests. National parks, Tribal settlements etc. from the Sensitive zone map. These features are copied from the Sensitive Zones map, buffer is created for each of the said features with a buffer distance of <2 km, 2-5 km and >5 km. For specific features such as National park, a buffer of 25 km is provided. (CPCB, 1996) The details of buffering are given below. High-risk zones ´ Up to 2 km to sensitive zones (forests,

monuments and other legally restricted areas, socially sensitive areas such as scenic areas, religious places, hill resorts etc.). Areas having very low air quality (exceeding standards)

Medium risk zones ´ Areas which are falling within a distance of 2 to 5 km from the sensitive zones; and ´ Areas where the level of pollutants, although not exceeding, is close to the permissible standards i.e. areas having medium air quality. This map has been generated by creating buffers for different sensitive zone classes such as monuments, forests etc. The majority of the area is covered with high aerial sensitivity due to forest and low air quality. A patch of medium aerial sensitivity is observed in and around Nakkapalli, Elamanchili, S.Rayavaram and Achutapuram villages and low aerial sensitivity towards south portion of S.Rayavaram and it is shown in Aerial sensitivity map. Air Pollution Sensitivity Map The air pollution sensitivity map is arrived at from integration of the aerial sensitivity map and dispersion sensitivity map. The overlay or decision matrix used for preparing this map guidelines is given below: The logic and the rationale behind the results of the matrix can be explained thus:

Table 3: Overlay of aerial sensitivity and dispersion sensitivity

Aerial sensitivity Dispersion sensitivity

High

Medium

Low

High Medium Low

High High High

High Medium Medium

High Medium Low

Areas with ‘High’ aerial sensitivity will have ‘High’ air pollution sensitivity irrespective of the dispersion sensitivity. Areas with ‘High’ dispersion sensitivity will

have ‘High’ air pollution sensitivity irrespective of the aerial sensitivity. Areas with ‘Low; aerial sensitivity and ‘Low’ dispersion sensitivity will definitely have

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‘Low’ air pollution sensitivity. Areas where either of the two parameters i.e. the aerial sensitivity or dispersion sensitivity is ‘Medium’ and the other is ‘Low’ or when both parameters are ‘Medium’ will have ‘Medium’ air pollution sensitivity. This overlay is done using GIS package to

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arrive at the Air pollution sensitivity map. The Air pollution sensitivity map is prepared using the utilities of Geographic Information System like ‘overlay analysis’. Air pollution sensitivity is resultant overlay (union) coverage of aerial sensitivity and dispersion sensitivity map.

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This map has been generated by using overlay analysis of Dispersion sensitivity and Aerial sensitivity maps. Due to high aerial and dispersion sensitivities in the study area the major portion is occupied with high air pollution sensitivity. The decision matrix is shown above for considering high, medium and low sensitive zones and it is shown in Air Pollution Sensitivity Map. Risk Area Map for Air Polluting Activities In the air pollution sensitivity map the areas of High, Medium and Low air pollution sensitivity are delineated without considering the ‘sensitive zones’ that are unsuitable for developmental activities due to legal restrictions, physical constraints etc. By eliminating the sensitive zones from the air pollution sensitivity map, the ‘High’

‘Medium’ and ‘Low’ risk areas for air polluting activities are obtained in the ‘Risk area map for air polluting activities’ correspondingly from the areas of High, Medium and Low air pollution sensitivity.In the High-risk areas which are very sensitive to air pollution, only very small air polluting activities may be allowed. The Medium risk areas may be considered for medium polluting activities whose impact is not likely to exceed 2 km as per (CPCB, 1996). The Risk area map for air polluting activities is the union of the sensitive zones map and the air pollution sensitivity map. Only small patches of low risk for air pollution potential is available in the study area towards North West of Anakapalli. A big patches of medium risk for air pollution potential is observed in and around Anakapalli, Kasimkota, Elamanchili, S.Rayavaram, Achchutapuram.

REFERENCES 1.

Horton, R.e. Drainage Basin Characteristics. Trans. Am. Geophys. Union, 13 : 350-361 (1932). Horton, R.E, Erosional Development of Streams and their Drainage Basins : Hydrophysical Approach to Quantitative Morphology. Geol. Soc. Am. Bull., 56: 275 – 370 (1945). Nag, S.K. and Chakraborthy, S., Influence of Rock Types and Structures in the Development of Drainage Network in Hard Rock Area. J. Indian Soc. Remote Sensing, 31(1) : 25-35 (2003). Srivastava, V.K. and Mitra, D., Study of Drainages Pattern of Raniganj Coalkfield (Burdwan District) as observed on Landsat – TM/IRS LISS II Imagery. J. Indian Soc. Remote Sensing, 23(4): 225-235 (1995). Clarke, J.I., Morphometry from Maps. Eassys in Geomorphology . Elsevier Publ.Co., New York, pp.235-274 (1966). Central Pollution Control Board ( CPCB), Zoning Atlas for siting of industries based on environmental considerations – EMAPS 1996-97, New Delhi (1996). Barrow, Chris., Water resources and Agricultural Development in Tropics, Longman Scientific and Technical Publications, Essex, U.K (1987).

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NRSA, Integrated Mission for Sustainable Development, Technical guidelines, National Remote Sensing Agency, Department Of Space, 127 (1995). NRSA. Technical guidelines for preparation of Ground water prospect map, Rajiv Gandhi National Drinking Water Mission. National Remote Sensing Agency, Hyderabad (2000). NRSA. Integrated Mission for Sustainable Development (IMSD) – Technical guidelines, National Remote Sensing Agency, Hyderabad (1995). Reddy, P.R., Balu Rao, P. & Prakash Gound, P.V., Evaluation of IRS – 1A data for Geological, Geomorphic and Groundwater Studies, Nat. Sem. On Indian Remote Sensing Satellite – 1A Mission and its Application Potential NRSA, Hyderabad India (1988). Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB),. Zoning Atlas for siting of industries based on environmental considerations – EMAPS 199 (1996). Anjaneyulu Y., Jayakumar, I, Madhav T., .H. Rao, T., “Online air pollution monitoring Strategies for monitoring air pollution in Hyderabad” ICIPACT, 324- 328, 6-97, New Delhi (2001).

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15. 16.

17.

J.M. Baldasano, E. Valera, P. Jimenez (2003), Air quality data from large cities, The Science of the Total Environment 307, 141–165 Jes Fenger (1999), Urban air quality, Atmospheric Environment 33, 4877}4900 Karen Bickerstaff Public understandings of air pollution: the and localization of environmental risk, Global Environmental Change 11 (2001) 133}145 (2001). Sharma, M., Maheshwari, M., Sengupta, B., and Shukla, B.P., “Design of a website for

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dissemination of air quality index in India”, Environmental Modeling & Software 18: 405-411 (2003). William. Bachman, Wayne. Sarasua,, Shauna. Hallmark., and Randall Guensler, Modeling regional mobile source emissions in a geographic information system framework Transportation Research Part C: Emerging Technologies Volume 8, Issues 16: 205-229 (2000).

Current World Environment

Vol. 6(2), 217-223 (2011)

Global Climate Change Impacts in the World TARUN M. PATEL, A.M.PATEL and DEEPAK KARDILE Shree M.R.Arts & Science College, Rajpipla, Gujarat (India). (Received: November 10, 2011; Accepted: December 15, 2011) ABSTRACT During the twentieth century, the earth’,s surface warmed by about 1.5 °F. There are a variety of potential causes for global climate change, including both natural and human-induced mechanisms. Science has made great strides recently in determining which potential causes are actually responsible for the climate change that occurred during the twentieth century, providing strong evidence that greenhouse gases released to atmosphere by human activities are one of the main causes of contemporary global warming. The paper deliberates to deal with some of the others as well.

Key words: Global Warming, Climate, Climate change, Global surface temperature and Climatic variations.

INTRODUCTION Recent decades have seen record-high average global surface temperatures. Thermometer readings sufficient to provide reliable global averages are available back to 1850 (Brohan et al. 2006). In the past century, global surface temperature increased by about 1.5 °F (Figure 1). In the past quarter-century, according to satellite measurements, the lower atmosphere warmed by 0.22-0.34 °F per decade, equivalent to 2-3 °F per century. (Christy and Spencer 2005; Mears and Wentz 2005). The past 20 years include the 18 warmest years on record. (Hadley Centre 2005). This well-documented warming trend could result from several factors that influence the earth’s climate, some of which are natural, such as changes in solar radiation and volcanic activity. Others, particularly the release of certain gases to the atmosphere and land-cover changes, are anthropogenic. Global climate varies over time in response to climate forcings-physical factors external to the climate system that force a net increase (positive forcing) or net decrease (negative forcing) of heat

in the climate system as a whole. (Hansen, Sato et al. 2005). This type of change is distinct from internal climate variability, in which heat is transported by winds or ocean currents between different components of the climate system with no net change in the total heat within the system. The El Ninl-Southern Oscillation is a well- known example of internal climate variability. Because the observed climate change over the twentieth century results from a net increase of heat in the entire climate system, it can only be explained by external forcing. (Hansen, Nazarenko et al. 2005). Hence, the task for climate change scientists is to identify one or more external forcing(s), natural or man-made that can explain the observed warming. Defining weather and climate Weather is the state of the atmosphere at a specific time in a specific place. Temperature, cloudiness, humidity, precipitation, and winds are examples of weather elements. Thunderstorms, tornadoes, and monsoons are also part of the weather of some places during some seasons. Climate is defined as long-term weather patterns that describe a region. For example, the New York metropolitan region’s climae is temperate, with rain

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evenly distributed throughout the year, cold winters, and hot summers.

Temperature Change (°F)

Causes of climate change Climate variability and climate change Climate variability refers to variations in the prevailing state of the climate on all temporal and spatial scales beyond that of individual weather events. Variability may be due to natural internal processes within the climate system, or to variations in natural or anthropogenic (human-driven) external forcing. Global climate change indicates a change

in either the mean state of the climate or in its variability, persisting for several decades or longer. This includes changes in average weather conditions on earth, such as a change in average global temperature, as well as changes in how frequently regions experience heat waves, droughts, floods, storms, and other extreme weather. It is important to note that changes in individual weather events will potentially contribute substantially to changes in climate variability. Climate change could occur naturally as a result of a change in the sun’s energy or Earth’s orbital cycle

Fig. 1: Average global surface temperature based in instrumental measurements. Temperature rise during the twentieth century is much larger than the uncertainty range

Ocean, Atomosphere and Land Factors

Fig. 2: Factors that influence the Earth’s climate

PATEL et al., Curr. World Environ., Vol. 6(2), 217-223 (2011) (natural climate forcing), or it could occur as a result of persistent anthropogenic forcing, such as the addition of greenhouse gases, sulphate aerosols, or black carbon to the atmosphere, or through landuse change. Figure 2 illustrates the basic components that influence the state of the Earth’s climatic system. Changes in the state of this system can occur externally ( from extraterrestrial systems) or internally (from ocean, atmosphere and land systems) through any one of the described components. For example, an external change may involve a variation in the Sun’s output which would externally vary the amount of solar radiation received by the Earth’s atmosphere and surface. Internal variations in the Earth’s climatic system may be caused by changes in the concentrations of atmospheric gases, mountain building, volcanic activity, and changes in surface or atmospheric albedo. The work of climatologists has found evidence to suggest that only a limited number of factors are primarily responsible for most of the past episodes of climate change on the Earth. These factors include: ´ Volcanic eruptions ´ Atmospheric carbon dioxide variations ´ Variations in solar output. Volcanic Eruptions For many years, climatologists have noticed a connection between large explosive volcanic eruptions and short term climatic change. For example, one of the coldest years in the last two centuries occurred the year following the Tambora volcanic eruption in 1815. Accounts of very cold weather were documented in the year following this eruption in a number of regions across the planet. Several other major volcanic events also show a pattern of cooler global temperatures lasting 1 to 3 years after their eruption. At first, scientists thought that the dust emitted into the atmosphere from large volcanic eruptions was responsible for the cooling by partially blocking the tranamission of solar radiation to the Earth’s surface However, measurements indicate that most of the dust thrown in the atmosphere returned

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to the Earth’s surface within six months. Recent stratospheric data suggests that large explosive volcanic eruptions also eject large quantities of sulphur dioxide gas which remains in the atmosphere for as long as three years. Atmospheric chemists have determined that the ejected sulphur dioxide gas reacts with water vapour commonly found in the stratosphere to from a dense optically bright haze layer that redues the atmospheric transmission of some of the Sun’s incoming radiation. In the last century, two significant climate modifying eruptions have occurred. El chichon in Mexico erupted in April of 1982, and Mount Pinatubo went off in the Philippines during June, 1991. Of these two volcanic events, Mount Pinatubo had a greater effect on the Earth’s climate and ejected about 20 million tons of sulphur dioxide into the stratosphere. Researchers believe that the Pinatubo eruption was primarily responsible for the 0.8 degree Celsius drop in global average air temperature in 1992. The global climatic effects of the eruption of Mount Pinatubo are believed to have peaked in late 1993. Satellite data confirmed the connection between the Mount Pinatubo eruption and the global temperature decrease in 1992 and 1993. The satellite data indicated that the sulphur dixide plume from the eruption caused a several percent increase in the amount of sunlight reflected by the Earth’s atmosphere back to space causing the surface of the planet to cool. Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide Variations Studies of long term climate change have discovered a connection between the concentrations of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere and mean global temperature. Carbon dioxide is one of the more important gases responsible for the greenhouse effect. Certain atmospheric gases, like carbon dioxide, water vapour and methane,are able to alter the energy balance of the Earth by being able to absorb longwave radiation emitted from the Earth’s surface. The net result of this process and the re-emission of longwave back to the Earth’s surface increases the quantity of heat energy in the Earth’s climatic system. Without the greenhouse effect, the average global temperature of the Earth would be a cold-18° celsius rather than the present 15° celsius.

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Researchers of the 1970’s CLIMAP project found strong evidence in deep-ocean sediments of variations in the Earth’s globlal temperature during the past several hundred thousand years of the Earth’s history. Other subsequent studies have confirmed these findings and have discovered that these temperature variations were closely correlated to the concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere and variations in solar radiation received by the planet as controlled by the Milankovich cycles. Measurements indicated that atmospheric carbon dioxide levels were about 30%lower during colder glacial periods. It was also theorized that the oceans were a major store of carbon dioxide and that they controlled the movement of this gas to and from the atmosphere. The amount of carbon dioxide that can be held in oceans is a function of temperature. Carbon dioxide is released from the oceans when global temperatures become warmer and diffuses into the ocean when temperatures are cooler. Initial changes in global temperature were triggered by changes in received solar radiation by the Earth through the milankovitch cycle. The increase in carbon dioxide then amplified the global warming by enhancing the greenhouse effect. Over the past three centuries, the concentration of carbon dioxide has been increasing in the Earth’s atmosphere because of human influences Human activities like the burning

of fossil fuels, conversion of natural prairie to farmland, and deforestation have caused the release of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. From the early 1700s, carbon dioxide has increased from 280 parts per million to 380 parts per million in 2005. Many scientists believe that higher concentrations of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere will enhance the greenhouse effect making the planet warmer. Scientists believe we are already experiencing global warming due to an enhancement of the greenhouse effect. Most computer climate models suggest that the globe will warm up by 1.5-4.5 celsius if carbon dioxide reaches the predicted level of 600 parts per million by the year 2050. Variations in Solar Output Until recently, many scientists thought that the Sun’s output of radiation only varied by a fraction of a percent over many years. However, measurements made by satellites equipped with radiometers in the 1980s and 1990s suggested that the Sun’s energy output may be more variable than was once thought. Measurements made during the early 1980s showed a decrease of 0.1 percent in the total amount of sola energy reaching the Earth over just an 18 month time period. If this trend were to extend over several decades, it could influence global climate. Numerical climatic models predict that a change in solar output of only 1 percent per century would alter the Earth’s average temperature by between 0.5 to 1.0° Celsius. Scientists have long

CO2 conc. (ppm)

Atmospheric conc. of CO2 (1744-2010)

Source: Neftel, A., H. Friedli, E. Moore, H. Lotscher, H. Oeschger, U. Siegenthaler, and B. Stauffer.1944.)

Fig. 3: The above graph illustrates the rise in atmospheric carbon dioxide from 1744 to 2005. Note that the increase in carbon dioside’s concentration in the atmosphere has been exponential during the period examined. An extrapolation into the immediate future would suggest continued increases

PATEL et al., Curr. World Environ., Vol. 6(2), 217-223 (2011) tried to also link sunspots to climatic change. Sunspots are huge magnetic storms that are seen as dark (cooler) areas on the Sun’s surface. The number and size of sunspots show cyclical patterns, reaching amaximum abot every 11, 90, and 180 years. The decrease in solar energy observed in the early 1980s correspond to a period maximum sunspot activity based on the 11 year cycle. In addition, measurements made with a solar telescope from 1976 to 1980 showed that during this period, as the number and size of sunspots increased, the Sun’s surface cooled by about 6 Celsius. Apparently, the sunspots prevented some of the Sun’s energy from leaving its surface. However, these findings tend to contradict observations made on longer times scales.

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Observations of the sun during the middle of the Little Ice Age(1650 to 1750) indicated that very little sunspot activity was occurring on the Sun’s surface. The Little Ice Age was a time of a much cooler global climate and some scientists correlate this occurrence with a reduction in solar activity over a period of 90 or 180 years. Measurements have shown that these 90 and 180 year cycles influence the amplitude of the 11 year sunspot cycle. It is hypothesized that during times of low amplitude, like the Maunder Minimum, the Sun’s output of radiation is reduced. Observations by astronomers during this period(1645 to1715) noticed very little sunpot activity occurring on the Sun. During periods of maximum sunspot activity, the Sun;s magnetic field is strong. When sunspot activity is low, the Sun’s

Fig. 4:

Fig. 5: Impact of climate change on ecosystems

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magnetic field weakens. The magnetic field of the sun also reverses every 22 years, during a sunspot minimum. Some scientists believe that the periodic droughts on the Great Plains of the United States are in some way correlated with this 22 year cycle. Effects of climate change today Over 100 years ago, people worldwide began burning more coal and oil for homes, factories, and transportation. Burning these fossil fuels releases carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases into the atmosphere. These added greenhouses gases have caused Earth to warm quickly than it has in the past. How much warmng has happened? Scientists from around the world with the Intergovernmental panel on Climate Change (IPCC) tell us that during the past 100 years, theworldâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s surface air temperatureincreased an average of 0.6 Celsius (1.1 F). This may not sound like very much change, but even one degree can affect the Earth. Below are some effects of climate change that we see happening now. Sea level is rising During the 20th century, sea level rose about 15 cm (6 inches) due to melting glacier ice and expansion of warmer seawater. Models predict that sea level may rise as much as 59cm (23 inches) during the 21 st Century, threatening coastal communities, wetlands, and coral reefs. Arctic sea ice is melting The summer thickness of sea ice is about half of what it was in 1950. Melting ice may lead to changes in ocean circulation. Plus melting sea ice is speeding up warming in the Arctic. Glaciers and permafrost are melting Over the past 100 years, mountain glaciers in all areas of the world have decreased in size and so has the amount of permafrost in the Arctic. Greenlandâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s ice sheet is melting faster too. Sea-surface temperatures are warming Warmer waters in the shallow oceans have contributed to the death of about a quarter of the worldâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s coral reefs in the last few decades. Many

of the coral animals died after weakened by bleaching, a process tied to warmed waters. Heavier rainfall cause flooding in many regions Warmer temperatures have led to more intense rainfall events in some areas. This can cause flooding. Extreme drought is increasing Higher temperatures cause a higher rate of evaporation and more drought in some areas of the world. Ecosystems are changing As temperatures warm, species may either move to a cooler habitat or die. Species that are particularly vulnerable include endangered species, coral rees, and polar animals. Warming has also caused changes in the timing of spring events and the length of the growing season. Impact of climate change on ecosystems a. Increased warmth has also affected living things. For example, the Japanese keep very detailed records on the blossoming of their Tokyo cherry trees, so they know they are blooming 5 days earlier on average than they were 50 years ago. b. Also mosquitoes, birds, and insects are moving north in the Northern Hemisphere. c. A warming planet means continuing changes in its ecosystems. As the oceans absorb more carbon dioxide, the chemistry of the ocean changes, putting many sea creatures at risk. d. The increases of 5-20% in crop yields in the first decades of this century. but the crops will be more prone to failure if climate variability increases and precipitation becomes less dependable. And ironically, with higher temperatures comes an increased potential for killing freezes. This is because plants start growing earlier, making them more vulnerable to sudden spring-time cold spells. e. More frequent heat waves: It is likely that heat waves have become more common in more areas of the world. f. Warmer temperatures affect human health: There have been more deaths due to heat

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waves and more allergy attacks as the pollensean season grows longer. There have also been some changes in the ranges of animals that carry disease like mosquitoes. Seawater is becoming more acidic: Carbon dioxide dissolving into the oceans, is making seawater more acidic. There could be impacts on coral reefs and other marine life. CONCLUSION Most of the observed increase in globally

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averaged temperatures since the mid-20th century is very likely [i.e. greater than 90% certainty] due to the observed increase in anthropogenic greenhouse gas concentrations. This is an advance since the [2001 IPCC report] conclusion that â&#x20AC;&#x153;most of the observed warming over the last 50 years is likely to have been due to the increase in greenhouse gas concentrationsâ&#x20AC;?. Discernible human influences now extend to other aspects of climate, including ocean warming, continentalaverage temperatures, temperature extremes and wind patterns.(IPCC 2010)

REFERENCES

J Hansen, L Nazarenko, R Ruedy, MSato, j Willis, A Del Genio, D Koch, A Lacis, K Lo, S Menon, T Novakov, j Perlwitz, G Russell, G A Schmidt, N Tausnev. Science, 308: 1431 (2005).

P Brohan, jj Kennedy, I Haris, S F B Tett, P D jones. Journal of geophysical Research, 111: D12106 (2006). J R Christy, R W Spencer. Science, 310: 972 (2005).

Current World Environment

Vol. 6(2), 225-231 (2011)

Water Quality Index (W.Q.I.) of Pariyej Lake Dist. Kheda - Gujarat F.J. THAKOR¹*, D.K. BHOI2, H.R. DABHI3, S.N. PANDYA1 and NIKITARAJ B. CHAUHAN4 1 Department of Biology, 2Department of Chemistry, J. & J. College of Science, Nadiad, Dist. Kheda, Gujarat - 387 001 (India). 3 Department of Chemistry, Navjivan Science College, Dahod. Dist. Dahod, Gujarat - 389 151 (India). 5 Department of Biology, Ashok and Rita Institute of Integrated Study and Research in Biotechnology, V.V. Nagbar, Dist. Anand, Gujarat (India). *Corresponding author: E-mail : fulsangjithakor@yahoo.co.in

(Received: April 04, 2011; Accepted: May 08, 2011) ABSTRACT The present study calculates the Water Quality Index (W.Q.I.) of Pariyej Lake and assesses the impact of industries, agriculture and human activities. Physico – chemical parameters were monitored for the calculation of W.Q.I. for the rainy, winter and summer seasons. The parameters namely PH, Total hardness, TDS, Calcium, Chloride, Nitrate, Sulphate, DO and BOD values were within the permissible limits. But total alkalinities and magnesium values were exceeding the permissible limits as prescribed by Indian Standards. However, the W.Q.I. values in the present investigation were reported to be less than 75 (67.20, 68.43 and 70.37) for different season indicating that the water quality is poor and not totally safe for human consumption.

Key words: Pariyej Lake, Physico-chemical parameters, Water Quality Index, Drinking water quality.

INTRODUCTION The use of fertilizers, pesticides and manure are main source of water pollution in this area. Water is one of the most important factor for every living organism on this planet. Water is generally used for drinking, fisheries and other domestic purposes in this area. The available fresh water to man is hardly 0.3 to 0.5% of the total water available on the earth and therefore its judicious use in imperative. Lakes are one of the important water resources used for irrigation, drinking, fisheries and flood control purposes. (Adarsh kumar et al. 2006). On the other hand, lakes also provide a habitat for invertebrates, fishes and aquatic birds. Therefore scientific study needs to review strategies for conservation and better utilization of lakes. It is with this background, the present work was undertaken between Dec. 20009 to Jan. 2010. Water quality index (W.Q.I.) provides a single number that expresses overall water quality at a

certain location and time, based on several water quality parameters. The objective of water quality index is to turn complex water quality data into information that is understandable and used by the public. A single number cannot tell the whole story of water quality parameters that are not included in the index. However, a water quality index based on some very important parameters can provide a single indicator of water quality. In general, water quality indices incorporate data from multiple water quality parameters into a mathematical equation that rates the health of a lake with number. Study Area Pariyej lake is big in size covers an area of about 361 ha. It is situated at a distance of about 25 km from Nadiad and comes under Kheda district. It receives rain water from surrounding area and fresh water from Mahi channel. It is located in 220 32’N latitude and 720 37’E longitude. Pariyej lake is old and man made reservoir. The water is used for

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drinking, fisheries, agriculture and domestic purposes. The study was carried out for one year period during Dec. 2009 to Jan. 2010. Methodology : The water sample from the lake were collected at an interval of 30 days and analysed for 11 physico – chemical parameters by following the established procedures. The parameters P H and dissolved oxygen were monitored at the sampling site and other parameters like total dissolved solids, total alkalinity, total hardness, calcium, magnesium, chloride, nitrate, sulphate and biological oxygen demand were analysed in ht elaboratory as per the standard procedures of APHA (2005) and D. K. Bhoi (2004). In this study for the calculation of water quality index eleven important parameters were chosen. The W.Q.I. has been calculated by using the standards of drinking water quality recommended by the World Health Organisation (WHO), Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) and Indian Council for Medical Research (ICMR). The weighted arithmetic index method (Brown et. al.) has been used for the calculation of WQI of the lake. Further quality rating or sub index (qn) was calculated using the following expression.

Wn = K / Sn. Where Wn = Unit weight for the nth parameter. Sn = Standard value for nth parameter. K = Constant for proportionality. The overall Water Quality Index (W.Q.I.) was calculated by aggregating the quality rating with the unit weight linearly.

DISCUSSION

Water quality index of the present lake is established from important various physico – chemical parameters in different seasons. The values of various physico – chemical parameters for calculation of water quality index are presented in Table 3. Season wise water quality index calculations are depicted in the Table 4,5 and 6. The water quality index obtained for the lake in of study period i.e., rainy season, ∴different W .Q.I .seasons = qnWn Wn season are 67.21, 68.43 winter season and summer and 70.37 respectively which indicate the poor quality of water (Chatterji and Raziuddin 2002). This Vn − V10 qn = 100 water quality rating study clearly shows that, the Sn − V10 status of the water body is eutropic and it is unsuitable for the human use. It is also observed Where, that the pollution load is relatively higher during qn = Quality rating for the n th water quality summer season when compared to the winter and parameter. rainy season. The above water quality is also Vn = Estimated value of the nth parameter at a given supported by the following physico – chemical sampling station. parameters variations observed during the different Sn = Standard permissible value of the n th seasons of the study. parameter. V10 = Ideal value of nth parameter in a pure water. PH

[

]

[

∑

]

Ideal value in most cases V10 = 0 except in certain parameters like PH and dissolved oxygen. Calculation of quality rating for PH and DO (V10 ≠ 0 ) is 7.0 and 14.6 mg/L respectively. Unit weight was calculated by a value inversely proportional to the recommended standard values Sn of the corresponding parameters.

PH is one of the most important factors that server as an index for the pollution. The average PH values of the lake water was 7.2 during rainy season, 7.7 during winter season and 8.0 during summer season. The PH of water was relatively high in the summer season and low in monsoon and winter season. However, when the average values for three seasons are taken into account the water body was found to be slightly alkaline. Swarnalatha and Mazasingcerao (1993) and sinha (1995). The

THAKOR et al., Curr. World Environ., Vol. 6(2), 225-231 (2011) alkaline nature of water was a characteristic throughout the study period with slight seasonal variation at the lake. In the present investigation PH values were within the ICMR standards (7.8 – 8.5) T.D.S. The total dissolved solids in water of Pariyej lake was266 mg/L during rainy season, 250 mg/L during winter season and 237.5 mg/L during summer season. The concentration is high during rainy season, which may be due to addition of solids from run off water, sewage and industrial effluents to the lake. Gupta and Singh (2000) also reported high concentration of TDS in the Damodar river due to mixing of sewage and industrial water. Total Alkalinity Alkalinity value less than 100 mg/L is desirable for domestic use. According to USPHA the maximum permissible limit is 120 mg/L. The observed average value of total alkalinity was 110 mg/L during rainy season, 115 mg/L during winter season and 136 mg/L in summer season. Total alkalinity values in our observations indicated that the water was hard. Higher values of alkalinity registered during summer might be due to the presence of excess of free CO2 product as a result of decomposition process coupled with the mixing of sewage and domestic waste. The low alkalinity during rainy season may be due to dilution. Jain et. al (1996) also reported similar finding in the study of the Halali Reservoir.

Total Hardness The observed average total hardness value was 154 mg/L during rainy season, 162 mg/L during winter season and 170 mg/L during summer season, Higher values of hardness during summer can be attributed to low water level and high rate of evaporation of water and addition of calcium an d magnesium salts. Mohanta and Patru (2000) stated that addition of sewage, detergents and large scale human use might be the cause of elevation of hardness. Kannan (1991) has classified water on the basis of hardness values in the following manner, 0 – 60 mg/L soft, 61 – 120 mg/L Moderately hard, 121 – 160 mg/L. hard and greater than as 180 mg/ L very hard. Pariyej lake water was moderately hard but the hardness values were in permissible limits. Hardness below 300 mg/L is considered potable but beyond this limit produces gastrointestinal irritation, (ICMR, 1975). Table 1: Water Quality Index (W.Q.I.) and status of water quality (Chatterji and Raziuddin 2002) Water Quality Index

Water Quality Status

0-25 26-50 51-75 76-100 > 100

Excellent Water Quality Good Water Quality Poor Water Quality Very Poor Water Quality Unfit for drinking

Table 2: Drinking Water standards recommending agencies and unit weight (All values except PH is in mg/L.)

PH Total Alkalinity Total Hardness T.D.S. Calcium Magnesium Chloride Nitrate Sulphate D.O. B.O.D.

227

Standards

Recommended Agency

Unit Weight

6.5 - 8.5 120 300 500 75 30 250 45 150 5.0 5.0

ICMR / BIS ICMR ICMR / BIS ICR / BIS ICMR / BIS ICMR / BIS ICMR ICMR / BIS ICMR / BIS ICMR / BIS ICMR

0.2190 0.0155 0.0062 0.0037 0.025 0.062 0.0074 0.0413 0.0124 0..723 0.3723

THAKOR et al., Curr. World Environ., Vol. 6(2), 225-231 (2011)

228

Calcium & Magnesium The observed average value of calcium was 36 mg/L during rainy season, 41 mg/L during winter season and 47 mg/L during summer season. The quantities of calcium in natural water depend upon the type of rocks. Small concentration of calcium is reducing corrosion in water pipes. While the observed average value of magnesium was 26 mg/L during rainy season, 29.5 mg/L during winter season and 33 mg/L during summer season. Magnesium hardness particularly associated with

the sulphate ion has laxative effect on persons un accustomed to it (Khursid, 1998). Chloride Chloride occurs in all types of natural waters. The high concentration of chloride is considered to be an indication of pollution due to high organic waste of animal origin (Singh, 1995). Chloride value obtained in the study was 29.6 mg/ L during rainy season, 33.3 mg/L during winter season and 43.5 mg/L in summer season. The

Table 3: Seasonal variations of the physico -chemical parameters of the Water body (All values except PH is in mg/L.) Rainy Season PH Total Alkalinity Total Hardness T.D.S. Calcium Magnesium Chloride Nitrate Sulphate D.O. B.O.D.

7.7 110 154 266 36 26 29.6 16 14 5.9 4.3

Winter Season 7.7 115 152 250 41 29.5 33.3 qnWn Qn = 22 = = ∑∑WnQn Wn ∑18 5.4 3.9

Summer Season 8.0 136 170 237.5 47 33 43.5 27 23.4 4.9 3.6

Table 4: Calculation of water quality index in Rainy season

PH Total Alkalinity Total Hardness T.D.S. Calcium Magnesium Chloride Nitrate Sulphate D.O. B.O.D.

Observed Values (Vn)

Standard Values(Sn)

Unit Weight (Wn)

Quality Rating(Qn)

WnQn

7.2 110 154 266 36 26 29.6 16 14 5.9 4.3

6.5 – 8.5 120 300 500 75 30 250 45 150 05 05

0.2188 0.0155 0.0062 0.0037 1.025 0.061 0.0074 0.0413 0.124 0.372 0.372

2.35 91.66 51.33 5.32 48 86.66 11.84 35.55 9.33 90.62 86

0.514 1.42 0.318 0.196 1.2 5.28 0.087 1.46 0.115 33.71 31.99

∑Wn = 1.135 Water Quality Index

67.21

518.66

=76.29

THAKOR et al., Curr. World Environ., Vol. 6(2), 225-231 (2011) chloride in Pariyej lake water was found within the acceptable limit of 250 mg/L. In natural surface water the concentration of chloride was normally low. Nitrate Nitrate is the most important nutrient in an ecosystem. Generally water bodies polluted by

229

organic matter exhibit higher values of nitrate. Nitrate value obtained in the study was 16 mg/L during rainy season, 22 mg/L during winter season and 27 mg/L during summer season. In the present study water samples of all the seasons showed low concentration of nitrate well below permissible levels as per the standards.

Table 5: Calculation of water quality index in Winter season

PH Total Alkalinity Total Hardness T.D.S. Calcium Magnesium Chloride Nitrate Sulphate D.O. B.O.D.

Observed Values (Vn)

Standard Values(Sn)

Unit Weight (Wn)

Quality Rating(Qn)

WnQn

7.7 115 162 250 41 29.5 33.3 22 18 5.4 3.9

6.5 - 8.5 120 300 500 75 30 250 45 150 05 05

0.2188 0.0155 0.0062 0.0037 0.025 0.061 0.0074 0.0413 0.0124 0.372 0.372

8.23 95.83 54 50 54.66 98.33 13.32 48.88 12 108 78

1.80 1.48 0.334 0.185 1.36 5.99 0.098 2.018 0.148 35.26 29.01

∑ ∑

qnWn Qn === Wn Qn ∑∑WnQn = WnQn

Water Quality Index

∑ Wn1.135

621.25

=77.01

68.73

Table 6: Calculation of water quality index in Summer season

PH Total Alkalinity Total Hardness T.D.S. Calcium Magnesium Chloride Nitrate Sulphate D.O. B.O.D.

Observed Values (Vn)

Standard Values(Sn)

Unit Weight (Wn)

Quality Rating(Qn)

WnQn

8 136 170 237.5 47 33 43.5 27 23.4 4.9 3.6

6.5 - 8.5 120 300 5200 75 30 250 145 150 05 05

0.2188 0.0155 0.0062 0.0037 1.0258 0.061 0.0074 0.0413 0.0124 0.372 0.372

11.76 1113.33 586.66 47.5 62.66 110 17.4 60 15.6 100 72

2.57 1.75 0.351 0.175 1.56 6.71 0.128 2.47 .0193 37.2 26.78

1.135

Water Quality Index

70.37

666.91

=79.88

230

THAKOR et al., Curr. World Environ., Vol. 6(2), 225-231 (2011)

Fig. 1: Sulphate Sulphate ion does not effect the taste of water if present in low concentration. The sulphate ion concentration in 14 mg/L during rainy season, 18 mg/L during winter season and 23.4 mg/L during summer season. The sulphate in Pariyej lake water was found within the acceptable limit of 150 mg/L. DO The average dissolved oxygen was 5.9 mg/ L during rainy season, 5.4 mg/L during winter season and 4.9 mg/L during summer season. The maximum dissolved oxygen in the water of Pariyej lake was recorded in rainy season. Thereafter it started declining gradually and in summer reached the lowest concentration. This can be attributed to addition of effluents containing oxidizable organic matter and consequent biodegradation and decay of vegetation at higher temperature leading to consumption of oxygen from water. Concentration below 5 mg/L may adversely affect the functioning and survival of biological communities and below 2 mg/L may lead to fish mortality. Water without adequate DO may

be considered waste water. Presence of DO in water may be due to direct diffusion from air and photosynthetic activity of autotrophs. (Shanthi et al. 2002). The DO values obtained in the present study are slightly increased compared to ICMR standards. BOD BOD is the measurement of the amount of biologically oxidizable organic matter present in the waste. The increased levels of BOD indicated the nature of chemical pollution. The average BOD was 4.3 mg/L during rainy season, 3.9 mg/L during winter season and 3.6 mg/L during summer season. The BOD values obtained in the present study are within the ICMR standards. CONCLUSION Some of the samples have Total alkalinity and Magnesium values exceeding the permissible limits as prescribed by Indian standards. However, the WQI values in the present investigation are reported to be less than 75 (67.201, 68.43 and 70.37) for different season indicating that the water quality is poor and not totally safe for human consumption.

THAKOR et al., Curr. World Environ., Vol. 6(2), 225-231 (2011)

231

REFERENCES

APHA. Standard methods for examination of water and waste water. 21st Edn. Washington D.C. (2005). Adarsh kumar, T. A. Qureshi, Alka Parashar and R. S. Patiyal., Seasonal variation in physico-chemical characteristics of Ranjit Sagar reservoir, Jammu and Kashmir, J. Echophysiol. Occup. Hlth. 6 (2006). BIS. Analysis of water and waste water. Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi. (1993). BIS Standards of water for drinking and other purposes Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi. (1993). Brown, R. M. N. J. McCleiland, R. A. Deininger and M. F. O. Connor. A water quality index – crossing the psychological barrier (Jankis, S. H. ed.) Proc. Int. Conf. on Water Poll. Res. Jerusalem, 6: 787-797 (1972). Chandaluri Subba Rao, B. Sreenivasa Rao, A.V.L.N.S.H. Hariharan and Manjula Bharathi. Determination of Water Quality Index of some areas in Guntur District Andhra Pradesh. IJAGPT Vol (I) P. 79-86 (2010). Chaterjee, C. and Razuddin, M. Deter mination of Water Quality Index (W.Q.I.) of a degraded river in Asanil Industrial area, Ranigunj, Burdwan, West Bengal Nature, Environment and Pollution Technology, 1(2): 181-189 (2002). D.K. Bhoi, D.S. Raj, Y.M. Mehta, M. T. Machhar and M. D. Chauhan. Oriental Jaurnal chemistry 20(2): 361-364 (2004). Gupta B. K. and G. Singh. Damodar river water quality status along Dugda – Sindri industrial belt of Jharia coalfield, in: Pollution and Biomonitoring of Indian Rivers, ABD Publication, JMaipur, 58 – 69 (2000).

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ICMR Manual of standards of quality for drinking water supplies. ICMR, New Delhi. (1975). Jain S. M., Meenakshi Sharma and Ramesh Thakur. Seasonal variation in Physico – chemical parameters of Halali reservoir of Vidisha district, Indian Journal of Ecobiology 8:3, 81 – 188 (1996). Kannan, K., Fundamentals of Environmental Pollution. S. Chand and Company Ltd. New Delhi (1991). Khursid. S, Zaheeruddin and A. Basheer. Ind. J. Env. Prot. 18(4): 246-249 (1998). Mahanta H., S.S. Dhillon, K. S. Bath and G Mander. Abiotic and biotic components of a freshwater pondof Patiala (Punjab), Polln. Res. 15(3): 253-256 (1996). Shanthik, P Ramaswamy and Lashman Perumalswamy. Hydrological study of Singanallur lake of Coimbatore, Nature Environment & Pollution Technology, 1(2): 97 -101 (2002). Singh, J. P. and P. K. Ray., Limno Biotic Investigation of Kawar lake, Begusarai, Bihar. (Environment and Ecology) 13(2): 330-335 (1995). Sinha S. K. Potability of some rural pond water at Muzaffarpur (Bihar). A note of water quality index, J. Pollution Research, 14(1):135-140 (19945). Swarnalatha, N. and A. Narasingrao., Ecological investigation of two lentic environments with reference to cyanobacteria and water pollution. Indian J. Microbiol. Ecol. 3: 41-48 (1993). WHO. International Standards for Drinking Water. World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland (1992).

Current World Environment

Vol. 6(2), 233-239 (2011)

Distribution of Phytoplankton and Artemia in the Solar Salterns at Tuticorin D. RADHIKA, C. VEERABAHU and J. NAGARAJAN ¹Department of Zoology, V.O. Chidambaram College, Tuticorin (India). Corresponding author: E-mail: drradhi24@gmail.com (Received: June 12, 2011; Accepted: July 18, 2011) ABSTRACT Salt pan ecosystem of Tuticorin was studied for the distribution of Phytoplankton in two condenser ponds in a particular station, where artemia population was very high. This was monitored for one year in two ponds. Physico chemical parameters were also studied. The population of Bacillariophyceae dominated during monsoon season. Chlorophyceae was high during summer. Phytoplankton density was correlated with artemia population. Artemia biomass was at a maximum during monsoon when the species The occurrence of Rodophyceae was noted in premonsoon season, while Erythrophyceae was recorded in summer.

Key words: Saltpan, Phytoplankton, Artemia, Biomass.

INTRODUCTION

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Saltpan ecosystem is highly dynamic where the organisms are subjected to vulnerable physico chemical disturbances. Saltpans are unique enclosed ecosystem that are characteristically exposed to a wide range of environmental stress and perturbations manifest mainly through salinity changes. In the extreme astatic physico – chemical conditions of these hypersaline habitats only a few plant and animal species can live. Saltpan ecosystem offers a number of unique ecological niches having a strange combination of environmental factors. The nutrient rich seawater in saltworks favours algal blooms in reservoirs and evaporators. In the present study the distribution of phytoplanktons and artemia along with physico chemical parameters were studied at two different ponds of Urani salt pans. The Urani Salterns are situated near the Tuticorin new harbour area at a latitude of 08 o46’ N and 78 o08’E. It consists of separate small units used as condenser and crystallizer ponds. Two such condenser ponds of salinity of 120 ppt was chosen for the present study.

The availability of phytoplanktons and water quality parameters were studied for a period of one year (from Jan to Dec of 2009) in two ponds. The ponds were named I and II. Water samples were collected and the parameters such as Temperature, Salinity, Suspended soils, Dissolved O2, pH, Phosphates, Magnesium, Potassium, Calcium and Chloride were estimated. For phytoplankton collections, the water samples were collected in one litre polyethylene bottles and preserved with 4% formalin. Water samples for chemical parameters were analysed as per Strickland and Parson method. For the estimation of salinity, the seawater was diluted using distilled water and then analysed. Phytoplankton samples were collected by filtering 100 litres of water through a plankton net having a mesh size of 10µm (Hecky and Kilham, 1973; post et al., 1983; Robert and Peter, 1973, Wongrat, 1986)

234

RADHIKA et al., Curr. World Environ., Vol. 6(2), 233-239 (2011)

The Phytoplanktons were analysed under a microscope and their identifications were noted. The planktons belonging to family Bacillariophyceae, Chlorophyceae, Cyanophyceae, Erythophyceae and Rhodophyceae were identified. The population of Artemia in the two ponds was studied using the method of Peter Sorgeloss (1989) RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Water Quality Basically the temperature of the water reflected the air temperature or the atmospheric temperature. A highest of 34°C was recorded in December. The water temperature was minimum (25°C) in February and the peak was during August (33°C). Soil temperature was also high during the premonsoon period of June (44°C). The PH was moderate within a range of 7.1 to 8.3. Not much fluctuation was noticed in salinity, the highest value of 13% was observed in the premonsoon period and the lowest of 10% in the post monsoon period in Dec. There was no significant change in the suspended soils, the average being 7.5m g/l. Dissolved oxygen levels also remained the same, while phosphate showed a value of 0.01 to 0.02 through the year. Magnesium level showed a peak during (0.99) July and a drop (0.1) during the post monsoon period. There was an inverse relationship in the availability of Potassium and Calcium. When the Potassium was at maximum (0.99 in April) the Calcium was low (0.1) during the same period. When the calcium level was high. (0.75 in June) the Potassium level was lowest. The occurrence of Chloride Concentration was also maximum during the month of March (5.0) while the lowest of 3.7 was recorded during December. Phytoplankton and artemia distribution Phytoplankton biomass in the Pond I ranged between (0.13 x 105) Nos / m3 and (2.9 x 105) Nos / m3. In pond II it ranged ranged between (0.12 x 105) Nos / m3 and (2.9 x 105) Nos / m3. The distribution of the phytoplanktons seemed to follow a pattern. In both Pond I and II when the occurrence of species belonging to Bacillariophyceae were more, during premonsoon and monsoon, species of Chlorophyceae were less. The Bacillariophyceae

were low in Summer (8%) while in Monsoon they were high (about 40%). The species of phytoplankton under Cyanophyceae were found to dominate during the monsoon season and it was low during other seasons. The group of Erythrophyceae was found to dominate in the summer season and Rodophyceae was abundant in premonsoon season. The population of ar temia was also recorded during these seasons. The population of artemia was found to be high during premonsoon, in both the ponds when the phytoplankton Chlorophyceae was found to dominate. In Pond I a very high Artemia Population (2.4 x 10 5) was recorded during premonsoon season, during which phytoplankton Bacillariphyceae species was dominant. The next higher population of artemia (2.1 and 1.8) x 105 Nos / m3 was recorded during summer season when Chlorophyceae and Erthrophyceae was high. In Pond II a high Artemia population (2.2 x 105, 1.9 x 105) was recorded during monsoon season. The phytoplankton, Bacillariophyceae and Cyanophyceae species were dominant during this season. During the summer season ar temia population of 1.4 x 105 Nos / M3 was recorded and Chlorophyceae species were dominant during this season. Chakraborti et al., (1985) reported that temperature varied from 25.6oC – 29.8oC in the brackish water. Temperature was significant at 1% level in the brackish water (Sathyajith et al., 1993). The temperature in the Veppalodai salt pan (Tuticorin) varied from 24.8oC – 30.7oC. (Bensam et al., 1975). The salinity values ranged from 22.4% - 29.2% in the Veppalodai salterns and the pH value was in the ranges between 7.9 – 8.25. (Marichamy et al., 1987). Dissolved oxygen varied from 3.3 – 4 ppm in Tuticorin Salt pan. (Gopalakrishnan et al., 1994) as also noted in the present study. The phosphate concentration showed an increase in the salt lagoons. Phosphate in the soil phase was more than 1.32 mg.100g. Magnesium hardness was found to increase with salinity. The maximum concentration

Water Temp. (째C)

Salinity

Suspended solids (mg/l) 7.8

31 8.2

33 8.1

32 8.3

4.9

Chloride (Cl)

4.8

4.7

0.3

0.4

Calcium (Ca)

4.5

7.6 4.4

7.5 4.6

8.2 4.5

8.2

12 11.5 12.5 12

4.1

8.2

4.2

8.2

7.8

7.9

8.3

32 8

A2 28

38 7.8

33 7.5

34 8.1

33 7.4

4.1

4.2

7.8

8.2

4.1

4.8

0.3 5

0.2 3.7

0.1 3.9

3.6

4.6

4.9

0.1 0.75 0.78 0.3

4.6

0.3

0.2

4.6

0.2

4.8

0.1

4.2

7.8

10 4.2

7.5

0.1 0.92 0.92

7.6

32 7.5

7.1

4.1

7.6

0.9 0.92

4.1

7.6

10.5 10

7.2

25.5

Dec

0.9

4.1

7.5

7.2

4.6

4.9

4.4

3.7

4.4

4.8

3.7

0.1 0.87 0.76 0.75 0.79 0.74 0.75 0.75 0.75

0.1 0.89 0.86 0.86 0.89 0.97 0.95

7.8

13 12.5 12 11.5 11 10.5 10

8.3

28.5

33 32.5 29 29.5 28 28.5

0.1 0.98 0.98 0.99 0.92 0.1 0.93 0.89 0.75 0.87 0.89 0.9 0.91 0.1

4.4

40 8.3

29.5

Nov

0.01 0.01 0.99 0.99 0.91 0.91 0.92 0.99 0.01 0.91 0.89 0.79 0.99 0.91 0.91 0.91 0.91 0.1

0.89 0.89 0.9

4.4

35 7.6

32 32.5 33

Oct

Magnesium (Mg)

4.5

8.2

Sept

4.6

10. Potassium (K)

4.6

8.3

Aug

0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.01

8.2

July

Diss O2

8.2

June

29 31.5 29.5 32.5 33

May

PO4

7.5

7.8

April

4.6

27 26.5 27

Mar

11 11.5 11 12.5 11

7.9

Feb

7.8

Soil Temp. (째C)

26.5

Air Temp. (째C)

Jan

Parameters

Table 1: Different water quality parameters in Urani saltpan

RADHIKA et al., Curr. World Environ., Vol. 6(2), 233-239 (2011) 235

236

RADHIKA et al., Curr. World Environ., Vol. 6(2), 233-239 (2011)

Fig. 1: Distribution of Phytopalnkton and Artemia population - A1

Fig. 2: Distribution of Phytopalnkton and Artemia population - A2

Fig. 3: Distribution of Phytopalnkton and two different stations in the Urani Salt Pan 1. Bacillariophyceae

RADHIKA et al., Curr. World Environ., Vol. 6(2), 233-239 (2011) recorded in Vedaranyan salt pan was 9679 mg/l and minimum was 1769.5 mg/l. The calcium level was lower than the magnesium concentration in the salt pans (Sundararaj et al., 2006).

237

Hydrobiological conditions of the solar salt works were influenced by the tidal Oscillations. The higher saline habitats are characterized by large tidal changes in temperature and dissolved oxygen. (Dane, 1981).

Fig. 4: Distribution of Phytopalnkton and two different stations in the Urani Salt Pan 2. Chlorophyceae

Fig. 5: Distribution of Phytopalnkton and two different stations in the Urani Salt Pan 3. Cyanophyceae

Fig. 6: Distribution of Phytopalnkton and two different stations in the Urani Salt Pan 4. Erthrophyceae

RADHIKA et al., Curr. World Environ., Vol. 6(2), 233-239 (2011)

238

Sundararaj et al., 2006, reported the presence of the phytoplankton community Cyanophyceae, Chlorophyceae, Bacillariophyceae and Dinophyceae in Vedaranyam and Kelambakkam solar salt works. Primary producers in a saltpan ecosystem consists of phytoplankton community such as Cyanophyceae, Chlorophyceae, Bacillariyophyceae and Dinophyceae. A study of phytoplankton population revealed that the density and diversity at Kelambakkam were very poor when compared to Vedaranyam. (Sundararaj, et al., 2006)

Phytoplankton and Zooplankton characteristics of both the Vedaranyam and Kelambakkam salt pans indicated the richness of the plankton community (Mustafa 1995). Artemia sp is characteristic of hypersaline water and is well adapted to saltpan ecosystem through its ability to Osmoregulation, utilization of oxygen at low level via haemoglobin and tolerance for a broad temperature range, It was observed that p H, nutrients and predominance of selective phytoplankton as food like Dunaliella salina were some of the important factors controlling the distribution of Artemia in a saltpan ecosystem. (Mustafa., 1995).

Davis (1980) also reported that decrease in Artemia population when the phytoplankton population reached its maximum may be related to

Population

0 Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

July

Pond1

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

Pond2

Fig. 7: Distribution of Phytopalnkton and two different stations in the Urani Salt Pan 5. Rodophyeae 25

Population

0 Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Pond1

July

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

Pond2

Fig. 8: Distribution of Phytopalnkton and two different stations in the Urani Salt Pan 3. others

RADHIKA et al., Curr. World Environ., Vol. 6(2), 233-239 (2011) the appearance f predators and competitors like amphipods, copepods, larvae and juveniles of crustaceans and molluscs at low salinities and the presence of migratory birds including flamingos. The same condition was also observed in the present study during summer. But during the monsoon the phytoplankton was found to decrease but the artemia population was the highest level

239

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The first author is indebted to Department of Science and Technology for the project sanctioned by them during which the work has been carried out.

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17.

Infor. Serv. T & E Se. No. 70: 1-7 1986. Mustafa, S., Ecology of Plankton from saltpans along the Coastal Environment of Bombay, Ph.D. thesis University of Bombay, India (1995). Mustafa, S., Vijayalakshmi R. Nair and K. Govindan., Zooplankton Community of Bhayandar and Thane saltpans around Bombay. Indian Journal of Marine Sciences 28: 184-191 (1999). Post, F.J., Borowitzka L.J. Mackay B. and Moulton. T., The Protozoa of a western Australian hypersaline lagoon, hydrobiologies 105: 95-113 (1983). Robert, E.H. and Peter. K., Diatoms in alkaline saline lakes: Ecology and geochemical implication. Limnol and Oceangr. 19(1): 53-71 (1973). Sathyajith, D. and Simpson Manickam, P.E., Studies on the interstitial salinity and related Environmental Parameters of certain Brackish water prawn culture ecosystem, CMFRI, Spl. Publication, 55: 115-121 (1993). Sorgeloos, P. Lavens, P., Leger, P., Tackaert, W. and Versichele, D., Manual for the culture and use of the Brine Shrimp Artemia in Aquaculture. Artemia Reference Centre. State University of Ghent, Belgium (1986). Sundararaj, T.D., Ambika Devi, M. C. Shanmugasundaram and Abdul A. Rahman, Dynamics of Soalr saltworks ecosystem in India proceedings of the 1st International Conference on the Ecological Importance of Solar saltworks. (CEISSAo6) 122 (2006). Wongrat, L., Biological analysis of Artemia culture from salt cum Artemia farm. National Artemia Reference Centre, NARC/TP/No., 38 pp (1986).

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Assessment of Replacement Cost of Soil Erosion in Uva High Lands Tea Plantations of Sri Lanka PRASAD DHARMASENA and M.S. BHAT Department of Geography and Regional Development, University of Kashmir, Srinagar (India). (Received: November 12, 2011; Accepted: December 17, 2011) ABSTRACT The Uva High lands tea plantations in Sri Lanka represent intermediate zone on agroclimetic classification. This study was conducted to assess the runoff, soil loss and subsequent nutrient losses from Vegetative Propagation (VP) and Old Seedling Tea (OST) plantations of Passara region of Uva high lands in Sri Lanka. Four experimental soil erosion measurement units were installed 2 each for both land categories of 25 m length and 4 m width during 2010-2011 for one successive year, from these land uses were quantified the following standard methodologies. The annual runoff soil loss of old seedling tea fields were recorded as 25.52 tons/ha/yr and VP fields were calculated as 3.41 tons/ha/yr respectively of Uva regions in Sri Lanka. Loss of N was recorded as 29.34 and 4.80 kg/ha/yr from seedling and VP tea fields respectively. Loss of P of seedling tea field was observed as 2.10 and P from VP field was 0.92 kg/ha/yr. Loss of K was calculated as 182.4 kg/ha/yr of seedling field and K was assessed in VP as 13.6 kg/ha/yr. Total loss of organic matter was evaluated as 319.01 and 60.03 kg/ha/yr seedling and VP tea fields respectively. Subsequently, Total replacement (onsite) cost of one hectare seedling tea fields was recorded as Rs. 18011.45 and the replacement cost of VP field was Rs.8270.89 with the labor charges for spreading fertilizers and repairing and maintaining costs.

Key words: Experimental plot, Land use, VP, Seedling, Soil and nutrient loss, runoff, Uva, NPK, organic matter.

INTRODUCTION Land degradations have been a major environmental issue in tea estates of Sri Lanka compared to rubber and coconut plantations. Nearly about 80% of the land is old seedling tea which is often poorly managed (Krishnaraja, 1983). Large tracts of these old seedling tea plantations have been either neglected or left for fallows. It is estimated that about 30% of the entire tea land is marginal or uneconomic in mid country. Long steeps and poor management practices are responsible for severe soil erosion on tea lands (Sivapanal.P, 1993). Early plantations industry was under the management of British planters and there were no

other parties in the industry with entitlement for the plantations. But tea industry of Sri Lanka today depends on three parties on management systems namely government tea estate, large scale private plantations and small holders. As this research concerned with large scale plantations where can be seen more seedling tea lands where is required as immediate rehabilitation and management. Seedlings tea lands of the large scale tea plantations (Special reference to the Regional Plantations Companies in Sri Lanka- RPCs) have two types of marginal lands on the definition of (Dharmasena, 2008). Those are Low productive lands, Zero productive lands. Well managed VP tea fields are ecologically and economically stabilized on records maintained by the respective plantations companies.

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Study area Study sites are based in Passara tea growing region one of controversial region in environment management of the country, is rested in eastern slopes of the central mountain of the

country. It is proved that more abandoned lands in Badulla tea region district are observed in Passara region compared with other tea growing areas of the district where boarded to two dry zone extremes.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

used for any development activity by the Central Environmental Authority and Tea Research Institute of Sri Lanka.

Four soil sedimentation plots were established in Passara of Sri Lanka in order to measure physical soil loss of two land use categories namely VP and seedling tea lands for the period of September 2010 - september2011. Two soil sedimentation plots were established in Dammeria A estate of Passara region and another two were established in Adawatte estate of Passara region. Average elevation of experimental block in Passara region is between 996m and 1120m. Soil of the site is Red Yellow Podzolic (RYP) in the experimental sites. The general elevation is laid between 889m and 1098m of these experimental sites. Slope gradient of both experimental sites are 20-30%. As more of mid country tea estates are placed between 20% and 30% land slope category (Central Environment Authority of Sri Lanka, 1998). Besides, steep slope lands are not allowed to be

All these four experimental plots were designed along the line of the experiment carried out by Jinza (1981). He designed soil erosion sedimentation plots varying for 60m2 to 200m2. Even though, this particular experiment was based on sedimentation plots introduced by Jinza(1981), Size of sedimentation plot was standardized for 100m2 of 25m length and 4 m width in the area with a regular shape and sedimentation pit was 3m x 1.5m x 2m. Entire sedimentation plot was completely covered by using high gauge galvanize sheets for ensuring the prevention of over flowing run off or water going out from the plot. Runoff water from the sedimentation plot was collected in the sedimentation pits which have been well covered using white durable polytheene.

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The sediments were dry after collecting of soil, if collecting period was rainy; until, it comes to normal moisture percentage and method is to weigh the sediment in the pit by using a commercial digital scale with acceptable accuracy; data also were collected once in two months. Deduct the moisture content to get the exact dry weight of moisture-free soil collected per pit, the results in the soil lost from 100m2 of area and is converted to determine the quantity lost from one hectare. Samples collected from each plot were tested in the laboratory to determine total loss of N, P, K and SOMâ&#x20AC;Ś.ect. The picture given below is an example of the experiment plots installed in Dammeria A estate of Passara tea region. Precipitation is measured by standard rain gauges of 200 mm tunnel diameter and recording gauges. The total amount of precipitation and the time of the start and end of each rainfall season are recorded. The distribution of precipitation with respect to time is observed mainly by recording gauges, and in places without such experimental facilities the time-dependency is obtained by taking manual readings at certain intervals. The replacement method presumes that productivity declined is restored if lost nutrients and organic matter replace artificially (Sherman, 1994). Abegunawardena and Samarakoon 1994 have applied the same methods to estimate the onsite cost of soil erosion in Sri Lanka and Korean highland areas.

The replacement cost approach is able to furnish financial values for soil loss of different land use types in both places. Loss of NPK and organic matter were calculated using current prices. Normally tea plantations in Sri Lanka use Urea and rock Phosphate and Muriate of Potash fertilizers for replacing annual nutrients loss of tea field

The replacement approach of soil erosion can be estimated by;

Soil loss measurement plots systems were used to measure soil loss in Passara region for selected land used types. Normal agricultural practices have been carried out during also the experimental period. But

RC = â&#x2C6;? RC i i=1 k

RC = (St-S(i+1)

â&#x2C6;?N P +C ij

+ Cir , i = 1.............n, j = 1.....k

j=i

Where RCi is the replacement cost of nutrients loss in the i th category lands (Rs/ha) St-S(t+1) is the soil loss from time t to t+1 (t/ha) Nij is the quantity of j th nutrients in the i th land use type (Kg/ha) Pj is the price of j th nutrient Rs/kg Cil is the cost of labour charges for spreading fertilizer, (Rs/ha) Cir is the cost of repair and maintenance damages of due to soil erosion (Rs/ha)

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Applications of manure were closed before 6 months until experiments were completed, as it is required to ensure annual loss of NPK and organic carbon. The function of soil loss measurement unit was started in same date of the region. All land use types could be selected in one division for installing soil loss measurement units as it was required to verify the degree of issue under the same independent variables. Below mention table elaborates the soil loss of 100m2 land area for the tested period.

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Soil nutrients loss is the major soil degradation issue in mountainous plantations. This hazard is occurred in due to soil degradation through soil erosion. Soil nutrient depletion is a major concern in terms of resource utilization and optimization of

production in the tea plantations. Soil and nutrient losses from plantation lands is responsible for pollution of surface waters and this reduces the productive capacity of land in direct and formation of unfavorable ecosystem is another issue related to plantation lands.

Table 1: Soil loss at 100m2 territory in Uva region for the year 2010-2011 Region

Plot No

Passara Passara Passara Passara Passara Passara Total Kg Total per Passara Passara Passara Passara Passara Passara Total Kg Total per

1 1 1 1 1 1 for 100m2 Hectare 2 2 4 4 4 4 for 100m2 hectare

Land use type

Duration

Rainfall(mm)

Soil loss (kg)

seedling seedling seedling seedling seedling seedling

Sep-Nov Nov-Jan Jan-Mar Mar-May May-Jul Julâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;Sep

394.11 562.23 184.54 587.5 165.2 138.33

Sep-Nov Nov-Jan Jan-Mar Mar-May May-Jul Julâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;Sep

394.11 562.23 184.54 587.5 165.2 138.33

47.7 35.87 32.2 77.38 27.3 35.07 255.52 25.52 tons/yr /ha 5.4 8.67 5.46 7.34 4.06 3.21 34.14 3.414 tons/yr/ha

tea tea tea tea tea tea

VP VP VP VP VP VP

Table 2: Nutrients percentage of silted soil in measurement pits Region

Composition

Passara

N (%)

P(ppm)

K(ppm)

OM (%)

Texture

Seedling Field VP Field

0.115 0.141

17 36

45 96

1.25 1.76

SC SC

4.5 4.6

Table 4: Total Replacement cost for VP and Seedlings tea plantations (Yr/Ha)

Table 3: Total Nutrients loss and current nutrients prices (Yr/Ha) Items

N(Kg) P(Kg) K(Kg) OM

4.8 0.92 13.6 60.03

Seedling

29.34 2.1 182.4 319.01

Price per Kg(Rs) 35 18 31 10

Items N(Rs) P(Rs) K(Rs) OM(Rs) Labor cost(Rs) R and M(Rs) Total (Rs)

Seedling

168 16.56 421.6 600.8 2500 4564 8271.89

1026.9 37.8 5654.4 3190.1 2500 5602.25 18011.45

DHARMASENA & BHAT, Curr. World Environ., Vol. 6(2), 241-246 (2011) Parallel to soil loss measurements tests carried out in two estates of the Uva region, has been tested nutrients loss of different land uses systems. During the period of 2010 -2011, soil loss have been measured one time for a two months and it came total of six bulks for determination of total eroded extent during the tested period. Well mixed two representative samples were collected from the soil eroded pits and 12 samples were total. After testing these 12 samples to determine total nutrients loss, it was calculated average NPK percentages, pH texture and OM percentage during the period. The following table explains the nutrients content of silted soils of the pits of two lands uses of the region. Above mentioned table shows average nutrients loss of different land use types. Soil tests were executed at six times in different 12 samples. Eventually average nutrients loss of 12 samples was calculated for representing annual loss of nutrients and finally current market prices were multiplied by total nutrients loss to determine the total annual onsite cost of VP and seedling tea fields in Uva region of Sri Lanka. Below mention tables illustrate the total nutrients loss in Sri Lankan rupees. Conclusion and Recommendation These figures illustrate that onsite cost and

245

nutrients loss is very high in land use of seedling type tea plantations. Approximate seedling tea extent of the region is reported as 11000 in hectares (Statistics division, 2009). Total onsite cost of seedling tea fields of the region is as high as Rs: 198125950.00. Vegetation cover is the ideal system for controlling the issue related tea garden of Uva region of Sri Lanka. It will also help to maintain good tea ecosystems of the region. Hence practicing of tree based mix cropping models in this region should be practiced as remedy for the issue in order to maintain stability and sustainability of tea ecosystem. Relevant authorities should take immediate action to re introduce biological soil conservations systems which have been practiced before privatization of the industry in Sri Lanka. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Authors are grateful to Mr. Jayampathy Molligoda Director of Bogawanthalawa Plantations Ltd and Mr.Nilan Liyanage Senior Superintendent of Telbedde Estate of Balangoda Plantations Ltd of Sri Lanka for their valuable contribution to the study. Authors are also thanking to all officials of Finlaysâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; Plantations PLC of Sri Lanka.

REFERENCES

Abeygunawardena, S. S., Economics of Upper Catchment Management for Irrigation Development:The case of Mahaweli Project In Sri Lanka. Proceedings of the First Annual General Meeting of Asian Society of Agricultural Economics (1994). Central Environment Authority of Sri Lanka., Optimal land use in hill country of Sri Lanka. Colombo: CEA (1998). Dharmasena, P., Agroforestry models to Improve economic viability of marginal tea lands. -: Unpublished (2008). Krishnaraja, P., Soil loss and conservation planning in tea plantations in Sri Lanka. Natural system for development , 141-161

(1983). Ministry of Plantations Industries,Sri Lanka., Plantations sector statistical book. Colombo: Planning unit, Ministry of Plantations Industries (2009). MOU, J., The establishment of experimental plots for studying runoff and soil loss in the rolling loess regions of China. Erosion and Sediment Transpor t Measurement (Proceedings of the Florence) (pp. 467-477). Zhengzhou,: IAHS Publishers (1981). Punniyawardana, B., Rainfall and Agroecological Zones in Sri Lanka. Peradeniya: Agriculture Department of Sri Lanka (2008).

246 8.

DHARMASENA & BHAT, Curr. World Environ., Vol. 6(2), 241-246 (2011) Sivapanal.P., Tea Industry in Sri Lanka. International Symposium on Tea Science and Human Health (pp. 77-85). Culculla-

India: Tea Research Association (1993). Statistics division., Tea statistics. Colombo: Sri Lanka Tea Board (2009).

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Evaluation of Seasonal Variations in Soil Parameters of Agricultural and Industrial Areas of ETAH (U.P.) AMIT DWIVEDI¹ and R.K. PANDEY² ¹Chwok Patiyali, Kanshiram Nagar - 207 243 (India). ²Department of Chemistry P.G. College Ganjdundwara, Kanshiram Nagar - 207 242 (India). ABSTRACT (Received: September 10, 2011; Accepted: November 18, 2011) A Study was carried out in agricultural areas and industrial areas of district Etah and Kanshiramnagar (Formally District Etah). The seasonally Collected samples from selected sites are investigated for moisture content, pH, Electrical Conductance and for heavy metals as Lead, Copper,Cadmium and Zinc.The all concern areas of study and investigation were found under limits.

Key words: Agricultural area, Industrial areas, Soil parameters, Heavy Metals. Etc.

INTRODUCTION Soils are basic to Civilization Supplying various economic and cultural services as well as being the subtract for plant and with water it constitute society’s most important, source as a life support system. They provide food, fiber, support building and road help to convert sunlight to usable forms of energy and other resource. Soil the outermost layers of the earth is a product of geological processes and human intervention. Soils are integral and vital part of our environment and may be defined as discrete bodies produced by interaction of climate , vegetation and surficial geological materials on earth Surface. It is composed of minerals altered physically and chemically from original bed rock, organic chemicals and biomass and pore space fill with air water and dissolved material . The quality and security of soil have always affected human civilization. Man has made soil fertile on large scale , providing more source food resource for the ever-growing population .Yet there is a good threat of soil in many instance , on marginal soils or in less resilient soil region. A good environment ethic requires equally good soil care of open spaces and forests,

woods and desert for better quality of life future generations of town country populations1. The word soil means different things to different people. It can be (I)organized body of nature (II) a Substrate for plant growth (III)physical ground on which housing industries and roads and constructed. Soils are dynamic natural bodies comprising the upper most layer of earth exhibiting distinct organization of their mineral and organic components including water and air which formed in response to atmospheric and biosphere force acting on various parent materials under diverse topographic conditions over a period of time². Metals are interinsic component of earth crust with the rapid development the evaluation of metal based industries had led to the contamination of environment and exposure of man and ecosystem to the toxic levels thus presenting a potential health hazards to man as well as wild life. Plant and animals are dependents on the soil for the supply of nitrogen and mineral elements. Essential elements can be classified in to the major elements Ca,Mg,K,Na,P and S and essential trace

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elements of micro-nutrients such as Cu,Mn,Fe,Co,Se,I and B etc.All of these elements are required for normal growth and maintenance of health in plants and animals .The Composition of plants and animals is also influenced by presence of a wide range of non - essential trace element present in the soil such as As, Cd, Pb and Hg. Total soil concentration of trace elements whether essential or nonessential vary very widely (3) and in different soils ,the level of any element may vary as much as 1000 fold. The possible variation in trace elements levels in soil are Considerably , then those of major elements. Heavy metal Contamination is a serious threat to soil quality science metals persist in the soil indefinitely common source of heavy metal contamination include applied sewage, industrial wastes etc . Heavy metal contamination in known to have adverse effect on soil biological functions, including the size , activity and diversity of soil microbial community (4,5&6).There is strong evidence that soil microbes are more sensitive to heavy metal contamination than crop plants and animals (7). Nevertheless ,minimization of metal transfer from soil is an important consideration since accumulation of metals for human health issue(8). Critical allowable levels for heavy metal loadings to soils and limits for heavy metal concentrations have been set in the Russian Federation by state Committee for hygiene (9)and in most other parts of the world (8,10).PhysicoChemical and biological properties of soil govern the gaseous transfer water movements ,plant growth and decomposition of complex organic substance in it, any alteration in these properties due to industrial or anti eco activity leads to change in fertility of soil(11). The current study is based on the soil quality of industrial areas of district Etah and Kanshiram Nagar along with the Agra - Philibhit highway, around the industrial areas , residential areas ,as towns and small villages are also situated .In the study area pollution creating agents like gases , liquids and solid wastes pollute the air , water and soil of adjoining environment. Some type of industrial activities dispose solid waste effluents therefore must measure the capacity of soil to

support ecosystem functions , to substain biological productivity. Therefore the focus of soil quality in on properties or processes impacted by soil management. In this study we focus on the chemical evaluation of soil quality by examining the statistical characteristics and seasonal variations of soil samples collected from different sites . MATERIAL AND METHODS Soil sample were collected from 12 selected sites .All sites are located in areas of industrial activity and also adjoining with agricultural areas .The selected soil samples were accumulated in high quality of polythene bags and labeled properly .The soil samples were scrutinized in laboratory for some physico-chemical properties as moisture content, pH, electrical conductance and heavy metal content by employing standard method of analysis (12,13,14,15,16,17,18,19,&20) RESULTS AND DISUSSION The result of analysis of the physico chemical properties and heavy metals in soil samples are showed in given Table -1,and mean values of the physico-chemical properties in Table 2. The mean moisture contents at site 1was15.68% and ranged 13.85% to 18.16%. In site 2 the mean moisture content was 7.57% and ranged 6.14% to 9.80% Similarly at Site 3to12.The mean value of moisture Content were 9.68%, 11.50%, 8.32%, 10.43%, 16.58%, 11.60%, 5.45%, 8.89%, 8.24%, and 10.29% with the ranged 8.21% to 11.24%, 8.22% to 16.34%,7.30% to 18.21%,4.53% to 6.12%, 5.31to14.19%,5.6% to 11.42% and 7.01% to 18.39%. The mean value of pH of in site 1 was 7.79 with ranged 6.18 to 9.20.In site 2 the mean pH was 8.48 with ranged 7.43 to 9.90 similarly at site 3 to 12 the mean pH were 8.02, 9.57, 7.82, 8.17, 6.02, 8.29, 7.01, 8.83, 7.89 and 8.03 with the ranged 7.6 to 8.4 ,8.7 to 10.31,6.28 to8.12 ,7.2 to 9.2, 5.6 to 7.2, 7.33 to 9.24 ,6.35 to 7.79 ,7.86 to9.86, 7.42 to8.23 ,7.15to8.79. The electrical conductivity of site 1 ranged 3.17ds/m to 4.14ds/m with the mean value of

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Table 1: Seasonal Variation in Various Soil Quality Parameters Site

10.

11.

12.

Season

Wint Autu Summ Mons Wint Autu Summ Mons Wint Autu Summ Mons Wint Autu Summ Mons Wint Autu Summ Mons Wint Autu Summ Mons Wint Autu Summ Mons Wint Autu Summ Mons Wint Autu Summ Mons Wint Autu Summ Mons Wint Autu Summ Mons Wint Autu Summ Mons

Moisture%

16.20 18.16 14.54 13.85 7.42 6.93 6.14 9.8 9.3 8.21 9.98 11.24 11.14 10.31 8.22 16.34 7.30 7.99 7.51 10.48 10.64 8.49 10.12 12.47 20.23 15.84 11.03 19.24 10.31 9.54 8.36 18.21 6.12 5.73 4.53 5.42 9.21 6.87 5.31 14.19 8.51 7.31 5.66 11.42 8.47 7.32 7.01 18.39

6.18 7.67 9.20 8.14 7.43 9.90 8.14 8.47 7.9 8.2 7.6 8.4 9.4 8.7 9.89 10.31 8.4 8.92 7.70 6.28 8.4 9.2 7.9 7.2 5.71 5.62 5.11 7.20 7.33 9.24 7.69 8.9 6.35 7.79 7.01 6.89 9.42 9.86 8.18 7.86 8.01 8.23 7.91 7.42 8.79 7.77 8.41 7.15

E.C.ds/m

4.14 4.01 3.17 3.92 2.29 1.97 1.84 2.04 2.89 3.01 2.77 2.93 2.82 3.11 2.94 3.33 2.30 2.01 2.99 3.47 3.17 2.83 2.79 3.10 4.4 3.8 4.9 3.1 1.98 2.01 3.17 2.05 3.14 2.36 3.18 2.88 2.29 2.68 2.47 1.93 3.14 2.79 3.82 3.15 1.88 1.93 2.14 1.28

Heavy Metals in Âľg/g Lead

Copper

Cadmium

Zinc

20.72 18.36 18.47 21.92 23.11 19.82 19.74 21.31 20.10 21.14 18.99 24.33 34.13 28.39 26.14 28.20 18.16 23.94 18.32 22.10 30.18 34.31 28.49 32.51 11.20 16.61 13.84 18.63 20.41 18.74 21.30 23.43 31.80 28.60 26.13 24.29 29.31 20.20 24.13 22.61 19.40 23.66 17.09 23.14 46.34 38.46 34.31 31.38

15.63 16.22 15.01 14.14 15.01 11.41 10.32 19.29 13.22 12.14 16.17 15.34 14.61 15.18 19.12 17.73 13.91 14.28 15.17 16.49 16.61 14.71 14.22 15.31 14.91 13.30 12.41 19.06 13.18 11.31 10.11 14.17 17.31 19.44 13.23 16.81 10.21 8.63 10.21 13.14 13.11 11.43 15.21 14.18 14.11 16.42 17.61 15.21

0.89 0.70 0.62 0.76 0.94 0.78 0.93 0.72 0.52 0.67 0.55 0.72 0.91 0.87 0.74 0.89 0.69 0.53 0.48 0.57 0.89 0.69 0.72 0.57 0.85 0.93 0.69 0.59 0.36 0.41 .35 0.39 0.92 0.78 0.69 0.43 0.42 0.62 0.72 0.51 0.64 0.72 0.57 0.68 0.61 0.59 0.44 0.37

37.23 33.14 31.80 29.11 33.11 25.70 24.23 25.97 31.11 29.33 32.49 33.36 43.20 44.49 38.56 42.52 31.43 27.21 26.87 23.14 44.32 39.96 41.03 42.39 35.71 32.19 24.06 30.28 44.27 39.14 34.39 40.26 45.51 42.43 36.39 38.41 54.81 50.32 48.68 44.31 30.79 26.87 25.35 29.82 44.72 40.19 38.31 41.52

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3.81ds/m.In site 2 the mean electrical conductivity was 2.03ds/m with the ranged 1.84ds/m to 2.29ds/ m. In similar way the electrical conductivity of site 3to 12 were 2.77ds/m to 2.93ds/m, 2.82ds/m to 3.33ds/m,2.01ds/m to 3.47ds/m ,2.79ds/m to 3.17ds/ m ,3.1ds/m to 4.9ds/m ,1.98 ds/m to3.17 ds/m,2.36 ds/m to 3.18 ds/m,1.93 ds/m to 2.68 ds/m,2.79 ds/m to 3.82 ds/m and 1.28 ds/m to 2.14 ds /m, with the mean value of electrical conductivity 2.90 ds/m,3.05 ds/m,2.69 ds/m,2.97 ds/m,4.05 ds/m,2.30 ds/m, 2.89 ds/m, 2.34 ds/m, 3.22ds/m and 1.80 ds/m.

The Lead content site 1 ranged 18.3 to µg/g 21.92 µg/g with the mean value Of the 19.86 µg/g . In Site 2 the mean lead content was 20.99 µg/g ranged between 19.74 µg/g to 23.11µg/g . Similarly the lead content ranged in site 3 to 12 as fallow18.99 µg/g to 24.33 µg/g, 26.14 µg/g to 34.13µg/g ,18.17µg/g to 23.94µg/g , 28.49µg/g to 34.31µg/g ,12.20 µg/g to 18.63 µg/g, 18.74 µg/g to 23.43 µg/g ,24.29µ g/g to 31.80 µg/g, 20.20 µg/g to 29.31µg/g,, 17.09 µg/g to 23.66 µg/g , 31.38 µg/g to 46.34 µg/g with mean value of 21.14 µg/g , 29.21 µg/g , 20.63µg/g , 31.37 µg/g , 15.07 µg/g 20.97 µg/ g ,27.70 µg/g ,24.06 µg/g , 20.82 µg/g, 37.62 µg/g. The copper content at site 1 ranged 14.14 µg/g to 16.22 µg/g with the mean value of 15.25 µg/g. In site 2 mean copper content was 14.00µg/g ranged between 10.32 µg/g to 19.29 µg/g. Similarly

the copper content ranged at site 3 to 12 as follow 12.14 µg/g to 16.17 µg/g, 14.61 µg/g to 19.12 µg/g , 13.91µg/g to 16.49 µg/g , 14.71µg/g to 16.61 µg/g , 12.41µg/g to 19.06µg/g , 10.11µg/g to 14.17µg/g , 13.23 µg/g to 19.44 µg/g , 08.63 µg/g to 13.14µg/g ,11.43µg/g to 15.21µg/g and 14.11µg/g to 17.6µg/ g With mean value of copper content were 14.21µg/ g , 16.66µg/g , 14.96µg/g, 15.71µg/g, 14.92µg/g , 12.19µg/g ,16.69µg/g , 10.54µg/g , 13.48µg/g and 15.83µg/g . The cadmium content of selected site 1ranged0.62µg/g to0.89µg/g with the mean value of 0.74µg/g.In site 2 ranged 0.72µg/g to 0.94µg/g with the mean value of 0.84µg/g . In Site 3 cadmium content ranged 0.52µg/g to 0.72µg/g with the mean value of 0.61µg/g . Similarly the cadmium content ranged at Site 4 to 12 as 0.74µg/g to 0.91µg/g , 0.48µg/g to 0.69µg/g , 0.57µg/g to 0.89µg/g , 0.59µg/ g to 0.93µg/g ,0.33µg/g to 0.41µg/g ,0.43µg/g to 0.92µg/g ,0.42µg/g to 0.72µg/g , 0.57µg/g to 0.72µg/ g and 0.37µg/g to 0.61µg/g with the mean value of cadmium content as 0.85µg/g ,0.56µg/g , 0.71µg/g ,0.76µg/g ,0.37µg/g ,0.70µg/g ,0.56µg/g ,0.65µg/g and 0.50µg/g . The zinc content of site 1ranged 29.11 µg/ g to 37.23 µg/g , with mean value of 32.82 µg/g. In selected site 2 ranged 24.23 µg/g to 33.11 µg/g ,with the mean value of zinc content 27.25 µg/g. Similarly the zinc content ranged at site 3 to 12 as

Table 2: Mean Value of Various Soil Quality Parameters Site

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12.

Moisture%

15.68 7.57 9.68 11.50 8.23 10.43 16.58 11.60 5.45 8.89 8.24 10.29

7.79 8.48 8.02 9.57 7.82 8.17 6.02 8.29 7.01 8.83 7.89 8.03

E.C.ds/m

3.81 2.03 2.90 3.05 2.69 2.97 4.05 2.30 2.89 2.34 3.22 1.80

Heavy Metals in µg/g Lead

Copper

Cadmium

Zinc

19.86 20.99 21.14 29.21 20.63 31.37 15.07 20.97 27.70 24.06 20.82 37.62

15.25 14.00 14.21 16.66 14.96 15.71 14.92 12.19 16.69 10.54 13.48 15.83

0.74 0.84 0.61 0.85 0.56 0.71 0.76 0.37 0.70 0.56 0.65 0.50

32.82 27.25 31.57 41.19 27.16 41.92 30.56 39.51 40.68 49.53 28.20 41.18

DWIVEDI & PANDEY, Curr. World Environ., Vol. 6(2), 247-252 (2011) 29.33 µg/g to 33.36 µg/g , 38.56 µg/g to 43.20 µg/g ,23.14 µg/g to 27.21 µg/g , 39.96 µg/g to 44.32 µg/ g ,24.06 µg/g to 35.71 µg/g , 34.39 µg/g to 44.27 µg/ g ,36.39 µg/g to 45.51 µg/g ,44.31:g/g to 54.81 µg/ g ,25.35 µg/g to 30.79 µg/g and 38.31 µg/g to 44.72 µg/g with the mean value of zinc content as 31.57 µg/g, 41.19 µg/g , 27.16 µg/g , 41.92 µg/g , 30.56 µg/g ,39.51 µg/g , 40.68 µg/g ,49.53 µg/g ,28.20 µg/ g and 41.18 µg/g. In this study an investigation has been developed . The pH value of soil decides the nature of soil . The Study of soil pH is also important because it controls the microbial actions inside soil20.Soil pH may influence nutrient adsorption and growth of plants, pH of a good quality soil should be 7.0 but due to different type of activity on earth , alter the soil pH. In current study some soil samples have higher pH. That is alkaline in nature and they need to give gypsum for reducing alkalinity of certain areas. The conductivity of the soil sample defines the concentration of ions along with the migration when electric current is passed through the solution of soil samples. The long term industrial activity or use of sewage water have increased . The E.C. of soil and may alter the fertility of soil with the deposition of metal contamination in Soil the electrical conductivity rise up . Lead is a known cumulative poison causing acute and chronic disease manifestation in the body long -term effects of chronic lead toxicity comprise hyperactivity, renal malfunctioning mild anemia , lever cirrhosis and brain damage. In current study and investigation an irregular pattern of distribution was notice in different seasons(21). Copper is an essential

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element in the human being for metabolism .Human being especially require copper as a trace elements in the formation of R.B.C. and some enzymes . The 0.05 ppm values are not generally regarded as toxic but more than 1.5 ppm may cause sickness and in extreme cases liver damage . Copper toxicity is a fundamental cause of ‘Wilson’s disease”. The periodical decline of copper may be due to remobilization from self sediments and subsequent diffusion in to the overlying waters and release of copper from organism during degradation and decay and involvement in bio-geo-chemical cycles22. Cadmium is not highly toxic to plant at low concentration . If the cadmium is present in plant leaves, creates toxicity to animals through food chain23. Zinc is as an essential metal for life of human being as well as plant . Normally soil contains 10-300 ppm zinc with average value about 50-55 ppm while in industrial areas the value of content as 15-572 ppm. The excess of zinc compounds are corrosive to skin , eyes and other body parts. They cause a special type of dermatitis as “Zinc Pox”(22) ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The author Amit Dwivedi is highly tankfull to the Dr. R.N.Kaisarwani H.O.D.Chemistry ,P.G. college Ganjdundwara, Kanshiramnagar and Dr. Ashok Kumar H.O.D. (Retd .) Saint John’s College Agra for giving their valuable suggestions and facilities .

REFERENCES

Arnold , R.W., Soils & Man . the conflict continues, Int - Symp. Soils , Human And Environ .Z. CaO(ed), Interactions China Sci. and Technol . Press, Beijing (1998). Yaalun , DH. And Arnold .R.W., Attitude toward soils and their societal relevance: Then And Now . Soil Science 165: 15-12 (2000).

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Mitchell R. L., Trace Elements in Soils . Min Agric .(G Brit.) Tech .Bull 21: 8-20 (1971). Kandeler .E. Kampichler .C. Horak O, Influence of heavy metals on the functional devisity of soil microbial communities . Biol . Fertil . Soils 23: 299-306 (1996). Kelly J.J. Haggblom M. , Tate R.L, Effect of the land application of sewage sludge on

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DWIVEDI & PANDEY, Curr. World Environ., Vol. 6(2), 247-252 (2011) soil heavy metel concentrations. Soil Biol. Biochem 31: 1467-1470 (1999). Chander K. Dyckmans J., Joergensen R.G. Mayer B.. Roubuch M., Different source of heavy metals and their long -term effect on soil properties. Biols. Fertil Soils 34: 241-247 (2001). Giller K.E.. Witter E.. Me Grath S.P., Assessing risks of heavy metal toxicity in agricultural soils . Human Ecol Risk Assess 5: 683-689 (1999). Mc Laughlin M.J.. Hamon R.E.. Me Laren R.G.. Speir T.W, Rogers S.L., Review a bioavailability - based rationale for controlling metal and metalloid contamination of agricultural land in Australia & New Zealand .Aust .J. Soil Res 38: 1037-1086 (2000). State Committe For Hygiene, List of limit concentrations and approximate limit concentrations for chemical substance in soils - epidemiological control of the Russian Federation MosCow (1993). Ghorbain . N.R.. Salehrastion N.. Moeini A. Heavy metals affect the microbial population and their activities .Proc. 17Th World Conger. Soil Sci 2234: 1-11 (2002). Satstry K.V. . Shukla V.. Absuria S..And Pankaj Gill, Studies on impact on bicycle manufacturing industry effluents on Soils Poll. Res . 20(2): 187-192 (2001). Trivedi .. R.K. . Goel P.K. And Trishal C.L, Practical method in ecology and environmental science .Environ Media Karad ,India (1987). Tandon H.L.S., Method of analysis of soil , plants, water and fertilizers. Fertilizer development and consultation organization,

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New Delhi (1993). Tesseir ,A.. Compbell , P.G. C. And Brission , M., Sequential extraction procedure for the specification of particulate trace metals .Anal. Chem. 51: 844-850 (1979). Fronk, P.J.. Lame and Peter , Defize R. Sampling of contaminated soil , sampling error in relation to sample size and segregation. Envirum .Sci Technol 27: 2035-2044 (1993). Rouret ,G., Extraction procedure for the determination of heavy metals in contaminated soil and sediments. Talanta 46: 449 -455 (1998). A Hand Book of soil analysis (Physical and Chemical ) Method : Harold , C. Wright Hagos Press New Delhi 110032. Willand . H.M.. Merritt J.R.. Dean L.L.. Settle J.R. F.A. : Instrumental method of analysis . VII edi . C.BS publications and distributor Delhi -32. Welcher. F.J. : Standard Methods of Chemical Analysis. VI edi Van- Nostrand company Inc . Princeton ,New Jersey. Hesse , P. R., Soil Chemical Analysis. John Murray Landon (1971). Nothing R. F Helder .W. De Barar, H.J.W. & Gerringa , L.J.A, Constrasting behavior of trace metal in the scheldt estury in 1978 compared to recent years. J. Sea Res. 42(4): 275-290 (1999). Deepak, R. and Sahu, B.K., Specification of copper in surface water of rushikulya estuary east cost of India . India J. Mar. Sci. 28: 370374 (1999). Valee B.L. and Ulmer D.D., Biochemical effect of Hg , Cd and Pb. Ann. Rev. Biochem. 41: 91-128 (1972).

Current World Environment

Vol. 6(2), 253-258 (2011)

Diversity of Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi in Disturbed and Undisturbed Forests of Karbi Anglong Hill District of Assam D. SHARMAH and D.K. JHA Microbial Ecology Laboratory, Department of Botany, Gauhati University, Guwahati 781 014 (India). *Corresponding author: E-mail: dsharmah@yahoo.com (Received: June 20, 2011; Accepted: July 29, 2011) ABSTRACT Conversion of tropical forests to agricultural lands is one of the leading causes of biodiversity loss. To assess the impact of such forest conversion on microbial diversity, the present study investigated the diversity of Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi (AMF) in undisturbed forests (UF), Slash-and-Burn Fields (SBF) and Monoculture Forests (MF). The study sites are located adjacently on a hilly slope. Arbuscular Mycorrhizal (AM) fungal spores were extracted by wet-sieving and decanting technique from the three sites. A total of 12 AM fungal taxa belonging to 4 different genera were extracted and identified. Glomus was the dominant genus in all three sites. Spore density was highest in UF, lower in SBF, and lowest in MF. The high diversity of AM fungi in undisturbed forest with naturally higher plant species diversity suggested that disturbance affect the abundance and richness of arbuscular mycorrhizal spores. Our results show that the forests of Karbi Anglong Hill District of Assam contained a high AM fungal diversity and species richness. The AMF diversity is significantly affected by the land use practices practiced by the people and no step has been initiated to restore this important group of microorganisms by forest management practices.

Key words: Diversity, Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi, Glomus, Spore density, Disturbance.

INTRODUCTION Microbes are essential components of Earthâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s biota contributing to the maintenance of Earthâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s ecosystem, biosphere and biogeochemical cycling 1. Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi (AMF) belonging to the phylum Glomeromycota are ubiquitous in natural ecosystem and form mutualistic symbiotic associations with majority of terrestrial plant species 2. AMF are receiving worldwide attention because of the pivotal role they play in plant community ecology and plant productivity3. The associations are normally mutualistic, based on reciprocal exchange of resources: photosynthates from plant to fungus and soil derived limiting nutrients from fungus to plant 4 . Besides, they improve plant fitness by improving tolerance to some root pathogens, water relations and formation and stability of soil aggregates5,6. Recent experimental work has conclusively shown that increasing AMF

species richness can influence plant community structure and an increase in plant productivity and diversity7,8. Because of the beneficial effects on plant as well as soil health, the importance of AMF in restoration and re-establishment of fragile and degraded ecosystem is well recognized9-11. This explains the need to enumerate and identify the indigenous AMF population which can be successfully applied in restoration practices. Conversion of tropical forests to agricultural lands is one of the leading causes of biodiversity loss12. The destruction of these forests is taking place at an alarming rate in tropics and the forests of Karbi Anglong Hill Disrict of Assam are also no exception to this. The major threats to the rich biodiversity of the region are expansion of agricultural activities, shifting cultivation, encroachment etc,13. The studies on the impact of these vegetation disturbances on microbial flora in

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general, and AMF in particular, is almost nil in this part of Indo-Burma biodiversity hotspot region. Therefore, to assess the impact of such forest destruction on microbial diversity, the present study investigated the diversity of AMF in undisturbed forests (UF), slash-and-burn fields (SBF) and monoculture forests (MF). The study also aimed to catalogue the Arbuscular Mycorrhizal (AM) fungal species so that they can be used in future for restoration and regeneration of degraded forests and maintenance of sustainable forestry. MATERIALS AND METHODS Study site The study site is located in Karbi Anglong Hill District (92045’ and 93054’ East Longitude and 25045’ and 26035’ North Latitude) of Assam, India. The three sites- UF, SBF and MF are located adjacently on a hilly slope at an altitude of 232 MSL. Annual mean air temperature was 24.40C Total annual precipitation was 1052 mm, and the rainy season lied between May to September (730 mm). The soil was classified as sandy loam. The undisturbed forest is a moist semievergreen forest14. The top canopy comprised of plants like Stereospermum personatum, Duabanga sonneretiodes Ham, Terminalia chebula Retz., Tetrameles nudiflora R.Br, Amoora wallichi King., Pterospermum acerifolium Willd., Tectona grandis Linn, etc. The dominant middle storey plants were Lannea grandis A.Rich, Sterculia villosa Roxb, Dysoxylum binectariferum HK.f.et Bedd, Premna bengalensis Clarke, Mallotus philippinensis Muell. Arg, Magnolia sp, Michelia sp. The undisturbed forest was converted to slash-burn field six months ago by clear-cutting and burning of the slashed dry biomass by local tribal peoples. Local variety of rice was cultivated as the crop after forest clearance. Reserve forest areas subjected to Jhum or shifting cultivation are artificially regenerated by Forest Departments under jhum area rehabilitation programme to improve and restore the fragile ecosystem of the hills. Our study site MF is about 20 years old and consists of artificially regenerated fast growing species of teak (Tectona grandis Linn.).

Sampling procedure Sixteen soil samples from the rhizosphere region of plants were arbitrarily collected in JuneJuly 2009, at sampling points 20 m apart on the middle line transect of each site. Each soil sample was 200 g to a depth of 15 cm. The soil was placed in sealed plastic bags and stored at 4 0C until analysis. Spore isolation and identification of AM fungi One hundred grams of soil from each field sample was used for spore isolation, using wet sieving and decanting method of Gerdemann and Nicolson15. All healthy AMF spores were counted using stereo-zoom microscope. Intact AM spores were transferred onto glass slides containing polyvinylalcohol-lactophenol with or without Melzer’s reagent and identified under a compound microscope at upto 400x magnification. AM fungi were identified using keys of Schenck and Perez16 and culture database established by the International collection of Vesicular and Mycorrhizal Fungi (http://invam.caf.wvu.edu). Permanent slides are stored at Microbial Ecology Laboratory, Dept of Botany, Gauhati University, Assam, India. Statistical analysis AM fungal composition in field samples was evaluated based on spore isolation frequency (IF), density, relative abundance (RA), ShannonWiener index of diversity (H’), Simpson diversity index (D) and Sorenson’s similarity coefficients (Cs). RESULTS AM fungal composition A total of 12 AM fungal taxa were isolated from forty eight soil samples collected at three different sites. Five of these (41.6%) were identified to species level, and seven (58.3%) were identified to genus. Seven of them belonged to the genus Glomus, three to Acaulospora, one to Ambispora and one to Gigaspora. All the 12 AM fungal taxa were found in UF, whereas SBF and MF harboured only 7 and 4 taxa respectively. The Shannon-Wiener index of diversity (H’) was higher in the UF (2.08) than in the SBF (1.66) or MF (1.17). The Sorenson’s similarity coefficients (Cs) of AM fungal community composition was higher between UF and SBF (0.73) than between UF and MF (0.5). Similarly, Simpson’s

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diversity index (D) was highest in UF (0.84), slightly lower in SBF (0.78) and lowest in MF (0.65). The three diversity indexes are tabulated in Table 1.

abundance in all the three sites, and was much higher in MF (46.6%) than in SBF (32.1%) and UF (24.1%).

Isolation frequency and Relative abundance of AMF Glomus was the dominant genus in all three sites followed by Acaulospora (Table 2) The three species, Glomus manihotis, Glomus sp4, and Acaulospora sp1 were common in all three sites with IF > 50%. The relative abundance of dominant genus Glomus was highest in SBF (73.3%) than in UF (65.7%) and MF (64%). Acaulospora , the second most frequented genus showed the highest relative abundance in MF (35.8%) than in UF (32.2%) and SBF (24.7%). The dominant genus Glomus manihotis has the highest relative

Spore density of AMF There was a significant difference in the total spore density of AM fungi among the UF (879±19.5 spores per 100g soil), SBF (174±5.3 spores per 100g soil) and MF (103±4.4 spores per 100g soil). The dominant genus Glomus had the highest spore density in UF (581±23 spores per 100g soil) than in SBF (128±7 spores per 100g soil) and MF (66±6.4 spores per 100g soil), and followed by second dominant genus Acaulospora, which had 285±43.2 spores per 100g soil in UF, 43±11.8 spores per 100g soil in SBF and 37±8.2 spores per 100g soil in MF. Spore density of four AM fungus genera isolated from 3 sites is given in Figure 1.

Table 1: Diversity indices of AM fungi in different study sites (undisturbed forests, UF; slash-and-burn fields, SBF and monoculture forests, MF) Diversity Indices

Shannon-Wiener (H’) Simpson’s diversity(D) Sorenson’s Coefficients(Cs)

SBF

2.08 0.84 0.73(UF & SBF)

1.66 0.78 0.54(SBF & MF)

1.17 0.65 0.5(UF & MF)

Table 2: The isolation frequency (IF), spore density and relative abundance (RA) of AM fungal species isolated in the undisturbed forests (UF), slash-and-burn fields (SBF) and monoculture forests (MF). SE means standard error Species

Glomus manihotis Glomus maculosum Glomus fasciculatum Glomus sp. 3 Glomus sp. 4 Glomus sp. 5 Glomus sp. 6 Acaulospora mellea Acaulospora spinosa Acaulospora sp. 1 Ambispora sp. 1 Gigaspora sp. 1 Total

Isolation Frequency(%)

Spore Density (±SE)

Relative Abundance (%)

SBF

81.2 37.5 43.7 50 56.2 12.5 25 31.2 18.7 75 12.5 6.2 449.7

68.7 37.5 0 18.7 31.2 0 6.2 0 0 81.2 6.2 0 249.7

75 0 0 0 25 0 0 12.5 0 68.7 0 0 181.2

212±28.3 43±14 58±17.3 80±20.7 112±25.1 12±8.1 64±28.6 72±27.1 17±8.8 196±33.1 11±7.3 2±1.9 879

56±11.2 15±5.8 0 18±10.5 32±12 0 7±6.7 0 0 43±7.6 3±2.9 0 174

48±9.4 0 0 0 18±8 0 0 5±3.3 0 32±7.1 0 0 103

24.1 4.8 6.6 9.1 12.8 1.3 7.3 8.1 2 22.4 1.2 0.2 100

32.2 8.6 0 10.3 18.3 0 4 0 0 24.8 1.7 0 100

46.6 0 0 0 17.4 0 0 4.8 0 31.1 0 0 100

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Fig. 1: Spore density of four AM fungus genera isolated from different study sites (UF, SBF and MF) DISCUSSIONS Since spores are highly resistant to adverse environmental conditions17, we used spore quantification to enumerate the diversity of AMF in disturbed and undisturbed forests. The three sites i.e. UF, SBF and MF were selected in such a way that they were located adjacently to each other on a hilly slope and with similar climatic conditions. The results of the present investigation indicated a significant influence of disturbance on total spore density of AM fungi. Spore density was highest in UF, lower in SBF, and lowest in MF. The high spore density of AM fungi in undisturbed forests with naturally higher plant species diversity suggested that disturbance affect the abundance of arbuscular mycorrhizal spores. A similar result was obtained by Su and Guo18, who reported that the mean spore density of AMF was significantly decreased in overgrazed as compared to non-grazed plots in the Inner Mongolia steppe. Reduction in spore density due to agricultural practices has also been described by Li et al., 19, who found that the highest spore density occurred in never-cultivated field, slightly lower in old field and lowest in cultivated field in hot and arid ecosystem of Southwest China. Reduced spore density in slash-and-burn fields and monoculture forests can be explained by the fact that disturbance disrupts the soil fungi by removing above ground biomass on which these obligate symbionts depend for their carbon source and by

breaking the hyphal network leading to a reduction in mycorrhizal colonization20. Moreover, clear-cutting of forests combined with fire exposes soils to desiccation, high temperature (>500oC), and rain erosion21 and these parameters can be attributed to the lower AM fungal spore counts in slash-andburn fields immediately after their conversion. However, other studies have documented an equal or higher AM fungal spore counts and diversity in pastures, and other deforested stands compared to adjacent natural forests22,23. These studies, however, attributed that the improved population may be a consequence of after land conversion which provided ample time for natural re-colonization of these sites by annual grasses and herbaceous plant species, serving as host to AMF, and thereby, is associated with higher AM fungal spore production. Although, monoculture forests site, in our study, was about 20 years old and artificially regenerated with Tectona grandis Linn., the forest floor was barren and covered with fallen twigs and leaves of the plant itself with very little or no herbaceous plant cover. Forest management factors like site preparation, shrubclearing etc, along with high erosion rate of the sandy loam soil in sloppy tract; have resulted in the forest floor removal. Such and other reasons (like physical properties of the soil which has not been considered here) may account for the minimal AM fungal spore counts in monoculture forests.

SHARMAH & JHA, Curr. World Environ., Vol. 6(2), 253-258 (2011) A total of 12 AM fungal species belonging to four different genera were extracted and identified directly from the field soil samples of three study sites. All the twelve AM fungal species were isolated from undisturbed forests compared to seven from slash-and-burn fields and four from monoculture forest. The Shannon-Wiener Index of diversity was higher in undisturbed forests due to the evenness in relative abundance of the greater number of AM fungal species compared to slash-and-burn forests and monoculture forests. Sorenson’s coefficients showed a greater similarity between undisturbed forests and slash-and-burn fields due to prevalence of more number of common AM fungal species in both sites. The prevalence of Glomus manihotis and Acaulospora sp 1 in all the three study sites along with a high IF, spore density and RA indicates that these species are more tolerant to soil disturbances. Fur ther study is essential to establish their usefulness and role in maintaining the fragile ecosystem of this hill district.

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Since in this study the samples were collected during June-July at the middle of the rainy season, and AMF being seasonal in their sporulation pattern24, we were not sure whether all AM fungus species could be isolated, and therefore, with longerterm sampling AMF diversity in this area would definitely increase. We conclude that the forests of this hill district contained a high AM fungal diversity. The AMF diversity is significantly affected by the land use practices practiced by the people and no step has been initiated to restore this important group of microorganisms by the forest management practices. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The first author acknowledges the UGC for financial assistance in the form of Minor research Project. Assistance of Mr. Mindar Ingti and Mr. Uttam Engti during sampling is highly appreciated.

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Steppe. Mycorrhiza, 17: 689-693 (2007). Li, L.F., Li, T., Zhao, Z.W. Differences of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungal diversity and community between a cultivated land and an old field and a never cultivated field in a hot and arid ecosystem of South West China. Mycorrhiza, 17: 655-665 (2007). Jasper, D.A., Abbot, L.K., Robson, A.D. The survival of infective Hyphae of vesicular arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi in dry soil â&#x20AC;&#x201C; an interaction with sporulation. New Phytol., 124: 473-479 (1993). Aguilar-Fernandez, M., Jaramillo, V.J., Varela-Fregoso, L., Gavito, M.E. Short-term consequences of slash-and-burn practices on the arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi of a tropical dry forest. Mycorrhiza, DOI 10.1007/ s00572-009-029-2 (2009). Picone, C. Diversity and abundance of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungus spores in Tropical Forest and Pasture. Biotropica, 32: 734-750 (2000). Zhang, Y., Guo, L.-D, Liu, R.-J. Survey of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi in deforested and natural forest land in the subtropical region of Dujiangyan, China. Plant and Soil, 261: 257-263 (2004). Guadarrama, P., Alveraz-Sanchez, F.J. Abundance of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi spores in different environments in a tropical rain forest, Veracruz, Mexico. Mycorrhiza, 8: 267-270 (1999).

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Physico- Chemical Analysis of Well Water at Eloor Industrial Area-Seasonal Study DIVYA RANI THOMAS*, B. SUNIL and C. LATHA Department of Veterinary Public Health, College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Mannuthy, Thrissur - 680 651 (India). Kerala Veterinary and Animal Science University, Kerala (India). *Corresponding author: E-mail: divyaranithomas@gmail.com (Received: September 10, 2011; Accepted: November 18, 2011) ABSTRACT Seasonal variation on physico-chemical quality of well water at Eloor industrial area, Kerala was studied. A total of 100 samples, 25 each during four different seasons, viz. summer, premonsoon, monsoon and post monsoon were collected during the year 2009 and analyzed for temperature, pH, total hardness, Chemical Oxygen Demand, concentration of nitrate, fluoride, iron, heavy metals like lead, mercury, zinc, and cadmium. Significant difference between seasons was observed for temperature, Chemical Oxygen Demand, concentration of nitrate, zinc and cadmium. Highest temperature (28.96±0.16) was recorded during premonsoon. Chemical Oxygen Demand and zinc concentration was recorded maximum during summer (150.56±14.07, 0.21±0.04 mg/l respectively). Highest nitrate (5.96±1.10 mg/l) and cadmium (0.05±0.005 mg/l) concentrations were recorded during post monsoon and monsoon respectively The results were compared with WHO guidelines, 2006 and IS: 10500, 1991, desirable limits for drinking water and found that pH, total hardness, concentration of iron, lead and cadmium were not within the acceptable rage.

Key words: Seasonal variation, Physico- chemical, Quality, Well water, Eloor, Industrial area

INTRODUCTION Water is most essential for existence of life on earth and is a major component for all forms of lives, from micro-organism to man. Various physicochemical parameters have a significant role in determining the potability of water. As per World Health Organization, safe and wholesome drinking water is a basic need for human development, health and well being, and it is an internationally accepted human right 1. Water intended for human consumption must be free from harmful microorganisms, toxic substances, excessive amount of minerals and organic matter. Over burden of the population pressure, unplanned urbanization, unrestricted exploration and dumping of the polluted water at inappropriate place enhance the infiltration of harmful compounds to the ground

water 2 . Application of fertilizers, prolonged discharge of industrial effluents, domestic sewage and solid waste dump also add to groundwater pollution, causing adverse health effects in human beings and animals. Quantitative parameters such as volume of water and qualitative parameters are affected also by climatic conditions, particularly temperature and precipitation which vary throughout the year. Considering these facts the study was conducted to assess the seasonal variation in physicochemical quality of well water at Eloor industrial area, Kerala. MATERIAL AND METHODS Study Area Eloor, industrial hub of Kerala, is an island spread over an area of 14.21 km 2, located in

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Ernakulam district, between north latitudes 9º 3´ and 10º 6´ and east longitudes 76º 20´ and 76º 28´. Soil of this area is sandy loam type. This area is well known for large and small-scale industrial units, which account for 25% of industries of the state. Major industrial units in the area include Fertilizers and Chemicals Travancore Limited (FACT), Hindustan Insecticides Limited (HIL), Indian Rare Earths Limited (IRE), Merchem Limited etc. Wells were randomly selected for the study from the area which is falling within 1.5 km radius of industrial units. Samples were taken directly from wells in sterile glass bottles of 250 millilitre capacity, after rinsing the bottles three times with water. In order to collect the samples directly from well, bottle with a string attached to neck was used. Another long clean string was tied to the end of sterile string and the bottle was lowered into the water and allowed to fill up. Then the bottle was raised and stoppered. The collected samples were transported to laboratory in ice within an insulated container and analyzed within 24 hours of collection. A total of 100 well water samples, 25 each during four different seasons of the year viz. summer (February), pre-monsoon (March-May), monsoon (June-September) and post monsoon (OctoberNovember) were collected during the year 2009 and analyzed for physical parameters like temperature and pH and chemical parameters like total hardness, Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD), concentration of nitrate, fluoride, iron and heavy metals like lead, mercury, zinc and cadmium. Study was carried out in such a way that, same 25 wells were sampled during four seasons. Temperature and pH of each sample was measured using mercury filled glass thermometer and digital pH meter respectively3. Total hardness of the samples was estimated using Total hardness test kit (Hi-media, India). Measurement of COD was made photometrically in Spectroquant NOVA 60 (Merck, Germany) after digesting the samples in preheated Thermoreactor TR 320 (Merck, Germany). Concentration of nitrate, fluoride, iron, lead and mercury in water samples was measured photometrically in Spectroquant NOVA 60 and expressed in mg/l. Estimation of zinc and cadmium

was carried out using Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer4. Statistical Analysis Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was done for comparing data5 using SPSS package (version 10). RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Results of analysis are shown in table 1 and 2. Temperature ranged from 27-28.96 oC. Lowest temperature was recorded during monsoon and highest temperature was recorded during premonsoon, which was in accordance with ambient temperature pattern6,7,8. pH of well water was in the range of 5.75±0.19-6.30±0.09, and significant difference between seasons was not observed. pH is mainly influenced by volume of water9, soil type10, presence of chemicals and application of acidic fertilizers. Even though the soil type of Eloor is sandy loam, of higher pH11, pH of well water was towards acidic side. It could be due to discharge industrial effluents, which of acidic pH12 to surface water bodies, which in turn percolate in to well water. Even in the absence of significant seasonal variation, pH was higher during monsoon and post monsoon and lower during summer and pre-monsoon seasons. The higher pH values during rainy season could be due to high photosynthesis of micro and macro vegetation resulting in production of high CO2, shifting the equilibrium towards alkaline side13. This could be attributed to the presence of luxuriant vegetation inside most of the wells during rainy season. Acid pH of water may be due to dissolved carbon dioxide and organic acids such as fulvic and humic acids which are derived from decay and subsequent leaching of plant materials14. During dry seasons there may be death and decay of plants due to lack of sufficient water which increases the organic acid content of water in turn causing acidity. In addition great reduction in water volume in the wells also decreases the pH during dry season9. Acceptable range of pH for drinking water is 6.58.515. In the present study, pH was not within this limit. Low pH of groundwater can cause gastrointestinal disorders especially hyperacidity, ulcers and burning sensation16. Water having pH

THOMAS et al., Curr. World Environ., Vol. 6(2), 259-264 (2011) below 6.5, causes corrosion of metal pipes, resulting in the release of toxic metals such as zinc, lead, cadmium, copper etc. Higher values of pH hasten scale formation in water heating apparatus and decrease germicidal potential of chlorine. Total hardness was in the range of 230.00±13.15 - 457.20±105.42 mg/l, with no significant seasonal variation.. Higher total hardness could be due to discharge of effluents and untreated waste17 from polluting industries to nearby surface water sources. Highest value of total hardness was observed during summer. It could be due to the low water level and high rate of evaporation during summer18. Bureau of Indian Standards desirable limit for total hardness in drinking water is 300 mg/l 15. Well water from Eloor had total hardness above this limit during summer and premonsoon. Hardness prevents lather formation with soap and increases the boiling point of water. Normally water hardness does not cause any direct health problems, but may cause

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economic problems. Hardness below 300 mg/l is considered potable but beyond this limit produces gastrointestinal irritation. Extremely hard water may lead to increased incidences of urolithiasis. COD ranged from 81.68±5.75 to 150.56±14.07, and showed significant difference between seasons. Lowest and highest values were observed during monsoon and summer respectively. Higher values of COD indicate the presence of oxidizable organic matter19. The entry of sewage water, industrial effluents and the agricultural runoff might be responsible for increased level oxidizable organic matter18. The higher COD could be due to death and decay of plants and subsequent increase in organic matter during summer13. The lower COD observed during monsoon could be due to the effect of dilution. Mean nitrate concentration of well water was in the range of 3.20±0.43- 5.96±1 mg/l, which were within WHO guidelines (2006) for nitrate in

Table 1: Physical quality of well water Parameter

Temperature (°C) pH

Seasons summer

pre-monsoon

monsoon

post monsoon

28.56±0.20bc 5.75±0.19

28.96±0.16c 5.88±0.19

27.00±0.12a 6.03±0.12

28.20±0.15b 6.30±0.09

Figures in a row bearing different superscripts differ significantly (p<0.05)

Table 2: Chemical quality of well water Parameter

total hardness COD Nitrate fluoride Iron lead Mercury zinc cadmium

mean concentration during four seasons mg/l Summer

Pre-monsoon

Monsoon

Post monsoon

457.20±105.42 150.56±14.07c 3.54±0.35a 0.21±0.06 0.95±0.33 0.65±0.17 0 0.21±0.04b 0.003±0.001a

366.80±106.80 93.04±7.46ab 3.20±0.43a 0.10±0.05 0.47±0.09 0.72±0.16 0 0.06±0.01a 0.01±0.003a

296.00±33.53 81.68±5.75a 3.95±0.74ab 0.19±0.05 0.29±0.02 0.30±0.03 0 0.09±0.02a 0.05±0.005b

230.00±13.15 95.48±3.04b 5.96±1.10b 0.05±0.04 0.72±0.09 0.56±0.12 0 0.11±0.02a 0.01±0.002a

Figures in a row bearing different superscripts differ significantly (p<0.05)

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drinking water (50 mg/l)20 and Bureau of Indian Standards desirable limit (45 mg/l)15. Usually nitrate is not present in pure water. However, nitrate detected in well water samples might have originated from decaying organic matter 21 , discharge of sewage and industrial wastes and runoff from agricultural fields containing nitrate fertilizers22. Mean nitrate concentration was lowest during premonsoon and highest during post monsoon. The highest concentration during post monsoon might be due to application of nitrogenous fertilizers to agricultural land during rainy season and subsequent seepage through soil. Nitrate in drinking water as such are not toxic to health and about 85 per cent of ingested nitrate are rapidly adsorbed from gastrointestinal tract and excreted by kidney. When nitrates are converted to nitrites, toxic effects are encountered and may cause potential health hazards. Higher level of nitrate may cause methaemoglobinemia or bluebaby syndrome in infants. It may react with creatinine present in vertebrate muscles to form nitrosarcosine which is carcinogenic23. Mean fluoride concentration of well water was in the range of 0.05±0.04- 0.21±0.06 mg/ l and showed no significant difference between seasons. The values were within WHO guidelines, 2006 for fluoride in drinking water (1.5 mg/l) and IS: 10500, 1991, desirable limit (1 mg/l). Detectable level of fluoride was present in wells located near to FACT. Fluoride is released into air in gaseous state and in particulate matter from factories producing phosphatic fer tilizers 24 . This might cause contamination of soil, water and forage not only in the vicinity of the plant, but several kilometres from the factory 25. FACT in Eloor was such a unit, manufacturing phosphatic fertilizers. Gypsum produced in the factory as a by product during the manufacturing of fertilizers, contains fluoride12. This could be one of the sources of fluoride in well waters of Eloor. Significant seasonal difference was not observed in fluoride concentration which could be attributed to continuous industrial activities. From the first hand information from the people, it was understood that gypsum was accumulated in the factory premises. This favoured leaching during monsoon season increasing the concentration in well water during monsoon. A small amount of fluoride is beneficial for human health to prevent

dental caries. However when consumed in higher doses (>1.5 mg/l) it leads to dental fluorosis and excessively high concentration (>3 mg/l) may lead to skeletal fluorosis. Crippling skeletal fluorosis can occur in water supply containing more than 10 mg/ l of fluoride. During the survey, it was understood that 6.9 per cent animals were having lameness. This could be attributed to fluoride toxicity through ingestion of contaminated water and forage. Mean iron concentration ranged between 0.29±0.02 and 0.95±0.33mg/l. The value was within the desirable limit (0.3mg/l) (IS: 10500, 1991), only during monsoon season. Higher iron content observed in Eloor might be due to the influence of industrial units, discharging iron containing waste products. Analysis of waste products12 generated by HIL, Merchem Limited and FACT showed that significant amount of iron is generated by these industrial units. These industries discharge their waste products into nearby surface water bodies which ultimately leads to ground water contamination. Some of the people complained that their water often gets red colour and taste of rust. Significant difference between mean iron concentrations of four seasons could not be observed. However, iron concentration was highest during summer (0.95±0.33 mg/l) and lowest during monsoon (0.29±0.02 mg/l). Higher level of iron in groundwater during summer might be due to concentration effect26. Toxic effect due to exposure to iron leads to abdominal discomfort, lethargy and fatigue. Liver is the major site of iron storage. Excess iron deposition leads to shrinkage of liver, followed by fibrosis and cirrhosis. Ingestion accounts for most of the toxic effect of iron because iron is absorbed rapidly in gastrointestinal tract. Mean lead concentration was in the range of 0.30±0.03- 0.72±0.16 mg/l, and was above WHO guidelines, 2006 (0.01 mg/l) and IS: 10500, 1991 (0.05 mg/l) for lead in drinking water. Eloor being an industrial area is subjected to the discharge of effluent containing lead to nearby water bodies. Analysis of waste products12 generated by HIL, Merchem Limited and FACT showed that significant amount of lead is generated by these industrial units in their waste products. The effluents rich in lead are discharged to water bodies nearby and subsequently affect the groundwater quality of the

THOMAS et al., Curr. World Environ., Vol. 6(2), 259-264 (2011) area. Even though there was no significant seasonal variation, monsoon samples showed lowest concentration and pre-monsoon season showed highest concentration. In Eloor, water bodies were exposed to continuous discharge of effluents irrespective of season. This may be the reason for lack of significant seasonal variation. Combined effect of decreased amount of water and slight leaching during pre-monsoon shower might have contributed to higher lead concentration during premonsoon. Lowest lead concentration observed during monsoon season could be attributed to dilution. Exposure to lead is cumulating over time. High concentration of lead in body can cause death or permanent damage to central nervous system and kidneys. This damage commonly result in behaviour and learning problems, memory and concentration problems, high blood pressure, hearing problem, headache, reproductive problem, digestive problems, muscle and joint pain. Lead poisoning stunts a child’s growth, damages the nervous system and cause learning disabilities. It was noted that a school for mentally retarded children is functioning in the panchayath. In animals lead poisoning causes neurological signs preceded or accompanied by gastrointestinal malfunctions. Death of cattle, following nervous signs as reported by one farmer might be attributed to lead poisoning. Abortion in cattle at 5 to 6 month of gestation was also reported by some farmers suggestive of lead toxicity27. Gastroenteritis is also associated with lead toxicity due to the caustic action of lead on alimentary mucosa26. Throughout the study no mercury could be detected in well water samples Mean zinc concentration was in the range of 0.06±0.01- 0.21±0.04 mf/l, and was within the limit of 5 mg/l as prescribed by Bureau of Indian Standards (IS: 10500, 1991). Analysis of waste products generated by HIL, Merchem Limited and FACT was conducted by environment impact assessment on Eloor- Edayar Industrial Belt12. The analysis report pointed out that significant amount of zinc is generated by these industrial units, which inturn deteriorate the ground water quality. The concentration was highest during summer season. During summer, depletion of water leads to greater concentration of metals26.

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Mean cadmium concentration varied from 0.003±0.001- 0.05±0.005 mg/l, and showed significant difference between seasons. Analysis of waste products generated by Hindustan Insecticides Limited (HIL), Merchem Limited and Fertilizers and Chemicals Travancore Limited (FACT) was conducted by Environment Impact Assessment on Eloor- Edayar Industrial Belt12, and found that these industries discharged some amount of cadmium in their waste products, deteriorating the groundwater quality. Cadmium concentration was found to be highest during monsoon, which might be due to leaching during monsoon. It was found that mean cadmium concentration s exceeding the WHO guideline (0.003 mg/l) during premonsoon, monsoon and post monsoon and IS: 10500, 1991 (0.01 mg/l) desirable limit during monsoon. Cadmium is bio accumulative and persistent in the environment. Cadmium has no biochemical and nutritional function and is highly toxic to human being, plants and animals. In human beings and animals cadmium causes kidney damage. In lower doses cadmium can produce coughing, headache and vomiting. In larger doses cadmium can accumulate in liver and kidneys and can replace calcium in bones, leading to painful bone disorders and renal failure. Kidney is considered to be the critical target organ in humans chronically exposed to cadmium by ingestion. Ground water quality in the study area showed seasonal variation for temperature, COD, concentration of nitrate, zinc and cadmium, and exceeded the limits, WHO guidelines and IS: 10500, 1991. In order to improve quality of groundwater and to protect people and animals from the perils of groundwater contamination, it is essential to initiate measures to check the pollution from industrial effluents through strict enforcement of legislation for industries. Regular groundwater quality monitoring network stations should be established. Replacement of damaged pipelines and lining of sewer drains is necessary to prevent the leakage of sewage in pipes and seepage through unlined channels and prevent the mixing of sewage with groundwater. Education of public on safe handling and use of drinking water is also recommended.

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WHO. 2001. Water Health And Human Rights , World Water Day 2001 [online]. Available: htt p: //ww w. worldwaterday.org / thematic/ hmnrights. Html #n4 [10 April 2010]. Pandey, Sandeep K, Tiwari, S.: Nature and Sci..7: 17 (2009). Chapman, D. and Kimstach, V. Selection of water quality variables. In: Chapman, D. (ed.), Water Quality Assessment â&#x20AC;&#x201C; A Guide to Use of Biota, Sediments and Water in Environmental Monitoring â&#x20AC;&#x201C;World Health Organization. (1996). Lokeshwari, H. and Chandrappa, G.T.: J. Environ. Sci. Engng. 48: 183 (2006). Snedecor, G.W. and Cochran, W.G. Statistical Methods. The Iowa State University Press, Ames, Iowa, U.S.A. 564 (1994). Kaplay, R. D. and Patode, H. S. Environ. Geol. 46: 871 (2004). Agbaire, P. O. and Obi, C. E.: J. Appl. Sci. Environ. Manage. 13: 55 (2009). John, N. and Thanga, V. S. G. In: Yesodharan, E. P. (ed.), Proceedings of the Twentysecond Kerala Science Congress; Peechi. Kerala State Council for Science, Technology and Environment, Government of Kerala. pp. 577(2010). Mahasim, N. W., Saat, A., Hamzah, Z., Sohari, R. R. and Khali, K. H. A. Presented at SKAM 18, 12-14 September, 2005, Johr Bharu. (2005). CESS. 1984. Resource atlas of Kerala, Centre for Earth Science Studies, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala. Malik, R. N., Husain, S. Z. And Nazir, A. I.: Pak. J. Bot. 42: 291 (2010). Local Area Environment Committee. Report submitted to Supreme Court Monitoring Committee.114 (2006). Kumar, K. K. S., Hakeem, A. A. A. and Kumar, S. S.: In: Yesodharan, E. P. (ed.), Proceedings

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of the Twentysecond Kerala Science Congress; Kerala State Council for Science, Technology and Environment, Government of Kerala. (2010). Langmuir, D. Aqueous Environmental Chemistry, Prentice-Hall. Inc., New Jersey, 600 (1997). BIS. 1992. Drinking water specifications IS: 10500: 1991, First revision, Bureau of Indian Standards. India. Laluraj, C. M. and Gopinath, G. Environ. Monit. Assess. 117: 45: (2006). Ullah, R., Malik, R. N. and Quadir, A. Afr. J. Environ. Sci. Technol. 3: 429 (2009). Sisodia and Moundiotiya, C.: J. Environ. Hydrol. 14: 23 (2006). Garge, S. K. Sewage disposal and air pollution engineering. Khanna Publications. pp. 188 (1998). WHO. 2006. Guidelines for drinking water quality. World Health Organization, Geneva. Subrahmanyam, K. and Yadaiah, P. Hydrogeol. J. 9: 297 (2001). Kumar, S., Gupta, R. K. and Gorai, A.C.: Asian J. Exp. Sci. 22:161 (2008). Simmons, I.G.. The Ecology of Natural Resources . Edward Arnold Publishers Limited, London. 586 (1974). Sharma, R. and Parvez, S. J. Scient. Ind. Res. 3: 985 (2004). Radostits, C. M., Gay, C. C., Hinchcliff, K. W. and Constable, P. D. Veterinary Medicine. A Text Book of the Diseases of Cattle, Horses, Sheep, Pigs and Goats.. Elsevier, Noida, 2156 (2007). Buragohain, M., Bhuyan, B. and Sarma, H. P. Environ. Monit. Assess. (2009). Sandhu, H. S. and Brar, R. S. Text book of Veterinary Toxicology. Kalyani Publishers, New Delhi, 327 (2000).

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Physico-Chemical Analysis of Ground Water in Municipal Area of Bijapur (Karnataka) S.C. HIREMATH¹, M.S. YADAWE², U.S. PUJERI², D.M. HIREMATH² and A.S.PUJAR² ¹Com. B.H.S.Arts and T.G.P. Science College, Jamkhandi (India). ²S.B.Arts and K.C.P.Science College, Bijapur (India). *Corresponding author: Email : shiva4565@ rediffmail.com (Received: August 20, 2011; Accepted: October 02, 2011) ABSTRACT Analysis physico-chemical parameters of ground water of municipal area of Bijapur (Karnataka) was carried out seasonally to study the quality of water and suitability for domestic purpose. Talabs (Lakes), Baudy (Wells constructed by Adil Shahi Sultans in 16th &17th century ) and bore wells are water resources of the study area. Thirty six samples from different sources at different locations were collected in different seasons during Year 2010-11. The parameters: pH, EC, TDS, Turbidity, Total hardness and content of Fluoride, Sulphate, Chloride were studied and compared with the standard values prescribed by ICMR, WHO and APHA. The present investigation revealed that the quality of water of a source varies from season to season and some of the water samples are unfit for drinking and utility purpose.

Key words: Bijapur, Ground water quality, Talabs, Adil shahi, Sultans.

INTRODUCTION Water is considered absolutely essential to sustain life. In India ground water has a major role to satisfy the needs of domestic and agriculture purposes. The ever growing demands for water resources coupled with the rate at which much of the earths fresh water being adversely affected by human activities, demonstrate a developing crisis and horrible future if environmental water resources are not appropriately managed1. Bijapur is not an exception to this future crisis. Indeed, Bijapur with an average annual rain fall of 553 mm is a city located in an area that suffers critically from a shortage of water resources. So the conservation of improvised water resources is indispensable for the sustainability of our economic development. For this reason, in the past few decades more attention has been given to the water quality of Bijapur. Bijapur is facing water quality problems as well as drinking water shortage, specially during summer season. Many people from the city are suffering

from health problems due to consumption of the available contaminated water. There are many Talabs (lakes) and Bowdies (wells) constructed by Adil Shahi Sultans in 16th and 17th century were the drinking water resources for about 15 lakh population of the imperial city in those days. According the report of Sykes British surveyor there were 700 well in the Bijapur city. Out of them some are still living but not maintained. Some of them have become dumping places for garbage. Taj Bowdy and Chanda Bowdy, the beautifully constructed wells witness the glory of the empire and architecture of the age. Now the municipal corporation of Bijapur supplying the Krishna River water through pipe line from Alamatti reservoir which is about 45km from Bijapur. But it is also not sufficient for the need and hence the people of the city facing the severe water crises particularly in summer.

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The effective maintenance of water quality of local resources through appropriate control measures, continuous monitoring of their quality parameters and their use as a supplement to river water may reduce the water crisis of the city. Also the information on water quality of Bijapur is scanty. Hence, the present work, seasonally determining suitability of ground water for drinking and other purposes of Bijapur city area is taken up. The present study also strengthens the national and local water quality data base. MATERIAL AND METHODS Ground water samples were collected for physico-chemical analysis from 12 sites during summer (May 2010 ), rainy ( Sepember-2010) and winter (January-2011) seasons. Ground water, samples were collected in sterilized plastic containers (PVC 1000ml) after flushing out the tube wells (minimum 10 minutes) to get the fresh ground water and grab sampling method was followed in case wells. The containers were sealed and the samples were protected from direct sunlight during transportation. The water pH was determined by Systronics Digital pH meter standardized with buffer tablets. Electrical conductivity(E.C.) was determined using Elico digital conductometer standardized with KCl solution. Total Dissolved Solids(TDS) was determined by using digital TDS meter standardized with NaCl. Turbidity(TUR) of the samples were determined by using Systronics Nephelo Turbidity Meter-120 standardized with the mixture of solutions of Hydrazine sulphate and hexamethylene tetramine. Fluoride(F-), Chloride

(Cl-), Sulphate (SO4- - ) were estimated with standard methods as prescribed by Goltman et al2(1978), Trivedi and Geol (1984)3 and APHA (1998)4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The seasonal variations of physicochemical characteristics are given in the Table-1-3 for the winter, summer and rainy seasons. Climatic factors such as rainfall, temperature, pressure and humidity etc play an important role in the geology as well as terrestrial environment. A sound knowledge of these factors help in understanding the complex processes of interaction between the climate and biological processes in water bodies. pH is the scale of intensity of acidity and alkalinity of water and measures the concentration of hydrogen ions. In the present study, the values the pH were in the range 7.0-8.2. The least value was recorded to be 7.0 in the month of January for sample S9, while maximum was recorded to be 8.2 in May for sample S6. Most of the biological processes and biochemical reactions are pH dependant. pH is considered as an indicator of overall productivity that causes habitat diversity5. pH was found to be alkaline in nature at all the sites6. The pH was observed to decline during winter and increases during the summer as is evident from the mean values7. The lower value of pH during rainy season compared to summer, may be due to dilution of alkaline substance. Physico-Chemical Parameters of water sources of municipal area of Bijapur:

Table 1: In Season A: Summer 2010 S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 S6 S7 S8 S9 S10 S11 S12

Taj Baudy Chand Baudy Police Garden Bhavasar nagar SS HS Inamdar Col Bali Adde Gachinakatti Col Shrinagar Col Aishwarya Nagr Teachers Col Mugalkod Math

7.8 7.9 7.8 7.3 7.6 8.2 7.9 8.1 7.8 7.5 7.3 7.7

2.7 2.4 1.9 1.6 2.9 3.5 3.3 2.9 1.6 1.2 1.5 1.4

1050 1260 920 779 1640 1950 1650 1560 980 620 750 390

14.2 10.4 4.8 1.4 2.8 9.8 2.1 1.8 1.6 1.5 2.2 1.2

450 540 520 480 640 720 710 640 406 438 513 280

0.8 1.4 1.2 1.0 1.2 1.1 1.1 1.8 1.1 0.8 0.8 0.9

193 355 320 270 285 380 491 497 263 234 247 189

450 425 350 380 390 650 610 390 300 140 455 185

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Table 2: In Season B: September 2010 S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 S6 S7 S8 S9 S10 S11 S12

Taj Baudy Chand Baudy Police Garden Bhavasar nagar SS HS Inamdar Col Bali Adde Gachinakatti Col Shrinagar Col Aishwarya Nagr Teachers Col Mugalkod Math

7.5 7.6 7.5 7.4 7.2 7.9 7.2 7.5 7.3 7.4 7.2 7.8

1.2 1.4 1.3 1.3 1.6 1.8 1.5 2.1 1.2 1.2 1.0 0.9

437 482 528 471 611 1020 610 720 510 430 400 360

10.2 9.4 4.42 1.1 2.2 6.8 6.1 1.2 1.3 1.5 1.8 1.1

220 310 322 320 320 444 420 400 250 280 300 220

1.1 1.2 1.3 1.0 1.4 1.8 1.0 1.2 0.8 0.8 0.7 0.8

123 225 210 150 225 320 402 397 160 130 121 110

230 215 210 230 310 390 430 290 260 120 305 120

Fmg/L

Clmg/L

SO4- mg/L

0.8 1.2 1.2 1.0 1.3 1.1 1.1 1.8 1.1 0.8 0.8 0.9

163 255 220 170 255 340 461 397 163 134 127 149

350 325 250 280 350 550 510 290 300 140 425 155

Table 3: In Season C: Winter: January 2011 Sample No.

Site of the sample

EC mS/m

S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 S6 S7 S8 S9 S10 S11 S12

Taj Baudy Chand Baudy Police Garden Bhavasar nagar SS HS Inamdar Col Bali Adde Gachinakatti Col Shrinagar Col Aishwarya Nagr Teachers Col Mugalkod Math

7.2 7.5 7.5 7.3 7.2 7.3 7.3 7.4 7.0 7.1 7.2 7.5

1.3 1.7 1.5 1.4 2.1 2.8 2.5 2.4 1.2 1.1 1.1 1.0

The electrical conductivity was recorded highest in summer for sample S6 3.5mS/m and lowest in winter and rainy season 0.9mS/m for sample S12. There are no prescribed standards suggested by WHO for parameters electrical conductivity for drinking purpose. So no comparison can be made from observed values. The sample 4,9 and 10 show less seasonal variation of conductance where as samples 1,2,6 and 7 show large seasonal variation. Total dissolved salt was in the range of 360- 1020mg/L in rainy season and 390-1950mg/ L summer. TDS is the term used to describe the inorganic salts and small amount of organic matter

TDS Turbidity Total mg/L NTU Hardness mg/L 537 682 628 571 811 1109 990 916 526 476 408 381

15.2 11.4 4.2 1.2 2.8 10.8 2.1 1.8 1.9 1.5 2.1 1.2

313 427 423 391 423 544 452 413 306 338 313 256

present in solution of water. TDS values of water samples are within the highest desirable or maximum permissible limit set by WHO8 except sample no. 5,6,7 and 8 in summer where as for sample 12 within desirable limit in all the season. The turbidity was within permissible limit except sample no. 1, 2 and 6. The variations in trend of turbidity and total solids is approximately is similar in different seasons and the average these parameters is higher in summer compared to rainy and winter season. It is evident that the discharge variations are commensurate with weather conditions and seasons variations.

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Total hardness is the indicator of hydrogeology and aesthetic quality of water. The hardness was ranged from 720mg/L (maximum in summer) to 220mg/L ( minimum in winter). These findings suggests that the water body is moderately hard and high medium productive during present stage. Similar findings were also observed by Sehgal15 and Das16 in their studies. Water total hardness is imparted mainly by the calcium and

magnesium ions, which apart from sulphate, chloride and nitrates are found in combination with carbonates

Fig. 1:

Fig. 2:

concentration causes dental caries. Hence it is essential to maintain moderated concentration of fluoride in drinking water.

permissible limit in the seasons. Concentration of sulphate has laxative effect12 which is enhanced when sulphate is consumed with magnesium. Water containing magnesium sulphate (1000mg/litre) acts as purgative in human adults.

Chloride is the indicator of contamination with animal and human waste. Chloride is a common constituent of all natural water and is generally not classified as harmful constituent11. The chloride contents varied from 490mg/L (in summer in sample S8) to 105mg/litre (in rainy season in sample S12), which indicates pollution status of water body. Concentration of sulphate ion was minimum in rainy and winter season in sample- 12 (120mg/litre) and maximum (650mg/litre) in summer. Sulphate concentration is within the desirable limit of WHO in sample 10 and 12 in all the season while in sample 6 and 7 higher than the maximum

Fluoride concentration of water sample was minimum for winter (0.8 mg/L) and maximum for summer season(1.6mg/L), which are within the permissible limit of WHO. High fluoride concentration causes dental fluorosis9,10, while low

CONCLUSION Analysis of Bijapur water resources in three seasons rainy, winter and summer during 2010-11, shows that Sample No 4,10 and 12 are suitable for drinking in all the seasons while Sample No 1,2,5,6 and 7 are not suitable for drinking in all the seasons. The effective maintenance of water quality of local resources through appropriate control measures, continuous monitoring of their quality parameters and their use as a supplement to river water will reduce the water crisis of the city.

HIREMATH et al., Curr. World Environ., Vol. 6(2), 265-269 (2011) ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors are thankful to the B.L.D.E. Associationâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s SB.Arts and KCP Science College

269

Bijapur, Com.BHS Arts and TGP Science College Jamkhandi for providing the facility and UGC for financial support.

REFERENCES

Peterson N., Bricheer O., Kennedy M.; Water quality trends and geological mass balance; John Whiley and Sons, p-139-179, (1997) Goltman H.Z., Clymo R.S. and Ohnstad M.A.M.; Methods for physical and chemical analysis of fresh water, I.B.P.H. and Book No.8, 2nd edition Black well Scientific, Oxford (1978) Trivedi R.K. and Goel P.K.; Chemical and Biological methods for water pollution studies, Environmental Publication, Karad, India(1984) APHA Standard Methods for Chemical Examination of water and waste water, American Public Health Association 20th edn , Washington D.C. (1998) Minns C.K.; Factors affecting fish species richness in Onleria lake, Transaction of American Fish Society, 118,533-454, (1989) Praparna N and Shashikant K.; Pollution level in Hussain sagar lake of Hyderabad. A case study. Pollution Research 21; 187-190, (2002) Hulchinson G.E.; A Treatise on Limnology, Vol.I Part-2, Chemistry of lakes, John Whiley and Sons, Newyark (1957)

10.

11.

12.

Trivedi R.K. and Goel P.K. ; Chemical and Biological methods for water and soil pollution studies, Environmental publication, India (1986) Meenakshi, Garg V.K., Kavita R and Mallik A; Ground water quality in some villages of Haryana, India., Focus on fluoride and fluorosis, J. Han Mater. 106, 85-97, (2004) Yadawe M.S., Hiremath D.M. and Patil S.A.; Assessment of Fluoride content in Ground and Surface water and its environmental impacts at Basavan Bagewade and Muddebihal Taluka of Bijapur District.; EJournal of Chemistry , Vol-7, Part-II (2010) Jayanta Chutia and Siba Prasad Sarma; Relative content of chloride and sulphate in drinking water samples in different localities of Dhakuakhana Sub division of lakhimpur District of Assam; International Journal of Chemical Sciences; 7(3) 2009, 2087-2095 Lorraine C.B.; Assessing the acute gastro intestinal effects of ingesting naturally occurring high levels of sulphate in drinking water. Crit. Rev. Clin. Lab. Sci, 37,389-400, (2000)

Current World Environment

Vol. 6(2), 271-274 (2011)

Studies of Various Heavy Metal in Surface and Ground Water of Birsinghpur Town and its Surrounding Rural Area District Satna (M.P.) K.B.L. SHRIVASTAVA¹ and S.P. MISHRA² ¹Retd Principal, Govt. Girls P.G. College, Rewa (India). ²Department of Chemistry, Y.P.S.P.G. College, Semariya, Rewa (India). *Corresponding author: E-mail: sp.mishra69@yahoo.com (Received: November 12, 2011; Accepted: December 27, 2011) ABSTRACT The present study was aimed to assess the water quality of Birsinghpur town and its surrounding rural area. A total number of 25 water samples (5 surface and 20 ground water samples) were collected from different locations of study area at a particular distance during the year of 2008-2009 and analyzed for various heavy metals such as Pb, Fe, Mn, Cu, Ni and Cd. The results showed that in surface water Pb, Fe, Mn, Cu, Ni and Cd varied from the ranges of 0.006 to 0.110, 0.55 to 2.76, 0.125 to 0.292, 0.025 to 0.046, 0.014 to 0.019 and 0.003 to 0.016 mg/l, respectively. In ground water the concentration of these metals were found in the ranges of Pb (0.003 to 0.060 mg/l), Fe (0.024 to 2.38 mg/l), Mn (0.012 to 0.248 mg/l), Cu (nil to 0.058 mg/l), Ni (nil to 0.019 mg/l) and Cd (nil to 0.0083 mg/l). The above results indicate that some water samples contained Pb, Fe, Mn and Cd above is permissible limits recommended by various national agencies.

Key words: Surface water, Ground water, Heavy metal, Gavinath Pond.

INTRODUCTION Water is one of the most essential substance needed to sustain human life, animals, plants and other living beings. Without water no life is possible on earth. Now a days, water pollution is a burning issue of all over the world. The situation of water pollution in India also reaches into alarming position. All the water resources of our country such as rivers, lakes, ponds as well as ground water have become much more polluted. Adequate water resources for future generation is not only a regional issue but also a global concern. In our country fresh water wealth is under threat due to the influence of naturals & human activities. By the term “heavy metals” we usually refer to any metallic element that contain a relative high density and applies to the group of metals and metalloids with atomic density greater than 4 g/cm3. Heavy metals are environmentally

stable, non-biodegradable and tend to accumulate in plants and animals causing chronic adverse effects on human health. Antropogenic activities such as urbanization, industrillisation, transportation, indiscriminate use of fertilizer, insecticide, pesticide, Improper disposals of sewage and solid wastes material containing toxic chemicals as well as natural process such as precipitation inputs erosion and weathering of crustal materials increases the contents of these elements in soil and water (Simeonov et al. 2003). However some of the metals like Cu, Fe, Mn and Ni are essential as micronutrients for plants and microorganism while other metals like Pb, Cd and Cr are proved detrimental beyond a certain limits (Marschner 1995, Bruins et al. 2000) Birsinghpur is a historical, mythological, religious place, famous for the temple of Lord Gavinath (Lord Shiva) as well as Dharkundi and Serbhanga ashrams.

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It is the tehsil place of district Satna and rich in natural resources such as latterite, bauxite, granite limestone and sandstones etc. Millions of people from all over the country visit here every year for darshan (to see) of lord Gavinath and perform there religious activity at Gavinath temple, pond. The bauxide and latterrile is supplied from here to various parts of our contry in huge amounts. So the bauxide and latterrile mining work is conducted all over the region and during rainy season the metals and other contaminates present in mines enter into the surface and ground water by leaching or by the overflow of water from mines. Therefore it is necessary to monitor these metals for safety assessments of the environment and human health. MATERIAL AND METHODS The total number of 25 water samples (5 surface and 20 ground water samples) were collected in 1L precleaned polythene bottles in the year of 2008-2009 as per standard methods mentioned in the APHA (1995). The surface water samples collected from ponds, dames and rivers while ground water samples taken from hand pumps of the selected area and immediately brought to laboratory and preserved with the addition of 2 ml/l nitric acid in each samples to avoid precipitation of the metals. These samples were concentrated and subjected to nitric acid digestion. Selective heavy metals such as Pb, Fe, Mn, Cu and Ni were determined by Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer (Parkin Elmer Analyst 100). RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The results of various heavy metal analysis in surface and ground water are listed in table I and II respectively. Lead (Pb) is a soft metal such that has been known many applications of it over the years. During present investigation, lead metal ranged from 0.006 to 0.110 mg/l in surface water and 0.003 to 0.060 mg/l in ground water samples. Three surface water samples out of five and 50% ground water samples collected from the study area

contained Pb above permissible limit, 0.01 mg/l recommended by WHO for drinking water. The possible sources of Pb are combustion of gasoline, its uses in alloys, old lead pipe line from which water is supplied, idol immersion activities, uses of lead arsenate as pesticide as well as its uses in paints, pigments and lead storage batteries. Bajpai, et. al. (2009) studied water quality of Bhopal lakes and found higher concentration of lead after idol immersion activities. During present study iron (Fe) content were found in the ranges of 0.55 to 2.76 mg/l in surface water and 0.24 to 2.38 mg/l in the ground water samples. All surface and 75% ground water samples (15 samples) contained iron (Fe) above desirable limit, 0.3 mg/l recommended by WHO. The high concentration of iron in the study area is due to the presence of latterite and bauxite ores in the whole region. Khan, et. al. (2005) studied the drinking water quality of Delhi and reported Iron between the ranges of 0.62 to 3.47 mg/l. Manganese (Mn) is one of the more abundant element in the earthâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s crusts and is widely distributed in soils, sediments, rocks and water. In present studies manganese ranged from 0.125 to 0.292 mg/l in surface water and 0.012 to 0.248 mg/ l in ground water samples. It is reported that all surface and 30% ground water samples (6 samples) contained manganese above permissible limit, 0.1 mg/l as recommended by WHO. The accumulation of the manganese in the water of study area is due to the presence of latterite ores of iron containing manganese in the form of impurities as well as its uses in dry battery cells, ceramics and fertilizers. Wasim Aktar, M.D. et. al. studied the water quality of Ganga river around Kolkata and reported higher concentration of manganese. The concentration of copper (Cu) varied from the ranges of 0.025 to 0.046 mg/l in surface water and nil to 0.058 mg/l in ground water samples. All surface and most of ground water samples contained copper within desirable limit, 0.05 mg/l recommended by BIS (10500-1991). Only 15% ground water samples (3 samples out of 20) contained copper above desirable limit but these values are well within permissible limits, 1.0 mg/l prescribed by BIS and WHO. The primary import

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water samples (2 samples out of 20). Abida Begum, et.al. studied the water quality of Madivala lakes of Bangalore, Karnataka and found that most of water samples contained nickel within permissible limit.

pathway of copper to soil or waste disposal fertilizer application and atmospheric deposition. Bhavana, et. al., (2009) studied the water quality of Narmada river and found that most of water surface contained copper within permissible limits.

Cadmium (Cd) metal were found in the ranges of 0.003 to 0.016 mg/l and nil to 0.0083 mg/ l in surface and ground water samples respectively. Cadmium metal was not detected in 15% ground water samples. Here it is reported that 75% surface(3 sample out of 5) and 85% ground water samples (17 samples out of 20) contained cadmium within permissible limits recommended by BIS and

The concentration of Nickel (Ni) ranged between 0.014 to 0.019 mg/l in surface water and nil to 0.019 mg/l in ground water samples. In both cases the concentration of nickel where found well within permissible limit, 0.02 mg/l recommended by WHO for drinking water. Here it is found out that nickel content were not detected in 10% ground

Table 1: Status of heavy metals in surface water (mg/l) S. No.

Name of sampling station

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Gavinath Pond Mau river at Ihota Lagena river at Nichnaura Barahara dam Amuya dam

0.110 0.105 0.92 0.006 0.009

0.55 1.45 1.65 2.76 2.70

0.125 0.198 0.145 0.292 0.270

0.046 0.042 0.045 0.038 0.025

0.018 0.019 0.015 0.016 0.014

0.0030 0.0145 0.0162 0.0094 0.0083

Table 2: Status of heavy metals in ground water (mg/l) S.No.

Name of sampling station

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20.

Bus stand (Birsinghpur) Badhan Tola Katera Sabhapur Main market Chund Konia Majhigawa Pagar Kala Amerati Dewara Sellowra Jariha Pratappur Bijhari Sukwah Domhai Bareha Barahena Hariharpur

0.060 0.008 0.029 0.025 0.017 0.008 0.003 0.009 0.035 0.038 0.024 0.006 0.028 0.008 0.048 0.009 0.006 0.055 0.009 0.008

0.72 0.63 0.70 0.78 0.55 0.29 0.28 0.58 0.68 0.64 0.60 0.69 2.38 1.68 2.25 0.76 0.24 2.26 0.29 0.25

0.052 0.040 0.012 0.055 0.030 0.025 0.018 0.52 0.055 0.223 0.044 0.039 0.225 0.196 0.248 0.225 0.049 0.198 0.045 0.032

0.032 0.048 0.042 0.040 0.044 0.048 0.028 0.038 0.049 0.038 0.032 0.045 0.042 0.058 0.032 0.053 ND 0.055 0.046 0.029

0.019 0.016 0.010 0.018 0.015 0.008 ND 0.019 0.018 0.016 ND 0.012 0.019 0.015 0.016 0.013 0.006 0.018 0.014 0.012

0.0083 0.0025 ND 0.0029 0.0028 0.0064 0.0033 0.0036 0.0058 ND 0.0022 0.0035 0.0022 0.0044 ND 0.0040 0.0035 0.0020 0.0054 0.0028

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WHO for drinking water. The high concentration of cadmium in some water samples of the study area may be attributed to the run off from the agricultural fields where pesticides as well as cadmium containing phosphatic fertilizer have been used. Its accumulation in water may also be possible due to paint-pigments as well as plastics and silvercadmium batteries. Lokeshwari, et. al. (2006) studied impact of heavy metals conglomeration of Bellandur lakes on soil and cultivated vegetation and reported cadmium concentration 23 time higher than the maximum permissible limit. Tiller, K.G. (1989) observed that the amount of cadmium increase in the agricultural fields due to the use of pesticides.

CONCLUSION From the above studies, it is concluded that the quality of surface and ground water varied from place to place. Surface water is comparatively more polluted than ground water. However the situation is not too worst but the higher concentrations of heavy metals in some sampling stations indicate that without proper treatment water is not suitable for domestic applications.

REFERENCES

Abida Begum, Harikrishna,S and Khan, Irfa[nulla. Analysis of heavy metals in water, sediments and fish samples of Madivala lakes of Bangalore, Karnataka, International Journal of Chem Tech Research. 1(2): pp 245-249 (2009). APHA, Standard methods for the examination of water and waste water, 18th edition, American Public Health Association, Washington DC, USA (1998). Bhavana, A., Shrivastava, V., Tiwari, C.R. and Jain, P., Heavy metal contamination and its potential risk with special reference to Narmada river at Nimar region of M.P. (India). Res. J. of Chem. & Env. 13(4): 23-27 (2009). BIS (Bureau of Indian Standard)., Indian Standards drinking water specification, Indian Standard 10500 (1991). Bruins, M.R., Kapil, S., & Oehme, F.W., Microbial resistance to metals in the environment. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety, 45: 198-207 (2000). doi. 10.1006/essa Khan, T.A., Kumar D., Hasant, Abul and Trivedi, R.C., Physicochemical studies of

8. 9.

10.

11.

drinking water and performance evaluation of treatment plants in Delhi . Poll Res. 24(1):13-18 (2005). Lokeshwari, H. and Chandrappa, G.T., Impact of heavy metals contamination of Bellandur lake on soil and cultivated Vegetation. Current Science . 91(5): 584 (2006). Marschner, H., Mineral nutrition of higher plants. London: Academic (1995). Simeonove, V., Stratis, J.A., Samera, C., Zahariadis, G., Vousta, D., Anthemidis, A., et. al., Assessment of the surface water quality in Northern Greece. Water Research, 37: 4119-4124 (2003). Tiller, K.G., Advances in Soil Science Springer Verlag, New York. Pp 113-142 (1989). Washim Aktar, Md., Paramasivam, M., Ganguly, M., Purkait, S., Sengupta, Daipayan, Assessment and occurrence of various heavy metals in surface water of Ganga river around Kolkata. Environ. Moint Assess. 160: 207-213 (2010).

Current World Environment

Vol. 6(2), 275-278 (2011)

Ground Water Hydrology in Rural Parts of Muzaffarnager District,Uttar Pradesh, India WEQUAR AHMAD SIDDIQUI and MOHD. WASEEM Department of Applied Sciences & Humanities, Faculty of Engineering & Technology, Jamia Millia Isalamia, New Delhi - 110 025 (India). *Corresponding author: E-mail: razawaseem@rediffmail.com (Received: November 30, 2011; Accepted: December 31, 2011) ABSTRACT The study area is a Krishna micro watershed in the central Ganga plain which is a highly fertile track of western Uttar Pradesh. The sugarcane and wheat are major crops of the area. Due to pressure of human activity, urbanization and degraded gradually the pure, safe, healthy and order less drinking water is a matter of deep concern. There are many pollutants in ground water due to seepage viz organic and inorganic pollutants, heavy metals, pesticides, fluorides etc. In Muzaffarnager district UP. India, mostly villages are affected with high TDS concentration in ground water. The water samples were analysed for pH, hardness, TDS, Chloride, Sulphlate, Nitrate, DO, COD ,Conductivity and some important heavy metals like, Copper (Cu), Chromium (Cr), Cadmium (Cd), Cobalt (Co) Zinc (Zn) and Nickel (Ni). The results were compared with BIS standard for drinking water. Subsequent analysis of water samples show that the results are within the maximum permissible limits. Therefore the ground water of rural area of Muzaffarnager district is suitable for drinking, bathing and irrigation purposes.

Key words: Physicochemical analysis, COD, DO, TDS, Heavy metal Analysis.

INTRODUCTION The study area spreads in an area of 650 Km part of Krishna River. It is one of the densely cultivated tracts and serves as leading producer of number of crops especially sugarcane, paddy and wheat. The high stress on ground due to pumpage of large quantities of ground water for irrigation has threatened the sustainability of agricultural development. Therefore, it is necessary to adopt exploitation of ground water to its availability accordingly a refined quantitative evaluation of ground water resources of an area or basin becomes an essential prerequisite for its management. The study are, falling in the Muzaffarnager district of Uttar Pradesh, lies between latitudes

29O’N and longitudes 77 O 0 7‘E and 78 O 22‘E. The area covered during this study is about 650 sq km. The study area lies in between the river Krishna on the east and river yamuna on the west. The drainage is mainly controlled by the river Krishna and yamuna, which are flowing from north to south. River Yamuna from upstream to side, for about 3 km behaves as influent stream. The area constitutes two blocks of Muzaffarnager district namely Shamli and Kairana. In the kharif season, during which mainly wheat and paddy are sown the water level drops mainly due to ground water pumping for irrigation. More over, sugarcane is sown round the year and its irrigation further drops the ground water level. The area enjoys a sub-tropical climate with very hot summer and moderately cold winter. The maximum temperature recorded during summer 46 O C (in the month of Jun) and the lowest temperature

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recorded in January is 6 OC. The average annual rainfall in the area is 670.18 mm of which 80% is received as result of southwest monsoon during the month of July to September. MATERIAL AND METHODS Twenty samples were collected from hand pumps, tube wells from villages, temples, nearby power house, park, bus stand, juggi cluster and different factories. These samples were analysed for various physicochemical parameters and some heavy metals. The procedure followed for the analysis was from standard method (APHA)8. All water samples were collected in the polypropylene bottles which were properly washed with 20 % nitric acid and subsequently with double distilled water. Chemicals used in the analysis were Qualigens ExcelaR grade acids Indicators are of super pure grade. Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer (model 3100) Perkin Elemer USA was used for determination of heavy metals. Hydrogen ion

concentration (pH), total dissolved solids (TDS) and conductivity were measured using pH, TDS and Conductivity meter respectively. Total Alkalinity (TA) was estimated titrimetrically using hydrochloric acid. Total hardness (TH) and Calcium (Ca2+) were analyzed titrimetrically using standard Ethylene Diaminetetraacetic acid disodium salt (EDTA). Magnesium (Mg 2+) was determined taking the difference between total hardness (TH) and (Ca2+) values. Chloride (Cl - ) were estimated using standard silver nitrate (AgNO3) while Sulphlate (SO42-) analyzed with the help of spectrophotomer. Dissolved Oxygen (DO) and (BOD) biological oxygen demand were analyzed titrimetrically using standard sodium thiosulphate (Na2S2O3) solution. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The results of physicochemical studies are summarized in the Table-1 where as the amount of heavy metals in different samples is listed in Table2. In the present study, temperature varied from 2632 OC with day temperature 25 OC (min) to 37 OC (max).

Table 1: The results of physicochemical studies for the ground water sample S. N.

Sampling site

TDS Alkalinity Ca2+

Mg2+

Cl-

BOD

SO42-

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

Baghra Butrada Sisoli Titavi L.Kheri Banat Sonta Sikka Silawar Hind Shamli Kurmali Lank Fugana Bhaju Adampur Kudana Lilon Kheri Kandela

7.5 7.8 8.1 7.1 7.7 7.5 7.2 8.0 8.1 7.3 7.5 7.8 7.7 7.3 8.1 7.5 7.6 7.5 7.6 7.9

1.07 3.14 5.17 1.36 0.71 2.61 2.92 0.95 2.34 2.45 4.42 2.50 4.50 3.21 3.45 1.06 3.42 2.21 3.22 4.16

832 1431 365 199 680 758 260 645 737 690 350 1240 880 975 394 347 336 670 690 1250

70 40 40 22 140 69 91 179 100 146 217 215 248 220 35 44 39 27 67 220

395.93 660.87 255.25 226.01 257.00 31.06 412.12 931.87 62.51 356.18 448.18 413.90 62.12 39.93 31.08 93.06 321.12 258.12 417.12 755.21

3.17 4.39 4.10 3.85 5.6 4.16 7.32 7.95 7.44 8.30 6.12 7.95 6.22 7.32 5.50 4.08 7.22 6.99 3.19 8.08

0.97 2.96 3.60 0.55 1.25 3.02 3.09 2.07 1.79 2.58 1.86 1.66 1.46 2.99 1.76 2.22 0.98 0.44 2.17 2.58

77.7 74.5 67 47 73.5 71.5 39.3 43.1 68.5 58.6 66.1 62.5 67.3 68.9 59.5 62.5 67.5 11.6 14.3 65.3

760 850 480 260 530 655 400 490 330 398 315 430 460 358 480 430 480 440 400 890

54 30 32 96 75 74 53 49 140 150 235 97 178 200 179 108 93 113 127 200

SIDDIQUI & WASEEM, Curr. World Environ., Vol. 6(2), 275-278 (2011) pH is considered as an important ecological factor, as piece of information in many types of geometrical equilibrium or solubility calculation pH is an important parameter in water body since most of the aquatic organism are adapted to an average pH and do not withstand about changes. The pH values fluctuated between (7.1-7.9) Table -1. The limit of pH value for drinking water is specified as (6.5 to 8.5) The conductivity was found to be varying between 0.71â&#x20AC;&#x201C;4.50 (mS/cm) as shown in the Table-1. Total dissolved solids (TDS) ranged between (350-1431) mg/l. The maximum permissible level is 2000 mg/L A large number of solids are found dissolved in natural water the common ones are carbonates, bicarbonate, chlorides, Sulphlate, phosphates and nitrates of calcium magnesium sodium, potassium iron etc. In other words TDS is sum of the cations and anions

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concentration. A high contents of dissolved solids elevates the density of water, influences solubility of gases (like oxygen) reduces utility of water for drinking irrigation and industrial purposes. Total Alkalinity values were found to be varying from (260 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 850) ppm. Alkalinity of all water samples were found to be above the maximum desirable limit of 200 ppm. The values of alkalinity in water provide an idea of natural salts present in water. The cause of alkalinity is the minerals which dissolve in water from soil. The various ionic species that contribute to alkalinity include carbonate bicarbonate, hydroxide, phosphate and organic acids. High alkalinity of water reduces its industrial use. The summation of calcium and magnesium hardness is regarded as the total hardness of water. In the present investigation it has been observed that the calcium concentration is at least two folds greater than that of magnesium.

Table 2: The results of Heavy metals in ground water sample of area S. No.

Sample Point

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

Baghra Butrada Sisoli Titavi Lalu Kheri Banat Sonta Sikka Silawar Hind Shamli Kurmali Lank Fugana Bhaju Adampur Kudana Lilon Kheri Kandela

BDL=Below Detection Limit

Cu ppm

Cr ppm

Cd ppm

Co ppm

Zn ppm

Ni ppm

0.07 0.03 0.05 BDL 0.03 0.03 0.04 0.09 0.05 BDL 0.02 0.04 0.07 0.12 0.05 0.11 BDL 0.11 0.06 0.09

0.06 0.05 0.06 0.04 BDL 0.05 0.03 BDL 0.03 0.01 0.02 BDL 0.04 0.06 BDL 0.02 BDL 0.05 BDL 0.06

BDL BDL BDL BDL 0.01 BDL BDL BDL 0.02 BDL BDL BDL 0.03 BDL BDL BDL BDL BDL BDL 0.04

0.03 0.04 BDL BDL BDL 0.07 0.02 0.06 0.08 0.12 0.13 0.16 BDL 0.08 0.07 0.06 0.08 0.04 0.05 0.08

BDL BDL BDL 0.04 0.07 1.16 0.29 1.20 1.30 BDL BDL BDL 0.12 0.18 1.13 BDL 0.05 BDL 0.66 1.18

0.16 0.15 0.11 BDL 0.09 0.01 0.07 0.08 BDL 0.06 0.04 0.02 BDL 0.03 0.06 BDL 0.03 0.04 BDL 0.08

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Each of the samples has registered high values of calcium hardness (30 – 235 mg/l) while magnesium hardness is in thee range of (22 – 220 mg/l) as shown in the table No.1. Chlorides are important in detecting the contamination of ground water. Appreciably high values of chloride ions were observed in drinking water sample Nos. 2, 8 and 20. The values are 660.87, 931.87 at 755.21 respectively. However the amount of chloride ions in rest of the samples was with in the desirable limits. High chloride ion contents in water sample may affect the taste of drinking water. DO and BOD ranged from (3.17 0 8.08 ppm) and (0.55 – 33.09 ppm) respectively at different sampling stations. BOD is the amount of DO required to stabilize the biodegradable organic matter by micro-organism of water under aerobic conditions. Higher BOD values may attribute to the stagnations of water body leading to the absence of salt purification cycle. Increase of COD values is due to pollution of input zones. Excess amount of Sulphlate in water sample has cathartic effect on human health. The highest value was recorded at Baghra (77.7 ppm) and the lowest (11.6 ppm) at Lilon. The desirable limits of Sulphlate are 250 ppm as BIS standard. Results of heavy metals detection (Table2) shows that Copper (Cu) which is an essential element in human metabolism and is considered to be non toxic up to 0.05 mg/l concentration in drinking water. In the present study of the drinking

water the amount of Cu ranged from (0.011 to 0.03) mg/l which is with in the desirable limit. The amount of Cadmium (Cd) in this study was in found the range from 0.01 to 0.04 which properly lies within the permissible limit. In the present study the amount of Nickel (Ni) and Cobalt (Co) is ranging from 0.02 to 0.16 and 0.03 to 0.13 mg/l, respectively which are with in permissible limit. Zinc (Zn) is also an essential trace element found in potable water sample. Zinc concentration was found to ring from 0.04 to 1.30 mg/l. Observed Zn concentration values were much lower than the permissible limit of 5 mg/l. The ground water therefore, was clearly Zn-deficient. Zinc deficiency may leads to dwarfism, dermatitis and loss of taste. CONCLUSION The study has led us to conclude that the ground that ground water samples of the studied site are acceptable for drinking purposes It has been observed that the amounts of almost all the indicative physicochemical parameters fall with in the permissible limits of drinking of BIS. Studies on heavy metals indicate that the amount of Zn in all the samples is below the permissible limit, however other important heavy metals present accordingly with the permissible limit. It is concluded therefore that the ground water of the entire sampling site is safe for drinking and other domestic purposes.

REFERENCES 1.

3. 4.

R. Shayamala M. Shanti and P. Lalitha ,Physicochemical Analysis of Borewell water samples of Telunguppalayam area in coimbatore District, Tamilnadu, India E Journal of chemistry vol. 4 pp 924 -929. Mohammad Muqtada Ali Kham, Rashid Umar and Habibah Lateh, Study of trace elements in ground water of western Utter Pradesh, India , Scientific Research and Essays Vol 5(20) pp 3175-3182. Oct 2010. Water Facts- Water and rivers commission of Western Australia, December 1998. Kumar MD, Tushaar S, The Hindu Survey of

7. 8.

the Environment, 2004, 7-9, 11-12. Sanjeev L, Dogra TD, Bhardwaj DN, Sharma RK, Murty OP and Aarti V, Indian J Clin Biochem., 2004, 19(2) 135-140. Preventing Groundwater Contamination, Fact sheet, Michigan Depar tment of Environmental Quality Environ Sci Services Division, 1994. Rao NS, Hydrological Sci. J/J des Sci Hydrologiques, 2003, 48(5), 835-847. Standard methods for the examination of water and waste water, 1985, 16th ed., APHA, AWWA and WPCF Inc. New York.

Current World Environment

Vol. 6(2), 279-282 (2011)

Assessment of Ground Water Quality at Municipal Solid Waste Dumping Site-Sewapura, Jaipur ABHISHEK GAUTAM², GOPAL PATHAK¹ and ANIRUDH SAHNI² ¹Department of Environmental Science & Engineering Birla Institute of Technology (Mesra) Ranchi (India). Department of Environmental Science, ²Birla Institute of Technology (Mesra) Ranchi, Jaipur Campus, Jaipur (India). *Corresponding author: E-mail: anirudhsahni@yahoo.com (Received: September 27, 2011; Accepted: November 19, 2011) ABSTRACT Drinking water is a basic need of all living organisms. Pollution of water resource has slowly diminished the amount of clean water from our planet. The rapid urbanisation and growth of population further added the problem. Huge amount of solid waste generated from the residences, hospitals etc. is dumped in open land areas. Such dumping causes environmental pollution by deteriorating the ground water quality. The present study was done at Sewapura MSW dumpsite near jaipur to assess the ground water quality in and around the study area. The results reveal that high amount of Fluoride (2.4 - 3.2 mg/l). Chlorides (288.4 – 1038.2 mg/l) and TDS (610.4 – 1828.4 mg/l) are present in the studied samples which are of higher range of acceptable limits. The ground water in the study area is being polluted by percolation of toxic substances into it. MSW dumping in the open area should be prohibited by the authorities to control the further pollution of water.

Key words: Municipal Solid Waste, Leachates, Heavy Metals, Fluoride, Chlorides.

INTRODUCTION Municipal Solid Waste is a growing menace in present times. Population increase has added the problem many fold. Waste materials or the leachates so formed during the course of time may percolate to the ground water table. This may cause the pollution of ground water and ultimately affects the health of local inhabitants. Leachates are formed by slow decomposition of municipal solid waste. These leachates may run off in the nearby natural water resources such as ponds, lakes and rivers and percolate to ground water causing water pollution (Arneth et.al. 1989). The leachates when mixed with water body increase the concentration of heavy metals, nitrates, sulphates and other organic and inorganic substances. In India more than 60 million population suffer from fluorosis by drinking fluoride contaminated water (Raju et.al. 2009). Though some of the metals like Cu, Fe, Mn, Ni and Zn are essential

as micro nutrients for plants and microorganisms, many other metals like Cd, Cr and Pb are proved detrimental beyond a certain limit (Bruins et.al. 2000). Elevated levels of heavy metals lead to toxicity in living organisms (Murugavelh and Vinod, 2010). With sufficient surface water infiltration, soil contaminants such as heavy metals can leach to underlying groundwater. Once the ground water is contaminated it may remain in hazardous state for decades or even centuries. The effects of heavy metals on groundwater are different for different types of soils (Zenglu, 1992). Higher concentration of Zn can cause impairment of growth and reproduction (Nolan, 2003). MATERIAL AND METHODS The present study was carried out at Municipal solid waste dumping site near Jaipur at Sewapura. This MSW dumping site is located at around 20 kms from the Jaipur city. The water

Parameters

pH Electrical conductivity (ms) Total dissolved solids (mg/l) Chlorides (mg/l) Total hardness (mg/l) Calcium Hardness as Ca ( mg/l) Magnesium Hardness as Mg ( mg/l) Sulphates (mg/l) Phosphates (mg/l) Nitrates (mg/l) Turbidity as NTU Sodium as Na (mg/l) Pottassium as K (mg/l) Total alkalinity (mg/l) COD (mg/l) Flouride (mg/l) Copper as Cu (mg/l) Zinc as Zn (mg/l) Nickel as Ni (mg/l) Lead as Pb (mg/l) Total Chromium as Cr (mg/l) Iron as Fe (mg/l) Cadmium as Cd (mg/l)

S. no

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23

7.21 2.2 1828.4 1038.2 600 320 280 88.3 1.2 1.2 1.2 600 9 60 2.2 3.2 0.02 1.15 NT NT NT NT NT

W1 7.3 3.5 1240.2 580.2 330 210 120 68.4 NT 1.4 0.3 610 11 122 2.5 2.6 NT NT NT NT NT NT NT

W2 7.4 2.6 1060 310.4 260 140 120 79.6 NT 1.1 0.6 380 12 88 2.1 3.1 NT NT NT NT NT NT NT

Table 1:

7.1 1.5 680.2 240.2 220 110 110 62.6 NT 1.16 0.4 210 8 58 2.8 2.8 NT NT NT NT NT NT NT

W4 7.2 1.8 720.2 360.4 240 120 120 70.2 NT 0.8 0.6 288 8 82 1.4 2.4 NT NT NT NT NT NT NT

W5 7.3 1.9 660.2 400 180 110 70 48.6 NT 0.4 0.6 230 10 69 1.6 3.2 NT NT NT NT NT NT NT

W6 7.24 1.6 610.4 310.6 140 80 60 68.4 NT 0.7 0.4 218 7 110.6 1.5 2.8 NT NT NT NT NT NT NT

W7 7.41 1.54 738.2 288.4 130 70 60 58.4 NT 0.8 0.8 404 15 72.2 1.8 2.44 NT NT NT NT NT NT NT

W8 7.33 1.44 662.8 330.4 150 80 70 58.6 NT 0.6 0.4 286 12 66.2 1.3 2.64 NT NT NT NT NT NT NT

7.8 1.34 732.4 460.4 160 80 80 48.6 NT 0.6 0.6 385 13 48.4 1.6 2.68 NT NT NT NT NT NT NT

W10

280 GAUTAM et al., Curr. World Environ., Vol. 6(2), 279-282 (2011)

250 1.5 50

250 0.8-1.7 45 ***

1.4-2.4 -

281

â&#x20AC;˘ ** Relaxable to 100 mg/l if no alternate source is available. â&#x20AC;˘*** If NO3 concentration exceeds 45 mg/l, public should be warned against use of water for infant feeding.

No relaxation 1000 1.5 100 6.5-8.5 250 1.0 45 <6.5 or >9.2 1000 1.5 7.0-8.5 200 1.0 20 ** <6.5 or >9.2 1000 1.5 45 1 2 3 4 5

No.

pH E.C. Chloride as ClFluoride as FNitrate as NO3

7.0-8.5 200 1.0 45

Cause for rejection

BIS 1991 ICMR1975 CPHEEO- 1991 Characteristics

The results shows the pH ranges from 7.1 to 7.8 (Table 1). Electrical conductivity (EC) ranged from 1.34 to 3,5 mS. The total dissolved solids were high in range from 610.4 to 1828.4 mg/l. Chlorides from 288.4 to 1038.2 mg/l. Total Hardness from 130 to 600 mg/l. Calcium and magnesium hardness ranged from 60 to 320 mg/l and 60 to 280 mg/l. Sulphates were found in range of 48.6 to 88.3 mg/ l. Phosphate was present only at the main dumpsite water sample as 1.2 mg/l. Nitrates was present from 0.4 to 1.6 mg/l. Sodium and potassium ranged from 218 to 600 mg/l and 7 to 15 mg/l. Fluoride was present in the range of 2.4 to 3.2 mg/l. Heavy metals were analysed and their presence was found in traces. Cu and Zn were present in the core MSW dumpsite water sample. The physico-chemical analysis of water samples give varied results. The pH was found in normal limits of W.H.O. and other organisations. The chloride values were in the higher range of acceptable limits given by ICMR, BIS and WHO (Table 2). The nitrates and phosphates were also found in the normal range. The fluoride values are quite high in the study area. The above results are higher than acceptable limits of monitory organisation and indicate the effect of dumping of municipal solid waste in the study area as the ground water quality is slowly deteriorating. The study reveals that the ground water may become completely unfit for the purpose of drinking and irrigation.

The results of physico-chemical analysis obtained for the summer season are given in the table 1.

Table 2: Recommended standards for ground water quality

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Acceptable

WHO

US standards

samples were collected from 10 different locations namely W1 to W10 (Table-1) surrounding the MSW dumping area. The water samples were collected in well cleaned autoclaved bottles. The samples were then later analysed for physico chemical parameters and heavy metal content. pH determination was carried out by using digital pH meter (Elico). Sulphates, Phosphates, Fluoride and Nitrate were determined by using UV spectrophotometer (Systronic). The heavy metals were analysed by Atomic Absorbtion Spectrophotometer (AAS).

Highest Maximum Desirable Permissible Guidline Recommended Tolerance desirable permissible limit limit in absence values limits limits limit limit of alternate source

GAUTAM et al., Curr. World Environ., Vol. 6(2), 279-282 (2011)

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GAUTAM et al., Curr. World Environ., Vol. 6(2), 279-282 (2011)

The standard values of ground water quality recommended by various organisations are given in table 2. CONCLUSIONS It can be thus concluded easily that the dumping of municipal solid waste should completely be stopped in the study area as it is slowly damaging the environment. The leachates formed slowly percolate in the ground water table and may ultimately pollute the ground water. High Chloride and fluoride values in the water samples not only make it unfit for drinking but also cause many diseases. The high values of chloride and fluoride may be due to leaching of toxic substances of municipal solid waste in to the ground water table (Sahni and Gautam, 2009). Chloride conc. if more

than 250 mg/l, causes salty taste. Fluoride concentration more 1.5 mg/l if consumed for long period causes dental and skeletal fluorosis (Sahni et.al. 2010). The disease causes complete damage of bones and teeth. The nitrate values are very low. High conc. of nitrate i.e. above 45 mg/l results in “Methmoglobinemia” in infants. Thus the need of the hour is to save water from being polluted by moving away the municipal solid waste dumpsite from the area and develop a properly managed landfill site. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Authors are highly thankful to Dr. Abhinav Dinesh, Director, Birla Institute of Technology Mesra, Jaipur campus for his encouragement and guidance.

REFERENCES

3. 4.

APHA, Standard Methods for examination of water and waste water 21st edition 2005 American Public Health Association Washington D.C., (2005). Arneth, J.D., Midle, G., Kerndoff, H. and Schleger, R., “Waste in deposits influence on ground water quality as a tool for waste type and site selection for final storage quality”. Landfill reactions and final Storage quality. Baccini, P. (ed) Springer Verlag Berlin pp.339 (1989). Bruins M R, Kapil S and Oehme F W, Ecotox Environ Safe, 45, 198-207, (2000). Murugavelh S. and Vinodkumar, Removal of Heavy metals from waste water using different biosorbents. Current World Environment 5(2), 299-304,(2010). Nolan, K., Copper toxicity syndrome. Journal of Orthomolecular Psychiatry 12: 270-282, (2003). Raju N. Janardana, Dey Sangita and Das

10.

Kaushik, Fluoride contamination in ground waters of sonbhadra district, Uttar Pradesh, India, Current Science, 96(7), 979-985 (2009) Sahni Anirudh., and Gautam Abhishek.,Status of Pre - monsoon ground water quality near Municipal Solid Waste dumping site of Jaipur with respect to Chlorides, Fluorides, Nitrates, (2009). Sahni Kavita., Sahni Anirudh., and Gautam Abhishek., Assessment of Drinking Water Quality of Jaipur Main and its Various Suburb Railway Stations with Special Mention to Fluoride, Current World Environment, 5(2), 293-298, (2010). WHO. Guidelines for Drinking Water Quality. Second Edition. Vol 2 Health Criteria and Other Supporting Information, WHO, Geneva, (1996). Zenglu Xia, Soil environmental capacity of China, Earthquake Publishing, (1992).

Current World Environment

Vol. 6(2), 283-286 (2011)

Quality Assurance of Hot Beverages with Special Reference to Copper Element PREETI SHARMA¹, ISHRAT ALIM ¹, SARITA SHRIVASTAVA2 and AKANSHA GAVSINDHE³ 1

Quality Assurance Laboratory, M.P. Council of Science and Technology, Vigyan Bhavan, Science Hills, Nehru Nagar, Bhopal (India). 2 Department of Chemistry MVAM, Bhopal (India) 3 Department of Biotechnology, AMITY University, Noida, (India). *Corresponding author: E-mail: preetisharma1cl@gmail.com (Received: June 14, 2011; Accepted: July 20, 2011) ABSTRACT

Camellia sinensis originated in South East Asia, specifically around the intersection in the point of confluence of the lands of northeast India, north Burma, southwest China and Tibet. The plant was introduced to more than 52 countries, from this ‘centre of origin’.” Instant coffee is a beverage prepared by various processes in which again it is dehydrated into the form of powder or granules. These can be rehydrated with hot water to provide a drink similar (though not identical) to conventional coffee. Chicory, used as a coffee substitute and additive with other adulterants like sugar beet and mustard seeds used as an ingredient of the mixed coffee, introduced during the coffee crisis happened in 1976-79. According to traditional folklore, long-term use of chicory as a coffee substitute may damage human retinal tissue, with dimming of vision over time and other long term effects. Similarly, copper salts are being used commonly as an eradicant and protectant against a fungus. Therefore there is an urgent need of detecting the copper bioconcentration in the samples, hence present problem has been sorted out and it was found that no absorption or the uptake of the salt by the plant and ultimate crop or its allied product is safe for human consumption.

Key words: Quality assurance, Physico-chemical characteristics, Nutritional constituents.

INTRODUCTION Tea refers to the Agri-produce of the leaves, its buds, and internodes of the Camellia sinensis plant, prepared and cured by various procedures. Tea also refers to the aromatic hot beverage prepared from the processed or cured leaves by combination with hot or boiling water, and is the common name for the Camellia sinensis plant itself. The four types of tea most commonly found in the market viz., white tea, black tea, long tea and green tea, and all the tea can be prepared from the same bushes, by using different process. Instant coffee is a beverage derived from brewed coffee beans.

Through various manufacturing processes the coffee is dehydrated into the form of powder or granules. These can be rehydrated with hot water to provide a drink similar to conventional coffee with a little test difference. At least one brand of instant coffee is also available in concentrated liquid form1-4. Root chicory (Cichorium intybus var. sativum) has been in cultivation in Europe as a coffee substitute for this, the roots are baked, ground, and used as a coffee substitute and additive, especially in the Mediterranean region, where the plant is native, although its use as a coffee additive is also very popular in India, parts of Southeast Asia and the American South.

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Copper salts are commonly used as protectant and eradicant in tea, coffee and their instant preparations against blister blight- a fungus disorder that affects the tea and instant coffee. The main risks of the exposure of this salt and bio accumulation of the copper in human beings are gastrointestinal irritation, liver and kidney damage, intravascular haemolysis and shock. Acute poisoning occurs from ingestion of copper salts. The main target organs are the gastrointestinal tract, cardiovascular and circulatory system. Keeping in view of the above points and the facts that, after water followed by tea than instant coffee is the most widely-consumed beverage in the world as it has a cooling, slightly bitter, astringent flavor and the people is very fond of this specific test. Therefore the present problem has been sorted out to explore the possibility of accumulation of copper in the tea and instant coffee and accordingly an accurate method for the determination of this element which is required for quality control has been developed and its estimation by advanced instrumentation method done during the study period. MATERIAL AND METHODS Present study was carried out to explore the possibility of higher content of copper which are being used as eradicant and protectant against a fungus and accordingly the samples of different brand of Tea and Instant Coffee were collected and then method development of detection of different parameters related to purity of the hot beverages was carried out by performing different tests of adulterants in Tea and Instant Coffee. To develop accurate method of sample preparation for copper element and the quality control was the main objective of the present study which is done as per the standard condition, calibration and other sensitivity check of the major sophisticated instrument Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometric (4141), ECIL, Hyderabad for the determination of copper in selected hot beverages. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION In accordance with the objectives detection of adulterants was carried out in the target commodity as: when tea leaves sprinkled on wet filter paper and it was found that there was no added

colour found on the filter paper which shows the absence of adulterants in different brand of tea. Similarly in the test -2 performed during the study period by sprinkling a little tea dust on the lime glass plate red orange colour was not appeared which show the absence of coal tar dye in the present selected samples. The detection tests were performed for the Instant Coffee infusion after adding the HCl then boiled for some time and after the addition of potassium Ferro cyanide followed by boiling the contents until the liquid become dark green then added KOH and again boiled the whole contents. It was observed the Liquid become brown which shows the presence of chicory in the instant preparation of different brand of coffee samples obtained for the tests. Similarly other test for the presence of adulterants were carried out by taking different brand of Coffee infusion and then added copper acetate in the infusion reddish brown precipitate was obtained which confirms the presence of Chicory in the samples. Presence was observed in all the three samples of branded coffee powder. Confirmation was also done when the samples thrown on cold water Chicory sinks quickly coloring the water showed positive presence of Chicory. All the observation related to adulteration tests have been shown in the Table-1. Physicochemical analysis was done to assure the quality of different brand of tea and coffee and it was found that the moisture content was found to be higher (8.7 %) in the sample of coffee (Rich Bru), and the lowest was Nescafe Classic (2.3%). However, it is a fact that coffee has higher moisture % as compared to tea. Similarly, the total ash, the higher and lower percentage was 11.37% and 5.3%, acid insoluble ash (5.0% and 2.6%, water insoluble ash, 8.19% and 5.55% alkalinity 0.008% and, 0.01% was found for all the samples respectively (Fig. 1-5). Determination of copper in all the samples of tea and coffee was estimated to fulfill the objectives taken during the study period for this method development was done as per the standard condition for operating Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer and accordingly sample preparations were made in various steps. Copper concentration in different tea samples was found higher with a value of 1.832 ppm (Milli) followed by 0.998ppm (Goodrich), 0.910ppm, (Tata Agni),

SHARMA et al., Curr. World Environ., Vol. 6(2), 283-286 (2011) 0.895ppm (Double Diamond) and 0.781(Taj Mahal Tea Bags) in all the four brands of the tea whereas, in the coffee samples the copper value was found as 0.749 ppm (Nescafe Sunrise) followed by 0.680ppm (Rich Bru) then 0.601ppm (Nescafe Classic) as shown in Fig- 6. The copper concentrations in all the selected samples was found higher and may be due to the copper salt which is being commonly used as protectant and eradicant in tea and coffee and their instant

285

preparations against blister blight- a fungus disorder that affect the teas and coffee plants. The data shows that there is absorption or uptake of the copper sulphate by the plants during the cultivation which can be emphasized that hot beverage is quite unsafe as the bioaccumulation of the copper bioconcentration is in higher side which are commonly practiced as protectant and eradicant for the specific fungus.

Physico-Chemical Characteristics and Copper Concentration in Hot Beverages

286

SHARMA et al., Curr. World Environ., Vol. 6(2), 283-286 (2011) ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Thanks are due to Prof. Pramod K. Verma, Director General and D. K. Soni, Sr. Scientist and In charge Quality Assurance Laboratory, Madhya

Pradesh Council of Science and Technology for extending support and constant encouragement. The authors are also thankful to all the staff of QAL offered selfless support and assistance to perform experimental work.

REFERENCES

Romualdo Verzosa Jr. Ed, Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology, volume 6 (4 th edition). John Willey and Sons ISBN 0-47152674-6 (1993). Masters, K, Spray Drying Handbook (5th Edition). Longman Scientific & Technical. ISBN 0-582-06266-7 (1991).

John J. McKetta, Ed, Encyclopedia of Chemical Processing and Design. Marcel Dekker Inc. ISBN 0-08247-26046-9 (1995) Carlisle, Rodney, Scientific American Inventions and Discoveries, p.355. John Wiley and Songs, Inc., New Jersey. ISBN 00471244-104 (2004).

Current World Environment

Vol. 6(2), 287-290 (2011)

Pysico-Chemical Analysis of Bore Wells and Open Wells Drinking Water of Kathalal Region D.G. SHAH¹* and P.M. TRIVEDI² ¹Department of Chemistry, Parekh Brothers Science College, Kapadwanj (India). ²Department of Chemistry, St. Xavier’s College Ahmedabad (India). *Corresponding author: E-mail: dharmeshshah2007@yahoo.co.in (Received: September 01, 2011; Accepted: October 04, 2011) ABSTRACT Physico-chemical analysis such as temperature, PH, dissolved oxygen, total dissolved solids, chloride, total alkalinity, calcium and magnesium hardness, sulphate, phosphate nitrate of bore wells water was carried out from twenty sampling station of kathalal territory area during the May-2011 in order to assess water quality index.

Key words: Physico-chemical analysis of bore wells drinking water of, Kathalal territory, Gujarat.

INTRODUCTION In continuation of our earlier analysis on bore wells water1-3, here we report the Physicochemical analysis of bore wells drinking water of kathalal territory. kathalal is located in kheda district of Gujarat. bore wells water is generally used for Drinking and other domestic purposes in this area. The use of fertilizers and pesticides manure, lime, septic tank, refuse dump, etc, are the main sources of bore wells water pollution4 in the absence of fresh water supply, people residing in this area forced to use bore wells water for their domestic and drinking consumption. In order to assess water quality index, we have carried out the Pysico-chemical analysis of bore wells drinking water. EXPERIMENTAL In the present study bore wells water sample from twenty difference areas located in and around kathalal territory were collected in brown glass bottles with necessary precautions

Physico-Chemical analysis All the chemicals used water of AR grade. Double distilled water was used for the preparation of reagents and solutions. The major water quality parameters considered for the examination in this study are temperature PH ,dissolved oxygen (DO)total dissolved s o l i d ( T. D. S ) , t o t a l a l k a l i n i t y, c a l c i u m a n d magnesium hardness, sulphate, phosphate and nitrate contents6 Temperature pH, dissolved oxygen (DO) total dissolved solid (T.D.S), phosphate, Nitrate values were measured by water analysis kit and manual methods. Calcium and magnesium hardness of water was estimated by complexometic titration method 4,5.Chloride contents were determined volumetrically by silver nitrate titration method using potassium chromate as indicator and was calculated in terms of mg/L. sulphate contents were determined by volumetric method 5.

288

SHAH & TRIVEDI, Curr. World Environ., Vol. 6(2), 287-290 (2011) RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The Physico-chemical data of the bore wells water samples collected in May-2011 are present in table -1 respectively. The results of the samples vary with different colleting places because of the different nature of soil contamination6.All metabolic and physiological activities and life processes of aquatic organisms are generally influenced by water temperature. Temperature In the present study temperature ranged was kept from 29.4octo 34.3oc. pH In the present study pH ranged from 6.9to 8.3 which lies in the range prescribed byAPHA1. The pH value of drinking water is an important index of acidity, alkalinity and resulting value of the acidic basic interaction of a number of its mineral and organic components. pH below 6.5 starts corrosion in pipes. Toxic metals which are present in water increase the pH value of water. The tolerance pH limit is 6.5 to 8.5. TDS In the present study TDS ranged from 185 mg/l to 1380 mg/l. according to WHO and Indian standards7,8. TDS value should be less than 500 mg/l for drinking water. All the sample station except sample station no 14 higher ranged as prescribed by WHO and Indian standards7,8. D.O. In the present study dissolved oxygen (D.O) ranged from 6.4 mg/l to 10mg/l. The minimum tolerance range is 4.0 mg/l for drinking water. Chlorides The chlorides contents in the samples between 28.48mg/l to 285.40 mg/l natural water contain low chloride ions. In the present study sample No.7 shows 315.75 mg/l chloride which is highest value in twenty different sampling stations. The tolerance range for chloride is 200 to 1000mg/l7,8.

Total Alkalinity In the present study total alkalinity range was kept from 148 mg/l to 856 mg/l. Calcium Hardness The calcium hardness range was from 8.02 mg/l to 144.3mg/l. The tolerance range for calcium hardness is 75 to 200 mg/l. Calcium contents in all samples collected fall within the limit prescribed. Calcium is needed for the body in small quantities, though water provides only a part of total requirements. Magnesium Hardness Magnesium hardness ranged from 19.44 to 182.74 mg/l. The tolerance range for magnesium is 50 to 100 mg/l. Sulphate Sulphate ranged from 19.41 mg/l to 384.30 mg/l. The tolerance range for sulphate is 200 to 400 mg/l. The high concentration of sulphate may induce diarrhea. Phosphate In the present study phosphate ranged from 4.0 mg/l to 42 mg/l. The evaluated value of phosphate in the present study is much higher than the prescribed values. The higher values of phosphate are mainly due to use of fertilizers and pesticides by the people residing in this area. If phosphate is consumed in excess, phosphine gas is produce in gastrointestinal tract on reaction with gastric juice. This could eve lead to the death of consumer. Nitrate In the present study nitrate ranged from 60 mg/l to 450 mg/l. The tolerance range for nitrate 20mg/l to 45 mg/l. Nitrate nitrogen is one of the major constituents of organisms along with carbon and hydrogen as amino acid, protein and organic compounds present in the bore wells water. In the present study nitrate nitrogen levels show higher values than the prescribed values. This may be due the excess use of fertilizers and pesticides in this area.

Sample Station

Jamni Sarali Pithai Abhripur Bagdol Chhipadi Bhaner Bhatera Chelavat Kakarkhad Manor Ni Muvadi Khadal Gugalia Badarpur Ravdavat Mundel Ladvel Bhagat Na Muvada Anara Porada

No.

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

32.5 31.7 31.3 31.6 35.8 33.4 34.5 32.9 33.8 31.3 31.7 32.4 34.8 32.7 29.3 31.2 32.0 33.5 31.6 30.8

TempC

7.5 8.12 7.21 7.3 7.4 7.25 7.6 8.62 8.25 7.5 7.32 7.5 7.9 8.3 8.0 7.3 7.1 7.9 7.4 7.5

240 850 550 610 340 580 340 780 540 250 770 530 270 1460 510 360 470 390 580 450

TDS

7.6 8.3 7.2 5.0 8.4 6.7 8.3 8.1 8.4 10.3 6.9 7.8 7.7 8.4 7.3 6.2 8.3 6.9 7.1 8.4

D.O. m/l

57.67 78.65 93.35 85.64 190.36 94.5 315.75 97.2 183.7 171.10 95.01 38.6 55.35 79.54 191.5 65.6 43.4 66.9 90.3 109.3

Chloride mg/L

388 656 575 482 564 630 750 260 330 412 532 430 240 550 310 468 525 302 355 530

49.13 32.15 17.56 54.39 43.70 117.23 12.22 58.85 43.96 83.41 41.58 12.88 51.56 29.60 33.4 23.5 11.28 15.1 36.7 10.5

78.46 53.26 84.36 92.34 44.26 93.49 21.48 35.44 55.39 60.22 145.61 47.82 56.29 49.47 32.3 63.1 16.8 37.9 30.9 19.3

Total Ca Mg Alkalinity Hardness Hardness mg/L mg/L mg/L

Table 1: Analysis result of the sample collected in May-2011.

305.84 206.45 192.65 95.59 196.36 224.74 142.36 38.64 253.41 189.95 225.35 134.95 387.69 307.35 115.6 320.3 246.5 168.7 210.8 54.5

SO4-2 mg/L

20 35 15 12 22 32 18 29 35 16 42 20 36 28 30 26 17 9 8 6

PO4-3 mg/L

80 265 410 155 215 335 210 320 410 185 317 440 390 405 120 240 155 95 130 165

NO3-1 mg/L

SHAH & TRIVEDI, Curr. World Environ., Vol. 6(2), 287-290 (2011) 289

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SHAH & TRIVEDI, Curr. World Environ., Vol. 6(2), 287-290 (2011) ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

of P.B.Science college of Kapadwanj for providing me to use the facilities of laboratory work.

The author is also thankful to the principal

REFERENCES 1.

2. 3. 4.

APHA, Standard methods for the examination of water and waste water; Washington USA,1995. Praharaj A.K, Mohanta B K and Manda N K, Poll Res., 23(2): 399-402 (2004). Madhavi A., Poll Res., 24(2): 395-400 (2005). Prajapati J. R. and Raol B. V, Poll Res.,23(1): 165-168 (2004).

5. 6. 7. 8.

Patel K. P, Poll Res., 22(2): 241-245 (2003). Mitra A and Gupta S. K J Indian Soc Soil Sci., 47: 99-105 (1999). WHO, Guidelines for drinking water quality I Geneva (1984). WHO, International Standards for drinking water WHO, Geneva (1994).

Current World Environment

Vol. 6(2), 291-293 (2011)

Study of the Effect of Air Pollution on Wheat RAJESH KUMAR SINGH Department of Chemistry, Jagdam College, J P University, Chapra (India). *Corresponding author: Email: rks_jpujc@yahoo.co.in (Received: October 10, 2011; Accepted: December 17, 2011) ABSTRACT Wheat is a very important crop of Indian farmers. Most of the people fooding depend upon wheat. There are several eatable food products prepared by wheat. Wheat is cultivated mostly in Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and West Bengal. Recently in these states industrialization and infrastructure development work are going very fast causing huge amounts of pollutants and particulate entering into the atmosphere. Pollutants are oxide of carbon, oxide of nitrogen, oxide of sulphur, oxide of chlorine, chloride ions, ammonia, organic acids and aldehydes where as particulates are dust, smoke, mist and fog. Particulates are deposited on the surface of wheat. Some of these particulates are hydroscopic in nature. They absorb pollutants and form acids. These acids in turn develop micro electrochemical cell with flower of wheat which destroy flowering of wheat. Other factors are acid rain, global warming and depletion of ozone layer also affect the production of wheat.

Key words: Wheat flowers, Pollutants, Particulates, Micro electrochemical cell, Acid rain, Global warming and ozone depletion.

INTRODUCTION Wheat is cultivated in the basin of Ganga river, Yamuna, Gomati and other areas. These areas are flooded with industries 1-5 like chemical, coal, fertilizer, petroleum refinery, food processing, transport industry, coal power, hydropower, drug industry, pulp and paper industry, paint and dyes, sugar industry, wine industry, water bottling plant, juice factory, milk processing. These industries release huge amount of pollutants 6-9 like inorganic, organic and particulates material. They pollute air and that polluted air produces several problems for living and nonliving things. Inorganic pollutants are oxide of carbon (CO, CO2), oxide of nitrogen (NO, N2O, NO2), oxide of sulphur (SO2, SO3), oxide of chlorine, chlorine ion, ammonia and oxide of metal. Organic pollutants are organic acid, aldeyhde, ketone, amine etc. Particulates 10-11 are dust, smoke, mist, pollen, bacteria and fog.

Wheat flowering period starts from December to February. Particulates are scattered into the atmosphere which are deposited on the surface of wheat. Some of these particulates are hydroscopic12 in nature. They absorb moisture13 from the atmosphere. The moist particulates14 absorb oxide of carbon, oxide of nitrogen, oxide of sulpher, oxide of chlorine and chlorine ion to form carbonic acid, nitric acid, sulphuric acid, hypochlorous acid and hydrochloric acid. These acids are highly corrosive in nature. They create hostile environment for wheat flowers. The corrosive acid produces micro electrochemical cell with wheat flower thus electrochemical reaction occurs on the surface of wheat flowers in this way flower of wheat get destroyed and conversion of flowers into wheat is decreased. Methodology For this work certain wheat growing areas were selected like Ludhiyana in Panjab, Hishar in

SINGH, Curr. World Environ., Vol. 6(2), 291-293 (2011)

292

Haryana, Lucknow in Uttar Pradesh and Patna in Bihar. The study of the characteristic behaviors of inorganic, organic and particulates pollutants and their effect on wheat flowers were done in detail. Monitoring works started during period of December to February. Corrosive gases and their acidic character were determined with the help of Pen types PH meter.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Wheat is main food of human being. Our country is highly populated. Our public have so many basic needs like food, clothe, house, education, hospital, electricity, transport, road, industry and telecommunication. For the completion of these basic needs we do not utilize our natural resources

Table 1: PH values of corrosive pollutants in different Cities City PH

Ludhiyana

Hisar

Lucknow

Patna

5.5

5.8

6.3

6.5

in proper manner. Man creates its own environments. Recently infrastructure development works are going very fast in several sectors like industr y, agriculture, power generation, construction etc. These sectors have major role in pollution of environment.

cell causing oxidation and reduction reactions to star t on the surface of wheat flowers. The electrochemical reaction is expressed as:

The main features of wheat depend upon temperature, humidity and nature of surrounding environment during its flowering period. The concentration of corrosive gases, particulate materials and humidity are high so they form H2CO3, HNO3, H2SO4, HClO and HCl. These acids produce H+ ion that ion starts electrochemical reaction with wheat flowers. Due to this reaction flowers connectivity become weaker and finally they are detached with main branch of wheat plant. During the formation of acids exothermic reaction occurs and heat is evolved which increases the temperature of surrounding of wheat flowers, thus flowers are easily separated from its main branch.

Half Reduction Reaction 2H + + 2e →

The chemical reactions among them are written as CO2 + H2O → H2CO3 NO + O2 → NO2 NO2 + H2O → HNO3 SO2 + O2 → SO3 SO3 + H2O → H2SO4 Cl- + H2O → HCl + ClOThe above mentioned acids are dissociated and released H+ ion that ions in the presence of electrolytes develop an electrochemical

Half Oxidation Reaction CH2O → CO2 + 2H+

This chemical reaction indicates that corrosive pollutants are corroding the wheat flowers. The P H values of above mentioned cities are recorded in Table 1 and bar graph plots between the P H values of corrosive pollutants and its concentrations in different cities. The results of Table 1 and Fig. 1 show that the concentration of H+ ion in Ludhiyana city is higher than that of Hisar. Likewise the concentration of H+ ion in Lucknow is greater than Patna and wheat crops of these areas are badly affected by pollutants. The concentration of carbon dioxide and methane gases increases in atmosphere due to deforestation, industrialization and human waste decomposition. These gases produce global warming effect thus temperature of atmosphere is increased which exhibits bad affect on the wheat flowers. In lower level of atmosphere ozone is formed that ozone also disturbs wheat flowers. O2 O2

+ +

UV O

→ →

2O O3

SINGH, Curr. World Environ., Vol. 6(2), 291-293 (2011)

293

Fig. 1: Plot between city and pH values of Acids in different cities

CONCLUSION Pollutants are very harmful for wheat flowers. They decrease its production. If its evolvement is not controlled at proper times, our

country will become major loser of wheat. It is moral responsibility of the industrialists, scientists, intellectuals, social workers to provide good technology and public awareness against pollution.

REFERENCES

1. 2. 3. 4.

5. 6. 7.

“Air pollution” by A.C Stern, Academic press, New York (1976). B.J Pitts, Atmosphere Chemistry, Academic Press, Wiley, N.Y. (1986). R.P Wayne, the Chemistry of the Atmosphere, Oxford Univ. Press, N.Y. (1991). Murray J. McEwan and Leon F. Philips, Chemistry of Atmosphere, Halsted (Wiley), New York (1975). “Air Pollution Control Theory” By M. Crwford, McGrow Hill, New York, (1976). “Air Pollution” by H.C. Perkins, McGraw Hill, New York, (1974). “Fundamentals of Air Pollution” by J. Williamson, Addison – Wesley, Reading, Masss (1973). “Pathways of Pollutants in the Atmosphere” by T.M.Sugden (Ed), The Royal Society,

10. 11.

12.

13.

14.

London, (1978). “Introduction to Environmental Engineering and Science” by G.M.Masters, Prentice Hall, New Delhi (1994). “Environmental Chemistry” by Nigel J. Bunce, Wuerz Publishing Ltd. Canada (1991). “Handbook of Pollution Control and waste Minimization” edited by Abbas Ghassemi, Marcel Dekker, Inc (2002). “Green Engineering – Environmentally Conscious Design of Chemical Processes by David T. Allen and David R. Shonnart, Prentice Hall (2003). “Enviroment – Problems and Solutions” by D.K.Asthana and Meera Asthana, S.Chand & Co. Ltd; New Delhi (1998). “Environmental Chemistry” by SE Manahan, Willard Grant Press, Boston (1983).

Current World Environment

Vol. 6(2), 295-297 (2011)

Drinking Water Analysis of Buldana District, Maharashtra MANGESH V. KADU Department of Applied Chemistry, Anuradha Engineering College, Chikhli - 443 201 (India). (Received: September 10, 2011; Accepted: November 18, 2011) ABSTRACT A symmetric survey was carried out to evaluate the total hardness, iron, chlorides, nitrate and fluoride content in drinking water sources of some villages in Buldana district, Maharashtra. The drinking water samples were collected from the village drinking water sources of fifteen villages. Standard methods were used for the analysis of water samples.

Key words: Water analysis, Buldana district, Maharashtra.

INTRODUCTION Water, the most abundant and natural commodity. But today it has become precious and scare. This is mainly due to the increase in human population and fast development. The inadequate and irregular supply of water through piped water system has forced the population to use whatever quality of water available in the nearby water sources. This leads to water borne diseases and other health hazards. It is therefore essential to monitor the water supply and quality of water, specially the total hardness, iron, chloride, nitrate and fluoride content in the drinking water samples were analyzed. The total hardness, iron, chlorides, nitrate and fluoride content in drinking causes serious health disorders. Therefore, in the present study attempts were made to evaluate the above parameters in the drinking water samples of various villages of Buldana district of Maharashtra. MATERIALS AND METHODS Drinking water samples were collected from the drinking water sources from fifteen villages located in Buldana district of Maharashtra. The

samples were collected from the month of January to June and were analyzed for total hardness, iron, chloride, nitrate and fluoride content. Analysis of water samples was done as per standard procedure1,2,3,4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The results of analysis for total hardness iron, chloride, nitrate and fluoride content in drinking water samples of fifteen villages of Buldana district are summarized in Table-1. The analysis report revealed that, the total hardness, iron, chlorides, nitrate and fluoride content in drinking water samples are well within permissible limit as per WHO standards5,6. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The author is thankful to Management and Principal of Anuradha Engineering College, Chikhli for encouragement. The author is also thankful to Mr. S.P. Bhanuse and S.U. Kale for their help during study.

Vairagarh

Dongargaon

Naigaon

Yenkhed

Hatni

Sawargaon

Walti

Waghapur

Antri Koli

Wadi

Dhodap

Bramhapuri

Wadi

Bramhapuri

Sawana

Malgani

Dukare

Undri

Common Well

Hand Pump

Common Well

Hand Pump

Common Well

Hand Pump

Supply Tank

Water

Common Well

S. Name of Water No. Villages Sources Fe

629 0.3 240 48

630 0.2 250 48

630 0.2 252 49

600 0.3 240 50

621 0.2 251 48

630 0.3 2.5 49

621 0.2 251 48

620 0.2 250 47

330 0.2 240 46

630 0.2 230 61

620 0.2 240 60

600 0.3 240 50

330 0.3 240 40

550 0.2 230 40

440 0.3 250 45

January TH

0.2 630 0.2 241 46

0.2 640 0.2 251 47

0.2 632 0.2 231 47

0.2 586 0.3 551 47

0.2 622 0.2 554 47

0.2 631 0.3 250 47

0.2 622 0.2 554 47

0.2 630 0.2 256 48

0.1 334 0.2 241 47

0.1 620 0.2 231 61

0.2 617 0.2 241 60

0.2 576 0.3 245 52

0.2 340 0.3 230 40

0.2 560 0.3 233 42

0.2 450 0.2 250 46

February TH

0.2 620 0.3 240 48

0.2 620 0.2 252 45

0.2 620 0.2 240 46

0.2 620 0.3 247 47

0.1 640 0.3 249 46

0.1 640 0.3 252 48

0.1 619 0.2 520 45

0.2 620 0.2 249 46

0.1 239 0.2 231 46

0.1 610 0.2 227 58

0.2 619 0.2 238 58

0.2 597 0.3 248 50

0.2 360 0.2 242 43

0.2 562 0.2 310 46

0.2 460 0.2 320 44

230 57

0.2 630 0.3 245 47

0.2 634 0.2 248 46

0.2 630 0.2 252 45

0.2 620 0.3 259 48

0.2 420 0.3 259 48

0.2 639 0.3 250 46

0.2 620 0.2 239 47

0.2 631 0.2 239 45

0.1 321 0.2 243 45

0.2 620 0.

0.2 615 0.3 245 52

0.2 586 0.3 240 53

0.1 350 0.2 243 44

0.2 572 0.2 297 45

0.2 462 0.2 230 44

Months and Parameters March April TH

May N

0.2 615 0.3 247 49

0.2 620 0.2 249 47

0.2 622 0.2 252 46

0.2 612 0.3 258 48

0.2 632 0.3 54

0.2 629 0.3 253 45

0.2 618 0.2 251 46

0.2 632 0.2 256 47

0.1 319 0.2 244 45

0.2 625 0.2 233 58

0.1 614 0.2 245 49

0.2 612 0.3 240 48

0.1 355 0.2 248 44

0.2 565 0.3 297 48

0.2 435 0.3 237 43

Table 1: Water analysis of fifteen villages of Buldana district.

0.2

0.1

0.2

0.1

0.2

0.2 618 0.3 248 49

0.2 631 0.2 250 74

0.2 632 0.2 254 46

0.2 615 0.3 253 46

0.2

0.2 640 0.3 251 247 0.2

0.2 630 0.3 251 45

0.2 625 0.2 251 43

0.2 630 0.2 251 43

0.1 314 0.2 241 47

0.2 617 0.2 248 57

0.2 617 0.2 241 59

0.2 595 0.2 230 53

0.1 320 0.2 238 43

0.2 570 0.3 290 48

0.2 420 0.3 230 42

June

296 KADU, Curr. World Environ., Vol. 6(2), 295-297 (2011)

KADU, Curr. World Environ., Vol. 6(2), 295-297 (2011)

297

REFERENCES

Jackson R., A Laboratory Manual for Water and Spent Water Chemistry,Van Nostradn Reinhold(1993). APHA, Standard methods for Examination of Water and Waste Water, APHA, AWWA, WPCF, Washington DC 2005, USA, 16th Edn. (1985). Manivasakan N., Physico-Chemical Examination of Water, Sewage and Industrial Effluents, 3rd Edn. (1996).

Drioli E., Liganda F. and Criscuoli A., Desalination, Integratted Membrane Operations in Desalination Process, 122145 (1999). Kothari B., Kumar Swamy N., Environmental Engineering Laboratory Manual, 1 st Edn.(1994). Dara S.S., Experiments and Calculations in Engineering Chemistry,3rd Edn.(1991).

Current World Environment

Vol. 6(2), 299-300 (2011)

Antimicrobial Activity of Seed Extract of Impatiens balsamina Linn BASANTI JAIN Department of Chemistry, Govt. M.L.B. Girls P.G. Autonomous College, Bhopal (India). (Received: November 15, 2011; Accepted: December 25, 2011) ABSTRACT The world today due to changing food and living habits of human being is faced with the challenging problem of saving human life from various ordeal and naturally compells. Our ancient ayurvedic system of medicine is predominantly a plant based materia medica making use of our medicinal plants. Many herbal preparations have found their way in the pharmacoepea of other countries. The validity of claims of many of these preparations have been substantiated by modern scientific methods and techniques. Now these preparations are in active use in modern clinical practice. The plant of this genera are valued for their emetic, cathartic, diuretic, antihaemorrhoidal and antibacterial properties. The seed extract of the plant was examined for antimicrobial activity and it has been found to possess remarkable antibacterial and antifungal activities.

Key words: Antimicrobial, Impatiens balsamina, disc diffusion method, inhibition zone.

INTRODUCTION The plant Impatiens Balsamina Linn1-3 (N.O. Balsaminaceae) is known Gulmendi in Hindi and is distributed throughout India. The seeds of this plant are edible. Alcoholic extract of the flowers has been found to have adequate antibiotic activity4 against scleroting, fructicola and other pathogenic fungi and bacteria. It is reported to be useful for pains in the joints. The seeds of impatiens Balsamina Linn were extracted with respective solvents. The successive seed extracts of the plant were tested for their antimicrobial activity. The seed extract in various solvents have been found to possess promising antibacterial and antifungal activities. EXPERIMENTAL The seeds of Impatiens Balsamina Linn were collected locally and identified by Prof. Pramod Patil Botany Deptt., Govt. M.L.B. Girls College, Bhopal.

Air dried and powdered seeds were extracted with respective solvents i.e. ethanol, petroleum ether rectified spirit and ethyl acetate in soxhelet apparatus. These extracts were tested separately for antibacterial and antifungal activities respectively. Disc diffusion5-6 method was used for the purpose. The results in each case were expressed in terms of inhibition zones. The same procedure was repeated with control. The microbial species selected for antibacterial activity are Bacillus anthracis and Escherichia coli and for antifungal activity Aspergillus niger and fusarium spe. are used. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Table A shows, that all the successive seed extracts have varying degree of antibacterial and antifungal properties. Ethanol and Rectified spirit extracts showed promising antibacterial activity against the growth of bacteria species whereas Ethanol and petroleum ether extracts showed better results against the fungal growth.

JAIN, Curr. World Environ., Vol. 6(2), 299-300 (2011)

300

Table 1: Antibacterial activity of seed extract of Impatiens balsamina Linn Name of the Species (Bacteria)

Escherichia coli Bacillus anthrasis

Diameter of Inhibition Zone (mm)* Seed Extract in Different Solvents Ethanol

Petroleum Ether

Rectified Spirit

Ethyl Acetate

18.5 23

8.0 18.5

17.5 22

7.0 15.5

Control**

23.0 34

Table 2: Antifungal activity of seed extract of Impatiens balsamina Linn Name of the Species (Fungi)

Aspergillus niger Fusarium Sp.

Diameter of Inhibition Zone (mm)* Seed Extract in Different Solvents Ethanol

Petroleum Ether

Rectified Spirit

Ethyl Acetate

Control**

15.5 19.0

13.5 16.0

10.5 7.0

8.0 8.5

17.0 22.0

Values including (6mm) of filter paper disc. Streptomycin (500 ppm) for bacteria and Grassiq Fluvin (1000 ppm) for fungi.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

project; thanks are due to Director, CDRI, Lucknow for antimicrobial activity.

The authoress is greatful to chairman UGC, New Delhi for awarding a minor research

REFERENCES 1.

2. 3.

Chopra R.N., Chopra I.C. and Nayar S.L., “Glossary of Indian Medicinal Plants” C.S.I.R. Publication, New Delhi, 140 (1980). “The wealth of India”, Raw material, C.S.I.R. Publication, New Delhi, 5, 168 (1959). Kirtikar K.R. and Basu B.D., “Indian Medicinal Plants”, Indian Press, Allahabad, IInd ed., 445 (1918).

4. 5.

Giri S., Nizamuddin and Mishra A.K., Acta. Chim. Acad. Sci. Hung, 110: 117 (1982). Gerhardt, P., Manual of methods for General Bacterialogy (American Society Microbiology, Castrello) (1981). Ramana Rao, P.V., “Essentials of Microbiology 139 (2004).

Current World Environment

Vol. 6(2), 301-302 (2011)

Impact of Biodiversity in Tribal life of Tripura BIPLAB DE* and TRIJASH DEBBARMAยน Regional Institute of Pharmaceutical Science and Technology, Abhoynagar, Agartala,Tripura - 799 005 (India). ยนSinghania University, Pacheri Bari, Rajasthan (India). *Corresponding author: E-mail: Biplab_32@yahoo.co.in (Received: September 02, 2011; Accepted: October 17, 2011) ABSTRACT Tribal people of Tripura is fully utilizing the biodiversity as to consume, to build house, crafts, to manufacture tools, instruments and medicinal purposes etc., but equally not conserved.

Key words: Tribes, Tripura, Biodiversity.

INTRODUCTION Tripura is a small state located in the northeastern part of India. It has a international border with Bangladesh for about 839 kms, towards West, South and North. It also shares boundary with Assam and Mizoram in the east. The geographical continuity with the Indian main land is maintained only in the north east with Karimganj sub-division in Cachar district of Assam. The small geographical area however does not deprive Tripura in being one of the richest areas with regards to the biodiversity and biological Resources. Agartala which is the capital city of the state of Tripura has a forest cover of 214.582 kms. At Agartala there is 15,616 Tribal population in which 7,686 are males and 7,930 are according to 2001 census. In recent years there are various studies noted on the biodiversities. Biodiversity have great impact in the socioeconomic and cultural aspect in the tribal life at Agartala, Tripura. It is estimated that about 86% of species occurring in Tripura are widely distributed in India and adjoining countries and 14% of the species are comparatively restricted in distribution. Certain parameters of environment and biodiversity were reported in regard to the tribal people of Tripura.1 The present study is done to investigate the impact of biodiversity on the tribal life and the

study was carried out in the capital of Tripura, India, - Agartala. MATERIAL AND METHODS Studies were carried out basically on fire wood consumption, food consumption, timber usage, usage of bamboo, bamboo shoot consumption, wild potato tuber consumption, medicinal plant usage, consumption of animal flesh like pig etc., by the tribal people of Tripura. Studies were carried out in the Agartala, the capital of Tripura, India. Extensive survey was done through out Agartala subdivision among the tribal people based on the prefixed parameters through an eventually prepared format. Interview was conducted among the tribal people and information from the governmental organization was also collected. Collected data was tabulated and presented accordingly. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION In Agartala, data collected from more than 60% (60.83%) tribal people were dwelling in urban sector and 39.2% dwelling in rural area. Among the respondents, maximum were students (36.67%), farmer(25%) and employees(24.17%), apart from these data also were collected from businessmen (1.66%), labour class (6.7%), house

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302

Table 1: Consumption of animals Species

Consumption % by tribes

Used as

Monoptera kuchia Sus scrofa (wild boar) Pila sp Pitta brachyuran Columba livia (rock pegion)

75% 85% 68% 36% 62%

For the increase of blood in the body Food Eye, Asthma, stomach disorder, food For jaundice Food

Table 2: Plant species used as a medicine Name of Plant sp.

%Used by tribes

Used for

Adhatoda vasica Azadiracta indica Ocimum sanctum Curcuma domestica Paederia foetida Calitropis gigantean Leucus lavendulae Clitoria ternatea.

83.6 68.2 85.6 48.2 20.86 28.20 38.2 29.31

Cold and cough Skin disease, Antiseptic Cold, Cough, Bronchitis Used externally for injuries, cut fracture, pin prick. Diarrhea , indigestion. Analgesic effect Joint pain, swelling, paralysis, cough, expectorant Flower used for constipation, roots used for painful Micturation

wives (5.83%). Among them, 14.17% reported their monthly income more than Rs. 10,000/-, 44.17% reported more than Rs. 5000/- and 41.67% less than Rs. 5000/-. 75% Tribal people reported that they used to eat tubers of Dioscorea sp. after cooking and 25% generally consume as raw. Bamboo shoots are very favourble to them and they used to consume after cooking only. They mostly favours the shoot of Melacana baccifera (89.16%) and others are Bambusa balcooa (52.5%) and Bambusa tulda (49.16%). Tribal people also consume animal flesh as depicted in Table 1. They too believe that these are having certain medicinal value, such as Monoptera kuchia favoured by 75% respondents and they believed that it increases blood quantity in body. They also favour Sus scrofa, Pila sp., Pitta brachyuran, Columba livia etc. Tribal

people utilizes bamboo of different sp. for building house (94.16%), fencing purpose (94.16%), in crafts (85%), to manufacture instruments (75.83%), different tools (50%) etc. Plants are also used as fire wood and 43% reported that they are utilizing plants as fire wood and 53% are not utilising. Probable plants are Cassia fistula, Azadiracta indica, Artocarpush eterophilus, Embilica officinalis. Tribal people are also using certain plants for medicine purpose as mentioned in Table 2, such as 83.6% using Adhatoda vasica in cough and cold; Ocimum sanctum used by 85.6% for cold, cough and bronchitis; 68.2% using Azadirachta indica in skin disease and as antiseptic; etc. Ultimately, it has been that tribal people are utilizing the biodiversity to fulfill their needs and daily livelihood, but equally the conservation was not recorded or found.

REFERENCES

De B., Debbarma T., Sen S. and Chakraborty

R. Current World Environment , 5(1): 59 (2010).