Current World Environment Journal by Nilofar Iqbal

Current World Environment

Vol. 9(1), 1-6 (2014)

Land Subsidence Monitoring Using Geographic Information System (GIS) Techniques in Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria. JOSEPH C. UDOH and EMMANUEL P. UDOFIA Department of Geography and Regional Planning, University of Uyo, Uyo, Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria. http://dx.doi.org/10.12944/CWE.9.1.01 (Received: Feburary 11, 2014; Accepted: March 24, 2014) ABSTRACT Akwa Ibom state of Nigeria is susceptible to subsidence as a result of complex interaction between anthropogenic activities and natural processes. As an area of subterranean fluid extraction, the study arose because of the need for subsidence monitoring so as to minimize the anticipated resultant risk. The study utilized water extraction data that was linked to an existing data base of the study area. To obtain the subsidence susceptibility index, the total water extraction data for each LGA was normalized and the data converted into grids and interpolated with Inverse Distance Weighted (IDW) tool of ARCMAP spatial analyst extension to create an isoline map. IDW is used to create a continuous surface from sampled point values. The resultant map showed the spatial distribution of the subsidence zones of High and Very High zones are found in emerging urban areas of Uyo, Ikot Ekpene and Ikot Abasi. This emphasizes the need for the population growth and the water supply needs of our urban centers to be monitored. It is recommended that an agency should be established to monitor land subsidence in the vulnerable areas identified by the study.

Key words: Land subsidence, Geographic Information system, Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria.

INTRODUCTION Increasing population and anthropogenic activities have brought about many environmental problems globally. One of such problems is land subsidence described as the gradual differential settling or sudden sinking of the ground surface due to the movement of ground materials 1,2. Land subsidence is generally caused by human activities, alterations to the earthâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s surface and underground geologic processes. Specific causes include: Underground mining of solid minerals, and the collapse of such mines; withdrawal of groundwater and petroleum; dewatering or drainage of organic soils; sink holes, wetting of dry low density soil; and, natural sediment compaction. The growth of world population and the increasing need for water has led to this geological hazard that has affected all continents of the world

except Antarctica3. Land subsidence has received the attention of researchers in different parts of the world. Land subsidence problems that has resulted from the overuse of ground water in Bangkok in Thailand has been investigated4. According to the study, subsidence occurred at rates up to 10cm/ year in critical areas. The crises worsened flood conditions and caused damages to buildings and infrastructure. Hence since 1983, government agencies have monitored subsidence and ground water levels and implemented general measures to mitigate the problem. Also, the effect of ground water on rural housing in USA was equally studied leading to the conclusion that land subsidence occurred where large amounts of ground water was withdrawn from a thick layer of saturated fine gravel sediment that is susceptible to compaction. Remote sensing and Geographic Information System (GIS) techniques were used to detect and quantify land subsidence caused by aquifer

UDOH & UDOFIA, Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(1), 1-6 (2014)

compaction in Antelope Valley, California6 . The resultant maps with high spatial detail and resolution allowed a comprehensive comparison between recent subsidence patterns and those detected historically by traditional methods. A 24 year data was used to analyze establish trends and causes of land deformations in Yangtze River delta, China 7 . This area is characterized by the occurrence of land subsidence due to the exploitation of ground water resources that serve as a major water supply for industrial and municipal purposes. An assessment of land subsidence in the Karst region of Rongkop, Indonesia was carried out with the purpose of delineating the areas that are at risk. A land subsidence risk map was developed based on 5 parameters – slope degree, lithology, relative relief, distance to lineaments and land use. The result revealed that the highest risk zones coincided with sink hole locations. As part of mitigation strategies, the government of New South Wales, Ausrtalia established the Mine Subsidence Board (MSB) as a service organization operating for the community responsible for the administering the Mine Subsidence Compensation Act. This provided the basis for compensation or repair services where subsidence induced damages occur in this coal mining area8. The Board is responsible for reducing the risk of more subsidence damage to properties by assessing and controlling the type of buildings that can be erected in subsidence prone districts. It is worthy of note that although subsidence damages were reported in New Castle from late 19 th century, comprehensive subsidence monitoring programs were not initiated until 1970s. The study area, Akwa Ibom State of Nigeria is susceptible to subsidence as a result of complex interaction between anthropogenic activities and natural processes. It is located between latitude 4 0 32 I and 50 33 I North and Longitude 70 25 I and 80 25 I East. To the East of the state is Cross River State, to the West Rivers and Abia and to the South Atlantic ocean. The geology of the study area consists of four recognizable distinct stratigraphical units9. The shale – limestone unit is the oldest geological fancy in the state

belongs to the late Cretaceous (Nsukka formation) and the early Eocene ( Imo clay shale group) periods. They are found in the north and north east parts of the state. The coastal plain sand also found in the north and north east part of the state belong to the Oligocene – Pleistocene period, the younger Benin formation Coastal plains sand and the beach ridge complex and alluvial deposits cover the remaining parts of the state. As an area of subterranean fluid extraction, there is the need for subsidence monitoring so as to minimize the resultant risk. Considering the sensitivity of the Niger Delta ecosystem of which the State is a part, the need for utilization of GIS so as to quantify spatial changes in this dynamic environment cannot be over emphasised10. METHODOLOGY Data on Subsidence Susceptibility Index of the study was used to produce subsidence surface map which was divided into 4 subsidence zones using a Reclass tool of Arcmap’s Spatial Analyst extension. Figures 1& 2 show the spatial distribution of the subsidence while Table 2 shows the areal distribution of the zones, From the table it can be seen that Very High zone covers 0.59% while the Marginal zone covers 75.71%. The analysis using water extraction is a good estimate of land subsidence hence serves as a good tool for policy makers to monitor environmental hazards. Areas of special interests could also be monitored. For example, the map shows that areas of High and Very High zones are found in established urban areas of Uyo, Ikot Ekpene and Ikot Abasi. This emphasizes the need for the population growth and the water supply needs of our urban centers to be monitored. The study utilized water extraction data obtained from Akwa Ibom Water Campany Ltd, and Ministry of Rural Development, to model the subsidence susceptibility surface of the study area. Total quantity of water extracted in the study area was calculated by combining extraction figures that include the annual discharge for all the hand pump boreholes per LGA; annual discharge for all the mini water schemes in the LGA; and, the annual discharge of all the Akwa Ibom Water Company

UDOH & UDOFIA, Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(1), 1-6 (2014) Ltd head works in each of our urban LGAs. Although Akwa Ibom State is a petroleum oil producing state in the Niger Delta of Nigeria, most of the extraction is done offshore. For this reason, petroleum oil could not be used as the basis to estimate the areas’ susceptibility to subsidence. Since the data required for the study have spatial components that can change over time. GIS proved useful in the storage, integration and display of the data.

The data on water extraction was linked to an existing data base of the base map of the study area. To obtain the subsidence susceptibility index, the total water extraction data for each LGA was normalized using the formulae:

Dimension index =

Actual value − max . value Max value − min value

The data was then converted into grid using ArcMap 9.1 GIS software with Spatial Analyst

Table 1: Akwa Ibom State Showing Annual Water Discharge Rates S/N

LGAs

TotalPop.

Total Q(m³/yr)

SubsidenceIndex

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31

Abak Eastern Obolo Eket Esit Eket Essien Udim Etim Ekpo Etinan Ibeno Ibesikpo Asutan Ibiono Ibom Ika Ikono Ikot Abasi Ikot Ekpene Ini Itu Mbo Mkpat Enin Nsit Atai Nsit Ibom Nsit Ubium Obot Akara Okobo Onna Oron Oruk Anam Udung Uko Ukanafun Uruan Urueoffong/Oruko Uyo

191,752 24,509 145,549 71,267 229,423 123,590 158,720 72,880 152,208 182,264 79,294 162,012 116,543 171,433 125,608 140,916 118,578 183,459 78,965 112,002 130,071 114,155 122,332 199,178 98,183 223,276 40,813 38,622 140,789 54,150 222,841

1,859,675 25,550 1,939,975 59,312.5 142,350 848,077.5 1,237,350 103,112.5 96,725 120,450 66612.5 229,767.5 1,856,025 1,860587.5 73,000 2,606,107.5 29,252.5 114,975 44,803.75 802,087.5 107,675 97,637.5 77,562.5 187,062.5 1,795,800 563,012.5 50,187.5 118,625 1,513,837.5 389,637.5 4,807,050

0.3836 0.0001 0.4004 0.0071 0.0244 0.1720 0.2534 0.0162 0.0149 0.0198 0.0086 0.4334 0.3828 0.3838 0.0099 0.5397 0.007 0.0187 0.0004 0.1624 0.0172 0.0151 0.0109 0.0338 0.3702 0.1124 0.0051 0.0195 0.3113 0.0762 0.9999

Source: Compiled from data Supplied by AK-RUWATSAN, Akwa Ibom Water Campany Ltd, Ministry of Rural Development; and, Cross River Basin Development Authority (CRBDA).

UDOH & UDOFIA, Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(1), 1-6 (2014)

Table 2: Akwa Ibom State Showing coverage of subsidence zones S/N

Subsident Zone

Area (Km2)

1. 2. 3. 3.

Very High High Moderate Marginal Total

40.52 117.65 1501.55 5174.13 6833.85

0.59 1.72 21.97 75.71 100

Extension. The grid was interpolated with Inverse Distance Weighted (IDW) tool to create an isoline map. IDW is used to create a continuous surface from sampled point values. The method is a deterministic interpolation that assigns values to locations based on the surrounding and on a specified mathematical formulae that determines the smoothness of the resulting surface.. Isoline map that resulted, based on the assumption that the phenomena represented has a continuous distribution and smoothly changes in value in all direction of the plain; was used to show the spatial distribution of water extraction in the study area

Fig.1 : Subsidence index map of the study area

Fig. 2 : Subsidence zones map of the study area

UDOH & UDOFIA, Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(1), 1-6 (2014) urban areas of Uyo, Ikot Ekpene and Ikot Abasi. This emphasizes the need for the population growth and the water supply needs of our urban centers to be monitored. DISCUSSION Data on Subsidence Susceptibility Index of the study was used to produce subsidence surface map which was divided into 4 subsidence zones using a Reclass tool of Arcmapâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Spatial Analyst extension. Figures 1& 2 show the spatial distribution of the subsidence while Table 2 shows the areal distribution of the zones, From the table it can be seen that Very High zone covers 0.59% while the Marginal zone covers 75.71%. The analysis using water extraction is a good estimate of land subsidence hence serves as a good tool for policy makers to monitor environmental hazards. Areas of special interests could also be monitored. For example, the map shows that areas of High and Very High zones are found in established urban areas of Uyo, Ikot Ekpene and Ikot Abasi. This emphasizes the need for the population growth and the water supply needs of our urban centers to be monitored. An analysis of the pattern of population growth, age distribution of the population and trend of urbanization will enable one to understand the implications of the study. The spatial distribution of the population density of the state shows that the state is located in the high population zone of the country. It has an average density of 541 persons/ km2 based on the 2006 population census. Oron has the most highest density of 2128 persons per km2 followed by Uyo (1986), Ikot Ekpene (1116), Eket (983), Nsit Ibom (998) and Etinan (928). All other LGAs have densities that are lower than 300 except Uruan (280). The age characteristics of the population to the state show that 60.75 % of the population are below 20 years11.

This shows that the area has a youthful, dynamic and growing population. It has been observed that urban areas in the state have grown significantly in the last 100 years with Uyo the State capital being the most populous with 118,250 people12. The generally high population growth result in the spilling over of urban residents into unplanned urban suburbs . The pressure on urban services and facilities has exceeded the coping capacity resulting in acute shortages of essential services like water, electricity, health, transportation and education. The analysis of population characteristics, pattern of growth and urbanization show a long term pressure in the underground water reserves, hence land subsidence is a real threat in the study area. The study has demonstrated the use of GIS to visualize the subsidence of the study area. This environment allows for ease of data editing, integration, analysis, and storage. The resultant product will help to identify, and locate sensitive areas that can be impacted by subsidence so that emergency managers can customize disaster relief efforts. Using a GIS for the modeling has enabled a data base to be created hence could be updated as new facts emerge. It is recommended that a subsidence unit should be established within the Akwa Ibom State Water Corporation so that the rate land subsidence could be monitored especially in the vulnerable areas identified in the study. CONCLUSION The study has used water discharge figures to model the susceptibility of the study to land subsidence IN A GIS environment. The map produced shows that the Very High and High Subsidence Susceptibility zones are found in the Uyo, Ikot Ekpene Itu and Ikot Abasi and the surrounding areas. Using a GIS for the modeling has enabled a data base to be created which could be updated as new facts emerged.

REFERENCES 1.

Putra, D. P. E.. Setianto, A Keokhampui K. and Fukuoka, H., Land Subsidence Risk Assessment Case Study: Rongkop, Gunung Kidul, Yogyakarta â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Indonesia, The 4th AUN/ SEED Net Regional Conference on Geo

Disaster Mitigation in ASEAN, The Royal Paradise Hotel & Spa, Phuket, Thailand, October 25 26, (2011). Devin, G. Jones, D and Ingebritsen, S. E., Land Subsidence in the United States , U.S.

4. 5.

UDOH & UDOFIA, Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(1), 1-6 (2014) Geological Survey Circular 1182, (1999). Prokopovich, N. P. Detection of Aquifers Susceptibility to Land Subsidence, Land Subsidence (Proceedings of the Fourth International Symposium on Land Subsidence). IAHS Publ.: 200; 3333 Braeburn Street, Sacramento, CA 95821, U.S.A, (1991). UNEP , The Bangkok City State of the Environment, Thailand, (2001). Waller, R. M., Ground Water and the Rural Homeowner, U.S. Department of the Interior / U.S. Geological Survey, (1994). Galloway, D. L., K. W. Hudnut, S. E. Ingebritsen, S. P. Phillips, G. Peltzer, F. Rogez and P. A. Rosen, Detection of Aquifer System Compaction and Land Subsidence Using Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar, Antelope Valley, Mojave Desert, California, Water Resources Research, 34(10), 25732585 (1998). http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/ 98WR01285 Balogun , W. O. B., M. A. Anifowose, M. A. Shogo, F. A. Salaudeen, Trends And Mechanisms Of Land Subsidence Of A Coastal Plain In The Delta Of Yangtze River-

10.

11.

12.

China, Researcher, 3(3), 76-81, (2011) . Mine Subsidence Board, Graduated Guidelines for Residential Construction (New South Wales),1: Historical and Technical Background, NSW, Australia, (2000). Usoro, E. J., Geology, In: P Akpan and Usoro E Ed., Akwa Ibom State: Geographical Perspective, Department of Geography Publications, Uyo, 23-34, (2010). Ogba, C. O. and B. P. Utang, Geospatial Evaluation of Niger Delta Coastal Susceptibility to Climate Change, FIG Congress Sydney, Australia, 11-16 April 2010. PMid:20453883 PMCid:PMC2892028 Inyang, I. B., Population and Settlement, In: P. Akpan and E. Usoro, Ed., Akwa Ibom State: Geographical Perspective, Department of Geography Publications, Uyo, 179 -190, (2010). Akpan, P. A., Urban Settlement, In: P. Akpan and E. Usoro, Ed., Akwa Ibom State: Geographical Perspective, Department of Geography Publications, Uyo, 191-202, (2010).

Current World Environment

Vol. 9(1), 07-16 (2014)

Assessment of Trace Elements Levels in Sediment and Water in Some Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining (ASM) Localities in Ghana KOFI AGYARKO*, EMMANUEL DARTEY, RICHARD AMANKWAH KUFFOUR and PETER ABUM SARKODIE College of Agriculture Education, University of Education, Winneba, Mampong/Ash., Ghana. http://dx.doi.org/10.12944/CWE.9.1.02 (Received: January 26, 2014; Accepted: March 22, 2014) ABSTRACT The concentrations of eight trace elements, Cadmium (Cd), lead (Pb), iron (Fe), zinc (Zn), manganese (Mn), copper (Cu), mercury (Hg) and arsenic(As) in sediment and water were assessed in four artisanal and small-scale mining(ASM) localities in the Amansie West District (6°282 N 1°532 W) of Ghana along two river courses from May 2011 to July 2011. Triplicate water and sediment samples were randomly taken at five different points at each of the localities and the elements determined using Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer (AAS ). Using the Geoaccumulation Index( I geo) assessment, the sediments were found to be polluted to different degrees with Cu (Uncontaminated to moderately contaminated/Moderately contaminated), Hg (Uncontaminated to moderately contaminated/Moderately contaminated) and As (Moderately contaminated/Moderately to strongly contaminated). The Enrichment Factor (EF) indicated human influence - artisanal mining activities on the sediment concentration of Cd and Pb for all the localities and only some of the localities for the rest of the trace elements. The elements are major sediment pollutants ( EF > 2) in one or more of the localities. The Igeo and EF gave diverse status of the sediment qualities of the localities. Cd, Pb, Hg and As water concentrations in the four artisanal mining localities were all found to be above the WHO maximum acceptable of levels for drinking water. Inhabitants in the mining localities face the risk of getting various diseases by drinking the waters contaminated with the trace elements.

Key words: Enrichment Factor (EF), Geo-accumulation Index( Igeo), Pollution, Maximum acceptable levels.

INTRODUCTION The contribution of mining to the economy of many countries is enormous. The mining industry contributes much to exports and acts as one of the major sources of employment for mankind. The mining industry is made up of both the large-scale mining and the artisanal and small-scale mining(ASM) sectors. ASM, which is referred to in the Ghanaian parlance as ‘galamsey’ contributed 23 percent of total gold production in 2010, with over a million Ghanaians directly dependent on it for their livelihood (Norgah, 2013). At the global

level the International Labour Organization (ILO) has reported that around 13 million people work directly in small mines throughout the world, most of them in developing countries (IFC, 2012). Aside the economic benefits of largescale mining and artisanal and small-scale mining, the sectors are perhaps better known for their high environmental costs. Environmental issues such as deforestation, destruction of farming potentials, problems with land reclamation and water contamination resulting from mining have become headache to man.

AGYARKO et al., Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(1), 07-16 (2014)

The most important sources of trace elements in the environment are from mining operations. Grinding, concentration of ores and disposal of tailings, together with mine waste water are contamination sources of trace elements in the environment (Adriano, 1986). Rivers, streams, sediments have been found to be contaminated by trace elements as, As, Fe, Hg, Mn and Pb from artisanal mining activities, and their values have also been found to exceed standard safety levels (Ojo and Oketayo, 2006; Nartey et al., 2011). Numerous studies have been undertaken into trace elements contamination derived from mining activities, in soils, plants, waters and sediments in various countries (Pestana et al., 1997). Though some metals like Fe, Cu and Zn are essential micronutrients, they can be detrimental to man and other living organisms at higher concentrations (Kar et al., 2008; Nair et al., 2010). The objective of this research work was to assess the effect of artisanal mining on pollution levels of some trace elements in sediment and water of four mining localities in Ghana. MATERIALS AND METHODS Study Area The study was carried out in four localities (Esaase, Tetrem, Gyeninso and Adobewora) in the Amansie West District (6°282 N 1°532 W) of Ghana along two river courses – rivers Bonte and Gyeni (Figure 1) having active artisanal mining operations. The sampling procedure was carried out from May 2011- July 2011. Sampling and Analyses Five water and sediment samples were randomly taken at five different points at each of the localities. Pre-cleaned acid washed plastic containers were used to collect samples of water below the water surface, while at the same water sampling points the sediment samples were collected. Water and sediment samples from the source of the rivers which have no record of

pollution and sprang through non mining area were taken and analyzed to serve as reference. Water and sediment samples were collected following the standard procedure described by DWAF (1992). Water samples were kept cooled en route to the laboratory and stored at 4°C while sediment samples were kept frozen at -18°C until analysed. Sediment samples were allowed to defrost, then air-dried in a circulating oven at 30 °C and thereafter sieved mechanically using a 2 mm sieve and homogenized. A 0.2 g weight of each sediment sample was weighed onto polyethylene film, wrapped and heat-sealed. The digested samples of both water and sediment were analyzed for Cadmium (Cd), lead (Pb), iron (Fe), zinc (Zn), manganese (Mn), copper (Cu), mercury (Hg) and arsenic (As) using an Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer at the Soil Research Institute at Kwadaso – Kumasi, Ghana. The instrument setting and operational conditions were carried out in accordance to Motsara and Roy (2008). The accuracy of the analytical method was evaluated using the standard reference materials IAEA 433, IAEA 405, QTM080MS and QTM081MS. Calculations and Statistical Package The Geo-accumulation Index (Igeo) and Enrichment Factor (EF) were employed to assess the pollution of the trace elements in the sediments of the rivers. The Igeo was determined by the following equation (Müller, 1969; Boszke et al., 2004): Igeo = ln(Cn/1.5 × Bn) Cn = Measured concentration of the trace element in the sediment. Bn = Background value of the trace element and 1.5 = Background matrix correction factor The geo-accumulation index consists of 7 grades or classes; Igeo value of < 0, practically unpolluted; > 0–1, unpolluted to moderately polluted; > 1– 2, moderately polluted; > 2–3, moderately and > 5 very strongly polluted (Müller, 1969).

AGYARKO et al., Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(1), 07-16 (2014) The enrichment factor (EF) was calculated as the following in reference to Buat - Menard and Chesselet (1979): EF =

Cn( sample) / Cref ( sample) Bn(background ) / Bref (background )

Cn=content of the examined element examined environment, Cref=content of the examined element reference environment, Bn=content of the reference element examined environment, Bref=content of the reference element reference environment.

in the in the in the in the

It is assumed that the considered reference element should have little variation in occurrence and present in very small amount in the study area. However, a geochemically characteristic element occurring in high

concentration may be used, but should have no synergistic or antagonistic effect towards the examined element. Sc, Mn, Al and Fe have been commonly used as reference elements (Loska et al., 1997). Based on the reaction of Fe with As, the current study used Mn as reference element. An EF of >1.5 was considered indicative of human influence and an EF of 1.5–3, 3–5, 5–10, and >10 was considered evidence of minor, moderate, severe, and very severe modification, respectively (Birch and Olmos, 2008). Values of trace elements in the sediment and water samples from the localities were subjected to analysis of variance (ANOVA) and the Least Significant Difference Test (pd<0.05) for the separation of means using the GenStat (11 th Edition) statistical software package. Correlation between trace element (metal) in water and water sediment was done with the same statistical software package.

Table 1: Trace elements in sediment Sampling area

Esaase Tetrem Gyeninso Adobewora LSD CV(%)

Metal (mg/kg) Cd

0.63 0.35 0.76 0.57 0.17 20.90

8.10 6.40 6.10 10.60 1.13 11.4

2538.00 3124.00 2684.00 2065.00 328.00 22.00

17.70 13.80 27.90 14.10 2.14 27.30

2.96 3.20 2.93 3.19 0.37 21.00

92.52 101.15 40.12 24.28 2.00 26.00

18.72 25.56 46.60 20.50 1.60 19.30

107.50 128.60 60.10 49.68 1.63 13.00

Table 2: Accepted levels of trace elements in drinking-water and aquatic sediments Metal Cd Pb Fe Zn Mn Cu Hg As

Sediment ( mg/kg)

Water(mg/l)

0.60# 31.00# 20,000.00# 120.00# 460.00# 16.00# 0.20# 6.00#

0.003* 0.010* 0.300* 3.000* 0.400* 2.000* 0.001* 0.010*

* Rickwood and Carr (2007);#Persaud et al. (1993)

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Trace element concentration in water sediment Table 1 shows sediment concentrations of eight trace elements (Cd, Pb, Fe, Zn, Mn, Cu, Hg and As) assessed in four localities (Esaase, Tetrem, Gyeninso and Adobewora) sited in artisanal mining areas along rivers Bonte and Gyeni in Ghana. Cadmium (Cd) concentration in the sediments was found to be below the maximum acceptable level (0.60 mg kg-1) in river sediments (WHO, 2004) (Table 2) at Tetrem (0.35 mg kg-1) and Adobewora (0.57 mg kg-1) while at Gyeninso (0.76 mg kg -1 ) and Esaase (0.63 mg kg -1) the concentrations were above the maximum.

-1.48 Practically uncont aminated

Adobewora -0.46 Practically uncont aminated

Gyeninso

Tetrem

-1.75 Practically unconta minated -1.98 Practically uncont aminated -2.03 Practically uncont aminated

-0.36 Practically unconta minated -0.94 Practically uncont aminated -0.17 Practically uncont aminated

Esaase

area

Sampling

-2.68 Practically uncont aminated

-2.55 Practically uncont aminated

-2.32 Practically uncont aminated -2.57 Practically uncont aminated -1.86 Practically uncont aminated

1.35 Moderately cont aminated 1.44 Moderately cont aminated 0.51 Uncontamina ted to moderately contaminated -6.36 0.01 Practically Uncontamina uncontaminated ted to moderately contaminated

-6.58 Practically uncont aminated -6.35 Practically uncont aminated -6.61 Practically uncont aminated

Igeo and Degree of Contamination

-2.47 Practically unconta minated -2.26 Practically uncont aminated -2.41 Practically uncont aminated

4.22 Strongly to very Strongly contaminated

4.13 Strongly to very Strongly 4.45 Strongly to very Strongly contaminated 5.04 Very Strongly contaminated

Table 3: Geoaccumulation index (Igeo) and degree of metal contamination in sediment

1.70 Moderately contaminated

2.48 Moderately to strongly contaminated 2.66 Moderately to strongly contaminated 1.90 Moderately contaminated

10 AGYARKO et al., Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(1), 07-16 (2014)

AGYARKO et al., Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(1), 07-16 (2014) Assessing the extent of Cd accumulation in the sediments using the Geo accumulation Index (Igeo) indicated that the four areas of study were practically uncontaminated with Cd (Table 3). However, using the Enrichment Factor (EF), considered as an effective tool to evaluate the magnitude of metal contamination in soil (FrancoUria et al., 2009) and EF classification by Birch and Olmos (2008), the contamination of Cd in the sediments at Esaase (EF=4.32) and Gyeninso (EF=3.35) might be said to come from moderate human influence, while at Tetrem (EF=2.22) and Adobewora (EF=2.31) the human influence might be classified as minor (Table 4). Zhang and Liu (2002) and, Birch and Olmos (2008) suggested that EF values above 1.5 have significant portion of the trace elements delivered from non-crustal materials or from human influence, which therefore supposes that the Cd contamination in the sediments from the localities was from the artisanal gold mining. Cd should be considered as a major sediment pollutant at all the localities as it has EF values of more than 2 (Han et al., 2006). The concentration of Lead (Pb) in the sediments (Esaase – 8.10 mg kg-1, Tetrem – 6.40 mg kg-1, Gyeninso – 6.10 mg kg-1 and Adobewora – 10.60 mg kg-1) (Table 1) was found to be less than the maximum acceptable level in river sediments

(31 mg kg-1) (Table 2), the sediments were therefore classified by the Igeo as practically uncontaminated by Pb (Table 3). The EF values at Esaase (2.68), Tetrem (2.85), Gyeninso (3.86) and Adobewora (6.15) were above 1.5, and therefore a significant portion of the Pb concentration in the sediments might be delivered from non-crustal source - from the artisanal gold mining. The human influence at Adobewora was severe, moderate at Gyeninso and minor at Esaase and Tetrem (Table 4). Pb should be considered as a major sediment pollutant in the localities, as the EF values were more than 2. The values of the concentrations of Fe (Esaase – 2538 mg kg-1, Tetrem - 3124 mg kg-1, Gyeninso - 2684 mg kg-1 and Adobewora - 2065 mg kg-1), Zn (Esaase – 17.70 mg kg-1, Tetrem – 13.80 mg kg-1, Gyeninso – 27.90 mg kg-1 and Adobewora – 14.10 mg kg-1) and Mn (Esaase – 2.96 mg kg-1, Tetrem – 3.20 mg kg-1, Gyeninso – 2.93 mg kg-1 and Adobewora – 3.19 mg kg-1) in the sediments of the rivers (Table 1) were lower than the WHO acceptable limits (Table 2). Using the Igeo (Table 3) the sediments were classified as practically uncontaminated by Fe, Zn and Mn. The EF values (Table 4) indicated minor human influence from the artisanal gold mining on Fe in the sediment at Gyeninso (EF=2.06) with the sediments at Esaase (EF=1.31), Tetrem (EF=1.49) and Adobewora

Table 4: Enrichment Factor (EF) values and Contamination categories Sampling area Esaase

Enrichment Factor (EF) and Contamination category Cd

4.32Moderate human influence Tetrem 2.22 Minor human influence Gyeninso 3.35 Moderate human influence Adobewora 2.31 Minor human influence

2.68Minor human influence 2.85 Minor human influence 3.86 Moderate human influence 6.15 Severe human influence

1.31No human influence 1.49 No human influence 2.06 Minor human influence 1.45 No human influence

1.70Minor human influence 1.23 No human influence 2.60 Minor human influence 1.20 No human influence

6.08Severe human influence 6.15 Severe human influence 2.44 Minor human influence 1.36 No human influence

1.25No human influence 1.58 Minor human influence 2.81 Minor human influence 1.14 No human influence

2.02Minor human influence 2.24 Minor human influence 1.19 No human influence 0.90 No human influence

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(EF=1.45) having no human influence. The EF values at Esaase (1.70) and Gyeninso (2.60) for Zn showed minor human influence on the Zn concentration in the sediments with no human influence at Tetrem and Adobewura having EF values of 1.23 and 1.20 respectively. Based on the recommendation of Han et al.(2006), Fe and Zn concentrations in the sediment at Gyeninso having EF values of more than 2 should be considered as major sediment pollutants.

standard (Table 2). The Igeo classification indicated contamination of the sediments of the four localities with Hg (Uncontaminated to moderately contaminated/ Moderately contaminated) (Table 3). While the EF values showed no influence of the mining activities on the Hg sediment concentrations at Esaase (EF=1.25) and Adobewora (EF=1.14), minor influence was observed at Tetrem (EF=1.58) and Gyeninso (EF=2.81) (Table 4). Hg was only observed to be a major pollutant at Gyeninso.

Cu concentration (Esaase – 92.52 mg kg, Tetrem – 101.15 mg kg-1, Gyeninso – 40.12 mg kg -1 and Adobewora – 24.28 mg kg -1) ) in the sediments (Table 1) were far higher than the WHO sediment quality standard (Table 2). Based on the Igeo (Table 3), the sediments were classified as contaminated with Cu (Uncontaminated to moderately contaminated/ Moderately contaminated). The EF values showed severe influence of the mining at Esaase (EF=6.08) and Tetrem (EF=6.15), minor influence of the mining at Gyeninso (EF=2.44) and no influence of the mining at Adobewora (EF=1.36) on the Cu sediment concentration (Table 4). In reference to Han et al.(2006), Cu should be viewed as a major pollutant at Esaase, Tetrem and Gyeninso.

The sediment concentration of As at Esaase (107.50 mg kg-1), Tetrem (128.60 mg kg-1), Gyeninso (60.10 mg kg-1) and Adobewora (49.68 mg kg-1) (Table 1) were higher than the WHO sediment quality standards (Table 2). Based on the Igeo classification (Table 3), the sediments were found to be contaminated with As (Moderately contaminated/ Moderately to strongly contaminated). The human influence on the As sediment concentration as measured by the EF indicated minor human influence at Esaase (EF=2.02) and Tetrem (EF=2.24), and no human influence at Gyeninso (EF=1.19) and Adobewora (EF=0.90) (Table 4). Arsenic (As) was observed to be a major pollutant at Esaase and Tetrem.

Sediment concentration of Hg at Esaase (18.72 mg kg-1), Tetrem (25.56 mg kg-1), Gyeninso (46.60 mg kg-1) and Adobewora (20.50 mg kg-1) were all far higher than the WHO sediment quality

The frequent use of Hg by artisanal gold miners to extract the gold from the ore (Donkor et al., 2006), the occurrence of As as an impurity in gold ore (Eisler, 2004) and Cu’s association with gold mining waste (Ferreira Da Silva et al., 2004)

Fig. 1: Map of the study areas

AGYARKO et al., Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(1), 07-16 (2014) might have led to the high contamination of the elements in the sediments.

physical or mental development respectively (USEPA, 2012).

Trace element concentration in water Table 5 indicates the concentrations of Cd, Pb, Fe, Zn, Mn, Cu, and Hg and As in water samples of the four artisanal mining localities.

People who drink water containing Hg well in excess of the maximum contaminant level (MCL) for many years could experience kidney damage (USEPA, 2012).

The water concentrations of Cd, Pb, Hg and As in the four artisanal mining areas were all found to be above the maximum acceptable of levels of 0.003. 0.01, 0.001 and 0.01 mg/l respectively for drinking water (Table 2).

According to USEPA (2013) drinking water containing As well in excess of the MCL for many years could lead to skin damage or problems of the circulatory system and the risk of getting cancer. It has been hypothesized that arsenic in drinking water indirectly contributes to Buruli ulcer (BU), a skin disease caused by Mycobacterium ulcerans (MU) infection in Ghanaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Amansie West district (Duker et al., 2005).

Cd is a toxic metal with no metabolic benefits to human and aquatic biota. Its presence in any compartment of the aquatic ecosystem indicates contamination (Opaluwa et al., 2012). Very high Cd levels in drinking water may lead to vomiting and diarrhea, and sometimes death while taking lower levels over a long period will cause kidney damage and fragile bones (Cleveland, 2008).

Residents in these areas face the risk of getting various diseases by drinking the waters contaminated with these trace elements. Extreme care is needed to be taken. With the exception at Tetrem where the water concentration of Fe (3.595mg/l) was found to be more than the accepted maximum level in drinking water (0.30 mg/l), the rest were less than the accepted maximum level. Fe concentrations of 1â&#x20AC;&#x201C;3 mg/l are known to be acceptable for people to

Pb like Cd has no known purpose in our bodies and could cause permanent damage to the health of both children and adults (King County, 2013). Adults and children who drink water containing Pb in excess could experience kidney problems or high blood pressure and delays in their

Table 5: Trace elements in water of the studied river Sampling area Esaase Tetrem Gyeninso Adobewora LSD CV(%)

Metal (mg/L) Cd

0.004 0.010 0.033 0.028 0.011 34.70

0.070 0.162 0.033 0.051 0.016 25.62

0.104 3.595 0.154 0.275 0.067 16.60

0.030 0.047 0.041 0.026 0.010 18.30

0.012 0.024 0.019 0.018 0.002 17.80

0.031 0.042 0.028 0.026 0.009 21.30

1.439 1.155 1.023 0.735 0.149 10.40

0.321 0.234 0.030 0.018 0.094 36.50

Table 6: Correlation between trace element (metal) in water and water sediment Metal Concentration in water (mg L-1)

Metal Concentration -1

in sediment (mg kg )

0.59

0.77

0.59

0.47

0.63

0.73

0.40

0.87

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drink (WHO, 1996), however, above 3 mg/l as in the case of Tetrem may have negative effect on man. Fe levels above 0.3 mg/l are known to cause staining of laundry (Vendrell and Atiles, 2003). The water concentrations for Zn, Cu and Mn in the study areas were less than the accepted maximum levels in water (Table 2) and may pose no problem to man. Correlation between trace element (metal) in water and water sediment The concentrations of the trace elements in the sediments were found to be positively correlated with the concentrations in the water samples (Table 6). In similar situations trace elements concentrations in waters and sediments have been found to have significant positive relationship in the pollution of river ecosystems (Casas et al., 2003); sediments do act as carriers and sinks for trace elements (Singh et al., 2005; Mwamburi, 2003).

CONCLUSION The sediments were found not to be practically polluted with Cd, Pb, Fe, Zn and Mn but polluted to different degrees with Cu, Hg and As using the Igeo assessment. The EF indicated human influence on the sediment concentrations of Cd and Pb for all the localities and only some of the localities for the rest of the trace elements. The different pollution indexes gave diverse status of the sediment qualities of the localities as observed in similar studies by Praveena et al. (2007). Cd, Pb, Hg and As water concentrations in the four artisanal mining localities were all found to be above the WHO maximum acceptable of levels for drinking water. People in these localities face the risk of getting various diseases by drinking the waters contaminated with these trace elements. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT The authors thank the Soil Research Institute (SRI), Kwadaso, Kumasi-Ghana for making their laboratory available for the analyses of sediment and water samples.

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Adriano D.C., Trace Elements in the Terrestrial Environment. Springer-Verlag, New York, 18-20 (1986). Birch G. F., Olmos M. A., Sediment-bound heavy metals as indicators of human influence and biological risk in coastal water bodies, ICES Journal of Marine Science. 65: 1407-1413 (2008). Boszke L., Sobczynski T., Kowalski A., Distribution of Mercury and Other Heavy Metals in Bottom Sediments of the Middle Odra river (Germany/Poland), Polish Journal of Environmental Studies. 13: 495-502 (2004). Buat-Menard P., Chesselet R., Variable influence of the atmospheric flux on the trace metal chemistry of oceanic suspended matter, Earth and Planetary Science Letters. 42: 398-411 (1979). Casas J. M., Rosas H., Sole M., Lao C., Heavy metals and metalloids in sediments from Llobregat basin, Spain, Environmental

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Current World Environment

Vol. 9(1), 105-108 (2014)

Algal Bloom in Aquatic Ecosystems - An Overview MOZHGAN GHORBANI1, SEYED AHMAD MIRBAGHERI2*, AMIR HESSAM HASSANI3, JAFAR NOURI4 and SEYED MASOUD MONAVARI5 1

Faculty of the Environment and Energy, Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran. 2 *Department of Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Environment and Energy, Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran. 3 Department of Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Environment and Energy, Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran. 4 Department of Environmental Management, Faculty of Environment and Energy, Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran. 5 Department of Environmental Science, Faculty of Environment and Energy, Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran. http://dx.doi.org/10.12944/CWE.9.1.15 (Received: December 24, 2013; Accepted: February 15, 2014) ABSTRACT Algae play an important role in all aquatic ecosystems by providing all living organisms of water bodies with preliminary nutrients and energy required. However, abnormal and excessive algal growth so-called algal bloom would be detrimental as much. Given the importance of algae in aquatic environment as well as their sensitivity to environmental changes, algal measurements are of key components of water quality monitoring programs. The algal blooms could include a variety of adverse impacts on environmental, social, cultural and economic environments. The present study is an overview on the algal growth, its mechanisms and mitigating strategies in aquatic ecosystems whereas in spite of the growing knowledge of human being of ecological, physiological, and functional conditions of eutrophication, a systematic understanding of algal blooms is still lacking.

Key words: Algal bloom, Phytoplankton, Aquatic ecosystems. INTRODUCTION All algae are not green and could be observed in a range of colors depending on the dominant pigment in their cells (Imamura et al. 2013). For example, if the chlorophyll a is dominant pigment, then the alga color will tend to green. Orange and red algae contain high level of carotene pigment. Micro-algae are in tow forms of Phytoplankton and Periphyton. Phytoplankton live in water column suspendedly while Periphyton survive through connection to the stones, sediment, stems of plants and aquatic organisms. Algae are single-celled observed individually or as a cluster (Clooney) or incandescent (filament). They belong to primary producers known as autotrophs.

Autotrophs, in the presence of sunlight, convert water and carbon dioxide into sugar (food). In this process, oxygen is produced as a byproduct which helps survival of fish and other aquatic organisms. Phytoplankton require to remain on water surface to absorb sunlight for photosynthesis. Increase in the number of algal cells is influenced by season, temperature, amount of sunlight penetrating the water column, the amount of inorganic nutrients (minerals) available to compete with other algal and aquatic plants and water retention time in lakes (Simpson,1991). For example, during the summer when light is available, the amount of phosphorus in the lake is controlled by the amount and abundance of algae. Thus, phosphorus has been considered as a limiting nutrient in most freshwater

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bodies. Excessive amount of algae known as algal bloom in the surface of lakes creates stinking and dense substrates. Algal blooming has become one of the key fields of study on eutrophication of water bodies in recent years (Wu and Xu, 2011). Due to the importance of algal bloom in aquatic ecosystems, the event mechanism has been studied by many researchers worldwide. Li Liu and Tang in 2012 repor ted spatial and temporal variations of algal bloom events in the coastal waters of the western South China Sea (SCS) from 1993 to 2007. They concluded that twenty-five algal bloom events occurred in summer in the coastal waters of South and Central Vietnam induced by wind-induced, coastal, nutrient upwelling and river discharges; a further eight events occurred in the coastal waters of Nor th Vietnam.Yao et al. (2011)developed a directed Complex Networks (CNs) model of algal blooms based on the characteristics of CNs theory and the primary factors that influenced algal blooms. Ni et al. (2010) assessed the impacts of algal blooms removal by chitosan-modified soils on zooplankton community in Taihu Lake, China. They found that Polymerase Chain ReactionDenatured Gradient Gel Electrophoresis (PCRDGGE) CR-DGGE could be applied to investigate the impacts of the environmental protection or restoration engineering on zooplankton community diversity. Barale et al. (2008) studied algal blooming patterns and anomalies in the Mediterranean Sea using the SeaWiFS data set (1998–2003). Asaeda et al. (2001) performed a numerical analysis to control algal blooms in reservoirs with a curtain. The present study is an overview on the algal growth, its mechanisms and mitigating strategies in aquatic ecosystems whereas in spite of the growing knowledge of human being of ecological, physiological, and functional conditions of eutrophication, a systematic understanding of algal blooms is still lacking. Seasonal changes in algae Algae are very diverse group of organisms so that more than 40 species can coexist in a lake. However, the dominant algal species change throughout an annual cycle in lakes known as algal succession (Kortmann and Henry, 1990). Algal

population is abundant in spring and early summer, when available light and nutrients are plenty and small numbers of organisms are feeding on algae. Coincides with the end of this phase, a Clear-Water Phase (CWP) phenomenon occurs in many lakes. Spring algal population is made up of small and edible species. At this stage, zooplankton dramatically increase and consume the algae, rapidly. As a result, water is very clear for several weeks. That is why the phenomenon is called “clear water phase”. This algal population is gradually replaced by larger non-edible species in the form colonies which often covered by a gelatinous sheath. Since the concentration of available nutrients is limited in summer, the whole algal concentration in summer is lower than that of in spring (before the CWP). From the late summer and fall, the stored nutrients in the lake are mixed in the water column and a fresh supply of nutrients is produced. This let the algal population for seasonal re-blooming. During the winter months, algae are able to survive, but usually at low concentrations due to the lower amount of available sunlight and low water temperature (Green and Herron, 2001). Algal blooms Algae are useful and necessary for aquatic ecosystems and provide primary energy and nutrients for almost all living organisms. However, abnormally high levels of algal growth can cause interference in functionality of water bodies and reduce water aesthetics through declined water clarity. By shading, accumulated algae prevent light from reaching the roots of aquatic plants (macrophytes).Excessive algal growth increases dead algae resulting in their decomposition and decreasing DO in water bodies during summer. DO absence causes a condition known as Anoxia in which the fish are killed. High levels of algae may also increase the pH of the water bodies. Increased pH level seems to be a byproduct of increased photosynthesis of carbon dioxide. High pH levels are commonly seen in the late afternoon of sunny summers after the consumption of the CO2 by photosynthesis process. After sunset, the pH level may significantly be declined due to ending the photosynthesis process. These extreme fluctuations in pH can cause stress on sensitive aquatic species.There is also the concern that excessive amounts of algal material

GHORBANI et al., Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(1), 105-108 (2014) formed based on the reaction with chlorine used in water treatment, produce trihalomethanes as carcinogens.It is important to realize that the algal growth is occurred through natural cycles in natural ecosystems.The algal bloom is problematic as a result of direct human manipulation on the environment.Managers should be targeted towards maintaining health and natural algal levels in water bodies. Measuring algal concentrations Algal concentrations are measured to determine the eutrophication status in water bodies. Eutrophication is an indicator for the natural aging process of the lakes. Oligotrophic waters are waters with high clarity and depth as well as little algae contained. Water bodies with algal abundance, are eutrophic and often turbid. In the mid-process, medium-resolution lakes with medium algal levels are called mesotrophic. Simpson in 1991 declared that since algae are a strong indicator for environmental changes, in most of the monitoring programs, the algal concentrations are measured to determine changes in water quality.Algal and green plants require green pigments of chlorophyll a for photosynthesis. Considering that the ratio of chlorophyll a to biomass can vary among algal groups, the measurement of the chlorophyll a is considered as a reasonable estimate of algal concentrations. Chlorophyll a is extracted with acetone. The concentrations are determined by spectrophotometer. This is probably the most reliable method for determining algal concentration whereas chlorophyll a is chemically extracted from algal cells. The advantages of this method are simplicity and stability sampling. There are some of the limitations associated with the measurement of algal biomass using this technique. As such, algae are not evenly distributed throughout the water bodies so it is necessary to take some water samples every day. In Vermont, the volunteers of the monitoring programs have addressed these limitations by taking an integrated sample proposed by EPA. In this method, the volunteers suggested double measurements of the Secchi depth and determined a water sample as the representative of the water column. Another limitation of this method is that the numbers of algal species have naturally a higher level of chlorophyll a than other algal species. In addition, the concentration of

107

chlorophyll a s fluctuates during the day to maximize photosynthesis efficiency of algae. Constant and repeated measurements would be the best way to deal with these kinds of limitations. Taking water samples at the same time of day and the depth of the water column, the sample is collected, it can reduce these discrepancies. URIWW recommends that the samples of chlorophyll a should be taken between 10 am and 2 pm at the deepest point of the water body at a depth of 1 m. One way for indirect measurement of concentration of chlorophyll a is to measure Secchi depth (estimation of waters clarity). The water clarity degree is a result of the amount of suspended maters in the water column. In areas with low sediment input, there is a strong correlation between concentration of chlorophyll a and Secchi depth. Besides, it is possible to estimate the potential algal content in water bodies using measuremnt of total phosphorus. A high level of Chlorophyll a is approximately equal to 1-10 g/LÂľ for oligotrophic lakes and may reach up to 300 g/LÂľ in eutrophic lakes. In hypereutrophic lakes such as Hart Bees Poort in southern Africa, maximum Chlorophyll a could even reach 3000 g/LÂľ.This dam has been eutrophicated as a result of high concentrations of phosphorus and nitrate on the River Crocodile, inflow and primary pollution source of domestic and industrial waste water (Minnesota Pollution Control Agency,2008). In overall, the eutrophication status of lakes is determined by chlorophyll a, total phosphorous and Secchi depth. Each of the parameters has its own weaknesses. Therefore, if these three parameters are considered together, they will contribute to present a complete picture of water quality and the relationship between water quality and algal growth in water bodies. By studying the algal species living in lakes, even more information can be obtained on water quality. Harmful Algal Blooms (HAB) The HAB is a kind of algal bloom imposing a negative impact on other organisms through releasing natural toxins and mechanical damage of other organisms often associated with large-scale marine mortality events. The HABs causes harmful effects to change marine mammals and sea turtles. In 2004, a volume of 107 dolphin deaths was occurred in Florida. Dangerous walls of North

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Atlantic were exposed to neurotoxin with high level of zooplankton pollution (Green et al. 2001). CONCLUSION Due to the growing concern about the nuisance algal growth in most lakes and water bodies it is of great importance to discover mechanisms for prevention, prediction and limitation of algal growth. As is apparent, the best way to restrict algal growth is to limit the amount of nutrients discharging into the lakes and water bodies. Chemicals, copper sulphate and organic synthesis can be added to waters bodies as pesticides for reducing algal growth. Aluminum buffer or calcium compounds bound with phosphate are sometimes added to in waters bodies make them unavailable to algae. When it is realized that these chemicals

are effective in reducing algal growth, the use of these materials requires permission from the environmental authorized origination and must be done by an authorized user. Other control strategies are artificial aeration, biological control and physical elimination of algae. In aeration mechanism, oxygen is added to water bodies in order to inactive phosphorus or to reduce the effects of algal bloom. Of biological controlling methods could be pointed out algal feeders which can restrict number of algae in water bodies. Physical removal of algae could be water filtering from algae. This controlling method has different outcomes and may also be costly. The best controlling method is to limit nutrients in water bodies before getting increased. Until algal levels are not annoying, they play an indispensable role in healthy ecosystems.

REFERENCES 1.

Li Liu Ch., Tang D. Spatial and temporal variations in algal blooms in the coastal waters of the western South China Sea. Journal of Hydro-environment Research, 6(3), 239-247 (2012). Yao J., Xiao P., Zhang Y., Zhan M., Cheng J. A mathematical model of algal blooms based on the characteristics of complex networks theory. Ecological Modelling, 222(20-22), 3727-3733 (2011). Assmy P., Smetacek V. Algal Blooms. Encyclopedia of Microbiology (Third Edition), 27-41 (2009). Ni J., Yu Y., Feng W., Yan Q., Pan G., Yang B., Zhang X., Li X. Impacts of algal blooms removal by chitosan-modified soils on zooplankton community in Taihu Lake, China. Journal of Environmental Sciences, 22(10), 1500-1507 (2010). Wu G., Xu Z. Prediction of algal blooming using EFDC model: Case study in the

Daoxiang Lake. Ecological Modelling, 222(6), 1245-1252 (2011). Barale V., Jaquet J.-M., Ndiaye M. Algal blooming patterns and anomalies in the Mediterranean Sea as derived from the SeaWiFS data set (1998â&#x20AC;&#x201C;2003). Remote Sensing of Environment, 112(8), 3300-3313 (2008). Asaeda T., Pham H.S., NimalPriyantha D.G., Manatunge J., Hocking G.C. Control of algal blooms in reservoirs with a curtain: a numerical analysis. Ecological Engineering, 16(3), 395-404 (2001). Imamura S., Ishiwata A., Watanabe S., Yoshikawa H., Tanaka K. Expression of budding yeast FKBP12 confers rapamycin susceptibility to the unicellular red alga Cyanidioschyzonmerolae. Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications, 439(2), 264-269 (2013).

Current World Environment

Vol. 9(1), 109-113 (2014)

Biodegradable Hydrogels Based on Alginate For Control Drug Delivery Systems MOHAMMAD SADEGHI*, ESMAT MOHAMMADINASAB, FATEMEH SHAFIEI, SAHAR, HOSSEIN SADEGHI and HADIS SHASAVARI Department of Chemistry, Science Faculty, Islamic Azad University, Arak Branch, Arak, Iran. (Received: January 24, 2014; Accepted: March 04, 2014) http://dx.doi.org/10.12944/CWE.9.1.16 ABSTRACT In this work, synthesis and swelling behavior of a super absorbent hydrogel based on alginate and polyacrylamide (PAAm) was investigated. the structure of the product was established using FTIR and SEM spectroscopies.The alginate-polyacrylamide hydrogel exhibited a pHresponsive swelling-deswelling behavior at pHâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s 3 and 9. This on-off switching behavior provides the hydrogel with the potential to control delivery of bioactive agents.

Key words: Alginate, Acrylamide, Hydrogel, Ibuprofen, drug delivery.

INTRODUCTION Among the diverse approaches that are possible for modifying polysaccharides, grafting of synthetic polymer is a convenient method to add new properties to a polysaccharide with minimum loss of the initial properties of the substrate. Graft copolymerization of vinyl monomers onto polysaccharides using free radical initiation has attracted the interest of many scientists. Up to now, considerable works have been devoted to the grafting of vinyl monomers onto the substrates, specially cellulose, Of the monomers grafted, acrylonitrile (MAN) has been the most frequently used one, mainly due to its highest grafting efficiency2-3, improving the thermal resistance of the graft copolymer and also the subsequent alkaline hydrolysis of the grafting product to obtain water absorbents . This article represents synthesis of a novel superabsorbent hydrogel based on alginate-gpolyacrylamide for control delivery system. To the best of our knowledge based on a precise survey of the Chemical Abstracts, the present paper is the

first report on the preparation of a super absorbing hydrogel through graft copolymerization of a vinyl monomer onto alginate. MATERIALS AND METHODS Materials Sodium alginate (chemical grade, MW 50000 and follow chemical stracture) was purchased from Merck Chemical Co. (Germany). Ammonium persulfate (APS, from Fluka) and acrylamide (AAm, Rotterdam, the Netherlands), were of analytical grade and were used as received. All other chemicals were of analytical grade. Synthesis procedure of the hydrogel A general one step preparative method for synthesis of alginate-poly(acrylamide) hydrogel was conducted as follows. alginate (0.50-1.50 g) was added to a three-neck reactor equipped with a mechanical stirrer (Heidolph RZR 2021, three blade propeller type, 300 rpm), including 40 mL doubly distilled water. The reactor was immersed in a thermostated water bath preset at desired temperature (35-70 oC). Then, at this temperature,

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APS was added and after stirring for 30 min (induction period) and a definite amount of acrylamide (0.5-4.5 mL) were added into the mixture. After a prescribed time (30-120 min), the obtained hydrogel was poured into methanol (200 mL) to dewater for 24 h. Then, the product was filtered and dried in an oven at 60 oC to reach a constant weight. The product was stored away from moisture, heat and light. Drug Loading Efficiency and In vitro Drug Release Powdered samples (1 g ± 0.0001), with average particle sizes between 40-60 mesh (250420 µm), were accurately weighted and immersed in an alkaline solution of ibuprofen (IBU, 0.54 g dissolved in 50 mL distilled water) at 0°C for 25 h. The swollen hydrogels loaded with drug were placed in a vacuum oven and dried under vacuum at 37°C. The loading amount of drug in the hydrogels was calculated from the decrease in the concentration of the IBU solution which was determined using a UV spectrophotometer (UV1201, Shimadzu, Kyoto, Japan). The loading efficiency of the alginate-based hydrogels was calculated as the ratio of the final to the initial IBU concentration. In vitro release was carried out in duplicate by incubating 0.01±0.0001 g of the IBU-loaded hydrogels into a cellophane membrane dialysis bag (D9402, SIGMA-ALDRICH) in 50 mL of buffer solution (either pH 3 or 9) at 37°C. At specific time intervals, 1 mL aliquots of sample was withdrawn

and after suitable dilution the concentration of drug released was measured by UV spectrophotometer. The drug release percent was calculated twice using the following equation: Released drug (%) =Rt/L×100

..(1)

where L and Rt represent the initial amount of drug loaded and the final amount of drug released at time t. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Synthesis and mechanism aspects A crosslinking graft copolymerization of acrylamide (AAm) onto alginate was conducted using ammonium persulfate (APS) as a water soluble initiator. The persulfate initiator is decomposed under heating to generate sulfate anion-radical (Scheme1). The radical abstracts hydrogen from the hydroxyl group of the polysaccharide substrate to form alkoxy radicals on the substrate. So, this persulfate-saccharide redox system is resulted in active centers on the substrate to radically initiate polymerization of AAm led to a graft copolymer. Since a crosslinking agent, e.g. MBA, is presented in the system, the copolymer comprises a crosslinked structure. It should be pointed out that the sulfate ion-radical may also initiate AAm homopolymerization. To minimize this undesired reaction, an ²induction period² was provided in the synthesis, i.e. the initiator was introduced to the substrate before adding the monomer (See Experimental). Our preliminary

Scheme 1: Proposed mechanism for crosslinking of the H-Alg-g-PAAm hydrogel

SADEGHI et al., Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(1), 109-113 (2014) studied showed low homopolymer formation (less than 4%) when the reaction was performed in the absence of crosslinker. In the presence of the crosslinker, however, the monomers are probably more intensely involved in the copolymeric network. Besides, the probable crosslinked hydrophilic homopolymer does not cause appreciable unwanted effects on absorbing properties of the final products5-8.

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Spectral characterization The grafting was confirmed by comparing the FTIR spectra of the polysaccharide substrate with that of the grafted products. Figure 1 shows the FTIR spectra of non-modified alginate and Halginate-g-PolyAAm. The broad band at 3200-3400 cm-1 is due to stretching of â&#x20AC;&#x201C;OH groups of alginate. The IR spectrum of the H-alginate-g-PolyAAm

Fig. 1: FTIR spectra of alginate (a), H-alginate-g-PolyAAm hydrogel(b)

Fig. 2: SEM photograph of the(a) Surface of pure alginate; (b) Surface of porous H-alginate-g-PolyAAm hydrogel

Fig. 3: On-off switching behavior as reversible pulsatile swelling (pH 9.0) and deswelling (pH 3.0) of H-alginate-g-PolyAAm hydrogel

Fig. 4: Release of IBU from hydrogel carrier as a function of time and pH at 37ÂşC

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hydrogel (Fig. 1(b)) shows a new characteristic absorption band at 1680 cm-1 verifying the formation of alginate-g-PAAm. This peak attributed to C=O stretching in carboxamide functional groups of PAAm12-13. The stretching band of –NH overlapped with the OH stretching band of the alginate portion of the copolymer Scanning electron microscopy One of the most important properties that must be considered is hydrogel microstructure morphologies. Figure 2 shows the scanning electron microscope (SEM) photographs of the alginate surface (Fig. 2a) and surface of the Halginate-g-PolyAAm hydrogel(Fig. 2b). These pictures verify that the synthesized polymer in this work have a porous structure, where the pores might be induced into the hydrogel by water evaporation resulting from reaction heat. It is supposed that these pores are the regions of water permeation and interaction sites of external stimuli with the hydrophilic groups of the graft copolymers. pH-Reversibility for H-alginate-g-PolyAAm hydrogel Since the hydrogels show different swelling behavior at various pHs, we investigated their pH-reversibility in solutions buffered at pH 3.0 and 9.0. A stepwise reproducible in swelling change of the hydrogel at 25 oC with alternating pH between 3.0 and 9.0 is seen in Figure 3. At pH 9.0, the hydrogel swelled up to 43 g/g due to anion–anion repulsive electrostatic forces, while, at pH 3.0, it shrunk within a few minutes due to protonation of carboxylate groups. This sharp swelling–deswelling behavior of the hydrogels makes them suitable candidates for controlled drug delivery systems. Such on-off switching behavior as reversible swelling and deswelling has been reported for other ionic hydrogels11-12.

In vitro IBU Release in the Simulated Human Gastrointestinal System To determine the potential application of alginate-based superabsorbent containing a pharmaceutically active compound, we have investigated the drug release behavior IBU form this system under physiological conditions. The percent of released drug from the polymeric carriers as a function of time is shown in Figure 4. The concentration of IBU released at selected time intervals was determined by UV spectrophotometer. The IBU-loaded hydrogels with high degrees of drug loading (>92%) were prepared by the swellingdiffusion method. The amount of IBU released in a specified time from the H-alginate-g-PolyAAm hydrogel decreased as the pH of the dissolution medium was lowered, indicating better release in a medium with a pH much higher than that of the stomach11. CONCLUSIONS A novel superabsorbent hydrogel was synthesized via Graft copolymerization of acrylamide (AAm) onto alginate in an aqueous medium using a persulfate initiator. The synthesized hydrogel, H-alginate-g-PolyAAm, exhibited high absorbency in aqueous solution. The superabsorbent hydrogels exhibited also high sensitivity to pH, so that, the reversible swelling-deswelling behavior in solutions with acidic and basic pH, contributes to the suitability of these hydrogels as candidates for controlled drug delivery systems. In vitro drug-release studies in different buffer solutions showed that the most important parameter affecting the drug-release behavior of hydrogels is the pH of the solution.

REFERENCES 1.

2. 3.

Buchholz, F.L. and Graham, A.T.. Modern Superabsorbent Polymer Technology; Wiley, New York ,(1997). Yazdani-Pedram, M.; Retuert, J.; Quijada, R. Macromol Chem Phys, 201: 923 (2000). Sugahara, Y.; Takahisa, O. J Appl Polym Sci, 82: 1437(2001).

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Patel, G. M.; Trivedi, H. C. Eur Polym J, 35: 201(1999). Silong, S.; Rahman, L. J Appl Polym Sci, 76: 516(2000). Kost, J. In Encyclopedia of Controlled Drug Delivery; Mathiowitz, E., Ed.; Wiley: New York, 1: 445(1999).

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Po, R.. Water-absorbent Polymers, A Patent Survey, J. Macromol. Sci., Rev. Macromol. Chem. Phys., C34: 07-661(1994). Kost, J. Encyclopedia of Controlled Drug Delivery. E. Mathiowitz (Ed.) Wiley, New York 1: 445 (1999). Hoffman, A. S. Polymeric Materials Encyclopedia;, Salamone, J. C.; Ed.; CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL. 5: 3282(1996).

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Peppas, N.A. and Mikes, A.GHydrogels in Medicine and Pharmacy, CRC Press Inc., Boca Raton, Florida., 1: 27(1986). Gan, L.H., Deen, G.R., Gan, Y.Y. and Tam, K.C. Eur. Polym. J., 37: 1473-1478 (2001). Mahkam, M., Doostie, L. and Siadat, S.O.R.. Inflammo Pharmacology.,14: 72-75(2006). Mahkam, M. and Allahverdipoor, M.. Drug Targeting, 12: 151-156 (2004).

Current World Environment

Vol. 9(1), 114-122 (2014)

Extent of Nitrate and Nitrite Pollution in Ground Water of Rural Areas of Lucknow, U.P., India ANJALI VERMA, AMIT KUMAR RAWAT and NANDKISHOR MORE* Department of Environmental Science, BBA (A Central) University Lucknow-226025, (U.P.), India. http://dx.doi.org/10.12944/CWE.9.1.17 (Received: December 08, 2013; Accepted: January 17, 2014) ABSTRACT The present world is facing problems with a wide variety of pollutants. Water pollution is a major global problem. It has been suggested that it is the leading worldwide cause of deaths and diseases and that it accounts for the deaths of more than 14,000 people daily in Lucknow Capital of Uttar Pradesh in India.Nitrate and Nitrite pollution is one of groundwaterâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s most commonly identified contaminants, an indicator of serious pollution as they are associated with septic waste and agricultural endeavours, leads to numerous health problems to human beings and animals.4 rural areas of Lucknow were selected and 15 samples from each station to check the level of nitrite and nitrate parameters in groundwater. Further our studies reveal that the extent of nitrate and nitrite varied with reference to sampled site and maximum nitrate was found to be 250.224 and maximum nitrite was 1.8998 both are high.

Key words: Nitrite, Nitrate, Ground Water Pollution, Lucknow.

INTRODUCTION Healthy soil, clean water and air are the soul of life. Soil, water and air are no longer clean and pure, today pose human health risks. Comprising over 70% of the Earthâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s surface water is undoubtedly the most precious natural resource that exists on our planet. It is essential for everything on our planet to grow and prosper. Water pollution remains one of the most visible and persistent signs of our impact on the natural world. Gomti river in Lucknow city in India, receives huge quantities of untreated waste, from industrial effluents to domestic discharge, the river becomes more of a flowing dumping yard for the 15 smaller and bigger towns in its catchment area which affects badly on human health. Although we as humans recognize this fact we disregard it by polluting our rivers, lakes, and oceans. The water pollutants include sewage, variety of both organic and inorganic pollutants including oils, greases, plastics plasticizers, metallic wastes, suspended solids, phenols, acids, greases, salts, dyes, cyanides, DDT and some heavy metals

like Cu, Cr, Cd, Hg, Pb are also discharged from industries1. The contamination of the environment with toxic metals has become a worldwide problem, affecting crop yields, soil biomass and fertility2. In Lucknow Gomti river collects large amounts of human and industrial pollutants as it flows through the highly populous areas (18 million approx) of Uttar Pradesh. High pollution levels in the river have negative effects on the ecosystem of the Gomti threatening its aquatic life and also surrounded areas of Lucknow. All industries of distillery, milk industry and vegetable oil, pouring effluent directly into Gomti and besides this domestic waste water are also discharge into the River Gomti. Drains are the main source of water pollution especially for rivers flowing within the city carry industrial effluent, domestic waste, sewage, and Medicinal waste results in pouring the water quality3. The specific contaminants leading to pollution in water include a wide spectrum of chemicals, pathogens and physical or sensory changes such as elevated temperature and discoloration. While many of the chemicals and substances that are regulated may

VERMA et al., Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(1), 114-122 (2014) be naturally occurring (calcium, sodium, iron, manganese, etc.) the concentration is often the key in determining what is a natural component of water, and what is a contaminant. High concentrations of naturally occurring substances can have negative impacts on aquatic flora and fauna. Water pollution can cause by both organic and inorganic pollutants. Nitrate is an inorganic compound that can be a natural or man made contaminant in drinking water Nitrite and Nitrate pollution is due is to excessive amount of nitrate in surface or ground water as a result of agricultural practices. Farmers and home owners using nitrate bearing fertilizers often use a variety of pesticides and herbicides which may migrate to ground water supplies. Due to its high solubility in water, nitrate and nitrite are the most common contaminants in rural and suburban areas. Fertilizer use has led to greater contamination of surface and groundwater with nitrates essentially dissolved nitrogen fertilizer that has not been taken up by plants. Nitrate(NO3) is the main form in which nitrogen occurs in groundwater, although dissolved nitrogen may also be present as nitrite (NO 2), ammonium (NH4), nitrous oxide (N2O) and organic nitrogen 4.Nitrate and Nitrite are the inorganic pollutants which degrades the water quality of drinking water. Higher concentration of metal in water and could be due to the industrial, agricultural or domestic runoff coming into the river5.River water quality monitoring is necessary especially where the water serves as drinking water sources6.Nitrate and Nitrite are the inorganic pollutants which degrades the water quality of drinking water. Although there are many sources of nitrogen (both natural and anthropogenic) that could potentially lead to the pollution of the groundwater with nitrates, the anthropogenic sources are really the ones that most often cause the amount of nitrate to rise to a dangerous level. Waste materials are one of the anthropogenic sources of nitrate contamination of groundwater. Water moving down through soil after rainfall or irrigation carries dissolved nitrate with it to ground water. In this way, nitrate enters the water supplies of many home owners who use wells or springs. Many areas of the United States and other countries have reported significant contamination of groundwater from septic tanks. Ground water contamination is usually related to the density of septic systems 7.Nitrogen in organic form and ammonium can be converted by bacteria in aerobic

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conditions into nitrite and nitrate, a process termed ‘nitrification’. Nitrate in anaerobic systems can be reduced by other strains of bacteria to nitrous oxide or nitrogen gas, by ‘denitrification’. In aerobic water nitrogen occurs as nitrate or nitrite ions. Nitrate is stable over a considerable range of conditions and is very mobile in water. Ammonium and organic forms are unstable and are generally considered to be indicators of pollution. Drinking water high in nitrate is potentially harmful to human and animal health. Nitrate (NO3) is a naturally occurring form of nitrogen (N) which is very mobile in water8.Nitrate pollution for groundwater supplies is directly related to the amount of fertilizers or other nitrogen inputs to the land, as well as the permeability of the soil. In China assessment of groundwater contamination happened by nitrates associated with wastewater irrigation. 9 The United States Environmental Protection Agency is currently establishing National Primary Drinking Water Regulations for over 80 contaminants under the Safe Drinking Water Act and to reduce the contaminant concentrations of all drinking water to levels near those prescribed in the Maximum Contaminant Level Goals10. Comprehensive assessment of Freshwater Water Resources and water availability in the world was done.11Effect of nitrate on drinking water quality and its management12.13Northern China affected by Nitrate Pollution in Groundwater. Nitrate in drinking water can be effectively reduced in a number of ways. The best solution is to find an alternative water supply for drinking and cooking purposes. If other pollutants are not present, reverse osmosis systems, anion exchange units, and distillation can reduce nitrate and nitrite levels Objectives of the study were to determine the extent of nitrate and nitrite concentration in ground water of some areas of Lucknow. Four different stations of rural areas were selected namely Raibareily Road, Kanpur Road, Sultanpur Road and Hardoi Road.15 samples were collected namely from each station. Sample Collection The sampling of ground water was done from 4 different stations of rural areas of Lucknow. 15 samples from each station were taken. All the samples were taken from deep well hand pumps. Each sampling station covers nearly 16 Km area. Name of sites from different station are as follows:

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Sampling Station (Raibareli Road) 1.Kudha, 2.Merai Khera, 3.Atrauli, 4.Kankaha Gaon, 6.Gadiyana, 7.Sikandarpur, 8.Katua Khera, 9.Kesari Khera, 10.Madhav Khera, 11.Harkansh Khera, 12.Pachauri, 13. Hualas Khera,14. Ranjeet Khera, 15. Kankaha Bazar, 16. Badan Kher. Sampling Station (Kanpur Road ) 1.Narayan Khera 2.Hindu Khera 3. Banthara Bazar 4.Kati Bagia 5. Piparsand 6. MunnaKhera 7.SaraiSahjadi 8. BalluKhera 9. Bauri Khera 10. Balhe Mau 11. Nidhaan Khera 12.Gauri 13. ShivPura 14. Shaikhpur 15. Bakhat Khera. Sampling Station (Sultanpur Road) l. Kasimpur Biruha 2.Gusaiganj 3.Pancham Purwa 4.Kasimpur 5. NawabAliPurwa 6.Amirpur 7.Begaria 8.Sengta 9.Kabirpur 10.Bikauli 11.Pahar Nagar 12.Malauli 13.Hardaspur 14.Salauli 15. Jahangirpur. Sampling Station (Hardoi Road) 1.Suspan 2. Thari 3.Gahdon 4. Dilawar Nagar 5.Rahimabad 6. Jamoliya 7. Kiatholiya 18. Gopalpur9. Mundiyara 10. Mahima Khera 11. Badkhorwa 12.Kamaaluddin Nagar 13.Ater 14.Malihabad 15. Maal. MATERIALS AND METHOD Samples were collected in precleaned bottles and labelled at the site. All samples were analysed for nitrate and nitrite concentrations within 24 hours of sampling to minimise the effect of storage by freezing and to obtain more reliable results. Presence of nitrate and nitrite are normally observed by yellow and pink colour intensity produced by Salicylic acid and NED â&#x20AC;&#x201C;N-diamine d i h y d r o c h l o r i d e 1 N a p t h y l e t h y l e n e . 14R a p i d

colorimetric determination of nitrate in plant tissues. Estimation of Nitrite content in soil and leaves. Reagents: For Nitrate 5% Salicylic acid Dissolve 5 gm of Salicylic acid in 100 ml of conc. H2SO4 or 1.25 gm of salicylic acid in 25 ml of conc. H2SO4. 2 N NaOH Solution Dissolve 40 gm of NaOH Pellets in 500 ml in distilled water. Preparation of Standard Curve for Nitrate Solution Dissolve 0.1 gm of KNO3 sail in 100 ml of distilled water. Procedure Water sample 0.1 m, 0.4 ml Salicylic acid, 9.5 ml 2N NaOH Orange/Yellow colour intensity indicates the presence of nitrate in water sample. Ing noted at 410 nm by Cary Varian BioSpectrophotometer

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Concentration (mg/l)

Absorbance (Optical Density)

20 40 60 80 100

0.0266 0.0456 0.0659 0.0829 0.1101

Dilution of Stock Solution

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Stock Sol. (ml)

Dist. Water (ml)

Concentration

0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.00

9.8 9.6 9.4 9.2 9.00

20 40 60 80 100

Reagents: For Nitrite 0.01% NED- N-1-Napthylethylene diamine dihydrochloride 0.01 g in 100 ml of distilled water, 0.02 % sulphanilamide in N HCl. Preparation of Standard Curve for Nitrite: Stock Solution 0.00g of NANO2 in 100 ml distilled water

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VERMA et al., Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(1), 114-122 (2014) Dilution of Stock Solution

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Stock Sol. (ml)

Dist. Water ( ml)

Concentration

0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5

9.9 9.8 9.7 9.6 9.5

0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Concentration (mg/l)

Absorbance (Optical Density)

0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5

0.0010 0.0016 0.0022 0.0028 0.0035

Procedure Water sample 1 ml, 1 ml NED, 1 ml Sulphanilamide. Pink colour intensity indicates the presence of nitrite in water sample. Read it at 540 nm by Cary Varian Bio-Spectrophotometer

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15.

Kudha Merai Kuera Atrauli Kankaha Gaon Gadiyana Sikandarpur Katua khera Kesari khera Madhav khera Harkansh khera Panchauri Hulas khera Ranjeet khera Kankaha khera Badan khera

10.712 7.592 1.456 13.52 22.568 17.784 14.248 0.624 14.248 32.448 43.784 1.352 11.336 3.432 11.752

Calculation of K- Factor (Nitrate) K1 = 20/0.0266 =751.87, K2=40/0. 0456=877.19 , K3=60/0.0659= 910.47, K4= 80/ 0.0829= 965.01, K5= 100/ 0.1101= 908.26, (K. Aver = 4412.80/5 =882.56). Calculation of K- Factor (Nitrite) K1 = 0.1/00.0010 =100, K2=0.2/ 0.0016=125, K3=0.3/0.0022= 136.6, K4=0.4 / 0.0028= 142.85, K5=0.5 / 0.0035= 142.85. (K. Avery = 647.06/5 =129.4). RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Water contamination caused by the presence of excessive amounts of nitrates washed out from inorganic fertilizers.The presence in water of harmful or objectionable material in sufficient quantity to measurably degrade water quality. The

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largest anthropogenic sources are septic tanks, application of nitrogen-rich fertilizers and agricultural processes Common sources of nitrate include fertilizers and manure, animal feedlots, municipal wastewater and sludge, septic systems,

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15.

Narayan khera Hindu khera Banthara Kati bagi Piparsand Munna khera Sarai sahjadi Ballu khera Bauri khera Balhe mau Nidhaan Gauri Shiv pura Shaikh pur Bakhat khera

66.456 126.568 221.416 83.616 138.112 179.504 115.96 78.52 93.392 201.968 135.824 162.448 110.968 136.968 100.152

and N-fixation from atmosphere by legumes, bacteria and lightning. The maximum level of Nitrate and Nitrite determined in ground water are found to be 250.224

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15.

Kasimpur biruha Gusaiganj Pancham purwa Kasimpur Nawabali purwa Amirpur Begaria Sengta Kabirpur Bikauli Pahar nagar Malauli Hardaspur Salauli Jahangirpur

12.896 33.488 61.152 16.64 76.856 212.68 250.224 4.888 117.832 15.288 200.616 15.08 22.984 47.32 18.512

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VERMA et al., Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(1), 114-122 (2014) mg/L (Begaria region) in Sultanpur road and 1.899 mg/L (Banthara region) in Kanpur road respectively. The enhanced levels of Nitrate and Nitrite may be due to excessive application of fertilizer, manures and irrigation.

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15.

Suspan Thari Gahdon Maal Dilwar nagar Rahimabad Jamolia Kaitholia Gopal pur Mundiyana Mahimakhera Badkhorwa Kamalauddin nagar Ater Malihabad

89.752 126.464 100.568 171.808 123.344 180.128 82.056 59.8 22.36 173.888 54.704 127.712 96.616 48.984 196.872

CONCLUSION The problems associated with water pollution have the capabilities to disrupt life on our planet to a great extent. No. of organizations

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15.

Kudha Merai Kuera Atrauli Kankaha Gaon Gadiyana Sikandarpur Katua khera Kesari khera Madhav khera Harkansh khera Panchauri Hulas khera Ranjeet khera Kankaha khera Badan khera

0.0204 0.0137 0.0785 0.0121 0.0198 0.492 0.039 0.072 0.0366 0.0159 0.0433 0.0516 0.0084 0.0182 0.0162

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including governmental and non-governmental are trying to combat water pollution thus acknowledging the fact that water pollution is, indeed a serious issue. But the government alone cannot solve the entire problem. It is ultimately up to us, to be informed, responsible and involved when it comes to the problems we face with our water. We must

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15.

Narayan khera Hindu khera Banthara Kati bagia Piparsand Munna khera Sarai sahjadi Ballu khera Bauri khera Balhe mau Nidhaan Gauri Shiv pura Shaikh pur Bakhat khera

0.0412 0.0244 1.8998 0.0384 0.0186 0.2583 0.0113 0.0011 0.0352 0.0831 0.0988 0.0393 0.2063 0.0089 0.1527

become familiar with our local water resources and learn about ways for disposing harmful household wastes so they do not end up in sewage treatment plants that cannot handle them or landfills not designed to receive hazardous materials. In our agricultural fields, we must determine whether additional nutrients are needed before fertilizers

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15.

Kasimpur biruha Gusaiganj Pancham purwa Kasimpur Nawabali purwa Amirpur Begaria Sengta Kabirpur Bikauli Pahar nagar Malauli Hardaspur Salauli Jahangirpur

0.0029 0.0195 0.0027 0.0037 0.1639 0.4413 0.502 0.0093 0.0037 0.0067 0.0803 0.002 0.003 0.0038 0.0175

VERMA et al., Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(1), 114-122 (2014)

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15.

Maal Dilwar nagar Jamolia Rahimabad Gopal pur Gahdon Thari Suspan Kaitholia Malihabad Ater Badkhorwa Kamaaludi nnagar Mundiyana Mahimakhera

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infiltration of water into the soil.As we head into the 21st century, awareness and education will most assuredly continue to be the two most important ways to prevent water pollution. If these measures are not taken and water pollution continues, life on earth will suffer severely. But the developed world must work with the developing world to ensure that new industrialized economies do not add to the worldâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s environmental problems. Conservation strategies need to be become more widely accepted and priority need to give to restore quality and quantity of aquifers before it is too.

0.0582 0.0389 0.083 0.0203 0.0147 0.0697 0.0794 0.0377 0.0012 0.0114 0.0699 0.0258 0.0925 0.0599 0.0738

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

are applied, and look for alternatives where fertilizers might run off into surface waters. We have to preserve existing trees and plant new trees and shrubs to help prevent soil erosion and promote

The authors acknowledge the Head, Department of Environmental Sciences, Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar (A Central) University Lucknow-226025 for providing facilities to this work. Support to Ms Anjali Verma in the form of Ph.D. fellowship is gratefully acknowledged.

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Srivastava S., Srivastava A., Negi M.P.S. and Tandon K., Evaluation of effect of drains on water quality of river Gomti in Lucknow city using multivariate statistical techniques, Inter . J. of Env .Scie, 2:1 (2011). Singh B., Singh Y. and Sekhon G.S, FertilizerN use efficiency and nitrate pollution of ground water in developing countries, Int. J.Env.Sci., 20 :(2):1; 167-184 (1995). Gaur V. K., Gupta K.S, Pandey. D.S., Gopal K. and Mishra V., Distribution of heavy metals

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Vogt C., Cotruvo J., D’ltri P.M. and Wolfson L, Drinking Water Standards: Their Derivation and meaning in of. eds., Rural Groundwater Contamination (1996). Shiklomanov I.A., Comprehensive Assessment of the Freshwater Resources of the World: Assessment of Water Resources and Water Availability in the World. Stockholm,Sweden: World Meteorological Organization and Stockholm Environment Institute (1997). Ibrahim A. Cisse. and Mao X., Nitrate Health Effect in Drinking Water and Management Quality, Depar tment of Environmental Sciences and Engineering, China University of Geosciences, 430074, Wuhan ,P.R.China, Enviro. Rese. J., 2 (6) : 311-316 (2008). Zhang W.L., Tian Z.X., Zhang N. and Li Li.Q., “Nitrate Pollution of Groundwater in Northern China.” Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment, 59: 223-31(1996). Cataldo D. A., Maroon M. and Schrader L.E., Rapid colorimetric determination of nitrate in plant tissues by nitration of salicylic acid, Commun. Soil Science and Plant Analysis, 6(1): 71-80 (1975). Stevens D.L. and Oaks A., The influence of nitrate in the induction of nitrate reductase in the maize roots, Canadian J Bot, 51: 12551258 (1973).

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Is Effective and Structured Training key to Successful Biomedical Waste Management in Hospital : A Study SHISHIR BASARKAR Seven Hills Hospitals, Mumbai â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 400 059, Maharashtra, India. http://dx.doi.org/10.12944/CWE.9.1.18 (Received: January 29, 2014; Accepted: February 24, 2014) ABSTRACT The study is interventional in nature because the training has been done as an intervention. The study was done to find out the impact of training on knowledge level of the hospital staff who is dealing with biomedical waste on day to day basis. The study was conducted on 184 staff members during July-Sept 2012 in multispecialty tertiary care hospital. The survey form was prepared and was applied to all participants in person before and after the training was conducted. The training programme on biomedical waste management was for total 60 hours of which 40 hours were class room lectures and 20 hours practice sessions. the Methods used in the analysis of data were chi-square and t-tests. Of total study participants 71.7% (132) were female while 28.2%(52) were male. nursing staff constituted 54.3% (100), medical staff 20.1% (37), house keeping 17.3% (32) while general management 8.1% (15). a significant statistical difference (pretraining and post training) was found among these staff members who have received training in biomedical waste management which is evident from the raised level of knowledge and awareness about biomedical waste management. The safe management of biomedical waste is of paramount importance for the hospital staff, patients as well as community population. Hospital staff is responsible for safe disposal of waste and that can be reinforce with the help of structured training programme.

Key words :Hospital, Biomedical waste, Training, Medical, Nursing.

INTRODUCTION The biomedical waste which is generated from various types of healthcare facilities and if not managed properly then give rise to considerable environmental pollution. The untreated waste poses significant health risk to patients, visitors, care givers and community as a whole. the waste generated in hospital has been categories in various subtypes like1. Of the total waste 85 % is non infectious while 10% is infectious and 5% hazardous2. Development of infections of various types from these medical waste is common occurrence of which most dangerous are HIV, Hepatitis C, Hepatitis B. These viral borne infections are mostly caused by contaminated waste which contain piercing items like needles, blades, glass etc.3

If this waste is categorized as infectious waste per se then it will increase the quantum of waste leading to increase in both financial as well as labour cost. hence it is imperative to segregate the waste at the site of generation or at the location of their use4. When such waste is not properly treated and managed then it create various public health issues that is the reason the waste as generated must be segregated as per the class it belongs to4. It is not the segregation which is important the process of collection, transportation , treatment and final disposal of biomedical waste are mandatory as per the biomedical waste (management and handling) rules 1998 which are amended in 2000 and 20035.

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The management of the biomedical waste is an ongoing process and cannot be completed by mere instruction rather need training of the stake holder. Training of the staff is the hospital occupierâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s responsibility. Head of the institution should ensure that there is structured training schedule is laid down and conducted as per the scheduled. Training to the stake holders can be imparted either by internal trainers or external trainers. Hospital can also have a programme of train the trainers as well5 Training on biomedical waste management process can be given by designated biomedical waste management officer or infection control officer5 In order to prevent waste related injuries to staff, patients, visitors and environment there is need of acquiring knowledge, attitude and behavior by all the concerned staff members6.More over it is mandatory for hospital to have effective biomedical waste management plan to have medical waste controlled and rendered harmless. This goal realization make all the stake holders to have sufficient knowledge on the subject of waste management and if not done then what are hazards to the population and legal implications. Desired success on effective waste management can be achieved through the process of in house training by designated trainer who have grasped the importance of the subject.

Present study was performed in order to investigate whether training has desired impact on knowledge and attitude level of hospital stake holders dealing with biomedical waste management. MATERIALS AND METHODS The study was conducted between July to Sept 2012. No sampling was used in our study as almost all the staff members who are concerned with biomedical waste management were included. Study was conducted with 184 participants composed of staff from various department like wards , operation theater, intensive care units , hemodialysis units, endoscopy, emergency unit and procedure room. The training was planned and structured and was consist of following topics. 1. Defining and classification of Biomedical waste. process of segregation, collection , storage , transportation ,treatment and final disposal. 2. Health hazards of biomedical waste and Biomedical waste (management and handling)Rules 1998. 3. practical applications of biomedical waste management 4. A total 60 hours of training was imparted in batches of 20. Training was divided in to two subsets class room lectures and practical

Table 1: Demographic Features of the Hospital Staff (N = 184) Demographic Features

Female Male Medical staff Nursing staff Housekeeping staff General management staff Age below 25 years Age between 25-30years Age more than 30 years Work experience less than 5 years Work experience between 5 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 10 years Work experience more than 10 years

Number of staff (n)

Percentage (%)

Cumulative Percentage (%)

132 52 100 37 32 15 71 82 31 72 89 23

71.8 28.2 54.4 20.1 17.4 8.1 38.6 44.5 16.9 39.2 48.3 12.5

71.8 100% 54.4 74.5 91.9 100% 38.6 83.1 100% 39.2 87.5 100%

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Basarkar., Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(1), 123-129 (2014) applications. Of 60 hours of training 40 hours were lectures and 20 hours practical aspect of the biomedical waste management. Both training sessions class room as well as practical were interactive in nature based on androgogy pattern of training and all participants were encouraged to put in their verbal , written opinion or questions on the subject under discussion. Measurement of effectiveness of the training The main stay of the sturdy was questionnaire which was prepared and tested with small group of staff (eighteen staff members) to determine whether questions were understood in the correct manner by the study participants. questions were revised according to results obtained and then applied to entire group considered for study. survey was done before initiation of training and then after training and consisted of 25 questions of which some were on socio demographic characteristics and their level of information on various steps of biomedical waste management process in the hospital. All participants took interest in training sessions and answering questions of survey. The

data collected in the study were evaluated through SPSS 11.5 programme. chi â&#x20AC;&#x201C; square method was used in statistical analysis and p<0.05was taken as statistically significant. other statistical variables like means and percentages were also used in the analysis process of the collected data. RESULTS Of 184 study participants 71.7% (132) were female and 28.2 (52) were male of whom 44.5% (82) werre in the age group of 25 to 30 years. 42.9% (79) has previous experience of working in hospital and dealing with biomedical waste. 54.3% (100)were nurses, 20.1% (37) were medial staff mainly medical officer and clinical assistants, 17.3% (32) housekeeping staff and 8.1% (15) belonging to general management staff. Of the participants 39.2% has work experience for less than five years. Statistical significant difference were found between points received by all hospital staff in the preliminary test and final test (p<0.05). The study disclosed that the points received by participants were higher in post training test in comparison to pre training test. The number of correct answers were increased in post training

Table 2: Comparision of PreTraining and Post Training Test Response on BioMedical Waste Management Subject Variable

Female (n = 80) Male (n = 104) Medical staff (n = 37) Nursing staff(n = 100) Housekeeping staff(n = 32) General management staff (n = 15) Age below 25 years ( n = 71) Age between 25 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 30 years (n = 82) Age more than 30 years (n = 31) Work experience less than 5 years (n = 72) Work experience between 5-10 years (n = 89) Work experience more than 10 years (n = 23) p<0.05

Pretraining test Post training Statistical Significance X+ s.s Test X+s.s t p 32.13 +3.25 29.40 +7.08 31.50 +3.40 30.31 +4.40 29.65 +5.23 28.46 +3.80 30.08 + 5.23 32.29 +3.62 30.19 + 4.95 33.01 + 4.32

37.35 +6.20 32.45 + 6.27 38.15 +1.86 38.07 +2.80 34.21 +7.42 35.90 +3.72 36.60 +4.32 37.55 +3.81 37.30 +5.58 38.00 + 2.00

- 6.41 - 14.21 - 8.54 - 14.43 -3.55 - 7.64 -9.40 -12.45 -7.82 -10.42

0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.002 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000

32.45 +5.16

36.70 +5.64

-5.55

0.000

32.40 +3.18

38.15 +4.60

-7.36

0.000

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Basarkar., Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(1), 123-129 (2014) management process. while 28.8% (15) of male and 40.1% (53) of female of the study participants claimed to have undergone at least one training annually on the subject of biomedical waste management. As per gender the ratio of the staff who underwent training programme conducted in house on biomedical waste management was also

session and it is concluded that knowledge level of all participants of study has increased as a result of training. A ratio of 55.7% (29)of male and 48.4% (64) of the female participants have informed that they had no previous training on biomedical waste

Table 3: Analysis of the hospital staffâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s demographic features regarding training status on the subject of BioMedical Waste Management (N = 184) Variables

Never under any training n

Male (n = 52) 29 Female (n = 132) 64 Medical staff (n = 37) 18 Nursing staff (n = 100) 63 Housekeeping staff 18 (n = 32) General management 11 staff (n = 15) Age less than 25 years 50 ( n = 72) Age between 25-30 years 53 ( n = 82) Age more than 30 years 11 ( n = 31) Experience less than 49 5 years (n = 72) Experience 5 - 10 years 51 (n = 89) Experience more than 5 5 years (n = 23)

Underwent Underwent training training once only more than once

55.7 48.4 48.6 63.0 56.2

15 53 15 28 8

28.8 40.1 40.5 28.0 25.0

8 19 4 9 6

15.3 14.3 10.8 9.0 18.7

73.3

13.3

69.4

19.4

11.11

64.6

24.3

10.9

35.4

38.7

25.8

68.0

18.0

13.8

57.3

29.2

13.4

21.7

43.4

34.7

Statistical Significance

0.01 0.01

0.02

0.01

p <0.05 Table 4: Comparison of pre training and post training test responses according to training schedule hospital staff have undergone Training Schedule

Staff never underwent any training schedule Staff underwent training schedule once Staff underwent training schedule more than once p<0.05

Pertaining Response X +s.s

Post training Response X +s.s

30.84 + 2.86

Statistical Significance t

36.18 + 5.32

-6.58

0.000

31.72 + 4.27

37.12 + 4.14

-10.96

0.000

33.15 + 3.46

39.05 + 2.86

-12.86

0.000

Male (n = 52) Female (n = 132) Medical staff (n = 37) Nursing staff (n = 100) Housekeeping staff (n= 32) General management staff (n = 15) Age less than 25 years ( n = 72) Age between 25 - 30 years ( n = 82) Age more than 30 years ( n = 31) Experience less than 5 years (n = 72) Experience 5 - 10 years (n = 89)6 Experience more than 5 years (n = 23)

Variables

21.5 29.5 21.6 29.0 18.7 13.3 20.8 23.1 22.5 18.0 17.9 17.3

11 39 8 29 6

Insufficiency of knowledge

9 21 6 12 4

21.7

21.3

16.6

9.6

15.8

13.8

20.0

17.3 15.9 16.2 12.0 12.5

Lack of BMW Audit in Hospital

13 32 10 32 10

26.0

24.7

34.7

35.4

31.7

30.5

40.0

25.0 24.2 27.0 32.0 31.2

Lack of staff motivation towards proper BMW management

8 22 7 16 5

13.0

19.1

16.6

12.9

14.6

15.2

13.3

15.3 16.6 18.9 16.0 15.6

Insufficient resources for proper BMW management

11 19 6 11 7

21.7

16.8

13.8

19.3

14.6

19.4

13.3

21.1 14.3 16.2 11.0 21.8

Lack of scientific attituge towards BMW management

Table 5 : Analysis of the hospital staffâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s demographic features regarding hindrance in proper BioMedical Waste Management (N = 184)

Basarkar., Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(1), 123-129 (2014) 127

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statistically higher in female staff 54.5% (72) then male 44.2%(23) (p<0.005)

methods they will emerge as severe public health and environmental problems.

It was also revealed that 3.7% of nursing staff, 8.2% of medical staff and 7.9%of housekeeping staff and 4.8% general staff had not received training whatsoever on the subject of waste management in hospital. The staff who have receive at least one training constitute majority of the participants.Except general management staff participants maximum of the participants have receive the training on the biomedical waste management in their previous organization. In the study it was also observed that those participants who have not received any previous training on the subject in pre training and post training test scored lower than those who have received previous training on the subject of biomedical waste management.

The onus of biomedical waste management lies with the hospital occupier. the information levels and awareness of hospital staff on the subject of biomedical waste management is very important in the process of waste management.

According to the collected data on problems regarding biomedical waste management 17.7% responded that sufficient attention towards its scientific management process was not paid while 16.6% said auditing was lacking ,24.6% referred to lack of intensity towards work and 25.5%claimed the insufficiency of work knowledge on waste management. All participants to varied degree appreciated that solution to the problems of effective biomedical waste management is necessity of the structured training and audit because they felt that the greater problem encountered by hospital staff on the biomedical management was lack of waste audit in the institution. the results of the study pointed out that hospital staff of all department and demographics cited the primary problem on the subject as insufficiency of emphasis. DISCUSSION The waste generated in the hospital as a result of either after diagnostic or curative patient care poses potential health risk to care givers, patients, population and environment. If this waste is not segregated, collected, stored, transported , treated and disposed off by use of appropriate

On review of literature it was revealed that majority of the staff (69.9%) had received appropriate training on the subject of biomedical waste management. according to another study the level of information among hospital staff on waste management 62.1% of medical doctors ,54.5% nursing staff while 47.6% laboratory technician staff were well informed about the subject on biomedical waste management 6 . Similarly another study pointed out that medical staff, nurses, and laboratory technicians are well informed about theprocess of managing biomedical waste appropriately8 The study conducted by Suvarna and Ramesh in 2012 showed that medical officers and nursing staff had higher level of information then other hospital staff about biomedical waste management process9 Laxmi and Kumar conducted an analysis among the healthcare workers on the awareness of biomedical waste management. In the study the finding is that an information and awareness deficiency among the hospital employees as tot the legislation associate with biomedical waste management . IN this study performed on qualified hospital employees also indicates that a knowledge and awareness deficiency exist among the qualified hospital personnel about the legislation on biomedical waste management10. The result of present study too is consistent with the conclusion drawn in various other research papers dealing in the information level regarding biomedical waste management among hospital employees1,9,10. The present study also revealed that hospital employees had better scores in knowledge test score which was done after training session on the subject . As evident the awareness level got

Basarkar., Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(1), 123-129 (2014) improved after the training which clearly indicate the effectiveness of structured training to study participants. as the number of hospitals are increasing the quantum of waste will also increase proportionately. In order to eliminate the potential danger posed by growing quantum of waste to human and environmental health, it is mandatory for hospital employees be armored with “hospital or biomedical waste management plan” and be given regular training on every type so waste produced during the diagnostic and curative patient care in the hospital and healthcare facilities. The importance of periodic repeated training has become evident in the present study that the knowledge and awareness level of hospital staff was found to be more in the pre training and post training test for the staff member with each training session more than others. This finding give the support to thought process of importance of periodic training programme on biomedical waste management so as to fill the deficiency levels in

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information about subject among the hospital employees. it is therefore propose that in order to have effective biomedical waste management prog4rmme in the hospital it need to draw an effective waste management plan and have that plan continually implemented by periodic training of staff members. Compliance to the policies and procedures related to biomedical waste management is directly related to the knowledge and awareness about process and this attitude and knowledge is updated with the help of periodic training in the subject. It is therefore evident that training is as essential part of the hospital employee’s daily activity so as to have proper and scientific management of the biomedical waste generated in the hospital. In the present study it emerged that to organize and implement a standardised and structured training programme for all staff member of the hospital will play a very important role in solution of the waste management issue.

REFERENCES 1.

Kishore J, Ingle G K,Biomedical Waste Management in India, I stEdition,Century Publication (New Delhi), 2004. Glan Mc R, Garwal R, Clinical Waste in Developing Countries. An Analysis with case study of India and a critique of Basle TWG guidelines (1999). Khan M S, Sana’s Guidelines for Hospital Infection control, IstEdition , Jaypee Brtothers (New Delhi), (2004). Kishore J, Joshi T K, Biomedical Waste Management, Employment News, 19-25 (2000). Basarkar s, hospital waste management: A Guide for Self Assessment and Review, Ist Edition, Jaypee Brothers, (New Delhi), (2008). Jhanvi G, Raju P V R, Awareness and training need of biomedical wase management among undergraduate students, AndhraPradesh, Quarterly Journal of the Indian Public health association,volxxxxx No1, January-March ,

10.

53-54 (2006). Vishal B, Swarn L, Mahesh M, Arvind A, Sanjay A, Uma S: Knowledge Assessment of Hospital Staff Regarding Biomedical Waste Management in A Tertiary Care Hospital. Nat J Community Med, 3(2):197200 (2012). Mathur V, Dwivedi S, Hassan MA, Misra RP: Knowledge, attitude, and practices about biomedical waste management among healthcare personnel: A cross-sectional study. Indian J Community Med, 36: 143-145 (2011). Suwarna M, Ramesh G: Study about awareness and practices about healthcare wastes management among hospital staff in a medical college hospital, Bangalore. Int J Basic Med Sci, 3(1): 7-11 (2012). Lakshmi BS, Kumar P: Awareness about biomedical waste management among healthcare personnel of some important medical centers in Agra. Int J Eng Res Tech, 1(7) :1-5 (2012).

Current World Environment

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Jatropha curcas L: A predominant Panacea for Energy Security and Climate Change ARUN CHAVAN*, V. K. GOUR and HUSSAIN BASHA *Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding, Institute of Agriculture Science, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi-221005, India. Department of Plant Breeding and Genetics, Jawaharlal Nehru Krishi Vishwa Vidyalaya, Jabalpur-482004, India. http://dx.doi.org/10.12944/CWE.9.1.19 (Received: February 02, 2014; Accepted: March 13, 2014) ABSTRACT The paper considers Jatropha plant as alternative source of biofuel and sustainable option to mitigate damages caused by climate change on environment. As nonrenewable sources of energy gets depleted other sources starts to unearth by considering all techniques prevailing today. Though Jatropha is under domestication and there are number of constrains that hindering its improvement, it is most viable and widely accepted biodiesel producing species. Being very less demanding plant there is knowledge gaps that concerning the best production practices and the potential benefits and risks to the environment. The certain breeding objectives specific to yield enhancement and stability needs to consider. Critical assessment of prevailing germ plasm and development of new variability for important traits like oil (content and quality) could be further goal for planned breeding strategies. All the uses of this drought tolerant species have to studied clearly to reveal future breeding programme. Genetic improvement using conventional and molecular breeding approaches has to be increased at more places and integrated with latest biotechnological techniques for reducing time and increasing efficiency of breeding.

Key words: Jatropha, Energy security, Biofuel, Non toxic Jatropha and Genetic improvement.

INTRODUCTION It is not very common to hear states and their leaders criticized for mixing “oil and politics.” Oil together with coal and natural gas supply about 88 % of the world’s energy needs. Crude oil prices are likely to increase over the long term as fossil reserves diminish and global demand increases, particularly in the newly emerging economies of Asia and Latin America. In view of growing interest for renewable energy sources, liquid bio-energy production from vegetable oils is one of the possible options to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and face the concerns of climate change. Bio-diesel production from vegetable oils during 2004–2005 was estimated to be 2.36 million tones globally. Of this, EU countries (1.93 million tonnes) with expectation of 30% annual increase and the USA (0.14 million tonnes) together accounted for 88%

and rest of the world (0.29 million tonnes) for the remaining 12%1. Biofuel production also impacts the environment through its effect on water resources and biodiversity. Declining availability of water for irrigation, most notably in India and China, necessitates using the most water-efficient biofuel crops and cropping systems for long-term sustainability. The use of degraded land, conservation agriculture techniques with minimal soil disturbance and permanent soil cover, intercropping and agro forestry systems will lessen negative environmental impact. Global bio-diesel production is set to grow at slightly higher rate than bio-ethanol and will reach 24 billion litres by being the largest share in 20172. However, shortage of raw material to produce bio-diesel is a major constraint3. The total number of oil-bearing species range from 100 to 300, and of them 63 belonging to 30 plant families hold promise for bio-diesel

CHAVAN et al., Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(1), 130-136 (2014) production4. Since the surge of interest in renewable-energy alternatives to liquid fossil fuels hit in 2004-5, the possibility of growing Jatropha curcas L. for the purpose of producing biofuel has attracted the attention of investors and policymakers worldwide. The seeds of Jatropha contain non-edible oil with properties that are well suited for the production of biodiesel; besides that nontoxic variety of Jatropha could be a potential source of oil for human consumption, and the seed cake can be a good protein source for humans as well as for livestock. Energy demand in the contemporary world has been increased by many folds. So In 2008, Jatropha was planted on an estimated 900 000 ha globally –760 000 ha (85 percent) in Asia, followed by Africa with 120 000 ha and Latin America with 20 000 ha. More than 85 percent of Jatropha plantings are in Asia, chiefly Myanmar, China Indonesia and India. The largest producing country in Asia is Indonesia. In Africa, Ghana and Madagascar will be the largest producers. Brazil will be the largest producer in Latin America. Government of India launched ‘‘National Mission on Bio-diesel” with a view to find a cheap and renewable liquid fuel based on vegetable oils5. The area planted to Jatropha is projected to grow 12.8 million ha by 20156. There are many knowledge gaps concerning the best production practices and the potential benefits and risks to the environment. Equally troubling is that the plant is in an early stage of domestication with very few improved varieties. Identifying the true potential of Jatropha requires separating the evidence from the hyped claims and half-truths. Keeping these views here we tried to discuss the importance of Jatropha as energy plant and its other sustainable uses. Jatropha: Origin and Taxonomy The physic nut tree (Jatropha curcasL.), originated in Central America and is today found throughout the world in the tropics. It belongs to the family of Euphorbiaceae and is very undemanding in terms of climate and soil. It spread beyond its original distribution because of its hardiness, easy propagation, drought endurance, high oil content, low seed cost, short gestation period, rapid growth, adoption to wide agro-climatic condition, bushy/ shrubby nature and multiple uses of different plant

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parts7. Linnaeus8 was the first to name the physic nut Jatropha curcas L. The genus name Jatropha derives from the Greek word jatr´os (doctor) and troph´e (food), which implies its medicinal uses. According to Dehgan and Webster and SchultzeMotel, the genus Jatropha belongs to tribe Joannesieae of Crotonoideae in the Euphorbiaceae family, and contains approximately 175 known species 9-10. Dehgan and Webster revised the subdivision made by Pax11 and now distinguish two subgenera (Curcas and Jatropha) of the genus Jatropha, with 10 sections and 10 subsections to accommodate the Old and New World species. The tree has maximum height of five meters and requires between 500 and 600 mm of rainfall. However, the minimum is highly dependent on local conditions. In times of drought, the plant sheds most of its leaves in order to reduce water loss. Flowering occurs during the wet season12 often with two flowering peaks, i.e. during summer and autumn. Flowers are unisexual, monoeceious, greenish yellow colored interminal long, peduncled paniculate cymes. The high fruit setting under open pollination revealed that the plant is capable of producing fruits through selfing and cross-pollination. Such a breeding system represents facultative cross-pollination13. Current uses In the first half of the 20th century, the export of physic nuts comprised a large share of total exports from Cape Verde. Today, the Jatropha plant is not economically significant in any country, but is used conventionally for numerous purposes: Soil stabilization It is drought resistant plant that has very few demands on its environment which fix the micro environment of soil. Enclosure of fields The physic nut is being planted in both Africa and Asia as chief hedges around gardens and fields Traditional human and animal medicine Oil and plant parts are used as wound disinfectant, purgative, rheumatism and against skin diseases etc.

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Biological pesticide Also used insecticide and molluscicide to control insect damage. Soap production From the oil of the seeds Fertilizer The press cake can be used as highnitrogen fertilizer Energetic use of the physic nut Oil of the physic nut as fuel (motor, lamp, and cooker oil); entire plants and especially the fruit as biogenic solid fuel also as lubricating fluid for motors To reduce erosion It can be planted to reduce erosion caused by water and/or wind and also to demarcate the boundaries of fields and homesteads Shade and support Jatropha plants are used as a source of shade for coffee plants in Cuba; whereas in Comore islands, in Papua New Guinea and in Uganda used as a support plant for vanilla plants. Potential feed for human and animals The non-toxic variety of Jatropha from Mexico can be a suitable alternative to the toxic Jatropha varieties. Which could be a potential source of oil for human consumption, and the seed cake can be a good protein source for humans as well as for livestock14. Varieties commonly found growing in Africa and Asia has seeds that are toxic to humans and animals, whereas some varieties found in Mexico and Central America are known to be non-toxic. Keeping in view the seeds of these non-toxic varieties have been sent to Nicaragua, Zimbabwe, Mexico and India for cultivation through traditional and tissue culture techniques and comparison for yield, resistance to diseases, survival and nutrient requirements with the toxic varieties of the region. The press cake of physic nut for animal feed was investigated and proved in advisable15. Potential medicinal value The Jatropha has medicinal value in

constipation (seeds); wound healing (sap); against malaria (leaves); etc. Use of the wood is limited, because Jatropha provides poor quality fire wood. Because it is very soft, it is used as weaving material. It can also be planted under the poverty alleviation programs that deal with land improvement. Status of genetic improvement Genetic variation among known Jatrophaaccessions may be less than previously thought, and breeding inter-specific hybrids may offer a promising route to crop improvement. Very little is known about Jatropha genome. Chromosomes are of very small size (bivalent length 1â&#x20AC;&#x201C;3.67 lm) with most species having 2n = 22 and base number of x = 1116. It is attractive candidate for genome sequencing with genome size (1C) to be 416 Mbp17. Breeding to raise oil yields became a focused area of research with the 2004/5 surge in interest in Jatropha â&#x20AC;&#x201C; an effort led mainly by the private sector. Given the time required for promising accessions to mature and be evaluated, it is clear that work to improve yields through breeding is at a very early stage and that present plantations comprise, at best, marginally improved wild plants. Increasing oil yield must be a priority an objective that has only recently been addressed by private enterprise. The objectives for genetic up gradation of the crop should aim at more number of female flowers or pistillate plants, high seed yield with high oil content, early maturity, resistance to pests and diseases, drought tolerance/ resistance, reduced plant height and high natural ramification of branches. In addition to these targets, genetic improvement in general characteristics and methyl ester composition to make it more suitable for bio-diesel production18 reported that genetic improvement and domestication of Jatropha should follow the same course as that of castor (Ricinus communis L.) belongs to the same family. Castor has been improved from a perennial wild to annual domesticate, having short internodes with varying flower sexuality ratios from completely pistillate to predominantly male types19. Comprehensive work on collection, characterization and evaluation of germplasm for growth, morphology, seed characteristics and yield

CHAVAN et al., Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(1), 130-136 (2014) traits is still in its infancy. Regardless of the number of accessions used, the robustness of the primer and number of marker data points, all accessions from India clustered together. In general, diversity analysis with local germplasm revealed a narrow genetic base in India20 and south China21, indicating the need for widening the genetic base of Jatropha through introduction of accessions with broader geographical background and creation of variation through mutation and hybridization techniques. Hence a large scale collection of germplasm from selected plus trees, their conservation and the evaluation program of various Jatropha accessions is essential to understand patterns of variability. Molecular diversity estimates combined with the data sets on other agronomic traits will be very useful for selecting the appropriate accessions. In spite of numerous favorable attributes, the full potential of the crop has not been realized due to lack of planned breeding programs for creation of new and improved verities. Ones genetically distinct verities has been identified, these will serve as important source of cultivation of Jatropha under varying climatic conditions and development of new varieties through breeding. Molecular breeding can be used as useful tool to monitor sequences of variation and create new genetic variation by introducing new favorable traits from landraces and related species. The certain breeding objectives specific to yield enhancement needs to considered like; improve dry matter distribution, with greater emphasis to fruits rather than vegetative parts, Synchronous maturity, increased flowering, branches, number of fruits, seed weight, seed oil content and development of non toxic verities. Genetic improvement using conventional breeding approaches has to be initiated at more places and integrated with latest biotechnological techniques for reducing time and increasing efficiency of breeding. Potential of the new varieties developed has to be further tested for their performance, through multilocation trials. Development of techniques such as, somaclonal variants, mutations, doubled haploids, and gene transfer which support plant breeding activities should be emphasized.

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Biofuel for energy security and environmental impact The scarcity of conventional fossil fuels, growing emissions of combustion-generated pollutants, and their increasing costs will make biomass sources more attractive22. For the reason of edible oil demand being higher than its domestic production, there is no possibility of diverting this oil for production of bio-diesel. Biodiesel fuels are attracting increasing attention worldwide as a blending component or a direct replacement for diesel fuel in vehicle engines. An alternative fuel to petro-diesel must be technically feasible, economically competitive, environmentally acceptable, and easily available. The current alternative diesel fuel can be termed biodiesel. Biodiesel can offer other benefits, including reduction of greenhouse gas emissions, regional development and social structure, especially to developing countries23. There are many tree species which bear seeds rich in oil. Of these some promising tree species have been evaluated and it has been found that there are a number of them such as Jatropha and Pongamia (‘Honge’ or ‘Karanja’) which would be very suitable in our conditions. However, Jatropha has been found most suitable for the purpose. The by products of Bio-diesel from Jatropha seed are the oil cake and glycerol which have good commercial value. These by products shall reduce the cost of biodiesel depending upon the price which these products can fetch. The cost components of bio-diesel are the price of seed, seed collection and oil extraction, oil trans-esterification, transport of seed and oil. The cost of bio-diesel produced by trans-esterification of oil obtained from Jatropha seeds will be very close to the cost of seed required to produce the quantity of biodiesel as the cost of extraction of oil and its processing in to biodiesel is recoverable to a great extent from the income of oil cake and glycerol which are by products. Using non-toxic varieties from Mexico could make greater use of this potentially valuable by-product, but even these varieties may need treat mentto avoid sub-clinical problems that could arise with long-term feeding of Jatropha seed cake to livestock24.

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The carbon sequestration effect of Jatropha plantations seems to play an important role in the financing of these large projects. In addition, biodiesel produces fewer particulates, hydrocarbons, nitrogen oxides and sulphur dioxides than mineral diesel and therefore reduces combustion and vehicle exhaust pollutants that are harmful to human health. The need to slow or reverse global warming is now widely accepted. This requires reduction of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, especially reduction of carbon dioxide emissions. Using cultivated and non-domesticated plants for energy needs instead of fossilized plant remains such as mineral oil and coal reduces the net addition of CO2 to the atmosphere. In addition, biodiesel produces fewer particulates, hydrocarbons, nitrogen oxides and sulphur dioxides than mineral diesel and therefore reduces combustion and vehicle exhaust pollutants that are harmful to human health. Fargione et al. found that converting rain forest, peatlands, savannahs or grasslands to the growing of biofuel cropsreleases 17 to 420 times more CO2 than the reductions that occur when these biofuels replace fossil fuels25. This under scores the fact that growing Jatropha on degraded wastelands with minimal fertilizers and irrigationwill have the most positive environmental impact. Constrains that affect domestication and improvement Plantation of Jatropha on large scale by farmers or any organization faces numerous constrains that affect the growth of Jatropha industry and which get to be commercialized. The some constrains are pointed here: • High yielding verities yet to e developed • Plant to plant variation in yield, oil content and oil quality • Lack of info about agronomic package of practices of reliable yield • Poor assessment of environment risk benefit potential • It takes 3-5 years for maturity higher than annual oilseed crop • Toxic genotypes not safe as feedstock • Wood is of poor quality for burning and construction • Can’t tolerate frost and water logging condition

• • • • •

•

It may become weedy plant in certain climatic condition There is limited information available on genetics and agronomy of Jatropha Lack of planned improvement program globally Currently focused is on domestication of the species Lack of bench mark descriptors and information on genetic variability, effects of environment and genotype x environment (G x E) interaction26. Jatropha oil has higher viscosity than mineral diesel, although this is less of a problem when used in the higher temperature environment of tropical countries.

Plant breeders working on Jatropha are now using modern genetic marker techniques that speed up the screening process, but these selections still need to be grown to maturity for validation. CONCLUSION There is an urgent need to understand more about Jatropha in general and its possible application and its performance in larger plantations. This requires an interdisciplinary approach covering Jatropha systems and their determining and limiting factors. In addition, breeding programs and selection tools need to be developed to provide appropriate plant material for different agro-ecosystems. At the global level, there is a need for coordination of biofuel development and an international food reserve system to protect the vulnerable poor. The development of non-toxic varieties should be a priority. The integration of the available scattered knowledge on and experiences with crop performance of different provenances in different environments and management interventions is essential. The expectation that Jatropha can substitute significantly for oilim ports will remain unrealistic unless there is an improvement in the genetic potential of oil yields and in the production practices that can harness the improved potential. Although Jatropha is well known for having wide adaptability and plethora of uses its full potential is far from being realized. Improved varieties with desirable traits for specific

CHAVAN et al., Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(1), 130-136 (2014) growing conditions are not available, which makes growing Jatropha a risky business. Hence, Jatropha can be improved through assessment of variation in wild sources and selection of superior/elite

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genotypes attributes, added to the benefits of using a renewable fuel source, can contribute in an even larger way to protecting the environment.

REFERENCES 1. 2. 3.

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11.

Parikh J.Growing our own oils. Biofuels India; 3(3): 7 (2005). OECD-FAO. Agricultural outlook 2008–2017: (2008). Wani S. P.,Sreedevi T. K., Reddy B. V. S. Biofuels: status, issues and approaches for harnessing the potential. Hyderabad, India.(2006). Hegde D. M. Tree oilseeds for effective utilization of wastelands. In: Compendium of lecture notes of winter school on wasteland development in Rainfed areas, Central Research Institute for Dry land Agriculture, September 1-30, Hyderabad, India; 2003: 111–9. ( 2003) Shukla S. K. Experiences of Chattisgarh biofuel development authority. Biofuels India; 3(4): 12–3 (2005). Gexsi. Global Market Study on Jatropha. Final Report. Prepared for the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF). London/Berlin: Global Exchange for Social Investment. (2008.) Kumar A. and Sharma S. An evaluation of multipurpose oil seed crop for industrial uses (Jatropha curcas L.): a review. Ind Crops Prod; 28(1): 1-10(2008) Linnaeus C. Species plantarum. In: Jatropha. Impensis Stockholm: Laurentii Salvii;p. 1006–7. (1753) Dehgan B. and Webster GL. Morphology and infrageneric relationships of the genus Jatropha (Euphorbiaceae). University of California Publications in Botany. (1979) Schultze-Motel J. Rudolf Mansfelds Verzeichnis land wir ts chaftlicher and gärtnerischer Kulturpflanzen (ohne Zierpflanzen). Berlin: Akademie-Verlag. (1986). Pax F. Euphorbiaceae–Jatropheae. In: Engler A, editor. Das Pflanzenreich IV, vol. 147(42). Leipzig: Verlag von Wilhelm Engelmann.(1910)

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Raju A. J. S. and Ezradanam V. Pollination ecology and fruiting behaviour in a monoecious species, Jatropha curcas L. (Euphorbiaceae). Curr Sci; 83: 1395-8. (2002) Dhillon R. S. , Hooda M. S. , Handa A. K., Ahlawat K. S. , Kumar Y., Subhash, et al. Clonal propagation and reproductive biology in Jatropha curcas L. Indian J Agroforest; 8(2):18–27(2006) Becker, K., Makkar, H.P. S. Toxic effects of Phorbol esters incarp (Cyprinus carpio L.). Vet. Human Toxicol. 40: 82-86(1998.) BÖHME H.Möglichkeiten der Verwendung von Pressrückständen der Purgiernuss in der Tierernährung auf den Kap Verden.Institut für Tierer nährung der Bundesforschungsanstalt für Landwirtschaft, Braunschweig. (1988) Soontornchainaksaeng P, Jenjittikul T. Karyology of Jatropha (Euphorbiaceae) in Thailand. Thai For Bull; 31: 105-12(2003) Carvalho C. R., Clarindo W. R., Praça M. M., Araújo F. S. and Carels N. Genome size, base composition and karyotype of Jatropha curcas L., an important biofuel plant. Plant Sci; 174: 613-7(2008) Sujatha M., Reddy T. P. and Mahasi M. J. Role of biotechnological interventions in the improvement of castor ( Ricinus communis L.) and Jatropha curcas L. Biotechnol Adv; 26: 424-35. (2008) Singh D. Castor Ricinus communis (Euphorbiaceae). In: Simmonds NW, editor. Evolution of crop plants. London: Longman; 84-6. (1976) Ganesh Ram S., Parthiban K. T., Kumar R. S., Thiruvengadam V. and Paramathma M. Genetic diversity among Jatropha species as revealed by RAPD markers. Genet Resour Crop Evol doi:10.1007/s10722-0079285-7. (2008) Sun Qi-Bao, Li Lin-Feng, Li Yong, Wu Guo-

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overcome constraints. In: Biofuels and Industrial Products from Jatropha curcas. Edited by: G. M. Gubitz, M. Mittelbach & M. Trabi. Developed from the February 23–27, 1997 Symposium “Jatropha 97”, Managua, Nicaragua. (1997). Fargione, J., Hill, J., Tilman, D., Polasky, S. and Hawthorne, P. Land Clearing and the Biofuel Carbon Debt. Science, 319: 12351238(2008.) Jongschaap R. E. E., Corre´ W. J., Bindraban P. S. and Brandenburg W. A. Claims and facts on Jatropha curcas L. Wageningen, The Netherlands: Plant Research International.(2007).

Current World Environment

Vol. 9(1), 137-144 (2014)

Decadal Variation in Microflora and Fauna in 10 Water Bodies of Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh SUBRATA PANI, AMIT DUBEY and M.R. KHAN Environmental Planning and Coordination Organization, Paryavaran Parisar, Kachnar, E-5 Arera Colony, Bhopal - 462016., India. http://dx.doi.org/10.12944/CWE.9.1.20 (Received: January 07, 2014; Accepted: February 05, 2014) ABSTRACT Bhopal, the capital of Madhya Pradesh is gifted with number of water resources of multiple uses. However most of the water bodies have shrunken because of siltation, illegal land filling, conversion, and encroachment. The combination of all these factors ultimately resulted in deterioration of water quality and loss of species. The present study therefore was undertaken to evaluate the impact of urbanization on water quality and bio-diversity of the 10 lakes and wetlands situated within the municipal area of the city. A comparison of data generated over the years depicts considerable reduction in total number of species in the water bodies like Upper Lake, Hathaikheda and Sarangpani Lake.

Key words: Urbanization, Impact, Variation ,Micro flora, Microfauna, Conservation and Management.

INTRODUCTION Water is the basic and primary need of all vital life processes. Ever since the pre-historic times, man has been intimately associated with water and the evidences of past civilization that all historic human settlements were developed around inland freshwater resources have conclusively proved it. Even today, it is the major consideration for all socioeconomic cultural, industrial and technological developments. Besides drinking, water is also used for fish and aquaculture, irrigation hydropower generation etc. But these days, water the elixir of life, is becoming more and more unfit and dearer to mankind due to unwise use, neglect and mismanagement. Today water resources are the most exploited natural systems. The rapid urbanization and industrialization have caused population explosion in many urban centers and the generation of wastes both liquid and solid has grown to commendable proportions. The pace of development of waste disposal schemes could not

match the rapid rate of urbanization in the urban centers during the last few decades. As a result the waste not properly disposed reaches the water sources and therefore our water sources like river, lakes and reservoirs that are in close proximity of these urban centers are highly polluted. Bhopal the capital city of Central Indian State Madhya Pradesh has been blessed with number of water bodies of multipurpose uses. However with rapid urbanization and consequent changes in the demographic nature especially during second half of the last century all these water bodies have undergone severe degradation in their water quality due of inflow of sewage, dumping of solid wastes, inflow of silt, nutrient accumulation, flourishing growth of invasive aquatic plants and, depletion of bio-diversity and other anthropogenic activities. Most of the water bodies in and around Bhopal are presently under great environmental

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stress due to pollution from point and non-point sources, flourishing aquatic vegetation, enrichment of nutrients and human encroachments. As a result, all the water bodies are gradually approaching towards eutrophication. Due to joining of untreated domestic sewage, washing activities etc., the water quality of these water bodies has deteriorated to a great extent thereby affecting the bio-diversity of the system. MATERIAL AND METHODS Water samples were collected from 10 water bodies situated in various parts of the city. During sampling 1 liter of water samples was collected by Ruttner Water Sampler and was filtered through the Nylobolt Plankton Net of mesh size 25 Âľm and concentrated to 50 ml sub- sample. The collected sample was then preserved with 5% formaldehyde solution and iodine solution for analysis of zooplankton and phytoplankton sample respectively. Analysis of the plankton samples were carried out using drop count methods under Trinocular microscope (Leica Image Analysis System). The results are expressed in organism / liter.

Table 1: Changes in Phytoplankton and Zooplankton community in Upper Lake during 2000 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 2010 Year 2000 2010 % Changes

Phytoplankton

Zooplankton

77 81 +5.19

31 25 -19.35

RESULTS Phytoplankton Upper Lake Variation in total number of species in Upper Lake during the year during 2000-2010 is depicted below. The lake is an important Ramsar Site due its rich flora and fauna. In past more than 700 species of various categories of flora and fauna has been reported from this lake (Bajpai et al, 1997). In course of time although the number of phytoplankton species has reduced compared to the study reported by Bajpai et al, , however there has been insignificant changes in number of phytoplankton species when compared with data of 2010 with that of 2000 (Table-1). Although in during the intermittent years there has been significant fluctuation in total number of phytoplankton species due to climatic variability and anthropogenic pressures (S. Pani and S. M. Misra, 2000). Recurrence of the species (Figure-1) however depicts rejuvenation of the ecosystem which was damaged due to urban pressures. However a reduction in total number of zooplankton species has been observed when compared with the past (Table-1). Lower Lake The Lower Lake is a traditionally polluted water body due to influx of domestic sewage from its highly urbanized catchment. Impact of nutrient accumulation on biodiversity of this water body has been reported in many occasions (Misra et al 2001, Pani & Sachdev, 2007). The lake inhabited about 50 sp during the year 2000, which has drastically reduced to 31 species in 2011(Table -2).The lake continued to be enriched with high influx of sewage and autochthonous generation of organic matters which resulted in formation of algal blooms and a shift in dominance of species from

Fig. 1: Variation in Phyto and Zooplanktin In Upper Lake during the year 2000 & 2010

PANI et al., Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(1), 137-144 (2014) Table 2: Changes in Phytoplankton community in Lower Lake during 2000 - 2010 Year 2000 2010 % Changes

Phytoplankton

Zooplankton

50 31 -38

12 25 +108.33

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Bacillariophyceae and Oligophyceae to Cyanophyceae. Development of excessive quantity of Microcystis aeruginosa can be witnessed in this lake. The number of zooplankton species has increased due to dominance of class Rotifera which has resulted in succession of Cladocera and Copepoda groups.

Fig. 2: Variation in Phyto and Zooplanktin In Lower Lake during the year 2000 & 2010

Sarangpani Sarangpani Lake is situated in BHEL area of Bhopal. The Lake after establishment of the BHEL, and subsequent development of the colonies in the adjoining areas, is being used as a settling tank of the sewage discharged from the adjoining settlements in absence of proper sewage networks. The inflow of sewage water over the years has resulted in deterioration of the water quality of the Table 3: Changes in Phytoplankton community in Sarangpani Lake during 2000 - 2010 Year 2000 2010 % Changes

Phytoplankton

Zooplankton

38 31 -18.42

15 25 + 66.66

lake. This has been manifested in the availability of plankton species in the lake. A reduction in Phytoplankton species has been observed in course of time (Table-3, Figure-3). However an increase in zooplankton species has been observed in due course of time which may be due to increase in number of Rotifer community. Laharpur Laharpur dam was constructed in the southwest corner of Bhopal city with an objective to store water for irrigational use. At the time of planning and construction of the reservoir, it was in the outskirts of the township but with the expansion of the city, the developmental activities and occupancy in the area (Pandey et al 2008) has exerted pressure on the water body resulting in reduction in number of both phytoplankton and zooplankton species (Table-4, Figure-4).

Fig. 3: Variation in Phyto and Zooplanktin In Sarangpani during the year 2000 & 2010

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PANI et al., Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(1), 137-144 (2014) Table 4: Changes in Phytoplankton community in Laharpur Reservoir during 2000 - 2010

Year 2000 2010 % Changes

Phytoplankton

Zooplankton

12 11 -8.33

9 4 -11.11

Char Imli Char Imli pond is a perennial water body situated in the heart of the city. Although it is a small water body but attracts large number of people. The topography of the pond provides under ground springs to make up the water level of the pond. This water body also receives huge quantity of raw sewage from the adjoining slum areas in absence of proper sewage net works. A reduction in both

Fig. 4: Variation in Phyto and Zooplanktin In Laharpur Reservoir during the year 2000 & 2010 Table 5: Changes in Phytoplankton community in Char Imli Pond during 2000 - 2010 Year 2000 2010 % Changes

Phytoplankton

Zooplankton

12 7 -41.66

22 17 -22.72

Table 6: Changes in Phytoplankton community in Shahpura Lake during 2000 - 2010 Year 2000 2010 % Changes

Phytoplankton

Zooplankton

12 9 -25

22 14 -36.36

the categories of phytoplankton and zooplankton species has been observed in course of time (Table-5, Figure-5). Shahpura Shahpura Lake is a manmade water impoundment, which was formed in 1974-1975 under the Betwa irrigation scheme, after constructing an earthen dam near Chunabhatti village in the south part of the Bhopal City. However the lake water is not being used for irrigation but it serves secondary purpose of recreation and as waterfront to the residents. The main source of water to the lake is the storm water but during dry weather condition the sewage fed drains regularly drain water in the lake. The other part of the lake also receives untreated sewage and wastewater from the eastern, northern and southeastern part of the lake. Thus the inflow of

Fig. 5: Variation in Phyto and Zooplanktin In Char Imli during the year 2000 & 2010

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Fig. 6: Variation in Phyto and Zooplanktin In Shahpura during the year 2000 & 2010 nutrient rich sewage and run off water especially in last decade has resulted in reducing the number of phytoplankton and zooplankton species in the lake (Table-6, Figure-6). Motia Talab Motia tank, a perennial water body is located adjacent to the Taj-ul-Masjid on the northwest of the Bhopal City. It is a man-made lake, constructed in the late 19th Century A.D. It was initially meant to provide pre-prayer ablution facility to the Muslim devotees visiting the monumental Taj-ul-Masjid. The water body has important aesthetic value and is situated in the densely populated area of the old city of Bhopal. It is surrounded on its northern side by the historic Taj Mahal palace, on the southern side by Asiaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s biggest mosque Taj-ul-Masjid, on the western side by picturesque architecture of Benazeer Palace and on the east by Thelawala Sadak. Table- 7: Changes in Phytoplankton community in Motia Talab during 2000 - 2010 Year 2000 2010 % Changes

Phytoplankton

Zooplankton

12 8 -33.33

22 13 -40.90

This water body is presently under great environmental stress due to pollution from point and non-point sources resulting in eutrophication, fast growth of aquatic macrophytes, enrichment of nutrients and human encroachments. As a result of these, this water body is gradually getting filled up leading towards advance stages of eutrophication. Since this tank is facing serious problem of eutrophicatoin due to joining of untreated domestic sewage, Nistar and washing activities etc., which are mainly responsible for deterioration of water quality, and also reducing the carrying capacity of the system and the Phyto and Zooplankton species (Table-7, Figure-7). Munshi Hassan This lake is situated amidst the old city of Bhopal near Taj-ul-Masjid on the northwest of the Bhopal City. The out flow of Siddiqui Hussain tank is a major source of water for Munshi Hussain tank. This tank is one of the important aquatic reservoirs Table 8: Changes in Phytoplankton community in Munshi Hassan during 2000 - 2010 Year 2000 2010 % Changes

Phytoplankton

Zooplankton

13 9 -30.76

7 4 -42.85

Fig. 7: Variation in Phyto and Zooplanktin In Motia Talab during the year 2000 & 2010

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Fig. 8: Variation in Phyto and Zooplanktin In Mushi Hussain during the year 2000 & 2010 because it is the only deep-water body situated in the densely populated area of the old city. It is also connected with the religious activities of the Muslim community. It is a part of the exemplary water management system constructed by Muslim rulers, which resembles the water management system of Islam Nagar Fort. On earlier days, the rainwater flowing down the Idgah Hills was collected at a point for supply to the Benazeer palace. The wastewater from the palace used to join the Motia tank, which subsequently trickled down to Munshi Hussain Khan Tank. Thus a level was maintained in the tank. The lake is subjected to high degree of pollution due to nutrient inflow from the thickly populated area. These lake remains covered with free-floating macrophytes during major part of the year and therefore availability of both Phytoplankton and Zooplankton has significantly reduced (Table8 & Figure-8).

Siddiqui Hussain The Siddiqui Hussain tank constructed in the year 1886 is completely filled with silt and vegetation. Only wet/muddy soil could be visible at site. A major part of the tank is illegally encroached for construction pur poses. The water body represents fewer numbers of Phyto and Zooplankton species (Table-9 & Figure-9). Hataikheda Hataikheda reservoir like many others in the state was constructed for irrigation but now it is an important water resource to supply water to the Industrial area of Govindpura and also used for fish culture. This is a multipurpose reservoir of Bhopal, situated about 5 km from BHEL Township in the northeast direction. This reservoir also started getting polluted due to various types of development in its catchment fringe area of the reservoir. The inflow of

Table 9: Changes in Phytoplankton community in Siddiqui Hussain during 2000 - 2010

Table 10: Changes in Phytoplankton community in Hataikheda during 2000 - 2010

Year

2000 2010 % Changes

Phytoplankton

Zooplankton

7 6 -14.28

12 8 -33.33

2000 2010 % Changes

Phytoplankton

Zooplankton

7 9 +28.57

12 11 -8.33

Fig. 9: Variation in Phyto and Zooplanktin In Siddiqui Hussain during the year 2000 & 2010

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Fig. 10: Variation in Phyto and Zooplanktin In Hataikheda during the year 2000 & 2010 Table 11: Changes in Phytoplankton community in Kaliasote Reservoir during 2000 & 2010 Year 2000 2010 % Changes

Phytoplankton

Zooplankton

7 4 -42.85

12 9 -25

Fig.11: Variation in Phto and Zooplankton species in Kaliasote Reservoir during the year 2000 & 2010

sewage from the newly developed satellite township of BHEL is the main cause for deterioration of the water quality. This reservoir though has a great potential of varied species of flora and fauna but the impact of urbanization again affected the availability of both Phyto and Zooplankton in the reservoir (Table-10 & Figure10).

environmental health. Humans have long depended on aquatic resources for food, medicines, and materials as well as for recreational and commercial purposes such as fishing and tourism (Bajpai et al 2000). Aquatic organisms also rely upon the great diversity of aquatic habitats and resources for food, materials, and breeding grounds.

Kaliasote Reservoir In the down stream of Upper Lake, the Kaliasote reservoir was constructed to store out going water through Bhadbhada gates for the purpose of irrigation water supply.

However the bio-diversity in most of the urban areas is facing various problems, leading to extinction of large number of species (S. Pani and S.M.Misra, 2000). Factors including overexploitation of species, the introduction of exotic species, pollution from urban, industrial, and agricultural areas, as well as habitat loss and alteration through damming and water diversion are responsible for declining levels of biodiversity. As a result, valuable aquatic resources are becoming increasingly susceptible to both natural and artificial environmental changes (Bajpai et al 2001).

This reservoir at present is suffering from siltation due to rapid change in land use pattern from agriculture to housing. The construction and development activities not only accelerated soil erosion rate in the catchment but also discharging untreated sewage in the reservoir. However the water body represents poor development of biotic community in absence of sufficient water (Table-11 & Figure-11. DISCUSSION

Thus, conservation strategies to protect and conserve aquatic life are necessary to maintain the balance of nature and support the availability of resources for future generations.

Aquatic biodiversity has enormous economic and aesthetic value and is largely responsible for maintaining and supporting overall

The major threats to freshwater biodiversity in the water bodies of Bhopal are runoff from agricultural and urban areas, inflow of sewage

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and the invasion of exotic species. Worldwide, most types of freshwater ecosystems generally are in grave condition and are declining at a much faster rate than terrestrial systems (Misra & Pani, 2007). The Upper lake Bhopal is traditionally an important wetland inhabiting more than 700 species of diverse groups. The wetland is also an important site of avian fauna with more than 150 species of both migratory and resident birds. However the rich biodiversity of the wetland in past few years has been subjected to various anthropogenic pressure and natural calamities, irregular rainfall during last decade being one of them. After 2007 a major part of the wetland becomes dried due to insufficient rain fall. The impact of dryness was observed to have major affect on species composition and availability. Because of dryness, a reduction in almost all groups of species viz. Phytoplankton, Zooplankton has been observed. The disturbances in the ecological niche have also affected the arrival of migratory birds in consequent years as less

number of migratory birds have been reported (report published by Bhopal Birds) in the consecutive years. Recurrence of few species however recorded in the year 2010. The lower lake is still subjected to high degree of urban pressure. This resulted in reduction of number of species in due course of time. Almost similar situation have been experienced in other water bodies of the city. Thus the depletion in number of species in almost all the water bodies in the region necessitates the importance for their proper conservation through sustainable developments. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT The authors are very thankful to Chief Executive Officer of Lake Conservation Authority of MP Shri Manohar Dubey, Senior Indian Administrative Officer of Government of MP for his consistent help and encouragement in conducting this study.

REFERENCE 1.

Bajpai A., Bajpai A.K., Pani. S. & Borana. K. Biodiversity and strategies for Conservation, Proceedings of Biodiversity and conservation of aquatic resources w/r to threatened fish Mahaseer, held at Bhopal on 26th & 27th February 2000 Pani. S. and Misra. S.M. Biodiversity and trophic status of two tropical lakes of Bhopal, Proceedings of National Seminar on Biodiversity Conservation & Management with Special Emphasis on Biosphere Reserve held at EPCO sponsored by MOEF Nov. 2000. Bajpai. A., Bajpai. A.K., Pani. S. & Misra. S.M. Pollution and Trophic Status indicator species of Bhoj Wetland Ecol. Env. & Cons, 7(3): (245-249) (2001). Misra. S.M., Pani. S., Bajpai. A. & Bajpai. A.K. Assessment of trophic status by using Nygaard Index with special reference to Bhoj Wetland, Poll Res. 20(2): 1-7, (2001).

Misra. S.M. & Pani Subrata. Conservation of aquatic ecosystems: Lessons learned from Bhoj Wetland, Technical Contributions, National seminar on Environment and Development, 16-17 Jan, 2006 Bhopal, organized by Environmental Planning & Coordination Organization. Pani Subrata & Sachdev Sanjeev. Impact of remedial measures in conservation of aquatic resources: Lesson learned from Bhoj Wetland Project, , 12 th World lake Conference, Taal 2007, Jaipur 28october â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 2 November 2007,organized by Ministry of Environment & Forests, Government of India under the auspices of International Lake Environment Committee Foundation (ILEC) Pandey S.C., Pani S., and Malhosis Sadhna (2008) Studies on eco-toxicological status of Laharpur Reservoir , Bhopal (India) in relation to its conservation and management, Journal of Environmental Research and Development, 3(1), (2008).

Current World Environment

Vol. 9(1), 145-155 (2014)

Effect of Mobile Phone Radiation on Nodule Formation In the Leguminous Plants SAPNA SHARMA and LEENA PARIHAR* Department of Biotechnology and Biosciences, Lovely Professional University, Jalandhar, Phagwara, Punjab (India) – 144411. http://dx.doi.org/10.12944/CWE.9.1.21 (Received: February 01, 2014; Accepted: March 15, 2014) ABSTRACT During the last decade, there has been a widespread increase in the usage of mobile phones which resulted in an increase in electromagnetic radiations in the environment. These radiations have harmful effect on both plants and human being. A study was conducted to explore the effects of these radiations on the plants. The radiation emitted from mobile phones show effect on the early growth and biochemical changes in the emerging seedlings of Pisum sativum (Pea) and Trigonella foenumgraecum (Fenugreek). It was observed that the radiations emitted from mobile phone show considerable increase in the germination percentage, seedling length, proteins, lipid and Guaiacol content in comparison to control seeds. Different exposure time treatments were taken for the study as ½ hour, 1 hour, 2 hour, 4 hour and 8 hour. The biochemical parameter increases with increase in the radiation exposure. The study concluded that radiations emitted from mobile phone interfere with both morphological and the biochemical processes and affect the growth and nodule formation in the plants. The number of nodules developed both in Pisum sativum and Trigonella foenumgraecum increases with increase in the radiation exposure.

Key words: Mobile phone radiation, Irradiated seeds, Radiated seeds, Pea and Fenugreek.

INTRODUCTION Cell phone technology is the most common telecommunication in India. Due to its advantages, cell phone technology has grown exponentially in the last some years. Currently there are about 50 Crore cell phone users and 4.4 lakh cell phone towers in India. Radiation emitted from cell phone give a harmful effect on both plants and animals. These are mainly of two types-thermal radiations and non-thermal radiations. Thermal radiations are similar to microwave-oven. Non-thermal radiations are not well known but it is assume that they have more harmful effect on plants and animal. Now-aday most of the population in the world use cell phone for communication. Cell phone emits the microwave radiation. A cell phone transmits 1-2 watt of power in the frequency range of 824-1780 MHz. A cell phone has a SAR i.e. specific absorption rate (Kumar 2010). Plants, animals and human need

nitrogen for their growth and metabolism. Nitrogen is a part of nucleic acid and has a very important role. Plants are not able to use nitrogen as present in the atmosphere because of the Na”N. They use nitrogen in the form of nitrate. Legumes are the special plants which have ability to fix nitrogen because of their nature of symbiosis with Rhizobium bacteria (Lavoisier 2000). In bacteria bacteroids were responsible for the formation of nodule in the root (Beijerinck 1888). Now-a-days many towers are building in the field and many other places near the agricultural fields which affect the plants in all different aspects. The radiations effect may be positive or negative on the growth and development of plants. So to validate the hypothesis the current study presents about the effect of microwave radiation emitted from mobile phone on the leguminous plants i.e. Pea and Fenugreek.

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2G and 3G cell phone There are different types of cell phone technologies which are used today 1G, 2G, 3G, and 4G. The most widely used cell phone technologies are 2G and 3G. 2G are the second generation wireless telephone. Three primary benefits of 2G networks are that the phone conversations are digitally encrypted. 2G systems are significantly more efficient on the spectrum allowing for far greater mobile phone penetration levels; and 2G introduced data services for mobile, starting with SMS text messages. The frequency range for 2G is 824 to 894 MHz (Ashisho 2003).The 3G phone are third generation wireless telephone. They are much advance than 2G and the frequency range of 900 to 1900 which is higher than 2G. Radiation emitted from cell phone give a harmful effect on both plants and animals. It has been shown that the radiations emitted from mobile phone are carcinogenic for human being. Beside this they also have harmful effect on the plants (Smith et al. 2000). In this study the main aim was to check the in vitro and in vivo effect of 2G and 3G mobile phone radiations on Pea and Fenugreek. MATERIALS AND METHODS Chemicals and instruments TCA (Tricarboxylic acid), TBA (Thiobarbutiric acid), Bovine serum albumin, Folin reagent, Folin and Ciocalteu’s phenol reagent (2N), Sodium Tartrate, Copper Sulphate, NaOH, Na2CO3, Sodium Phosphate buffer (0.15M), Hydrogen Peroxide (0.176 M), Guaiacol (0.1M). Centrifuge (REMI Instrument Ltd. Mumbai. India), Hot air oven (Microsil India), Autoclave (NSW. India Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi). Morphological analysis The seeds of Pea and Fenugreek were obtained from Punjab Agricultural University (PAU) Ludhiana with variety of Pea (PB-29) and Fenugreek (Kusturi methi) for experimental research work. Seeds were mainly splits into two groups- control and irradiated. Seeds of Pea and Fenugreek were soaked in DW for 8 hours. The seeds were then placed in air tight plastic boxes lined with filter paper moistened with DW. A Nokia 2690 mobile phone with frequency band 850- 1850 MHz was used to irradiate the seeds and same

sample of seeds were taken as control without exposing towards radiations to compare the effect of radiations on Pea and Fenugreek. Different exposure time subjected to the seeds to check the effect of radiations like ½ hour, 1 hour, 2 hours, 4 hours and 8 hours. After this the seeds were left for germination at least for 72 hours and then further tests are conducted to evaluate the effect of radiation on seedling and compare with the control. For finding the effect of variations in frequency, the other set of seeds was irradiated by the mobile phone having 3G technologies. In this set seeds were irradiated through Samsung GT B7722 with frequency band 900- 1900MHz. For performing the experiment one set of seeds were exposed to radiations and other was taken as control in which no radiations were given as in 2G. Similar procedures were followed for the biochemical investigation. One set of seeds exposed with 2G and 3G mobile phone radiation was left for germination to evaluate the in vitro morphological parameters. After 72 hour of radiations exposure, morphological analysis was done by note down the number of seeds germinated, seedling length estimation through length of plumule and radical and fresh weight was recorded by weighing all the seeds. Seedlings after fresh weight allowed drying at 70ºC for 24 h to record the dry weight. After this the relative water content (R.W.C.) of seeds is recorded by the formula- Fresh weight-Dry weight/ Fresh weight *100. For in vivo evaluation the soil was obtained from the field of Fenugreek and Pea respectively as the nitrogen fixing bacteria (Rhizobium) is naturally present in the soil. Rhizobium is the bacteria which show the symbiotic association with root system of leguminous plants and help to fix the nitrogen and provide the same to plant for all nitrogen based metabolic activities. After radiation exposure one set of control and irradiated seeds were sown in the pots and left them for minimum 45 days as this period is sufficient for nodule formation in the plant. The pots were watered daily for proper growth and development. Biochemical Analysis In the biochemical analysis different test has been performed which include Protein estimation test, Lipid peroxidase test and Guaiacol peroxidase test.

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SHARMA & PARIHAR, Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(1), 145-155 (2014) Lipid Peroxidation Test Homogenization of 0.2 g of seedlings was performed by addition of 1ml of 5% TCA solution using pestle and mortar. Centrifugation of the homogenate was done at 12000 rpm for 15min. at room temperature. To the 1 ml of supernatant addition of 4ml of 0.5% TBA in 20% TCA Solution was done and after that the sample was incubated at 96ºC for 30 min. immediately the test tubes were kept in ice bath and then centrifuged at 2000 rpm for 10 min. The absorbance was recorded at 600 nm (Afzal and Mansoor 2012). Protein Estimation 0.5ml of supernatant was transferred to a glass tube and addition of 0.7ml Lowry solution was done. After this the tubes were covered and incubated for 20 min. In the last five minutes Folin reagent was prepared. After 20 min of incubation the samples were taken out and addition of 0.1ml of diluted Folin reagent was done. Incubation was done once again for 30 minutes or longer at room

temperature. After 30 minutes the sample was transferred into cuvette and optical density was taken at 750nm. Absorbance of this mixture was recorded against the BSA (Lowry et.al 1951). Guaiacol Peroxidation The seeds sample was crushed and 50 µL of sample was taken in a test tube. To the sample addition of sodium phosphate buffer, Hydrogen peroxide and Guaiacol was done. Then incubation of the reaction mixture was done for 8 minutes. The absorbance was recorded at 470 nm (Afzal and Mansoor 2012). Statistical analysis Experiment was conducted with three replicates of each sample as R1P, R2P, R3P for Pea seedling and R1F, R2F, R3F for Fenugreek seedlings. Analysis of variance for morphological and biochemical parameters were performed by Standard Deviation Calculator.

Table 1: Standard error analysis of Pea seedling exposed with 2G mobile phone radiations Time of exposure

Germination (%)

Seeding length( cm)

Control ½ hour 1 hour 2 hour 4 hour 8 hour

86.66±5.77 73.33±11.54 93.33±5.77ns 93.33±5.77ns 90.00±10 93.33±5.77ns

2.64±0.33 2.77±0.32 2.95±0.38 2.93±0.32 3.03±0.27 3.07±0.30

FW (gm) 6.43±0.10 6.43±0.08 6.84±0.57 6.59±0.17 6.65±0.23 6.73±0.30

DW (gm)

R.W.C. (%)

1.80±0.05 1.86±0.02 2.06±0.04 2.12±0.08 2.48±0.45 2.51±0.29

71.9±1.30 70.0±71.06 69.6±2.46 67.8±2.24 62.6±6.38 62.7±5.62

F.W. = Fresh Weight, D.W. = Dry Weight, R.W.C= Relative Water Content, ns=designate Non- significant values Table 2: Standard error analysis of Pea seedling exposed with 3G mobile phone radiations Time of exposure Control ½ hour 1 hour 2 hour 4 hour 8 hour

Germination (%)

Seeding length( cm)

FW (gm)

DW (gm)

R.W.C. (%)

83.33±5.77ns 86.66±11.54ns 93.33±5.77 83.33±5.77ns 86.66±11.54ns 83.33±15. 27

16.33±2.08 19.33±1.54 21.66±2.30 19.76±5.40 22.93±4.40 22.30±5.62

6.35±0.09 6.03±0.37 6.14±0.09 5.75±0.34 5.80±0.22 5.65±0.26

1.77±0.66 1.81±0.03 1.80±0.04 1.97±0.04 2.00±0.11 2.05±0.05

72.06±1.28 69.84±1.84 70.45±0.72 65.81±1.06 65.44±0.88 63.55±1.43

F.W. = Fresh Weight, D.W. = Dry Weight, R.W.C= Relative Water Content, ns=designate Non- significant values

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In morphological analysis of Pea seedling the replicates of control show variation with irradiated samples. The germination %age of control is less than 8 hr radiated seedlings. The exposure for short time does not show more effect on the seedling. As the exposure time increases the germination percentage also increases. The seed length, Fresh weight and dry weight also show an increase with increase in exposure time period

Pea Seeds with 2G exposure

Pea Seeds with 3G exposure

whereas RWC decreases with increase in radiation exposure in 2G exposed seeds. In 3G exposed seedling the fresh weight decrease while all other parameters increase. In case of Fenugreek after 2G exposures the germination percentage, seed length and dry weight increase with increase in time period whereas the fresh weight and RWC decrease with increase in time period.

Fenugreek Seeds with 2G exposure

Fenugreek Seeds with 3G exposure

Fig.1: Pea and Fenugreek Seeds with radiation exposure Table 3: Standard error analysis of Fenugreek seedling exposed with 2G mobile phone radiations Time of exposure

Germination (%)

Seeding length( cm)

FW (gm)

DW (gm)

R.W.C. (%)

Control ½ hour 1 hour 2 hour 4 hour 8 hour

93.33±5.77ns 96.66±5.77 100ns 93.33±5.77ns 100ns 100ns

2.83±0.05 2.76±0.32 2.93±0.28 3.10±0.20 3.60±0.34 3.66±0.32

0.13±0.01 0.12±0.01ns 0.12±0.01ns 0.15±0.03 0.13±0.02 0.11±0.02

0.01±0.005 0.02±0.015 0.02±0.010 0.02±0.011 0.01±0.011 0.03±0.010

89.49±5.34 80.90±11.24 80.64±10.30 75.29±17.10 86.30±11.76 71.72±14.80

F.W. = Fresh Weight, D.W. = Dry Weight, R.W.C= Relative Water Content, ns=designate Non- significant values Table 4: Standard error analysis of Fenugreek seedling exposed with 3G mobile phone radiations Time of exposure

Germination (%)

Seeding length( cm)

Control ½ hour 1 hour 2 hour 4 hour 8 hour

100ns 96.66±5.77ns 96.66±5.77ns 100ns 96.66±5.77ns 100ns

3.60 ±0.52 2.93±0.94 3.86±0.57 3.63±0.37 3.70±0.20 3.86±0.15

FW (gm)

DW (gm)

0.13 ±0.02 0.13±0.01 0.13±0.04 0.12±0.03 0.10±0.03 0.08±0.03

0.01±0.005ns 0.01±0.005ns 0.02±0.010 0.02±0.003 0.03±0.017 0.02±0.005

F.W. = Fresh Weight, D.W. = Dry Weight, R.W.C= Relative Water Content, ns=designate Non- significant values

R.W.C. (%) 89.61±4.50 87.32±3.79 82.93±9.68 76.97±19.44 75.79±9.54 71.66±5.13

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SHARMA & PARIHAR, Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(1), 145-155 (2014) In the biochemical analysis also three replicates considered which are taken as mean value for one sample and designated as R1P, R2P, R3P for Pea and R1F, R2F, R3F for fenugreek. The biochemical analysis includes estimation of protein,

Fig.2: Pea plants with their roots after 45 days of 2G exposure

lipid peroxidase and Guaiacol peroxidase. All the biochemical parameters increase with increase in time period both in Pea and Fenugreek. Nodule formation in the plants As the main feature of leguminous plants is the formation of legume, when the seedling grown in pots after 45 days there is formation of nodule in Pea and Fenugreek. The Rhizobium bacteria present in the soil is responsible for the formation of nodule in the plants. The main objective of present study is to study the effect of mobile phone radiation on the nodule formation in the leguminous plants. There is a variation in the nodule formation in Pea and Fenugreek seedling when compare wth the irradiated seedling.

Control

½ hour

1 hour

2 hour

4 hour

8 hour

Fig. 3: Pea roots with the nodule formation after 45 days of 2G exposure Table 5: Standard error analysis of Pea seedling after radiation exposure (Biochemical) Time of

Protein estimation

exposure

0.777±0.040 0.794±0.047 0.847±0.037 0.878±0.082 0.885±0.007 0.890±0.085

0.789±0.05 0.809±0.049 0.816±0.055 0.895±0.166 0.898±0.165 0.903±0.166

0.034±0.004 0.036±0.025 0.053±0.026 0.058±0.027 0.037±0.014 0.063±0.024

0.032±0.010 0.036±0.012 0.041±0.014 0.049±0.014 0.057±0.009 0.073±0.006

1.007±0.004 1.013±0.006 1.023±0.012 1.027±0.012 1.032±0.017 1.039±0.013

1.082±0.011 1.124±0.064 1.632±0.596 1.777±0.346 1.713±0.494 1.939±0.119

Control ½ hour 1 hour 2 hour 4 hour 8 hour

Lipid peroxidase

Guaiacol peroxidase

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After the 45 days the diiferent changes has been observed in the plant root of Pea exposed with 2G mobile phone. The root length increases in irradiated seedling as compare to control. In control

the root length is 13cm, after ½ hour exposure it is 20cm. With increase in time period of exposure there is an increase in the root length and in 8 hour the root length increase upto 23cm.Same results were obtained in case of 3G exposed seeds. After 45 days the observation show an increase in root length, number of nodule and diameter of nodule. The Fenugreek seeds also exposed with 2G and 3G mobile phone radiation which result in an increase in the nodule formation with increased time period.

Fig. 4: Pea plants with their roots after 45 days of 3G exposure

The root length with 8 hour time exposure increases as compare to control. The number of

Control

½ hour

1 hour

2 hour

4 hour

8 hour

Fig. 5: Pea roots with the nodule formation after 45 days of 3G exposure Table 6: Standard error analysis of Fenugreek seedling after radiation exposure (Biochemical) Time of

Protein estimation

exposure

0.760±0.036 0.767±0.036 0.771±0.035 0.773±0.033 0.775±0.035 0.777±0.036

0.811±0.003 0.829±0.022 0.842±0.028 0.847±0.027 0.857±0.028 0.865±0.025

0.042±0.010 0.046±0.007 0.049±0.010 0.056±0.010 0.059±0.010 0.067±0.12

Control ½ hour 1 hour 2 hour 4 hour 8 hour

Lipid peroxidase 3G

Guaiacol peroxidase 2G

0.002±0.001 2.114±0.007 2.340±0.141 0.008±0.001 2.119±0.006 2.330±0.286 0.015±0.002 2.128±0.009 2.241±0.242 0.018±0.001 2.131±0.008 2.320±0.262 0.019±0.001 2.135±0.0060 2.437±0.064 0.022±0.001 2.140±0.008 2.435±0.158

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SHARMA & PARIHAR, Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(1), 145-155 (2014) nodule and their size also show an increase with increased time period. In control the number of nodules was 9 and after 8 hour exposure it was 15 nodules. DISCUSSION The present study was conducted to explore the effect of microwave radiation emitted from mobile phone on germination percentage, seedling length, fresh weight, dry weight along with all biochemical parameters. The study concluded that the mobile phone radiations cause change in morphology and biochemistry of the plants. The previous research shows that there was reduction in germination percentage, seed length, fresh

weight and dry weight of mobile phone irradiated seeds with different wave length (Afzal and Mansoor 2012) and in present study the increase in seed length, decrease in fresh weight and increase in dry weight has been reported. The author reported that the mobile phone radiations significantly reduced the seedling length and dry weight of seeds after exposure for 0.5,1, 2, and 4 h. Decrease in trend was observed for seed germination, seedling vigour, plant height, root length and biomass % for most of the samples used with increase in microwave power and exposure time as compared to control (Ragha et al. 2011). Irradiation provoked insignificant changes in lipid peroxidation and soluble protein content, while protein oxidation intensity was significantly decreased when dose of

Table 7: Morphological analysis of Pea after 2G mobile phone radiation exposure (In vivo) control Root length(cm) Number of nodule Average size of nodule(mm)

13 14 4

½ hour

1 hour

2 hour

4 hour

20 15 5

20.5 21 5

20.5 22 6

21 23 7

8 hour 23 27 9

cm –centimeter, mm- millimeter Table 8: Morphological analysis of Pea after 3G mobile phone radiation exposure (In vivo) control Root length(cm) Number of nodule Average size of nodule(mm)

11 15 5

½ hour

1 hour

2 hour

4 hour

21 17 6

21 21 7

22 22 8

23 24 8

8 hour 24 27 9

cm -centimeter, mm- millimeter Table 9:Morphological analysis of Fenugreek after 2G mobile phone radiation exposure (In vivo) control Root length (cm) Number of nodule Average size of nodule (mm)

6.5 9 1

½ hour 7 10 2

1 hour 7.6 10 3

2 hour 8 12 4

4 hour 9 12 5

8 hour 10 15 5

Table 10: Morphological analysis of Fenugreek after 3G mobile phone radiation exposure (In vivo) control Root length (cm) Number of nodule Average size of nodule (mm)

6 7 2

½ hour

1 hour

2 hour

4 hour

7 9 2

8 10 3

10 13 3

9.5 11 4

8 hour 12 15 6

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10 kGy was applied. Presented results implicated that increased antioxidant capacity and protein stability of were increased after application of irradiation (Abd 2011).

Fig. 6: Fenugreek plants with their roots after 45 days of 2G exposure

In present study, there was an increase in enzyme activity such as lipid peroxidase and Guaiacol peroxidase both in Pea (Pisum sativum) and Fenugreek (Trigonella foenumgraecum) as the radiation exposure increase, similar results were shown by (Kouzmanova et al. 2009). In Pea the lipid peroxidation increases from 0.034 to 0.063 when exposed with the 2G mobile phone radiation. In 3G exposed seeds of Pea the lipid content increases from 0.032 to 0.073. Similarly these finding were in agreement with (Singh and Prakash 2011).The protein content also increased with increase in radiation exposure. After maximum radiation exposure the protein content increases as 0.890 for 2G and 0.903 for

Control

Â˝ hour

1 hour

2 hour

4 hour

8 hour

Fig. 7: Fenugreek roots with the nodule formation after 45 days of 2G exposure

Fig. 8: Fenugreek plants with their roots after 45 days of 3G exposure

3G. Guaiacol peroxidase enzyme activity for 8 hours was 1.039 for 2G and 1.939 for 3G. Same increase activity was observed in Fenugreek. This increase in enzyme activity shows the protection against the mobile phone radiation. As the main objective was to study the effect of mobile phone radiation on the nodule formation in leguminous plants, the radiation exposure also showed an increase in nodule formation in the leguminous plants. In Pea after

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Control

½ hour

1 hour

2 hour

4 hour

8 hour

Fig. 9: Fenugreek roots with the nodule formation after 45 days of 3G exposure maximum radiation exposure with 2G mobile phone the root length, nodule number and size increase as 23cm, 27 and 9mm. After 3G mobile phone radiation exposure it increases as 24cm, 27 and 9mm. In case of Fenugreek root length, nodule number and size increase as 10cm, 15 and 5mm for 2G and 12cm, 15 and 6mm for 3G. The 8 hour

radiation exposure showed the maximum nodule formation with increase in diameter and root length. So in this study the effect of microwave radiation emitted from mobile phone were investigated which show a considerable increase in the plant growth. The results indicate that all these effects should be further evaluated and investigated for plant growth.

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Kumar G. Cell Tower Radiation. Electrical Engineering Department IIT Bombay, Powai, Mumbai 3-32(2010). Kwan HN. Non-Ionizing Radiations-Sources, Biological Effects, Emissions and Exposures. Proceedings of the International Conference on Non-Ionizing Radiation at UNITEN ICNIR2003 Electromagnetic Fields and Human Health. 44: 50-57 (2003). Lowry, OH, NJ Rosbrough, AL Farr, and RJ Randall. J. Biol. Chem. 193: 265 (1951). Lavoisier AL. Elements of chemistry in a new systematic order containing all the modern discoveries. Courier Dover Publications 15 ISBN0-486-64624-6 (2000). Liener IE. Nutritional Value of Food Protein Products” In Smith and Circle, editors; Soybeans: Chemistry and Technology. The AVI Publishing Co Westport Connecticut 113: 1034-44 (1992). Lindemann WC, Nitrogen fixation by legume NMSU and the U.S. Department of Agriculture. Cooperating Guide A-129 (2003). Maity JP , Chakraborty S, Kar S, Panja S, Jean J, Samal AC, Chakraborty A, Santra SC. Effects of gamma irradiation on edible seed protein, amino acids and genomic DNA during sterilization. Food Chem 114: 12371244 (2009). Nisizawa M. Radiation induced sol-gel transition of protein: effect of radiation on amino-acid composition and viscosity. J Appl Polym Sci 36: 979-981 (1988). Pavadai P, Girija M, Dhanavel D. Effect of Gamma Rays on some Yield Parameters and Protein Content of Soybean in M2, M3 and M4 Generation. Journal of Experimental Sciences 1: 08-11(2010). Rhaga L, Mishra S, Ramachandran V. Effect of low power microwave fields on seeds germination and growth rate. Journal of electromagnetic Analysis and application 3: 165-171 (2011). Ruediger HW. Genotoxic effects of radiofrequency electromagnetic fields. Pathophysiology (Elsevier) 16: 67–69 (2009). Schuz J, Jacobsen R, Olsen JH, Boice JD, McLaughlin JK, Johansen C. Cellular

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Current World Environment

Vol. 9(1), 156-167 (2014)

Evaluating Different Weeds for Phytoremediation Potential Available in Tannery Polluted Area by Conducting Pot and Hydroponic Experiments MADHURI GIRDHAR1, SIMRANJEET SINGH1, HAKIM ISHFAQ RASOOL1, VIKRAM SRIVASTAVA2 and ANAND MOHAN1 1

Lovely Professional University, Chehru (Phagwara). AIDS Institute, University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong.

http://dx.doi.org/10.12944/CWE.9.1.22 (Received: December 10, 2013; Accepted: February 26, 2014) ABSTRACT The pot experiments were conducted to determine and compare the toxic effects of Chromium, Copper, Cadmium, Nickel and Lead on different parameters like shoot length, number of branches and area of leaf on different wild weedCannabis sativa, Solanumnigrum and Chenopodium album. The investigated amounts of metal were in the range of 7 different concentrations i.e. 5ppm, 10ppm,50ppm,100ppm,200ppm,300ppm and 350ppm.The average toxicity increases with increase in the concentration of metals but in certain cases variations were observed in toxicity parameters. The morphological response in Cannabis sativa showed that most of the changes on the morphological characteristics were observed at 100 ppm. The shoot length, leaf area and number of branches decrease at 100 ppm and above. The maximum variations as compared to other metals were shown in copper stress condition. In Chenopodium album all the metals except lead show morphological variation with increase in metal concentration. The morphological toxicity increases with increase in metal concentration. The overall pollen fertility analysis shows that metal exposure leads to the development of sterile pollens. This shows the relative toxic effect of metals on the pollen fertility. In the hydroponic experiments, the Chromium metal exposure on the weed Cannabis sativa(C) and (P) for 15 days shows decrease in the amount of Chromium in the medium detected throughdiphenylcarbazide method, which shows the hyper accumulation of chromium by these weeds.

Key words: S. nigrum, Cannabis sativa, Chinopodium album, Relative toxicity, Standardization concentration, ppm, Hyperaccumulators, Pollen fertility.

INTRODUCTION Current state of environment is degrading on day to day basis because of increased anthropogenic activities and further disposal of wastesgenerated to land and rivers leading to major pollution of soil and groundwater. The industrial practices also lead to the release of various heavy metals into the soil (Mattigod and Page 1983). Pollution may be defined as the adverse effect caused due to disruption of equilibrium of an ecosystem, which further results an adverse effects on the health of organisms. The major sources of heavy metals are the practices done by the tannery

industries in Indian sub continent. During the pretanning processes, a large amount of metal is released into the environment. Some species of plants have the ability to accumulate heavy metals into their body parts such as roots, stem and leaves. Such plants are termed as hyper accumulators and are considered under green technology which is cost effective and ecofriendly known as phytoremediation. The extraction and inactivation of heavy metals in the soil can be done by this energy efficient technique known as phytoremediation. Phytoremediation is an emerging technology, which provides promising results in the reduction of pollution (Madhuri et al. 2014).

GIRDHAR et al., Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(1), 156-167 (2014) An integrated multidisciplinary approach to cleanup the contaminated soils, phytoremediation combines the disciplines of plant physiology, soil microbiology and soil chemistry (Cunningham and Ow 1996).The development of phytoextraction technique came from the discovery of variety of wild weeds, often endemic to naturally mineralized soils that concentrate high amounts of essential and nonessential heavy metals. Rorippaglobosashows Cd hyperaccumulation as shown in the work of Yuebinget al. 2007.Phytovolatilization is the process in which the water soluble and volatile contaminants are taken up by the plant and through the process of transpiration contaminants are released into the atmosphere (Madhuri et al. 2014).The modified volatile product produced by the degradation of initial contaminants is less toxic as shown in transformation of toxic seleniumto less toxic dimethyl selenide gas (Chaudhary et al. 1998).Rhizofiltration is a cost-competitive technology in the treatment of surface water or groundwater containing low, but significant concentrations of heavy metals such as Cr, Pb, and Zn (Raskin and Ensley 2000). Hydroponic technique is also being used to accumulate and concentrate the metals in their various body parts especially roots (Flathman and Lanza 1998; Salt et al. 1995; Dushenkovet al. 1995; Zhu et al. 1999b). Phytodegradation which is also known as phytotransformation is a process in which, the breakdown of contaminants occurs by plants through metabolic processes within the plant through plant root symbiotic associations (McGrath and Zhao 2003). MATERIAL AND METHOD Field site, analysis of soil and weeds In this study, we investigated 3 weeds i.e. Cannabis sativa, Chenopodium album and Solanum nigrum collected from the â&#x20AC;&#x153;Kala Sanghiya Drainageâ&#x20AC;?, near Kapur thala. The area is continuously polluted by the heavy metals coming from the leather industries. The water of the drainage is continously used up by the farmers for the irrigation purposes. This research includes the metal stress of different concentration on the weeds under observation in the natural conditions by taking five different metals i.e. Chromium(Cr), Copper(Cu), Cadmium(Cd), Nickel(Ni) and Lead(Pb). The aim of this study is to assess those weeds which show

157

least variations in their morphological characteristics underdifferent metal stress conditions in Pot experiments and Hydroponic experiments. We also analyzed the pollen fertility of the weeds under different metal concentration. Field Demarcation and collection of weed samples Demarcation of area was done around Kala Sanghiya drainage. The area was demarcated as Polluted area(P) as Gazipur and Control areas (C) as Phiali. Cannabis sativa, Chinopodium album and Solanum nigrum were collected near the field of Kala Sanghiya drainage demarcated as (P) and the control samples from the same is collected from the other side of the road demarcates as(C). Seed drying and Sapling of plants After the sample collection, the seeds were dried under natural conditions for about 1520 days. Saplings were prepared in the botanical garden of Lovely Professional University, (Chehru) near Phagwara.Hundred seeds were sown in the soil to germinate; out of them only forty uniform plants were allowed to grow in each pot, at a uniform distance. Seedlings were prepared after 3-4 weeks and height was approximately 2-3 cm. Sampling were prepared in around 2 months. Preparation of salt concentration and homogenization Air-dried soil of 2.5 kg was sieved through a4 mm sieve so that no solid particles are left behind. The soil should be clean from the coarse particles. The clean soil were treated with different metal concentration i.e. standardization concentration of all the five metals at 5ppm, 10ppm, 50ppm, 100ppm, 200ppm, 300ppm and 350ppm and for comparison an unamended (control) was taken. Five different metal salts chromium chloride,copper sulphate, cadmium chloride, nickel sulphate and lead nitrate were used. They all are water soluble salts, readily dissolves in water(distilled). 50ml of water was used to dissolve the salts at different standardized concentration. Pot Experiments Plastic pots of 10 cm in height and 15 cm in diameter were used.Pots containing 250 grams of soil were taken and were supplemented with

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homogenized mixture of salt. For each weed having 5 metals and 7 concentrations were used. Pots were placed in net house shaded with transparent polythene sheet, to protect from rainwater leaching. Plants were grown under natural light and ambient temperature in order to keep all plants under conditions as similar as possible. Pollen fertility analysis Mature state plants were selected for pollen fertility experiments. Anthers were collected and preserved in carnoyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s fixator for 24 hrs and then transferred to 90% ethanol. Carnoyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s fixator was used at 6:3:1 proportion having the composition: Ethanol 600 ml, Chloroform 300ml,Acetic acid 100 ml.Glyceroacetoamine is a dye to stain the fertile pollens was used in 1:1 proportion having the composition :Glycerine 10 ml, Acetocarmine 10ml. The prepared slide was gently covered with cover slip. The slide was left for half an hour. Further it was observed under Light microscope at 100X. The slide was divided in 4 parts and pollens were counted and classified as sterile and non sterile. Hydroponic experiment Media preparation MS media (nutrient medium) is used (Murashige and Skoog medium) by dissolving 2.652 grams/1000ml distilled water. Chromium metal was used at additional concentrations. 50 ml glass tubes were taken and poured 50ml prepared MS media into it. Metal salt was added into the media. Chromium chloride was used for the experimental purpose and its salts concentration was added at 5 ppm 10 ppm, 50 ppm, 100 ppm, 200 ppm, 300 ppm and 350 ppm. Further, Diphenylcarbazide method was used to calculate the optical density at different prepared concentrations (Shigematsuet al. 1977). RESULT AND DISCUSSION The table 1 shows the change in the morphological characteristics of the weed Cannabis sativa under the various metal stressed conditions.The Cannabis sativa shows morphological changes as the concentration of

metal increases. This shows that Cannabis sativa is the hyper accumulator of Chromium metal which shows changes in their morphological character with increase in metal concentration. In the copper metal stressed conditions, a great extent of variation wereobserved in the weed. At 100ppm metal exerts stress on the weed, the leaves area, shoot length and no. of branches decreases to large extent and the total biomass of the weed decreases with large variation in their morphological characteristic. As in the readings above, the Cadmium metal exposure to the plant do not exerts any change in the growth of plant but at 100 ppm metal exerts stress on the weed and there is a great extent of variation in the shoot length, leaf area and no. of branches of the weed. The Nickel exposure of cannabis sativa at 5 ppm shows a great variation in their shoot length, leaf area and no. of branches shows that Nickel exerts a large stress on the biomass of the plant, but at 50 ppm the shoot length increases as compared to 5 ppm, which shows that the weed can tolerate the stress up to 50 ppm and again metal stress shows variation in the morphological characteristics. The weed under Lead stress conditions shows morphological variations, weed shows least variation at 5 ppm, but as the metal concentration increases the weed shows morphological changes. In the given readings, Lead metal can exert stress maximum at 350 ppm and weed can tolerate the metal stress condition without showing much variation till 50 ppm. The figure 1 (a) shows that from five different heavy metals, Copper metal stress effects most to the shoot length of Cannabis sativa. It means maximum variation occurs in the morphological characteristic of Cannabis sativa at copper stressed conditions. Least variations in the morphology are observed at cadmium exposure. In the figure 1 (b), the analysis of leaf area in the various metals stressed conditions shows that under copper exposure there is a great extent of variations observed from 5ppm to 350ppm by comparing the data, it was analyzed that the weed exert stress in copper exposure and shows variations in their leaf area as the concentration of metal increases. In cadmium and chromium exposure, appropriate results are shown i.e.

10cm 9.8cm 8.0cm 7.0cm 6.8cm 6.4cm 6.0cm 5.3cm

control 5ppm 10ppm 50ppm 100ppm 200ppm 300ppm 350ppm

5.29cm2 4.93cm2 5.36cm2 3.8 cm2 4.54cm2 3.24cm2 2.55cm2 2.85cm2

L.A

13 13 12 9 10 11 5 3

N.O.B 10cm 9.0cm 8.5cm 7.0cm 3.8cm 3.2cm 3.5cm 3.3cm

S.L. 5.29cm2 4.39cm2 3.47cm2 4.66cm2 1.73cm2 1.79cm2 1.23cm2 1.40cm2

L.A 13 7 6 4 4 3 3 3

N.O.B

Morphological Analysis (Cu)

10 cm 10 cm 10 cm 9.0cm 8.0cm 6.0cm 6.0cm 6.0cm

S.L. 5.29cm2 4.0 cm2 4.0 cm2 3.8 cm2 3.6 cm2 3.2 cm2 2.8 cm2 2.8 cm2

L.A 13 10 10 8 9 7 6 6

N.O.B

Morphological Analysis (Cd)

10cm 6.0cm 5.8cm 7.0cm 6.0cm 5.0cm 5.2cm 4.9cm

S.L. 5.29cm2 3.0 cm2 3.0 cm2 3.0 cm2 4.0 cm2 3.0 cm2 2.9 cm2 2.5 cm2

L.A 10cm 9.0cm 8.0cm 8.0cm 7.0cm 6.0cm 7.0cm 5.0cm

S.L. 5.29cm2 4.90 3.0 cm2 3.45cm2 1.5 cm2 1.5 cm2 3.45cm2 3.36cm2

10cm 4.5cm2 10cm 4.35cm2 9.0cm 2.88cm2 13cm 5cm2 12cm 4.0cm2 9.7cm 2.3cm2 8.0cm 3.0cm2 7.0cm 2.5cm2

control 5ppm 10ppm 50ppm 100ppm 200ppm 300ppm 350ppm

L.A

S.L.

S.C

Morphological Analysis (Cr)

15 15 17 16 12 10 9 7

N.O.B 10cm 8.5cm 8.2cm 8.0cm 7.6cm 7.2cm 7.0cm 6.4cm

S.L. 4.5cm2 2.73cm2 2.8cm2 1.5cm2 1.5cm2 1.2cm2 1.5cm2 1.6cm2

L.A 15 13 13 12 10 11 13 12

N.O.B

Morphological Analysis (Cu)

10 cm 9.0cm 9.0cm 8.0cm 10.0cm 11.0cm 10.0cm 9.0cm

S.L. 4.5cm2 2.8cm2 3.0cm2 2.4cm2 2.0cm2 2.3cm2 2.0cm2 2.4cm2

L.A

15 10 10 8 9 8 7 9

N.O.B

Morphological Analysis (Cd)

10cm 9.0cm 10cm 9.0cm 11cm 5.0cm 7.0cm 5.0cm

S.L.

4.5cm2 3.5cm2 3.2cm2 2.5cm2 1.3cm2 1.2cm2 1.0cm2 1.3cm2

L.A

15 13 12 14 13 7 7 8

N.O.B

Morphological Analysis(Ni)

4.5cm2 2.6 cm2 1.5 cm2 1.6cm2 1.7 cm2 1.9 cm2 1.3cm2 1.5cm2

L.A

15 12 10 7 9 7 8 6

N.O.B

13 6 4 4 3 4 3 5

N.O.B

Morphological Analysis(Pb)

10cm 10cm 9.0cm 8.8cm 8.3cm 7.0cm 8.0cm 6.0cm

S.L.

L.A

Morphological Analysis(Pb)

Table 2: Morphological analysis of Chenopodium album under different metal exposure in pot experiments

13 8 8 7 5 5 5 8

N.O.B

Morphological Analysis(Ni)

(S.C:- Standardization Concentration), (S.L:- Shoot Length), (L.A:- Leaf Area), (N.O.B:- Number of Branches)

S.L.

S.C

Morphological Analysis (Cr)

Table 1: Morphological analysis of Cannabis sativa under different metal exposure in pot experiments

GIRDHAR et al., Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(1), 156-167 (2014) 159

6 8 7 6 6 5 6 6 4.2cm2 2.5 cm2 2.3 cm2 2.2cm2 2.0 cm2 1.7 cm2 1.4cm2 1.3cm2 4.2cm2 4.0cm2 3.9cm2 3.6cm2 2.5cm2 2.4cm2 2.0cm2 2.0cm2 control 5ppm 10ppm 50ppm 100ppm 200ppm 300ppm 350ppm

7.0cm 7.0cm 6.0cm 5.0cm 6.0cm 7.0cm 6.0cm 5.0cm

4.2cm2 4.0cm2 2.0cm2 1.5cm2 2.0cm2 1.5cm2 1.3cm2 2.0cm2

6 5 5 6 5 5 6 5

7.0cm 7.0cm 6.0cm 5.8cm 5.0cm 4.5cm 4.2cm 4.0cm

42cm2 4.0cm2 2.0cm2 1.5cm2 2.0cm2 1.5cm2 1.3cm2 2.0cm2

6 5 5 6 5 5 6 5

7.0 cm 5.0cm 6.0cm 6.0cm 5.5cm 5.0cm 6.0cm 5.0cm

4.2cm2 2.8cm2 2.75cm2 2.5cm2 1.5cm2 1.8cm2 2.5cm2 1.5cm2

6 4 5 5 6 6 5 4

7cm 6.9cm 6.4cm 6.0cm 5.8cm 5.4cm 5.2cm 5.0cm

6 5 6 4 4 3 2 3

7.0cm 8.0cm 7.0cm 6.9cm 6.0cm 5.0cm 4.7cm 4.2cm

N.O.B L.A N.O.B L.A S.L. N.O.B L.A N.O.B L.A S.C

S.L.

L.A

N.O.B

S.L.

Morphological Analysis (Cu)

S.L.

Morphological Analysis (Cd)

Morphological Analysis(Ni)

S.L.

Morphological Analysis(Pb)

GIRDHAR et al., Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(1), 156-167 (2014)

Morphological Analysis (Cr)

Table 3: Morphological analysis of Solanum nigrum under different metal exposure in pot experiments

160

maximum growth at control and decrease in leaf area from 5ppm to 350ppm. In the nickel metal stress conditions, the growth become static shows the metal have no adverse effect on the leaf area of Cannabis sativa. The exposure of various metals on the Cannabis sativa also adversely affects the number of branches.The maximum variation again occurs in copper stressed conditions.The maximum decrease occurs in number of branches at 200ppm.In the Chromium stressed conditions, great variations occur from control to 350 ppm. At 200 ppm, the number of leaves gain increase means certain environmental factors and hormones release at this particular metal concentration. In nickel stressed state, 350 ppm favors the growth of the number of leaves as shown in the above figure 1 (c). The Chenopodium album weeds with metal exposure of lead. Up to10 ppm metal does not exert any stress on the weed but at 50 ppm due to the metal stress the shoot length, leaf area and number of branches increases, it means certain hormones and other environmental factors are present which supports the morphological growth of the plant and weed get adapted in the metal stress conditions but again at 200 ppm the morphological growth decreases, which means weed is less adapted at high metal concentration and shows large morphological variations.The Chenopodium album under copper metal stress conditions, the shoot length decreases with increase in metal concentration, there is a diverse change in the leaf area as the metal concentration increases, but not much effect on the number of branches. It means, there are certain hormones and environmental factors which favour the growth. At the metal cadmium stress condition, as the concentration of metal increases, changes occurs in the morphology of the weed., overall the cadmium metal do not exert stress on the shoot of the weed, but leaf area and number of branches decreases as the metal concentration increases. In the Nickel stress condition, the plant do not show much variation in the shoot up to 50ppm, but at 100ppm the shoot length increases, it means weed is adapted up to 100ppm and show normal growth, but at 200ppm there is a adverse effect of metal concentration on the weed. High metal concentration at 200 to 350ppm exerts large stress

N.A.O N.A.O

91.28%

91.67% 90.89% N.A.O N.A.O 2103 1846 N.A.O N.A.O

92.37%

90.53%

92.25% 92.49% 91.40% 89.65% N.A.O N.A.O 100ppm

1839 1767 200ppm 1940 1916 300ppm N.A.O 350ppm N.A.O (S.C:- Standardization

1995 92.18% 1917 92.18% 2157 89.94% 2115 90.59% N.A.O N.A.O N.A.O N.A.O Concentration, N.A.O:-

92.18%

1750 1588 90.27% 1637 1568 N.A.O N.A.O N.A.O N.A.O No Anther Observed)

1897 1717 1791 1749 N.A.O N.A.O

N.A.O N.A.O

N.A.O

N.A.O N.A.O N.A.O N.A.O 50ppm

N.A.O N.A.O

5ppm 10ppm

95.45% 94.61% N.A.O N.A.O 2306 1878 N.A.O N.A.O control

2416 1985 N.A.O N.A.O

N.A.O N.A.O

N.A.O

2206

N.A.O N.A.O

2294 2031 N.A.O N.A.O

95.03%

95.45% 94.61% N.A.O 93.65% 1982 93.12% 2256 N.A.O 2306 1878 N.A.O N.A.O 95.03%

2416 1985 N.A.O N.A.O

2306 1878 N.A.O 1476 95.03%

95.45% 94.61% N.A.O N.A.O

2416 1985 N.A.O 1576 1898 2396 2080 N.A.O

N.A.O 93.22% 92.79% 92.65% 92.20% N.A.O

Average Pollen fertility Total pollens Fertile pollens Average Pollen fertility Total pollens Fertile pollens Average Pollen fertility Total pollens Fertile pollens S.C

Pollen Fertility Analysis(Cd) Pollen Fertility Analysis (Cu) Pollen Fertility Analysis(Cr)

Table 4: Pollen Fertility Analysis in Cannabis sativa exposure to different metal concentrations

GIRDHAR et al., Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(1), 156-167 (2014)

161

on the weed (shoot length, leaf area and number of branches). In the lead stress conditions, due to increase in the metal concentration the morphological characteristic of the weed shows great variation. The shoot length, leaf area and no. of branches decrease with increase in the concentrationof lead metal (Table 2). In the figure 2 (a), in all the metal exposure the maximum effect is shown by the nickel metal exposure on the shoot length of the weed at 350ppm. The minimum effect is shown by the cadmium metal which shows that the toxic effect of metal on the weed is less and the weed accumulates large amount of cadmium metal without showing stress on the morphological characteristics. This shows the weed is adaptable to the metal stress environment. At 50 and 100 ppm in chromium metal exposure, enhancement of shoot length shows these conditions are favorable for the plant to grow. The maximum stress on the leaf area was shown in nickel stress conditions as compared to other metals. The leaf area decreases to a large extent in chromium stress conditions, at 50 ppm leaf area increases shows that this is the most favorable condition for the plant to grow at maximum level. Overall favorable growth in leaf area was observed in chromium metal. This shows the weed is adaptable to these particular conditions [Figure 2 (b)]. The maximum stress on the number of branches was observed in lead stressed conditions as shown in the figure 2 (c ). Chromium metal stress showed appropriate results from control to 350 ppm. Maximum number of branches at control and minimum at 350ppm. No such effect of copper metal was observed in the weed. In cadmium metal exposure, at 5ppm exposure shows a great extent of morphological variations. The S. nigrum, when exposed to metal stress condition at different standardization concentration, the variation occurs in their morphological characteristics, in the given readings up to 100 ppm the variations occurs in the morphology(decrease in S.L, Leaf area and number of branches), but at 200ppm again the shoot of the

162

GIRDHAR et al., Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(1), 156-167 (2014)

plant increases but the leaf area is decreased to large extent, metal stress do not affect the number of branches. It means at 200ppm the weed is adapted to stress tolerant conditions. And at 300 and 350ppm least variationsoccur in the morphology, overall S. nigrum is adapted to Chromium metal stress. In the Copper stress conditions, as the concentration of metal increases, no variations occur in the shoot length and number of branches. But variation occurs in leaf area, which

shows that certain factors are present in the leaf which effect the morphology of the weed, due to increase in metal concentration but overall least variation occurs and weed is adapted to copper stress conditions. In the Cadmium stress conditions, least variation occurs from 5ppm to 350ppm in the shoot length and number of branches. But large variations occur in the leaf area,whichshows that the toxic metal effectis observed in leaves only, with increase in the metalconcentration. In the Nickel

Table 5: Pollen Fertility Analysis in Chenopodium album exposure to different metal concentrations Pollen Fertility Analysis(Pb) S.C

control 5ppm 10ppm 50ppm 100ppm 200ppm 300ppm 350ppm

Pollen Fertility Analysis (Cu)

Fertile pollens

Total pollens

Pollen fertility

average

Fertile pollens

Total pollens

Pollen fertility

average

1439 1466 N.A.O N.A.O N.A.O N.A.O 1591 1566 1720 1688 N.A.O

1516 1588 N.A.O N.A.O N.A.O N.A.O 1746 1703 1888 1849 N.A.O

94.92% 92.32% N.A.O N.A.O N.A.O N.A.O 93.12% 91.96% 90.10% 91.29% N.A.O

93.62%

1439 1466 N.A.O N.A.O N.A.O N.A.O 1677 1698 1868 1933 N.A.O

15169 1588 N.A.O N.A.O N.A.O N.A.O 1797 1839 2058 2130 N.A.O

4.92%

93.62% 92.32% N.A.O N.A.O N.A.O N.A.O 92.58%

N.A.O N.A.O N.A.O N.A.O 91.54% 90.70% N.A.O

N.A.O N.A.O N.A.O N.A.O 93.32% 91.84% 90.77% 90.75% N.A.O

90.76% N.A.O

Table 6: Pollen Fertility Analysis in Solanum nigrum by exposure to different metal concentration Pollen Fertility Analysis(Cu) S.C

Pollen Fertility Analysis (Ni)

Fertile pollens

Total pollens

Pollen fertility

average

Fertile pollens

Total pollens

Pollen fertility

average

1451 1282 N.A.O N.A.O N.A.O 1458 1426 1421 1537 N.A.O

94.49% 94.46% N.A.O N.A.O N.A.O 92.80% 91.09% 91.20% 91.48% N.A.O

94.48%

1451 1282 N.A.O N.A.O N.A.O N.A.O

94.49% 94.46% N.A.O N.A.O N.A.O N.A.O

94.48%

N.A.O N.A.O N.A.O 91.95%

1371 1211 N.A.O N.A.O N.A.O N.A.O

91.34%

N.A.O

300ppm

1371 1211 N.A.O N.A.O N.A.O 1353 1299 1296 1406 N.A.O

N.A.O

1746 1698 1701 1570

90.32% 91.17% 88.42% 90.76%

90.75%

350ppm

1577 1548 1504 1425

control 5ppm 10ppm 50ppm 100ppm 200ppm

N.A.O N.A.O N.A.O N.A.O

89.59%

GIRDHAR et al., Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(1), 156-167 (2014) stress condition, increase in metal concentration does not affect much on the morphological characteristic of plant. At 50ppm the shoot length as compared to control increases, means weed is adapted at 50ppm and again at 100ppm, metal stress conditions decreases the shoot length. Leaf area of the plant decreases, with increase in metal concentration but no metal affect is observed on the number of branches. In the Lead metal stress conditions, as the metal concentration increases,

Fig, 1 (a):The figure shows the change in the shoot length of Cannabis sativa by the exposure of heavy metals

163

the shoot length and leaf area decreases. But no variation occurs in the number of branches. So in metal stress conditions increase in metal concentration causes a great variation in the morphological characteristics (Table 3). In the figure 3 (a), the maximum stress on the morphology of plant was exerted by copper metal. With increase in metal concentration, the shoot length of the plant decreases and becomes

Fig. 2 (a): The figure shows the change in the shoot length of Chenopodium album by the exposure of heavy metals

Fig. 1 (b): The figure shows the change in the leaf area of Cannabis sativa by the exposure of heavy metals

Fig. 2 (b): The figure shows the change in the leaf area of Chenopodium album by the exposure of heavy metals

Fig. 1 (c): The figure shows the change in the number of branches of Cannabis sativa by the exposure of heavy metals

Fig. 2 (c): The figure shows the change in the number of branches of Chenopodium album by the exposure of heavy metal

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minimum at 350ppm. Similar results were shown by the nickel metal but the metal doesnot affect so much on the morphology as compared to copper metal. At certain concentration, of the metal exposure, increase of shoot length was observed, which shows these conditions are favorable for the plant growth.

Maximum stress was observed in the lead stressed conditions. In both the chromium and copper exposure, decrease in leaf area was observed at 300ppm and then increase at 350 ppm. It means in both the exposures, certain hormones and growth factors were released at 350ppm [Figure 3 (b)].

Different metal exposure on the leaf area shows that in nickel and lead stressed conditions, increase in metal concentration, decreases the biomass of the plant as shown in the figure 3 (b).

The maximum variations in the morphological characteristics were observed in nickel stressed conditions. No such variations are observed in the other metal, which shows that the plant are adaptable in that particular conditions and

Fig. 3(a): The figure shows the change in the number of branches of Chenopodium album by the exposure of heavy metals

Fig. 4 : The effect of different metal concentration on the pollen fertility of Cannabis sativa

Fig. 3(b): The figure shows the change in the leaf area of Solanum nigrum by the exposure of heavy metals

Fig. 5 : The effect of different metal concentration on the pollen fertility of Chenopodium album

Fig. 3(c): The figure shows the change in the no. of branches of Solanum nigrum by the exposure of heavy metals

Fig. 6: The effect of different metal concentration on the pollen fertility of Solanum nigrum

GIRDHAR et al., Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(1), 156-167 (2014) show normal morphological growth [Figure 3(c)]. In the figure 4, pollen fertility analysis of Cannabis sativa, concluded with the outcome that the exposure of 100 ppm copper and 100 ppm chromium showapproximately similar levels of pollen fertility levels, i.e. 92. 37% and 92.18% and high pollen fertility was observed in case of cadmium exposure at 200 ppm i.e. 91.28% as compared to the chromium and copper metal exposure. The overall analysis showed that the metal exposure

165

can affect the pollen fertility rate due to metal toxic effect on the plant. In the figure 5, the pollen fertility was observed in Chenopodium album exposed to lead and copper metal at different concentrations of metal. It was observed that metal exposure at 200 ppm in case of copper,pollen fertility was 92.58% as compared to the lead exposure, where it was observed that pollen fertility was 91.54%. At 300 ppm metal exposure to Chenopodium album

Hydroponic experiment Cannabis sativa (Control)

Fig. 7: Day 1(Cannabis sativa (C))

Fig. 8: Day 15(Cannabis sativa(C))

Cannabis sativa (Polluted)

Fig. 9: Day 1(Cannabis sativa (P)) Optical Density(Cannabis sativa)

Fig. 11: The figure depicts the amount of chromium absorbed by the Cannabis sativa Polluted (P) and Control (C)

Fig.10:Day 15 (Cannabis sativa (P)) showed equal effect on pollen fertility i.e. 90%. In the figure 6, it was observed that metal concentration affects the pollen fertility of the weed Solanum nigrum. The data analysis concluded that upto 100 ppm, no affect on anther were observed but at 100 ppm copper exposure to plant affects the pollen fertility as compared to control, where it was 94.48% and at 100 ppm exposure of copper, it was 91.95%. The nickel exposure to plant effects adversely at higher concentration exposure, and no affect on anthers were observed at 100 ppm. At

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200 ppm, the pollen fertility in copper exposure was 91.34% but no variations as compared to control were observed in nickel exposure. No anthers were observed at 300 and 350 ppm in copper exposure but the data analysis observed pollen fertility in nickel exposure at 300 and 350 ppm which was 90.75% and 89.59% In the Hydroponic experiment (Figure 7), amount of chromium absorbed by Cannabis sativa in control and polluted samples were investigated. The ability of the plants taken from the polluted areashave more ability to accumulate chromium as compared with the Control. The graph depictsthat the polluted plants can accumulate chromium upto as compared with the Control plant, which accumulate only 32.74% of chromium from 50 ppm of active chromium available in media. The overall analysis depicts that in 350 ppm , the polluted plants accumulated 37.10% of chromium as compared with the Control plants which accumulate only 24.20% of chromium.The whole analysis concludes that the Cannabis sativa of polluted area are good hyperaccumulator of chromium metal as compared with the Control plant taken from normal agricultural land. CONCLUSION Agricultural practices are must for mankind and essential for the development of human race. Soil has to remain sustainable for agriculture purposes, it becomes essential to remediate the soil from the toxic heavy metals. Sustainable soil reservoir is very important for the continuum of living organisms. This particular study focuses on

phytoremediation of soil from heavy metals through wild weed varieties. Four parameters are assessed during the study as shoot length, leaf area and number of branches and pollen fertility of Cannabis sativa, Chenopodium album, and Solanum nigrum. Increase in toxicological parameters along with certain level of variations was observed with increase of metal concentration. Like in S. nigrum copper metal exposure leads to decrease in the leaf area but shoot length and number of branches are least affected. It means that the weed is adapted for certain metal exposure levels. Lead metal exposure in all the weeds shows maximum toxic effects with increase in metal concentration. The best possible observations were obtained up to 50ppm in case of cannabis sativa in all the metal exposure. The pollen fertility analysis in all the weeds decreases at higher concentration of metal. The pollen fertility decreases to highest levels at 350ppm. In the hydroponic experiments, maximum toxic effect of heavy metals was seen in Cannabis sativa(P) as compared to Cannabis sativa(C). Chemical composition of nutrient solution, pH also decreases in polluted samples of Cannabis sativa as compared to control. The current set of experiments establish the basic data for carrying out metal based bioremediation protocols in various metal polluted industrial waste water with the help of wild weeds undertaken in this study. All of the weeds undertaken in the current study are capable of sufficient level of bioaccumulation and still they are capable of maintaining their growth rates and reproduction levels. This analysis needs further work to optimize the full capability of these specific weed strains.

REFERENCES 1. 2.

Alder T., Botanical clean up crews, Sci .News, 150: 42-43 (1996) Baker A.J.M. and Brooks R.R., Terrestrial higher plants which hyperaccumulate metallic elements-a review of their distribution, ecology and phytochemistry, Biorecovery, 1: 811â&#x20AC;&#x201C;826 (1989). Chaudhary T.M., Hayes W.J., Khan A.G.E. and Khpp C.S., Phytoremediation- Focusing on accumulator plants that remediate metal-

contaminated soils, Australasian journal of Ecotoxicology, 4: 37-51(1998). Cunningham S. D. and O w D.W., Promises and prospects of phytoremediation, Plant Phsiol., 110: 715-719 (1996). Dushenkov V., Kumar P.B.A.N., Motto H. and Raskin I., Rhizofiltration: the use of plants to remove heavy metals from aqueous streams, Environmental Science and Technology, 29: 1239-1245 (1995)

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Flathman P.E. and Lanza G.R., Phytoremediation: Current views on an emerging green technology, Journal of Soil Contamination, 7: 415-432 (1998). Ghosh M., Singh S.P., Comparative uptake and phytoextraction study of soil induced Chromium by accumulator and high biomass weed species, Applied ecology and environment research, 3(2): 67-79 (2005). GirdharM., Sharma N. R., RehmanH., KumarA., MohanA., Comparative assessment for hyperaccumulatory and phytoremediation capability of three wild weeds. 3 Biotech.DOI 10.1007/s13205-0140194-0 (2014). MadejonP., Murillo J.M., Maranon T., Cabrera F., Lopez R., Bioaccumulation of As, Cd, Cu, Fe and Pb in wild grasses affected by the Aznalcรณllar mine spill (SW Spain), Sci. Total Environ., 290: 105-120 (2002). Mattigod S.V. and Page A. L., Academic Press, Assessment of metal pollution in soil, in Applied Environmental Geochemistry, London, UK, 355-394 (1983). McGrath S.P., Zhao F.J., Phytoextraction of met-als and metalloids from contaminated soils, Curr. Opin. Biotechnol., 14: 277-282 (2003).

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Raskin and Ensley B. D. eds., Phytore mediation of toxic metals: using plants toclean-up the environment, New York, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 71-88 (2000) Reeves R.D., Baker M., Metal-accumulating plants. In: Raskin H., Ensley B.D. eds., Phytoremediation of Toxic Metals: Using Plants to Clean up the Environment. London: John Wiley & Sons Inc., 193-230 (2000). Salt D.E., Blaylock M., Kumar N.P.B.A., Dushenkov V., Ensley D., Chet I., and Raskin I., Phytoremediation: a novel strategy for the removal of toxic metals from the environment using plants, Biotechnology, 13: 468-474 (1995) Salt D.E., Smith R.D. and Raskin I., Phytoremediation, Annual Review of Plant Physiology and Plant Molecular Biology, 49: 643-668 (1998). Shigematsu T., GOHDA S., Yamazaki H. and Nishikaw Y., Spectrophotometric Determination of Chromium (III) and Chromium (VI) in Sea Water, Bull. Inst. Chem.,Res., Kyoto Univ., 55: 5 (1977). Zhu Y.L., Bayed A.M., Quean J.H., De Souza M. and Terry, Phytoaccumulation of trace elements by wetland plants: II, Water hyacinth, Journal of Environmental Quality, 28: 339-344 (1999b)

Current World Environment

Vol. 9(1), 168-173 (2014)

Status of Aquatic Biodiversity of Selected Wetlands in District Hisar: A Case Study Of Haryana, India MANOJ KUMAR MALIK1, POOJA JAKHAR2 and ANITA KADIAN1 1

Forensic Science Laboratory, Madhuban, Karnal, Haryana, India. Department of Zoology, Kurukshetra University, Kurukshetra, Haryana, India.

http://dx.doi.org/10.12944/CWE.9.1.23 (Received: January 07, 2014; Accepted: March 10, 2013) ABSTRACT The present study was intended to record the biodiversity status of selected village ponds in district Hisar (Haryana) from August, 2012 to July, 2013. Periodic fortnightly visits were carried out to determine the species composition and distribution pattern of birds, phytoplankton and zooplankton. A total number of17 species of birds belonging to 9 orders (Anseriformes, Charadriiformes, Ciconiformes, Coraciifomes, Cuculiformes, Gruiformes, Passeriformes, Pelecaniformes and Psittaciformes) were identified in the study area. Charadriiformes was the most dominant order. The study revealed the presences of 18 species of phytoplankton belonging to Bacillariophyceae, Chlorophyceae, Cyanophyceae and Euglenophyceae. Bacillariophyceae having 7 species was found to be dominant among all. In case of zooplankton, 11 species were encountered of which 7 were Rotifers, 3 were Cladocera and 1 was Copepoda. Thus Rotifers represented the maximum number of species among zooplankton.

Key words: Biodiversity, Phytoplankton, Zooplankton, Village ponds, Hisar

INTRODUCTION Biodiversity refers to the variability among living organisms from all sources including inter alia, terrestrial, freshwater and marine aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are the part (Convention on biological diversity, UNEP, 1992). Hosetti (2002) has described it as the library of life, i.e., variety of all genes, species of microorganisms, plants animals and ecosystems that are found on our planet. India has rich biodiversity as it lies at the junction of three biogeographical provinces of Africa, Temperate Eurasia and Oriental and, as a result, it has biological heritage that qualifies it as one of the 12 mega diversity nations of the World (Kothari, 1994). According to Hosetti and Caplan (2001), more than 45000 species of plants and 65000 species of animals have been recorded from the Indian subcontinent representing 7 % and 6.5 % of the

worldâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s flora and fauna respectively. Wetlands are one of the crucial natural resources and are areas of land that are either temporarily or permanently covered by water. This means that a wetland is neither truly aquatic nor terrestrial; it is possible that wetlands can be both at the same time depending on seasonal variability. Thus, wetlands exhibit enormous diversity according to their genesis, geographical location, water regime and chemistry, dominant plants and soil or sediment characteristics (National Wetland Atlas, 2010).Water resources support rich biodiversity. The qualitative and quantitative studies have been utilized to assess the quality of water (Adoni et al., 1985; Shekhar et al., 2008). Phytoplankton are the primary producers forming the first trophic level in the food chain. Many phytoplankton species have served as bioindicators (Tiwari and Chauhan, 2006; Hoch et al., 2008). In an aquatic system zooplankton play a critical role not only as primary consumer but also

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MALIK et al., Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(1), 168-173 (2014) they themselves serve as a source of food for higher organisms. Zooplankton provide the main food for fishes and can be used as an indicator of trophic status of any aquatic body (Verma and Munshi, 1987).There are many wetlands available in different parts of the country. The wetlands are highly productive areas with rich biodiversity. They serve

as spawning and nursery ground for birds and hence can be used as an excellent area for conservation of rare and endangered species (Rao, 2008). According to Buckton (2007), wetlands are among the most productive ecosystems in the world and their functions include flood control, aquifer recharge, nutrient absorption and erosion control. In addition, they provide home for huge diversity of wildlife such as birds, mammals, fish, frogs, insects and plants. Very scanty information is available on biodiversity of wetlands in the study area. Therefore, the present investigation was planned to record the biodiversity (avian diversity, phytoplankton diversity and zooplankton diversity) prevalent in wetlands of district Hisar (Haryana).

Fig. 1. Showing Map of study area Table1: Wetland bird species and their distribution in the selected study sites Order

Common Name

Scientific Name

Study sites Dabra Dhamana Kanwari Nalwa

1 2

3 4 5

8 9

Anseriformes Coraciiformes

Spotbilled Duck Pied Kingfisher White-throated Kingfisher Cuculiformes Asian Koel Crow Pheasant Psittaciformes Rose ringed Parakeet Gruiformes White breasted Waterhen Indian Purple Moorhen Charadriiformes Common Sandpiper Black winged Stilt Red-wattled Lapwing Pelecaniformes Little Cormorant Indian Pond Heron Ciconiformes Little Egret Great Egret Passeriformes White-browed Wagtail Red-vented Bulbul

+ indicates presence, â&#x20AC;&#x201C; indicates absence

Anas poecilorhyncha Ceryle rudis Halcyon smyrnensis

+ + +

Eudynamys scolopacea Centropus sinensis Psittacula krameri

+ + +

Amaurornis phoenicurus

Porphyrio poliocephalus

Actitis hypoleucos

Himantopus himantopus

Vanellus indicus

Phalacrocorax niger Ardeola grayii

+ +

+ -

+ +

Egretta garzetta + Casmerodius albus + Motacilla maderaspatensis +

+ + +

Pycnonotus cafer

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MALIK et al., Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(1), 168-173 (2014) MATERIALS AND METHODS

Study area The Hisar district, a part of the IndoGangetic alluvial plain is situated between 28°53’45" to 29°49’15" N latitudes and 75°13’15" to 76°18’15" E longitudes (Fig. 1). The area experiences a sub-tropical climate. To record the prevalent avian, phytoplankton and zooplankton diversity in the study area, four ponds were selected, one from each of the village, namely, Dabra, Dhamana, Kanwari and Nalwa. METHODOLOGY To Achieve the Proposed Objectives, Following Methodology was Used: To identify the avian diversity of the study area Periodic fortnightly visits were conducted in the selected sites in the morning (06:00 to 10:00 hrs) and later in the evening (15:00 to 18:00 hrs) using line transect method (Gaston, 1975; Sales and Berkmuller, 1988), and point count method (Altman, 1974). Birds were photographed and were

subsequently identified using “A pocket guide of the birds of the Indian subcontinent” by Grimett et al. (1999). Classification of the observed bird species was done following Manakandan and Pittie (2001). To study the diversity of phytoplankton and zooplankton Approximate 50 L of water from each selected site was filtered through planktonic net (50µm mesh size). Samples were preserved in 4% formalin and were analyzed as per the standard methodologies (Needham and Needham, 1962; APHA, 1998; Shrivastava, 2005). RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Avian Diversity A total number of 17 wetland bird species (Table 1) belonging to 9 orders (Anseriformes, Charadriiformes, Ciconiformes, Coraciiformes, Cuculiformes, Gruiformes, Passeriformes, Psittaciformes, Pelecaniformes) were recorded from all the selected sites in the study area. However,

Table 2: Phytoplankton species and their distribution in the selected study sites S. No.

Phytoplankton

Chlorophyceae (5 species)

Cyanophyceae (4 species)

Bacillariophyceae (7 species)

Euglenophyceae (2 species)

Chlorella vulgaris Scenedesmus sps Ulothrix sps Tetraspora sps. Coelastrum sps Microcystis aeruginosa Oscillatoria sps Spirulinasps Synechococcussps Navicula radiosa Navicula oblonga Cyclotella sps Gomphonema gracile Nitzschia sps Cymbella sps Cocconeis placentula Euglena sps Phacus sps

+ indicates presence, – indicates absence

Study Sites Dabra

Dhamana

Kanwari

Nalwa

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + -

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + -

+ + + + + + + + + + + + +

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MALIK et al., Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(1), 168-173 (2014) Table 3: Zooplankton species and their distribution in the selected study sites S. No.

Zooplankton

Study Sites Dabra

Rotifera (7 species)

Cladocera (3 species)

Copepoda (1 species)

Brachionus angularis Brachionus quadridentatus Brachionus forficula Brachionus caudatus Asplanchna sps Testudinella sps Keratella sps Daphnia sps Miona sps Bosmina sps Cyclops sps

+ + + + + + + + + +

Dhamana

Kanwari

Nalwa

+ + + + + + + + +

+ + + + + + +

+ + + + + + + + + +

+ indicates presence, - indicates absence Gupta and Bajaj (1997) recorded 23 wetland bird species at Brahmsarovar, Kurukshetra (Haryana). Similarly, Bajaj (2002) observed 88 wetland bird species in 4 bird sanctuaries in Haryana. Tirshem (2008) reported 80 waterbirds from Northern districts of Haryana, India. Phytoplankton Diversity Eighteen species of phytoplankton (Table 2) were recorded from the selected sites during the study period. Bacillariophyceae was predominant accounting for 7 species, followed by Chlorophyceae with 5 species, Cyanophyceae with 4 species and Euglenophyceae with 2 species. Dominance of Bacillariophyceae was also reported

in earlier studies (Das and Panda, 2010; Mary Kensa, 2011). Zooplankton Diversity During the present investigation, a total number of 11 species of zooplankton were encountered. Out of these, 7 species belonged to Rotifera, 3 species to Cladocera and only 1 species to Copepoda. Rotifers were dominant in comparison with Cladocera and Copepod. This is supported by different research articles (GĂźher, 2003; Saksena, 1987; Kumar et al,. 2011) in which predominance of rotifers were observed. Dominance of Rotifers is characteristic of tropical water bodies as it has been reported by various authors (Egborge, 1981 and Mwebaza-Nadwula, 2005).

REFERENCES 1.

Adoni, A., Joshi, D.G., Chourasia, S.K., Vaishya, A.K., Yadav, M. and Verma, H.G. Work book on limnology, Pratibha Publisher, Sagar. 1-166 (1985). APHA (American public health association). Standard methods for the examination of water and waste water. APHA. AWWA. WPFC, 16 Ed. New York (1998). Altman, J. Observational study of Behaviour, Sampling Methods, Behaviour, 49: 227267(1974).

Bajaj, M. Studies on avian fauna of bird sanctuaries in Haryana. Ph.D. Thesis, Kurukshetra University, Kurukshetra (2002). Buckton, S. Managing wetlands for sustainable livelihoods at Koshi Tappu. Danphe. 16(1):12-13 (2007). Das, M., Panda, T. Water quality and phytoplankton population in sewage fed river of Mahanadi, Orissa, India. J. Life Sci., 2(2): 81-85 (2010). Egborge, B.M. The composition, seasonal

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MALIK et al., Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(1), 168-173 (2014) variations and distribution of zooplankton in Lake Asejire, Nigeria, Rev. Zoo. Afr., 95: 136180 (1981). Gaston, A. J. Methods for estimating bird populations. J. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., 72: 271273 (1975). Gupta, R.C. and Bajaj, M. Preliminary investigation into migratory wetland birds of Brahma Sarovar at Kurukshetra. Jeevanti, 15: 29-41 (1997). Hosetti, B. B. and Caplan, G. Status of wildlife management in India. In ‘Trends in wildlife Biodiversity conservation and management’ Vol. 1 edition Hosetti, B. B. and Venkateshwarlu, M., Daya Publishing House, Delhi. 1-11 (2001). Hoch, M.P., Dillon, K.S., Coffin, R.B. and Cifuentes, L.A. Sensitivity of bacterioplankton nitrogen metabolism to eutrophication in sub-tropical coastal water of Key West Florida. Mar. Pollut. Bull., 56: 913-926 (2008). Kothari, A. People’s participation in the conservation of biodiversity in India. In: Widening perspectives on Biodiversity (eds. A.F. Krattiger et al.): Natraj Publishers, Dehradun: pp: 137-146 (1994). Kumar, P., Wanganeo, A., Wanganeo, R., Sonaullah, F. Seasonal variations in zooplankton diversity of railway pond , Sasaram, Bihar. International Journal of Environmental Sciences, 2: 1007-1016 (2011). Mary Kensa, V. Inter-relationship between physic-chemical parameters anf phytoplankton diversity of two perennial ponds of Kulasekharam area, Kanyakumari district, Tamilnadu. Plant Science Feed, 1(8): 147-154 (2011). Mwebaza-Nadwula, L., Sekiranda, S.B.K. and Kiggundu, V. Variability in zooplankton community along a section of the Upper Victoria Nile, Uganda, Afr. J. Ecol., 43: 251257 (2005). National Wetland Atlas: Haryana, SAC/ RESA/AFEG/NWIA/ATLAS/15/2010, Space Applications Centre (ISRO), Ahmedabad, India, 148p.

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Rao, R.J. Status and conservation of aquatic species diversity in certain water bodies of Madhya Pradesh.Proceedings of Taal2007: The 12th World Lake Conference: 416-423 (2008). Güher H Mert, Erikli, Hamam Ve Pedina neada, Kýrklareli) Göller’inin Zooplanktonik Organizmalar In Kommunite Yapýsý, E.Ü. Su Ürünleri Dergisi, 20(1-2): 51-62 (2003). Grimmett, R., Inskpp, C. and Inskipp, T. Pocket guide to the birds of the Indian subcontinent. Oxford University Press, Delhi (1999). Manakadan, Ranjit & Aasheesh Pittie. Standardised common and scientific names of the birds of the Indian Subcontinent. Buceros 6 (1): i-ix, 1-37 (2001). Needham, J.E. and Needham, P.R. A guide to the study of fresh water biology. Holden Day Inc. San Francisco. California (1972). Sale, JB. And Berkmuller, K. Manual of wildlife techniques for India. Field document No.11. FAO, United Nations, Dhera Dun, India. 243 (1988). Saksena ND Rotifer As indikators of water quality, Acta Hydrocim. Hydrobiol. 15: 481485 (1987). Shekhar, R.T., Kiran, B.R., Puttaiah, E.T., Shivaraj, Y. and Mahadevan, K.M. Phytoplankton as index of water quality with reference to industrial pollution. Journal of Environmental Biology, 29: 233-236 (2008). Tirshem Study of wetland avian fauna of Har yana. Ph.D. Thesis, Kurukshetra University, Kurukshetra (2008). Tiwari, A. and Chauhan, S.V. Seasonal phytoplanktonic diversity of Kitham lake, Agra. Journal of Environmental Biology, 27: 35-38 (2006). Verma, P.K. and Munshi, D. Plankton community structure of Badua reservoir, Bhagalpur (India). Tropical Ecology, 28: 200207 (1987). WRI/UNEP/IUCN. Global Biodiversity Strategy: Guidelines for Action to Save, Study and Use Earth’s Biotic Wealth sustainably and equitably.WRI, Washington (1992).

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Current World Environment

Vol. 9(1), 17-26 (2014)

Distribution of Sand Particles Along the Shoreline of Lake Biwa in Shiga Prefecture and Considerations from Lake Biwa and Seto Inland Sea, Japan KUNIO UEDA Department of Environmental Science, The University of Shiga Prefecture, Hikone City, 522-8533, Japan. http://dx.doi.org/10.12944/CWE.9.1.03 (Received: February 10, 2014; Accepted: March 03, 2014) ABSTRACT The development of sand littoral zones is critical to supporting specific species in lakes and oceans. The construction of dams on rivers changes the distribution of sediments in littoral zones, and the relationship between dam construction on rivers, the inflow of small particles and increased eutrophication and red tide occurrences was demonstrated for Lake Biwa using public data. Many dams were constructed on rivers around Lake Biwa after the Second World War, and the old and new Araizeki dams were constructed on the out flowing Seta River, restricting flow and increasing the tendency of small particles to be deposited on the floor of Lake Biwa. Inouchi6 reported the distribution of seafloor sediment particle sizes in the Seto Inland Sea. Inouchi showed several fan-shaped distributions of sediment particles centered at the mouths of rivers. After many dams were constructed on the rivers in the period following the Second World War, particles smaller than MdĎ&#x2020; 4 to 6 were thought to increase in the rivers, and these smaller particles were deposited farther offshore from the river mouth if tidal currents were faster than 0.5 to 1.0 knots. Areas of the Seto Inland Sea in 1975 that were affected by silting and subsequent red tide blooms include Hiroshima Bay, Hiuti-nada, Harima-nada and Osaka Bay. These findings and similar patterns between the Seto Inland Sea and Lake Biwa support my hypothesis that the influx of mud due to the construction of dams brings about eutrophication and red tides.

Key words: Sand Distribution, Lake Biwa, Mud, Seto Inland Sea, Red Tide, Dam, Biodiversity.

INTRODUCTION Sand beaches and sand-bottomed shallow sea areas form important habitat for fishes, shell fishes, shrimps, crabs and the larvae of some insects because these zones are rich in dissolved oxygen, which these species depend upon for respiration1. Therefore sand beaches are important for fish and biodiversity. In contrast, bays and harbors with vertical sea walls tend to have more bottom sediments and levels of dissolved oxygen that are lower than those found in these shallow sea areas with sand1.

Sand beaches are not sufficiently researched to understand the source of the sand, formation processes, and the effects of dredging and dams. There are sand beaches along the lakes hore of Lake Biwa. The average water level of Lake Biwa decreased about 50 cm after the Seta River was dredged in 1898 to 1906 and the old Araizeki Dam was constructed in 1905. The average water level of Lake Biwa decreased about 40 cm again after 1939 when the Seta River was dredged again2. It is thought that the present sand beaches of Lake Biwa are in the condition of those before 1898 because new particles are rarely deposited on beaches from rivers on which dams are constructed.

Ueda., Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(1), 17-26 (2014)

Here, sand beach formation was examined by collecting sand samples from the lakeshore of Lake Biwa and investigating the particle size and the influence of dam construction on siltation and red tide occurrences in Lake Biwa. MATERIALS AND METHODS Sediment samples were collected on October 2, 2007 from along the shoreline of Lake Biwa (Figs. 1, 3 and 5). The water level at the nearest

sampling sites was 0.4 m lower than the zero water level determined after the final dredging of the Seta River. Figure 3 shows the sampling locations from south of the Ane River to Hikone City and Fig. 5 shows the sampling locations from south of the Inukami River to north of the Echi River. Sand was sampled in layers from under the surface (depth of 5 cm) to a depth of 30 cm. After air-drying, 500-g samples of the collected sand were sieved through openings of 2, 1.4, 1.0, 0.5 and 0.25 mm, forming six size fractions: >2 mm, 2 to 1.4 mm, 1.4 to 1.0

Fig. 1: Study sites in Lake Biwa in Shiga Prefecture and the Seto Inland Sea in western Japan. Inset shows Lake Biwa with isobaths and the main rivers flowing into Lake Biwa. The Seta River is the only river flowing out from Lake Biwa. Araizeki Dam was constructed on the Seta River to control the water level of Lake Biwa. Areas labeled with letters A and B indicate sand sampling and distribution analysis areas of Lake Biwa and are shown in enlarged views in Fig. 3 and Fig. 5, respectively mm, 1.0 to 0.5 mm, 0.5 to 0.25 mm and ÂŁ0.25 mm. The weight of the each fraction was determined.

Fig. 2 : The size distribution of sand samples collected along the shoreline of Lake Biwa from the mouth of the Ane River to the north side of the Seri River. Letters A and B indicate the inflow of the Ane River and Amano River, respectively

The average water level of Lake Biwa was determined from the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transpor t and Tourism, Kinki Regional Development Bureau website 2 by taking the average of the water level at five points around Lake Biwa3. The number of red tide occurrences in Lake Biwa was obtained from a website created and maintained by the Lake Biwa/Yodo River Water Quality Preservation Organization 4. Information about dam construction in Shiga Prefecture was obtained from the website of The Japan Dam Foundation5. The distribution of seafloor sediments in the Seto Inland Sea was obtained over the period of 1974 to 1976 from the paper by Inouchi6. The

Ueda., Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(1), 17-26 (2014) boundaries in the sea area of the Seto Inland Sea were obtained from the International Emecs Center7. The direction and flow rate of tides in the Seto Inland Sea were obtained from the website created and maintained by the Hydrographic and Oceanographic Department of the Japan Coast Guard 8. Information about dams in Japan was obtained from a website by The Japan Dam Foundation5. The locations of red tide occurrences in the Seto Inland Sea in 1975 were obtained from the website of the Ministry of the Environment9.

Fig. 3: The location of sand samples collection sites from the mouth of the Ane River to the north side of the Seri River are indicated with numbers 1 through 8. The deeper blue of fan formations indicates larger sand particle median diameters

Fig. 4: The size distribution of sand particles in samples collected along the shoreline of Lake Biwa from the mouth of the Inukami River south to the Echi River. Letters A, B and C indicate the Inukami, Uso and Nomazu rivers, respectively

RESULTS For sampling sites 1 through 5 in Fig. 4, it is clear that the proportion of particles >2.0 mm becomes greater for sampling locations nearer the mouth of the Ane River. In contrast, the proportion of particles in the 2.0 to 0.25 mm and ÂŁ0.25 mm diameter size classes becomes smaller nearer the mouth of the Ane River. However, for site 6, the proportion of particles in the >2 mm fraction is greater than that at site 5. As the sampling locations become more distant from the Amano River (sites 6 to 8), sand particles >2 mm occupy a smaller and smaller proportion, and sand particles of 2.0 to 0.25 mm and 0.25 mm diameter occupy larger and larger proportions. In particular, particles ÂŁ0.25 mm in diameter occupy an increasing proportion from site 6 to 7 and a markedly larger proportion at site 8. The inflow of the Amano River between sites 5 and 6 is expected to disturb the distribution pattern of sand particles produced by the Ane River and form a new sand flow pattern from the Amano River. As the sampling location becomes distant from the Inukami River (sites 2 to 6 in Fig. 5), the percentage of sand particles with diameter > 2 mm becomes smaller and smaller. However, at site 5, the proportions of sand particles with a diameter of 1.4 to 1.0 mm and 1.0 to 0.5 mm became greater than at site 4. The inflow of the Uso River lies between sites 4 and 5. Similarly, the proportion of sand particles with diameter > 2.0 mm at site 7 is

Fig. 5: The location of sand samples collected from the mouth of the Inukami River south to the Echi River are indicated with numbers through 9 to 16. The deeper blue of fan forms indicates larger median diameter sand particles

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greater than that at lsite 6. The inflow of the Nomazu River lies between sites 6 and 7. It is thought that flow from the Uso River and Nomazu River disturbed the sand distribution pattern set up by the Inukami River. No dam was built on the Nomazu River, but the Uso River Dam was completed in 1979 with a surface area of 17 ha. However, the influence of the Uso River Dam upon the old sand littoral zones was estimated to be slight because the new zero water level of Lake Biwa was about 1.0 m lower than before the dredging of the Seta River. The relationship between dam construction and red tide occurrences in Lake Biwa is shown in Fig. 6. There is the tendency for red tides to occur after the completion of dams. Red tides occurred and increased 5 years after the construction of the Eigenji Dam (98 ha) in 1972 on the Echi River. Similarly, red tides increased from 1981 to 1985 after completion of the Uso River Dam (17 ha) in 1979 on the Uso River. Red tides increased in the same year as the Aozuti Dam (year of completion, surface area; 1989, 62 ha) was constructed on the Yasu River. Following construction of the Zao Dam (1990, 33 ha) on the Hino River, red tides increased from 1992 to 1996. Following construction of the Ane River Dam (2002, 33 ha), red tides increased from 2003 to 2009.

DISCUSSION If a particle of sand is taken to be a spherical object, the settling velocity of the particle, Vs (m/s), is given by Stokes’ law as follows

Vs 

2 ( p   f ) gR 2 9 

where ρp = mass density of the particle (kg/m3), ρf = mass density of the fluid (kg/m3), μ = dynamic viscosity (Ns/m2), g = gravitational acceleration (m/s2), and R = radius of the spherical object (m). Generally, the particles of sand, silt and clay are considered to be spherical. Eq. 1 expresses that Vs becomes slower the smaller the particle radius. Sand settles faster than silt, which settles faster than clay. These particles are carried into the sea or lake with the same speed, but the smaller particles are carried farther from the river mouth before settling out of the water column. The flow velocity of rivers shows daily variability, and likewise, the sand particles carried by the river show a range of flow velocities. Consequently, bigger par ticles of sand are deposited nearer the mouth of river, and the pattern of particle deposition is fan-shaped. Based on sampling and size pattern analysis of the sediments taken along the shoreline,

Fig. 6: Red tide occurrences in Lake Biwa and dam constructions around Lake Biwa. The arrows from the surface areas of dams to red tide occurrences indicate the relationship between these two events

Ueda., Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(1), 17-26 (2014) the particle deposition pattern can be calculated by Stoke’s Law (Fig. 3, Fig. 5). The sediment particle distribution pattern is fan-shaped but with an oval rather than a half circle shape due to the range of depths of Lake Biwa from 0 to 90 m and due to the differences in the sizes of particles. Smaller sand particles require longer to settle to the bottom and the distance carried before settling out is longer. Particles with the same radius are carried farther before settling where Lake Biwa is deeper. Araizeki Dam on the Seta River in Shiga Prefecture was reconstructed in 1961. The new dam was different from the old dam in several aspects. Concrete walls replaced wood blocks, and the new dam could completely shut off flow in the river in only 30 min, while 2 days were required for the old dam. The new dam can control the river flow rate from zero to 600 m3/s, while the old dam controlled the river flow rate from zero to 400 m3/s. Dams were constructed on rivers flowing into Lake Biwa after the Second World War. The main dams constructed on rivers flowing into Lake Biwa are Inukami Dam (1946, 35 ha) on the Inukami River, Yasu River Dam (1951, 50 ha) on the Yasu River, Eigenji Dam (1972, 98 ha) on the Echi River, Hino River Dam (1965, 29 ha) on the Hino River

and Uso River Dam (1979, 17 ha) on the Uso River (Fig. 1). After these dams were completed, mud was readily deposited in Lake Biwa due to flow that was slow by reducing or closing the new Araizeki Dam. As the new Araizeki Dam was more effective than the old dam for closing off the Seta River, mud was more readily deposited in Lake Biwa. Mitamura et al reported in 2007 that almost the entire floor of Lake Biwa was covered by particles smaller than MdΦ 410. MdΦ is the median particle diameter and is defined by geology to be equal to the Log2D where D is a median diameter (mm) of particles. For D of 2-2 mm, MDΦ is 2. In my previous paper, I showed the relationship between dam construction and red tide occurrence in four Japanese Bays11. Similarly to these bays, eutrophication and red tides in Lake Biwa was considered to be caused by mud particles flowing in from the construction dams (Fig. 6). Seto Inland Sea In the Seto Inland Sea, Inouchi 6 determined the distribution patterns of sediment deposition (Fig. 7) and showed the distribution patterns of deposition to be fan-shaped and centered at the mouths of rivers (red lines in Fig. 8). The direction and maximum flow rates of tidal currents are indicated in Fig. 8.

Fig. 7: Map showing the distribution of sediment particles in the Seto Inland Sea and rivers (reproduced from [6]. The location and name of rivers are added to the figure described by Inouchi6 .)

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In Fig. 9, the flow directions of particles larger than MdΦ 3 or smaller than MdΦ 4 are indicated, and the boundaries of the nadas in the Seto Inland Sea are indicated. Suo-nada Sea In the Suo-nada Sea there are two fanshaped distributions of surface sediments centered at the Hushino, Ono and/or Oita rivers (Fig. 8 and Fig. 9). Grain size of the sediments became smaller the more distant from the mouth of the rivers. No dams were constructed on the Hushino River until 1983 when the Ichinosaka Dam was constructed, followed by the Aratani Dam in 1987. Following what was learned in Lake Biwa, a large quantity of sands was estimated to have been carried into the Suo-nada Sea by the Hushino River until 1983, and a fan-shaped distribution of sand was formed in the Suo-nada Sea. Based on the particle size distribution patterns (Fig. 7), particles sized less than MdΦ 6 flowed out from the Kotou and Koya rivers. Those particles were carried to the Buzen Sea and deposited there. From Fig. 6 and Fig. 8, it is clear that particles smaller than MdΦ 6 were carried out from the Kotou River and Koya River and reached the Buzen Sea after the completion of the Kotou River Dam (1948, 249 ha) and Koya River Dam

(1955, 161 ha). However, it is estimated that when the flow velocity from the Kotou River and Koya River are slow, particles are carried to the Kanmon channel by tidal currents because there are fast tidal currents flowing from the Bungo Channel to the Kanmon Channel (Fig. 8). In the Buzen Sea, the maximum tidal current is 0.3 knots and in the center of the Suo-nada Sea, the maximum tidal current ranges from 0.6 to 1.8 knots. In my previous paper12, I showed that part of mud carried into the Suo-nada Sea by the Saba River after completion of the Saba River Dam (1955, 116 ha), was estimated to be concentrated to the east sea area along the coast by the longshore current. As shown by Inouchi6 in Fig. 7, particles of sizes MdΦ 4 to 6 are distributed to the east of the mouth of Saba River along the coast. This result matches the determined pattern obtained from my paper12. The mud flowed quickly from the mouth of the Saba River and is thought to have flowed westward and/or eastward where it dissipated in the Suo-nada Sea after reaching the middle of the Suo-nada Sea. No dams were constructed on the Yamakuni and Yakkan rivers until 1976, which is

Fig. 8: Fan-shaped distributions of sediment particles and maximum tidal current (knots) estimated at spring tide from 21 to 22 September in 2013 in the Seto Inland Sea

Ueda., Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(1), 17-26 (2014) after the sample collection for the research reported by Inouchi6. These two rivers were estimated to have carried a large amount of sand into the Suo-nada Sea until 1976, but the Hushino River is shown to have carried more sand into the Suo-nada Sea than these two rivers based on the data shown in Fig. 7. It is estimated that these sediments were cumulatively transported and deposited for the long time in this sea area by the Hushino River. The reason for this difference in results may be due to differences in the composition of rocks comprising the mountains of the basins; further consideration of the geology of the basins is needed. Two dams were constructed on Hushino River: the Ichinosaka Dam (1983, 14 ha) and Aratani Dam (1987, 25 ha). Iyo-nada Sea There is one large fan-shaped area offshore of Beppu Bay that is centered in Beppu Bay. The fan-shaped distribution of particles is estimated to be carried into Beppu Bay by the Oita and/or Ono rivers before dam construction (Figs. 7-9). Three dams were constructed on the Oita River before 1976: Serikawa Dam (1956, 135 ha), Shinohara Dam (1958, 21 ha) and Wakasugibousai Dam (1965, 8 ha). On the Ono River, no dams were constructed until 2000. Therefore, it is supposed that most of the particles smaller than MdΦ4 was carried to the Iyo-nada Sea by the Oita River through these three dams prior to 1976. In Beppu Bay, particles smaller than

MdΦ6 were deposited (Fig. 7) because tidal currents were slow. But the sea current outside of Beppu Bay is very fast and flow velocities reached 1.9 to 3.0 knots near the Bungo Channel. Particles with diameters smaller than MdΦ6 are projected to be carried outside of the Iyo-nada Sea. Bungo Channel In Bungo Channel, there are two fanshaped sediment distributions centered on the Usuki and Banjo rivers. Grain size of sediments becomes smaller for locations more distant from the mouth of these rivers. No dams were constructed on these two rivers until 1976. Particles smaller than MdΦ6 were not observed at the mouths of these rivers. Hiroshima Bay In Hiroshima Bay, particles smaller than MdΦ6 are deposited (Fig. 7), and the fastest sea current is 0.3 to 0.4 knots. However, outside of Hiroshima Bay, the sea current becomes 1.2 to 1.8 knots, and particles with MdΦ<0, MdΦ 0-2 and MdΦ 2-3 are deposited. There are three big rivers that flow into Hiroshima Bay: Ota River, Oze River and Nishiki River. On the Ota River, Tarutoko Dam (1957, 180 ha), Oudomari Dam (1959, 144 ha) and Uga Dam (1959, 8 ha) were built. On the Oze River, Iinoyama Dam (1932, 36 ha), Watanose Dam (1956, 97 ha) and Ozegawa Dam (1964, 90 ha) were constructed and on Nishiki River, Sugano Dam (1965, 302 ha) and Mizukosi Dam (1965, 14

Fig. 9: Flow direction of particles flowing from rivers and boundaries of each nada in the Seto Inland Sea

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ha) were constructed before 1976. The dams on these three rivers are thought to be responsible for depositing particles smaller than MdΦ6 in Hiroshima Bay. It is likely that large particles were carried into Hiroshima Bay by these rivers before the construction of dams on these rivers, and the observed fan-shaped sediment distribution patterns were like those estimated in Lake Biwa by sieving sediments. Following dam construction on these rivers, particles smaller than MdΦ6 began to be deposited in Hiroshima Bay. It is supposed that coarse particles were distributed first and particles smaller than MdΦ6 were subsequently deposited in Hiroshima Bay. Therefore, this is demonstrated that the particles in size classes of larger than MdΦ0, MdΦ0 to 2 and MdΦ2 to 3 would be observed farther south than the area where particles smaller than MdΦ6 would be deposited (Fig. 7). Hiuti-nada Sea, Bingo-nada Sea and Bisanseto Sea In Hiuti-nada Sea and Bingo-nada Sea, particles smaller than MdΦ6 are deposited. Two big rivers, the Ashida and Takahashi rivers, flow into the sea in this area. Seven dams were built on the Takahashi River, and the total surface area of dams built before 1976 on the Takahashi River reached 601 ha. Of particular note, the Nariwagawa Dam built in 1968 was the biggest with a surface

area of 360 ha. Two dams were built on the Ashida River before 1976, and the total surface area of these two dams was 86 ha. It is estimated that particles smaller than MdΦ6 were carried into the sea area and deposited after these dams were completed, based on the maximum velocity of the tidal current of 0.4 to 1.1 knots in the area offshore of the mouth of Takahashi River (Fig. 8). Particles smaller than MdΦ6 carried by the Takahashi River are readily spread east from the river and into the Harima-nada Sea by the fast tidal current (1.4-1.7 knots) (Fig. 8). In contrast, particles carried to the west of the river mouth are soon deposited because the current velocity is slow (0.1-0.2 knots) in the Bingo-nada Sea and the Hiuti-nada Sea (Fig. 8). Particles smaller than MdΦ6 were carried by the Ashida River into the sea in this area after the two dams were completed. Harima-nada Sea One fan-shaped distribution of sediments was observed in the Harima-nada Sea. The center of the fan is centered at the mouth of the Kako River. This district is similar to that of the Suo-nada Sea, as sediment grain sizes decrease for more depositions more distant from the mouth of the Kako River. On the Kako River, five dams were constructed before 1976: Kamogawa Dam (1951, 54 ha), Hunaki Dam (1959, 16 ha), First Heiso Dam (1969, 100 ha), Tubaichi Dam (1971, 9 ha), Hachimandani Dam (1973, 9 ha). A large amount of mud is hypothesized to have poured from the

Fig. 10: Locations of red tide events observed in 1975 and rivers flowing into the Seto Inland Sea

Ueda., Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(1), 17-26 (2014) Kako River into the Harima-nada Sea. However, the fast tidal current (maximum, 1.6-2.0 knots at the mouth of the Kako River would carry the mud far from the mouth of the Kako River. It is thought that one pattern is going eastward into Osaka Bay through the Akashi Channel, another is going westward into Bisanseto Sea, and another is going into the southern half of the Harima-nada Sea. The tidal current in the southern half of the Harima-nada Sea is slow and becomes 0.3 to 0.5 knots at maximum, such that mud from the Kako River is deposited in the southern half of Harima-nada Sea (Fig. 7, Fig. 8). Two dams were constructed on the Ichi River before 1976 : Ikuno Dam (1972, 90 ha) and Kurokawa Dam (1974, 109 ha). Hikihara Dam (88 ha) was constructed on the Ibo River in 1957. Particles smaller than MdΦ6 are thought to be carried into the Harima-nada Sea and reach the coasts of Shikoku and Awaji Island by the same mechanism as for the effluent of the Kako River. Osaka Bay Three big rivers flow into Osaka Bay: Muko River, Yodo River and Yamato River. The Yodo River is a major river with three large tributaries: Kizu River, Katura River and Uji River. The Senkari Dam was constructed on the Muko River in 1919 and has a surface area of 112 ha. Approximately 12 dams were completed on the Yodo River before 1976. On the other rivers, the Segi Dam (1951, 48 ha) was constructed on the Katura River, the Amagase Dam (1964, 188 ha) was constructed on the Uji River and the Takayama Dam (1968, 260 ha) was constructed on the Kizu River. After the construction of these dams, particles smaller than MdΦ6 carried into Osaka Bay were soon deposited due to a maximum tidal current under 0.4 knots in the eastern half of Osaka Bay. Relationship between particle size and red tide The geological definition of mud is having a particle size smaller than 1/16 mm. It was estimated that nutrients associated with the mud brought about eutrophication in these sea areas. Previous papers have shown that red tide tends to occur in areas influenced by the influx of mud carried by rivers on which a dam has been newly constructed11, 12. The results obtained in this paper are consistent with the results of these studies.

As shown in Fig. 7 and 10, red tide occurred in the areas where particles smaller than MdΦ4 were deposited, such as in Osaka Bay, Harima-nada Sea, Hiuti-nada Sea, Hiroshima Bay, Oita Bay and Buzen Sea. These findings support my hypothesis that red tide is caused by mud carried out to sea by rivers on which dams are newly constructed 11,12 and demonstrate that heavier loading of fine particles (MdΦ< 4) is observed in the sea areas after the completion of a dam. There are some exceptions to the pattern of sea areas with red tide occurrence coinciding with small particle size, as shown in Fig. 10. Red tide occurrences indicated by a, b, c and d in Fig. 10 coincide with areas where the primary deposits are not particles smaller than MdΦ4. It is considered that red tide blooms observed in these areas were carried in from active blooms in other areas. The red tide indicated by e is thought to have been carried in from Hiroshima Bay. The red tides indicated by a to d were thought to have been carried from red tide occurrences farther to the north. The red tide indicated by f is thought to have been carried from the west. However, fur ther consideration of the mechanisms is needed to explain these phenomena. It is considered from these results that dam construction on rivers causes siltation and red tide occurrences in Lake Biwa and Seto Inland Sea. CONCLUSION An examination of sediment samples along the shoreline of Lake Biwa showed that the distribution of particles follows Stokes’ Law and forms a fan-shaped pattern centered on the river mouth. Similar patterns could be detected in Inouchi’s 6 research on sediment distribution patterns in the Seto Inland Sea. Based on samples taken before and after the construction of dams on the inflowing rivers, newly constructed dams were thought to carry greater quantities of particles smaller than MdΦ4 (geologically speaking, mud), and the deposition of these smaller particles was governed by tidal current velocity with faster current carrying the particles farther from the shore.

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The locations of red tide occurrences observed in the Seto Inland Sea in 1975 largely coincided with areas in which mud had been found to be deposited by research conducted by Inouchi

in 1974 to 1976. These findings support my hypothesis that red tides are caused in part by mud carried by rivers on which dams have been newly constructed.

REFERENCES 1.

K. Ueda, Modeling of Dissolved Oxygen Concentration Recovery in Water Bodies and Application to Hypoxic Water Bodies, World Environment, 3(2), 52-59(2013), Doi: 10.5923/j.env.20130302.03 Kinki Regional Development Bureau Biwako Office, Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transpor t and Tourism, Japan. (http:// www.yodoriver.org/kaigi/biwa/1st/pdf/ siryou03/pdf/biwako1-1.pdf, 2013/11/12) Kinki Regional Development Bureau Biwako Office, Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transpor t and Tourism, Japan. (http:// www.biwakokasen.go.jp/graph2/) Lake Biwa-Yodo River Water Quality Preservation Organization. (http:// www.byq.or.jp/kankyo/k_04.html, 2013/12/ 13) The Japan Dam Foundation. (http:// d a m n e t . o r. j p / D a m b i n r a n / b i n r a n / TopIndex.html, 2013/12/13) Y. Inouchi, Distribution of Bottom Sediments in the Seto Inland Sea (The Influence of Tidal Currents on the Distribution of Bottom Sediments), J. of Geol. Society of Japan, 88(8), 665-681(1982). (in Japanese with English Summary)

10.

11.

12.

International EMECS Center, Environmental Conservation of the Seto Inland Sea, Asahi Print Co., Ltd. Nishinomiya, Hyogo, Japan, 3: (2007). Hydrogaphic and Oceanographic Department, The Japan Coast Guard. (http:/ /www1.kaiho.mlit.go.jp/KANKYO/TIDE/ curr_pred/index.htm, 2013/11/12) The Ministry of Environment (Information on http://www.env.go.jp/water/heisa/heisa_net/ index.html, 2013/11/13) O. Mitamura, M. Yasuno, M. Maruo and T. Goto, Introduction to environmental field work, edited by the committee for the study of environmental field work in University of Shiga Prefecture, Shouwado Publishers, Kyoto City, 110-111 (2007). In Japanese. K. Ueda, Relationship between Red Tide Occurrences in Four Japanese Bays and Dam Construction, World Environment, 2(6), 120-126(2012), Doi: 10.5923/ j.env.20120206.03 K. Ueda, Relationship between Dam Construction and Red Tide Occurrence in Small Bays and the Seto Inland Sea, Japan with Considerations from the Gulf of Mexico, Open Journal of Marine Science, 3(4), 201211(2013), Doi: 10.4236/ojms.2013

Current World Environment

Vol. 9(1), 174-181 (2014)

Carbon Per cent in Different Components of Tree Species and Soil Organic Carbon Pool Under these Tree Species in Kashmir Valley NASIR RASHID WANI and KHWAJA NAVED QAISAR Faculty of Forestry, Sher-e-Kashmir University of Agricultural Sciences and Technology of Kashmir, Shalimar (J & K) India http://dx.doi.org/10.12944/CWE.9.1.24 (Received: February 11, 2014; Accepted: April 10, 2014) ABSTRACT Carbon is a critical element that trees accumulate and use to support their structure and sustain physiological processes. Besides being a key element in forest ecosystems, carbon is also essential for sustaining life on a global scale. The study attempted to quantify carbon per cent in different tree components of Cedrus deodara, Fraxinus floribunda and Ulmus wallichiana,an important tree species of Kashmir valley were planted in plantation block of Faculty of Forestry at Sher-e-Kashmir University of Agricultural Sciences and Technology of Kashmir, Shalimar way back in 1992. The soil organic carbon pool under these tree species was also estimated. This information however is poor and fragmented as no published literature is available in this region. Statistical analysis of the data reveals that carbon per cent was significantly higher in Cedrus deodara (45.41%) followed by Fraxinus floribunda (41.36%) and Ulmus wallichiana (40.78%) respectively. Besides the soil attributes like organic carbon and bulk density were also determined and the same were used for preparing the carbon pool inventory. The pooled results revealed that organic carbon was significantly higher in Ulmus wallichiana (2.08%) as compared to Cedrus deodara (1.86%) and Fraxinus floribunda (1.53%). However the bulk density was significantly higher in Fraxinus floribunda (1.26 gcm-3) as compared to Cedrus deodara (1.24 gcm-3) and Ulmus wallichiana (1.20 gcm-3). Moreover the soil organic carbon pool was significantly higher in Ulmus wallichiana (75.04 t ha-1) as compared to Cedrus deodara (69.37 t ha-1) and Fraxinus floribunda (57.82 t ha-1).

Key words: Carbon per cent, Kashmir valley, Soil organic carbon pool, Tree species INTRODUCTION Trees play a vital role in mitigating the diverse effects of environmental carbon degradation and increasing concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. Trees promote sequestration of carbon into soil and plant biomass. Therefore tree based land use practices could be viable alternatives to store atmospheric carbon dioxide due to their cost effectiveness, high potential of carbon uptake and associated environmental as well as social benefits (Dhruw et al., 2009). Increasing levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere during the past few decades has drawn the attention of the scientific community towards the process of carbon storage and soil organic carbon store. Concentration of atmospheric carbon

dioxide can be lowered either by reducing emissions or by enabling the storage of carbon dioxide in the terrestrial ecosystem. Soil plays an important role in the carbon cycle by storing it in the form of soil organic carbon. Most of the carbon enters the ecosystem through the process of photosynthesis in the leaves. After the litter fall, the detritus is decomposed and forms soil organic carbon by microbial process (Post and Kwon, 2000). Soils under tree canopies were found to have greater levels of organic matter and other nutrients. The global forest ecosystem has been reported to account for approximately 90 per cent of annual carbon flux between atmosphere and soil carbon. The carbon held in the upper profile is often the most chemically decomposable and directly exposed to natural and anthropogenic disturbances

WANI & QAISAR et al., Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(1), 174-181 (2014) (IPCC, 2003). Because the input of organic matter is largely from above ground litter, forest soil organic matter tends to concentrate in the upper soil horizons with roughly half of the soil organic carbon of the top 100 cm of mineral soil being held in the upper 30 cm layer. Therefore estimation of soil organic carbon (SOC) up to the depth of 30 cm is attached with enormous importance. Soil stores more carbon than is contained in plants and the atmosphere combined. As a matter of fact the world’s soil contains 4.5 times the amount of carbon held in the vegetation (Lal, 2004). Gupta and Rao (1994) made first estimate of the organic carbon stock in Indian soils was 24.3 Pg (1 Pg = 1015 g) based on 48 soil samples. World wide the top soil layer of first 30 cm holds 1500 Pg carbon whereas for India it is 9 Pg (Bhattacharya et al., 2000). There is a significant proportion of carbon in forest litter layer. Lower rates of decomposition in the forests could increase soil organic carbon (SOC) storage in surface soil. The storage of soil organic carbon is controlled by balance of carbon input from plant production and output through decomposition. The total soil organic content increases with precipitation and clay content decreases with temperature (Jobbagy and Jakson, 2000). The climate affects the soil organic carbon storage in shallow layer, while the clay content affects storage in deeper layer of the soil. The effect of vegetation type is more important than the recipitation in the distribution of carbon. Soil on south facing slopes at lower elevation contained significantly less total organic carbon compared with soil from north facing slope at higher elevation (Schmidt et al., 1993). Soil organic matter retains the largest terrestrial reservoir of carbon in the global carbon cycle. Soils store 2.5 to 3.0 times as much carbon that is stored in plants and 2 to 3 times more than the atmospheric carbon as CO2 (Davidson et al., 2000). As much it plays a major role in the control of carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere (Follett et al., 2007). Soil organic matter is in a state of dynamic balance between inputs and outputs of organic carbon. Inputs are largely determined by the forest productivity, the decomposition of litter and its incorporation into the mineral soil whereas rates of organic matter decay and the return of carbon to the atmosphere through respiration control outputs (Pregitzer, 2003). Other losses of soil organic carbon

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occur through erosion. Deforestation can contribute a large volume of carbon to the atmosphere either by reducing the amount stored in above ground biomass or increasing the oxidation of soil organic carbon. Forests act as one of the largest carbon sinks and helps to control atmospheric CO 2 concentrations (Zhou et al., 2006). Forest soil contains a globally significant amount of carbon approximately half of earth’s terrestrial carbon is in forests (1146×1015 g), and of this amount, about two-thirds is retained in soil pools (Dixon et al., 1994). Temperate forests ecosystems contain a significant amount of soil organic carbon both globally and regionally (Rasmussen et al., 2006). It has been estimated that present carbon stock in the world’s forests is 861 ± 66 Pg C, of which 383 ± 30 Pg (44%) is in soil to a depth of 1 meter. Temperate forests contribution to world forest carbon stock is 14 % (119 ± 6 Pg), (Pan et al., 2011). Based on average global or regional soil carbon densities estimated in Indian forest soils, it has been calculated that our soil organic carbon pool ranges from 5.4 to 6.7 Pg (Ravindemath et al., 1997) while Chhabra et al., 2003 had estimated that the total soil organic pool in Indian forests in the top 50 cm and top 1 m soil depth were 4.13 and 6.81 Pg, respectively. Soil organic carbon is normally estimated to a depth of 0-30 cmsince most of it is present in the top layers and root activity is also concentrated in this horizon (Ravindra nath and Ostwald, 2008). Thus the quantity of SOC in the 030 cm layer is about twice the amount of carbon in atmospheric carbondioxide (CO2) and three times that in global above ground vegetation (Powlson et al., 2011). It is estimated that the global stock of SOC to a depth of 30 cm is 684-724 Pg (Batjes, 1996). A small change in soil carbon results in a large change in atmospheric concentration (IPCC, 2000). It is essential to study the mechanisms and changes of forest SOC to better understand and mitigate climate change (Fang et al., 1996). Mountainous cold-temperate areas like Kashmir have high SOC content but large spatial variability, due to variable climate and vegetation (Li et al., 2010). This spatial variability has made it difficult to predict the spatial distribution of SOC in forest soils (Fahey et al., 2005). Various studies have reported the influence of topography, climatic conditions ,

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soil composition , litter quality and its decomposition rate and species composition or vegetation type on the spatial distribution of SOC (Schulp et al., 2008). Since no scientific systematic study has been undertaken to estimate the carbon per centin different tree components of Cedrus deodara, Fraxinus floribunda and Ulmus wallichiana an important tree species of Kashmir valley and also soil organic carbon pool under these tree species. Therefore an attempt was made with the objective to estimate the carbon percent of tree components (leaves, branches, wood, bark and roots) and also soil organic carbon pool under temperate conditions of Kashmir. MATERIALS AND METHODS Study area The experimental site is located between 74.89o East longitude and 34.08o North latitude at an altitude of about 1600 meters above mean sea level. It is roughly 15 km south east to the Srinagar city and the soil of the site is silt loam and is well drained. The climate is generally temperate with severe winter extending from December to March. The region faces a wide temperature range from a minimum of -4oC in winter to a maximum of 33oC in the summers. The annual precipitation of the area is about 676 mm and most of the precipitation is received in the form of snow during winter months. The present study was carried out in Plantation Block of Faculty of Forestry during the year 2009 and 2010 at Sher-e-Kashmir university of Agricultural sciences and technology of Kashmir (SKUAST-K), Shalimar and was planted during March 1990 having 19 years of age. The tree species planted were Cedrus deodara, Fraxinus floribunda and Ulmus wallichiana were selected for the study. Demarcation and enumeration for measurements After survey of the entire area, trees of Cedrus deodara, Fraxinus floribunda and Ulmus wallichiana were enumerated according to diameter at breast height at SKUAST-Kashmir. In total 72 trees were enumerated in order to determine the diameter at breast height (DBH). These trees were then classified into three diameter classes viz; 10-20 cm 20-30 cm and 30-40 cm except

Fraxinus floribunda whose first diameter class was 0-10 cm owing to their small diameter. The total numbers of trees in three diameter classes were 24 in a quadrat of size 10 x 10 m having spacing of 2 x 2 m. The layout plan of experimental site at SKUAST-Kashmir, Shalimar is given as in (Table 1). Estimations Estimation of carbon per cent in different tree components Carbon per cent was estimated by ash content method described by Negi et al. (2003). In this method oven dried plant components (bark, leaves, stem wood and root) were burnt into muffle furnace at 400oC temperature. The ash content left after burning was weighed and carbon content was calculated by using the following equation: Carbon % = 100 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; (ash weight + molecular weight of O2 (53.3) in C6H12O6 Soil analysis Soil samples were collected by dividing each main plot (10 x 10 m) area into three subareas. Representative soil samples from each subarea were collected by digging 3 pits of 30 cm wide, 30 cm deep and 50 cm in length. Composite samples from all three sub-areas were obtained. Soil samples were air dried in shade, ground with wooden pestle, passed through a 2 mm sieve mesh and stored in cloth bags for further analysis. The following physico-chemical attributes of the soil samples were determined. Bulk density (gcm-3) It was determined by core method (Wilde et al., 1964). In this method, a cylindrical metal sampler was pressed or driven into the soil to the desired depth and was carefully removed to preserve a known volume of sample. The sample was dried at 105oC to 110oC and weighed. Bulk density is the oven dried mass divided by the field volume of the sample. Organic carbon (%) Organic carbon was determined by Walkley and Black (1934) rapid titration method. In this method 1.0 g soil was digested with a mixture of potassium dichromate (10 ml) and concentrated sulphuric acid (20 ml). The excess of potassium dichromate not reduced by the organic matter of

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WANI & QAISAR et al., Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(1), 174-181 (2014) the soil was determined by titration using standard ferrous ammonium sulphate solution in the presence of ortho-phosphoric acid using diphenylamine as an indicator. Soil Carbon inventory The soil organic carbon pool inventory expressed as mega grams per hectare (Mg ha-1) for a specific depth was computed by multiplying the soil organic carbon (g kg-1) with bulk density (g cm-3) and depth in cm (Joao Carlos et al., 2001). Statistical analysis The data were statistically analysed by analysis of variance technique (ANOVA). RESULTS Carbon per cent of different tree species The data on carbon per cent in different components of tree species in plantation block of SKUAST-Kashmir is depicted in Table 2 (Fig. 1-3). The data indicates that carbon per cent was

significantly more in Cedrus deodara (45.41%) as compared to Fraxinus floribunda (41.36%) and Ulmus wallichiana (40.78%). Moreover, the highest carbon per cent was recorded in stem wood of Cedrus deodara (46.39%) followed by Ulmus wallichiana (43.66%) and Fraxinus floribunda (43.21%), respectively. However, the lowest carbon per cent was observed in leaves of Ulmus wallichiana (36.41%), Fraxinus floribunda (36.7%) and Cedrus deodara (42.81%). Further, carbon per cent in leaf and bark of Fraxinus floribunda was comparatively higher than Ulmus wallichiana. Soil organic carbon pool under different tree species Perusal of the data presented in (Table 3) reveals that organic carbon content was recorded significantly more in case of Ulmus wallichiana (2.08%) as compared to Cedrus deodara and Fraxinus floribunda which was 1.86 and 1.53 per cent, respectively. However, organic carbon content registered an increasing trend from 2009 to 2010. Similarly the maximum bulk density was observed

Table 1: Layout Plan of Experimental Site at SKUAST- Kashmir, Shalimar S. No. Species

Quadrat /plot size (m)

Diameter class (cm)

Density (trees ha-1)

10-20 20-30 30-40 0-10 10-20 20-30 10-20 20-30 30-40

1300 600 500 900 1000 500 1400 500 500

Cedrus deodara

10 x 10

Fraxinus floribunda

10 x 10

Ulmus wallichiana

10 x 10

Table 2: Carbon per cent in different components of tree species at SKUAST-Kashmir, Shalimar Carbon per cent Species

Leaf

Bark

Branch

Root

Stem wood

Mean

Cedrus deodara Fraxinus floribunda Ulmus wallichiana SE(mÂą) CD (p=0.05)

42.81 36.70 36.41 0.30 1.21

45.67 41.50 37.60 0.39 1.61

46.05 42.42 43.03 0.40 1.62

46.17 43.01 43.21 0.37 1.51

46.39 43.21 43.66 0.20 0.82

45.41 41.36 40.78

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in case of Fraxinus floribunda (1.26 g cm-3) as compared to rest of the species. Moreover, bulk density demonstrated a decreasing trend from 2009 onwards till 2010. Further the pooled data reveals that soil organic carbon pool was significantly higher in Ulmus wallichiana (75.04 t ha-1) followed by Cedrus deodara (69.37 t ha -1 ) and Fraxinus floribunda (57.82 t ha-1), respectively. Soil organic carbon pool depicted an increasing trend from 2009 to later half of the study.

Fig. 1: Carbon per cent in different components of Cedrus deodara

Fig. 3: Carbon per cent in different components of Ulmus wallichiana

DISCUSSION Carbon per cent of different tree species The data on carbon per cent in different components of tree species (Table 2) indicates that carbon per cent was significantly higher in Cedrus deodara (45.41%) as compared to Fraxinus floribunda (41.36%) and Ulmus wallichiana (40.78%). Negi et al. (2003) has reported that

Fig. 2: Carbon per cent in different components of Fraxinus floribunda

carbon content in different parts of various species depends upon the ash content and the ash content depends upon the amount of structural components. More the structural tissue higher will be the ash content and lower will be the carbon content. Since Cedrus deodara contains less ash content as compared to Fraxinus floribunda and Ulmus wallichiana so its carbon per cent was more as compared to other tree species. Several other workers also support our findings (Shephered and Montagnini, 2001; Dhruw et al., 2009 and Jana et al., 2009). Moreover, carbon per cent was recorded

Table 3: Soil organic carbon pool under different tree species in plantation block of SKUAST-Kashmir, Shalimar Tree Species

Organic Carbon (%)

Bulk Density (gcm-3)

SOC Pool (t ha-1)

2009

2010

Pooled

2009

2010

Pooled

2009

2010 Pooled

Ulmus wallichiana 2.06 Cedrus deodara 1.84 Fraxinus floribunda 1.51 SE(mÂą) 0.012 CD (p=0.05) 0.038

2.11 1.89 1.55 0.013 0.040

2.08 1.86 1.53 0.010 0.032

1.21 1.25 1.27 0.009 0.029

1.19 1.23 1.25 0.004 0.014

1.20 1.24 1.26 0.006 0.018

74.77 69.00 57.53 0.010 0.032

75.32 69.74 58.12 0.013 0.040

75.04 69.37 57.82 0.008 0.026

WANI & QAISAR et al., Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(1), 174-181 (2014) higher in stem wood in all the tree species and it was followed by root, branch, bark and leaf, respectively. Kraenzel et al. (2003) have reported that woody tissues like trunk, roots, branches and twigs have higher carbon concentration than soft tissues like leaves, flowers and fine roots. The results are also in conformity with the findings of Navar (2009) and Fonseca et al. (2012). Soil organic carbon pool of different tree species The perusal of the data presented in (Table 3) reveals that organic carbon was recorded significantly more in Ulmus wallichiana (2.08%) as compared to Cedrus deodara and Fraxinus floribunda. The higher amount of organic carbon under Ulmus wallichiana trees may be due to addition of more litter fall on the ground surface which keeps on decomposing and adds organic matter to the soil as this species is fast growing as compared to Cedrus deodara and Fraxinus floribunda and also the rate of decomposition is fast (Berthold and Beese, 2002). The results are in line with the findings of Kater et al. (1992), Rhodes (1995) and Sood (1999). The bulk density showed a decreasing trend from 2009 onwards till 2010 and was recorded significantly more in Fraxinus floribunda (1.26 g cm-3) as compared to Cedrus deodara and Ulmus wallichiana. The increase in bulk density under Fraxinus floribunda may be due to decrease in organic carbon which decreases soil porosity resulting in the increase in bulk density. Thus the higher value of bulk density in the soils can also be ascribed to lower soil organic carbon content. These findings are in line with that of Karan et al. (1991), Sharma et al. (1995) and Cihacek and Ulmer (1997). The soil organic carbon pool was significantly higher in Ulmus wallichiana (75.04 t ha-1) as compared to Cedrus deodara (69.37 t ha-1) and Fraxinus floribunda (57.82 t ha-1). The higher amount of soil organic carbon pool under Ulmus wallichiana may be explained in the sense that there

179

is continuous accumulation of leaf litter on the surface which keeps on decomposing and thus enriches the soil surface. The values in the present study are well within the reported range. Chhabra and Dadhwal (2005) reported the soil organic carbon pool in the range of 38.9-181.7 t ha-1 in Kashmir valley and similar results have also been reported earlier by many other workers (Negi and Gupta, 2010; Gupta and Sharma, 2010 and Gupta, 2011). CONCLUSION In light of the present investigations following conclusions could be drawn: • Cedrus deodara among the three tree species recorded the maximum carbon percent and it was followed by Fraxinus floribunda and Ulmus wallichiana respectively. • Cedrus deodara being a slow growing conifer will provide a long term carbon fixation capacity as compared to fast growing species like Fraxinus floribunda and Ulmus wallichiana which provide revenues in the short term. • Thus it can be said that conifers are more efficient in carbon accumulation than deciduous tree species. • The pooled results revealed that organic carbon was significantly higher in Ulmus wallichiana as compared to Cedrus deodara and Fraxinus floribunda. However the bulk density was significantly higher in Fraxinus floribunda as compared to Cedrus deodara and Ulmus wallichiana. Moreover the results further revealed that soil organic carbon pool was significantly higher in Ulmus wallichiana as compared to Cedrus deodara and Fraxinus floribunda.

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Current World Environment

Vol. 9(1), 182-187 (2014)

Larval Morphology and Development of Tree Frog Polypedates Teraiensis (Dubois, 1987) DULUMONI TAMULY and MITHRA DEY Department of Ecology and Environmental Science, Assam University, Silchar-788011, Assam, India. http://dx.doi.org/10.12944/CWE.9.1.25 (Received: November 15, 2013; Accepted: Feburary 14, 2014) ABSTRACT The life history of the tree frog Polypedates teraiensis was studied by raising eggs under laboratory condition. The breeding of Polypedates teraiensis is normally seen during monsoon between the month of April to August. However, during the present study eggs in foam nests were collected from April upto September in 2012. Observations on larval development, stage and size at hatching and larval duration was studied and is being presented here. The larvae are oval and depressed. The hatchlings measured about 7.8 mm at stage 22 (Gosner, 1960). The keratodont jaws developed at stage 25 and disappeared by stage 42. The juveniles measured about 16.2 mm. The life history (post hatching) was completed within 42 days.

Key words: Polypedates teraiensis, Larval development, Tadpole morphology, Cachar district, NE India.

INTRODUCTION Anurans having a biphasic life cycle, breed in a variety of water bodies ranging from lentic to lotic water bodies. Anuran tadpoles exhibit structural diversities that are associated with their habitat, foraging behaviour and predator avoidance. The tree frog Polypedates teraiensis is a common rhacophorid breeding between April to August in north east India and is known to deposit eggs in the foam nest. There are at least six species of Polypedates currently recognized in north-eastern India (Chakravarty et al. 2011). However, little is known about the larval biology of these species from this region. The present study describes the oral disc, various morphometric features of the tadpoles, size and stage at hatching and duration of life history (post hatching) from Cachar district, Assam, north-east India. MATERIALS AND METHODS Between April to September, 2011 and 2012 several foam nests of Polypedates teraiensis

were sighted in manmade tanks in Assam University campus constructed for water storage for construction work. The foam nests were found adhering to the wall of the tanks slightly above the water surface. Some of the foam nests were brought to the laboratory and kept in aquaria with pond water for hatching. Tadpole rearing was done in the laboratory at the temperature 26-33 C. The clutch sizes were recorded. Data are based on three clutches. Various developmental stages were fixed in 10% formaldehyde at periodic interval and duly measured. Tadpoles were staged according to Gosner (1960). Sampling was repeated for two successive years and the average data for three different cycles are presented herein. Tadpoles were fed on fish food and algae collected from the pond. Morphometric measurements of various developmental stages were taken using vernier calliper. These include BL, TL, BD, BW, T, TH, BTMH, IO, IN, SO and SN. Abbreviations and definitions are in accordance with Altig and McDiarmid (1999). Description of oral apparatus and labial tooth row formula (LTRF) is in accordance with Altig (1970).

TAMULY & DEY, Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(1), 182-187 (2014) Abbreviations BL-Body length, TL-Total length, BW-Body width, BD-Body depth, I-O- Interorbital distance, IN-Internarial distance, S-O-Snout orbit distance, SN-Snout naris distance, T-Tail length, BTMH- Basal tail musculature height, TH-Tail height. RESULT The frog is a seasonal breeder, breeding only during the monsoon. Depending on the rainfall the breeding season extended from April to September. During the study, the tanks were filled with rain water and the bottom was found to be covered with debris material, decaying leaves and mud. There was no other tadpoles found in the tanks, but the tanks were inhabited by other adult anurans such as Fejervarya sp. and Euphlyctis cyanophlyctis. Insect fauna was also abundant in the tank. The foam nests were found 4-5 inch above the water body adhering to the wall, some floating on the surface of water .The nest were collected from the tank and brought to the laboratory for rearing. It took 1-2 days for hatching after the collection. The number of hatching per nest ranged between 100 to150. The hatchlings measured about 7.8 mm in total length and were at stage 22 (Gosner stage). The life history (post hatching) was completed within 42 days. Hours and days taken for development, lowest, highest and average length of different developmental stages are presented in Table 1. Tadpole morphology Body is oval, snout slightly rounded and depressed, eyes lateral in position. Nostrils dorsal, nearer to snout than eyes. Spiracle single sinistral, position lateral, vent dextral. Dorsal fin height is greater than the ventral fin. Both fin gradually tapering towards the pointed tip. Black spot is present all over the body and tail. Ventral side of the body is not pigmented and transparent at the abdomen region. Hence the intestinal spiracle is clearly visible through the transparent abdominal wall. Morphometric measurement of various developmental stages is presented in Table 2. Oral disc Mouth anteroventral, marginal papillae are biserially arranged. Teeth blunt and are not same

183

in height. Lower jaw â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;vâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; shaped and jaw sheath finely serrated. Upper jaw arch shaped with a weak median convexity, both jaw sheaths edged with black. Submarginal papillae present. Disc emarginate, labial papillae and beak disappearing by stage 42 LTRF 4(2-4)/3(1). First row of the upper labium continuous whereas the 2nd, 3rd, and 4th rows are interrupted. Innermost row of lower labium slightly interrupted whereas the two other rows are continuous (Fig: 4). Coloration The tadpoles are light brown in colour with brown pigments all over the body and tail portion. Fin transparent. DISCUSSION P. teraiensis breeds in temporary pools, tanks that are filled by rain water during monsoon. The life history of this frog (post hatching) was completed with in 42 days. Relatively short period of development is characteristic of tropical species which have to take advantage of transitional aquatic habitat during the monsoons (Heyer 1973). This short period of development in this species is characteristic to take advantage, as it allows the larvae to metamorphose quickly and escape desiccation as the tanks dry up. Sheridan (2008) reported larval life (post hatching) of Polypedates leucomystax in 42 days from Sakaeerat, northeastern Thailand and the froglet measured about 19.4 mm. This developmental time is similar to the present report. Chakravarty et al. (2011) reported from Assam that metamorphosis was completed in P. teraiensis in 58 days. Polypedates maculatus completed development and metamorphosis in 55 days in Bhubaneswar (Hejmadi and Dutta, 1988). Girish and Saidapur (1999) reported the metamorphosis time of Polypedates maculatus as 60 days. Saidapur (2001) reported the larval duration of Polypedates maculates in 50-70 days and the size of metamorphosis is 21-23 mm. Metamorphosis (i.e., stages 42-46) lasts 6 days in the present study. This is similar to other available data on the duration of metamorphosis in P. maculatus and R. arboreus

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which undergo metamorphosis in five days (Iwasawa and Kawasaki, 1979; Mohanty-Hejmadi and Dutta, 1988). Downie et al. (2004) who studied timing of metamorphosis in 14 taxonomically and ecologically diverse species from Trinidad (Daudin,1802) reported metamorphosis ranging from 2.0 to 7.3 days. Whereas Sekar (1990) reported metamorphosis duration in R. malabaricus as 12 days. Chakravarty et.al (2011) reported metamorphosis duration of 9 days in P. teraiensis. The foam nest is essential for development of this rhacophorid species, when eggs were removed from the foam nest before hatching the embryo did not develop further (Chakravarty et.al, 2011). This is also observed in the present study. The foam nest protects the eggs and embryo from predators and desiccation (Heyer, 1969; Downie, 1988) and also protected from thermal damage, as white foam nest reflects heat (Gorzula, 1977). Deposition of eggs away from water protects the early stages of the embryos (Mohanty and Dutta, 1988). The tadpole of small temporary ponds have been reported to spend more time in feeding and develop faster than tadpoles from larger permanent ponds, where the larvae spend more time hiding from predators and develop more slowly (Peltzer and Lajmanovich 2004).

The clutch size for P. teraiensis ranged between100-150 in the present study. Chakravarty et al. (2011) reported from Assam that the clutch size for P. teraiensis consists about 100 eggs. Mohanty and Dutta (1988) reported for P. maculates, the number of eggs ranged from 275-719, where as Girish and Saidapur (1999) found the number of hatchling per nest ranged between 210-448 in P. maculatus. The present data is similar to the earlier published data and difference may be due to temperature and humidity variation in the present study area. The embryonic development takes place within the foam nest, the tadpole in stage 21 stays within the nest and drops into water at stage 22. At stage 22 the larvae are very delicate and tail fins become transparent. The external gills get reduced and finally covered with development of operculum at stage 25. At stage 41 almost fully developed forelimbs are seen concealed beneath the transparent skin .The pigmentation is visible at stage 22 on the dorsal side of the body. The keratodont rows are quite distinct at stage 25 and LTRF formula is 4(2-4)/3(1). With the emergence of forelimbs at stage 42, the keratodonts and jaw sheaths have completely disappeared. In the present study the life cycle duration of 42 days is similar to an earlier study conducted in the present

Table 1: Developmental Stages of Polypedates teraiensis Sl Stages No.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Corresponding Time stages of for Polypedates development teraiensis

Fertilized egg External gill Feeding Hind limb bud development Toe differentiation and development Well developed hind limb Forelimb visible Both limbs Froglet

Lowest length (mm)

Highest length (mm)

Average length (mm)

22-24 25 26-30

0 96 hrs 7 days 12-21 days

6.8 10.5 14.2

12 12.7 26

9.43 11.61 20.05

31-39

25-32 days

33.69

40 41 42-45 46

35 days 36 days 37-39 days 42 days

40 40 40 15

44 47 45 17

41.3 43.5 42.2 16.2

7.8 ±0.88 (6.8-9.1) BL 2.96 ±0.054 (2.9-3) BW 1.54 ±0.39 (1-2) BD 1.64 ±0.30 (1.2-2) I-O 0.78 ±0.16 (0.6-0.9) I-N 0.12 ±0.04 (0.1-0.2) S-O 0.58 ±0.10 (0.5-0.7) S-N 0.18 ±0.05 (0.1-0.2) T 4.84 ±0.89 (3.9-6.2) BTMH 0.72 ±0.16 (0.6-1) TH 1.24 ±0.43 (0.8-1.8)

Para 22 meters

8.92 11.58 11.61 16.16 19.58 ±0.84 ±0.35 ±0.69 ±1.16 ±1.22 (8-10) (11.2-12) (10.5-12.7)14.2-17.8)(17.5-21) 3.18 3.38 3.79 4.58 5.74 ±0.31 ±0.29 ±0.23 ±0.79 ±0.46 (2.9-3.7) (3.1-3.7) (3.5-4) (3.1-6) (5.1-6.2) 1.92 2.06 2.33 3.16 3.87 ±0.10 ±0.054 ±0.50 ±0.56 ±0.69 (1.8-2) (2-2.1) (1.7-2.9) (2.1-4.1) (3-4.9) 1.7 2.18 2.23 2.45 2.38 ±0.12 ±0.24 ±0.21 ±0.43 ±0.47 (1.6-1.9) (2-2.5) (2-2.5) (2.1-3) (2-3.1) 0.92 1.84 2.7 2.88 3.44 ±0.08 ±0.054 ±0.25 ±0.41 ±0.45 (0.8-1) (1.8-1.9) (2.5-3) (2.5-3.5) (3-4) 0.28 1.04 1.1 1.06 1.16 ±0.04 ±0.054 ±0.21 ±0.05 ±0.15 (0.2-0.3) (1-1.1) (1-1.5) (1-1.1) (1-1.5) 0.78 1.54 1.65 1.85 2.3 ±0.16 ±0.17 ±0.24 ±0.24 ±0.34 (0.5-0.9) (1.3-1.7) (1.5-2) (1.5-2) (2-3) 0.18 0.52 0.53 0.8 0.85 ±0.04 ±0.27 ±0.094 ±0.25 ±0.24 (0.1-0.2) (0.2-0.8) (0.5-0.8) (0.5-1) (0.5-1) 5.74 8.74 9.62 12.88 14.64 ±0.74 ±0.43 ±1.94 ±2.38 ±0.81 (5.1-6.8) (8-9) (7.3-12.3) (10-17.3) (13-16) 0.76 1.14 1.20 1.98 2.01 ±0.13 ±0.089 ±0.34 ±0.04 ±0.45 (0.7-1) (1-1.2) (1-2) (1.9-2) (1.5-2.9) 1.72 2.3 2.53 2.95 4.25 ±0.17 ±0.036 ±0.48 ±0.53 ±0.57 (1.5-1.9) (2-2.9) (2-3.2) (2-3.7) (3-4.9)

21.76 22.7 27.59 35.9 ±0.92 ±1.70 ±1.94 ±0.17 (21-23) (21-26) (25-30) (35.6-36) 5.85 6.26 9± 11.32 ±0.56 ±0.66 0.59 ±0.4 (5-7) (5-7) (8-9.8) 3(11-11.8) 4.12 4.36 5.61 7.04 ±0.26 ±0.55 ±0.43 ±0.05 (4-4.7) (3.3-5) (5-6) (7-7.1) 3.69 3.3 4.08 7.04 ±0.45 ±0.52 ±0.52 ±0.08 (3-4.2) (2.5-4) (3.5-5) (7-7.2) 3.15 3.34 4.44 5.98 ±0.24 ±0.45 ±0.79 ±0.08 (3-3.5) (3-4.5) (3-5.5) (5.9-6.1) 1.19 1.25 1.29 2.04 ±0.16 ±0.15 ±0.16 ±0.05 (1.1-1.5) (1-1.5) (1-1.5) (2-2.1) 2.04 2.4 3.44 4.02 ±0.05 ±0.39 ±0.12 ±0.04 (2-2.1) (2-3) (3.2-3.5) (4-4.1) 0.8 0.91 1.14 1.18 ±0.18 ±0.16 ±0.09 ±0.10 (0.5-1) (0.5-1) (1-1.2) (1.1-1.3) 15.49 16.73 17.99 24.58 ±0.64 ±1.22 ±2.80 ±0.5 (15-16.9)(15.2-19)(11-20.4) 8(23.8-25) 2.03 2.95 5.26 5.28 ±0.04 ±0.05 ±0.23 ±0.21 (2-2.1) (2.9-3) (5-5.5) (5.5.5) 4.56 5.64 5.28 9.08 ±0.47 ±1.05 ±0.70 ±0.1 (3.9-5) (4-7) (5-6.1) (9-9.2)

29 44.82 ±0.24 (44.5-45) 12.76 ±0.33 (12.3-13) 7.58 ±0.82 (7-9) 6.88 ±0.21 (6.5-7) 6.64 ±0.54 (6-7.1) 2± 0.07 (1.9-2.1) 4.1 ±0.15 (3.9-4.3) 1.94 ±0.19 (1.7-2.2) 31.42 ±0.53 (31-32) 5.44 ±0.51 (5-6) 10.76 ±1.60 (9-12)

45.14 48.64 49.3 ±3.45 ±2.63 ±5.66 (45-46.9) (44-50.1) (45-55.5) 12.98 14.02 16.94 ±0.04 ±0.08 ±0.1 (12.9-13) (13.9-14.1) 4(17-18) 8.06 8.56 8.06 ±0.08 ±0.51 ±0.05 (8-8.2) (8-9) (8-8.12) 7.08 7.08 4.62 ±0.20 ±0.63 ±0.16 (6.9-7.3) (6-7.5) (4.5-4.8) 6.92 7.01 6.9 ±0.53 ±0.05 ±0.1 (6-7.3) (7-7.1) (6.8-7) 2.02 1.94 1.94 ±0.08 ±0.05 ±0.05 (1.9-2.1) (1.9-2) (1.9-2) 4.12 4.18 4.12 ±0.10 ±0.08 ±0.10 (4-4.2) (4.1-4.3) (4-4.2) 2.02 2.04 2.1 ±0.10 ±0.05 ±0.07 (1.9-2.1) (2-2.1) (2-2.2) 33.36 34.62 32.26 ±0.86 ±2.61 ±5.6 (32-34) (30-36.1) 1(28-38.8) 5 5.2 2.94 ±0.61 ±0.27 ±0.08 (4-5.5) (5-5.5) (2.8-3) 11.48 12.1 4.9 ±1.33 ±0.65 ±0.07 (9.1-12.3) (11-12.5) (4.8-5)

Table 2: Morphometric measurements (in mm) of the tadpole of Polypedates teraiensis in different development stages. N=10 (X±SD; range in parenthesis)

TAMULY & DEY, Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(1), 182-187 (2014) 185

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Fig 2: Gosner stage 23

Fig.1: Foam with Eggs

Fig 3: Gosner Stage 31

Fig 4: Mouth part at Stage 38

location (unpublished, Dey, 1997) where it was completed in 40 days.

development of this rhacophorid species. The newly hatched larvae are very delicate with a large yolk sac and external gills. The keratodont rows are quite distinct at stage 25 and LTRF formula is 4(24)/3(1). At stage 42 the keratodonts and jaw sheaths have completely disappeared. The life history (Post hatching) of Polypedates teraiensis was completed within 42 days during the month of April to September under the favourable climatic factors. These findings can be used in planning the conservation of the frog under its natural habitats

CONCLUSION The duration of development and metamorphosis of anurans has been found to vary from species to species. The metamorphosis is completed in 58 days in P. teraiensis, 55days in Polypedates maculates, 94 days in Rana cyanophlyctis, 68 days in Rhacophorus malabaricus, 64 days in Hyla annectans, 60-61 days in Polypedates leucomystax, 59-60 days in Rhacophorus bipunctatus, 35-50 days in Bufo melanostictus as reported by earlier workers. Based on the present findings, it can be concluded that foam nest is essential for the

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors are grateful to the Department of Ecology and Environmental Science, Assam University, Silchar where the work was carried out and to the field assistant who helped in the field collection.

REFERENCES 1.

Gosner K. L., A simplified table for staging anuran embryos and larvae with notes of identification. Herpetologica, 16: 183-190 (1960) Chakravarty P., Bordoloi S., Grosjean S.,Ohler A., and Borkotoki A., Tadpole morphology and table of developmental

stages of Polypedates teraiensis (Dubois,1987). Alytes, 27(3): 85-115 (2011) Altig R. & McDiarmid R.W., Body plan. Development and morphology. In: R. W. McDiarmid& R.Altig (ed.), Tadpoles: the biology of anuran larvae, Chicago, University of Chicago Press: 24-51 (1999)

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Altig R., A key to the tadpoles of Continental United States and Canada. Herpetologica. 26: 180-207 (1970) Heyer R .W., Ecological interaction of frog larvae at a seasonal tropical location in Thailand. J. Herpetol, 7(4): 337-361(1973) Sheridan J. A., Ecology and behavior of Polypedates leucomystax (Anura: Rhacophoridae) in northeast Thailand. Herp. Rev., 39: 165-169 (2008) Monhanty H. P. and Dutta S. K., Life history of the common tree frog, Polypedates maculatus (Gray, 1834) (Anura: Rhacophoridae). J. Bombay nat Hist. Soc., 85: 512-517 (1988) Girish S. and Saidapur S.K., Mating and nesting behavior and early development in the tree frog Polypedates maculatus. Current Science, 76: 91-92 (1999) Saidapur S. K., Behavioral ecology of anuran tadpoles: The Indian Scenario. Proc. Indian natn Sci Acad, 6: 311-322 (2001) Iwasawa H. and Kawasaki N., Normal stages of development of the Japanese green frog, Rhacophorus arboreus. Jap. J. Herp., 8: 22-

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35 (1979) Downie J. R., Bryce R. and Smith J., Metamorphic duration: an under-studied variable in frog life histories. Biol. J. linn. Soc., 83: 261-272 (2004) Sekar A. G., Observation on the developmental stages of tadpoles of Malabar gliding frog, Rhacophorus malabaricus Jerdon, 1870 (Anura: Rhacophoridae). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., 87: 223-226 (1990) Heyer W.R., The adaptive ecology of the species groups of the genus Leptodactylus (Amphibia, Leptodactylidae). Evolution, 23: 421-428 (1969) Downie J. R., Functions of the foam in the foam-nesting leptodactylid Physalaemus pustulosus. Herp. J., 1: 302-307 (1988) Gorzula S., Foam nesting in leptodactylids: a possible function. Brit. J.Herp., 5: 657-659 (1977) Peltzer P. M. and Lajmanovich R.C., Anuran tadpole assemblages in riparian areas of the middle parana river, Argentina. Biodiversity and Conservation, 13: 1833-1842 (2004)

Current World Environment

Vol. 9(1), 188-191 (2014)

Effect of Catchment Area Activities on the Physico-Chemical Characteristics of Water of Upper Lake, Bhopal with Special Reference to Nitrate and Phosphate Concentration RANJANA TALWAR*, SHWETA AGRAWAL1, AVINASH BAJPAI2 and SUMAN MALIK3 *Sadhu Vaswani College, Bairagarh, Bhopal, India. Department of Life Sciences, Extol Institute of Management, Bhopal, India. 2 Makhanlal University, Bhopal, India. 3 HOD, Sadhu Vaswani College, Bairagarh, Bhopal, India.

http://dx.doi.org/10.12944/CWE.9.1.26 (Received: January 15, 2014; Accepted: February 18, 2014) ABSTRACT With the tremendous influx of people and consequent urban development, increased anthropogenic activities in the catchment, inflow of untreated sewage, nutrients and pesticides from urban and rural areas, the water quality of Upper Lake, Bhopal has deteriorated significantly. An attempt has been made to study various physico-chemical parameters, specifically nitrates and phosphates of five different sampling sites of Upper Lake and to study the effect of catchment area activities on these sites.

Key words: Urban development, Anthropogenic activities, Deteriorated, Catchment areas, Nitrate and Phosphates.

INTRODUCTION The construction of storage reservoirs is an age old Practice in India. Upper Lake of Bhopal, arguably the oldest among the largest manmade lakes in central part of India, falls under this category. The study area selected was Upper Lake of Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh. It is the life line of Bhopal created by Raja Bhoj in eleventh century. The Upper Lake is located between latitude 23º12' - 23º16' N and longitude 77º18' - 77º23' E. It is a shallow tropical lake. It has a watershed area of 361 km2 and a maximum submergence area of about 37 km2. The attainment of maximum water level (508.04 meters above sea level) of the lake depends on the magnitude of monsoon rainfall (average being around 1150 mm) in the watershed area. The water level in the lake is maintained by discharging excess water through a spillway provided on the southern bank of the lake. The Lake has an urban, semiurban and rural catchment area and its water quality is largely affected by various anthropogenic

activities around the lake. Amongst the various chemical constituents present in the lake, nitrate and phosphate are two important constituents that immensely help in the growth of the plants. If present in lake and ponds, they excessively promote the growth of aquatic weeds and hence pollute the aquatic resources. International studies on nitrates and phosphates in surface waters of various water bodies have expressed their concern and drawn the attention of scientists around the globe. Water intended for human consumption should be “safe and wholesome” ie free from pathogenic activities and harmful chemicals, pleasant to taste and useable for domestic purpose (Parashar et. al., 2006) MATERIAL AND METHODS The concentration of nitrate and phosphate in water samples is chiefly affected through point and non-point pollution sources such as washing, bathing, agricultural activities in fringe

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TALWAR et al., Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(1), 188-191 (2014) areas, joining of domestic raw sewage, cultivation of trapa and huge growth of aquatic macrophytes. The present study was conducted for analysis and interpretation of quality of water samples collected from five different stations of the Upper Lake, located at different catchment areas. The study was carried for two consecutive years ie 2011 and 2012 and the samples were collected in the pre – monsoon and post – monsoon periods. Amongst the various physical and chemical parameters studied and analyzed, the concentration of nitrate and phosphate were studied majorly. Phosphate and nitrate concentration was determined spectrophotometrically as per standard methods prescribed by Adoni, APHA, AWWA and WEF (1998). The sampling sites selected are as mentioned below : S1-Bairagarh This station of Upper Lake situated near Bairagarh has substantial inflow of domestic sewage. The inflow of nutrient has resulted in significant variation in the water quality parameters. Besides, agricultural activities are also the major source of pollution at this site. S2-Behta This sampling station is situated near the urban settlements of Bairagarh. This station also receives domestic sewage from the adjoining residential areas. S3-Lake View This station of the Upper Lake is less affected due to anthropogenic pressures. This site is chiefly used for recreational purposes.

S4-Gora Bisenkhedi This area receives maximum inflow of rainwater during monsoon which brings significant quantity of silt into the lake. Also at this site the lake receives agrochemicals, fertilizers through surface runoff from agricultural lands. S5-Kaliasote This part of the Upper Lake has a Dam which is mainly used for irrigation and recreational purposes. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS The water samples analyzed for nitrate and phosphate concentration of Upper Lake, Bhopal showed variations as per the station and period during which the sampling was carried out. Nitrate Nitrate indicates the pollution in ground water due to sewage percolation beneath the surface. Nitrate is also one of the major constituent of the various fertilizers and pesticides, hence through rains it percolates into the lake water. The samples analyzed in the pre-monsoon and postmonsoon season showed that the content of nitrate ranged between 1.27 and 2.76 mg/ltr in the year 2011 while it ranged between 1.27 and 2.93 mg/ltr in the year 2012. The minimum concentration of 1.27mg/ltr was observed at sampling station S3. Sadhana Tamot (2006) also observed that the concentration of nitrate in samples of water of Upper Lake, Bhopal was within the acceptable limits although it tends to increase considerably in one year’s time. The deterioration in the quality of lake water has contributed to the decline in the biological

Table 1: Variations in Nitrate at different sampling stations of Upper Lake in the year 2011-12 2011 S. No. 1 2 3 4 5

2012

Sampling Station

PreMonsoon

PostMonsoon

PreMonsoon

PostMonsoon

S1 S2 S3 S4 S5

1.96 2.27 1.27 1.84 1.73

2.21 2.76 1.31 2.65 2.69

2.01 2.36 1.44 1.27 1.83

2.24 2.93 1.48 1.72 2.34

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diversity of the flora, fauna and productivity of the wetland systems (Ramachandra, 2001). Phosphate The study carried out in the year 2011 and 2012 in the pre-monsoon and post-monsoon season showed that the concentration of phosphate ranged between 1.22 and 2.43 mg/ltr in the year 2011 while it ranged between 1.95 and 3.12mg/ltr in the year 2012. There are various sources of phosphate to the lake water, such as runoff from

surface catchments, interaction between the water and sediment from dead plant and animal remains at the bottom of the lake. High concentration of phosphorus compounds may produce a secondary problem in water bodies where algal growth is normally limited by the presence of phosphorus. Sonal Trivedi et. al. (2012) observed phosphate concentration of Shahpura Lake, Bhopal and found phosphate concentration to be alarming and very high as compared to the standard guidelines, which

Table 2: Variations in Phosphate at different sampling stations of Upper Lake in the year 2011-12 2011 S. No. 1 2 3 4 5

2012

Sampling Station

PreMonsoon

PostMonsoon

PreMonsoon

PostMonsoon

S1 S2 S3 S4 S5

1.22 1.63 1.69 1.68 1.72

1.69 2.43 1.94 2.23 2.15

1.95 2.64 2.13 2.18 2.06

2.28 3.12 2.23 2.34 2.31

Fig 1: Variation Of Nitrate In The Year 2011 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 12

Fig 2: Variation Of Phosphate In The Year 2011 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 12

TALWAR et al., Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(1), 188-191 (2014) reveals that nutrient load in the lake is very high. Maximum value of phosphate was found during the monsoon season. Sujitha et. al. (2006) observed that the total phosphate value at Pallichal area of Karamana river of Trivandrum showed the deposition of nutrients during monsoon season. CONCLUSION Agriculture is the major source of several non-point source pollutants, including nutrients, sediments, pesticides and salts. Besides, untreated sewage and city garbage coming into the lakes is responsible for the deterioration in its quality. From

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the study it was observed that the concentration of nitrate and phosphate increases in water after monsoons because of runoff waters from the nearby fertilized land. Also we have observed lower values of both the contents at the sampling point S-3 [Lake View] which is an area of recreational use and free from agricultural activities and anthropogenic pressures. As a result we have not observed any specific change in concentration from pre to post monsoon season. The concentration of nitrate and phosphate have also shown an increased trend from 2011 to 2012 which might be due to an increases use of various chemical fertilizers and pesticides.

REFERENCES 1.

2. 3.

Parashar C., Dixit S. and Shrivastava R. Seasonal Variations in Physico – chemical characteristics in Upper Lake of Bhopal. Asian J. Exp. Sci., 20(2), 297-32 (2006). Adoni A.D. Workbook of Limnology, Pratibha Publication, Sagar, M.P., India (1985). APHA, AWWA, WEF, Standard methods for the examination of water and waste water (20th edn.) Washington, DC: American Public Health Association (1998) De A. K. Environmental Chemistry 4th Edition, New Age International Publishers, New Delhi, 245-252 (2002). Ramachandra T.V. Restoration and management strategies of wetlands in developing countries. Electronic Green Journal, 15: (2001) Retrieved from http:// egj.lib.uidaho.edu/egj15/ramacha1.html. Tamot S. and Sharma P. Physico-chemical status of Upper Lake (Bhopal, India) water quality with special reference to Phosphate and Nitrate concentration and their impact on Lake Ecosystem. Asian J. Exp. Sci., 20(1), 151-158 (2006). Jinwal A. and Dixit S. Pre- and Post-monsoon variation in physic-chemical characteristics

10.

11.

in ground water qaulaity of Bhopal “The City of Lakes” India. Asian J. Exp. Sci., 22(3), 311316 (2008). Sonal Trivedi and H.C. Kataria Physicochemical studies of water quality of Shahpura Lake, Bhopal (M.P.) with special reference to pollution effects on ground water of its fringe areas. Curr World Environ ; 7(1): 139-144 (2012). Sujitha P.C., Mitra Dev D., Sowmya P.K. and Mini Priya R. Physico -chemical parameters of Karamana river water in Trivandrum, India. International Journal of Environmental Sciences, 2(3), Research Article, ISSN 09764402 (2012). Choudhary R., Rawtani P. and Vishwakarma M. Comparative study of drinking water quality parameters of three manmade reservoirs i.e. Kolar, Kaliasote and Kerwa Dam. Curr World Environ, 6(1); 145-149 (2011). Bajpai A., Pani S., Jain R.K. and Mishra S.M. Heavy metals contamination through idol immersion in a tropical lake. Eco. Env and Con. 8(2) 171-173 (2002).

Current World Environment

Vol. 9(1), 192-202 (2014)

Studies on Fungal Strains of Selected Regions of Ludhiana and their Biochemical Characterization DEEPIKA BHATIA, SIMRANJEET SINGH, ASHISH VYAS, HAKIM ISHFAQRASOOL, PARVINDER KAUR and JOGINDER SINGH* Department of Biotechnology, Lovely Professional University, Phagwara (144401), Punjab, India. http://dx.doi.org/10.12944/CWE.9.1.27 (Received: Feburary 13, 2014; Accepted: April 05, 2014) ABSTRACT Conservation methods often are focused on maintaining the biodiversityof a specific landscape or ecosystem. Scientist’soften provide species richness as an indicator of biodiversity. However,species richness data are problematic when attempts are madeto enumerate microfungi, particularly those from the soil. Manysoil fungi fail to sporulate, making identification difficult.Other means of assessing the importance of fungi to ecosystempreservation must be developed. Otherwise, microfungi mightbe overlooked in discussions of ecosystem management and conservationissues. Herein, we have described the varieties of fungi was isolated from soils from high and low yield areas of a field sites of selected regions of Ludhiana. Fungal Diversity was analyzed by isolation and purification of fungal cultures. In the present investigation a total Forty Two Fungal strains have been isolated from fourteen sites of Ludhiana region. The morphological study revealed that these microbial forms have multiple occurrences at multiple sites. Finally nine fungal strains were purified and physicochemical characterized to check the effect of pH (3-9) and effect of temperature (25-45º C) on their growth. The colony diameter was measured regularly between 24 hr duration. Among all fungal strains maximum strains showed the maximum growth at pH-6; while in case of other samples the maximum growth was observed in pH range of 3-9. All the fungal samples were grown at their optimum pH which has been observed to check the effect of temperature on the growth. It was observed that all the fungal strains show maximum growth at 25º C indicating their mesophilic nature. On the basis of morphological & enzyme production capacity, it was found that most of the fungal strains were of Aspergillus sp. and Fusariumsp. They were potential producers of amylase and cellulose. Some strains of Aspergillus were able to produces both enzyme at the 4th day of incubation. The cellulose production capacities were more as compared to rest of enzymes

Key words: Fungal Diversity, Sporulate, Mesophilic, Soil fungi, Physicochemical characterization.

INTRODUCTION In a world dazzled by scientific discoveries and technological advances leading to better living standards, the negative consequence of such developments are beginning to emerge and come into focus. Microorganisms perform their metabolic processes rapidly and with remarkable specificity under ambient conditions, catalyzed by their diverse enzyme mediated reactions. Enzyme alternatives to harsh chemical technologies has led to intensive exploration of natural microbial biodiversity to discover enzyme which could function effectively

and generate pollution-free “dream technologies” in the immediate future. (Srinivasan et al., 1999). We live on “a microbial planet” (Woese, 1999) in the “Age of Bacteria” (Gould, 1996). Microorganisms, the first cellular life forms, were active on earth for more than 3.0 billion years before the development of multi-cellular, macroscopic life forms. During that time and continuing into the present, through the invention of a spectacular array of different metabolic and physiological capabilities, microbes evolved to exploit the multitude of environments and microhabitats presented by the

BHATIA et al., Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(1), 192-202 (2014) abiotic world. Rapidly accumulating evidence indicates that microbeâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s most likely account for the vast majority of kinds of organisms on earth. Microbes carry out a stunningly diverse array of metabolic activities, several of which were instrumental in creating conditions for the evolution of other life forms. Estimates of 1.7 million species have been described to date; estimates for the total number of species existing on earth at present vary from 5 million to nearly 100 million. Fungi are second largest group of living biota available in the world after insects. The currently known fungal species are around 72,036 species and in India 27,000 fungi were encountered (Manoharachary, 2002). The number of fungi recorded in India exceeds 27,000 species, the largest biotic community recorded after insects (Sarbhoyet.al., 1996). The true fungi belong to kingdom Eukaryota which has 4 phyla, 103 orders, 484 families and 4,979 genera. A fungus is a member of a large group of eukaryotic organisms that includes microorganisms such as yeasts and molds, as well as the more familiar mushrooms.Fungi perform an essential role in the decomposition of organic matter and have fundamental roles in nutrient cycling and exchange. They have long been used as a direct source of food, such as mushrooms and truffles, as a leavening agent for bread, and in fermentation of various food products, such as wine, beer, and soy sauce. Since the 1940s, fungi have been used for the production of antibiotics, and, more recently, various enzymes produced by fungi are used industrially and in detergents. Fungi are also used as biological agents to control weeds and pests. Many species produce bioactive compounds called mycotoxins, such as alkaloids and polyketides, which are toxic to animals including humans. Their growth is probably related to their ability to grow at 28Â°C and produce protein and fat hydrolyzing enzymes. Soil fungi have been recognized chiefly by two methods; direct examination and isolation by cultural methods. The limitations of the first method are obvious, and although it has produced many excellent results, the physical barriers in the way of such a method limit its usefulness, and in most cases such observations as were made by it were confirmed by resort to cultural methods. In the

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second method, that of isolation of cultures, has been more widely used and has produced the greater numbers of species of recognized soil fungi. The substrate used in making the isolation is of prime importance in determining the species that will be taken cannot be denied. The remarkable discovery of Coker and his associates that many species of saprolegniales are seemingly present in a very wide range of soils and localities was the result of the application of the techniques and materials used to isolate this group of fungi from water samples. Biodiversity refers to the variability of life on Earth, all the living species of animals, plants and microorganisms. According to Hawksworth (2002), fungi are a major component of biodiversity, essential for the survival of other organisms and are crucial in global ecological processes. Fungi being ubiquitous organisms occur in all types of habitats and are the most adaptable organisms. The soil is one of the most important habitats for microorganisms like bacteria, fungi, yeasts, nematodes etc. The filamentous fungi are the major contributors to the soil biomass (Alexander 1977). They form the major group of organotrophic organisms responsible for the decomposition of organic compounds. Their activity participates in the biodeterioration and biodegradation of toxic substances in the soil (Rangaswamiet al., 1999). It has been found that more number of genera and species of fungi exist in soil than in any other environment (Nagmaniet al., 2005). Contributing to the nutrient cycle and maintenance of ecosystem fungi play an important role in soil formation, soil fertility, soil structure and soil improvement (Haoquinet al., 2008). Fungi take a very important position in structure and function of ecosystem. They decompose organic matter from humus, release nutrients, assimilate soil carbon and fix organic nutrients. An intense study of abundance and diversity of soil microorganisms can divulge their role in nutrient recycling in the ecosystem. MATERIALS AND METHODS Selection of Sample Sites Fourteen different sites in various villages of in and around vicinity of Ludhiana were selected as shown in table-1 (given in supplementary sheets).

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Collection of soil sample Different types of soil samples viz. waste soil (W), dump soil (D), Leaf litter (L), decomposing organic manure (M) etc were collected. Samples (500gm) were suspended in sterile polythene bag and thoroughly packaged and kept at 4°C. Isolation of Fungi Samples were stored in the refrigerator at 4°C till the isolation of fungi. For isolating Fungi, the PDA media (solution containing all the nutrients required for the growth of microorganisms) was added with 50 g/ml tetracycline to suppress bacterial and in the isolation plates. Medium supplemented with various chemicals components was inoculated and incubated at 28°C. Media (g/l) Potato (Peeled) Dextrose Agar pH Distilled Water

- 200 - 10 - 15 - 5.6 - 1000 ml

Purification of fungal strains After 4 days of incubation Fungal colony started appearing as separated on PDA medium and it was further incubated for 4 days at 28ÚC. The purified colonies were aseptically picked up and transferred to PDA slants. The slants were incubated at 28°C for 4-5 days for maximum growth. The slants were then stored at 4°C in the refrigerator. Maintenance of pure culture Samples were stored in the refrigerator at (4°C) for the identification of fungi. Physico-chemical analysis Effect of pH on the growth of fungal colonies The fungal samples were grown at different pH ranges (3, 7 and 9) to check the effect of pH on their growth. The diameter (mm) of the fungal colonies was measured at different time intervals. Effect of Temperature on the growth of fungal colonies The fungal samples were grown at different temperature ranges (25°C, 35°C, 45°C) to check the effect of temperature on their growth.

Bio-Chemical Screening of Samples Amylase assay Screening was done as per the method of Behlet al., (2006) and Rele (2004). Screening of fungal culture for enzyme activity was carried out on agar media on petri plates containing 1 % soluble starch. After solidification of medium around 10 mm well was cut out aseptically with the help of cork borer. The well was filled with crude enzyme extract and incubated at 28°C for 96 hrs in an upright position. The plates were flooded with Gram’s iodine solution and observations were made to see clear zone around the well. A negative control was maintained by adding heat denatured crude enzyme sample. Denaturation was done by boiling enzyme extract at 110°C for 20 min and then cooled suddenly in an ice bath for 5 min. After flooding with Gram’s iodine solution a clear area around the line of growth indicates starch hydrolysis Cellulase assay Screening was done as per the method of Waksman and Fred (1922). Screening of fungal culture for enzyme activity was carried out onCzapekDox Agar Medium petri plates. After solidification of medium around 10 mm well was cut out aseptically with the help of cork borer. The well was filled with crude enzyme extract and incubated at 28°C for 96 hrs in an upright position. The plates were flooded with 0.1% Congo red dye solution andobservations were made to see clear zone around the well. A negative control was maintained by adding heat denatured crude enzyme sample. Denaturation was done by boiling enzyme extract at 110°C for 20 min and then cooled suddenly in an ice bath for 5 min. After flooding with 0.1% Congo red dye solution a clear area around the line of growth indicates starch hydrolysis. Protease assay Screening was done by sub culturing of the fungus produced on skimmed milk medium one by one onto the PDA medium and were finally transferred to PDA slants and maintained at 4°C. Proteases were screened using with fungal selective media (PDA: potato dextrose agar, malt extract, Czapek and Dox medium), containing two different protein substrate, soya meal (20 g/l) and Casein Peptone (10 g/l). These ingredients were added to induce the protease synthesis by the fungi

BHATIA et al., Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(1), 192-202 (2014) and the growth was measured after 24hrs, 48hrs, 72hrs and 96hrs. Identification of Cultures The cultures were identified by studying their macroscopic appearance, pigmentation and growth rate (table-5 given in supplementary sheets). Visual examination was done to study the important characters such as colour, texture, macroscopic structures, growth zones, aerial and submerged hyphae and colony topography. The microscopic examination was made by observing the slide cultures after staining with Lacto phenol Cotton Blue. Based on these feature identification was made following Gilman’s Manual for Fungus identification (Gilman J.C 1995). RESULTS Table 1: Selection of Samples Sites S. No.

Name of The Site

Vill. KoharaTeh: Distt Ludhiana Vill.JandialiTeh: Distt Ludhiana Vill. RamgarhTeh: Distt Ludhiana Vill. TajpurTeh: Distt Ludhiana Vill. SuneetTeh: Distt Ludhiana Vill. LaltoTeh: Distt Ludhiana Vill. JhabewalTeh: Distt Ludhiana Vill. AyaliKhurdTeh: Distt Ludhiana Vill. Ayali KalanTeh: Distt Ludhiana Vill. MundianKhurdTeh: Distt Ludhiana Vill. Mundian KalanTeh: Distt Ludhiana Vill. MangliucchiTeh: Distt Ludhiana Vill. BastijhodewalTeh: Distt Ludhiana Vill. Sunder nagarTeh: Distt Ludhiana

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

Site Code KO JA RA TA SU LA JH AKH AKA MKH MKA MUC BJO SU

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Physico-chemical characterization of purified fungal strains Effect of pH on the growth of fungal colonies The fungal samples were grown at different pH ranges (3, 7 and 9) to check the effect of pH on their growth. The diameter of the fungal colonies (mm) was measured at different time intervals. The pH is the symbol for the logarithm of the reciprocal of the hydrogen ion concentration (Log/H+) in grams atoms per liter. The measure of the relative acidity or alkalinity of a solution is called pH. pH is one of the important factor that determines the growth & morphology of microorganisms as they are sensitive to the concentration of hydrogen ion present in the medium. Each enzyme system of organisms has a particular pH range in which it can function. The pH value also serves as a valuable indicator of the initiation and end of the enzyme synthesis (Friedrich et al., 1989). Effect of Temperature on the growth of Fungal Colonies The fungal samples were grown at different temperature ranges (25°C, 35°C, 45°C) to check the effect of temperature on their growth. The diameter of the fungal colonies (mm) was measured at different time intervals. Temperature is a vital biochemical factor which controls the enzymatic activities.Ninefungal strains were selected for temperature characterization study. Optimum temperature for the activity of Protease produced by Aspergillusniger sp., Aspergillusflavus sp., Fusarium sp.,was at 2545°C respectively. The data presented in tables clearly reveals that fungal strains show maximum protease activity at 25-45°C.Ali (1992) also recorded optimum temperature of 30°C for protease produced by A. fumigatus.Fungal strains produced proteases beyond 30°C but in lesser yields than that produced at optimal temperature. These temperatures might not havebeen suitable for Enzyme production. This is in accordance with the review of Daniel et al., (2010) whostated that increase in temperature led to increase inactivity

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but that there was limit to the increase in activitybecause higher temperatures led to a sharp decrease in activity. This could be due to the denaturing of protein structure. Purified fungal strains were physicochemical characterized to check the effect of pH (3-9) and effect of temp. (25-45ยบC). Effect of pH on the growth of fungi indicates that the fungal strainswere shown the maximum growth at acidic pH i.e3. Some strains of Aspergillus were shown maximum growth at alkaline pH-9. They show the maximum growth at 4th day of incubation with slight decrease afterwards. A pH gradient agar plates with surface pH ranging from about 3-9 was easily prepared. The gradient was sufficiently stable to permit different growth characteristics among various fungal species at different pH value to be distinguished. The pH effects on the growth rate,

conidiogenisis and pigment formation were consistent with the results obtained by other workers. Wheeler et al., (1990) reported that the effect of pH on growth rate of 61 isolates of fungi. Four species of Aspergillus grows over the pH range 3-9 and temperature 37ยบC. in general Aspergillus were the most tolerant of alkaline pH. The temperature effect on fungal strains was studied at their observed optimum pH values from 3.0 - 9.0 and at different temperature ranging from (2545ยบC). Optimum temperature was found to be 25ยบC for all the fungal strains. The result clearly indicates the presence of mesophilic strains of Aspergillus and Fusarium sp. The maximum growth was found to be occurs at the 4th day of incubation. Gradually on increasing temperature up to 45ยบC, the growth decreases afterwards. The colony diameter was measured regularly after the gap of 24 hrs at different temperature range.

Table 2: Effect of different pH range on the growth of fungal sp

Time

24 hrs 48hrs 72hrs 96hrs

Aspergillus glaucus pHpH-7

pH-9

pH-3

pH-7

pH-9

pH-3

pH-7

pH-9

0 0 0.5 1

2 3.5 4.8 9.5

2 3 7.5 10.5

0 0 0 0

1.5 2.5 4.5 11.5

0.5 2.5 4.5 6.5

0 0 0 1.5

2.5 3.5 4.8 9

2.5 5.8 7 8.5

Fusarium sp. pH

Aspergillus nidulans pH

Fusarium sp pH

pH-3

pH-7

pH-9

pH-3

pH-7

pH-9

pH-3

pH-7

pH-9

0 0 0 2.5

0 0 2 3.5

1.5 3 5 7.5

0 0 0.8 2

2 2.8 6 9.5

2.5 5.5 6.5 8

0 0 0 1.5

2.5 3.5 4.8 9

2.5 5.8 7 8.5

Fusarium sp. pH-

Time

24 hrs 48hrs 72hrs 96hrs

Fusarium sp pH-

pH-3

Time

24 hrs 48hrs 72hrs 96hrs

Aspergillus fumigatus pH-

Aspergillus flavus pH-

Aspergillus niger pH-

pH-3

pH-7

pH-9

pH-3

pH-7

pH-9

pH-3

pH-7

pH-9

0 0 0 2.5

0 0 2 3.5

1.5 3 5 7.5

0 0 1.5 1.8

1.5 3 7.5 10.5

0.5 3 7.5 11

0 0 0 0.5

2 2.8 6 11

1 2.5 4 7

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Table 3: Effect of temperature on the growth of fungal sp. at selective pH Aspergillus glaucus Temp at pH-9

Time

24 hrs 48hrs 72hrs 96hrs

pH-7 35°C

pH-9 45°C

pH-3 25°C

pH-7 35°C

pH-9 45°C

pH-3 25°C

pH-7 35°C

pH-9 45°C

9 15 22 30

4.5 7.5 15 17.5

1.5 3 5.5 12

6.5 12 20.5 30

6.5 11 15.5 22

2.5 4 6.5 11.5

5 13 24 33.5

4 7.5 13 18.5

4 4.5 8.5 13.5

Fusarium sp. Temp at pH-8

Aspergillus nidulans Temp at pH-6

Fusarium sp Temp at pH-6

pH-3 25°C

pH-7 35°C

pH-9 45°C

pH-3 25°C

pH-7 35°C

pH-9 45°C

pH-3 25°C

pH-7 35°C

pH-9 45°C

7 13 25 40

3.5 11.5 15 16.5

3.5 4.4 10 12.5

8 15.5 17.5 24

2.5 6.5 10 14

4 5 7.5 14.5

3.5 13.5 18 26

3.5 7.5 15 18.5

4 5 6.5 11

Fusarium sp. Temp at pH-8

Time

24 hrs 48hrs 72hrs 96hrs

Fusarium sp Temp at pH-6

pH-3 25°C

Time

24 hrs 48hrs 72hrs 96hrs

Aspergillus fumigatus Temp at pH-8

Aspergillus flavus Temp at pH-6

Aspergillus niger Temp at pH-6

pH-3 25°C

pH-7 35°C

pH-9 45°C

pH-3 25°C

pH-7 35°C

pH-9 45°C

pH-3 25°C

pH-7 35°C

pH-9 45°C

8.5 12.5 24 36.5

5 11.5 13.5 16

5 7.5 9 14

8.5 15 27 32

4.5 6.5 11 15.5

6.5 8.5 11.5 15.5

10.5 12.5 25 34

4.5 6.5 9.5 14

7.5 9.5 12.5 16.5

Table 4: Enzymatic screening of purified fungal strains [Colony diameter (mm) was measured] S. no.

Identified Fungal Strain

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Aspergillus glaucus Aspergillus fumigatus Fusarium sp. Fusarium sp. Aspergillus nidulans Fusarium sp. Aspergillusf lavus Aspergillus niger Fusarium sp.

Amylase Screening Cellulase Screening Starch Hydrolysis Test Congo Red Dye Test + (1.5 mm) _ + (1.5 mm) + (1.0 mm) _ + (1.5 mm) + (1.5 mm) + (1.0 mm) + (2.5 mm)

+ + + + + + + +

(2.0 mm) (1.0 mm) (2.0 mm) (2.0 mm) _ (2.0 mm) (1.5 mm) (2.0 mm) (2.0 mm)

Protease Screening

+ + + + + + + +

(8.5 mm) (9.5 mm) (9.0 mm) (10.5 mm) (8.0 mm) (7.5 mm) (8.0 mm) (8.0 mm)

Fusarium sp ¤¤

Aspergillusniger ¤

Aspergillusflavus ^^^

Fusarium sp.^^

Aspergillusnidulans^

Fusarium sp ****

Fusarium sp***

Aspergillus fumigates**

Aspergillus glaucus *

Fungal Sp

* Superscript indicates its occurance at multiple location in 6 sample sites; ** Superscript indicates its occurance at multiple location in 4 sample sites *** Superscript indicates its occurance at multiple location 3 sample sites; ***Superscript indicates its occurance at multiple location in 5 sample sites ^ Superscript indicates its occurance at multiple location in 2 sample sites; ^^ Superscript indicates its occurance at multiple location in 2 sample sites ^^^Superscript indicates its occurance at multiple location in 6 sample sites; ¤ Superscript indicates its occurance at multiple location in 11 sample sites ¤¤ Superscript indicates its occurance at multiple location in 2 sample sites; ¤¤¤ Superscript indicates its occurance at multiple location in 1 sample sites

KO/SS/F1;MUC/SS/F1;TA/SS/F2; JH/SS/F3; BJO/SS/F2; SN/SS/F4

Characterstics

Growth rate is slow to moderately rapid and the texture of colonies varies from downy to powdery, conidial heads are radiate to loosely columnar. Conidiophores are smooth walled. Conidia are ellipsoidal or rounded. 2. JA/SS/F1 ; JA/LL/F1; Colonies in the agar medium widely spread and strictly velvety. From RA/SS/F2;MNC/SS/F3 green to dark green, becoming almost black in age. Conidiophores short, usually densely crowded. Conidia dark green in mass, globose. 3 RA/SS/F1; SU/SS/F2; AKH/SS/F2; It grows as hyphae, which are cylindrical, thread-like structures. Hyphae grow at their tips (apices); new hyphae are typically formed by emergence of new tips along existing hyphae by a process called branching. Hyphae are septate which are divided into compartments separated by cross walls. 4 TA/M/F1;SN/SS/F3;MNC/SS/F2 Colonies in the agar medium widely spread from tints of cinnamon to deeper JH/SS/F2;MKH/SS/F3 brown shades in age, spreading velvety. Conidiophores with smooth walls, septate. 5 SU/SS/F1;MKA/SS/F2 Colonies in the agar medium spreading broadly dark cress green. Conidial heads short, columnar with smooth walls. Conidia globose and green in mass. 6 LA/SS/F1 ; LA/LL/F1 Colonies in the agar medium widely spread white at first site, becoming green in 4-5 days, may show various shades of light green. Vegetative hyphae, septate. Conidiophores arise as branches of aerial mycellium. 7 AKA/SS/F2; Colonies in the agar medium widely spread to scanty growth. Conidial areas MKH/SS/F2;MKA/SS/F1;AKH/SS ranging in colour from citron green to mignonette green. Conidiophores arise /F1;KO/SS/F2; RA/SS/F3 separately, broadening upward and granular. Heads in every colony vary from small with a few chains of conidia to large masses. Conidia are almost smooth. 8 MKH/SS/F1; SN/SS/F2;KO/SS/F3 Colonies in the agar medium rapidly growing, abundant submerged mycelium, TA/SS/F1;SU/SS/F3;LA/LL/F2;JH conidiophores are smooth, septate. Conidial heads are blackish-brown to /SS/F4 AKA/SS/F1;MUC/SS/F2 carbonaceous black varying from small conidial masses of a chains to globose BJO/SS/F3 or radiate heads. 9 JH/SS/F1; BJO/SS/F1;SN/SS/F1 Colonies in the agar medium rapidly growing, white in colour and membranous. Hyphae are septate. Conidiophores short, erect and producing conidia in chains at their apices.

No Sample Sites

Table5: Identification of fungal samples: Identified fungus cultures with their codes

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Fig. 1

Fig. 2

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Enzymatic screening of purified fungal strains Enzymes are the most important products obtained for human needs through microbial sources. Enzymes are highly efficient environmental friendly protein catalyst synthesized by living systems. They have significant advantage over Amylase screening of purified fungal strains

Cellulase screening of purified fungal strains

Protease screening of purified fungal strains

chemical catalyst in terms of catalytic activity, ability to work at moderate temperature and the ability to get produced in large amounts (Chand & Mishra, 2003). Dr. JockichiTakamine (1914) was the first indiviual to realize the mechnical possibility of cultivated enzymes and presented them to society. Although he was mainly concerned with fungal

BHATIA et al., Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(1), 192-202 (2014) enzymes, Boidin and Effront (1917) were pioneers in the output of enzymes produced by bacteria. Since that time microbial enzymes have taken the place of enzymes from plants and animals (Underkofler, et al. 1957). A total of 9 fungal strains were purified from different soil samples and enzymatic screening was performed at optimum pH and temperature. The results indicate that number of microbial forms has multiple occurrences and additionally, they have the capacity to produce amylase under optimum environmental conditions. All the purified fungal strains were screened for the enzyme production capacity viz. amylase, cellulase and protease at their recorded optimum pH and temperature. Most of the strains were potential producer of cellulase among all. Maximum enzyme synthesis occurred at the 4th day of incubation with gradual decrease afterwards. The pH and temperature effects the enzyme activity of fungal strains. The strains of Aspergillus and Fusarium sp. were the maximum producer of enzymes. Chellapandi (2009) reported Aspergillusflavusand Aspergillusterreusas the potential strains for production oftannery protease in submerged fer mentation. To improve the productivity of protease enzyme in liquid broth, various media ingredients have been optimized. The crude and partially purified proteases preliminarily characterized and used for unhairing processes at lab scale in tannery. The protease obtained from these strains showed the good activity in wide alkaline condition at 50 ºC suggesting the possibility of using in leather and detergent industry. Result also raises hope for purification and applications in various industrial processes. This can have important implications in proteolytic breakdown of proteins by these fungal strains for the establishment of a robust and cost effective process in various industries like brewing,baking, textiles and laundry etc. The present study raises the hope to further characterize these fungal strains for enzymatic characterization and to be harnessed for industrial applications.

201

DISCUSSION The major goal of microbial ecology is to understand microbial diversity in natural habitats; therefore knowledge of both microorganisms and habitats is essential. A Total of 14 Sites were selected for sample collection for the isolation of the fungal strains, quantitatively the number of fungal cultures were large has been shown in table 1 and 2 respectively. A total of forty two fungal cultures were isolated from fourteen sample sites. After critical morphological observation (Colony colour, Colony shape, pigmentation, pattern of growth in five days) and microscopic observation, many of the fungal cultures were found to be similar and found to be present at multiple locations and indicated by different superscripts. Identified fungal strains are, Aspergillus fumigatus, Aspergillus glaucaus, Aspergillus nidulans, Fusarium sp., Aspergillus niger. The results show that the region Ludhiana is flourished with microbial flora. The above results also confirm the isolation studies earlier done by Goyalet al 2008, Jain et al 2005. The effect of pH on the growth of Aspergillus glaucaus and Aspergillus fumigatus showed maximum growth at pH-9 (alkaline pH). The colony diameter was measured i.e 11.5mm. The growth increases after 48hrs. Sporulation was observed after 96hrs. Aspergillus flavus shows that the optimum pH was recorded i.e acidic pH-6. The colony diameter was measured 12.5 after 96 hrs. Green colored spores was observed microscopically after 48 hrs. Similar results were observed with the fungal strains. The optimum pH was 6 & the colony diameter measured i.e 12.5. Sporulation was observed after 96 hrs. The data presented in Table 1 & 2 indicates that Aspergillusfumigatus grows maximally at 25ºC at alkaline pH i.e 8. The colony diameter was measured after the gap of 24 hrs. The maximum colony diameter recorded 30 mm after 96 hrs at 25ºC. The mesophilic fungal strain, Aspergillusfumigatus which grows at 25ºC at acidic pH (i.e 6). The growth rate decreases when temperature increases up to 45ºC. It clearly depicts that the optimum temperature was found to be 25ºC at pH 8 for the growth of Fusarium sp. The highest colony diameter was measured i.e 40 mm after 96 hrs. the presence of mesophilic fungal strain of Aspergillusnidulans. The fungal sample were

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allowed to grow at its optimum pH (i.e 6). The optimum temperature found to be recorded was 25ºC and highest colony diameter was 24 mm. The strain of Aspergillusflavus&Aspergillusniger. The

optimum temperature was found to be 25ºC at acidic pH (i.e 6). Very less growth was observed after increasing temperature up to 45ºC.

REFERENCES 1.

8. 9.

10. 11.

12.

Alexander M, Introduction to soil Microbiology, John Wiley &Sons, New York. (1977). Ali gao, Formation of protease by Aspergillusfumigatusand Penicilliumspp. J. King Saud Univ. Sci., 4(2):127 (1992). Behal, A., Singh, J., Sharma, MK., Puri, P and Batra, N, Characterisation of á- amylase from Bacillus sp. AB 04. Int J Agric and Biol. 8(1) : 80-83 (2006). Chand, S and Mishra, P., Research and application of microbial enzymes- India’s contribution. AdvBiochemEnginBiotechnol. 85: 95-124 (2003). Chellapandi. P., Production and Preliminary Characterization ofAlkaline Protease from Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillu sterreus. E-Journal of Chemistr y, 7(2):479-482 (2009). Daniel RM, Peterson ME, Danson MJ, The molecular basis of the effect of temperature on enzyme activity. Biochem. J., 425(2): 353360 (2010). Friedrich J., Cimerman, A., Steiner, W., Submerged production of pectinolytic enzymes by Aspergillusniger: Effect of different aeration/agitation regimes. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol. 31: 421-442 (1989). Gould S J, “Planet of Bacteria,” Washington Post Horizon, 119 (344) (1996). GoyalMeenakshi, Kalra KL, Sareen VK, Soni. G, Xylanase Production With Xylan rich lignocellulosic Waste by alocal soil isolate of Trichoderma viride Brazilian Journal of Microbiology. 39: 535-541 (2008). Gilman JC, A Manual of Soil Fungi, 2nd Indian Edition, Biotech Books Delhi (1995). Hao-quin Pan, Jin- Feng Yu, Yue- ming Wu, Tian- Yu Zhang & Hong- Feng Wang, Area: 1, J. Zhejiang Univ. Sci., B 9(10): 829-834 (2008). Hawksworth, DL, The magnitude of fungal diversity: the 1.5 million species estimate

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revisited. Mycological Research 105: 14221432 (2002). Jain Sandeep, Verma .KS, Shah Mehraj, Pathological studies on Alternaria alternate (Fr.) Keiss, causing Leaf Blight of Pear. Plant pathology Journal 4(1): 51-53 (2005). Manoharachary, C., Biodiversity, Conservation and Biotechnology of Fungi. Presidential Address, Section–Botany, 89th Session of Indian Science Congress, Lucknow (2002). Nagmani A, IK Kunwar, C. Manoharachary, Handbook of Soil Fungi. Published by I. K. International Pvt, Ltd. New Delhi (2005). Rele, MV., Biodiversity and Germplasm Collection of Alkaliophilic Fungi and Actinomycetes For Biotechnology Applications. Project Report, National Chemical Laboratories, Pune (2004 ). Rangaswami G. & Bagyaraj DJ, Agricultural Microbiology II edition published by Prentice Hall of India Pvt. Ltd. N. Delhi (1998). Sarbhoy, AK., Agarwal, DK. and Varshney, J. L., Fungi of India1982–1992, CBS Publishers and Distributors, New Delhi, pp. 350 (1996). Srinivasan, M.C., Rele, M.V. and Ingale, S., PNAS B65. 3 & 4, 143-162 (1999). Underkofler, LA., Barton RR, and Rennert SS, Production of Microbial Enzymes and Their Applications. Appl Microbiology 6(3): 212-221 (1957). Wheeler A. Kathryn ,Hurdman F. Beverly and Pitt JI, Influence of pH on the growth of some toxigenic species of Aspergillus, Penicillium and Fusarium. International journal of food microbiology, 141-149 (2002) Woese CR, The quest for Darwin’s grail ASM News 65: 260-263 (1999). Waksman, SA. and Fred EB, A tentative outline of the plate method for determining the number of microorganisms in the soil. Soil Sci., 14: 27-28 (1922).

Current World Environment

Vol. 9(1), 203-206 (2014)

Determination of Fluoride in Rural Parts of Kapadwanj Region, District Kheda, Gujarat S.N. PANDYA*, D.K. BHOI, H.R. DABHI and M.B. CHUAHAN *Department of Chemistry, J & J College of science,Nadiad, India. *Department of Chemistry, Navjivan science college Dahod, India. http://dx.doi.org/10.12944/CWE.9.1.28 (Received: February 03, 2013; Accepted: March 29, 2014) ABSTRACT Analysis of well and bore well water samples for fluoride from eighteen sampling stations of Kapadwanj(Rural area) for a period of one year( 2012) during different seasons has been carried out. The analysis of different parameters namely- temperature, pHTDS and Fluoride was carried out as per standard methods. The results were compared with the values stipulated by Indian standards for drinking water . It was found that the fluoride content of all the samples obtained was well below the permissible limits.

Key words: Fluoride, Content, Kapadwanj,- Rural Area.

INTRODUCTION Fluoride in ground water is due to fluorspar, cryolite, fluorspatite and hydroxylapatite .Excess fluoride consumption affects plants and animals. The fluoride accumulation of ground water varies according also have an adverse effect on tooth enamel and may give rise to mild dental Fluorosis3. Longer exposure to fluoride leads to certain types of bone diseases4,5 also. Statistics reveal that fluoride poisoning is more spread than the Arsenic contamination in ground water in the country6 In view of the above, it is attempted to carry out a systematic study on fluoride contamination of ground water resources of certain rural areas of Kapadwanj,Dist-Kheda,Gujarat. MATERIALS AND METHOD Water samples (Bore Well & Open Well) collected from eighteen sampling stations selected for the analysis . All the sample bottles were stored in iceboxes till brought to the laboratory for analysis.

Solutions used for the studies were prepared from analytical grade chemicals, in double distilled water or in high purity organic solvents. All the chemicals and reagents used were of analytical grade. D.D water was used for the preparation of solutions. The analysis of parameters namely PH,temperature and fluoride was carried out – as per the methods described7 in APHA (1995). Determination of fluoride has been carried out using Eu Tech Cyber scan 2100 instrument. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The results obtained on the determination of temperature, pH TDS and fluoride are presented in Tables -1 to 3 Temperature A rise in temperature of water reduces the solubility of gases and amplifies the tastes and odors. The temperature was measured using a centigrade thermometer by 110°C on site. The temperature of the present study ranged from 26.1 to 31.9°C.

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pH High pH levels are undesirable since they may impart a bitter taste to the water. Furthermore, the high degree of mineralization associated with alkaline water will result in the encrustation of water

pipes and water-using appliances It is known that pH of water (6.5 to 8.5) does not has no direct effect on health. But lower value below 5.0 produce sore taste and has higher value above 8.5 are of alkaline taste. The pH values of the present investigation were within the standards (6.9- 8.5)

Table 1: Analysis of Water Samples Collected in winter season Name of village Dana Shankarpura Abaliyara Anklai Narana muvada Vasana Charania Bhagavanji na muvada Torana Antroli Antarsumba Betawada Navagam Danadara Motizer Zanda Thavad Lalpur

Temperatures

26.2 26.1 26.5 27.2 26.3 26.2 27.1 26.2 27.1 26.5 27.0 26.2 26.4 26.7 27.5 26.9 27.2 26.7

7.05 7.2 6.95 6.90 7.20 7.25 7.40 7.05 7.0 7.3 6.92 7.25 6.90 7.8 7.05 6.90 7.82 8.05

TDS (mg/L) Fluoride(mg/L) 840 250 210 440 185 410 240 380 980 480 710 1250 490 670 450 460 970 370

0.5 0.3 0.2 0.5 0.8 0.9 0.78 0.5 0.5 0.46 0.5 1.0 0.5 1.2 0.78 0.5 0.81 0.54

Table 2: Analysis Samples Collected in rainy season of Water Name of village Dana Shankarpura Abaliyara Anklai Narana muvada Vasana Charania Bhagavanji na muvada Torana Antroli Antarsumba Betawada Navagam Danadara Motizer Zanda Thavad Lalpur

Temperatures

31.3 31.7 30.5 31.2 29.4 29.8 29.7 30.7 29.7 30.4 30.8 31.9 29.5 29.6 29.5 31.9 31.2 29.7

7.1 7.2 6.95 6.90 7.20 7.0 7.5 6.9 7.0 7.3 6.92 7.3 6.9 7.8 7.05 6.90 7.82 8.1

TDS (mg/L) Fluoride(mg/L) 640 250 210 450 185 410 300 380 850 350 710 1300 490 650 450 460 850 500

0.5 0.3 0.2 0.5 0.8 0.9 0.78 0.5 0.5 0.46 0.5 1.0 0.5 1.2 0.78 0.5 0.81 0.54

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PANDYA et al., Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(1), 203-206 (2014) Table 3: Analysis of Water Samples Collected in Summer season Name of village Dana Shankarpura Abaliyara Anklai Narana muvada Vasana Charania Bhagavanji na muvada Torana Antroli Antarsumba Betawada Navagam Danadara Motizer Zanda Thavad Lalpur

Temperatures

31.8 31.4 30.5 31.2 29.6 29.8 29.7 30.7 29.7 30.4 30.8 31.9 29.5 29.7 29.5 31.9 31.2 29.7

7.0 7.2 6.95 6.90 7.4 7.3 6.9 7.1 7.0 7.3 6.92 7.25 6.90 7.8 7.0 6.90 7.82 7.9

TDS A large number of solids are found dissolved in natural water the common ones are carbonates,bicarbonates,chloride,sulphate,phosphate ,ironetc,.In other words TDS is sum of the cations and anions concentration.A high contents of dissolve solids elevates the density of water,influences solubility of gases(like oxygen) reduces utility of water for drinking irrigation and industrial purpose. In the present study TDS ranged from 210 mg/L to 1300 mg/L. According to WHO and Indian standards TDS values should be less than 500 mg/L for drinking water. Fluoride Out of eighteen sampling stations studied, low fluoride concentration is noticed in the All samples. 1.2 mg/lit as prescribed by Indian standards for drinking water quality8 .

TDS (mg/L) Fluoride(mg/L) 550 250 260 440 185 410 240 380 950 480 710 1000 490 670 450 600 970 450

0.3 0.2 0.5 0.8 0.9 0.78 0.78 0.5 0.46 0.5 1.0 0.5 1.2 0.78 0.5 1.2 0.5 0.78

CONCLUSIONS It can be concluded form the above study that fluoride content in all areas was found below the permissible levels than required. Hence people in those areas should consume protected water containing fluoride within the required levels . AKNOWLEDGEMENTS The Authors are thankful to the UGC for financial assistance in the form of Minor Research Project [F No. 47-511-2008 [ WRO] Date : 2-2-2009] The Authors are also thankful to “The Nadiad Education Society, Nadiad and “ The Principal of J & J College of Science,” Nadiad for providing necessary facilities.

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S.Meenakshi and R.C.Maheshwari , J.Hard.Mater., 137: 456 (2006), D.S Bendale., G.R Chaudhari and G.K. Gupta,. An evaluation of ground water quality in Awal taluk, Jalgaon Dist., A Physicochemical and metallic study, Asian J. Chem. & Env. 3(1): 65-71(2010) . Sai Srikanth , Symposium Fluorosis Hyderabad Proceedings, 407-409 (1974). L Jarup, British Medical Bulletin, 68, 167182 (2003). DHHS (Department of Health and Human

Services), Review of Fluoride benefits and risks. Department of Health and Human Services, Washington, D.C. (1999). APHA,.Standard methods for the examination of water and waste water, 20thedn Washington, D.C (USA), (1998). World Health organization , Guide lines for drinking water quality, 3rd edn., WHO, Geneva, (2006). A.I.Vogel,Text Book of Quantitative,Inorganic Analysis,4th Edn,ELBS, London (1978)

Current World Environment

Vol. 9(1), 207-209 (2014)

On a New Species of Phyllodistomum Braun, 1899 (Digenea: Gorgoderidae), A Parasite of Fresh Water Fish, Channa Punctatus (BL.) From Betwa River, Bundelkhand Region Jhansi, U.P, India JAG MOHAN SEN Department of Zoology, Pt. Vasudev Tiwari Girls Degree College, Jhansi, U.P, India. http://dx.doi.org/10.12944/CWE.9.1.29 (Received: Feburary 15, 2014; Accepted: March 20, 2014) ABSTRACT The present paper deals with a new species of genus Phyllodistum Braun, 1899. Phyllodistomum betwaensis sp.n. is reported from fresh water fish Channa punctatus (Bl.) from Betwa river, Bundelkhand region, Jhansi. It differs from all the earlier reported species in having the body of fluke is spatulate and dorso-ventrally flattened; anterior portion of body is long and curved while posterior portion of body is broad; slightly curved, tubular oesophagus: ventral sucker oval and larger than oral sucker; testes, post-equatorial, inter-caecal, anterior testis is larger than posterior one and parallel to ovary; ovary, oval, just behind right vitelline lobe, parallel to anterior testis; vitelline lobes posterior-lateral to ventral sucker, oval. Right vitelline lobe is larger than left vitelline lobe; eggs are oval and non-operculated.

Key words:

Phyllodistomum, Betwa River, Bundelkhand region and Channa punctatus.

INTRODUCTION Fishes are important animals in ecosystem. They are useful item of human food as well as the source of income. Fishes are important for providing nourishment to poultry and cattle, and also useful for producing a high quality of manure especially for citrus plant, as a source of nitrogen and phosphate. The present study was aimed that determining the intestinal digenetic trematodes found in fishes of Betwa river of Bundelkhand region, Jhansi. This paper includes the description of a new species of Genus Phyllodistomum, 1899 found in the intestine of many specimens of Chanana punctatus (Bl.). MATERIAL AND METHODS Fishes for the present investigation have been collected from Betwa River, Jhansi. Fishes were examined for intestinal parasites. The intestine was removed from the body cavity and contents were then examined under microscope. The

parasites taken out and fixed in 70% ethanol. Specimens were stained in Aceto-alum carmine, dehydrated and mounted in Canada balsam. Diagram was made with aid of a Camera lucida device. Identification and classification of the specimen was done using Yamaguti (1958) and Overstreet and Curren (2002). Phyllodistomum betwaensis n.sp.* Description Body spatulate, divisible in to a narrow tubular, curved fore body and expanded hind end of the body, 1.4-1.6 mm long; 0.41-0.43 mm wide with wavy margin. Anterior part of body, narrow, elongated, curved 0.81-0.83 mm long 0.19-0.21 mm wide; posterior part of body, spatulated, 0.61-0.63 mm long, 0.41-0.43 mm wide. Oral sucker, terminal, slightly oval, mouth opening ventrally, no noticeable papillae on oral sucker. Oral sucker, 0.15-0.17 mm long, 0.11-0.13 mm wide. Pharynx and pre-pharynx are absent. Mouth leads into oesophagus; oesophagus slightly

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curved, tubular, 0.09-0.11 mm long, 0.03-0.05 mm wide, and oesophagus bifurcates into two unbranched intestinal caeca which extends up to the hind end of body. Ventral sucker, oval, 0.23-0.25 mm long, 0.17-0.19 mm wide. Ventral sucker is larger than oral sucker. Vitelline lobes two, posterior-lateral to ventral sucker, oval, and rarely lobed. Right vitelline lobe is larger than left vitelline lobe. Right vitelline lobe, 0.08-0.01 mm long, 0.03-0.05 mm wide. Left vitelline lobe, 0.05-0.07 mm long, 0.02-0.04 mm wide, at 0.86-0.88 mm from anterior extremity. The distance between the two vitelline lobes, 0.03-0.05 mm at greatest width. Testes located in the broadest part of the hind body, post-equatorial, tandem, inter-caecal and deeply lobed, present between the two intestinal caeca. Anterior testis 0.13-0.15 mm long, 0.1-0.12 mm wide, at 0.09-0.092 mm from anterior extremity. Posterior testis, 0.11-0.13 mm long, 0.08-0.1 mm wide, at 1.0-1.1 mm from anterior extremity. Anterior testis is larger than posterior one and parallel to ovary. Ovary oval, post-equatorial, inter-caecal, just behind of right vitelline lobe and parallel to

anterior testis, 0.09-0.11 mm long, 0.06-0.08 mm wide, at 0.92-0.94 mm from anterior extremity. Seminal vesical, pre-acetabular, sac-like in appearance, 0.17-0.19 mm long, 0.05-0.07 mm wide. Genital pore median just blow the intestinal bifurcation. Excretory bladder, sacullar, excretory pore median. No body folds or other demarcation in hind body. Eggs, oval, non-operculated, 0.020.04 m long, 0.01-0.02 mm wide. DISCUSSION The present for m resembles to P. triangulate9, P. funduli6, P. srivastavai8, P. vachius3, P. rhamidiae11, P. tana13, P. laxmibai10, in having oval oral sucker. The new species differs from P. triangulate9, P. funduli6, P. srivastavai8, P. vachius3, P. rhamidiae11, P. tana13, P. laxmibai10 ,in having anterior portion of body is long and curved while posterior portion of body broad; slightly curved, tubular oesophagus; ventral sucker oval, and larger than oral sucker. The new species resembles P. scrippsi2, P. singhiai , P. lysteri4, P. centopomi1, P. pavlovaskii12, P. laxmibai10, in having median genital pore just below the intestinal bifurcation. The new species differ from P. scrippsi2, P. singhiai5, P. lysteri4, P. centopomi1, P. pavlovaskii12, P. parichhaii7 and P. pahujii7, P. laxmibai10, in having post-equatorial, intercaecal, lobed testes. Anterior testis is larger than posterior one and parallel to ovary; position of oval, ovary just behind right vitelline lobe, parallel to anterior testis. 5

The new species also differ from, P. scrippsi2, P. singhiai5, P. vachius3, S P. lysteri4, P. centopomi 1, P. pavlovaskii 12, P. triangulate 9, P. funduli6, P. srivastavai8, P. rhamidiae11, P. tana13, P. parichhaii7 and P. pahujii7, P. laxmibai10, in having oval vitelline lobes, posterior-lateral to ventral sucker, right vitelline lobe is larger than left vitelline lobe, eggs are oval, non-operculated. There fore it is consider as a new species with specific name P. betwaensis n.sp. after the collection of host from Betwa River, Bundelkhand region, district Jhansi. Fig. 1: Phyllodistomum between is n.sp

SEN., Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(1), 207-209 (2014) ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The author was thankful to principal & Head of the Department of Zoology, Bipin Bihari

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(P.G) College Jhansi, for providing lab facilities during the course of study. The author was also thankful to Dr. S. F. Siddiqui for her valuable aid and direction in preparation of the manuscript.

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Berenit Mendoza-Garfias and Gerardo Peroz-Ponce. De Leon. Phyllodistomum centopomi sp. n. (Digenea: Gorgoderidae) a parasite of fat Snook, Centropomus paralldus (Osterichthyes: Centopomidae), in the Papaloapan River at Tlacotalpan, Veracruz State, Mexico. Zootaxa, 1056: 4351 (2005). Brooks, D.R and M.A. Mayes: Phyllodistomum scrippsi sp. N. (Digenea: Gorgoderidae) and Neobeendenia girellae (Hargis, 1955) Yamaguti, 1963 (Monogenea: Capsalidae) from the Californi sheephead, Pimelometopn pulchurum (Ayres) (Pisces: Labridae). Journal of Parasitology. 61:407408 (1975). Dyal, J: Trematode parasites of Indian fishes, part II, Ind. Jour. Helm, 3(1), 93-116 (1949). Fischthal, J.H: A description of Phyllodistomum lysteri Miller, 1940 (Trematoda: Gorgoderidae), from common white sucker. The Jour. Praisit, 38,(1), 242244 (1952). Gupta, S. P. On a new trematode Phyllodistomum singhiai n. sp. of the family Gorgoderidae Looss, 1899, from the intestine of a freshwater fish Mastacembelus armatus (Lac.). Ind. J. Helminth., 3: 21-28 (1951b). Jaclyn Helt, John Janovy, Jr., and John Ubelaker: Phyllodistomum funduli n. sp. (Trematoda:: Gorgoderidae) from Fundulus sciadicus cope from cedar creek in Western Nebraska. J. Parasitol. 89(2): 346-350 (2003). Naz, S and S. F. Siddiqui: Two digenetic trematodes Phyllodistomum parichhaii and P. pahujii (Trematoda: Gorgoderidae, Looss, 1901), from fresh water fish Xenentodon cancila (Ham.) from different water bodies, district Jhansi Bundelkhand region.

10.

11.

12.

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International Journal of Innovation in Bioscience. 2(4), 229-231(2012). Rai, S.L: Observation of the life history of Phyllodistomum srivastavai sp. n. (Trematoda: Gorgoderidae). Journal of Parasitology, 54: 43-51 (1964). Sarwat M. S: A new spoecies of genus Phyllodistomum (Braun, 1899), (Digenea: Gorgoderidae, Looss, 1901) from freshwater fish Mastacembelus armatus Aurangabad (M.S.) India. Recent Research in Science and Technology. 3(8): 11-13 (2011). Sen Jag Mohan and S. F. Siddiqui: A new gorgoderid trematode of genus Phyllodistomum (Digenea: Gorgoderidae) a parasite of fresh water fish, Xenentodon cancila (Bl.) from Matatila Reservoir, Jhansi, India. An International Research Journal of Biological Science â&#x20AC;&#x153;Flora and Faunaâ&#x20AC;? 19(1): 158-160 (2013). Suzana B Amato, J.F.R. Amato: A new species of Phyllodistomum Braun, 1899(Digenea: Gorgodridae) from Rhamdia quelen (Quoy and Gaimard, 1824) (Siluriformes: Pimelodidae). Mem.Inst. Oswaldo Cruz, Rib de Janeoro, 88(4): 557559 (1993). Wen Xiang Li, Gui Tang Wang, Wei Jain Yoa and P. Nie: Phyllodistomum pavlovskii (Trmatoda: Gorgoderidae) in the bullhead catfish, Pseudobagrus fulvidraco, in the lake of China, Journal of Parasitology. 91(4): 850853 (2005). Zhokhov, A.Z, and A.E, Koxob: A new gorgoderid trematode of genus Phyllodistomum (Digenea: Gorgoderidae) from Clarius gariepinus (Actinopterygii: Claridae) in lake Tana, Ethiopia. Zoosystematica Rossica. 19(1): 9-12 (2010).

Current World Environment

Vol. 9(1), 210-215 (2014)

Studies on Sediment Chemistry of River Yamuna with Special Reference to Industrial Effluents in Yamunanagar, India PRIYANKA MALHOTRA*, GIRISH CHOPRA and ANITA BHATNAGAR Department of Zoology, Kurukshetra University, Kurukshetra - 136119, India. http://dx.doi.org/10.12944/CWE.9.1.30 (Received: February 18, 2014; Accepted: March 19, 2014) ABSTRACT A study on sediment chemistry and water quality index of river Yamuna was conducted to understand the overall quality of river. Three sampling stations were selected: Station Y1 at the upstream of the river before the influx of effluents, Station Y2 at the point of influx and Station Y3 at 5 kilometres downstream from station Y2. The results showed the increasing values of pH, alkalinity, chloride and organic matter from station Y1 to Y2. Calculation of water quality index also categories station Y2 in bad or severely polluted zone.The correlation statisticsshowed the significant positive correlation between chloride and pH whereas significant negative correlation between organic matter and water quality index. The present work revealed the effect of Maskaranala’s effluents on the overall chemistry of sediments of river Yamuna.

Key words: Physicochemical characteristics, Pollution assessment, Sediment analysis, Water quality index.

INTRODUCTION Global climate change and continues over load of pollution along with effluents from different industries have attracted various researchers to analyse the geochemical studies of river system ( Torimanet al., 2009, Gashiet al., 2009). India has ten major river systems among which Yamuna is the largest tributary river of Ganges in north India (Negiet al., 1991).Yamunanagar (300 6’ N latitude and 770 17’ E longitude) is an important industrial city of Haryana.Along its paththrough Yamunanagar, Yamuna riverget effluents from various industries like sugar mills, timber factories, paper industries etc. and sewage via.maskaranala.In a river system, stream sediments have been widely used as environmental indicators and their chemical analysis can provide significant information for the assessment of anthropogenic activities and extent of pollution. Sediments also play an important role in the environmental studies of the rivers as they

have long residence time for their interaction with the biotic components of the river’s ecosystem(Forstner and Wittmann, 1983). They play important role in nutrient cycle of aquatic environments and transport of essential nutrients as well as pollutants. Water quality index is an excellent management and general administrative tool in communicating water quality information and also plays important role in assessment of water resources for their suitability with reference to various uses (Chopra et al., 2014).In the present studies water quality indices of river Yamuna is correlated with its sediment chemistry. Some studies have been undertaken to assess the water quality of river Yamuna (Chopra et al., 2012,Bhatnagaret al., 2013) but studies dealing with sediment chemistry of river Yamuna with special reference to industrial effluents are very scanty. To reveal the effects of effluents on the sediment chemistry of river Yamuna, present studies have been conducted.

MALHOTRA et al., Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(1), 210-215 (2014) MATERIALS AND METHODS Bearing in mind the pollution load, three sampling stations Y1, Y2 and Y3 were selected along the river stretch to perform practical aspects. Station Y1 is located near the village Kalanaur in district Yamunanagar at the upstream of the river, without any industrial discharge. This point is bathing and washing centre for the people of the village. StationY2 is stationed 4-5 Kms downstream from station Y1. Here the effluents channels carrying industrial effluents via. maskaranala joins the river. Station Y3 point is stationed 5 Kms downstream from the station Y2 (Fig.1). Sediment samples were collected in polythene bags in triplicate on seasonal basis. Percentage moisture, electrical conductivity and pH

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were determined immediately, whereas for other physicochemical parameters i.e. soil alkalinity and chlorides, nitrate and organic matter, sediment was left to dry at air temperature and analysed according to standard procedures (Goltermanet al., 1978; APHA, 1998) within the following 3 to 4 days. pH and conductivity were analyzed using MultiSet F Line three Water analysis kit (E Merck). Alkalinity, chlorides and organic matter were analysed by titrimetric method. Nitrate was determined spectrophotometerically (APHA, 1998). Brian Oram’s Water quality Index (WQI A) and Kaur’s Water Quality Index (WQI B) was calculated by using parameters such as pH, DO, BOD, Turbidity, alkalinity, calcium, magnesium, sulphate, chloride and nitrate of collected water samples from selected sites as per the standard references of Oram (2007) and Kaur et al. (2001).

Fig. 1: Map of Haryana showing Yamuna riverand district Yamunanagar with selected stations RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Moisture content depicted the water holding capacity of the sediments. During the present assessment of sediment quality, the maximum value of moisture was recorded during winter at stations Y2 and minimum during summer at Y1. The percentage of moisture significantly increased from station Y1 to Y2 and then decreased at station Y3(Table.1, Fig. 2).pH of the sediments was found to be alkaline throughout the study period. pH values increased from station Y1 to Y3. Seasonal fluctuations were well marked. Maximum values were recorded in post monsoon at station Y1 and Y3 while during summer at station Y2.

Minimum values were during monsoon at station Y1 and Y3 and during winter at station Y2. Kaur et al. (1997), Tareqet al. (2013) also recorded high pH values during summer and low values during monsoon months. The values of conductivity varied between 200 to 215 µmhos cm-1. The highest value of conductivity was recorded during summer at station Y1 and Y2 and during post monsoon at station Y3 whereas; lowest during monsoon at station Y1, post monsoon at station Y2 and summer at station Y3. Maximum value of conductivity in summer and minimum in monsoon was also recorded by Bath and Kaur (1999), Singh et al. (2007) and Singh et al. (2013). The values of conductivity decreased from station Y1 to Y2 and then increased at Y3.

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Dilution of water during the rains caused a decrease in electrical conductance even of sediment. The mean values of alkalinity ranged between 3.3 mg g-1 to 4.1 mg g-1. Maximum alkalinity was recorded during summer at station Y2 and minimum during winter at station Y1. Similar trend were also recorded by Shastreeet al. (1991) and Kaur et al. (1997). The values of alkalinity increased from station Y1 to Y2 and then decreased at station Y3 (Table.1, Fig. 2). Maximum value of chloride was recorded during post monsoon at station Y3 and minimum during monsoon at station Y1. Increase in the values during post monsoon may be due to decrease in water volume and increase in evaporation rate while decrease during monsoon may be due to dilution of water (Mandal and Das,

2011). Sewage water and industrial effluents are rich in chloride content and discharge of these waste waters results in greater chloride level in fresh waters (Guo-Qian and Niepin, 2000; Prabaharet al., 2012). The chloride content showed an increasing trend from station Y1 to Y2 and Y3 (Table.1, Fig. 2). The mean values of nitrate ranged between 0.2 mg g-1 (Y2) to 3.2 mg g-1 (Y3) during the study period. Nitrate showed a significant (P<0.05) decreasing trend from Y1 to Y2 and then increased at station Y3 (Table.1, Fig. 2).The maximum value was recorded during summer, monsoon and post monsoon at station Y3 while minimum during summer and winter at station Y2. Nitrate did not show any definite seasonal pattern. Organic matter increased from station Y1 to Y2 and

Table 1: Mean values of sediment chemistry and water quality index (Mean ± S.E of mean) of river Yamuna at various stations

Moisture% pH Conductivity µ m cm-1 Alkalinity mg g-1 Chloride mg g-1 Nitrate mg g-1 Organic matter % WQI A WQI B

45.4±0.36C 7.3±0.03B 203±2.94B 3.3±0.08B 2.2±0.12A 1.4±0.04B 2.8±0.09B 60±0.50A 67.4±2.8A

48.9±0.09A 7.5±0.02A 200±3.25B 4.1±0.09A 2.4±0.03A 0.2±0.02C 3.4±0.06A 56±0.50B 39.9±4.3B

46.9±0.12B 7.5±0.02A 215±2.76A 4.0±0.11A 2.4±0.07A 3.2±0.06A 3.1±0.10AB 58±0.52A 47.5±3.0B

Means with different letters in the same row are significantly (P<0.05) different. (Data were analyzed by Duncan's multiple range test) Table 2: Correlation between parameters of sediment chemistry and water quality indices Parameters Moisture pH Cond. Alkalinity Chloride Nitrate Organic WQI A WQI B

Moisture

1 -

.822 1 -

Cond. Alkalinity Chloride Nitrate

-.269 .327 1 -

** Correlation is significant at 0.01 level

.882 .993 .217 1 -

.822 1.0** .327 .993 1 -

-.471 .115 .976 .000 .115 1 -

Organic matter

WQI A

WQI B

.997 .866 -.189 .918 .866 -.397 1 -

-.997 -.866 .189 -.918 -.866 .397 -1.0** 1 -

-.944 -.964 -.063 -.988 -.964 .155 -.968 .986 1

MALHOTRA et al., Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(1), 210-215 (2014) then decreased at Y3 (Table.1, Fig. 3). Maximum organic matter was recorded during winter at station Y2. Generally high values of nutrients and organic matter reflect a constant supply from sewage input (Bath and Kaur, 1999). The increase in the values of organic matter at Y2 may be due to influx of effluents through maskaranala at station Y2 (Singh et al., 2013). According to Brian Oram’s water quality index(WQI A) maximum value was recorded at station Y1 and minimum at station Y2. Kaur’s water quality index (WQI B) also showed the similar trend of high value at Y1 and low at Y2. The present investigation revealed that the water was of ‘bad

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quality’ according to Brian Oram’s and severely polluted as per the indexing of Kaur’s water quality at station Y2 (Table.1, Fig. 3). The low values of water quality index indicating that water was being polluted at point of influx of effluents.The correlation studies showed the significant positive correlation between chloride and pH whereas significant negative correlation between organic matter and WQI A (Table. 2). Correlation statistics revealed that with increase in organic matter water quality of river is deteorating. High values of some physicochemical parameters of sediments at station Y1 and Y3 may be due to relatively more anthropogenic activities at these stations.

Fig. 2: Seasonal variations in moisture content, pH, conductivity, alkalinity, chloride and nitrate of sediments of river Yamuna at various stations

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Fig. 3: Seasonal variations in organic matter and water quality indices of sediments of river Yamuna at various stations

CONCLUSION Study of different limnochemical parameters and organic matter of sediment samples revealed that the intensity of pollution increased as the river was subjected to sewage and industrial wastes. In the growing awareness of relationships between human health and water pollution, it is essential to undertake regular monitoring and surveillance of important aquatic ecosystems. In order to manage the pollution load of river Yamuna pass nearby Yamunanagar, it is

recommended that various methods of sewage/ industrial wastes treatment should be used before the disposal of effluents. ACKNOWLEDGMENT The corresponding author is highly grateful to the chairman of department of zoology, Kurukshetra University, Kurukshetra for providing essential chemicals and laboratory facilities for the present work.

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APHA, AWWA, WPCF, Standard methods for the examination of water and waste water.American Public Health Association, (American Public Health Association, New York).DC20005-2605(1998). Bath, K.S. and Kaur, H., Physicochemical characteristics of water of Buddha-Nallah (Ludhiana, Punjab),Ind. Jr. Env.Sci., 3(1), 2730(1999).

Bhatnagar, A., Chopra, G. and Malhotra, P., Assessment of water quality of river Yamuna in Yamunanagar, India with reference to planktons and macrozoobenthos, Sch. Jr. Eng. Tech., 1(4), 204-213 (2013). Chopra, G.,Bhatnagar, A. and Malhotra P., Limnochemical characteristics of river Yamuna in Yamunanagar, Haryana, India, Inter. Jr. Water Res. Environ Eng., 4(4), 97-

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104 (2012). Chopra, G., Bhatnagar, A., Malhotra, P. andJakhar, P., Water quality index applied to river Yamuna in Yamunanagar (Haryana) India, Inter. Jr. Innova. Res. Studies., 3(1), 145151 (2014). Forstner, U. andWittmann, G.T.W., Metal pollution in the aquatic environment,Spinger- Verlag, Berlin, Heidelberg, New York, 481 (1983). Gao-Qian.andNie-Pin, Lead content in the monogenean, Ancyrocephlusmogurndae and in different organs of its host the mandarian fish, Sinipercachuatsi, J. China. Enviro.Sci., 20 (3), 23-236 (2000). Gashi, F.,Franèiškoviæ-Bilinski, S. andBilinski, H., Analysis of sediments of the four main rivers (DRINI I BARDHË, MORAVAE BINÇËS, LEPENC AND SITNICA) in Kosovo, Fresenius Environmental Bulletin, 18(8), 1462-1471 (2009). Golterman, H.L., Clymo, R.S. andOhnstad, M.A.M., Methods for chemical analysis of fresh water.IBP Handbook No. 8, Second Edition, Blackwell Scientific Publications, 178 (1978). Kaur, H., Dhillon, S.S., Bath, K.S. and Mander, G., Inter-relations between physicochemical factors at Harike wetland (Punjab-India), Jr. Enviro. Poll., 4(3), 237-240 (1997). Kaur, H.,Syal, J.and Dhillon, S.S., Water quality index of the river Satluz, Poll. Res., 20(2), 199-204 (2001). Mandal, H.S. and Das, A., Assessment of seasonal variation in physico-chemical characteristics and quality of Torsha River water for irrigation used in Cooch Behar and Jalpaiguri districts of West Bengal, Indian, Jr.Chem. Phar.Res., 3(6), 265-270 (2011). Negi, S. S., Himalayan Rivers, Lakes and

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Glaciers, Indus Publishing Co., New Delhi, 182 (1991). Oram, B., Wilkes university environmental engineering earth science, WQI Indexconsumer support group online calculator, Retrieved September 2007 from http:// www.csg network.com/ h2oqualindexcuttemponlycalc html (2007). Prabhahar, C.,Saleshrani, K. andTharmaraj, K., Seasonal variation in Physico-Chemical parameters of Palar river in and around Vaniyambadi segment, Vellore District, Tamil Nadu, India, Inter. Jr. Phar. Bio. Arch., 3(1), 99-104 (2012). Shastree, N.K., Islam, M.S., Pathak, S. andAfshan, M., Studies on the physicochemical dimensions of the centic hydrosphere of RavindraSarovar (Gaya), In: Current trends in limnology-1. Narendra Publ. House, New Delhi, 133-152(1991). Singh, B.K., Srivastava, K.K. and Srivastava, S.K., Water quality assessment: Part 1Urimari area of south Karanpura coalfield, Inter. Jr. Enviro. Prot., 27 (5), 410-417(2007). Singh, T.A.,Meetei, N.S. and Meitei, L.B., Seasonal variation of some Physicochemical characteristics of Three Major riversinImphal,Manipur: A Comparative Evaluation, Current world Sci., 8(1), 93102(2013). Tareq, S.M.,Rahaman, M.S.,Rikta, S.Y.,Nazrul Islam, S.M. and Sultana, M.S., Seasonal variations in water quality of the Ganges and Bhramputrariver, Bangladesh,Jahangirnagar Univ. Enviro. Bull., 2: 71-82 (2013). Toriman, E.A.,Kamarudin, M.K.A.,Idris, M.H., Jamil, N.R..,Gazim, M.B. andAbd, N.A.A., Sediment concentration and load analyses at Chini river, Pekan, Pahang Malaysia, Res. Jr. Earth Sc., 1(2), 43-50(2009).

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Vol. 9(1), 216-219 (2014)

Impact of Iron and Steel Slag on Crop Cultivation: A Review MIR SYEDA YUHANNATUL HUMARIA Kolhan University, Chaibasa. http://dx.doi.org/10.12944/CWE.9.1.31 (Received: January 30, 2014; Accepted: Feburary 23, 2013) ABSTRACT This review paper addresses the issuesto analyze the impacts of Iron and Steel slag on crop cultivation. The use of steel slag in agriculture produces not only economic but also ecological advantages. The value of silicon (Si) application for rice (Oryzasativa) has been demonstrated when soil soluble Si is low.Impact of solid waste on crop cultivation depends on the availability and quantity of different constituents like PH, Ammonia, Nitrites, Nitrates, Permanganate Value (PV), Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD5 or BOD), Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD), Total Suspended Solids (TSS) and Turbidity, Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) etcpresent in the solid waste.

Key words: Iron and Steel slag, Linz-Donawitz converter, silicon, silicate, chlorosis, chelates.

INTRODUCTION

MATERIALS AND METHOD

Slag is generated during iron and crude steel production.Its use in different application, such as in agriculture, reduces landfill slag and preserves natural resources. The main problem concerning the utilization of steel slag in agriculture consists of the possible leaching of heavy metals. The metals uptake by the plants is affected by the soil properties. For example the Cr and V contents into potatoes are reduced in soils with higher content of organic matter and with a heavy texture. In addition, the uptake of Cr, V and Cd by potatoes is favoured by low pH.

The use of steelmaking slag as fertilisers and as liming agents A small amount of slag is used as fertiliser in agriculture and this use depends on the market situations. Due to the low market value of fertilisers, the long distances transportation is a limiting factor. In addition natural lime stone fertilisers are in competition to the slag use. Therefore, the development of new markets for the slag, in order to ensure its utilisation in the future, is required. In this respect the steel industry is committed to minimize the amount of slag which has to be deposited, by improving its use through the increase of its properties (Drissen et al., 200). Until the eighties steel was produced via the ThomasBessemer process, through the open hearth furnaces. The resulting slag containing phosphate has been used as fertiliser for about 70 years. The current steelmaking process is based on the Basic Oxygen Steelmaking process, where a basic slag is produced in the Linz-Donawitz converter. The LD slag contains about 1-3 wt% of P2O5, which is too low to be used as phosphate

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HUMARIA, Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(1), 216-219 (2014) fertilizer, but, at the same time, it is too high to be used in the BF or recycled in the sinter plants. Steelmaking Slag as a Silicon Source for Plant After oxygen, silicon (Si) is the most abundant element in the earthâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s crust. Along with some other elements that are not considered essential, under particular agro-climatic conditions, it can increase the crop yields by promoting some physiological processes. Silicon sources for agricultural purposes must display some important features, such as high soluble Si content, low cost, availability for plants, balanced ratios and amounts of Ca and Mg, increase of phosphate mobility, suitable physical properties, easy application, and absence of heavy metals. Because blast furnace slag contains fertilizer components CaO, SiO2, and MgO, it is used in rice cultivation as calcium silicate fertilizer. In addition to these three components, steelmaking

slag also contains components such as FeO, MnO, and P2O5, and is used for a broad range of agricultural purposes, including dry field farming and pastures in addition to rice cultivation. Its alkaline property also remedies soil acidity. DISCUSSION Use of slag as an iron fertilizer The problem of iron (Fe) chlorosis can affect many crops on calcareous soils, resulting in substantial yield losses. Generally it has been corrected through the addition of Fe synthetic chelates, but these have resulted very expensive. Various studies have been focused on applying different Fe sources, in order to reduce the economic burden and to recycle some industrial by-products, such as converter slag (Wallace et al., 1982) (Sikka&Kansal, 1994). They are used not only as soil amendment but also as source of important plant nutrients, such as P, K, Mg and Fe oxides. An

Required amounts of silicate Converter lime fertilizer (using iron and steel slag) Application Advantage

Example of use

Wet rice farming

Fertilizer using converter slag

Dry field farming

Iron oxides and manganese give vitality to roots Silicate, lime, phosphate, and magnesia create healthy rice plants Effective in improving iron-poor soil (preventing root rot, leaf blight, and autumn paddy degradation) Creates a general soil fertilizer containing a good balance of various fertilizer components needed by crops, including silicate, iron oxide, lime, magnesia, phosphate, manganese, and boron Helps improve acidic and deteriorated soil, creating a wellbalanced soil that not only improves alkalinity but also promotes the breakdown of organic substances

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Calcium silicate fertilizer (using blast furnace slag) Characteristic

Advantage

Example of use

Silicate for healthy rice plants

Promotes photosynthesis by improving light-receiving condition of leaves. Boosts root activity, reducing the wilting of lower leaves. Creates strong stems that resist collapse. Silicified cells form on leaf surfaces, preventing rice blight. Boosts dry matter production. Improves ripening in later growth stages. (Increases thousand kernel weight.) increases harvests by increasing the number of unshelled rice kernels and thousand kernel weight. Improves appearance quality, increasing the ratio of highest grade rice. Promotes ripening to improve flavour.

Fertilizer using granulated slag

Boosting dry matter production improving harvest quantities, appearance, and flavour

investigation pursued on 1984 showed that the application of a steel by-product (dust containing 430 g Fe kg-1) as fertilizer to alkaline soils, with or without sulphuric acid, increased dry matter yield of sorghum (Anderson &Parkpian, 1984). A similar treatment, through a mixture of sulphuric acid and iron sulphates, has allowed to correct Fe chlorosis in corn and alfalfa (Stroehlin& Berger, 1963). While converter sludge has been used as Fe fertiliser in calcareous soils with positive results, recently the use of converter slag as source of Fe fertiliser in some calcareous soils incubation studies has led to relevant achievements. On this subject, pot experiments in a greenhouse have been carried out in China (Wang &Cai, 2006). Relevant results of this study have shown that the use of moderate steel slag or acidified slag as Fe fertilizer leads to the increase in Fe uptake and corn dry matter yield. This phenomenon is proportional to the application rate and is enhanced by the acidification of slag, although increasing application rates do not produce further improvements in yield and in Fe uptake. This suggests a possible optimized rate of these applied substances. On the other hand, in experiments conducted with the sandy loam dry matter yield significantly decreased. This can be explained because the Fe availability decreases with salt levels increase, resulting in a yield decrease and an increase of chlorosis in plants. Although further studies still have to be conducted in order to

investigate the correct rates of converter slag for different crops and its possible residual environmental impacts to the soil, important results have been achieved by using this by-product as a source of available Fe (Torkashvand, 2011). In an incubation study, by adding to the soil converter slag (from Isfahan steel factory, Isfahan, Iran), containing about 24% of Fe oxides, along with elemental sulphur and organic matter, the soil pH has increased, due to the alkaline pH of slag. But during the incubation time the pH decreased. This can be due, according to some previous studies, either to the precipitation of the free carbonates as calcium carbonate (Abassapour et al., 2004) or to the hydrolysis of Fe3+ in the soil (Rodriguez et al., 1994). The decrease of soil pH probably results from the decomposition of organic matter applied and subsequent organic acids and CO2 release as well as the buffering ability of the calcareous soils. The observed yield increase in these soils may be due to the some nutrients availability as a consequence of pH increase. Use of steel slag for metal stabilization in contaminated soils Some investigations about the addition of steel slags in contaminated soils have been carried out. The stabilization technique is based on the incorporation of amendments, in order to minimize metals and metalloids, such as As, Cr, Cu, Pb, Cd and Zn that can be found in contaminated soils at wood treatment plants. In particular, when the copper

HUMARIA, Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(1), 216-219 (2014) sulphate and chromate copper arsenate are used to protect wood from insects and fungi, they can cause he soil phytotoxicity. While the As can be stabilized by sorption on Fe oxides and also by the formation of amorphous Fe (III) arsenates, the Cr immobilization takes place through Cr eduction from Cr (VI), which is mobile and toxic, to Cr (III), which is stable. The Cu stability in soil is pH dependent, because its mobility increases with decreasing pH. Carbonates, phosphates and clays can reduce the mobility and availability of Cu in soil. The proposed mechanism consists in precipitation of Cu carbonates and oxy-hydroxides, ion exchange and formation of ternary cationâ&#x20AC;&#x201C;anion complexes on the surface of Fe and Al oxyhydroxides. While Pb can be stabilized by using phosphorus-containing amendments, that reduce the Pbmobility, Zn can be immobilized in soil by using phosphorus amendments and clays. To this aim some chemical and mineralogical agents, such as industrial by-products have been applied. For instance, the use of alkaline materials, organic matters, phosphates, alumina-silicates and basic slag has been shown to limit the accumulation of Cu in plants cultivated in Cu-contaminated soils.

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CONCLUSION In this review the technical, economical, and environmental aspects of use of iron and steel slag in the field of crop cultivation. The availability nutrient/pollutant in soil depends on the nature of the chemical association between a metal with the organic residual and soil matrix, the pH value of the soil, the concentration of the element in the compost and the soil, and the ability of the plant to regulate the uptake of a particular element. The value of silicon (Si) application for rice (Oryzasativa) has been demonstrated when soil soluble Si is low. Slag is most effective used in field of agriculture to condition the soil.Slag is applied to most muck soils and associated sands that are to be planted to rice and sugarcane. There is a need to investigate the availability of silicon in sources which are potentially available for those where response to Si is also being demonstrated, dry weight. In addition to calcium silicate slag, thermo-phosphate - a fertilizer product that provides Si, P, and Mg - appears an excellent source for use.The use of steel slags in agriculture produces not only economic but also ecological advantages.

REFERENCES 1. 2.

w w w. n a t i o n a l s l a g . o r g / . . . / n s a _ 1 8 5 5_bf_slag_as_agricultural_liming_mat http://www.intechopen.com/books/materialrecycling-trends-and-perspectives/possibleuses-of-steelmaking-slag-in-agriculture-anoverview Aarabi-Karasgani, M., Rashchi, F., Mostoufi, N. &Vahidi, E. Leaching of vanadium from LD converter slag using sulfuric acid. Hydrometallurgy, 102(1-4), (14-21) (2010), ISSN 0304-386X Ali, M.T. &Shahram, S.H. Converter slag as a liming agent in the amelioration of acidic soils. International Journal of Agriculture and Biology, 9(5): (715-720) (2007),

Peregrina, F.; Mariscal, I.; Ordonez, R.; Gonzalez, P.; Terefe, T.; and Espejo, R Agronomic Implications of Converter Basic Slag as a Magnesium Source on Acid Soils..Soil Science Society of America Journal, 72(2): 402-411. (Mar. 2008-Apr. 2008) Zhang XiangYu; Zhang Hua; He PinJing; Shao LiMing; Wang RuYi; and Chen RongHuanBeneficial reuse of stainless steel slag and its heavy metals pollution risk. Research of Environmental Sciences, 21(4): 33-37. (2008);

Current World Environment

Vol. 9(1), 220-222 (2014)

Comparative Studies of Physico-Chemical Properties of the Roadside Soil at Morena (M.P.) V.K. JAIN, V.K. GUPTA and LAXMI KANT SHARMA Department of Chemistry, Ambah P.G. (Autonomous) College-Ambah, Morena M.P.,(476111), India. http://dx.doi.org/10.12944/CWE.9.1.32 (Received: December 02, 2013; Accepted: January 06, 2014) ABSTRACT The quality of roadside soil along the NH3 highway of high traffic density at Morena- M.P. was studied during 2010-11 at 12 different locations. The roadside soil was found to be highly contaminated. This is evident from the modification of the soil pH, Electrical conductance, Water holding capacity and other Physico-chemical properties when compared to natural soil. The presence of heavy metals like Zn, Cu, Mn, Fe in the roadside soil was also considerable.

Key words: Roadside Physicochemical properties of soil , Vehicle contaminants, Morena, India.

INTRODUCTION Around the world the transport sector, which includes automobiles, trucks, trains, ships and aeroplanes is contributing ever increasing shares of the total air pollution burden. The pollution of soils by heavy metals from automobile sources is a serious environmental issue. Results show that roadside soil near motorways is heavily polluted by heavy metals from automobiles1-2. Changes in the composition of the urban atmosphere are caused largely by traffic induced pollutants3 mainly carbon monoxide, nitrogen monoxide, dust and as well as various types of non methane hydrocarbons, in particular benzene, toluene and xylene. Secondary trace gases which can be formed from these precursor substances in certain photochemical reactions. The soil and the shrubs near the road are immediate receptors of the contaminants generated by plying of various types of vechicles through exhaust emission and other processes. Vehicular emission are known as the single most important contributor to the atmospheric pollution. The vehicle associates components constitute nearly 70% of the contaminants input to

roadside soil4, the rest of the input being from surface binders used in road constructions, dust fall and precipitation, road surface erosion, animal wasts and vegetable debris etc. Vehicular emission and evaporative emissions contents may contain unburnt hydrocarbons including polycyclic hydrocarbons and trace metals like Pb, Cd, Zn, Cu, Mn and Fe etc. The retention of various contaminants by the soil results in modification of its physio-chemical characteristics such as pH, conductance, texture etc5. Thus it is expected that the roadside soil has a high degree of contamination & its quality is a definitive indicator of vehicular pollution. The location of Morena city is between the two important and historical cities Agra and Gwalior by national highway NH3. The quality of roadside soil along the major roads of known high traffic density of Morena will be studies of different location. The present study is a modest attempt to understand the impact of vehicular emission on the city roadside soil. For this purpose physico-chemical characteristics of the roadside soil samples were studies carefully during 2010-11.

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feet distance at the roadside) and was more than that of the control soil (6.7). The normally acidic soil has turned alkaline due to contamination. The electrical conductivity values were also slightly higher than that of the control (0.10), indicating the input of some soluble electrolytes to the roadside

MATERIALS AND METHODS Surface soil samples were collected from the roadside at 12 locations in high traffic density areas of Morena city. A set of samples was also taken from a zero traffic zone for comparison and correlation purposes. The sampling locations with distance and direction from the reference point (Agriculture-Center Morena) are given in Table 1. The reference point is atleast 4 km away from all forms of traffic is therefore considered as “Control”. The samples were analysed for a no. of physical and chemical parameters as per standard procedure6-7.

Table 1: The Sampling Location with distance from the reference point

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The results of the analysis are presented in Table 2. The values represent averages of at least three measurements. The pH of the roadside soil (Table 2) was on the alkaline side (with the range 7.4 to 7.6 at 50 feet distance at the roadside) and (7.6 to 8.2 at 0

S.N.

Location

Distance from control (Km)/Direction

1a. 1b. 2a. 2b. 3a. 3b. 4a. 4b. 5a. 5b. 6a. 6b.

Chhonda Pull ———,,——————,,——————,,———Saank Pull ———,,——————,,——————,,———Noorabad ———,,——————,,——————,,———-

4/0 Feet L 4/50 Feet L 4/0 Feet R 4/50 Feet R 8/0 Feet L 8/50 Feet L 8/0 Feet R 8/50 Feet R 12/0 Feet L 12/50 Feet L 12/0 Feet R 12/50 Feet R

Table 2: Physicochemical Properties of Roadside Soil at Morena pH

WHC

S. 0L-R 50L-R 0L-R No Feet Feet Feet

50L-R 0L-R Feet Feet

50L-R Feet

0L-R Feet

50L-R Feet

0L-R Feet

50L-R Feet

0L-R Feet

50L-R Feet

0L-R Feet

50L-R Feet

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

0.19 0.21 0.22 0.22 0.21 0.21

39.12 36.28 46.60 56.08 50.16 51.60

266.2 217.5 239.5 260.0 269.5 280.0

118.7 213.7 232.0 230.0 262.5 240.0

15.6 18.2 10.9 12.4 11.2 19.9

10.0 17.8 10.7 11.2 9.2 12.2

314.0 435.3 309.0 360.6 463.9 425.4

284.7 212.1 303.0 340.0 374.7 280.10

16.3 12.8 23.4 9.3 15.2 17.6

11.7 9.4 13.2 8.6 13.4 11.2

7.6 7.9 7.8 8.2 8.0 7.8

7.4 7.4 7.5 7.6 7.4 7.5

0.21 0.26 0.31 0.32 0.28 0.30

46.71 49.26 48.06 60.78 59.18 52.28

Table 3: Physicochemical properties of Roadside Soil at Morena Zn

S. No

0L-R Feet

50L-R Feet

0L-R Feet

50L-R Feet

0L-R Feet

50L-R Feet

0L-R Feet

50L-R Feet

1 2 3 4 5 6

3.06 3.1 2.88 2.12 2.70 3.26

2.02 1.06 1.08 1.20 2.0 1.24

15.8 18.5 6.25 6.6 5.46 6.16

8.40 8.70 4.62 4.2 3.66 4.94

65.16 61.9 27.96 27.4 29.08 39.38

47.42 46.96 16.50 15.16 17.44 24.84

15.8 18.5 4.62 6.6 5.46 6.16

8.40 9.62 2.25 4.22 3.65 4.94

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soil due to various traffic related activities. Water holding capacity values (40-60%) for 0 feet distance and (35-65%) for 50 feet distance are lower than the control (72%) . Presence of hydrophobic matter often reduces water holding capacity and the results have indicated the entry of foreign matter to the roadside soil impairing its quality. The values of N, P, K, and S are estimated in all the roadside soil samples described in Table No. 2 and Table No.3 described the values of heavy metals Zn, Cu, Mn, and Fe of soil samples.

CONCLUSION The present study shows conclusively that three is a large input of contaminants from vehicular emission and associated activities to the roadside soil. These inputs impair the quality of the soil nearby reducing its capacity to support plant life. While there may be some amount of favourable impact due to a few contributions, most other contaminants interfere with the natural properties of soil. Input of heavy metals on roadside plant leaf and entry of toxic organics such as the polyaromatic hydrocarbons are under investigation.

REFERENCES 1.

Moller, H.W. Muller, A. Abdullah, G. Abdel Gawad and J. Ultermann, Urban soil pollution in Damascus, (2005). Al-Khashman, O.A.,The investigationof metal concentrations in street dust samples in Aqaba city, Jordan. Environ. Geochem. Health, 29: 197-207, (2007). Al-Shayeb S.M. Metals content of roadside soils in Riyadh (Saudi Arabia), with particular reference to traffic density. Asian Journal of Chemistry, 15(3 & 4), 1229-1245, (2003). Dierkes C. And Geiger W.F. Pollutant retention capacity of roadside soils. Wasserwirtschaft, 90(6), 276-278, 280-281, (2000). E.S. Abechi, O.J. Okunola, S.M.J. Zubairu, A.A. Usman, and E. Apene, Journal of Environmental Chemistry and Ecotoxicity, 98-102, (2010).

9. 10.

Fatoki O.S. Trace zinc and copper in roadside vegetation and soil in Alice, Eastern Cape, as monitor of atmospheric pollution. South African Journal of Science, 93(5), 240-242, (1997). Goswami B.S. and Bhattacharya K.G. Changes in Roadside Soil Quality Due to Deposition of Vehicle Related Contaminants. Proc. XI National Symposium on Environment, 165-169, (2002). L.J. Evans, Environ. Sci. Technol, 23, 1046, 1989. M.L. Jackson, Soil Chemical Analysis, Prentice- Hall (India), New Delhi, (1967). P.C. Onianwa and J.O. Adoghe, Environment International, 23: 873-877 (1997). T.C. Baruah and H.P. Borthakur, A Textbook of Soil Chemical Analysis, Vikas Publishing, New Delhi, (1967).

Current World Environment

Vol. 9(1), 223-226 (2014)

A Study on the Wastewater Treatment from Antibiotic Production JAYATI CHATTERJEE1, NEENA RAI2 and SANTOSH K SAR3 1

Department of Chemistry, Dr. C.V. Raman University , Bilaspur, Chattishgarh, India. 2 Department of Chemistry, Govt. Engg. College, Bilaspur, Chattishgarh, India. 3 Applied Chemistry Department, Bhilai Institute of Technology, Durg, India. http://dx.doi.org/10.12944/CWE.9.1.33 (Received: Feburary 02, 2014; Accepted: March 30, 2014) ABSTRACT

Wastewater from cephalosporin antibiotic production with high bio-toxicity is hard to degrade, and could cause great harm to environment and human being. In the present paper, wastewater from cephalosporin production was processed with biochemical treatments as hydrolytic acidification, Up-flow Anaerobic Sludge Bed(UASB), Sequencing Batch Reactor Activated Sludge Process(SBR), biological activated carbon process(BAC). Among them, hydrolytic acidification could efficaciously enhance the biodegradability of wastewater, and greatly increase effects of the subsequent anaerobic-aerobic treatment. The final BAC process could effectively eliminate chemical oxygen demand (COD) and chroma of wastewater treated by aerobic treatment, where COD attained below 100mg/L and chroma was 40. Therefore, wastewater after the previous treatments basically conformed to the discharge standard of “ Integrated wastewater discharge standard “(GB8978-1996).

Key words: Wastewater, Cephalosporin production, Hydrolytic acidification, UASB, SBR, Biological activated Carbon.

INTRODUCTION The growing use of pharmaceuticals such as antibiotics worldwide, classified as the so-called emerging pollutants, has become a new environmental problem, which has raised great concern among scientists in the last few years. Wastewater from cephalosporin antibiotic production has complicated components, where organic substances and soluble or colloid solid substances are all at a high level with a great deal of suspended matter, and pH value varied often, contains biological toxicity substances of nonbiodegradable and bacteriostatic antibiotics. In the present paper, wastewater from cephalosporin production was processed with biochemical treatments as follows: hydrolytic acidificationUASB-SBR-BAC process, which guaranteed that wastewater basically conformed to the discharge

standard of “ Integrated wastewater discharge standard “(GB8978-1996). Wastewater quality and outlet requirements Wastewater was sampled from hospital discharge and a nearer factory of the district region. Relative data was listed in detail in Table 1. Experimental section Methods 1. 2. 3. 4.

Determination of pH value: glass electrode method; Determination of chroma: dilution multiple method; Determination of COD: potassium dichromate method(CODCr); Determination of BOD: five-day biochemical cultivation

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Schematic process Organic glass cylinder with an effective volume of 5L was used as hydrolytic acidification pool. UASB reactor with the height of 150cm, inner diameter of 8cm and effective volume of 5L, was kept at constant temperature of 37! by jacket water bath adjusted by temperature-control relay and heater. Each vessel was undertaken at a manner of continuous influent, water flew into hydrolytic acidification cylinder and UASB reactor through the bottom feed inlet and flew out from the top. Biogas resulted from UASB reactor was collected by gas trap hood. Hydrolytic acidification Using hydrolytic and acid-producing bacteria reactions, un-degradable organic substances were decomposed into biodegradable

matter with small molecule, which further enhanced the biodegradability and thus decreased the charge of following processes. USAB (Up-flow Anaerobic Sludge Bed) reaction Basic structure of UASB reactor was mainly composed of sludge bed, sludge suspension layer, precipitate zone, three-phase separator and intake system, and granular sludge in reaction zone was the key of this reactor. It is a new type and high effective wastewater treatment equipment, which altered the traditional and laggard treatment of anaerobic fermentation, and have novel insight in the design of inlet manner, influent distribution system, agitated mixing and three-phase separator and intake system, and thus could be regarded as an ideal equipment for dealing with wastewater of high, medium and low pollution level. During the

Table 1: Wastewater original quality and outlet requirements Indices Measured Value Outlet Requirements

COD/mg/l

BOD/mg/l

SS/mg/l

Chrome

5.3 6~9

7230 100

595.1 30

5890 70

850 50

Fig. 1: Schematic diagram of processess

Fig. 2: Changing curves of COD in effluents of hydrolytic acidification pool

Fig. 3: Changing curve of COD in SBR effluents

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Fig. 4: Changing curve of COD in SBR effluents

Fig. 5: COD and chroma removal of BAC column

performance process, wastewater flew from the reactor bottom evenly through influent distribution system, and flew upward by reaction zone(sludge zone) to three-phase separation zone(gas, liquid and solid), and finally into the precipitate zone of UASB upside. Sludge in the mixed solutions returned to reaction zone from precipitate zone to three phase separation zone by gravity, and the resultant biogas discharged out of the reactor through collecting chamber by pipeline. No mechanical stirring device existed in UASB system, and slurry mixture was undertaken through the uprising and agitating of biogas resulted from flow elevation and treatment processes. Usually, filler was not necessary, and thus UASB system has a simple structure and was easy to maintain.

performance was basically stable, and the color of sludge appeared deep tan with larger floccule, clear margin and better settling property, which indicated that sludge culture had succeeded. If water inflow was too strong, heterotrophic bacteria in reactor would propagated largely due to sufficient nutrition, while nitrobacteria propagated slowly with small specific growth rate, and accounted for less and less proportion in sludge. Moreover, both bacteria would compete for the substrates and dissolved oxygen, which had inhibitory effect on the generation of nitrobacteria. Therefore, each water inflow should not be above 1.5L, and under such situation, sludge load of reactor was 0.40kgCOD/ (kgMLSSÂˇd), and COD removal was 80%~85%. Results were depicted in Figure 4.

SBR (Sequencing Batch Reactor) Method SBR method, namely sequencing batch reactor, is a regeneration and modification of early filling-and-emptying reactor. The obvious predominance of SBR includes as follows: simple technological process, low cost of capital construction and performance; reaction phase is an ideal plug flow process with strong impetus resulted from biochemical reaction and good efficacy; flexible performance manner, good effect of deamination phosphorus removing, and optimal technology for preventing sludge from swelling; resistance to shock loading, and good capability of dealing with toxic or high concentration organic wastewater. SBR was used as subsequent process of anaerobic treatment, in order to assure that the whole effects of system attained the discharge standard. SBR reactor was a cylinder made of 5mm organic glass with total volume of 4.5L, diameter of 140mm and effective height of 293mm. Aerobic sludge sampled from secondary sedimentation tank of a sewage treatment factory was cultured and acclimated in SBR reactor. 8d later, system

BAC (Biological Activated Carbon) Method BAC technology used activated carbon with huge specific surface area and developed void structure as carriers for aggregation, propagation and growth of microorganisms, and under the condition of moderate temperature and nutrition, exerted microbiological degradation simultaneously. Such water treatment technology was also called BAC method. Interaction of BAC granule, microorganism and water pollutants (matrix) and dissolved oxygen was involved in the process of wastewater treatment by BAC. From micro perspective, synergistic effect of BAC adsorption and microbiological degradation was not ordinary superposition of both. In the present paper, adsorption capacity of BAC was investigated, where granule fragmentary carbon with high adsorption capacity for organic substances was selected as biological carrier, meanwhile diluted pig manure sludge was undertaken to aerobic acclimatization and culture in lab scale, which was applied as biological source to prepare BAC for investigation. 5d later, through the observation of microscope, a

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layer biofilm was coated in the surface of BAC, which indicated that preparation of BAC has tended to be mature and could be undertaken to treat with wastewater from cephalosporin production. Wastewater after processes of hydrolytic acidification- UASB-SBR was added to BAC column, in a manner of lower inlet and upper outlet, influents and effluents COD, chroma and removal was presented in Figure 5. Results showed that BAC advanced treatment could effectively eliminate the COD and chroma of wastewater treated by aerobic treatment, where COD attained below 100mg/L and chroma was 40.

CONCLUSION In the normal process of reactor, COD removal of hydrolytic acidification and UASB reactor effluents was kept 36%~55% and 80%~90%, respectively. Sludge load of SBR reactor was 0.40kg COD/ (kgmlSS·d), and COD removal was 80%~85%. BAC advanced treatment could effectively eliminate the COD and chroma of wastewater treated by aerobic treatment, where COD attained below 100mg/L and chroma was 40. Therefore, wastewater basically conformed to the discharge standard of “Integrated wastewater discharge standard”(GB8978-1996).

REFERENCES 1.

Hu, J.C., et al. Theory and technology of wastewater anaerobic treatment. Beijing: China construction press, 159-166 (2002). Irvine, R.L., et al. Teehnology Assessment of Sequeneing Bateh Reaetors. U.S.Environ. Pro.Ageney (1985).

Peng, Y.Z. Five advantages of SBR method. China Water & Wastewater, 9(2):29-31 (1993). Woo, H.K., et al. Pilot plant study on ozonation and biological activated carbon process for drinking water treatment. Wat.Sci.Tech, 35(8): 21-28 (1997).

Current World Environment

Vol. 9(1), 27-36 (2014)

Measuring Consumers’ Environmental Responsibility: A Synthesis of Constructs and Measurement Scale Items K.M.R. TAUFIQUE*1, C.B. SIWAR1, B.A. TALIB2 and NORSHAMLIZA CHAMHURI2 1

Institute for Environment and Development, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 43600, Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia. 2 Faculty of Economics and Management, UniversitiKebangsaan Malaysia 43600, Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia. http://dx.doi.org/10.12944/CWE.9.1.04 (Received: January 27, 2014; Accepted: March 24, 2014) ABSTRACT

It is universal that central to all production is consumption. Without proper management, production along with consumption is likely to be the main sources of environmental problems. This very reality calls for consumers to be environmentally responsible in their consumption behavior. The objective of this paper is to prepare a synthesis of all the possible factors and measurement scale items to be used for assessing consumers’ environmental responsibility. For making such synthesis, all major works done on the field have been thoroughly reviewed. The paper comes up with a total of six parameters that include knowledge & awareness, attitude, green consumer value, emotional affinity toward nature, willingness to act and environment related past behavior. These tentative, yet inclusive set of parameters are thought to be useful for guiding the designing of large scale future empirical researches for developing a dependable inclusive set of parameters to test consumer’ environmental responsibility. A conceptual model and possible measurement items are proposed for further empirical research.

Key words: Consumer, Environmental responsibility, Parameters, Measurement, Review, Conceptual model.

INTRODUCTION Consumption is considered to be central to all production. It is used as an indicator to measure the well-being of individuals and household and to improve the quality of life (Magrabi, 1991). However, without proper management, production along with consumption is the main sources of environmental problems (Haron et al., 2005). The reason for this is that the by-products of most consumption are pollution and a fall in the usefulness of energy materials for future consumption (Trott, 1997). Conclusions of many studies have argued that irresponsible consumption behavior is responsible for a significant part of environmental deterioration. Tuna and Özkoçak (2012) suggest that unconscious usage of natural resources for the requirements of humanity and inconsiderate consumption habits of the people

have led to irreversible environmental destructions. They further argue that more energy-consuming human activities aiming at satisfying the so-called “well-being” and “comfort” of humanity have contributed to the gradual depletion of energy resources. Miran et al. (2008) claim that it is likely that our planet and all its inhabitants are today threatened by a potential global ecological crisis. The overuse of nature resources for human purposes and its long term adverse impact made us recognize the human responsibility towards nature. One facet of this recognition is evidenced in the development of eco-friendly consumption patterns among consumers. One study (Grunert, 1993) reported that about 40 percent of environmental degradation has been accounted for by the consumption activities of private household level.

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It is thus well evidenced and believed that consumption and consumer behavior at household level are, by and large, responsible for environmental degradation. Accordingly, along with other governing bodies, consumers need to be involved in the journey to environmentally sustainable consumption behavior in order for an economy to grow “green”. The starting point for such journey with consumers is to know their present status regarding their understanding of the issue and how environmentally responsible they are in their consumption behavior. Investigation of this kind is not a straightforward work since the issue is very much latent in nature. The prerequisite for such study calls for an all inclusive set of parameters generated from a comprehensive literature survey.

MATERIALS AND METHODS The study is solely based on a comprehensive and systematic review of literature. Several steps have been gone through in searching and selecting the literature for being reviewed. First a very general and broad search was conducted in Google using the key phrases reflecting the topic of the study. Databases such as EBSCO, Emarald, ScienceDirect, SCOPUS etc. were accessed to search for the relevant research papers. Finally as suggested by Randolph (2009), the references of the retrieved articles were repeatedly searched until a point of saturation was reached. After that the inclusion of the articles was narrowed down to match the focus of this paper following the review guidelines of Hart (1998).

Table 1: Summary of the Constructs for Assessing Consumers’ Environmental Responsibility Construct

Reference

Key Argument

Knowledge and Awareness

Stone et al. (1995); Maloney and Ward (1973); Hines, Hungerford, and Tomera (1986) Dunlap & Van Liere(1978); Jackson (1985); Kinnear, Taylor, & Ahmed (1974); Maloney & Ward (1973); Thompson &Gasteigner (1985). Haws, Winterich, and Naylor (2010)

Environmentally responsible consumers must have knowledge and awareness of the environment. Attitude is one of the key elements of an individual’s environmental responsibility.

Attitude

Green Consumer Value

Emotional Affinity toward Nature

Kals, Schumacher,& Montada, 1999; Müller, Kals, &Pansa, 2009; Stern, 2000

Willingness to Act

Maloney & Ward (1973); Hines et al. (1986); Berkowitz and Daniels (1964)

Action Taken/ Environment Related Past Behavior

Bennet (1974); Dunlap & Van Liere (1978)

Environmentally sustainable consumption behavior is associated with the degree of consumers’ green values. The extent to which a person has an emotiona connection to his or her natural environment has impact on individual’s commitment to be responsible for the protection of environment. Verbal commitment is a measure for individual’s willingness to act. Personality factors and social responsibility are also associated with one’s willingness to act. The engagement in certain behaviors is a must for environmentally responsible consumers

TAUFIQUE et al., Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(1), 27-36 (2014) Consumers’ Environmental Responsibility Consumers’ environmental responsibility refers to consumption activities that benefit, or result in less damage to the environment than substitutable activities (Ebreo, Hershey and Vining, 1999; Pieters, 1991). Crosby, Gill, and Taylor (1981) defined environmental concern tentatively as a strong positive attitude toward preserving the environment. Later, they defined environmental concern as a general or global attitude with indirect effects on behaviors through behavioral intentions (Gill, Crosby, and Taylor, 1986), based on the work of Van Liere and Dunlap (1981). Zimmer, Stafford and Stafford (1994) supported this definition describing environmental concern as ‘‘a general concept that can refer to feelings about many different green issues.’’ Consumer Environmental Responsibility is formally defined as “a state in which a person expresses an intention to take action directed toward remediation of environmental problems, acting not as an individual consumer with his/her own economic interests, but through a citizen consumer concept of societal-environmental wellbeing. Further, this action will be characterized by awareness of environmental problems, knowledge of remedial alternatives best suited for alleviation of the problem, skill in pursuing his or her own chosen action, and possession of a genuine desire to act after having weighed his/her own locus of control and determining that these actions can be meaningful in alleviation of the problem” (Stone et al., 1995, p. 601).

environment (Stone et al., 1995; Maloney and Ward, 1973). Level of awareness may not always reflect the amount of information exposed to the individuals. For instance, Arcury (1990) mentions that Americans have been exposed to a plethora of environmental information for years, yet researchers have very little information about how much the public actually knows about the environment. Using a meta-analysis of 128 environmental studies, Hines, Hungerford and Tomera (1986) identified knowledge to be a must among some other variables that are reportedly associated with environmentally responsible behavior. Hines et al. (1986) further propose an environmental behavior model in which the intention to take action is determined to be a combination of other factors including cognitive knowledge, cognitive skills, and personality variables. Cognitive knowledge, in this model, relates to an individual’s awareness of existing environmental problems. Therefore, it can be hypothesized that consumers’ level of knowledge and awareness of environmental issues have impact on their degree of responsibility in consumption behavior. Attitude A number of authors argued that attitude to be one of the elements that must be present in individuals who put on view of environmental responsibility (Dunlap and Van Liere, 1978; Kinnear, Taylorand Ahmed, 1974; Maloney and Ward, 1973; Thompson andGasteigner, 1985).

After conducting a comprehensive and systematic review of literature, a total of six constructs have been confirmed. The following table (Table 1) summarizes the major constructs for assessing consumers’ environmental responsibility followed by the detailed discussion and argument supported by corresponding literature.

A new environmental paradigm consisting of an attitude and certain behaviors that would be engaged in by the environmentally concerned individual is necessary (Dunlap and Van Liere, 1978). These authors recognized that ecological problems stemmed in large part from more traditional attitudes and beliefs common in society. They further recommended that man should live in harmony with nature and limits should be imposed on economic growth.

Knowledge and Awareness Environmentally responsible consumers must have knowledge and awareness of the

Kinnear et al. (1974) posited that ecological concern was similar in context to environmental responsibility and is composed of

RESULT AND DISCUSSION

TAUFIQUE et al., Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(1), 27-36 (2014) Table 2: Measurement Items for Consumers’ Environmental Responsibility

Constructs

Measurement items

Source & Justification

Knowledge & awareness

1.The amount of energy I use does not affect the environment to any significant degree. 2The country needs more restrictions on residential development (construction of a new mall on farmland, new subdivisions, etc.). 3.If I were a hunter or fisherman, I would kill or catch more if there were no limits. 4.I know very well what the term ‘global warming’ means. 5.I know very well what the term ‘organic product’ means. 6.I know very well what the term ‘climate change’ means. 7.I know very well what the term ‘greenhouse gas’ means. 1. There is nothing the average citizen can do to help stop environmental pollution. * 2. My involvement in environmental activities today will help save the environment for future generations. 3. I would not car pool unless I was forced to. It is too inconvenient. * 4. It is essential to promote green living in my country. 5. Environmental protection works are simply a waste of money and resources. * 6. I strongly support that more environmental protection works are needed in my country. 7. Environmental protection issues are none of my business. * 8. I think environmental protection is meaningless. * 9. It is unwise for my country to spend a vast of money on promoting environmental protection. * 10. It is very important to raise environmental concern among the citizens. 1. It is important to me that the products I use do not harm the environment. 2. I consider the potential environmental impact of my actions when making many of my decisions. 3. My purchase habits are affected by my concern for our environment. 4. I am concerned about wasting the resources of our planet. 5. I would describe myself as

Three (items 1-3) out of four items in measuring awareness dimension of environmentally responsible consumers (Stone et al., 1995) , has been selected. For examining the knowledge dimension four items (items 4-7) are proposed to explore. The rationale for proposing these items is that they are extensively referred to most studies on today's environmental and ecological issues.

Attitude

Green consumer value

A total of ten items are proposed to be used in examining consumers’ attitudes toward environmental issues. Items 1-3 are taken from ECOSCALE (Stone et al., 1995) and items 4-10 were used by Lee (2011) in measuring the same issue.

This 6-item scale is adapted from Bearden et al. (2010, pp. 172173) where the original scale was referred to Haws, Winterich, and Naylor (2010) who titled the scale as ‘GREEN scale’. One of the reasons for using this scale is because it has a high level of reported

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Table. 2 Continues.. environmentally responsible. 6. I am willing to be inconvenienced in order to take actions that are more environmentally friendly. Emotional 1 When I spend time in nature I feel free and easy. affinity 2. When surrounded by nature I get calmer toward and I feel at home. nature 3. I feel relaxed and have a pleasant feeling of intimacy when spending time in nature. 4. Whenever I spend time in nature I do not experience a close connection to it 5. Sometimes when I feel unhappy I find solace in nature. Willingness 1. I want to be a member of an environmental group. to act 2. I will provide financial support to clean up the environment. 3. I want to attend a rally or a demonstration on an environmental issue. 4. I will keep my garbage in separate piles of glass, plastic, paper, newspapers, and metal for recycling when they are available. 5. I’d be willing to ride a bicycle or use public transportation to go to work/school to reduce air pollution. 6. I would be willing to donate a day’s worth of pay to a foundation to help them improve the environment. 7. I strive to learn as much as possible about environmental issues. 8. I would pay extra on my electricity bill each month to ensure that all of the electricity I use comes from ‘green’ sources Environment 1.I have switched products for ecological reasons. related 2.I have convinced members of my family or friends past not to buy some products that are harmful to the behavior environment. 3. I have tried very hard to reduce the amount of electricity I use. 4. I have purchased a household appliance because it used less electricity than other brands. 5. I have replaced light bulbs in my home with those of smaller wattage so that I will conserve on the electricity I use 6. I have purchased light bulbs that were more expensive but saved energy. Environ1.I normally make a conscious effort to limit my mentally use of products that are made of or use responsible scarce resources. consumer 2. I always try to use electric appliances (behavior) (e.g., dishwasher, washer, and dryer) before

internal consistency with alpha value of over .85. The scale (items 1-5) has been taken from Müller, Kals, and Pansa (2009) which was originally used by Kals, Schumacher, and Montada (1999) with satisfying results concerning reliability (alpha= .86). Items 1-4 were used by Ramly et al. (2012) with a Cronbach’s alpha of 0.90 and items 5-8 were used by Tuna and Özkoçak (2012) where Cronbach’s alpha value was 0.85.

These six items reflecting consumers’ past behavior regarding environmental issues have been taken from ECCB (ecologically conscious consumer behavior) scales used by Roberts (1996a) and Straughan and Roberts (1999).

The original ECCB (environmentally conscious consumer behavior) scale consists of 30 items used by Roberts (1996a) and

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Table. 2 Continues.. 10 P.M. and after 10 P.M. 3. When there is a choice, I always choose the product that contributes to the least amount of pollution. 4. If I understand the potential damage to the environment that some products can cause, I do not purchase these products. 5. I use a recycling center or in some way recycle some of my household trash. 6. I make every effort to buy paper products made from recycled paper. 7. I use a low-phosphate detergent (or soap) for my laundry. 8. I do not buy products in aerosol containers. 9. Whenever possible, I buy products packaged in reusable containers. 10. I will not buy a product if the company that sells it is ecologically irresponsible. 11. I buy toilet paper made from recycled paper. 12. I try only to buy products that can be recycled. 13. I do not buy household products that harm the environment. 14. To save energy, I drive my car as little as possible. 15. I try to buy energy efficient household appliances. 16. I usually purchase the lowest priced product, regardless of its impact on society. * 17. I use my own bag when shopping. 18. I refuse plastic bags when shopping. 19. I consume foods that are produced using organic farming methods. 20. I take printed copy of my bank statement only if needed to submit for official purpose. 21. I take printed copy any transaction at ATM booth. * 22. I use only one side of the paper. *

Straughan and Roberts (1999). A total of 16 items that are considered to reflect much â&#x20AC;&#x153;concreteâ&#x20AC;? forms of environmentally responsible behavior from the original ECCB scale are used for this study with acceptable coefficient Alpha value. Items 17 & 18 are used from the study of Gadenne (2011). Items 19-22 have been proposed by the authors.

*Reversed scaled items. two dimensions: (a) an attitude that must express concern for the environment, and (b) a purchasing behavior that must be consistent with maintenance of the environment. They further indicate that the level of ecological concern is a function of both attitudes and behavior. Here attitude refers to attitude towards environmental protection and accordingly the assumption is that consumers who

have positive attitude towards environmental protection show more responsibility in their consumption behavior. Green Consumer Value Green consumers are defined as those who have a tendency to consider the environmental impact of their purchase and consumption

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behaviors. As such, consumers with stronger GREEN values (Haws, Winterich and Naylor 2010) will tend to make decisions consistent with environmentally sustainable consumption.

of an individual’s present behavior. Apparently consumers’ environmental responsibility is said to be reflected in their environment related past behavior.

Emotional Affinity toward Nature Some researchers have begun to explore the individual’s affective influences on environmental concern and behavior (Stern, 2000) that incorporates emotional affinity toward nature (Kals, Schumacher and Montada, 1999; Müller, Kals and Pansa, 2009). The authors refer Emotional Affinity toward Nature (EAN) as the extent to which a person has an emotional connection to his or her natural environment. The studies confirmed that EAN explains individual’s commitment to environment to a considerable extent.

Consumer Demography Several studies in the past have attempted to investigate and found that some demographic variables of consumers correlate with environmentally conscious consumption behavior. A review of these studies and their findings in accordance to the select demographic variables are outlined in the following section. This summary is mainly referred to the work of Straughan and Roberts (1999).

Willingness to Act Environmentally responsible consumers are said to be willing to act for environmental betterment. One measure of the individual’s probable future actions is ‘verbal commitment’ (Maloney and Ward, 1973). A desire to act is further claimed to be closely associated with personality factors such as the individual’s locus of control, his or her attitude, and exhibited personal responsibility (Hines et al., 1986). Berkowitz and Daniels (1964) found that individuals who scored high in social responsibility were more active in church and community affairs and were more willing to contribute their time, money, and energy to these types of activities. This is similar to having a willingness to act. Therefore, it is assumed that consumers’ willingness to act and their environmental responsibility towards consumption behavior are positively correlated. Action Taken/Environment Related Past Behavior In addition to having attitude and knowledge, the engagement in certain behaviors is a must for environmentally responsible consumers (Bennet, 1974; Dunlap and Van Liere, 1978). Maloney and Ward (1973) argued that both attitude and knowledge determine the environmentally relevant behaviors that encompass actions that individuals presently pursuing or would be willing to pursue. Hines et al. (1986) emphasized the necessity of ‘actual commitment’ as a measure

Age Age has been explored by a number of early studies of ecology and green marketing (e.g. Roberts, 1995; 1996b; Roberts and Bacon, 1997; Roper, 1990; 1992; Samdahl and Robertson, 1989; Van Liere and Dunlap, 1981; Zimmer et al., 1994). One general consensus regarding age is that the younger people are likely to be more sensitive to ecological issues. The most common argument for this general consensus is that the people, who grew up in the time of growing concern of environmental issues at some level, are more likely to be sensitive to these issues (Straughan and Roberts, 1999). Ironically, this trend has been found to be reversed in several studies over the last two decades (D’Souza et al., 2007; Jain and Kaur, 2006; Roberts, 1996a, 1996b; Samdahl and Robertson, 1989). In fact, like other demographic variables, the findings of the relationship with age and green consumer behavior are not identical. Some studies explored that the relationship between age and green behavior is non-significant (e.g. Roper, 1990; 1992) whereas others revealed the relationship to be significant and negatively correlated (e.g. Van Liere and Dunlap, 1981; Zimmer et al., 1994). Yet some studies found the relationship to be significant, but positively correlated (e.g. Roberts, 1996a; Samdahl and Robertson, 1989). Sex As is the case of age, the studies on the impact of gender on green behavior have not come to be conclusive yet. Straughan and Roberts (1999)

TAUFIQUE et al., Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(1), 27-36 (2014) studies found the negative relationship between income and environmental concern (e.g. Roberts, 1996a; Samdahl and Robertson, 1989). Education Level of education is considered to be linked to environmental attitude and behavior (e.g. Newell and Green, 1997; Roberts, 1995; 1996b; Roberts and Bacon, 1997; Roper, 1990; 1992; Samdahl and Robertson, 1989; Schwartz and Miller, 1991; Zimmer et al., 1994). Most of the studies agreed that education is expected to be positively correlated with environmental concerns and behavior (Straughan and Roberts, 1999). While most of the studies come up with positive correlation between education and environmental issues, Samdahl and Robertson (1989) found the opposite, that education was negatively correlated with environmental attitudes.

Fig. 1: Conceptual Model for Environmentally Responsible Consumers argue that women are more likely than men to hold attitudes consistent with the green movement due to the development of unique sex roles, skills, and attitudes. Eagly (1987) justifies this inclination of women as their careful consideration of the impact of their actions on others which result from social development and sex role differences. Arcury (1990) suggested that an individualâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s gender may be a factor in the amount of environmental knowledge he or she possesses as well as the amount of concern the individual displays for the environment. Income Environmental sensitivity is generally believed to be positively related to income (Straughan and Roberts, 1999). The authors argue that generally people with higher income can afford the green products which are usually higher in price than the price of conventional products. Income has been considered as one of the predictors of ecologically conscious behavior in several early studies (e.g. Newell and Green, 1997; Roberts, 1995; 1996b; Roberts and Bacon, 1997; Roper, 1990; 1992; Samdahl and Robertson, 1989; Van Liere and Dunlap, 1981; Zimmer et al., 1994). However, few

Proposed Conceptual Model for Environmentally Responsible Consumers The following figure (Figure1) displays the proposed conceptual framework representing the possible constructs for measuring consumersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; environmental responsibility. In addition to the selected six constructs, selected consumer demographics are proposed to be incorporated in the model to investigate any mediating or moderating impact on consumersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; environmental responsibility. Items for Measuring the Constructs A comprehensive literature review has been conducted for compiling a reliable set of scale items for measuring the constructs and testing the proposed model. The following table summarizes the scale items with their corresponding constructs and references. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This study was conducted with the funding support from HiCOE project at Institute for Environment and Development (LESTARI), UKM (XX-05-2012). The authors would like to thank the funding body for supporting the study. The authors also would like to thank the research scholars for their research works that have been used in this study as the sources of data.

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Current World Environment

Vol. 9(1), 37-42 (2014)

Capital Saving Towards Achievement of Inter-Temporal Sustainable Development MOHAMMED EBRAHIM HUSSIEN and CHAMHURI SIWAR Institute for Environment and Development (LESTARI), National University of Malaysia (UKM), Malaysia http://dx.doi.org/10.12944/CWE.9.1.05 (Received: January 04, 2014; Accepted: February 21, 2014) ABSTRACT Since the time immemorial, saving has been considered as a major driving factor for the prosperity of household and the development of countries. Traditionally, the inter-temporal concept of saving is limited to one’s life span irrespective of next generation. Development is, however, not considered as sustainable unless it has inter-generational and societal stand. This paper intends to show how capital saving is crucial factor for sustainable economic development. Thus the paper develops capital saving model in which the saved capital transferred throughout generation. The model derived from ‘Infinite-Horizon Model’ developed by Ramsey-Cass–Koopmans. The derived model infers that the pressure of population growth in a geometric progression can be minimized through inter-generational capital saving. The model shows the simultaneous proportional growth of capital and population for continuous generation.

Key words: Inter-temporal saving, Capital, Sustainable Economic Development, Infinite generation. INTRODUCTION Various growth and development models have been evolving since the time of classical economics, but the factors of development and priority issues of a nation vary throughout school of thoughts. The past schools of economic thought gave a due emphasis for economic development marginalizing the non-economic issues. They compromised the trade-off relationship between economic development and natural resource depletion. According to their view, growth is ‘first’ and environment is ‘later’, since economic growth reduces poverty. Although economic growth is necessary condition for poverty reduction yet is not sufficient condition for solve income inequality problem (Veron 2001). Besides, there is an essence of short-run dimension which might lead to less consideration for future generation. For instance, long-run is not concern of Keynesians due to full of uncertainty; and their problem solving models deals only on short-term cases as it was stated by Keynes

“The long run is a misleading guide to current affairs. In the long run we are all dead”(Keynes1923). Furthermore, the world population is projected to continue increasing well into the next century. Recently, approximately, 80% of the world’s populations live in which half or more of economically active labor-force engaged in agricultural sector. That is where agriculture is leading sector in economy. This area is featured by poor economic level, high population growth rate, and low agricultural productivity. According to the projection, the prevailing world population will be doubled in the coming four decades, while the agricultural land becoming less and less due to population pressure and urbanization. Such increasing population and urbanization will clearly put a good deal of pressure on natural resources and the environment, and will pose especially severe problems on developing nations.

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Nations are striving to assure economic development. Working to eradicate or alleviate major macroeconomic problems such as poverty and income inequality. These macro-problems can be solved through growth and development phenomenon. But to realize economic development, natural and environmental resources must be utilized. In doing so, the stock of resources will be depleted. Since it lacks societal concept, this type of achievement through trade-off relation between environmental resource and economic development is no longer sustainable (Nihoul 1998). The idea of scarcity of resources and unlimited human wants make most economists to be pessimistic in predicting the future. Thomas Malthus (1798) has shown the issue of resource scarcity in his discussion about population theory and environmental limit. Similarly, David Ricardo (1815) emphasized on land capital, discussed the trade-off between population and productivity arguing resources are limited. Classical economists used total production curve to show diminishing returns. However, technical and technological progress has shifted the production curve which in turn leads to growth (Mebratu 1998). Although technical and technological improvement leads to growth; the economic sustainability in terms of macro-economic growth is necessary condition but not sufficient condition for sustainable development, particularly in developing countries. Researchers also argued that population growth is also needed for the technological growth and economic growth in near future (Alam et al. 2009; 2011; Molla et al. 2013). In the World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED) report on “Our Common Future” (1987) (also known as Brundt land Report), sustainable development is defined as “development which meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs” (Boggia and Cortina 2010). Furthermore, it is about maintaining natural (i.e. ecological) bases of economic development. The emphasis on material growth maximizes resource use and consumption, thereby maximizing entropy (disorder) that leads to unsustainable development. That means that sustainable development is the development which

minimizes the increase in net global disorder and aims at securing the productivity of non-renewable natural capitals and conserving all species of fauna and flora (Faucheux et al. 1995). Traditional economic schools of thoughts are failed to economize some social and environmental capitals that are vital for sustainable development of a nation. Besides, their models lack the societal view for sustainable generation. This shortcoming leads to the call for the new architect of economic model which has potential to transform “business as usual” attitude of socio-economic activities to the inter-generational societal development model. Accordingly, the notion of sustainable development emerged to regard the need of current generation without jeopardizing the interest of next generations. In doing so, numerous schemes and initiatives has been suggested and implemented. In line with this paradigm, the paper proposes the inter-temporal capital saving as one of driving tools towards achieving sustainable economic development. Inter-temporal Capital Saving Model The ‘Infinite-Horizon Model’was developed by Ramsey (1928), which was further developed by Cass (1965) and Koopmans (1965). Infinite-Horizon model can be named as RCK model too. The model used to discount only the overall consumption function of households to the present value vis-α-vis budget constraint of one generation.The inter-temporal concept of RCK model is about present consumption and saving (for future consumption by the saver himself). However, here inter-temporal idea is the present consumption of current generation and the saving (for the consumption of future generations). In this model, saving is transcendental concept beyond the life span of one generation. In other words, it is the intact amount of wealth to be inherited by the subsequent generations. Using RCK function as a base model, here we derive the consumption function for continuous (infinite) generation considering the following assumptions: No capital depreciation (adopted from overlapping generation model)

HUSSIEN & SIWAR, Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(1), 37-42 (2014) Stock of natural resource kept constant throughout generation (adopted from Daly’s theory of sustainable economic development) The households’consumption maximization forRCKmodel is:

e-R(t) c(t) e (m+g)t dt < k (0) + e-R(t)w(t) e (m+g)t dt

...(1)

Where,m = household (labor) growth rate, g = technological growth rate, R(t) = real interest rate at time t

must be transferred to the future generation in order to realize sustainable economic development. Assuming K0 is equal to K1; it can develop the general formula for infinite generation as follows: Co-Ko-Yo≤Κ1 C1-Y1≤Κ1+Κ1 Since, K0 and K1 are assumed to be equal, model for first generation: C1-Y1≤2Κ1 C2-2K2-Y2≤2Κ22 C2-Y2≤2Κ2+2Κ2

...(5)

Model for Second generation: That is, lifetime consumption  initial wealth/capital + lifetime labor income. Simply we can demonstrate it as: C≤K+Y

C2-Y2≤4Κ2 C3-4K3-Y3≤4Κ3 C3-Y3≤4Κ3+4Κ3

...(6)

...(2) Model for Subsequent generation:

Where,C is consumption,

e-R(t) c(t) e

(m+g)t

dt,

C3-Y3≤8Κ3

...(7)

K is initial wealth (K(0)) and Y is labour income Thus the general formula is: e-R(t)w(t) e (m+g)t dt Cn-Yn≤2nΚn Base equation for one generation, it can be rearranged as: C-K-Y≤0

..(3)

However, in order to secure sustainability, it is necessary condition to maintain at least equal amount of wealth to that of what was inherited initially. Consequently, it can be derived the consumption model which is compatible with sustainability concept as follows: Co-Ko-Yo≤Κ1

..(4)

Where,KO initial wealth,K1 wealth to be inherited by the subsequent generation. This assumption corresponds to Daly’s (1989) “weak sustainability” condition. In which he states that the constant sum of the resource stock

e-R(i) c(i) e (m+g)i dt e-R(i) w(i) e (m+g)i dt < 2i k (i)

...(8)

Where, g is technological growth rate and R(i)is real interest rate at generation. Where ‘n’ denotes nth generation and K0 represents initial wealth of first generation. Furthermore, the Keynesian consumption function to derive the inter-temporal functional relationship between saving and capital is as follows: C =Yd- S or Y= C+S ...(9) Where, C denotes for consumption, Yd disposable income and S represents savings. Here, it assumes simple macro-economic model with no government as an economic factor.

HUSSIEN & SIWAR, Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(1), 37-42 (2014)

But from the rearrangement of RCK base model, equation (2), and equation (9): C= Y- S and C ≤ Κ+Y Y - S ≤ K +Y Y - S ≤ Ko + Y Where, KO is the inherited initial wealth by current generation, -S ≤ Ko

...(10)

This implies that the amount to be saved and maintained to be transferred to the subsequent generations is equal to the initially inherited capital, . In addition, the negative sign implies “intertemporal” concept in which is wealth of current generation whilst the current will be the initial capital for the next generation.

Inter-temporal Sustainability Model The concept of the model is applicable for the capital savings of both consumers and producers. The prevailing consumers are assumed to save the financial and physical capital they own whilst producers mainly assumed to save natural capitals in order to transfer the intact wealth for the subsequent generations. Natural capital, physical capital, human capital, and social capital are considered factors determining sustainable development. In the case of natural resources, neoclassical analysis uses the egalitarian principles of Rawls (1971) in describing the criteria under which real consumption can be kept constant at a steady level over time regardless of the exhaustion of nonrenewable resources (Spangenberg et al., 2002; Marjan W., 1996).

Fig.1: Substitutable resources throughout the line

Fig.2: Substitutable resources in a fixed rate

HUSSIEN & SIWAR, Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(1), 37-42 (2014) Sustainable and long lasting development is possible only if due attention is given for natural capital as equal as traditional resources (physical capital and labor) in planning, organizing and managing resources. In deriving his sustainable development theory, Herman Daly, mentioned that there are two principles of sustainability in resource management (Daly, 1996): 1.

The speed at which resources are utilized must be equal to their capacity to be regenerated. The speed of production of waste must be equal to the capacity of absorption by the ecosystems into which the waste is put.

Both capacities must be treated as ‘natural capital’ in which if the natural capital used up but failed to maintain this capacities (regenerate and absorb) there is no possible way for sustainability (Boggia and Cortina, 2010). According to theory of sustainable economic development of Daly, there are two ways of maintain stock of total capital viz. weak and strong sustainability: Weak sustainability means maintaining the sum of natural capital and material capital at a constant value. According to the weak sustainability perspective, capital produced by man, and natural capital can be substitutable to each other. Consequently, constant sum of the stock must be transferred to the future generation. According to the graph below, producers can save the stock the natural capital by producing throughout the line. Based on this assumption, there is perfect substitution between material capital and natural capital. Hence, through technological advancement and enhanced productivity the total amount of capital will be saved in order not to jeopardize the need of the successive generations. The following is its conceptual model: According to this equation, there is a linear relationship between parameters and the process of sustainability can be feasible throughout the line at any possible combination of natural and material capital.

Strong sustainability means keeping each of material capital and natural capital at a constant value. Under this scenario, material capital and the natural capital are not substitutable to each other. Strong sustainability perspective requires the stock of both capitals must be kept intact since the availability of one component can affect the productivity of the other. “The earth and its resources are assigned to each generation as trustees, and each generation has a duty to leave an ‘intact’ nature (constant natural capital) to the next generation, whatever the level of well being reached may be”. According to this assumption, the capital mix of the producers is fixed and specific proportion. Maintaining this capital mix by the current producer, total stock of capital is saved and transferred to subsequent generations. Based on the equation, sustainability can be feasible only at a fixed rational combination of natural capital and material capital in order to maintain the total stock capital. CONCLUSION With the existence of technological progress and high productivity along with intertemporal saving, the initial wealth can continue growing in geometric progression. This can be realized through change in the consumers’ and producers’ behavior. If the prevailing generation is committed to transfer at least as equal as amount of wealth they inherited; the stock of resources sustained throughout generation. Interestingly, according to this general equation, both the growth of population and stock of resources are geometric progression. Accordingly, it reconciles the fear of scarcity regarding population pressure and resource consumption as far as all respective generations adherent to this model. However, the mechanism of transferring wealth to inter generation can be either by inheritance or/and endowment through institutions.

HUSSIEN & SIWAR, Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(1), 37-42 (2014) ACKNOWLEDGMENT

Financial assistance provided by the Fundamental Research Grant Scheme (FRGS), on “Greening the Economy”, Institute for Environment and Development (LESTARI), Universiti

Kebangsaan Malaysia (Ref. No. FRGS/1/2012/ SSO7/UKM/01/3) and “The measurement of Oil Palm Economic Potential” (Ref. No. ERGS/1/2013/ SS07/UKM/01/1)headed by Emeritus Prof. Chamhuri Siwar is gratefully acknowledged.

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Alam, M.M., Molla, R.I., Rahman, K.M., and Murad, M.W. A Paradox of the World Population Stabilization Policy, Journal of Developing Areas, 43(1), 331-340 (2009). Alam, M.M., Molla, R.I., Rahman, K.M., and Murad, M.W. Declining Work-Age Population Threats to Global Economic Sustainability, International Sustainable Development Research Society (ISDRS) Newsletter, 2: 1214, USA (2011). Boggia, A. and Cortina, C. Measuring sustainable development using a multicriteria model: A case study, Journal of Environmental Management , 91 : 2301-2306 (2010). Cass, D. Optimum Growth in an Aggregative Model of Capital Accumulation”, the Review of Economic Studies, 32(3), 233-240 (1965). Daly, H.E. Towards some operational principles of sustainable development. Ecological Economics, l (4), l-6 (1989). Faucheux, S., Froger, G., Noël, J.F. What Forms of Rationality for Sustainable Development? The Journal of SocioEconomics, 24(1), 169-209 (1995). Keynes, J.M. A Tract on Monetary Reform, Macmillan and Co., limited. London, (1923). Koopmans, T.C. Stationary Ordinal Utility and Impatience, Econometrica, 28: 287-309 (1960). Malthus, T.R. An Essay on the Principle of Population, New York: Norton. (Originally published in 1798) (1976). Marjan, W. Modeling Sustainable Development: An economy – ecology

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integrated model, Economic Modeling, 13: 333-353 (1996). Mebratu, D. Sustainability and sustainable development: historical and conceptual review. Environ Impact Asses Review, 18: 493-520 (1998). Molla, R.I., Murad, M.W., and Alam, M.M. Development Issues, Policies and Actions: Selected Recent Works on Malaysia and Bangladesh, Perlis: Universiti Malaysia Perlis (2013). Nihoul, J. Modeling Sustainable Development as a Problem in Earth Science. Mathl. Comput. Modelling, 28(10): 1-6 (1998). Ramsey F.P. A Mathematical Theory of Saving, Economic Journal, 38(152): 543 (1928). Rawls, J. A Theory of Justice, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, (1971). Ricardo, D. On the principle of political economy and taxation, Batoche Books (2001), Ontario, Canada (1817). Spangenberg, J.H., Pfahl, S., Deller, K. Joachim, H. Towards indicators for institutional sustainability: lessons from an analysis of Agenda 21, Ecological Indicators, 2, 61-77 (2002). Veron, R. The “New” Kerala Model: Lessons for Sustainable Development, World Development, 29(4): 601-617. WCED (World Commission on Environment and Development). Our Common Future. Oxford, U.K.: Oxford University Press (1987).

Current World Environment

Vol. 9(1), 43-47 (2014)

Heavy Metals in Street Dust in Sarajevo Area, Bosnia and Herzegovina A. RAZANICA, J. HUREMOVIC1, S. ZERO, S. GOJAK-SALIMOVIC and M. MEMIC Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Sarajevo, Zmaja od Bosne 33-35, 71000 Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina. http://dx.doi.org/10.12944/CWE.9.1.06 (Received: Feburary 19, 2013; Accepted: March 28, 2013) ABSTRACT Heavy metal pollutant in urban street dust has become a growing concern in recent years. Street dust samples from urban and suburban areas were collected from the Sarajevo area, Bosnia and Herzegovina, during the spring season of 2013. Samples were collected from low and high density traffic roads, industrial zones, parks, parking places, hospitals and local health centres, school gardens. The levels of heavy metals of street dusts were determined by flame atomic absorption spectrometry (FAAS). Cadmium, chromium, copper, nickel, iron, manganese, lead and zinc levels in the dust samples were found in the range of 0.58–3.65, 3.42–60.82, 5.49– 388, 9.31–161, 647–2244, 6.10–13.32, 31.63-1760 and 40.29–378 µg/g, respectively. The highest metal concentrations were found in samples from industrial zone and in the streets with heavy traffic. The lowest levels of the metal concentrations were found in the samples from health centres and school gardens. The concentrations of the metals were, in most of cases, similar to the mean world-wide contents of the street dust samples. Correlations between heavy trace metal levels of the dust samples were also evaluated.

Key words: Street dust, Heavy metals, Sarajevo area, Pollution.

INDRODUCTION Urban deposits, street dusts, and gully sediments are useful indicators of the level and distribution of heavy metal contamination in the surface environment (Divrikli et al., 2003, Duzgoren-Aydin et al., 2006). Road dust originates from the interaction of solid, liquid and gaseous materials which are produced from different sources and deposited on a road (Atiemo et al., 2006). Street dusts are those materials which collect on paved roads. Concentrations of heavy metals in such dust are extremely variable. Street dusts are relatively complex materials, the compositions of which are seldom constant. This is because of changes during weathering, the relatively short residence time in the environment,

and because the residence time is directly related to climate (Fergusson and Kim, 1991, Akheter and Madany, 1993). Street dust investigation is of particular importance for two main reasons. First, street dust is freely being inhaled by those traversing the streets and those residing within the vicinity of the streets. The more the dusts on streets become contaminated with heavy metals, the more people are exposed to the health hazards associated with metals. Second, the street dust is one of the major mediums through which heavy metals may find their ways into soils and surface and underground water through rains and subsequently living tissues of plants, animals and human beings (Tamrakar and Shakya, 2011). In recent years, a number of authors have suggested that elevated levels of metals in household dust, garden soil and urban street dust

RAZANICA et al., Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(1), 43-47 (2014)

pose a potential human health hazard (Lynch et al., 2000, Takaro et al., 2004, Al-Momani, 2007, Dubey et al., 2013). Heavy metal ions at trace levels play important roles in human life and are present in air, soils, sediments, dusts, and natural waters (Arslan, 2001). Metals in street dust may be derived from natural and anthropogenic sources. Road traffic, industrial activities, and weathering of materials are the dominant sources (Momani, 2006). The main polluting source of the trace metals in Sarajevo is road traffic which is crowded in the city centre. No results are as yet available for trace elements originating from traffic pollution of Sarajevo-Bosnia and Herzegovina. We refer the Cd, Cr, Cu, Ni, Fe, Pb, Mn and Zn contents of the street dust samples as determined by flame-atomic absorption spectrometry (FAAS). MATERIALS AND METHODS Study Area Sarajevo is the capital and largest city of Bosnia and Herzegovina, with a population of over 400,000 people. It is located near the geometric centre of the triangular-shaped BosniaHerzegovina and lies in the Sarajevo valley. The Miljacka river flows through the city from east through the centre of Sarajevo to west part of city where eventually meets up with the Bosna river. Sarajevo has a continental climate, lying between the climates zones of central Europe to the north and the Mediterranean to the south. The proximity of the Adriatic Sea moderates Sarajevo’s climate somewhat, although the mountains to the south of the city greatly reduce this maritime influence. The average yearly temperature is 9.5°C, with January (-1.3°C avg.) being the coldest month of the year and July (19.1°C avg.) the warmest.

collected from hospitals and local health centres, school gardens, low and high density traffic roads, parks, industrial zones, and parking places in Sarajevo area during the period of spring 2013. Sampling locations are shown in Fig. 1. To avoid cross-sample contamination, samples were carefully collected by sweeping an area of about 2 m 2 with a plastic scoop and transferred to a polyethylene bags. The samples passed through a 30 mesh sieve, and were then dried at 110°C for 20 h. The procedure described by Rasmussen et al. (2001) was followed to digest the samples with some modifications. Samples were ground using a porcelain mortar and a pestle in order to homogenize the sample and to increase the surface area for contact with acids during digestion. About 2.00 g of dust samples were digested with 15 ml of aqua regia (one part concentrated HNO3 and three parts concentrated HCl) and 3 ml concentrated hydrofluoric at room temperature. After the evolution of NO2 fumes mixture was then heated to 90°C. The digest was cooled and diluted with deionised water up to 50 ml and stored in plastic bottles. Metal contents (Cd, Cr, Cu, Ni, Fe, Pb, Mn and Zn) were determined by flame atomic absorption spectrometry (Atomic absorption spectrophotometer AA240FS, Varian). The operating parameters for elements under consideration were set as recommended by the manufacturer. Blank digestions were also carried out.

A quality control program, including reagent blanks, replicate samples was used to assess data precision and accuracy. Blanks were prepared in a similar manner to that of street dust samples and were routinely analyzed before each measurement. All samples were analyzed in triplicate. The accuracy and precision of the analysis results were checked by periodic analysis of Sampling and Procedure Certified Reference Material (CRM) CTA-FFA-1 A total of 30 street dust samples were (Fine fly ash). Observed concentrations were within Table 1: Detection limits and the limits of quantification (µg/ml) Metal

LOD LOQ

0.01 0.01

0.12 0.23

0.07 0.12

0.11 0.31

0.95 1.67

0.16 0.19

1.13 2.32

0.71 1.16

RAZANICA et al., Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(1), 43-47 (2014) ±10% of certified values in analyzed CRM for all determined heavy metals. The values of the detection limits (LOD) and the limits of quantification (LOQ) are given in Table 1. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Flame atomic absorption spectrometry was used to estimate and evaluate the levels of metals (Cd, Cr, Cu, Ni, Fe, Pb, Mn and Zn) in the street dust samples from Sarajevo. The concentrations of metals are summarized in Table 2. The results are means of three replicates. The

Fig. 1: Satellite image of sampling locations (lat. 43.877494°, lon. 18.387575°, elev. 601 m; background image GoogleEarth)

Table 2. Heavy metal concentrations (µg/g) in dust samples from Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina Station

Heavy metal concentrations µg/g Cd

Heavy traffic (n=10) Moderate traffic (n=3) School

Mean Range SD Mean Range SD Mean Range

(n=2) Health centre (n=2) Parking place (n=7) Park (n=3)

Industrial zone (n=3)

SD Mean Range SD Mean Range SD Mean Range SD Mean Range SD

1.42 1.161.90 0.28 0.94 0.581.24 0.21 1.16 0.991.33 0.20 1.47 0.991.95 0.00 1.34 0.911.99 0.13 2.13 1.243.65 0.16 1.44 1.081.74 0.26

21.82 86.99 30.27 9.81- 28.37-190 16.8043.48 67.72 3.00 35.49 4.31 15.74 32.31 32.51 5.245.499.3127.83 73.04 56.50 1.98 12.39 3.32 16.83 31.86 36.07 12.2417.8230.1521.41 45.90 41.98 1.06 8.25 3.36 11.70 25.37 17.67 3.4210.939.9519.98 39.80 25.39 1.02 7.31 0.71 25.75 52.49 51.79 13.90- 18.54-134 21.1260.82 161 2.20 13.96 6.13 16.94 35.58 31.93 8.1315.3627.4923.71 49.67 37.40 3.69 2.91 1.87 31.75 150.04 69.79 11.3919.2426.1858.88 388 113 1.19 54.69 6.02

1571 11222178 107 1283 9321484 66.30 1300 12161385 20.01 1152 6471656 116 1585 11341856 24.26 1726 12862244 12.04 1668 15861745 17.20

9.35 7.6111.69 0.88 9.70 7.2912.90 0.39 9.69 9.1910.18 0.83 7.78 6.109.45 0.35 9.17 7.0010.26 0.36 12.08 9.9213.21 0.12 12.02 9.7113.32 0.13

202 192 40.30- 97.831333 368 23.26 38.73 53.55 150 35.93- 54.8285.84 309 8.41 9.47 83.59 176 52.80- 65.88114 286 21.87 16.05 44.82 96.91 34.26- 69.9955.38 124 5.07 7.23 85.62 171 31.63- 40.29209 343 20.93 11.87 53.03 170 33.72- 54.2366.43 322 3.18 5.99 620 184onee 35.75- 50.071760 378 47.44 24.88

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street dust samples are classified in seven groups, i.e., health centres, school gardens, streets with heavy traffic, streets with moderate traffic, parking place, parks and industrial zone. Heavy metals have been widely used in other research projects and therefore comparative data are readily available. Observed concentrations of elements were compared with those found by others in other cities. The concentrations of the metals were in most of cases similar to the mean world-wide contents of the street dust samples (Akhter and Madany 1993, Arslan, 2001, Divrikli et al., 2003, El-Hasan et al., 2006, Duzgoren-Aydin et al., 2006, Al-Momani, 2007, Zhao et al., 2009, Tamrakar and Shakya, 2011, Tanushree et al., 2011, Abdel-Latif and Saleh, 2012). The exception is Mn, the concentrations of this metal were lower in all samples then in literature mentioned. The mean metal concentration in street dust sample varied with the sampling location. The highest levels of metals were found in the samples from industrial zone and streets with high traffic. On the other hand, the lowest levels of metals were found in the samples from health centres and also from school gardens. The decrease in order of metal abundance from the places of higher activities to the place of lower activities may probably be due to the decrease in vehicle emissions, traffic density, industrial activity and other related issues. The highest Pb concentrations were found in the samples from industrial zone and also from streets with high traffic, which is attributed to the use of leaded fossil fuel. The mean Pb levels in two cases exceeded the intervention level of 100 mg/ kg (Lacatusu et al., 2009) which could pose

potential threat to humans and critical environmental media such as water bodies. The Cd levels of the dust samples were very low, around 1 – 2 µg/g, and are very similar in all samples. The highest mean Cu concentrations were found in the samples from industrial zone and heavy traffic. The source of copper in environmental samples from the roadsides such as soil and dust was indicated by the researchers as being due to corrosion of metallic parts of cars (Fergusson and Kim, 1991, Divrikli et al., 2003). The highest Zn contents were also found in the samples from streets with high traffic and from industrial zone. The mean zinc concentration in soil world-wide is 15–25 mg/g (Arslan, 2001). The reason for the highest zinc concentration in dust would be usage of zinc in accumulators of motor vehicles or in carburettors. Afterwards, zinc may come from lubricating oils and tires of motor vehicles (Arslan, 2001). The Mn levels of the dust samples were very low and similar in all samples, mean concentrations were around 10 µg/ g. The values were significantly lower than in other reported studies. The highest Cr levels were found in the samples from parking places and industrial zones, two or three times higher then in other samples. The same is in the case of Ni. The main source of nickel in street dust is the combustion of diesel fuel (Tanushree, 2011). By concentrations, the elements were arranged as the following diminishing series Fe>Zn>Pb>Cu>Ni>Cr>Mn>Cd. While the relative distributions of individual metals concentrations varied with sampling location, overall the mean concentration of metals followed the order: industry zone>heavy traffic>parking place>park>school garden>health centre (Fig. 2.).

Fig. 2: The mean level of heavy metals of street dust samples from Sarajevo area

RAZANICA et al., Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(1), 43-47 (2014) The correlation coefficient statistical analysis was conducted on heavy metal concentrations. A significant positive correlation relationship was found between Pb and Cu (r =0.88), and between Pb and Zn (r = 0.57). This might be explained by the presence of these metals in similar source (i.e. the bodies and tires of automobiles). CONCLUSION

are a useful resource for evaluating the level and distribution of heavy metal contaminants in the surface environment. The results of the present study were found to be in agreement with earlier work reported in literature. The highest levels of metals were found in the samples from industrial zone and streets with high traffic and, the lowest levels of metals were found in the samples from health centres and also from school gardens. A good correlation was found between Pb-Cu and Pb-Zn concentrations.

Urban deposits (street dusts) are reflective of a wide range of anthropogenic activities, and

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Divrikli, U., Soylak, M., Elci, L. and Dogan, M. Journal of Trace and Microprobe Techniques, 21(4), 713-720 (2003). Duzgoren-Aydin, N. S., Wong, C. S. C., Song, Z. G., Aydin, A. Li, X. D. and You M. Human and Ecological Risk Assessment, 12: 374389 (2006). Atiemo, M. S., Ofosu, G.F., KuranchieMensah, H. A., Tutu, O.N.D.M., Palm L. and Blankson S.A. Research Journal of Environmental and Earth Sciences, 3(5): 473-480 (2011). Fergusson, J. E. and Kim, N. D. Science of the Total Environment, 100: 125-150 (1991). Akhter, M. S. and Madany, I. M. Water, Air, and Soil Pollution, 66: 111-119 (1993). Tamrakar, C. S. and Shakya, R.P. Pakistan Journal of Analytical and Environmental Chemistry, 12(1 and 2), 32-41 (2011). Lynch, R.A., Malcoe, L.H., Skaggs, V.J. and Kegler, M.C. Environmental Health, 63 : 915 (2000). Takaro, T., Krieger, J., Song, L., and Beaudet, N. Journal of Exposure Analysis and Environmental Epidemiology, 14(1): 133-143 (2004). Al-Momani, I. F. Soil and Sediment Contamination, 16: 485-496 (2007).

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Dubey V. K., Singh D., Singh N. Curr World Environ, 8(3): 455-461 (2013). Arslan, H. Journal of Trace and Microprobe techniques, 19(3), 439-445 (2001). Momani, K. A. Soil and Sediment Contamination, 15: 131-146 (2006). Rasmussen, P.E, Subramanian, K.S., Jessiman, B.J. Science of the Total Environment, 267: 125-140 (2001). Divrikli, U., Soylak, M., Elci, L. and Dogan, M. Journal of Trace and Microprobe Techniques, 21(2): 351-361 (2003). El-Hasan, T., Batarseh, M., Al-Omari, H., Ziadat, A., El-Alali, A., Al-Naser, F., Berdainer, B.W. and Jiries A.A. Soil and Sediment Contamination, 15: 357-365 (2006). Zhao H., Yin C., Chen M., Wang W. Soil and Sediment Contamination, 18: 173-183 (2009). Tanushree, B., Chakraborty, S., Bhumika, F., and Piyal, B. Research Journal of Chemical Sciences, 1(5), 61-66 (2011). Abdel-Latif, N. M. and Saleh, I. A. Journal of America Science, 8(6): 379-389 (2012). Lacatusu, R., Citu, G., Aston, J., Lungu, M. and Lacatusu, A.R. Carpathian Journal of Earth and Environmental Sciences, 4: 3950 (2009).

Current World Environment

Vol. 9(1), 48-52 (2014)

Culture-Driven Mortality in Caspian seal (Pusa caspica) at Southern Fringe of Caspian Sea NIKTA MOGHADDAMIPOUR1, PARVIN FARSHCHI1, ESMAIL KAHROM1 AND MOHAMMAD ALI MAZHARI2 1

Department of Energy and Environment, Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran. 2 Paya Boum Kav Company. http://dx.doi.org/10.12944/CWE.9.1.07 (Received: March 18, 2014; Accepted: April 15, 2014) ABSTRACT

Caspian seal (Pusa caspica) is countered as a unique, endangered species, restricted only to the Caspian Sea. High death rate of Caspian seal has been reported owing to chemical infections, extreme concentration of chemical trace elements, organochlorine pollutants, etc. Among numerous possible reasons for mortality of Caspian seals, the role of culture in mortality has always been less-noticed.Accordingly, the present study was put forth by studying the culture of inhabitants at Southern border of Caspian Sea. For this, the behavior of local communities was interviewed. It was observed that Iranian people were not adequately familiar with real worth of different creatures in environment, and considered them as dangerous enemies, or at least annoying. Therefore, when encounter the animals, they attempt to kill, harass, or scare them away. Usually, unidimensional view of financial gain from seals, and excessive fishing of aquatics fed by seals put them in danger of extinction. Over all, In order to gain more consistent findings on this matter, furthur researches are suggested.

Key words: Indigenous Culture, Caspian seals, Mortality, Extinction.

INTRODUCTION The Caspian seal (Pusa caspica) is one of the smallest members of the earless seal family; uniquely found in brackish waters of Caspian Sea. They can be found not only along the shorelines, but also on the many rocky islands, and floating blocks of ice that dot the Caspian Sea. The Caspian Sea is characterized by different variations in its base level during the late Cenozoic period, and provides important sources for long-term records of regional climate due to its location within the interior of the Eurasian region1. Complex systems such as large ecosystems, e.g. the Caspian Sea, have mechanisms to spontaneously overcome the problems arisen in the system, and its components, and return the ecosystem to its original state.

However, in many cases when human interferes with natural ecosystems and causes problems, these regulatory mechanisms cannot overcome human manipulation, which are often severe, and thus fail to offset or reduce damages. Sharma et al. (2014) stated that strong deterioration of environment and human health, which is, as a result of persistent organic pollutants, have been used in a wide range of agricultural and industrial supplies2. A number of studies on the occurrence of persistent organic pollutants confirm their presence in various environmental components and human body. Pusa caspica is a unique endangered species, that is found exclusively in the Caspian Sea (Figure 1);

MOGHADDAMIPOUR et al., Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(1), 48-52 (2014)

Fig. 1: Location of Caspian Sea

Fig. 2: Caspian seal

It is not clear till date how many seals survive in the Caspian Sea. Of one million seals during twentieth century, only 1,10,000 to 3,50,000 seals are predicted to inhabit the region now-adays (Figure 3).

causing extinction or endangerment of certain species2

Indigenous culture seems to be one of the main reasons for extinction of Caspian seal (Pusa caspica) (1)Cherry (2008) stated that humans tend to misbehave as animals in numerous ways, both deliberately and unconsciously. Deliberate harshness towards animals is counted as violent ethics. It’s worth mentioning that the “normal” acts that to animals like clothing, entertainment, and clinical trials can also be considered as a violence. The development may also portend animal habitats,

Fig. 3: Historical Decline of Caspian seal (Pusa caspica) mention source

Baenninger (1991) examines historical aspects of violence, aggression, and cruelty to certain species. General treatment of animals to humans and vise versa is described. From sociobiological point of view, human predation, competition, or parasitism, cannot be considered as harshness and cruelty, unless these actions do not benefit humans or humanity. The other kind of interactions with other species has made possible varieties of violence that eventually produced restraining legislation in modern and industrial societies. The determinants of cruelty to animals, defined as intentional injury by an aggressor believes that animals share some human experiences and derive no benefit from the aggression3 The current culture of the Iranian society is such that people assume human apart from the nature, and its associated components; animate and inanimate5. They are unaware that human survival depends on the nature’s balance. As a result, not only do they attempt to maintain the balance and their sodality with the nature, but also themselves undisputed owners of the nature, and see the land as their exploitation and dissipation area4 Human activities, today have generally, destroyed or severely disturbed many habitats, and only a few of these habitats have remained, while the number of habitats in which seals were concentrated was much higher ten years ago6

MOGHADDAMIPOUR et al., Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(1), 48-52 (2014)

Habitat destruction may reduce the fertility, and hence population. It can even make seals more vulnerable to threats 7 Declining populations of marine mammals including seals, virtually has disrupted the entire ecosystem. This article has identified the role of indigenous cultural conditions of Iranian society as a major cause of abnormal death of Caspian seal (Pusa caspica), and their population decline in order to be of an extensive help for the preservation of these valuable but vulnerable species. Public culture People of different communities deal differently with their surrounding phenomena, that is based on the conditions of the society where they live, such as historical, religious, and economic conditions as well as customs and norms8 Although, it is obvious that there is no common cultural changing pattern, the direction of change has been devastatingly changing toward complexity9 Iranian people are among those communities with no proper behavior with the nature and natural surrounding phenomena. It can be generally said that they will be hostile with any creature that does not meet their needs, without hesitating a little about the reasons for their behavior10 As noted before, the reason is rooted in multiple social and cultural conditions and factors, which are beyond the scope of this article. Examples of such behavior are repelling birds, cats, and dogs or killing snakes and even insects that are sometimes beneficial. These violent behaviors are such that even animals in

Fig. 4: Total registered harvest of Caspian seal (Pusa caspica) (solid line) and the number of pups (dashed line) (1867â&#x20AC;&#x201C;2005) mention source

urban areas run as soon as people get close to them. These animals are considered semi-domestic and are seen in areas of high traffic and in close distance to humans in other countries like countries in Europe and etc. They even easily snatch food from people. For instance, there are pigeons in the squares and parks of European cities such as London . Even more interestingly, such violent behaviors against animals are not even observed in the children in these cities; this is evident that children are properly trained on that matter. This peaceful coexistence is rarely seen in Iran. Gullone and Robertson (2008) assessed the simultaneous engagement in animal abuse, and bullying behavior in 241 youngsters aged between 12 to 16 years. It was concluded that witnessing animal abuse was predictive which is both supportive of past research and authorizes further research attention. The findings have significant suggestions for the prevention and mediation of bullying and animal abuse behaviors11 General Education Learning plays an important role in how the human being confronts various issues; Animal comfort laws in many countries require housing and treating animals in such a way that all of their species-specific needs can be satisfied and that they are not vulnerable to stress or pain12, so that advanced countries have changed cultural factors such as some wrong values and norms, and even have built culture through proper planning in public education sector and succeeded. However, actions taken in Iranâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s public education are not suitable for making changes in overall view of people, regarding the nature and its living creatures, and people still consider themselves apart from nature and its components, and exert a self-centered and inhumane attitude towards them. However, the human being is certainly a part of the nature and the institutionalization of this view among people can be a major step towards the preservation of the nature. Vocational training Vocational training is a key factor in occupations. In other words, it is transferring all necessary knowledge, skills, and attitudes to individual for accurate performance of the tasks. Vocational training includes all side issues that are

MOGHADDAMIPOUR et al., Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(1), 48-52 (2014) somehow associated with that profession, as well as issues surrounding the workplace. However, vocational training is not fully implemented in Iran because such training is not yet known in many jobs and even employers are completely unfamiliar with it. In some jobs with such trainings, not all employees benefit from it due to lack of facilities. Moreover, since this type of education have not been fully settled in Iran, the presented entries are not typically comprehensive and only technical aspects of the profession are discussed and not all aspects of the job. Finally, practitioners are not completely aware of their jobs and their relating issues. The attitude and behavior of hunters as a group of people in the community As a group of Iranian people, undoubtedly hunters possess the general characteristics of the community including culture, public education, and vocational training. The impact of hunting is often assumed to contain the high percentage of species (26.4%) listed as threatened with extinction in the IUCN Red Lis13.In particular, social deficits are evident usually in lower social classes and hunters, as a group of people with mostly a degree of under high school diploma whose income from hunting cannot answer all their financial needs, are not exempt from this rule. According to what was said, erroneous views about the nature and its components have clearly penetrated among hunters of our society. Figure 4 shows the total hunting of Caspian seal (Pusa caspica) in recent years. As it can be seen, the culture of hunting has been changed over the past decades14 Officialsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; culture The most essential factor for discipline, progress, and sustainable development in a community is the establishment of a system of scientific and efficient management at all decisionmaking and executive levels in the society. Therefore, countries with defects in these areas encounter numerous problems during their development. One of the most important problems is environmental issues which often arise from the lack of coordination between development

programs and environmental conditions. In our country, evidence shows that the directors and officers of various departments have failed to take right decisions for dealing with these problems because they are part of the people of this community with educational and cultural conditions of the society, as mentioned. According to figures from the Iranian media, about $ 40 billion is lost annually due to poor decisions made by managers. As it was mentioned, although environmental issues are important, officials, directors, and employees are inattentive and indifferent even to the scope of their responsibility for environmental issues for reasons explained earlier and they do not prioritize these problems and do not feel responsible for them. CONCLUSION Iranian people are not adequately familiar with environmental phenomena and consider other creatures as dangerous enemies, or at least annoying. Therefore, when encountering them, they attempt to kill, harass, or at least scare them away. Officials are indifferent to environmental issues due to the lack of responsibility and unawareness of their duties and thus they do not attempt to prevent and resolve problems in this regard. As a group in this community, hunters behave like most people when they encounter creatures in the environment, especially when they disturb their work and livelihood. In this case, this behavior is far more violent and more serious by hunters. Therefore, we cannot deny the relationship between the culture of the community in general and the behavior of hunters in particular and the deaths of seals. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT We would like to express our sincere gratitude for the services rendered by Ravian Danesh Modit Company (Ravian D.M.) in providing insightful comments and proof-reading of the manuscript.

MOGHADDAMIPOUR et al., Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(1), 48-52 (2014)

REFERENCES 1.

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Glenn R. Van Blaricom, Leah R. Gerber, Robert L. Brownell Jr. Encyclopedia of Biodiversity, ,2nd edition , 64-93 (2013) Cherry E, Jasper J. M.., Encyclopedia of Violence, Peace, & Conflict .2nd edition, 6474(2008) Baenninger R, Adv Phsychol., 76: 5-43 (1991) Hoffman D.M., Int j Intercult Rel., 14: 275299 (1990) Arefi. M, City,Culture and Society., 4: 37-48 (2013) Nakagiri. N, Sakisaka. Y, Togashi .T, Morita .S, Tainaka .K, Ecol Inform., 5: 241-247 (2010) Ovaskainen .O, Math Biosci., 181: 165-176 (2003).

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Reisinger. Y, International Tourism, 263288(2009) Goucher. C, LeGuin.Ch, and Walton.L, selections from chapter 2, “Changing Environments, Changing Societies.” O. Jones.International Encyclopedia of Human Geography, 2009: 309-323. Gullone. E, Robertson. N, J Appl Dev Psychol., 29: 371-379 (2008) Keane. A, Brooke. M.de L, Mcgowan. P.J.K , Biol Conserv, 126: 216-233(2005) GRID-Arenda,l Historical decline of the Pusa caspica(Pusa caspica), ,Caspian Sea - State of Environment 2011 Harkonen T, Harding KC, Wilson S, Baimukanov M, Dmitrieva L, et al. PLoS ONE., 7,e43130,(2012).

Current World Environment

Vol. 9(1), 53-58 (2014)

Aquatic Insects Biodiversity and Water Quality Parameters of Receiving Water body AMPON PAYAKKA and TAENG-ON PROMMI* 1

Faculty of Liberal Arts and Science, Kasetsart University, Kamphaeng Saen Campus, Nakhon Pathom Province, 73140 Thailand. http://dx.doi.org/10.12944/CWE.9.1.08 (Received: November 30, 2013; Accepted: January 10, 2013) ABSTRACT Biodiversity of aquatic insect and physicochemical water quality parameters in receiving water bodies in Kasetsart University, Kamphaeng Saen Campus, Nakhon Pathom Province, central Thailand were assessed during October 2010 to September 2011. Seven sampling stations, each 100 m long, were established. Three replicates of samplings by aquatic D-net were used at sampling sites. A total of 4,257 individual of aquatic insect were collected during one year. Six Orders and 12 families were recorded in this study. The family Hydropsychidae and Chironomidae were the most abundance of aquatic insects that found in receiving water bodies. The CCA revealed the family Mesoveliidae and Chironomidae were correlated with alkalinity in receiving water bodies, whereas dissolved oxygen was correlated with family Baetidae, Coenagrionidae, Hydrophilidae, and Helotrephidae. Signs of increasing water quality deterioration were evident in the result of the physicochemical analyses.

Key words: Aquatic insects, Biodiversity and Water quality.

INTRODUCTION Water is one of manâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s most important natural resources. Most living organisms in this biosphere can not survive for long periods without water. As the amount of freshwater on the earth is limited, the importance of surface water quality assessment should be considered. Because of a concern for human health and the habitat of aquatic life, global awareness in the maintenance of a clean water world, many people have come to realize the importance of clean surface water to a nationâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s economy. Most inland freshwater ecosystems are being increasingly polluted by run-off from agricultural fields, degraded land, and disposal of domestic sewage and industrial effluents. Freshwater aquatic insects inhabit river and stream beds, lakes and reservoirs and are associated with various types of substrates such as mineral sediments, detritus, macrophytes and filamentous algae1. They are essential elements in

lentic and lotic trophic webs, participating in the energy flow and nutrient cycling2. They are also important food resources for fish 3 and some insectivorous birds5. The distribution of aquatic organisms is the result of interactions among their ecological role, the physical conditions that characterize the habitat, and food availability5. Thus, the community structure of aquatic insects depends on a number of factors, such as water quality, type of substrate, particle size of sediment, water flow, sediment organic matter availability, oxygen concentration as well as environmental conditions surrounding the water course4, 6. Because they reflect environmental changes, aquatic insects are often used as indicators of the effects of human activity on water system and provide information on habitat and water quality 7 . The organic enrichment of water caused by both domestic and industrial effluents is a common anthropogenic impact on urban watercourses. This kind of pollution changes physical and chemical characteristics of aquatic systems, thus affecting the assemblage of

PAYAKKA & PROMMI., Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(1), 53-58 (2014)

aquatic insects4,8. The aim of this study was to investigate the diversity of aquatic insects in relation to water quality variables in order to explore the bioindication potential of aquatic insects for assessing water quality in Kasetsart University, Kamphaeng Saen Campus, central Thailand. MATERIALS AND METHODS Aquatic insects sampling Aquatic insects were sampled using aquatic net with a dimension of 30 x 30 cm frame, 250 Âľm mesh, 50 cm length was used throughout the sampling. At each sampling period, triplicate aquatic insect samples were collected. The aquatic net was dragged for a distance of ten meters on the sediment floor and aquatic plants in littoral zone. Samples were placed in white trays for sorting and screening only aquatic insects. Aquatic insects were handpicked from the tray. Any non-aquatic insects caught were immediately returned to the water. The content of each sample (net) was transferred into properly-labelled plastic containers, preserved in 80% ethanol and taken back to the laboratory for analysis. In the laboratory, aquatic insects were sorted on a Petri dish and identified to the family level using taxonomic keys by several authors9-11. Large aquatic insects were sorted by naked eyes whereas the sorting of the smaller ones was done under a dissecting microscope. All the sorted samples were kept in properly-labelled vials containing 80% ethanol. Physicochemical water quality parameters Samples of water were collected from each sampling period immediately before the sampling of aquatic insects. Three replicates of selected physicochemical water quality parameters were recorded directly at the sampling site and included pH, measured by a pH-meter Waterproof Model Testr30, water temperature was measured by a hand-held thermometer, and dissolved oxygen (DO), which was measured by a HACHÂŽ Model sensION 6 DO meter, total dissolved solid (TDS) and conductivity were measured by a EURECH CyberScan CON110 conductivity/TDS meter. Water samples from each collecting period were stored in polyethylene bottles (500 mL). The ammonianitrogen (NH4-N), sulfate (SO42-) and nitrate-nitrogen (NO3-N) were determined in accordance with the

standard method procedures 11. Alkalinity was measured by titration11. Data analysis Each sampled period total number of family was counted. Canonical correspondence analysis (CCA) of PC-ORD Version 4.013 investigate the contribution of the environmental stressors on the distribution and abundance of transformed aquatic insect family data (log(x+1)). The biplot ordination diagram was produced using CanoDraw for Windows 10. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Aquatic insect composition The aquatic insect composition and abundance from the sampled months were summarized in Table 1. Twelve families were identified from a total of 4,257 individuals collected during the sampling period. The main taxonomic groups encountered were Ephemeroptera, Hemiptera, Coleoptera, Trichoptera, Odonata and Diptera. The order Ephemeroptera and Hemiptera had the highest number of family (each 3 families) out of the 12 family found. The highest (9 families) in term of taxa diversity was found in June and was lowest in August, September and April. It was also noticed that the individual of family Hydropsychidae and Chironomidae were found to be highest at all the sampling period. The number of individual of aquatic insect was found to be maximum (627 individuals) in the month of November, which may be due to the presence of riparian vegetation and suitable substrates. The riparian vegetation may provide them protection from predators and suitable environment for the growth of periphytic algae, which is an important food source for many aquatic insects. Most of the aquatic insects utilize plants as a direct food source, sites for oviposition and source of respiratory oxygen 12. Lowest aquatic insect individuals were found during dry season (March to May), started increasing in June and remained at high levels up to the month of July and dramatically decreased during wet season. Large loads of clay brought into the water bodies by nearby areas during wet season, induced a high sedimentation of fine particles and disturbances of the littoral zone. Increased sediments load in water bodies reduced the transparency, leading to the

Total number of family Total of individual

Ephemeroptera Polymitarcyidae Caenidae Baetidae Odonata Coenagrionidae Hemiptera Gerridae Mesoveliidae Helotrephidae Coleoptera Hydrophilidae Dytiscidae Trichoptera Hydropsychidae Ecnomidae Diptera Chironomidae

Taxon/month

229

Chironom 9 403

140 3

Hydropsy Ecnomid

9 1

Gerrid Mesoveli Helotrep

Coenagri

Hydrophi Dytiscid

6 13

Jun10

Polymita Caenid Baetid

Abbr.

7 293

171

1 25 1

Jul10

5 208

124 62

1 4

Aug10

5 317

143

131 8

Sep10

7 286

101 18

1 38 6

Aug10

8 627

534

37 2

44 1

Nov10

6 475

274

84 4

21 8

Dec10

7 566

114

358 10

42 27

Jan11

8 397

300 16

3 1

8 11

Feb11

7 256

122 19

Mar11

Table 1: List and individual number of aquatic insects collected in a pond during June 2010 to May 2011

5 211

137 14

Apr11

7 218

97 28

29 6

May11

PAYAKKA & PROMMI., Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(1), 53-58 (2014) 55

PAYAKKA & PROMMI., Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(1), 53-58 (2014)

reduction in primary production of the water bodies. During this period, availability of food material for aquatic insect was very sparse, and the littoral zone was submerged. Aquatic insects were adversely affected by the floods, and there was a significant effect of seasonality on taxon richness at all the sampling periods. Physicochemical water quality parameters Mean values of selected physicochemical parameters of water quality during this study are

presented in Table 2. Temperature was relatively lower during the wet season than the dry season. This might be attributed to the sampling time. The water temperature was maximum in September (35.1 Cº) and minimum in cool-dry season (December to February) (28.9 Cº). The minimum and maximum temperatures (25.0 and 35.5 Cº respectively) are normal for tropical waters and required for the normal growth of aquatic organisms. The pH of water was slightly alkaline in all year round (8.0-8.6). Accumulation of free carbon dioxide

Table 2: Mean physicochemical water quality variables in a pond during June 2010 to May 2011 Month/ factors

WT (°C)

Jun-10 Jul-10 Aug-10 Sep-10 Oct-10 Nov-10 Dec-10 Jan-11 Feb-11 Mar-11 Apr-11 May-11

32.0 31.6 32.7 35.1 31.8 33.0 30.2 28.9 28.9 28.9 31.5 32.0

8.1 8.1 8.1 8.4 8.6 8.4 8.2 8.0 8.1 8.0 8.0 8.1

DO EC (mg l-1) (ìs/cm) 2.3 2.2 1.5 1.7 1.3 1.4 6.2 5.6 4.0 5.4 4.9 5.8

274.0 295.3 266.0 190.6 540.3 326.3 228.0 182.3 182.7 410.3 270.0 336.3

TDS (mg l-1) 135.0 149.3 131.3 95.7 275.0 164.7 114.0 91.0 91.0 199.7 136.7 167.0

Turbid Alkali NH4-N PO43- NO3-N SO42(mg l-1) (mg l-1) (mg l-1) (mg l-1) (mg l-1) (mg l-1) 14.0 10.0 23.0 13.0 19.0 29.0 22.0 16.0 10.0 2.0 10.0 41.0

130.0 138.0 130.0 142.0 96.0 134.0 108.0 72.0 82.0 44.0 66.0 54.0

0.27 0.23 2.49 0.35 1.60 0.36 0.37 0.58 0.26 0.34 0.34 0.40

0.11 0.21 0.32 0.19 1.94 0.14 0.91 0.12 0.09 0.17 0.30 0.29

2.10 1.40 1.40 1.90 0.60 0.90 12.50 1.30 1.10 1.70 1.20 2.10

Fig. 1: CCA showing correlation between aquatic insect taxa and physicochemical variables. Abbreviations of taxonomic are shown in Table 1

7.00 28.00 9.00 8.00 9.00 14.00 9.00 8.00 2.00 4.00 2.00 6.00

PAYAKKA & PROMMI., Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(1), 53-58 (2014)

due to little photosynthetic activity of phytoplankton causes a lower pH value of the water while intense photosynthetic activities of phytoplankton will reduce the free carbon dioxide content resulting in increased pH values 14-15. Sources of dissolved oxygen in the aquatic environment include the atmosphere and photosynthesis, and depend on its solubility while reduction in oxygen was due to respiration, decay by aerobic bacteria, and decomposition of dead decaying sediments14. The dissolved oxygen was maximum (6.2 mg l-1) in November and minimum (1.25 mg l-1) in September. The total dissolved solids and electrical conductivity was maximum (275.0 mg l-1, 540.3 ìs cm -1) in September and minimum (91.0 mg l-1, 182.3 ìs cm1 ) in December. The general trend in this study was that conductivity tended to increase in the dry season. Increase in electrical conductivity was due to low precipitation, higher atmospheric temperature resulting in higher evapotranspiration rates and higher total ionic concentration and saline intrusion from underground sources. It could also be due to a high rate of decomposition and mineralisation by microbes and nutrient regeneration from bottom sediments15. The mean concentration value of sulfate ranged from 2.0 to 14.0 mg l-1. The mean dissolved nutrients, nitratenitrogen, ammonia-nitrogen and orthrophosphate concentrations varied from 0.6 to 12.5 mg l-1 and 0.23 to 2.49 mg l -1 and 0.09 to 1.94 mg l -1, respectively. The mean alkalinity values ranged from 44 to 142 mg l-1.

Baetidae, Coenagrionidae, Hydrophilidae, and Helotrephidae. The results from CCA indicated the low diversity was probably due to higher alkalinity and lower dissolved oxygen in the month of the rainy season. In streams, biological condition is strongly influenced by water chemistry and habitat quality. The combination of water analysis, diversity indices and water quality indices were satisfactorily applied to investigate the river health 17 . Low dissolved oxygen, high nitrate or phosphorous concentrations, and low pH can cause reduced water quality. Good habitat quality is generally characterized by a heterogeneous habitat with both slow and fast moving water, woody debris, substrate variety, and well-vegetated, stable banks. Impairment of habitat and water chemistry can lead to reduce the diversity of aquatic macroinvertebrates18.

Correlations of aquatic insect taxa and water quality parameters Twelve taxa were selected in the CCA (Figure 1). Alkalinity was positively correlated with Mesoveliidae and Chironomidae, whereas dissolved oxygen was negatively correlated with

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

CONCLUSIONS The abundance of aquatic insect was higher during the period of rains and reduced during the dry period. The results obtained by the CCA suggest that alkalinity and dissolved oxygen are highly correlated with the aquatic insect assemblages. To get a better understanding of relationships between aquatic insect assemblages and environmental variables, further study is needed to increase the sampling frequencies and periods and to examine more water quality parameters.

This study was funded by the Graduate School Kasetsart University year 2012 and Faculty of Liberal Arts and Science for Ampon Payakka.

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Rosenberg D.M. and Resh V. H., Freshwater Bio monitoring and Benthic Macro invertebrates, Chapman and Hall, New York, (1993). Whiles M.R. and Wallace J.B., Leaf litter decomposition and macroinvertebrate communities in headwater streams draining pine and hardwood catchments.

Hydrobiologia 353(1-3), 107-119 (1997). Wallace J.B. and Webster J.R., The role of macroinvertebrates in stream ecosystem function. Annual Review of Entomology; 41: 115-139 (1996). Ward D., Holmes N. and JOSÉ P., The New Rivers and Wildlife Handbook. Bedfordshire: RSPB, NRA, The Wildlife Trusts (1995).

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PAYAKKA & PROMMI., Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(1), 53-58 (2014) Merritt R.W. and Cummin K.W., An introduction to the aquatic insects of North America. 3rd ed. Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company (1996). Buss D.F., Baptista D.F., Nessimain J.L. and Egler M., Substrate specificity, environmental degradation and disturbance structuring macroinvertebrate assemblages in neotropical streams. Hydrobiologia 518(13): 179-188 (2004). Woodcock T.S. and Huryn A., The response of macroinvertebrate production to a pollution gradient in a headwater stream. Freshwater Biology; 52(1): 77-196 (2007). Hynes H.B.N., The ecology of running waters. Canada: University of Toronto Press (1970). Wiggins G.B., Larvae of the North American Caddisfly Genera (Trichoptera). 2ndedition. University of Toronto Press (1996). Dudgeon D., Tropical Asian stream: Zoobenthos, ecology and conservation. Hong Kong University Press. Hong Kong (1999). Yule C.M. and Sen Y.H., Freshwater Invertebrates of the Malaysian Region. Aura Productions Sdn. Bhd. Selangor, Malaysia (2004). APHA, AWWA, WPCF, Standard method for the examination of water and wastewater. 18th ed. American Public Health Association.

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Washington DC (1992). McCune B. and Mefford M.J., PC-ORD. Multivariate analysis of ecological data, version 4. MjM Software Design, Gleneden Beach, Oregon (1999). Gupta S.K. and Gupta R.C., General and Applied Ichthyology (Fish and Fisheries) S. Chand and Company Ltd. Ram Nagar, New Delhi (2006). Egborge A.B.M., Water Pollution in Nigeria; Biodiversity and Chemistry of Warri Riverâ&#x20AC;?, Vol. 1 Ben Miller Books Nigeria Limited (1994). Shama R.C. and Rawat J.S., Monitoring of aquatic macroinvertebrates as bioindicator for assessing the health of wetland: A case study in the Central Himalayas, India, Ecological Indicator, 9: 118-128 (2009). Salman A.A., Che Salmah M.R., Abu Hassan A., Suhaila A.H. and Siti Azizah M.N., Influence of Agricultural, Industrial, and Anthropogenic Stresses on the Distribution and Diversity of Macroinvertebrates in Juru River Basin, Penang, Malaysia., Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety; 74(5): 1195-1202 (2011). Resh V. and Betts E., Bioindicators of Strawberry Creek, Department of Integrative Biology, University of California (2007).

Current World Environment

Vol. 9(1), 59-64 (2014)

An Evaluation of Water Quality from Siahrod River, Haraz River and Babolrood River by NSFWQI index JAVAD NOORBAKHSH1, EHSAN SADATI SEYEDMAHALLEH2,*, GHOLAMREZA DARVISHI3, FARSHAD GOLBABAEI KOOTENAEI4 and NASSER MEHRDADI4 1

Department of Chemistry, Payame Noor University, Sari Branch, Sari, Iran. 2 Aras International Campus, Tehran University, Iran. 3 Department of Civil Engineering, Qaemshahr Branch, Islamic Azad University, Qaemshahr, Iran. 4 Faculty of Environment, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran. http://dx.doi.org/10.12944/CWE.9.1.09 (Received: February 24, 2014; Accepted: April 14, 2014) ABSTRACT In many countries such as Iran, social and industrial developments changed the qualitative characteristics of the riverâ&#x20AC;&#x2DC;s water quality and leads to excessive pollution. The first step for river water quality management is obtaining information on changes of river water quality in dimensions of time and place and also, determination of major sources of pollutants. WQI is a mathematical and statistical tool for conversion of quantitative values of large quantity of water quality data into single number which presents a simple and understandable tool for qualitative assessment. In current study, samples were collected from stations at up, middle and downstream of three rivers in Mazandaran province (Siahrod River, Haraz River and Babolrod River) in a 2 years interval of 2012-2013 years. The values of NSFWQI (water quality index of Americaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s national health organization) were calculated for all stations and all of the stations were located on the level of unsuitable conditions. According to NSFWQI, the best condition was related to the upstream of Haraz River and the worst condition was related to the downstream of Siahrood River.

Key words :NSFWQI, Mazandaran, River, Pollution, Water Quality.

INTRODUCTION The increased use of water resources, unnatural manipulation and changes in river water quality have been increased. In all around the world, human activities have profound effects on rivers and lakes. Rivers are exposed to large amounts of household wastewater, industrial swages, agricultural swages, mine wastes, urban wastewater, radioactive materials, pesticides and numerous other contaminants (Wongsupapa, C., et al., 2009) The first step for keeping river water quality and purification of polluted parts is obtaining information on the qualitative changes of river water in dimensions of time and place and also, determination of major sources and various water pollutants (Oguchi, T., 2009, SahaP., 2010).

Analysis of measured parameters alone or in combination, give incomplete information on water quality because of variety of parameters, samples and stations. Mathematical-computer qualitative modeling of river water also needs broad hydrodynamic and hydrological information (Silva f., et al., 2000, Ormsbee, L., 2006). Water quality index (WQI) is developed to solve this problem. WQI is first represented by Brown in 1970. WQI is a mathematical and statistical tool for conversion of quantitative values of large quantity of water quality data into a single number. It provides a simple and understandable tool for managers and policy makers to obtain information on water quality and decide to allow the permitted uses of water. Also, application of WQI specifies the process of variations and qualitative trends of water resources (Brian O., 2005) and also allows the

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classification of water quality. Published indicators have various types that developed according to specific methods of each region and available standard in it, such as NSFWQI, OWQI and etc.Among the various indexes which are applicable for water quality zoning, NSFWQI was selected because of high precision, simplicity and availability of the required parameters (Shamsai et al., 2006). According to previous studies, Mirmoshtaghi in 2011, studied the water quality of Sefidrood River by investigation of 20 samples at 5 sampling stations according to NSFWQI index and compared the results with OWQI index. The results showed that maximum and minimum values of NSF were 57 and 32, respectively. And the average value of NSFWQI along with Sefidrood River was obtained equals to 47.5, which is placed at bad region. Also, calculation of OWQI index showed the very bad quality of Sefidrood River during the study period (Mirmoshtaghi, 2012). In this study, classification of three river‘s water quality in Mazandaran province is investigated by NSFWQI index.

To determine the NSFWQI index, 9 parameters are measured for reasons as described below: Biological oxygen demand (BOD) BOD test gives an approximate estimation of the amount of biodegradable waste materials in the water. Biodegradable waste materials are usually consists of organic waste such as leaves, grass and fertilizers. Dissolved Oxygen (DO) DO test specify the amount of required dissolved oxygen for continuity of life in water. This oxygen is available for fishes, invertebrates and all animals living in the water. Decrease of dissolved oxygen is a sign of probable pollution in water (Abraham W.R., 2011, Yau, J., 2003). Fecal coliform Fecal coliform is a bacterium available in human and animal waste. Nitrate Nitrate is one of the major pollutantsin water. Nitrates are harmful for human because oxidize into nitrite and affects on the ability of red blood cells that carry oxygen. Nitrites also cause very acute disease in fish.

MATERIALS AND METHODS pH NFSWQI After measuring of 9 above mentioned factors, each sub-index is obtained according to the conversion curves (appendix). The following equation (1) is applied for calculation of final index.

NSFWQI =

€in=1KI

..(1)

Where, “n” is the number of sub-index, “k” is weighting factor and “I” is sub-index obtained from conversion curves according to Table 1.

Most of aquatic organisms are very sensitive against the pH. Appropriate pH for survival in river is usually from 6.5 to 8.5 (Nwajei, G., et al., 2012; Kowalkowskiab T., et al., 2007) Temperature Most of the physical, chemical and biological are directly under influence of temperature. Most of the aquatic animals and plants survive in a certain range of temperatures and tolerate extreme changes.

Table 1: Weight factor of NSFWQI Parameters Turbidity

BOD

Fecal Coliform

nitrate

Total phosphate

Weighting factor

0.11

0.17

0.16

0.10

0.11

0.10

0.07

0.10

0.08

NOORBAKHSHet al., Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(1), 59-64 (2014) Total dissolved solids (TDS) TDS is dissolved materials in river water includes salts, some of organic materials and wide range of nutrients, toxic materials and etc. Very high or low concentration of dissolved materials affects on the growth and lead to death of aquatic life (Parihar, S., et al., 2012; Murhekar H., et al., 2012) Total phosphate Phosphate is essential for the growth of animals and plants. total phosphate shows the Table 2: Water quality classification according to NSFWQI Water quality Excellent Good Medium Unsuitable Very unsuitable

Index

available values of phosphate in aquatic resources. Turbidity Turbidity is calculated by using light scattering in water column due to suspended solids. High turbidity will cause more water darkness (Muthusamy P., et al. 2012). If water became very dull, its ability in maintaining most of plants and microorganisms will be removed. NSFWQI index is a reduction index namely it is decreases with increasing of water pollution. This index has a value between 0 to 100 and is classified according to Table 2 (Khadem, I.M., et al., 2006; Banjaka D., et al., 2012). Sampling method and analysis of factors Samples were collected seasonally from stations at upstream, middle stream and downstream of rivers (Siahrod River, Haraz River and Babolrod River) in a 2 years interval of 2012-

91-100 71-90 51-70 26-50 0-25

Table 3: Average values of water quality variables Parameters

tubidity BOD

upstream 17.3 20 middlestream 12.9 24 downstream 1.5 32 Babolrood upstream 199.75 12 River middlestream 67.25 10.4 downstream 95.62 12.12 Haraz upstream 493.8 8.5 River middlestream 414.83 15 downstream 392.23 11

4.2 3.4 2.1 4.05 3.86 3.53 4.38 3.93 3.78

Siahrood River

Fecal nitrate coliform 2400 2400 2400 1679 1975 1129 1580 2400 2400

Total phosphate

1.197 7084 20 493 0.2 2.7 8.22 21 578.8 0.12 2.7 8.28 19 763.6 0.12 0.348 8.03 20.123 689.74 0.184 0.454 8.08 20.75 809.49 0.117 0.421 8.05 18.62 711.34 0.1208 0.801 8.304 15.8 749 0.11 0.5 8.13 19.08 1233.5 0.07 0.5 8.12 19.42 1254.7 0.07

Fig. 1: Basin of studied rivers

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2013 and analyzed in laboratory of Environmental Protection Agency of Mazandaran, Iran according to the standard methods (APHA, 2005).

The obtained values of NSFWQI at stations are as follows, which shows that the water quality at all stations are unsuitable according to Table 4 and Figure 2.

RESULTS The obtained results in a 2 years of 20122013 from stations of upstream, middle stream and downstream is calculated and measured and are as follows (Table 3): Table 4: NSFWQI values in monitoring stations Station Haraz River Babolrood River Siahrood River

upstream middlestream downstream upstream middlestream downstream upstream middlestream downstream

NSFWQI

42 38 36 41 40 38 40 36 35

4.37 3.93 3.78 4.05 3.86 3.53 4.2 3.4 2.1

Figure 2 shows that downstream of Babolrood River had a much worse situation than other rivers, due to discharge of numerous factories swages in to the river. Babolrood River condition was relatively more appropriate than Siahrood River due to placement of upstream at a more pristine region relative to other up streams and less villages and residential cities around the river. Selection of monitoring stations in Department of Environmental Protection was so that upstream stations were determined at appropriate distance before the entrance of cities, middle stream at city center and downstream near the sea entrance. Figure 3 shows that DO in all rivers are decreased because of industrial and agricultural drainage. It also shows thatself-purification capacity of the rivers is not enough for purifying of the rivers.

Fig. 2: NSFWQI values in rivers of Mazandaran province

CONCLUSION

Fig. 3: DO values in rivers of Mazandaran province

According to the obtained results, it is required that each river be investigated more closely as case study and with selection of more stations to specify the sources of pollutants. And by investigation of other available indexes and matching them with hydrological and climatic conditions of Mazandaranâ&#x20AC;&#x2DC;s Rivers, design the convenient and reliable index.

NOORBAKHSHet al., Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(1), 59-64 (2014) The obtained results showed that qualitative condition of Mazandaran‘s Rivers is unsuitable and appropriate management measures such as population load and excess urban activity in the basin of this river, industrial activities, excessive consumption of chemical fertilizers and pesticides, discharge of rural, urban and industrial wastewater and also solid wastes into the river which have a continuous increasing trend are the main source of river pollution. So, human factor is the main cause of river pollution. Besides human factors, natural factors such as low rainfall, water consumption for agricultural and industrial purposes, development

of agricultural lands at the expense of natural lands wastefulness and finally, all increased the physical and chemical pollution of the river and leads to natural disruption of its biological and bioavailability capacity. The values of NSFWQI (water quality index of America’s national health organization) were calculated for all stations and all of the stations were located on the level of unsuitable conditions. According to NSFWQI, the best condition was related to the upstream of Haraz River and the worst condition was related to the downstream of Siahrood River.

REFERENCES 1.

Abraham W.R., Megacities as Sources for Pathogenic Bacteria in Rivers, Inter. J. Micro. (2011) APHA, Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater. 21st ed, American Public Health Association/ American Water Works Association/Water Environment Federation, Washington, DC, USA,(2005). Banjaka D., J. Nikolic, Hydrochemical characteristics and water quality of the Musnica River catchment, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Hydrological Sciences Journal, 57(3), 562-575,(2012). Brian O., Calculating NSF Water Quality Index, Wilkes University Center for Environmental Quality GeoEnvironmental Sciences and Engineering Department, (2005). Khadem, I.M., Kaluarachchi, J.J., Water quality modeling under hydrologice variability and parameter uncertainty using erosion- scaled export coefficients, Journal of Hydrology, May (2006). Kowalkowskiab T., E. Cukrowskaa, B. HlobsileMkhatshwac, B. Buszewski, Statistical characterisation of water quality in Great Usuthu River (Swaziland), Journal of Environmental Science and Health, Part A: Toxic/Hazardous Substances and Environmental Engineering, 42(8): 10651072,(2007).

10.

11.

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13.

MirMoshtaghi, M., Qualitative investigation of Sefid-rood river water and its zoning according to NSFWQI and OWQI. Journal of Wetlands. 9: (2012). Murhekar H., Assessment of PhysicoChemical Status of Ground Water Samples in Akot city., Research Journal of Chemical Sciences, 1(4), 117-124, July (2011). Muthusamy P., Murugan S. and ManothiSmitha., Removal of Nickel ion from Industrial Waste Water using Maize Cob., ISCA Journal of Biological Sciences, 1(2), 7-11, (2012). Nwajei G. E., Obi–Iyeke G.E. and Okwagi P. Distribution of Selected Trace Metal in Fish Parts from the River Nigeria., Research Journal of Recent Sciences, 1(1), 81-84 Jan. (2012). Oguchi, T., River water quality in Humber catchent: an introduction using GIS – based mapping and analysis, Elsevier, The science of the total environment, 561 9- 29- (2000). Ormsbee, L., Object-oriented modeling approach to surface water quality management, Environmental Modelling & Sofware, 21(5): 689-698 (2006). Parihar S.S., Kumar Ajit, Kumar Ajay, Gupta R.N., Pathak Manoj, ShrivastavArchana and Pandey A.C., Physico- Chemical and Microbiological Analysis of Underground Water in and Around Gwalior City, MP, India, Research Journal of Recent Sciences, 1(6):

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NOORBAKHSHet al., Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(1), 59-64 (2014) 62-65 (2012). SahaP., Assessment of Water Quality of Damodar River by Water Quality Index Method, Indian Chemical Engineer, 52(2): 145-154, (2010). Silva f., Use of water quality indices to verify the impact of Cordoba city on suquia river, Elsevier , Britain, (2000). Shamsai A, Urei S, Sarang A., Comparative of qualitative indexes and qualitative zoning of Karoon river and Dez river. Journal of

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Water and Wastewater. 16: 88-97(2006). Wongsupapa C., S. Weesakula, R. Clementea, A. Das Gupta, River basin water quality assessment and management: case study of Tha Chin River Basin, Thailand, Water International, 34(3): 345-361,(2009). Yau, J., Chemical and microbiological qualities of The East River (Dongjiang) water, with particular reference to drinking water supply in Hong Kong, Inter. J. Micro, 52(9): 1441â&#x20AC;&#x201C;1450 (2003).

Current World Environment

Vol. 9(1), 65-72 (2014)

Phytoremediation of Petroleum-Contaminated Soils Around Isfahan Oil Refinery (Iran) by Sorghum and Barley FARIDA IRAJI ASIABADI1*, S.A. MIRBAGHERI2, P. NAJAFI3, and F. MOATAR1 1

Department of Environment, Faculty of Environment and Energy, Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran. 2 Department of Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Civil Engineering, K.N. Toosi University of Technology, Tehran, Iran. 3 Department of Water Engineering, Faculty of Agriculture and Natural Resources, Khorasgan Branch, Islamic Azad University, Isfahan, Iran. http://dx.doi.org/10.12944/CWE.9.1.10 (Received: January 30, 2014; Accepted: February 24, 2014) ABSTRACT Petroleum compounds are one of the most frequently encountered pollutants in soils adjacent to oil refineries. Phytoremediation, where feasible, has become a cost-effective alternative to physicochemical methods of soil remediation. In this study, sorghum (Sorghum bicolor) and barley (Hordeum vulgare) were selected for phytoremediation and the diminution in the concentration of oil-based contaminants was measured during a 90-day period. Contaminated and control treatments were compared in terms of root and shoot dry weight. Comparisons revealed reductions of about 22% and 30% in root dry matter and 51% and 42% in shoot dry matter of sorghum and barley in contaminated soil, respectively. The control and planted soils were significantly different in total and oil-degrading bacterial counts. Moreover, the concentration of total petroleum hydrocarbons decreased by 52%-64% in 90 days. Since planting the contaminated soil with sorghum and barley resulted in an improvement of 30% compared to unplanted contaminated soil, the two plants were highly efficient in removing petroleum from oil-contaminated soils. Therefore, despite the necessity of further studies to enhance the efficacy of phytoremediation by assessing the appropriateness of various plant species, some genotypes like sorghum and barley were found suitable choices for phytoremediation of the investigated petroleum-contaminated soil.

Key words: Phytoremediation, Total Petroleum Hydrocarbons, Oil-Degrading Bacteria, Barley, Sorghum.

INTRODUCTION Environmental contamination following the use of various pollutants by humans has caused critical environmental problems throughout the world. In Iran, for instance, oil-contaminated soils and waters around oil fields and refineries have turned into major concerns. Oil-based contaminants in soil can threaten human and animal health by either entering the food chain or leaching into groundwater resources (Khan, 2005). The perception of existing environmental problems has led to numerous efforts to clean the environment.

Soil may be decontaminated through chemical, physical, and biological methods. While the first two approaches are costly and hence appropriate for highly polluted soils, biological methods are inexpensive and efficient in removing oil contamination from soil (Leahy and Colwell, 1990). Phytoremediation is a relatively new, economical, effective, and environment-friendly biological soil decontamination method (Newman and Reynolds, 2005). It combines plant and microbial activity to degrade, transfer, deactivate, and reduce the mobility of soil and groundwater

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contaminants (Cunningham et al., 1997). The use of solar energy in phytoremediation significantly decreases soil decontamination costs (Luepromchai et al., 2007). Several studies have suggested the efficacy of various plants in eliminating different soil contaminants, particularly oil derivatives. In a study to decontaminate crude oil-polluted desert soils, Diab (2008) reported oil degradation rate as 62.4%, 19.9%, and 17.6% using Vicia faba, Zea mays, and Triticum aestivum, respectively. Zhang et al.(2010) found 127 days of phytoremediation using Pharbitis nil L. to mitigate the concentration of oil derivatives by 27.7%-67.4% (vs. 10.2%-35.6% in the control soil). In another research, Lu et al. (2010) stated that 50 days after sowing Bidens maximowicziana, the mean reduction in pyrene concentration was 28% more in treated soil compared to the control soil. Phytoremediation requires prudent selection of resistant, preferably native plants with the greatest possible germination, growth, expansion, and root surface area (Adam and Duncan, 2002). The selected plants will also need to be congruent with soil conditions in the target area and have the potential for complete development in the presence of contamination. Accordingly, laboratory and greenhouse studies to compare the germination and growth of different plants in contaminated soils and to evaluate their effects on concentrations of pollutants are essential to help select the most suitable plants at farm level.Considering previous studies on oil contamination and the properties of the target soil, we selected Sorghum bicolor and Hordeum vulgare (hereafter referred to as sorghum and barley) for phytoremediation of oil-contaminated soils around Isfahan Oil Refinery (Isfahan, Iran). MATERIALS AND METHODS Soil Sampling After acquiring permissions from the Environment Department of Isfahan Oil Refinery, lands close to the refineryâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Sulfur Recovery Unit and nearby uncontaminated soils were sampled at eight stations whose coordinates were recorded using a global positioning system (GPS) device. Samples were obtained from 0-30 cm depth of soil

and transferred to the laboratory in closed glass containers covered with ice packs. While previous Iranian research on oilcontaminated soils has mainly added contamination to unpolluted soil, during the phytoremediation, such soils will exhibit totally different behavior compared to soil from oilcontaminated lands (Huang et al., 2005). Therefore, the current study sampled a contaminated area to ensure accurate results and clarify the existing conditions. Measuring Physical and Chemical Properties of Soil The efficiency of processes to decrease the concentration of petroleum hydrocarbons in soil depends widely on physical and chemical properties of soil (Tang et al., 2012). After passing air-dried soil samples through a 2-mm sieve, a number of tests were conducted in triplicate to assess the texture (through hydrometry), pH (Thomas, 1996), electrical conductivity (Rhoades, 1996), organic matter (Nelson and Sommers, 1982), total nitrogen (Bremner and Mulvaney, 1982), available phosphorus (Olsen and Sommers, 1982), and available potassium (Page et al., 1982) of the samples. Finally, CaCO3 equivalent of the samples was determined through neutralizing with hydrogen chloride and back titration with sodium hydroxide (Allison and Moodie, 1965) (Table 1). Table 1:Physical and Chemical Properties of Soil Samples Characteristic Texture

pH (1:2.5) Electrical conductivity (ds/m) Organic matter (%) Total nitrogen (%) CaCO3 equivalent (%) Availablephosphorus(mg/kg) Availablepotassium(mg/kg)

Control Soil Sandy clay loam

Contaminated Soil Sandy clay loam

7.9 1.7

7.3 3.2

0.8 0.07 32

4.7 0.90 25

ASIABADI et al., Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(1), 65-72 (2014) Evaluating the Concentration of Total Petroleum Hydrocarbons (TPHs) In order to measure the concentrations of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and TPHs in the soil, Soxhlet extraction using 1:1 (v/v) nhexane/dichloromethane solvent (150 ml) mixture was first performed for 24 hours (Christopher et al., 1988). Afterward, the extracted compounds were placed in a rotary evaporator which evaporated the solvent under vacuum and condensed the samples. The samples were then purified using column chromatography (with silica gel and alumina as absorbent). The concentration of PAHs was evaluated with gas chromatography (US Environmental Protection Agency, 1984). According to the measurements (mean petroleum hydrocarbon concentration = 75,000 mg/kg), soil samples from areas adjacent to the oil refinery were extremely contaminated (Table 2). Phytoremediation Contaminated and control soil samples were poured in triplicate into pots with a diameter and height of 20 and 50 cm, respectively. Sorghum and barley seeds were then sowed at 1-2 cm depth. Unplanted treatments were also present to exclude the effects of environmental factors on reduction of oil-based contaminants. Phytoremediation was performed during August-October 2012. Minimum and maximum greenhouse temperature was recorded every day and the plants were watered based on their daily Table 2: Concentrations of the Measured Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) and Total Petroleum Hydrocarbons (TPHs) in Contaminated Soil Hydrocarbons

PAHs

TPHs

Concentration (mg/kg)

Naphthalene Phenantherene Anthracene Fluoranthene Pyrene Benzo[k]fluoranthene Benzo[a]pyrene

45 34 6 29 16 0.4 0.7 75000

status while water loss from the bottom of the pots was prevented. Due to limited access to the root tissue, the harvest was carried out at the final stages of the study. Ninety days after sowing, rhizosphere and non-rhizosphere soil samples were collected to determine the total petroleum hydrocarbon content, total bacterial count, and number of oil-degrading bacteria. The roots and shoots of the plants were also weighed after being separated and dried in an oven at 80°C for 48 hours. Counting Total and Oil-Degrading Bacteria In order to determine the total number of bacteria in the soil, one gram soil was added to a test tube containing 9 ml of 0.9% sterile sodium chloride solution and shaken thoroughly. A serial dilution (10-1-10-8) was subsequently made and transferred to the culture medium. The culture was incubated at 28°C for 48 hours and the formed colonies were counted (Soleimani, et al., 2010). The same method was used to count oil-degrading bacteria.This time, however, the culture consisted of 990 ml sterile agar solution and CaCl2_H2O (0.02 g), FeCl 3 (0.05 g), MgSO 4 _7H 2 O(0.2 g), K2HPO4(1.00 g), NH4NO3(1.00 g), KH2PO4 (1.00 g) (pH = 7). It also contained 10 ml of filtered sterile oil (fresh crude oil from Isfahan Oil Refinery) as the sole source of carbon. The mean number of bacteria at 25, 50, 75, and 100 cm depths of the soil column and various dilutions was reported as colonyforming unit (CFU) per gram of soil. Statistical Analyses We used a full factorial experiment design with two factors (plant and soil having three and two levels, respectively)and three replications. All statistical analyses were performed in SPSS for Windows 17.0 (SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL, USA) at a significance level of 0.05.The obtained mean values were compared using Duncan’s test. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Results of Dry Matter Yield Statistical analyses revealed the type of plant and soil to have affected dry matter yield. Dry weight comparisons between contaminated and control treatments showed that in petroleum

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hydrocarbon-containing soil, sorghum and barley had reductions of about 22% and 30% in root dry matter and 51% and 42% in shoot dry matter, respectively. Sorghum had the highest shoot dry weight in the control treatment. Barleyandsorghum had the least shoot and root dry weights in the contaminated treatment (Figure 1). Consistent with our findings, Cheema et al. (2009) suggested that the root and shoot dry matter of Festuca arundinacea decreased (by 29.7% and 53.5%, respectively) 65 days after being sowed in soil contaminated with pyrene and phenantherene. Reduced plant growth and dry matter yield in oil-contaminated soil can be justified by the existence of petroleum hydrocarbons along with suppressed root growth and decreased uptake of water and nutrients (Chaineau, et al., 1997).

TPHs in Soil Compared to unplanted treatments, sorghum and barley could lower TPHs in contaminated soil by 35% and 23%, respectively (Figure 2). This statistically significant difference can indicate the efficacy of both plants in remediating petroleum-based contaminants. On the other hand, as Figure 2 shows, sorghum and barley reduced total petroleum hydrocarbons by about 64% and 52% compared to their baseline levels (P < 0.05). Vegetation enhances the degradation of organic soil contaminants through not only improving physical properties of soil but also increasing the bioavailability of hydrocarbons, root exudates, growth stimulation, and the activity of oildegrading bacteria. Research on phytoremediation of oil-contaminated soil has thus been extensive.

Fig. 1: Shoot and root dry weight ofsorghum and barley after three months of growth in petroleumcontaminated and control soils[Different letters (capital letters for shoot and small letters forroot) represent significant differences according toDuncanâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s test(P < 0.05). Error bars arestandard deviations Liste and Alexander (2000) examined the efficacy of nine plant species in reducing pyrene contamination. After eight weeks, they calculated pyrene reduction as 74% in planted soil and 40% in unplanted soil. Hutchinson et al. (2001) suggested Cynodon dactylon and Festuca to decrease the concentration of petroleum hydrocarbons by 68% and 62%, respectively. Peng et al. (2009) concluded that over a 127-day period, phytoremediation by Mirabilis Jalapa L. could eliminate 41%-63% of TPHs.Meanwhile, the rate was as low as 19%-37% in unplanted soil. Fig. 2: Effects of plant species on the elimination of total petroleum hydrocarbons (TPHs) compared to the control (unplanted) treatment

The mentioned degradation of contaminants seems to be caused by soil microbial

ASIABADI et al., Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(1), 65-72 (2014) activity in the rhizosphere. Kaimi et al. (2006) found the concentration of oil to be 55% lower in the rhizosphere of ray grass than in non-rhizosphere soil. Moreover, the number of aerobic bacteria was higher in the rhizosphere and had a positive correlation with root growth. Agamuthu et al. (2010) concluded that the bacteria in the rhizosphere of Jatropha curcas use and consequently degrade a great deal of hydrocarbons. Similarly, according to our findings, the concentration of TPHs in rhizosphere was less than that in non-rhizosphere soils (Figure 3). Total Bacterial Count and Number of Biodegrading Bacteria in Soil Planted and unplanted treatments had a significant difference in total bacterial count and

number of biodegrading bacteria. Previous studies have reported increased soil microorganisms in the presence of plant species (Li et al., 2002; Cheema et al., 2009; Lu et al., 2010). Comparison of planted samples revealed that total bacterial count was always higher in contaminated soils than in control soils. In addition, the maximum number of biodegrading bacteria and total bacterial count were seen in the rhizosphere of sorghum and barley (Figures 4 and 5). Research has indicated a negative correlation between remaining TPHs and the number of microorganisms in soil. In fact, the greatest reduction of oil contamination is detected in the rhizosphere where there are large populations of soil microorganisms (Tang et al., 2012; Tejeda et al., 2012). Degradation of petroleum hydrocarbons in the soil is facilitated by enhancedbiodegradation

Fig. 3: Comparison between reductions in total petroleum hydrocarbons (TPHs) in rhizosphere and non-rhizosphere soils planted with barley and sorghum

Fig. 4: Comparison of total bacterial count in rhizosphere and non-rhizosphere of contaminated and control soils containing sorghum and barley

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Fig. 5: Comparison between total numbers of oil-degrading bacteria in rhizosphere and nonrhizosphere of contaminated soils containing sorghum and barley of petroleum-based contaminants, increased number and diversity of oil-degrading bacteria, promotion of chemical secretions, and stimulation of plants in the rhizosphere (Tejeda et al., 2012). CONCLUSION The current study used sorghum and barley to remediate petroleum hydrocarboncontaminated soil from lands near Isfahan Oil Refinery. The results showed that the two plants were capable of tolerating high concentrations of petroleum hydrocarbons and toxic materials in soil, i.e. although their growth was decelerated in contaminated soil, it was not inhibited. Sorghum and barley could successfully decrease the concentration of petroleum hydrocarbons in soil by 52%-64% (30% higher than the rates in unplanted soil). Reductions in contaminants of unplanted soil might be attributed to leaching, adsorption, oxidation in exposure to light, evaporation, and biodegradation. In vegetated

soils, all the mentioned processes are accompanied with the plantsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; ability to uptake and degrade contamination. Besides, soil microbial population is increased in the presence of plant species as the rhizosphere provides optimal conditions for proliferation of bacteria. The significant difference between planted and unplanted soils asserts the favorable role of the selected plants in eliminating petroleum hydrocarbons from soil. This is of critical importance since even very low concentrations of organic contaminants can threaten human health. Hence, sorghum and barley are recommended for elimination of petroleum hydrocarbons and improving soil conditions in areas close to Isfahan Oil Refinery. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT We appreciate the managing director, Mr. Nazem (the head of the research and development unit), and all personnel, especially Mr. Hedayati, of Isfahan Oil Refinery.

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Adam, G. and Duncan, H. Influence of Diesel Fuel on Seed Germination. Environmental Pollution, 120: 363-370 (2002). Agamuthu, P., Abioye, O.P. and Abdul Aziz, A. Phytoremediation of Soil Contaminated with Used Lubricating Oil Using Jatropha

Curcas. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 179 (1-3): 891-894 (2010). Allison,L.E. andMoodie, C.D. Carbonate, In: Methods of Soil Analysis, Black, C.A., Evans, D.D., White, J.L., Ensminger, L.E. and Clark, F.E. (Eds). American Society of Agronomy.

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Madison Wisconsin USA, 1379-1400 (1965). Bremner, J.M. and Mulvaney, C.S. NitrogenTotal, In: Methods of Soil Chemical Analysis. Page, A.L., Miller, R.H. and Keeney, D.R. (Eds). American Society of Agronomy. Madison Wisconsin USA, 595-624 (1982). Chaineau, C.H., Morel, J.L. and Oudot, J. Phytotoxicity and Plant Uptake of Fuel Oil Hydrocarbons. Journal of Environmental Quality, 26: 1478-1483 (1997). Cheema, S.A., Khan, M.I., Tang, X., Zhang, C., Shen, C., Malik, Z., Ali, S., Yang, J., Shen, K., Chen, X. andChen, Y. Enhancement of Phenanthrene and Pyrene Degradation in Rhizosphere of Tall Fescue (Festuca Arundinacea). Journal of Hazardous Materials, 166: 1226-1231 (2009). Christopher, S., Hein, P., Marsden, J. and Shurleff, A.S. Evaluation of Methods 3540 (Soxhlet) and 3550 (Sonication) for Evaluation of Appendix IX Analyses from Solid Samples, S-CUBED. Report for EPA Contract 68-03-33-75. Work Assignment No.03. Document No, SSS-R-88-9436 (1988). Cunningham, S.D., Shann, J.R., Crowley, D.E. and Anderson, T.A. Phytoremediation of Contaminated Water and Soil. In Kruger, E.L., Anderson, T.A. and Coats, J.R. (Eds). Phytoremediation of Soil and WaterContaminants. ACS Symposium Series No 664. American Chemical Society. Washington, DC (1997). Diab, E.A. Phytoremediation of Oil Contaminated Deser t Soil Using The Rhizosphere Effects. Global Journal of Environmental Research, 2: 66-73 (2008). Huang, X.D., El-Alawi, Y., Gurska, J., Glick, B.R. and Greenberg, B.M. A Multi-Process Phytoremediation System for Decontamination of Persistent Total Petroleum Hydrocarbons (TPHs) from Soils. Microchemical Journal, 81: 139-147 (2005). Hutchinson, S.L., Banks, M.K. and Schwab, A.P. Bioremediation and Biodegradation, Phytoremediation of Aged Petroleum Sludge: Effect of Inorganic Fertilizer. Environ. Qual, 30: 395-403 (2001). Kaimi, E., Mukaidani, T., Miyoshi, S. and Tamaki, M. Ryegrass Enhancement of

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Current World Environment

Vol. 9(1), 73-80 (2014)

Biological Risk Assessment of Automobile CompaniesA Case Study of Saipa as the Second Largest Iranian Car Manufacturer SAMIRA SEIFALIAN1, HOSSEIN YADEGARI2 and AKBAR MOKHTARI AZAR3* 1

Department of Bachelor of Environmental Health Engineering, University of Medicine, Qazvin, Iran. 2 Hospital Management Research Center, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran. 3 Islamic Azad University, Tehran Medical Branch, Department of Health, Tehran, Iran. http://dx.doi.org/10.12944/CWE.9.1.11 (Received: January 12, 2014; Accepted: March 02, 2014) ABSTRACT In every careers and fields there are cases that known as risk and places that are categorized in biological risk centers that can be classified into specific classes. In HSE field also there are risk centers that can be indentified and validated separately and specifically. In definition; places and situation that are capable of existing or creating risk or can be a potential source of making risk are named risk centers. Risk centers in hygiene, immunity, and environment are different and have independent and separated identification. According to their extent of operating; these centers are less or more. In this investigation; tried to recording the huge part of biological risk centers in Saipa company. For this reason; a research plan was done for 12 months. That the first three months spent for searching on net and theorical investigation. Then, for nine months and with four experts biological risk centers were identify and related data was gathered and listed with software program Excel. The repeated cases were removed. After recognizing the biological risk centers, by operating method of number PJ-01-001 that is adoption of FMEA method, the risk were validated. In this evaluation every points were investigated and categorized into high, medium and low risk according to their occurrence, level of risk, frequency of occurrence, exposure to risk, control actions and ability of discovering risk. In the last four months, for the cases that categorized in high and medium risk fixing measures and actions were done. Related to unremitting and investigation; the cases that were in accordance with personnel, were noticed and a large number of these cases eliminated (about so percent) and the parts that needed. Instructions and appropriate actions were programmed and now are available for eliminate contradictions. Finally, it was determined since performing and noticing are not done and there is no training for it, itâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s not expectable that risk centers can be eliminated. According to this assessment, unremitting and continuing this process, in hygiene field, center of biological risk points were recognized and were diminished from 55 to 22 in less than four months. At last, considering the fact that the probability of occurring new risks are obvious; continuing the investigation and identification are recommended.

Key words: Inspection, The focus of biological risk, Health and safety, Risk assessment, Saipa CO, Corrective action. guards, regardless of discipline and grooming INTRODUCTION considerations. Human being has afallible nature whose They believed that accidents are caused mistakes are inevitable. Thereby, from ancient times by inappropriate physical conditions. Preventive people are looking for ways to reduce their risk of actions such as awareness programs by posters, errors. In other words, by improving workplace brochures, training workshops, etc. could also be conditions, well-designing the equipment, and effective factor in mitigating risky activities. adopting appropriate strategies, the risk-generating According to which, the individuals at risk will learn factors should be minimize as much as possible how to control incidences. Heinrich offered a total (Ahmadi 2005b). Prior to 1931, safety experts tend of ten items including theories and concepts of to focus on physical strategies such as machine

SEIFALIAN et al., Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(1), 73-80 (2014)

industrial safety rules (Lees Frank 2004 ; Whittingham 2004; Jahangiri 2004). Following Heinrich’s thoughts, attentions have paid to the importance of unsafe activities as a main riskgenerating factor in industries (Ahmadi 2005a). In 1960s, there was emphasized on preventive engineering on reduced technical defect and increased equipment reliability and safety barriers. After plane crashes in 1974, and 1980 as well as Three Miles Island in 1979, attention has drawn towards other issues of human fallibility, better education, improvement of human interactions - machinery, and support systems for the respond to the reduction and prevention of the spread of “human error” (Reason 2000; Ghalenoy 2006; Grozdanoviæ 2006). Possibility index of human error is a quantitative and dynamic approach for taking into account human factors in risk assessment. This index is a method for identifying, evaluating and mitigating the risks associated with human errors during emergency conditions (DiMattia et al. 2005, Khan et al. 2006). Carlos Conte et al. (2011) presented a generalized utility model for the diagnosis and prediction of accidents among the Spanish work force with the aim of managing automatically work-related accidents at a national level. Jasch and Lavicka in 2006 was done a research on health and safety risk management of the Styrian automobile cluster in Austria. They prepared a management plan which is useful for small and medium sized companies as a starting point to shape their (EHS) system.

,Gas Central, Power House , fuel tanks , polymer, C.M.M ,chemistry, metallurgy and mechanic, chemical material, Etka, Shirazi land, Saipa3, Seico, Sale, Saipa5, office, clinic, triple salon , maintenance ,technical affairs, restaurant, public places, road test, treatment plant, waste, underground canals, and streets. The collected data were recorded, separately. The famous PDCA Cycle suggested by Dr. Deming were used to detect and record risky processes. After identifying risky centers, appropriate strategies were presented to combat the risks. Using Cocran formula, the number of visiting was calculated for each month in separation of different unities in the company. According to available data and Cocaran formula, the number of visiting was 29 for each month. Using the Excel Software, a total of 29 - 46 places were selected to be visited in each month. After detecting all risky centers during the study period of 6 months, some weekly meetings were held in which HSE (Health, Safety and Environment) managers, maintenance and repairs, technical and energy services managers were participated in order to find proper mitigation measures. Finally, a corrective action plan related to manufacturing and administrative units was prepared containing managerial strategies on

The present study aims at assessing biological risk center of Saipa Company as the second largest Iranian auto manufacturer. Method The present study lasted for 12 mounts in Saipa Company as the second largest automanufacturer in Iran. . Accordingly, three environmental experts spent 6 mounts to detect biological risk centers in all parts of the company such as Production Unit including Painting Unit No. 1, Painting Unit No. 2, Body Unit No. 1, Body Unit No. 2, Assembly Unit No. 1, Assembly Unit No. 2, Press and non-production parts such as Power Post

Fig.1: The reduction of biological risky centers in Saipa Company in duration of four month

SEIFALIAN et al., Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(1), 73-80 (2014) maintenance and repairs, as well as technical and energy services. Corrective actions could be categorized in two types, one is related to equipments and another is associated with personnel behavior resolved by different ways (culture-building trainings, brochures, pamphlets, etc). Subsequently, Procedure number PJ-01-001 was used to evaluate risk levels of each risky centers based upon criteria occurrence probability, occurrence probability and

intensity. This method includes those requirements recommended by the standard OHSAS 18001, 2007. Table 1 is a sample checklist of PJ-01-001 Procedure derived from FMEA Method by which risky factors are evaluated based on a three-point qualitative scale (high, medium and low). For determination risk identified rate according to appendix form 1, at first compute intense and probability of occurrence risk from below table then determination risk rate according to evaluating matrix.

Table1: A sample checklist of PJ-01-001 Procedure to classify biological risky centers in Saipa Company Row

place occupation Stages of job Dangerous (risky) Event

Body 1 All personnel Eating and drinking Contamination with disease Transmission disease from hand during eating

Body 1 All personnel Daily works Contamination with disease Transmission disease from rats to personnel

Reason of event Outcomes Control actions of human Engineering

Donâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t washing hands d before eating foo Illness Education Individual health to all personnel Monthly visit and declaration Non-compliances to Contractors for solving problem has 3 8

Existence Rats in hall Illness Education Individual health to all personnel Monthly visit and declaration Non-compliances to Contractors for solving problem has 3 8

Body 1 All personnel Eating and drinking Contamination with disease Transmission disease from surfaces to personnel and Gathering insects Not cleaning tables and teahouse Illness Education Individual health to all personnel Monthly visit and declaration Non-compliances to Contractors for solving problem has 2 8

High

Medium

Low

Control actions

standard intense Degree of exposure Frequency outcome Control actions Discover Risk Rate of probability The final score *P=R Risk level

SEIFALIAN et al., Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(1), 73-80 (2014)

In order to classify risky centers, the occurrence probability and intensity were initially be determined using Tables 2 and 3. Afterwards, they were ranked using the evaluating matrix.

Table 2: Intense rating determination Rating

Human

7 6 5

Death of more than 1 person Death of 1 person Disability over 60% Disability over 30% up to 60% Disability 10% up to 30% Disability less than 10% Medical break of 7 days up to 1month Medical break of 2days up to 7 1 day Medical break First aid

4 3 2 1

Occurrence intensity The occurrence intensity was measured based on economic damages and losses to the personnel. Occurrence probability was determined as follows using the coefficients in Tables 3, 4 and 5. 1 Probability outcome (coefficient 6) (Table 3) 2 Degree of exposure (coefficient 8) (Table 3) 3 Human and engineering control actions (coefficient 10) (Table 4) 4 Ability to discover (coefficient 4) (Table 5) The average of the mentioned coefficients was calculated using the following equation: P-(4*ability to discovery + 6* outcome frequency + 8*degree of exposure + 10* control action)/28 ..(1) Each of the factors was also calculated according to Tables 2,3 and 4. If the probability result

Table 3: Outcome frequency and exposure to risky factors Exposure to risk

coeffi-

General health person/place

Occupation health

safety

cient

More than 2000 people 1001-1999 501-1000 301-500 201-300 101-200 51-100 11-50 2-10 1

> 480

Every day exposure Every other day Once a week mid- week Once a month Every other 3 months Every other 6 months Once a year Once in 5 years Once in more than 10 years

420-479 360-419 300-359 240-299 180-239 120-179 60-119 30-59 < 29

9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

Outcome

coefficient frequency

Every day happening One day among Once a week mid-week Once a month Every other 3 months Every other 6 months Once a year Once in 1-5 years Once in more than 10 years

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

Table 4: Rating for the scope of control actions required Rate

Engineering

Rate

Human

8-10 8- 6 4- 6 4-2 0-2 10

Lack of control action Low effectiveness of control action Medium effectiveness of control action Good effectiveness of control action Full effectiveness of control action Rating

2 2 2 2 2 10

Lack of awareness Lack of personal protective equipment Lack of job satisfaction Lack of job skills Lack of health Overall rating

SEIFALIAN et al., Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(1), 73-80 (2014)

is a decisional number, the value will be roundedto one decimal place using the Equation 2.

60% reduction in this less period in a large industrial company is a really good success.

X : int erger and y : decimal ( X / y ) if Y < 5 â&#x2020;&#x2019; x / y = [ x ]

Biological risky centers differ according to personnel function in production and administrative halls. A brief description is given in table 6. However, it should be mentioned that some of these biological risky centers are common halls because as they have been detected in the WC (health services).

..(2) RESULTS The studies showed that the biological risky centers detected during the six month of 2010 (September 23, 2010 to March 21, 2011) was 55 and in the next four months of 2011 correction action for all of the risky centers was issued. As a result, at the end of the fourth month the number of risky centers was reduced from 55 to 22 in the company;

The result of evaluation on biological risky centers in production halls is shown in table 7 and tables 8 -13 shows the evaluation of biological risky centers in non-production parts of the company.

Table 5:Prioritization of risks Example

Rating Discovery

The risk is easily recognized from a distance Noise / light and ... Etc. has created Just seen or heard or ... The phase meter, thermometer conventional Sensor or a digital tool

1â&#x2C6;&#x2019;2 4-3 6-5 8-7 9-10

Quite obvious risk It is understood by all five senses Only one of the five senses can detect Should be used for the diagnosis of simple tools Advanced tools are required to use

Table 6: The couple of examples of biological risky centers in company Others places and common halls (place)

Administrative halls (place)

Production halls (place)

The WC Being contaminated Desks surfaces and keyboards (polluted or dirty) being contaminated (polluted or dirty) No trash door Being ill and carriers servitor

Small distance between the personnel Eating food on the floor and dirty cartons Glasses being contaminated(dirty glasses) Of contaminated protective devices(earmuff)

Water tap damage in WC (bathroom)

Table 7: The results of evaluation of biological risky centers in production halls Place Production

Body 1 Body 2 Press Dye tools paint 1 paint 2 Assembly 1 Assembly 2

Total

High

Medium

Low

33 33 33 33 32 33 33 34

2 2 0 0 2 0 2 2

13 13 13 10 13 14 13 18

18 18 20 23 17 19 18 14

SEIFALIAN et al., Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(1), 73-80 (2014)

As you can see in table 7 amount of risk in high, medium and low are up to 2, 18 and 23 cases respectively in production halls.

medium and low risk respectively Out of company are places that do some of the business companies in abroad. As shown in Table 12, the subsidiary centers have no high-risk cases and there are 4 and 31 cases with medium and low risk respectively.

As shown in table 8, there is no high risk case in buildings and there are 2 and 32 cases for medium and low risk respectively As shown in table 9, there is no high risk case in energy resources buildings and there are 3 cases with medium risk and for low risk cases there are 26 cases in power house and 2 cases in other places (Fuel tanks,gas central and power posts).

The variation of job (thing) in workshops usually is the same, for this reason the number of biological risky centers in all of them is the same 29 cases. As shown in Table 13, workshops (production halls) have no high-risk cases and there are 5 and 25 cases with medium and low risk respectively.

As shown in table 10, there is no high-risk case in laboratories but there are 2 and 11 cases in medium risk and low risk, respectively, just in C.M.M there is 2 cases with medium risk and 31 cases with low risk.

Table 8: The results of evaluation of biological risky centers in buildings Place

As shown in table 11, there is no high-risk case in storages but there are 7 and 28 cases with

Buildings office Clinic

Total

High Medium

34 33

0 0

2 2

Table 9: The results of evaluation of biological risky centers in energy resources buildings Place Energy resources

Power post Gas central Powerhouse Fuel tanks

Total

High

Medium

Low

2 2 29 2

0 0 0 0

0 0 3 0

2 2 26 2

Table 10: The results of evaluation of biological risky centers in laboratories Place

Total

Laboratories polymer C.M.M chemistry power Metallurgy & mechanic

High

Medium

Low

12 33 12 12 12

0 0 0 0 0

1 2 1 1 1

11 31 11 11 11

Table 11: The results of evaluation of biological risky centers in storages Place Warehouse

Receipt of goods Chemical material Non-production Production

Total

High

Medium

Low

30 30 30 30

0 0 0 0

2 2 4 7

28 28 26 23

Low 32 31

SEIFALIAN et al., Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(1), 73-80 (2014) Table 12: The results of evaluation of biological risky centers in out of company Place Out of company

Total

High

Medium

Low

27 14 33 27 33 33

0 0 0 0 0 0

4 0 2 4 2 2

23 14 31 23 31 31

Etka Shirazi land Saipa 3 Seico Sale Saipa 5

Table 13: The results of evaluation of biological risky centers in workshops Place Workshops

Technical affairs Triple salon Maintenance

Total

High

Medium

Low

29 29 29

0 0 0

4 5 4

25 24 25

Table 14: The results of evaluation of biological risky centers in site Place Site

Restaurant Public places Road test Treatment plant Waste Underground canals Conex streets

Total

High

Medium

Low

41 20 14 33 8 2 14 10

2 0 0 0 0 0 0 1

32 6 1 2 3 2 1 6

7 14 13 31 5 0 13 3

As shown in table 14, there are 2 cases with high risk in restaurant, 6 and 32 cases with medium risk in public places and restaurant respectively and 14 and 31 cases with low risk in public places and treatment plant respectively. CONCLUSION Todayâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s world has undergone a variety of pollution of noise, water, soil, biological, etc. caused by human recklessness. Risk centers in hygiene, immunity, and environment are different and have independent and separated identification. According to their extent of operating; these centers are less or more. In this investigation; efforts were to record the huge part of biological risk centers in

Saipa company. For this reason; the present research was done to identify biological risk centers in SAIPA. After recognizing the biological risk centers using the method PJ-01-001, it was found that there are a total of 33 biological risks in the restaurant. Treatment plant (with a total of 33 risks), public places (with a total of 20 risks), and Road Test Unit (with a total of 14 risks) are the main risk generating centers in the company. Moreover, public places, Road Test Unit, Treatment Plant, Waste Disposal, underground canals, and Conex has no high-risk biological centers. Based upon the obtained results, it was revealed that mitigation measures should be focused on two places restaurant and treatment plant.

SEIFALIAN et al., Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(1), 73-80 (2014)

REFERENCES 1.

Ahmadi, A., Safety Management in Oil, Gas & Petrochemical Industries. Vol.1: Engineering Approach to Human Errors. First Edition. Pourshad (2005a). Ahmadi, A., Safety Management in Oil, Gas & Petrochemical Industries. 2: (2005b) Preventing Methods from Occurring Human Errors in Oil related Industries .First Edition. Sepehr Fatemi DiMattia, D.G., Khan, F.I. Amyotte, P.R.,Determination of human error probabilities for offshore platform musters, Journal of Loss Prevention in the Process Industries, 18: 488–501 (2005). Ghalenoy, M., Safety Analysis for Control Room Operators Human Error in one of Petrochemical Industries using HEART Technique. MSC thesis. Tarbiat Modarres University (TMU) (2006). Grozdanoviæ, M. and Stojiljkoviæ E., Framework for Human Error Quantification, Philosophy, Sociology and Psychology. 5: 18-23 (2006).

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Jahangiri, M., Human Errors Identification And Analysis in Tehran Refinery Isomax Unit with PHEA technique. MSC thesis. Occupational Health Department, School of Public Health, Tehran University of Medical Science, (2004). Khan, F.I., Amyotte, P.R. and DiMattia, D.G., HEPI: A new tool for human error probability calculation for offshore operation. Safety Science, 44: 313-334 (2006). Lees Frank, P., Lees Loss Prevention in the Process Industries, 1: Third edition (2004). Whittingham, R.B., The Blame Machine: Why Human Error Causes Accidents, Elsevier Butter worth-Heinemann (2004). Carlos Conte J., Rubio E., Isabel García A., Cano F. Occupational accidents model based on risk–injury affinity groups. Safety Science, 49(2): 306-314 (2011). Jasch Ch., Lavicka A. Pilot project on sustainability management accounting with the Styrian automobile cluster. Journal of Cleaner Production, 14(14), 1214-1227 (2006).

Current World Environment

Vol. 9(1), 81-86 (2014)

Prospect of Neem Plantation at Arafat, Saudi Arabia M.A.U. MARIDHA* and N.A. AL-SUHAIBANI Plant Production Department, Faculty of Food and Agriculture Sciences, King Saud University, P.O. Box - 2460, Riyadh 11451, Saudi Arabia. http://dx.doi.org/10.12944/CWE.9.1.12 (Received: January 04, 2014; Accepted: February 19, 2013) ABSTRACT Neem (Azadirachta indicaA.Juss.) is a multipurpose agroforestry tree that is well adapted to a wide range of climatic and soil conditions and has gained worldwide recognition for its pharmaceutical and pesticidal properties.The world’s largest pure Neem plantations are available in the plains of Arafat, Saudi Arabia where 50,000 thousands Neem trees were planted to provide shade from the blazing summer sun for the millions of Hajis (Muslim pilgrims). Sporadic mature Neem trees are also found in Medinah, Taif and else where of the Kingdom. The Neem tree is adapted to Arafat under harsh climatic conditions of Saudi Arabia and the plantation may be extended to other parts of the Kingdom as a avenue tree and also to minimize the desertification under changing climatic conditions and to improve the environmental condition of the country. At Arafat mixed plantations may be advocated to save the present plantation which may come from climate change as well as pest and diseases problems. So care must be taken to monitor the diseases of Neem tree at Arafat on a regular basis. Because of insufficient growth of Neem at Arafat the methods of green cultivation with microbial inoculants, organic fertilizers, mycotrophic green manure plants may be practiced for successful plantation.

Key words: Neem, Pest, Disease, Distribution, Green cultivation, Saudi Arabia.

INTRODUCTION Neem (Azadirachta indicaA.Juss.) tree is very impor tant culturally, medicinally and pesticidally and has gained worldwide recognition for its pharmaceutical and pesticide properties. The Neem tree is a fast growing plant that belongs to mahogany family (Meliaceae) and can reach a height of 15–20 metres, rarely to 35–40 metres. It is evergreen, but in severe drought it may shed most or nearly all of its leaves. The branches are wide and spreading. The fairly dense crown is roundish and may reach a diameter of 15–20 metres in old, free-standing specimens. It will grow in law rainfall areas and it thrives in areas of extreme heat and arid conditions. It is estimated that a Neem tree has a productive life span of 150 - 200 years. Because of multifarious use and medicinal properties as well as environmental importance, the United Nations has declared the Neem tree as “Tree of the 21st century ”(UNEP 2012) and The US National

Academy of Science mentioned the tree as “Neem: A tree for solving global problems” (NAS 1992).Africa considers Neem as a green gold. In Senegal, Neem tree is known as the “Independence Tree” (ABC 2013). So there is a urgent need to assess the prospect of Neem cultivation and to study the growth requirements for green cultivation of Neem at Arafat, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA).The present paper is a part of our ongoing research programme in the Department of Plant Production , King Saud University on green cultivation of neem at Arafat, under the supervision and guidance of the authors of the present paper. The paper deals with the prospect of Neem cultivation at Arafat, Makkah, KSA. Importance of Neem Neem as an important multipurpose agroforestry tree is adapted to a wide range of soil conditions and has been extensively documented and reviewed (Duke and du Cellier, 1993; NRC

Sid et al., Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(1), 81-86 (2014) Islands, where it is Neem is already a major tree species in Haiti (Lewis and Elvin-Lewis 1983).

1992; Tewari1992). In the Indian subcontinent, the Neem tree has been used for more than 4500 years. In the last two decades, research on Neem has been intensified and many of the agricultural and medical properties of Neem were rediscovered (Botelho et al. 2008; Drabu et al. 2012). Neem is an omnipotent tree and a sacred gift of nature (Upma et al. 2011). It is a divine tree mainly cultivated in Indian subcontinent and has been used extensively by humankind to treat various ailments from prehistory to contemporary ( Kumar and Navaratnam 2013). All parts of this tree are commonly used in traditional Indian medicine for treating various human diseases (Botelho et al. 2008; Drabu et al. 2012). The earliest documentation of Neem mentioned the fruit, seeds, oil, leaves, roots and bark for their advantageous medicinal properties ( Kumar and Navaratnam 2013). The Neem tree also provides clean air to the atmosphere.

Distribution of Neem in Saudi Arabia The world’s largest Neem plantations are available in 10 sq km areas in the plains of Arafat, Saudi Arabia (Saleem et al. 1989). The plantation of fifty thousand Neem trees was initiated on the plains of Arafat near Makkah by a Saudi philanthropist. Khattab and El-Hadidi (1971) reported from the results of a botanical expedition to Saudi Arabia in 1944-45 that mature Neem trees were found in a garden west of Medinah. Now- aday’s mature (appx. 50-60 years old)Neem trees are found in many houses in Jeddah. In Makkah one tree was found which is more than 100 years old. Many mature Neem trees are found also in Medinah, Taif and elsewhere (Saleem et al. 1989). Neem trees are for landscaping in Saudi Arabia and are found as common avenue trees in Jeddah.

Worldwide distribution of Neem Neem tree is native to Pakistan, India, Bangladesh and Myanmar and is now widely grown in almost all African countries as well as in arid and semi-arid areas of the world. It is now widely cultivated in Mauritania, Senegal, The Gambia, Guinea, Ivory Coast, Ghana, Burkina Faso, Mali, Benin, Niger, Nigeria, Togo, Cameroon, Chad, Ethiopia, Sudan, Somalia, Kenya, Tanzania, and Mozambique (Infonet-Biovision 2013).The Neem tree was introduced in places such as Australia, East and sub-Sahelian Africa, South East Asia, and South America. Today, the Neem is well established in at least 30 countries worldwide, in Asia, Africa and Central and South America. Some small scale plantations are also reportedly successful in Europe and United States of America (see Kumar and Navaratnam 2013). Neem trees were also introduced in Pan ZhiHua, Sichuan province, China (Zhang et al. 2007). There are over 400000 Neem trees in Yunnan province that make Yunnan the biggest artificial area of Neem planting globally and the material center of Neem products in China. Chinese Academy of Forestry played an important role in methods of cultivation of Neem (YGNIDC 2013). In West Africa (Somalia to Mauritania), it is a leading candidate for helping halt the southward spread of the Sahara Desert. In the last decade, Neem has been introduced into the Caribbean

Climatic conditions, soil and water management Neem is an important multipurpose tree species that has been observed to be well suited to all kinds of lands and wide range of environment (Tewari 1992), especially tolerant to poor soils of arid and semi-arid regions (Benge 1989). The plant is generally well adapted to the frost-free, warm and tropical dry conditions of Asia (Duke and duCellier 1993; NRC 1992; Tewari 1992). Usually the vegetative growth is rapid in tropical areas of higher precipitation (Ahmed 1995). Neem plantation is available in sub-humid to semi-arid and arid climatic conditions. It can grow in areas with mean annual temperatures of 21 to 32°C and can survive as high as up to 50°C temperatures, but does not tolerate frost or extended cold. The Neem tree grows in areas with mean annual rainfalls of 450 mm to 1,200 mm. It can grow in regions with an annual rainfall below 400 mm, but in such cases it depends largely on the ground water levels and also frequent irrigation. Neem grows in areas from sea level (altitude), however it thrives at low altitudes also. The tree grows on a variety of soils, clayey or sandy, saline or alkaline, but will not grow in waterlogged soils. It can thrive on dry, stony, shallow soils and even on soils with hard calcareous or clay pans at a shallow depth, its roots can access ground water within 9–12 m of the ground surface (Stoney 1997). Once established it is drought tolerant and can

Sid et al., Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(1), 81-86 (2014) survive 7â&#x20AC;&#x201C;8 month dry seasons. Neem can grow in soils with a wide pH range. The optimum growth is at pH 6.2 to 7, but it can also grow well down to pH 5 and survive in soils between pH 3-8.5(InfonetBiovision 2013).The Neem tree is being cultivated at the plains of Arafat because the tree can withstand the harsh climatic conditions of Saudi Arabia, where sometimes the temperatures go up to 50Â°C and annual rainfall drops as low as 30-40 mm. Neem is one of a very few shade-giving trees that thrive in drought-prone areas and under Saudi conditions the plants gets frequent irrigation during summer season. Propagation and planting Seed production of Neem is often low in high rainfall areas. The viability of Neem seeds is very short, less than three months. The best way to propagate the Neem tree is through seeds. The seeds may be placed inmoist chamber. After a week the seed will crack and sprout ready to be planted in compost made of half soil and half cow dung manure. To propagate from a cutting, a small twig has to be stripped of its leaves and stuck into moist soil.In Bangladesh , Mridha et al. (2002) used effective microorganisms for growth on neem under nursery condition and found improved growth.

yllid); CeroplastesfloridensisComst (Homopteracoccidae) (NRC 1992;Infonet-Biovision 2013). Despite the fact that the leaves contain fungicidal and antibacterial ingredients, certain microbes may attack different parts of the tree, including the following: Cercosporasubsessilis; Fusarium sp., Colletotrichumgloeosporioides; Alternariaalternata; Rhizoctoniasolani; Oidium azadirachtae; Corticiumsalmonicolor; Ganoder malucidum; Diaporthesp etc (Infonet-Biovision 2013; Tewari 1992). Sinniah et al.(1983). Studiedon seed mycoflora of Neem during storage found highly contaminated by fungi mostly Aspergillus spp. Recently, Mehrotra and Pandey (1991) described leaf spotting and blight of Neem caused by Colletotrichumgloeosporioidesand Alternaria alternata. They have also recorded poor germination of seeds due to Fusarium species.In an ongoing research programme at Chittagong University, Bangladesh (headed by the first author of the present paper), we have recorded several foliage diseases of Neem. They are Pseudocercospora leaf spot (Pseudocercospora (Cercospora)subsessilis (Mridha et al. 2001); Colletotrichum Leaf spot (Colletotrichum gloeosporioides);Alternaria leaf

Pests and Diseases of Neem Neem trees are suffering from different types of foliar and root diseases caused by different types of biotic (fungi, bacteria, virus etc.) and abiotic (draught, salinity, temperatures, humidity, pH etc.) factors like other plants. Our general view is that since the plants are being used against different diseases caused by biotic factors, why they would suffer from different diseases. But reality is that Neem trees are also getting infected and some are facing heavy losses. By and large, most Neem trees are reputed to be remarkably pest free; however, some pests and diseases occasionally attack Neem trees. The following insect pests are recorded from Neem tree : Aonidiellaorientalis Pinnaspisstrachani ; Phyllocoptes sp. ; Tetranychidae (Spider mites); Heliothripshemorrhoidalis (Bche) Thysanopterathrips; Scirtothripsaurantii (Faure); Heteropsyllacubana Crawf (Leuceanaps

Fig. 1: A diseased neem plant at Arafat, Mekkah

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spot and blight (Alternaria sp); powdery mildew (Oidiumazadirachtae) (Mridha et al. 2005) etc. DISCUSSION During our recent visit to Arafat to observe the present conditions of Neem plantations, we have encountered that large number of plants are dying (Fig. 1). The reasons may be physiological and /or pathological. And also the plant growth was not very luxurious. It was also observed that new plantations are going on. The Neem trees are found on the road side of Makkah city near Arafat and also plants are found to be unhealthy. All parts of this very useful tree are extensively used by humankind to treat various ailments from prehistory to contemporary. So extending Neemplantation in KSA, the plant parts may be used in Saudi Arabia as herbal medicine to treat common diseases. High quality seedlings are essential to develop good quality plantations. The quality seedlings may be raised under nursery conditions by inoculating microbial inoculants for rapid growth in the nursery and for survival of seedlings after plantation. This is because, microbial inoculants like Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi are an imperative component of soil microbial biomass influencing essential processes at the plant-soil interface. It has been observed that roots of Neem are profusely colonized by AMF and it is considered as a highly mycorrhizal dependent tree species (Habte et al. 1993). In our recent observation (manuscript under preparation), we Have recorded high infection of mycorrhizal fungi in the Neem roots collected from Arafat and also isolated different types of Glomus spp. from the rhizosphere soils of Neem trees. The soils and climatic conditions for the growth of Neem must be considered before raising any plantation in KSA. The draught and salinity is a major problem in growing plants under Saudi

conditions. To overcome these problems, urgent research is needed to understand how to alleviate the draught and salinity for growth of Neem at Arafat and other parts of the country. As the water is very important under Saudi conditions, so research may be designed for proper usages of water for irrigation during summer months.Requirement of nutrient and judicial application of nutrient is to be determined under plantation after assessing soil nutrient status at Arafat. The pure plantation is not always desirable for successful plantation of tree species in any particular areas and is sometimes harmful from ecological, environmental and microbiological point of view. In Arafat mixed plantations may be advocated to avoid the disastrous outcome from climate change as well as pest and diseases problems. Finally non chemical approaches that means the way of green cultivation with microbial inoculants particularly inoculation of Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi under nursery conditions to raised mycotrophic seedlings for plantation in the field and also improve the growth, draught tolerance and alleviation of salinity under field conditions, addition of organic fertilizers under field conditions to the soil physical and chemical properties and mycotrophic green manure plants (both legumes and non legumes) for life mulch and supply of green manure as well as essential nutrients through microbial activities and plant residues may be practiced for successful plantation of Neem not only at Arafat but also throughout the Kingdom. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT This research was supported by King Saud University, Deanship of Scientific Research, College of Food & Agriculture Sciences and Research Center.

REFERENCES 1.

ABC (Africa Bound Corporation) 2013. Neem. Cedar Creek: Africa Bound Corporation. [Online] Available from: http:// africabound.org/activities/Neem/. [Accessed on 20 December, 2013] Ahmed S. Neem in Hawaiâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;i: Potential for

growth and economic utilization-especially in the Hamakua Region of the Big Island.Hawaiâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;i Department of Business, Economic Development and Tourism, Honolulu, HI. (1995) Benge MD. Cultivation and propagation of

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the Neem tree. In: Jacobson M. (ed) Focus on Phytochemical Pesticides ; 1: The Neem Tree. CRC Press Inc., Boca Raton, 1-18 (1989). Botelho MA, Santos RA, Martins JG, Carvalho CO, Paz MC, Azenha C. Efficacy of a mouth rinse based on leaves of the Neem tree (Azadirachta indica) in the treatment of patients with chronic gingivitis: A double blind, randomized, controlled trial. Journal of Medicinal Plants Research, 2(11): 341-346 (2008). Drabu S, Khatri S, Babu S. Neem: Healer of all ailments. Research Journal of Pharmaceutical, Biological and Chemical Sciences, 3(1): 120-126 (2012). Duke JR, du Cellier JL. CRC Handbook of alternative cash crops. CRC Press, Inc. Boca Raton, FL (1993). Habte M, MuruleedharaBN,Ikawa H. Response of Neem (Azadirachta indica) to soil P concentration and mycorrhizal colonization. Arid Soil Research and Rehabilitation, 7: 327-333 (1993). Infonet-Biovision. Neem tree. http:// www.infonet-biovision.org/default/ct/631/ agroforestry [Accessed on 20 December, 2013] (2013). Khattab AB, El-Hadidi MN. Results of a botanical expedition to Saudi Arabia in 1944-45. Publ. No.4. Cairo Univ. Herbarium.Cairo Univ. press. Cairo, (1971). Kumar VS,Navaratnam V. Neem (Azadirachta indica): Prehistory to contemporary medicinal uses to humankind. Asian Pacific Journal of Tropical Biomedicine, 3(7): 505514 (2013). (doi: 10.1016/S22211691(13)60105-7). Lewis WH, Elvin-Lewis MPF. Neem (Azadirachta indica) cultivated in Haiti. Economic Botany, 37: 69-70 (1983). MehrotraMD, PandeyPC. Some Important Nursery Diseases of Azadirachta indica and Their Control (Communicated) (1991). Mridha MAU, BhiyanMK, Huda SMS, Haque MM, Khan, BM. Leaf spot of Azadirachta indica A. Juss. Caused Cercospora subsessilis H. and P. Sydow. Recorded in Bangladesh. The Chittagong University Journal of Sciences, 25(1):105-107 (2001).

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Mridha MAU, Khan, BM, Hossain MK, Tasnim H, Rahman MF. Effective Microorganism (EM) for neem tree. APA News, 20: 5-6 (2002). Mridha MAU, Bhuian MK, AkhtarMF, Mahmud M, DharPP, JabbarF. Powdery mildew of Azadirachta indica A. Juss. Caused byOidium azadirachtaesp, nov.recorded in Bangladesh. Hamdard Medicus, 48(4):130-132 (2005). NRC (National Research Council), Neem: a tree for solving global problems, report of an adhoc panel of the Board on Science and Technology for International Development National Academy Press, Washington, DC (1992). Saleem A, Salem B, Matoug M. Cultivation of Neem (Azadirachtaindica, Meliaceae) in Saudi Arabia. Economic Botany, 43(1): 3538 (1989). Sinnah D, Verghese G, Baskaran G, Koo SH. Fungal Flora of Neem (Azadirachta indica) Seeds and Neem Oil Toxicity. Malaysian Applied Biology, 38: 20-25 (1983). Stoney C. ‘Fact sheet onAzadirachta indica (Neem)—a versatile tree for the tropics and subtropics’, publication of ‘Forest, Farm, and Community Tree Network’ (FACT Net), Arkansas, United States, (www.winrock.org/ forestry/factnet.htm) [Accessed on 20 December , 2013] (1997). Tewari DN. Monograph on Neem (Azadirachta indica A. Juss.). International Book Distributors, Dehradun (1992). UNEP (United Nations Environment Programme). Neem: The UN’s tree of the 21st Century. Nairobi: United Nations Environment Programme; [Online] Available from:http:// www.unep.org/wed/tree-a-day/Neem.asp. [Accessed on 20 December , 2013] (2012). Upma A, AshokK, Pankaj K, Tarun K. The Nature’s gift to mankind: Neem. International Research Journal of Pharmacy ,2(10):13-15 (2011). YGNIDC (Yunnan GuangmingNeem Industry Development Co., Ltd). 2013. The Industrialization of Neem Plantation in Yunnan Province - our Experiences. [Online]Available from:http://Neem.tean i f t y . c o m / N e e m / f i l e s /

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and cultivation in Panzhihua. Journal of Sichuang Agricultural University, 25(3): 282287 (2007).

Current World Environment

Vol. 9(1), 87-95 (2014)

Biochemical and Photosynthetic Evaluation of Responses in Zea mays L. Under Drought Stress S.S. ABU-MURIEFAH1, MOHAMED M. IBRAHIM2,3* and GEHAN A. ELGAALY4 1

Department of Biology, Science College, Prince Noura University, Riyadh- KSA. 2 Department of Botany and Microbiology, College of Science, King Saud University P.O. Box 2455, Riyadh 11451, Saudi Arabia. 3 Department of Botany and Microbiology, Faculty of Science, Alexandria University, Alexandria - P.O. Box 21511, Egypt 4 Department of Botany and Microbiology, Female Section, College of Science, King Saud University P.O. Box 22452, Riyadh, 11495, Saudi Arabia. http://dx.doi.org/10.12944/CWE.9.1.13 (Received: January 10, 2014; Accepted: March 07, 2014) ABSTRACT

Antioxidant defense system(s), pigments content and photosynthetic activity as well as some biochemical changes under drought stress were analyzed in maize (Zea mays L. cv. Giza 21) leaves to determine the response of plant to drought stress and to elucidate the role of various protective mechanisms against oxidative stress. It was found that the application of drought stress led to changes in the carbohydrates and protein contents. Total soluble sugars, accumulated in the leaves of water-stressed plants, whereas, starch and protein contents were dropped to a small amounts compared to the control. Furthermore, plants have well-developed defense systems against reactive oxygen species (ROS), involving both limiting the formation of ROS as well as instituting its removal. Within a cell, the activities of a range of antioxidant enzymes such as superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), ascorbate peroxidase (APX) involved in scavenging ROS were investigated. During dehydration the SOD, APX and CAT increased significantly up to 4 days, then declined in their activities but still maintained higher than the control levels this indicates that the defense systems involved are efficient in the protection of plant cells against oxidation. In addition, there was consistent increase in the lipid peroxidation and accumulation of malondialdehyde (MDA). The levels of hydrogen peroxide were also elevated during stressing periods. In this study we are reporting the negative response of maize plants toward drought stress especially on the antioxidant enzymatic activity for the prolonged drought effect.

Key words: Drought, Oxidative stress, Reactive oxygen species (ROS), Antioxidants.

INTRODUCTION Drought stress is considered as one of the most important environmental factors that causes osmotic stress, limiting plant growth and development. Different pathways can also be affected differently. At the whole plant level, the effect of drought stress is usually perceived as a decrease in photosynthesis and growth (Asada, 1997), and is associated with alterations in C and N metabolism. Furthermore, the imposition of biotic and abiotic stress conditions can give rise to excess

concentrations of reactive oxygen species, resulting in oxidative damage at the cellular level. Therefore, a consequence of drought stress is the limitation of photosynthesis and usually accompanied by the formation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in the chloroplasts (Smirnoff, 1993) such as the superoxide radical, H2O2, and the hydroxyl radical (Foyer et al., 1994). Hydrogen peroxide is especially toxic in the chloroplasts because even at low concentrations it inhibits the Calvin- cycle enzymes, hence reducing the photosynthetic carbon dioxide assimilation (Takeda et al., 1995).

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Plants are equipped with complex and a highly efficient antioxidative defense system composed of protective non-enzymatic and enzymatic protection mechanisms function to interrupt the cascades of uncontrolled oxidation in some organelles (Noctor and Foyer, 1998) and serve to maintain the antioxidants in their reduced functional state (Schwanz et al., 1996) that efficiently scavenge AOS and prevent damaging effects of free radicals (Shalata and Tal 1998). Enzymatic protection is partly performed by superoxide dismutase (SOD, EC 1.15.1.1) that eliminates superoxide radicals O2·- and by catalase (CAT, EC 1.11.1.6) and ascorbic peroxidases (APX, EC 1.11.1.11) that degrade H2O2 influencing the level of lipid peroxidation (Dat et al., 2000 and Mittler, 2002) which is commonly taken as an indicator of oxidative stress, because it is induced by reactive oxygen species (ROS).Our study aimed to investigate the effect of drought stress by withholding water on some biochemical and physiological parameters in maize plant (Zea mays L.Giza 21), moreover clarifying the antioxidant enzymes activity of maize plants under drought stress. MATERIALS AND METHODS Plant material and growth conditions Seeds of maize (Zea mays L. cv. Giza 21) were surface sterilized by immersion for two min in 0.1 % HgCl2, thereafter they were washed with five changes of sterile distilled water. Seeds were soaked in continuously aerated distilled water for 24 h in darkness. Seeds were sown in plastic pots (15 cm diameter x 20cm height), filled with washed pure quartz sand. All pots were placed in a growth chamber under 70-80% relative humidity with 16/ 8h day/night cycle and controlled temperature of 28/26oC. Light intensity was 420μmol m-2 s-1. Each pot was irrigated with 250 ml of distilled water at first, then occasionally with a certain amount of water in order to keep the soil water content constant. After seven days, all plants were watered on alternate days with half strength of Hoagland solution. After 15 days from sowing one-half of the plants were subjected to drought stress by withholding water for 8 days and sampled in regular intervals for analyses. Just after harvest, the whole

plants or dissected organs were blotted dry and weighed carefully for fresh weight determination, then dried in a hot-air oven at 70oC until a constant weight to obtain dry weight. For biochemical analyses, the second leaves were harvested and used either immediately for extractions or were stored at -20°C until analysis. Each experiment was repeated twice, with a total of 20 plants in each case. Determination of carbohydrates constituents and protein content This was done by alcoholic extraction method. Reducing sugars were analyzed according to Irigoyen et al.,(1992), Three ml of the modified Nelson’s reagent were added to 5 ml of the sugar extract. The whole was mixed thoroughly in a boiling tube immersed in a vigorously boiling water bath for 15 min. The tubes were then cooled rapidly. Three ml of arsenomolybdate reagent were run into each tube with gentle shaking till effervescence stopped. The colored solution was diluted to known volume and then measured at 700 nm using spectrophotometer (JENWAY, 6305, UK). Protein fractions were determined according to the method described by Breadford (1976) in which 5 ml of the protein reagent* were added to 0.1 ml of the extract and the contents mixed by vor texing. The absorbance was measured at 595 nm during one hour. The concentration of protein was calculated from a previously constructed standard curve using bovine serum albumin (Fluka, analytical grade). Pigments analyses The photosynthetic pigments chlorophyll a, b (Chl. a, Chl. b) and carotenoids (Carot.) were determined following N, N-dimethyl formamide (DMF) method described by Inskeep and Bloom (1985). A known weight of the dissected plant leaves (50 mg) were incubated in 10 ml of DMF reagent and kept in dark at 4ºC for 24 hours. The extract-containing pigments was decanted and the absorbance was measured at three wavelengths 647, 665 and 470 nm using spectrophotometer (JENWAY, 6305, UK) Formula and extinction coefficients used for determination of photosynthetic pigments were: Chl. a = 12.70 A 665 – 2.79 A647 Chl. b = 20.70 A 647 – 4.62 A665 Carotenoids = 4.2 A 453 – (0.0264 Chl. a + 0.426 Chl. b )

MURIEFAH et al., Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(1), 87-95 (2014) *One hundred mg of Coomassie Brilliant Blue G250 was dissolved in 95% ethanol. Then 100 ml 85% (w/v) phosphoric acid was added . The resulting solution was diluted to a final volume of one liter and filtered Determination of lipid peroxidation Malondialdehyde, (MDA) content was assayed as indicators of the extent of lipid peroxidation in leaf tissue by the method of Hodgson and Raison (1991). MDA concentration was calculated using a molar extinction coefficient of 155 mM-1cm-1. Determination of hydrogen peroxide The level of H 2 O 2 was measured colorimetrically as described by Jana and Choudhuri (1982). H2O2 level was calculated using the extinction coefficient 0.28Âľmol -1cm-1. Extraction of antioxidant enzyme and activity determination Fresh maize leaves ( ď&#x201A;ť 0.5g fresh material) were ground to a fine powder in liquid nitrogen. Frozen powder were transfer into 10 ml of ice-cold extraction buffer containing 100 mM KH 2PO 4/ K 2HPO 4, pH 7.8, 5 mM ascorbate, 400mg of insoluble polyvinylpolypyrro- lidone (PVP), and 2 % Triton X-100 (Schwanz et al.,1996), mixed for 1 min, and incubated on ice for 30 min. According to Asada (1997), the elution buffer for APX contained additionally 1 mM ascorbic acid in order to keep APX enzyme in the active state. The purified extracts were used immediately for the determination of super oxidedismutase, SOD; catalase, CAT and ascorbic peroxidase, APX activities. Enzymes assay Enzymatic assays were performed at 25 o C. All solutions used for analytical and enzymatic investigations were prepared with double-ionized water.

APX (EC 1.11.1.11) activity was assayed according to Asada (1997). One unit of APX was the amount of enzyme that oxidized 1mmol of ascorbate per min at room temperature. CAT (EC 1.11.1.6) activity was assayed by monitoring the decomposition of H 2 O 2 spectrophotometrically at 240 nm (Luck 1965). One unit of enzyme activity is equal to 1 mmol of H2O2 decomposed per min. RESULTS Effect of drought stress on the carbohydrate and protein content A study of the changes in the carbohydrate fractions in leaves of maize plant subjected to drought stress shows that these fractions have different patterns. For example, the total carbohydrate content under drought stress was dropped from initial values of 218.2 at the beginning of treatment to 166 mg g -1 DW at the end of experiment (Fig 1). The corresponding values for the well-watered plants were 218.2 and 210 mg g1 DW respectively. Whereas, the total soluble sugars content was consistently higher in the leaves of water-stressed plant amounted to 140.5 mg g-1 DW at the end of experiment compared to 89.6 mg in control (Fig 1). Non-reducing sugars were generally remained substantially higher than reducing sugars but significantly far more non-reducing sugars were accumulated relative to the control at the end of experiment (Fig1)

Table 1: Changes in chlorophyll a and b, total chlorophyll content, total carotenoids and chlorophyll a/b ratio in leaves of maize plant grown under drought stress for 8 days. Values were expressed as the percent of increase or reduction relative to the control Time Chl.a

SOD (EC 1.15.1.1) activity was measured according to the method of Stewart and Bewely (1980). One unit of SOD activity was the amount of enzyme activity that caused 50 % inhibition of the initial rate of the reaction in the absence of enzyme.

Chl.b Total chl. Car.

(days) 0 2 4 8

Chl a/b

% 100 81 70 55

100 86 85 72

100 97 90 79.3

100 96 94 84.8

100 92 84.5 72

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The leaves of water-stressed plant contained significantly lower amount of starch 26.9 mg g-1 DW, at the end of experiment, compared to121.1mg g-1 DW in those of well-water plants (Fig1). Furthermore, the results shown in Fig.2 indicate clearly that drought stress had a pronounced effect on the total soluble proteins content in leaves of maize plants. Thus, when leaves were subjected to water stress, protein content

declined rapidly as compared to the control (Fig.2). At the end of exposure time, the total soluble protein in leaves of water stressed plant was 76.8 mg g-1 dwt compared to 206.5 mg in control. Chlorophylls and Carotenoid Contents In maize leaves drought stress caused a general decrease in the pigment contents, including chlorophyll a, b, and Î˛-carotene. This pattern of change was not evident in control, in which all pigments did not change statistically (data

Fig. 1: Effect of drought stress on carbohydrates constituent in leaves of Zea maize plant.Value are means ÂąSE (n=5)

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Fig. 2: Effect of drought stress on protein in leaves of Zea maize plant. Values are means ±SE. (n=5)

Fig. 3: Effect of drought stress on hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) and lipid peroxidation (MDA) contents in leaves of Zea maize plant. Values are means ±SE. (n=5) not shown). The content of chlorophyll a, b and carotenes in maize leaves under drought stress particularly at the end of experiment, were decreased by about 45 and 28 and 15.2 % of control respectively. As a consequence, the Chl a/b ratio was decreased significantly under drought stress (Table 1).

Fig. 4: Effect of drought stress on antioxidant enzymes activities in leaves of Zea maize plant. Values are means ±SE. (n=5)

Hydrogen peroxide content (H2O2) Hydrogen peroxide has a negative effect on various biochemical processes inside the plant cell. According to our results, the level of H2O2 did not change significantly in control plants, during the experimental period (Fig.3A). In contrast, drought stress caused a significant increase in the generation H2O2 during the drought stress period. After 8 days of treatment, the production of H2O2 reached the maximum values, amounted to 46%, compared with control. Despite the accumulation of H2O2 during the exposure time of water stress, did not result immediately in cell death.

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Lipid peroxidation of plasma membrane One of the described damages provoked by water-stress is the membrane injury. This is a consequence of an oxidative burst leading to lipid peroxidation. Peroxidation can be measured by quantifying the amount of malondialdehyde, (MDA). As shown in Figure 3B, the MDA production was increased significantly with leaf ageing and was enhanced by water stress. For convenience, at the end of exposure period, control leaves produced only 7.99 ĂŹmol MDA g-1 FW., whereas drought stress greatly increased MDA, reaching 15.9 ĂŹmol MDA g1 FW. Effects of drought stress on antioxidant enzymes The effects of drought stress on the activities of several important antioxidant enzymes such as SOD, CAT, and APX, in maize leaves, were investigated and the results are shown in Fig 4. The results clearly demonstrate that drought stress led to a significant enhancement in the activities of SOD, CAT and APX (Fig.4A, B and C) within 4 days of treatment reached almost the maximum values amounted to 123 %, 21%, and 67 %, respectively, relative to the control whereas the initial activities were maintained at control levels. However, after 4 days of drought stress treatment, the activities of these antioxidant enzymes had a tendency to decrease. No significant changes in the activities of these enzymes in control were observed during experimental period. The positive response of SOD, CAT, and APX activities were, however, maintained over the whole stress treatment. DISCUSSION The significance increase in the carbohydrate content seems to be involved in osmotic adjustment. Total soluble sugars concentrations in the leaf blade after 2 days of drought stress increased by 13 % relative to the control plants. As the stress progressed, the increment in total soluble sugars was more evident (Fig.1). Although, non-reducing soluble sugar concentration still remained higher, that of reducing sugars had dropped. Wardlaw and Willenbrink (1994) have reported that the changes in leaf blade reducing sugars are paralleled by the changes in

invertase activity also sucrose synthase activity continuously increasing in the blade with drought stress severity that is consistent with findings results obtained by Tabaeizadeh (1998) which described the correlation between the increase in enzyme activity with drought stress, as well as, non reducing sugars accumulation. When withholding water, the first signs of stress in maize involved pronounced changes in sugar metabolism. According to our results, the observed variation in the soluble sugars concentrations may be the result of growth being more inhibited by drought stress than photosynthesis, as well as an increased partitioning of fixed carbon to sucrose, as shown for wild species under drought stress (Quick et al.,1992). This accumulation of soluble sugars may be related to osmoregulation and desiccation tolerance (Hare et al., 1998) contributing to plant survival. The large alterations observed in maize sugar metabolism preceded the drastic decrease of soluble leaf protein. These proteins are typically related to stress responses, such as freezing, osmotic and salt stress and pathogen attack (Chen et al., 1994, Yun et al., 1996, , Tabaeizadeh 1998 and Trudel et al., 1998). Thus the water response of maize seems to have characteristics in common to other adverse conditions in agreement with suggestions made for other species (Tabaeizadeh 1998). Chlorophyll, carotenoid and photosynthetic rate Drought stress induced changes in the photosynthetic apparatus and the membrane permeability properties of chloroplasts. This fact may be the result of chlorophyll degradation and/or synthesis deficiency together with a decrease of thylakoid membrane integrity (Tabaeizadeh 1998). In the present study, the decline in the chlorophyll content under drought stress may be explained by the earlier structural loss of the chloroplast stroma lamellae, containing photosystem I and most of the chlorophyll a, (Loggini et al.1999). Photoinhibition and photodestruction of pigments may contribute to such changes (Dean et al., 1993). Furthermore, drought stress decreased the capacity to preserve the photosynthetic apparatus. However, it was found in our study that the effect of drought stress is

MURIEFAH et al., Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(1), 87-95 (2014) likely to follow similar processes to those observed during senescence, severely affected these parameters, therefore the drastic effect by drought stress at chloroplast level may be expected (Tabaeizadeh 1998). Also, the inhibition was probably connected with the increase in the rate of chlorophyll degradation (Garty et al., 1992) through the effect of drought stress on the chlorophyll binding protein, leading to the destruction of chlorophyll that may contribute to such changes(Abdel Nasser 2000). Also, the decrease in the chlorophyll content may also be a phytotoxic consequence of lipid peroxidation and is associated with a decrease in photochemical efficiency. Moreover, the ratio of chlorophyll a/b was more sensitive to the drought stress treatment, showing that Chl a was more susceptible to water stress, being degraded at a higher rate than Chl b. This can be explained by the fact that part of the decrease in chlorophyll a could be accounted by conversion to chlorophyll b by the oxidation of the methyl group on ring II to the aldehyde (Fang et al., 1998). In this connection Ciscato et al.(1997) have reported that the reduction in the Chl a/b ratio in maize plant might be due to a direct effect of drought stress on the light harvesting complex of photosystem II (LHC II). Typically, decreases in chlorophyll a/b ratio are observed during senescence (Dean et al., 1993), suggesting that drought stress treatment induced a lower rate of synthesis and accumulation of chlorophyll a. Lipid peroxidation of plasma membrane and H2O2 content Lipid peroxidation has been shown to be one cause of membrane deterioration and disassembly during senescence and is associated with most membrane disorders of plants (Marengoni et al., 1996 a and b). Drought stress was accompanied by increases in the contents of malondialdehyde (MDA) indicating lipid peroxidation and oxidative stress. Drought stress like other environmental stresses can generate the production of a powerful oxidation, which brings about lipid peroxidation, suggesting that fatty acids in thylakoid membrane were targets for drought stress damage. This could be achieved through the activation of toxic O2 molecules that can then attack fatty acids chains resulted in an increase of the membrane damage with a corresponding increase

in the formation of MDA in maize leaf. Accordingly, drought stress-induced effect could reflect some modifications of the plasma membrane structure such as the changes in the physical properties of the membrane which reflect the changes in its chemical composition as a result of alteration in metabolic processes (Navari-Izzo et al., 1996). Furthermore, in the present study, there is an accumulation of H2O2 (Fig. 4A), which acts as a redox signal molecule in plants exposed to drought stress (Mehdy 1994). It has been suggested that H2O2 functions as a second messenger in plant cells exposed to environmental stresses such as heat (Dat et al.,1998), and pathogens (Levine et al.,1994). Although, H 2O 2 inhibits chloroplast sulfhydrylcontaining enzymes by readily oxidizing their sulfhydryl groups, it induces an orchestrated sequence of reactions involving the activation of peroxidases. Therefore, it is important for plant cells to keep the levels of H2O2 low or to scavenge it efficiently. Antioxidative defense mechanism Reactive oxygen species produced under various abiotic stresses are extremely damaging to lipids, proteins, and pigments unless they are rapidly scavenged by antioxidant enzymes such as SOD, CAT and APX (Asada et al., 1998) to maintain the concentration of any active oxygen species formed at relatively low level. Shalata and Tal (1998) suggested that, the resistance of plants toward environmental stress may depend on the inhibition of ROS production or the enhancement of antioxidant levels. Also, the higher tolerance of some genotypes to environmental stresses has been associated with higher activities of antioxidant enzymes. It is possible that the observed changes in the antioxidant systems occurred as a result of unspecific cellular degradation processes. However, another possibility is that drought stress triggers common defense pathways in plant cells like other biotic or abiotic environmental stresses. In fact, electron spin resonance studies have shown that water-stressed plants displayed elevated concentrations and production rates of superoxide radicals (Price and Hendry 1991). In maize plants, there were already symptoms of oxidative stress, such as an increase in the total activity of SOD under drought stress and

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retained most of their antioxidant capacity, which may explain why oxidative damage in control plants was incipient compared with stressed plants. The present investigation showed that the increase in APX activity induced by drought stress and remained at a higher level compared to the control suggesting that the increase in the activity of this enzyme can be ascribed at least in part to substrate accumulation. Therefore, the increased APX activity could be the protection against oxidative damage (Tabaeizadeh, 1998). An additional function of the increase in APX activity under drought stress could

be related to changes in the cell wall properties, potentially important for the stem in order to cope with the stress. Since drought stress causes the formation of reactive oxygen species. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT The authors extend their appreciation to the Deanship of Scientific Research at King Saud University for funding this work through research group no RGP-VPP 297.

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Abdel Nasser, L. E. Growth, photosynthetic activity and antioxidant efficiency responses to copper treatment in soybean (Glycine max L.) leaves. J. Union Arab Biol., 7: 103-120 (2000). Asada, K. The role of ascorbate peroxidase and monodehydroascorbate reductase in H2O2 scavenging in plants. In JG Scandalios, ed, Oxidative Stress and the Molecular Biology of Antioxidant Defenses. Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, Cold Spring Harbor, NY, pp 715-735 (1997). Asada, K., Endo, T., Mano, J. and Miyake C. Molecular mechanism for relaxation of and protection from light stress. In K. Sato, N. Murata,eds, Stress Responses of Photosynthetic Organisms. Elsevier Science Publishing, Amsterdam, pp 37-52 (1998). Chen, R. D., Yu, L. X., Greer, A. F., Cheriti H. and Tabaeizadeh Z. Isolation of an osmotic stress- and abscisic acid-induced gene encoding an acidic endochitinase from Lycopersicon chilensis. Mol. Genes and Genetics, 245: 195–202 (1994). Ciscato, M., Valcke R., Van Loven K., Clijsters H., and Navari-Izzo F. Effect of in vivo copper treatment on the photosynthetic apparatus of two Triticum durum cultivars with different stress sensitivity. Physiol. Plant., 100: 901908 (1997). Dat, J., Vandenabeele, S., Vranova, E., Van Montagu, M., Inzé, D., and Van Breusegem, F.. Dual action of the active oxygen species during plant stress responses. Cell Mol Life Sci., 57: 779-795 (2000).

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Current World Environment

Vol. 9(1), 96-104 (2014)

Bacteriological Indicators on the Environment and in Human Health RUVALCABA LEDEZMA JESÚS CARLOS1*, ROSAS PÉREZ IRMA2, PERTUZ BELLOSO SILVANA BEATRIZ1, INTERÍAN GÓMEZ LETICIA3 and RAYGOZA ANAYA MIGUEL4 1

*Research Professor (ICSA-UAEH) Institute of Health Sciences, University of the State of Hidalgo. 2 Research Professor at the Institute of Atmosphere Studies(UNAM) National Autonomous University of Mexico. 3 Professor and Laboratory Technician, (U de G)University of Guadalajara, Jalisco. Mexico. 4 Research Professor, Institute of Public Health (U de G)University of Guadalajara, Jalisco. http://dx.doi.org/10.12944/CWE.9.1.14 (Received: February 15, 2014; Accepted: March 05, 2014) ABSTRACT Mexico has public health problems due to its inadequate systems for sewage treatment, sanitation means and low income and economic levels, which influence the increase of disease manifestation. Determine seasonal variations, frequency and distribution of enterobacteriaairborne aerosols incoming from “San Juan de Dios” River. It is worth mentioning that, these bacteria possess antimicrobial and heavy metals resistance, such as to Pb, Cr, and Cd, and their hemolytic profile. Therefore, an ecological study was conducted during the seasons of summer and autumn. 822 enterobacteria strains were collected, from which 723 were identified under 18 genres and 40 species, from which 63.90% corresponding to summer and 36.09% to the autumn season. As a critical sampling, point number 2 showed to have 265 colony forming units during summer and 124 during autumn. 48 strains had beta-hemolytic profile; the 68.57% of identified strains showed resistance to more than two antibiotics in reference of Pb, Cd and Cr to which also showed resistance. Enter bacteriological recoverability shows values above 1x103 Gram negative/m3 of air, as risk factors for human health; which allows (due to their characteristics) their implementation as useful indicators of risk exposure.

Key words: Aerosols, Enterobacteria, Resistance, Antimicrobials, Heavy metals, Risk indicators, Environmental and wastewater.

INTRODUCTION In Mexico, water pollution (as a public health problem) is derived from the irregular and deficient sewage system that most of the times affect low-income people, and low social and economic classes; this influences the development of health problems such as diarrhea diseases1, specialty among children who are under five years old2-6 that is one factor that determines death in this country 1,2,3, 4. In Mexico, one etiological agent corresponds to rota virus (80%), and bacterial agents such as Escherichia Coli, Campylobacter

Jejuni, Salmonella sp. y Shigela sp5, 6,7. However, Escherichia Coli is the most important etiological agent that is associated to wastewater contamination. This bacteria has been categorized into six serotypes ECET, EPEC, EIEC, EHEC, EAGGEC AND DAEC2,8, 9, 10. They have been related to break out enteric diseases, such as cholera or typhoid1. Wastewater has been considered as a reservoir to a great variety of microorganisms that are resistant to antibiotics and heavy metals, and b-hemolytic microorganisms are associated to virulence, between another factors such as more adherence, toxin production and invasion11, Studies

CARLOS et al., Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(1), 96-104 (2014) on sewage have shown that strain gram negative were resistant to cooper (76 %), mercury (50%) , chrome (13%), lead (22%)12. Therefore, resistant strain to antibiotic such as Salmonella tiphymurimun and Escherichia coli had been detected from environmental and clinical samples of waste water11, 13, we know that bacterial resistance to antibiotic can be exchanged by the conjugation of more bacteria coming from the environment11. Therefore, Louis Pasteur found the microbial contamination of air11. Today, we know that both microorganisms are accidental pollutants of air, and that air is not a habitat for microorganisms, however, this dispersed pathogenic bacteria. In the air, virulent bacteria is able to synthesize compatible solutes that support the resistance to osmotic stress from environmental increasing virulence, thus both the atmosphere inside operating rooms and pharmaceutical laboratories should to be cleaning avoiding post-surgical infections. We know that 1x103bacillus/m3 from air of restricted are as depict human health damage because they can be more virulent by synthesizing many proteins that allow surviving at hostile conditions with the modifications of metabolism and shape until better environmental conditions occur 14-16. These conditions can be associated with both hospital and environmental clanship. However in the hospital some strains, which show antibiotic resistance, have been detected even after the cleaning, being those E. coli, Pseudomona Aeruginosa and Enterococcus, even had been isolated Î˛ lactamase K. pneumonia22 The air also transports many microorganisms such as saprophytes and products of aerosolization, flagella fragments, genetic material, metabolites, volatile organic compounds, endotoxins and micotoxins. The air also contain edbio aerosols with particles between 0.5-30 micrometers of diameter. The concentration of microorganisms in bio aerosols depended on their dispensation and the deposition of particles. These conditions are associated to size, density, moisture and temperature. In this case, high environmental moisture or extreme conditions occasioned the growth of many micro organims such as fungi, bacteria, virus, and amoeba cysts provoking damage on human health due in part to inhalation, ingestion and the contact to the skin. Therefore, the human inhaled about 10 m 3 of air by day, and they

are can be allowed particles of 1 a 2 micrometers inside of breath provoking severe infections, asthma, pneumonia, and the others diseases that are associated to aerosols exposition17, 18. Many investigations have shown that bacteria concentration of 1 x 10 Gram negative bac/ M 3 from environmental induced mucosal inflammatory response, such concentration is equivalent to the exposition of the 0.1mg/M3 of enterotoxin (26, 27, 28, 29,34). In the experimental conditions one bacteria colony can grow on tryticase-soy agar in a period of 15 minutes after being exposed, which means exposure to 38 bacteria colony/m3 as estimated for enterotoxin/m from air. This study had the fundamental objective of diagnosing the biodiversity of enterobacteria found on air and sewage water by using hemolytic, antibiotic resistance and heavy metals resistance tests to predict both biological and chemical contamination and environmental and human health risk bio indicators. 36 samples from air and wastewater were employed for this research. The aim was taking samples of biology particles from air. These conditions can depend on the biological and physical characteristics while the sample equipment on quantitative monitoring of bio aerosols such as their impact, broth media and filtration, gravity on opening agar dish, Andersen sampler, and filtration on the broth; and other tests such as microscoy, biochemistry, immunoassays and PCR16. In Guadalajara City from Jalisco State, Mexico 14 wastewater tracks have a dual design, which means that they are closed at some point but are kept opened in most of the cases. The most important waste water track is known as San Juan de Dios. This waste water track has suffered changes and transformation show ever its waste water hasnâ&#x20AC;&#x2DC;t received the proper treatment yet. In this point, aerosols samples were taken in order to determinate enterobacteria. What species of enterobacteria are found in the aerosols of San Juan de Dios River from Guadalajara, Jalisco State? Why this problem is still unsolved? and what is the hemolytic profile of microorganisms that show resistance to antibiotics and heavy metals such as

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Pb, Cd, Cr that cause damage on the human health of people who of downtown near of wastewater track MATERIALS AND METHODS Study design An ecological study was conducted in order to investigate air quality in terms of enterobactereological biodiversity and in reference to the hemolytic profile of such microorganisms as well as their antimicrobial resistance to heavy metals such as Pb, Cd and Cr. Sample side This study aims to diagnose the quality of air in terms of its entero-bacterial biodiversity, antimicrobial and heavy metals resistance as well as their hemolytic level. It was also important to know the people’s point of view about contamination of San Juan de Dios wastewater track located at the North of Guadalajara City, Mexico. The samples were taken near the downtown of Villas de San Juan at the peripheral road and a total six samples at the month by duplicating three points along the topography of the place. The point 1. Located near San Juan neighborhood. This place is opened up to Rancho Nuevo neighborhood and Santa Elena de la Cruz, El Paso without turbulence of forming water reservoirs. The point 2. Located near both Rancho Nuevo and San Juan. This place was characterized by the secondary joint cannel “Canal de San Juan” with the inclination of a waterfall that provokes both turbulence and aerosols. The point 3. Located near San Juan Neighborhood to the borderline with less turbulence than in the second point. The samples were taken during summer and autumn every Monday at the same time and at three different points on the Trypti case Soy agar by 15 minutes. The samples and controls were moved to The Microbial Ecology Laboratory and they were incubated at 37°C during 24 hours. Then, the bacterial growth was quantified using to Colony forming plaques. This colony was isolated on a plaque as follow. 1. The colony delimited was isolated to avoid contamination. 2. The colony with Gram negative bacilli, and the carbohydrates fermentative was selected. 3. The strain of enterobacterial resistance to

both antibiotic and Pb, Cm, Cr heavy metals with the hemolytic profile was selected by high impact at the human health. Identification of Enterobacterial Strain The enterobacterial strain was cataloged using biochemistry smples on the Lisine and Iron agar, Simons Citrate, Ornitine Indolmovility, Mannitol, Urea agar, Sucrose, and MR-Vp following Bergey´s Manual Determinative Bacteriology-9 a, and the Gamelaya software developing to the Epidemiology and Cybernetic Laboratory of Gamelaya Institute from Russian Academic of Medical Sciences of Moscu. Hemolysis tests The bacteria hemolysis was evaluated by using blood on agar following standard methods, and being incubated on the template for 14 strains by sterile conditions during 24 hours at the 37°C. The clear zone around colony was considered as positive test for hemolysis11. Resistance to Antibiotic test The bacteria was incubated on the MullerHilton agar (pH 7.4) at 4 °C using sterile swabs keep out 3 min and then put on disc and the plaque were incubated at 37°C during 18 hours. They culture with the resistance presented clear zone around colony. The resistance to antibiotic was cataloged as high, intermediate, and sensitive. Resistance to Heavy metals test Each metal was diluted by part/millions of Pb, Cd, Cr, and the concentration used to Pb was 207 ppm, 2. 20.7 ppm, 2.7 ppm, 0.207 ppm, 0.027 ppm, 2.7 x10-3 ppm, 2.07x10-4 ppm, 2.07x10-5 ppm, 2.07-6 ppm, 2.07x10-7 on the tryticase soy broth. Each concentration was incubated with the 100 ìm of bacteria culture. Alike, the concentration used to Cd was 12 ppm, 11.2ppm, 1.12ppm, 0.112ppm, 1.12x10-3ppm, 1.12x10-4ppm, 1.12x10-5ppm, 1.12x10-6ppm, 1.12x10-7ppm on the tryticase soy broth. Each concentration was incubated with the 100 ìm of bacteria culture during 24 hours at 37°C. Alike, the concentration used to Cr was 104ppm, 10.4ppm, 1.04ppm, 0.0104ppm, 1.04x10-3ppm, 1.04x10-5 ppm, 1.04x10-7 ppm, 0.104ppm, 1.04x10-4ppm, 1.04x10-6 ppm on the tryticase soy broth. Each concentration was

CARLOS et al., Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(1), 96-104 (2014) incubated with the 100 ìm of bacteria culture during 24 hours at 37°C. RESULTS Ours results showed significative different between Colony Forming Unit and the sampling place (p=0.010075), according to Kruskal Wallins Test. We also found significative different between Enterobacteria group and the sampling place (p=0.034885), with the break point in the sampling place no. 2 during summer than autumn without meaningful different (p=0.096408). However, the number of Colony Forming Unit presented increased at the summer (Table 1). The sampling point no. 1 was selected with 89 Colony Forming Unit of Enterobacteria, and a mean of the 15 Colony Forming Unit of Enterobacteria at summer and a mean of the 125 Colony Forming Unit of Enterobacteria. In the sampling point no. 2 presented a break point with the 265 Colony Forming Unit of Enterobacteria and the mean of 44 Colony Forming Unit of Enterobacteria at the summer. At the autumn, the Colony Forming Unit of Enterobacteria was 21 and the point 3 was detected 116 Colony Forming Unit of Enterobacteria with the mean 19 Colony Forming Unit of Enterobacteria at summer and Colony Forming Unit of Enterobacteria was 103 with mean of 17 at the autumn (Figure 1). We identified 723 strain of enterobacteria with a mean 462 Colony Forming Unit of Enterobacteria at the summer and a mean of 261 Colony Forming Unit of Enterobacteria at the autumn belong 18 genres and 40 species (Table 1). They had beta hemolytic proprieties with 48 strains belong 13 genrs and 20 species both

seasonal summer with the 39 and 9 autumn (Table 2). They had resistance to antibiotic with 24 strains resistance to antibiotic (68,57%) according to antibiogram test conducted on 35 strains. Theses enterobacterial had different spectrum of resistance to antibiotic, thus one strain was resistance to two antibiotics (2.85%), and three strains were resistance to one antibiotic (8.57%). Salmonella I strain was resistance to 12 antibiotics. Some strains showed sensitiveness to 12 antibiotics (20.0%), (Table 3). The strains isolated showed resistance to Nitro furantoine (71.0%), Pefloxacine (60.0%), Amikacine (48.5%), Cloranfenicol (42.8%), Carbeniciline (40.0%), Ampicilin (37.1%), Cefotaxima (25.7%), Netilmicine (25.7%), y Trimetoprim-Sulfametoxazol (8.5%), (Figure 2). The strains resistance to antibiotics were Enterobacter cloacae, Edwarsiellaictaluri, Samonellaparatyphi and serotype I Salmonella, and Rahnellaacuatilis was resistance to pefloxacine. The resistance to heavy metals as Pb, Cd and Cr was identified on 32 strains. A 9.3 % of strains were resistance to Pb, they were growth to 207 ppm concentration of heavy metal, and another bacteria growth to 20.7 ppm of metal (90.6%). 15.6% of strains were resistance to Cd and they were growth to 112ppm concentration of metal, and 21 strains growth to 11.2 ppm concentration of metal (65.6%). The resistance to heavy metals were also minor to some strains, thus they were growth to 0.0112 ppm of heavy metals concentration (3.12 ppm), and another bacteria growth minor concentration of heavy metals (6.25%), and three

Table 1: Frequency and average CFU of microorganisms detected per sampling point Stations of theyear

Sampling point 1

Sampling Point 2

Sampling point 3

Summer

675 CFU µ=113 CFU 448 CFU µ=75 CFU p=0.010075

3892 CFU µ=648 CFU 1574 CFU µ=262 CFU p=>0.05 Point 2 . resulted the most critical

679 CFU µ=113 CFU 623 CFU µ=262 CFU By station no meaningful difference was detected p=0.096408

Fall Hypothesis test Kruskal Wallis

Source: Direct Aerosol Samplingsewage canal Rio San Juan de Dios, Guadalajara Jalisco, Mexico

100

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strains (9.3%) could not grow in the concentration of heavy metals, and they were cataloged as sensitive to them 28 strains were resistance to Cr and they were growth to 10.4 ppm (87.5%) of concentration of heavy metal, or they were growth to 1.04 ppm (3.12%) , and some bacteria were not resistance to heavy metal (Table 4). DISCUSSIÓN Seasonal variation, regarding the microbial concentration in the environment is Table 2: Frequency and percentege of Enterobacteriaceae detected and identified by biochemical tests Station of summer Station of fall total

462 261 723

64 36 100

Source: Direct Aerosol Samplingsewage of the “San Juan de Dios” River, Guadalajara Jalisco, Mexico

determined by the own factors of each of the seasons. In this way, we could make reference to global climate changes expressed though the modification of the average temperature as well as the force and orientation of winds, as well as the growth and development of typical endemic plants14. Bacterial findings collected through air sampling and study were directly associated to the aerosols which are generated from sewage water, whose sanitarian design also influences in a meaningful way, due to the particularities that the cannel represents, there are sectors that are irregular in their topography. These differences in their construction are more prominent particularly in sampling point 2, which has a cascading decline and the binding of a secondary channel for the same; this is where they had the highest number of microorganisms which significantly exceeds 1x103 bacilli Gram negative/M3 that determines the start of the presentation of adverse effects to human health. Moreover, at points 2 during the summer and autumn, this limit was exceeded but to a lesser extent in a seasonal way.

Table 3: Antimicrobial resistance of 35 strains to which they applied the antibiogram Strains Resistant to more than two antimicrobial Withtwoantimicrobialresistance Withresistance to antibiotics Note: these Salmonella strains resistant to 12 antibiotics Withsensitivity to 12 antibiotics

Frequency

Percentage

24 1 3 1 7

68.57 2.85 8.57 2.85 20

Source: Direct Aerosol Samplingsewage of the “San Juan de Dios” River, Guadalajara Jalisco, Mexico

Fig. 1: Enterobacterial and average frequency detected per sampling point

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CARLOS et al., Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(1), 96-104 (2014) It is worth mentioning that, during summer much more enterobacteria were identified, whose biodiversity is an important advantage for practical use, and that can be used as biological indicators of environmental pollution because, by the nature of their habitat in the human gut, or other animals, as well as the respiratory tract, represent in person the continuing cyclical interaction in the health and environment management of their own waste products that are generated from the corresponding physiological actions, but which, however, impact the stability as the current sewage waters which have become the old “San Juan de Dios “ River, as a natural reservoir whose cause, partially covered, passes through densely populated areas of the city of Guadalajara Jalisco Mexico (Table 1).

Moreover, one of the most highlighted of the present research is the findings about bacteria such as Rahnella Acuatillis whose particular niche is water. However, those bacteria were isolated from aerosols generated by wastewater and which as part of their phenotypic profile, their synthetic capacity of enzymes beta-hemolytic is highlighted, as well as its edema of high resistance to heavy metals like Pb to 207ppm, Cd to 112 ppm, Cr to 104 ppm and their resistance to PEF, besides the presence of Escherichia Blattae whose normal niche constitutes the intestinal track of cockroaches and in whose strain beta hemolytic capacity was found, besides the presence of Salmonella biotype 1 with an hemolytic profile and a multiple resistance to 12 antimicrobial.

Table 4: FCU Heavy metal resistant ppm Pb, Cd and Cr Frequency of strains 23 3 21 5 3 2 1 28 1 3

Tubo

Pb/ppm

2 1 2 1 0 4 5 2 3 0

20.7 207

90.6 9.3

Cd/ppm

11.2 112 sensitive 0.112 0.0112

65.6 15.6 9.3 6.25 3.12

Cr/ppm

10.4 1.04 sensitive

87.5 3.12 9.3

Source: Direct Aerosol Samplingsewage of the “San Juan de Dios” River, Guadalajara Jalisco, Mexico

Source: Direct Aerosol Sampling sewage of the “San Juan de Dios” River, Guadalajara Jalisco, MexicoNote: Among the multiresistant strains were found Entrobacter cloacae, Edwarsiellaictaluri, Salmonella paratyphi and Salmonella biotype I, resulted Rahnellaacuatilispefloxacin resistant.

Fig. 2: Antimicrobials the studied strains showed higher resistance antibiogram.

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CARLOS et al., Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(1), 96-104 (2014)

Finally the ecological-environmental meaningful findings of multiple airborne bacterial species that presents high resistance to heavy metals is also meaningful because apart from their presence in the air is considered as biological indicators of environmental pollution. At the same time, they also acquire additional usage value in order to function as bioindicators of chemical pollution. This, under the dynamic interaction that is maintained in its environment, under extreme conditions, as are the industrial wastes that contain metallic residues which stimulate the environmental typical micro flora that acquires high resistance levels towards the same as part of a natural response to their adaptation and ulterior survival in the aerosols generated from the waste water and which allow to regulate their own virulence factors (21,22,23), having an impact on the manifestation of health risks of inhabitants who live nearby these type of environments. The speech employed by the interviewees reflects for instance, the meaning of pollution associated with environmental conditions present in their community, which indicates that one must pay attention to this type of problems that show the causes of the problems to a public health level in which it is necessary to work focusing on sanitization problems from an environmental methodology, trying to find the control or elimination of risks associated to environmental conditions, which if we remember have an impact on the virulence of bacteria as well as on human health22. The Evolution of Yersinia pestis of speciation from an environmental, non-pathogenic ancestor is a good example of the evolution steps that are involved in the emergence of bacterial pathogens. This process began with the acquisition of the plasmid pCD1 by environmental Yersinia.This process is fully explained Wren (2003), Keim and Wagner (2009)23 hence the importance of living in a healthy environment, not laden bioaerosols contaminated with Enterobacteriaceae. The air transport of virulent microbiological agents, as well as the density of antibiotics and

resistant bacteria may enhance the adverse effects on public health and environmental surroundings, hence the importance of considering the implementation of inter hospital epidemiology And at the community level by exposure of virulent organisms, as they impact on human health in the family economy and health care. CONCLUSIONS 1.

It is feasible to recover enteric microorganisms in aerosols generated from sewage, through the methodology employed in this study. During the summer season, a high quantity and biodiversity of enteric strains was identified, particularly at the second sampling point. The estimated concentration was higher than 1x103/M3, besides classical strains and the virulence factors identified, which suggests there is a social-ecological relationship with the inhabitants of neighboring communities to sewage waters. There is a relationship between the â&#x20AC;&#x153;topographicâ&#x20AC;? design sewage and the amount of airborne Enterobacteria. The presence and characteristics of resistance to antibiotics and heavy metals in some enterobacteria strains allows us to propose them as bio-indicators of environmental, microbiological, chemical pollution and as indicators of risk to human health. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors of the present research article would like to acknowledge and truly thank the collaboration of Yesenia Elizabeth Ruvalcaba CobiĂĄn who has a B.A in Teaching English as a Foreign Language, for her contributions on the revision and translation of the article; situation which allows the possibility to increase the transferring and modification of scientific knowledge. The authors declare that no conflict of interests for the publication of this research paper.

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