Current World Environment
Volume 9, Number 2, (2014)
CURRENT WORLD ENVIRONMENT AN INTERNATIONAL RESEARCH JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE
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Current World Environment (ISSN: 0973-4929, Online ISSN: 2320-8031) published tri-annual in April, August and December by Enviro Research Publishers. The Journal aims to foster high quality research. We are abstracted in the leading databases of the world. We accept for publication manuscripts that were not published earlier (except as abstract). The articles should not be simultaneously under consideration for publication elsewhere. The Editorial Board shall scrutinize each article submitted to the journal and shall submit it to peer review. We would like to invite you to contribute papers for consideration and publication in the current and forthcoming issues of Current World Environment. Please submit your manuscript Via e-mail (preferred) to: Editor Nilofar Iqbal Current World Environment 14, Green House, Prince Colony, Shahjahanabad, Bhopal-462 001, Madhya Pradesh, India Email: info[at]cwejournal[dot]org
Current World Environment PAPERS
Volume 9, Number 2, (2014) CONTENTS
PAGE No.
B. H. ALHARBI, M. J. PASHA and N. TAPPER Assessment of Ambient Air Quality in Riyadh City, Saudi Arabia
227-236
NOOR KHAFAZILAH ABDULLAH, ZAINI SAKAWI and LUKMAN ISMAIL
237-243
The Perception of the Langkawi Community on Solid Waste Management SIAMAK KHODARAHIMI, ABDOLRAHMAN RAHIMIAN BOOGAR and CHERYL-ANNE JOHNSTON
244-250
The Role of Drinking Water Shortages on Human Psychological Functioning KHAIRUL NAIM ADHAM, CHAMHURI SIWAR, SARAH AZIZ ABD GHANI AZIZ and MD. ANOWAR HOSSAIN BHUIYAN
251-259
Strategic Use of Government Procurement to Spur Renewable Energy Generation in Malaysia SARWOKO MANGKOEDIHARDJO
260-263
Three Platforms for Sustainable Environmental Sanitation LUKMAN ISMAIL, ZAINI SAKAWI and MOHAMAD KHALIL SAIPI Measurement of Odour Concentration from Livestock Farm
264-270
SARMAWATY KOTALA, RETNO KAWURI and IDA BAGUS WAYAN GUNAM
271-279
The Presence of Mercury Resistant Bacteria in Sediment of Gold Processing Plant at Waekerta Village of Buru District, Maluku Province and Their Activity in Reducing Mercury G.W. MBUGUA, H.M.MBUVI and J.W. MUTHENGIA
280-286
Rice Husk Ash Derived Zeolite Blended with Water Hyacinth Ash for Enhanced Adsorption of Cadmium Ions SM. SUNDARAPANDIAN, K. MAGESWARAN,D. SANJAY GANDHI
287-300
and JAVID AHMAD DAR Impact of Thane Cyclone on Tree Damage in Pondicherry University Campus, Puducherry, India A. T. AJON, J. T. UTSEV and C. C. NNAJI Physicochemical Quality of Irrigation Water in River Katsina-ala Catchment
301-311
Areas of Northern Nigeria PUTU NIA ANGGRAENI, IDA BAGUS WAYAN GUNAM and RETNO KAWURI Potential Bacterial Consortium to Increase the Effectiveness of Beer Wastewater Treatment
312-320
Current World Environment PAPERS
Volume 9, Number 2, (2014) CONTENTS
ANWAR AHMAD and MOHD. Z. KRIMLY Palm Oil Mill Effluent Treatment Process Evaluation and Fate of Priority
PAGE No. 321-330
Components in an Open and Closed Digestion System MAHSA MIRHOSSEINI, ESMAEIL BIAZAR and KEIVAN SAEB Removal of Arsenic from Drinking Water by Hydroxyapatite Nanoparticles
331-338
MARYAM YAVARI and HAMID REZA SAREMI
339-349
Evaluating the Role of Gender Equity in Sustainable Development of Big Cities BAGHDADI ARASH and EGHTEDAR BAKHTIYARI SHAHLA An Analytical Approach to the Issue of Passive Defense in Relation with
350-360
Preservation of Urban Elements M. DOOST HOSSEINI and M. RAHIMI The Role of Urban Landscape Planning in Neighborhood Physical Reconstruction
361-370
(Case Study: District 4 Area 11) MOLAEE RAHIL and BAGHDADI ARASH Study on Challenges of Disaster Management in Urban Heterogeneous Tissues
371-378
(A Case Study in Hassan Abad spot) R. VINU RADHA, K. KUMUTHA and P.MARIMUTHU Assessment of Cadmium Contamination of Soils in Sewage Disposal Areas of
379-386
Coimbatore District, Tamil Nadu, India S.S. DHAKAD, K.V. RAMANA RAO and K.P. MISHRA Effectiveness of Mole Drains for Soybean Crop in Temporary Waterlogged
387-393
Vertisols of Madhya Pradesh D. D. BHUTEKAR, S. B. AHER and M. G. BABARE Conservation Strategies for Kavandi Lake Based on Water Quality
394-398
YOGRANJAN, AJAY KUMAR SRIVASTAVA, GYANESH K. SATPUTE
399-402
and RAKESH S. MARABI Bright Farming: An Innovative Approach for Sustainable Socio Ecosystem in Climate Change Scenario SURENDRA KUMAR CHANDNIHA, M.L. KANSAL and G. ANVESH Watershed Sustainability Index Assessment of A Watershed in Chhattisgarh, India
403-411
Current World Environment PAPERS
Volume 9, Number 2, (2014) CONTENTS
PALLAVI S. CHAKOLE and D.B. JASUTKAR
PAGE No. 412-420
Comparative Study of Nirmalya Solid Waste Treatment by Vermicomposting and Artificial Aeration Composting RANJANA TALWAR, SHWETA AGRAWAL, AVINASH BAJPAI and SUMAN MALIK
421-425
Assessment of Concentration and Variations Due to Seasonal Effect on the Presence of Heavy Metals in the Water of Upper Lake, Bhopal ATIQUR RAHMAN and B.P. BHATT
426-429
Design Approach for Solar Photovoltaic Groundwater Pumping System for Eastern India RANU RANI SETHI, AMIYA SAGARSAHU, R.C.SRIVASTAVA,
430-436
MADHUMITA DAS,ASHWANI KUMAR and JUGAL KISHORE TRIPATHY Monitoring Land Cover Changes in Coastal Tract of Odisha Using Landsat ETM+ Imagery A.A. KARIM and R.B. PANDA
437-446
Assessment of Water Quality of Subarnarekha River In Balasore Region, Odisha, India SNEHAL K. KAMBLE, P.B. NAGARNAIK and R.R. SHRIVASTAVA
447-455
Water Quality Data Analysis for Kanhan River MOHAMMAD HABIBI and AMIR HOSSEIN POURJOHARI Evaluating the Performance of Urban Management in Community Sustainable:
456-463
Case Study in Area of Narmak - Tehran KAMRAN REZAEIZADEH MAHABADI and ASEMEH SOLEIMANIFAKHR Glacier Geosite of Tale-Tange Valley
464-469
M. NADERI, M. SALARI BAGHONABAD, M.J. AMIRI and M. REZAZADEH
470-477
Greenhouse Gas Emissions (CO2-CH4) from Municipal Solid Waste Management Using Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) in Mahdsht City (IRAN) SOUMITRA NATH, BIBHAS DEB, INDU SHARMA and PIYUSH PANDEY
478-484
Pseudomonas aeruginosa SN4 Enhances Seedling Growth of Oryza sativa in Cadmium Contaminated Soil ASEMEH SOLEIMANIFAKHR and KAMRAN REZAEIZADEH MAHABADI An Approach to Geotopes of Jajrud Catchment Basin from Meygun to Darbandsar
485-491
Current World Environment PAPERS
Volume 9, Number 2, (2014) CONTENTS
REZA SAMIMI SHARAMI, SEYYED RAHIM MOSHIRI, MASOUD MAHDAVI and PARVIZ KARDAVANI
PAGE No.
492-501
Considering the Effective Factors on Land use Changes in the Villages Around Metropolises (Case study: City of Rasht, Khomam rural) ALI REZA SADEGHI,MOHAMMAD REZA POURJAFAR, ALI AKBAR TAGHVAEE
502-518
and PARVIZ AZADFALLAH Explanation of Environmental Aesthetic Factors of Urban Design SANJAY BHELAWE, J.L. CHAUDHARY, A.S. NAIN, R. SINGH, RAJESH KHAVSE
519-524
and S.K. CHANDRAWANSHI Rainfall Variability in Chhattisgarh State Using GIS AAKANKSHA, RATNA KATIYAR and S.K.RASTOGI
525-530
Study of Indoor Air Quality of Kitchens of Rural Area’s in Lucknow BHARAT LAL, VINOD NAYAK, PRIYANKA SHARMA and K. TEDIA Effect of Combined Application of FYM, Fly Ash and Fertilizers on Soil Properties
531-535
and Paddy Grown on Degraded Land SABA SHIRIN and AKHILESH KUMAR YADAV Physico Chemical Analysis of Municipal Wastewater Discharge in
536-543
Ganga River, Haridwar District of Uttarakhand, India DHRITIMAN CHANDA, G.D. SHARMA, D.K. JHA and MOHAMED HIJRI The Potential Use of Arbuscular Mycorrhiza in the Cultivation of Medicinal Plants in Barak Valley, Assam: A Review
544-551
Current World Environment
Volume 9, Number 2, (2014)
AUTHOR INDEX A. T. AJON ....................................................... 301
G. ANVESH ..................................................... 403
A.A. KARIM ..................................................... 437
G.D. SHARMA ................................................. 544
A.S. NAIN ........................................................ 519
G.W. MBUGUA ................................................ 280
AAKANKSHA .................................................. 525
GYANESH K. SATPUTE ................................. 399
ABDOLRAHMAN RAHIMIAN BOOGAR ........ 244 AJAY KUMAR SRIVASTAVA .......................... 399
H.M.MBUVI ..................................................... 280
AKHILESH KUMAR YADAV ........................... 536
HAMID REZA SAREMI ................................... 339
ALI AKBAR TAGHVAEE ................................. 502 ALI REZA SADEGHI ....................................... 502
IDA BAGUS WAYAN GUNAM ................ 271, 312
AMIR HOSSEIN POURJOHARI ..................... 456
INDU SHARMA .............................................. 478
AMIYA SAGARSAHU ..................................... 430 ANWAR AHMAD ............................................ 321
J. T. UTSEV ..................................................... 301
ASEMEH SOLEIMANIFAKHR ................ 464, 485
J.L. CHAUDHARY ........................................... 519
ASHWANI KUMAR ......................................... 430
J.W. MUTHENGIA ........................................... 280
ATIQUR RAHMAN .......................................... 426
JAVID AHMAD DAR ....................................... 287
AVINASH BAJPAI ........................................... 421
JUGAL KISHORE TRIPATHY ......................... 430
B. H. ALHARBI ................................................ 227
K. KUMUTHA .................................................. 379
B.P. BHATT ...................................................... 426
K. MAGESWARAN .......................................... 287
BAGHDADI ARASH ............................... 350, 371
K. TEDIA .......................................................... 531
BHARAT LAL .................................................. 531
K.P. MISHRA ................................................... 387
BIBHAS DEB .................................................. 478
K.V. RAMANA RAO ......................................... 387 KAMRAN REZAEIZADEH MAHABADI .. 464, 485
C. C. NNAJI ..................................................... 301
KEIVAN SAEB ................................................ 331
CHAMHURI SIWAR ........................................ 251
KHAIRUL NAIM ADHAM ................................ 251
CHERYL-ANNE JOHNSTON ......................... 244 D. D. BHUTEKAR ............................................ 394
LUKMAN ISMAIL .................................... 237, 264
D. SANJAY GANDHI ...................................... 287 D.B. JASUTKAR .............................................. 412
M. DOOST HOSSEINI .................................... 361
D.K. JHA .......................................................... 544
M. G. BABARE ................................................ 394
DHRITIMAN CHANDA ................................... 544
M. J. PASHA .................................................... 227 M. NADERI ..................................................... 470
EGHTEDAR BAKHTIYARI SHAHLA .............. 350
M. RAHIMI ....................................................... 361
ESMAEIL BIAZAR .......................................... 331
M. REZAZADEH ............................................. 470
Current World Environment
Volume 9, Number 2, (2014)
AUTHOR INDEX M. SALARI BAGHONABAD ............................ 470
RAJESH KHAVSE .......................................... 519
M.J. AMIRI ....................................................... 470
RAKESH S. MARABI ...................................... 399
M.L. KANSAL .................................................. 403
RANJANA TALWAR ........................................ 421
MADHUMITA DAS .......................................... 430
RANU RANI SETHI ........................................ 430
MAHSA MIRHOSSEINI .................................. 331
RATNA KATIYAR ............................................ 525
MARYAM YAVARI ............................................ 339
RETNO KAWURI .................................... 271, 312
MASOUD MAHDAVI ....................................... 492
REZA SAMIMI SHARAMI ............................... 492
MD. ANOWAR HOSSAIN BHUIYAN ............... 251 MOHAMAD KHALIL SAIPI ............................. 264
S. B. AHER ...................................................... 394
MOHAMED HIJRI ........................................... 544
S.K. CHANDRAWANSHI ................................ 519
MOHAMMAD HABIBI ..................................... 456
S.K.RASTOGI ................................................. 525
MOHAMMAD REZA POURJAFAR ................. 502
S.S. DHAKAD ................................................. 387
MOHD. Z. KRIMLY ........................................... 321
SABA SHIRIN ................................................. 536
MOLAEE RAHIL ............................................. 371
SANJAY BHELAWE ........................................ 519 SARAH AZIZ ABD GHANI AZIZ ..................... 251
N. TAPPER ...................................................... 227
SARMAWATY KOTALA ................................... 271
NOOR KHAFAZILAH ABDULLAH ................. 237
SARWOKO MANGKOEDIHARDJO ................ 260 SEYYED RAHIM MOSHIRI ............................ 492
P.B. NAGARNAIK ............................................ 447
SHWETA AGRAWAL ...................................... 421
P.MARIMUTHU ............................................... 379
SIAMAK KHODARAHIMI ................................ 244
PALLAVI S. CHAKOLE ................................... 412
SM. SUNDARAPANDIAN ............................... 287
PARVIZ AZADFALLAH ................................... 502
SNEHAL K. KAMBLE ...................................... 447
PARVIZ KARDAVANI ...................................... 492
SOUMITRA NATH .......................................... 478
PIYUSH PANDEY ........................................... 478
SUMAN MALIK ............................................... 421
PRIYANKA SHARMA ..................................... 531
SURENDRA KUMAR CHANDNIHA .............. 403
PUTU NIA ANGGRAENI ................................ 312 VINOD NAYAK ................................................ 531 R. SINGH ........................................................ 519 R. VINU RADHA ............................................. 379
YOGRANJAN .................................................. 399
R.B. PANDA .................................................... 437 R.C.SRIVASTAVA ........................................... 430 R.R. SHRIVASTAVA ........................................ 447
ZAINI SAKAWI ........................................ 237, 264
Current World Environment
Volume 9, Number 2, (2014)
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Current World Environment
Volume 9, Number 2, (2014)
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Editor: NILOFAR IQBAL, 14, Green House, Prince Colony,Shahjahanabad, Bhopal - 462 001 (India)
Current World Environment
Volume 9, Number 2, (2014)
EDITORIAL CUM ADVISORY BOARD Prof. (Dr.) Omar Abou-El Seoud Instituto De Quimica, Universidad De SaoPaulo, (Brazil) Dr. Mervat El-Sayed Mohammed Faculty of Science, Cairo University, Cairo (Egypt) Prof. (Dr.) Ahmed Kadry Aboul-Gheit Applied Catalysis in Egyptian Petroleum Research Institute, Process Development Department, Nasr City, Cairo, (Egypt) Dr. Khalid Mohd. Al Ghamdi Department of Biological Sciences, King Abdul Aziz University, Jeddah (KSA) Dr. Eman Mohmoud Ebraheem Elgendy Nature Product and Photochemistry, Mansoura University, (Egypt) Dr. Sayed K. Goda Honorary Staff Member, Medical School, Southampton University, (United Kingdom) Dr. Abderrabba Mohd. Abdelmanef Molecular Physico-Chemistry, Unit of IPEST (Tunisia) Dr. L.C. Ram Dy Director, Head, Environment Management Division, Central Fuel Research Institute, Dhanbad, Jharkhand, (India) Dr. Brahim Bessais Centre de Resherche et des Technologies de I’ Energee Laboratoure des Application Solarises, Groupe de Photo voltaique et des Materiaux, Semiconducteurs, Hamman – Lif (Tunisia) Dr Piyush Malaviya Departmental Environmental Sciences, University of Jammu, Jammu- 180006, Jammu Kashmir, India Prof. Syed Iqbal Ali Environmental Engineering and Consulting, Chemical Engineering, Principal, Polytechnic, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh (India) Dr. Venkatathri Narayanan Korea Institute of Ceramic Engineering & Technology, Seoul (South Korea) Dr. Foad Farhani Baghlani Iran Research Organisation for Science & Technology, (IROST) Tehran (Iran) Dr. Mohammad Azizul Islam Department of Chemistry, University of Rajshahi, Rajshahi, (Bangladesh) Dr. Mohammad Eid Shubair Biomedical Sciences, Gaza, Palestine Dr Sarwoko Mangkoedihardjo, Professor Department of Environmental Engineering Sepuluh Nopember , Institute of Technology (ITS) Surabaya, Indonesia
Dr Priana Sudjono Department of Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Institute Technology in Bandung, Jalan Ganesha, Bandung, Indonesia
Rana P. Singh Professor & Ex-Dean School for Environmental Sciences, Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar (A Central) University, Lucknow, India
Dr. K.S. Khairou Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Applied Science, University Ai-Qura, Makkah AL-Mukarrama, KSA
Dr. Pulak Das PhD (Ecology and Environmental Science) Geopetrol International Inc.,New Delhi, India
Dr. Yasser M. Moustafa Central Analytical Laboratory, Egyptian Petroleum Research Institute, Nasr City, Cairo (Egypt)
Dr Xilong Wang College of Urban and Enviromenatal Sciences, Peking University, Bejing 100871, China
Dr. Nour Sh. El-Gendy Egyptian Petroleum Research Institute, Cairo, (Egypt)
Dr Vereda J King Williams Economics Department Chair, Director of the financial Trading Room, Associate Professor of Economics, North Carolina A & T State University, Greensboro, NC 27411, USA
Dr. Godwin P. Kaaya University of Namibia, Department of Biology, Windhoek, (Namibia) Prof. Mirza Barjees Baig Department of Agricultural Extension and Rural Society, College of Food and Agricultural Sciences, King Saud University, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia Dr. Amimul Ahsan Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University Putra Malaysia (UPM), Malaysia Dr. Martinez Lestard, Pablo Gustavo Argentina Dr.Nahla S. EL-Shenawy Faculty of Science, Suez Canal University, Egypt Dr. Fattaneh Daneshmand Malayeri Research Department, Tehran, Iran Dr. Mamoon M.D. Al-Rshaidat College of Marine Sciences, The University of Jordan Aqaba Branch, Aqaba , Jordan Dr. J. Malathi Department of Microbiology, Sri Shivani College of Pharmacy, Warangal, India Dr. Andrzej Kosoma Maria Curie Sklodowska University, Lubin, Poland Dr. Lgnacy Kitowski State School of Higher Education in Chelm, Poland Dr. Chamhuri Siwar Emeritus Professor, Institute for Environment and Devolopment (LESTARI), National University of Malaysia Dr. Nadeem Khalil Department of Civil Engineering, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, India Gholamreza Asadollahfardi Faculty of Engineering, Kharazmi University, Tehran, Iran
Dr. Ibrahim. A. Hassan Centre of Excellence in Environmental Studies King Abdul Aziz University, Jeddah , KSA Dr. R. K. Somashekar Professor and Chairman Department of Environmental Sciences, Bangalore University, Bangalore, Karnataka, India Abdul Jabbar Al-Rajab, Ph.D. Environmental Pollution Unit, Environmental Research Center, Jazan University, Jazan, KSA Dr. Brajesh Dubey Environmental Engineering, School of Engineering, University of Guelph, Guelph, Canada Dr. More Nandkishor Associate Professor, Department of Environmental Science, School of Environmental Sciences, B B A Central University, Lucknow, India Professor Yinguang Chen, Ph.D State Key Lab of Pollution Control and Resources Reuse, School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai , China Professor Armando da Costa Duarte Department of Chemistry & CESAM University of Aveiro, Aveiro, Portugal Dr. Hiren B. Soni Department of Environmental Science & Technology (EST), Institute of Science and Technology for Advanced Studies and Research (ISTAR),S.P. University, Vallabh Vidyanagar, Gujarat, India Dr Shishir Basarkar Seven Hills Hospital, Andheri (E), Mumbai -59, India Prof. Dr. Sudhakar Yedla Professor of Environmental Policy, Indra Gandhi Institute of Development Research (IGIDR), Mumbai, India Dr. Pulak Das School of Human Ecology Ambedkar University, Delhi, India
ASSOCIATE EDITORS Prof. (Dr.) Masood Alam, New Delhi (India) Prof. (Dr.) Siddiq Qureshi, Bhopal (India) Prof. (Dr.) Suman Malik, Bhopal (India)
Dr. M.N. Khan Bhopal (India) Dr. Meena Iqbal, Bhopal (India) Dr. H.C. Kataria, Bhopal (India)
Enviro Research Publishers assumes no responsibility for the statements, opinions and subject matter advanced by contributors. The Editorial Board in its work of examining papers received for publication is assisted in an honorary capacity by a large number of distinguished scientists, working in various parts of India and abroad. No part of this publication may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying and recording or by any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the Publisher. Editor: Nilofar Iqbal Printed & Published by: Enviro Research Publishers, 14, Green House, Prince Colony, Shahjahanabad, Bhopal - 462 001 (India) Printed from: Shabd Printing Industries, Opp. Badi Kotwali, Bhopal - 462 001 (India)
Vol. 9(2), 227-236 (2014)
Current World Environment
Assessment of Ambient Air Quality in Riyadh City, Saudi Arabia B. H. ALHARBI1*, M. J. PASHA1 and N. TAPPER2 National Center for Environmental Technology, King Abdulaziz City for Science and Technology (KACST), PO BOX: 6086, Riyadh 11442, Saudi Arabia. 2 School of Geography and Environmental Science, and Monash Weather and Climate Program, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, Australia. 1
http://dx.doi.org/10.12944/CWE.9.2.01 (Received: March 10, 2014; Accepted: May 05, 2014) Abstract Concentrations of airborne particulate matter with an aerodynamic diameter less than 10 µm (PM10) and five gaseous air pollutants (O3, CO, NO2, SO2 and H2S) were measured over a period of approximately six years (October 1999-June 2004) at five air quality monitoring network stations of King Abulaziz City for Science and Technology (KACST) in Riyadh city, Saudi Arabia. The main objective of this study is to evaluate the quality of ambient air in relation to its possible effects on human health in the urban area of Riyadh city using the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) Air Quality Index (AQI) and break down analysis of five criteria pollutants (O3, CO, NO2 and SO2 and PM10) and Hydrogen Sulphide (H2S). The concentrations of selected pollutants in ambient air has shown upward trends except for sulfur dioxide (SO2) and hydrogen sulfide (H2S), which exhibited decreasing trends over the time. Using the AQI based on a health perspective, a breakdown analysis was conducted. The results confirmed that 71% of the time Riyadh city air is of “Good” quality using the AQI and causes almost no health impacts on city inhabitants. The remaining 29% of more problematic air quality is caused by PM10 (74%) and SO2 (~24%). The study has revealed that both ozone (O3) and carbon monoxide (CO) have little contribution to Riyadh air pollution at 2% and 0.52%, respectively.
Key words : Pollutants, AQI, Air Quality, Particulate matter, Health.
Introduction Continuous monitoring and acquisition of knowledge of air pollutants are required not only to assess the air quality in a given location but also to understand and address several environmental issues. Air pollution is one issue of growing environmental concern because of its known adverse human health effects1,2. Globally every year, 4.6 million people die because of exposure to high level of air pollutants3. The correlations between exposure to air pollutants and the occurrence of respiratory and cardiovascular diseases and cardiopulmonary mortality are well documented in the literature4-6. For instance, ozone (O3), a photochemical oxidant that helps to determine the
atmospheric oxidizing capacity7, can cause direct, adverse effects on human health and ecosystems811 . Moreover, sulfuric and nitric acids as well as sulfate and nitrate aerosols are formed as a result of oxidation of sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx). These fine aerosol particles can effectively cause visibility degradation, and modify the radiation budget by both absorption as well as scattering of solar radiation12. Furthermore, atmospheric particles contain a variety of hazardous inorganic substances including metals and sulfur compounds. Lung injury, bronchial-constriction and increased incidence of infections have all been related to metallic air pollution 13. Asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease have been
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associated with particles smaller than 10 mm in diameter (PM10)14. Some studies have shown that there may be no lower threshold for PM10-related health problems15. Since most mass of PM 10 is not dangerous, damage caused by PM10 can be attributed mainly to small particles, particularly those featuring diameters smaller than 0.1 mm. These small particles can be toxic to the lungs, even when they have constituents that are not toxic when found in larger particles14. Many studies in the 1970s and 1980s found a connection between health and low concentration levels of ambient particles. Scientific study by Pope (2000) revealed that short-term sudden exposure to 10 mg/m3 PM10 could contribute to a 0.5 to 1.5 % increase in daily mortality16. It may also increase hospitalization and health-care visits for respiratory and cardiovascular disease, and produced enhanced outbreaks of coughing and asthma. A variety of cardiopulmonary problems in adults and children, some resulting in mortality, have been associated with long-term exposures to 5 mg/m3 of particles smaller than 2.5 mm in diameter (PM2.5) above background levels17. Several studies have found that respiratory illness and premature death are attributed mainly to PM2.518-19. A 16-year study conducted on data from six U.S. cities revealed that people living in regions where airborne particle concentrations were higher than the PM10 standard had a life span two years shorter than those living in regions of lower airborne particle concentrations4. Airborne particles can effectively cause an inflammatory response in the lungs if they are coated with first row transition metals (metals that can precipitate) in possibly toxic oxidative reactions such as titanium (Ti), vanadium (V), chromium (Cr), manganese (Mn), iron (Fe), cobalt (Co), nickel (Ni), and copper (Cu)20-21. In general, environmental contamination by particulate toxic trace metals can cause serious damage to the health of exposed individuals22-26. These toxic trace metals may significantly contribute to the toxicity of the airborne particulate27. The carcinogenic effects of several particulate toxic trace metals such as cadmium (Cd), cobalt (Co), chromium (Cr), nickel (Ni), lead (Pb), arsenic (As) and selenium (Se) have been established in several studies28-29. Methods and data In order to determine the air pollution levels
and trends during the study period, and the relative significance of individual pollutant contributions to ambient air quality degradation in Riyadh city, it is necessary to investigate a reliable database record with a good diagnostic indicator. High quality spatial and temporal air pollutant concentrations and a corresponding air quality index are necessary for this purpose. Therefore, concentrations of air pollutants recorded by KACST Air Quality Monitoring Network have been used and integrated into an easily interpreted air quality index. The AQI is a tool that simplifies the reporting of air quality to the general public in the form of index concentrations of criteria pollutants. The scale of the index is divided into six general categories that are associated with health messages that conveys the health implications of air quality and pollutant-specific health effects and sensitive groups, so that the precautionary actions can be taken by individuals to reduce exposures of concern30,31. Overview of the KACST Air Quality Monitoring Network The Riyadh city air quality-monitoring network was established with the mutual understanding and cooperation of various governmental agencies in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. The city of Riyadh experiences a large amount of air pollution in the form of dust and other toxic chemicals, which is a constant threat for the health of city inhabitants. It was realized that the existing monitoring facilities operated and maintained by the Presidency of Meteorology and Environment (PME) were insufficient for an expanding city like Riyadh and it was therefore decided to further expand the monitoring network. Several government officials participated in the discussion and feasibility study to establish this network, and a joint cooperation of several agencies was essential for its implementation. The Natural Resources and Environmental Research Institute (NRERI) at King Abdulaziz City for Science & Technology (KACST) took the initiative towards the construction of this network in the capital city of the Kingdom. In 1999, the first monitoring station was established at KACST premises, and then the network was expanded to five monitoring stations scattered throughout the city. The network was set to begin operation in 1999, with only three sites namely KACST (KT), National Guard Hospital (NG) and Al-Shifa (SH). In June 2002, two new stations, namely Al-Azizia (AZ) and
ALHARBI et al., Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(2), 227-236 (2014) Al-Rabwa (RB) were installed. The locations of these stations were selected based on their geographical locations, as well as their significance in terms of representing regional air quality. These air qualitymonitoring stations are capable of monitoring both meteorological variables, as well as air pollutants. The type of sensors used with their respective method of monitoring for the pollutants utilized in this study are: NO, NO2 and NOx- Chemiluminescence; CO-Dual Beam NDIR; O3-UV Photometer; and H2S and SO2-UV Fluorescence. Figure 1 shows the geographic locations of monitoring stations within Riyadh city. Calculation of Air Quality Index For the pur pose of evaluation and comparison, the air quality index for the city of Riyadh was calculated as per USEPA standard formulae and air quality standard limits. Pollution levels were averaged to match the standard limits and normalized to match the index breakpoints. In this study, the averaging time selected for AQI calculation for PM10, SO2, CO, and O3 were 24,24, 8 and 8 hours respectively and the break points for each selected pollutant were followed in accordance with USEPA30 indexing procedure (Table 1). Air quality data covering the period of about six years (1999-2004) were used to calculate the index values. PM10 and SO2 were averaged on a daily basis to match the breakpoints. Carbon monoxide (CO) and ozone (O3) were averaged every 8 hours. However, hourly averaged O3 was not considered since the 8 hourly averages did not exceed the
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0.374 ppm limit set by the USEPA. Short-term air quality standards have not been defined for nitrogen dioxide (NO2); rather the USEPA provides guidelines to report NO2 in the index range of 200-500 that corresponds to 0.65-2.04 ppm of NO230. Therefore AQI for NO2 was not reported here since Riyadh has never experienced such a high concentration of nitrogen dioxide. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Trend Analysis This section provides both a discussion of air pollutant trends as well as an assessment of Riyadh city air quality relative to the Presidency of Meteorology and Environment (PME) standards of Saudi Arabia, based on the monitoring of ambient air quality from KACST air quality surveillance network. It is well known that air pollution levels are affected by variations in local climatic conditions, emissions, and day-to-day activities of inhabitants. The trends in air pollution levels are not always well defined. However, Figure 2 shows obvious upward trends in average CO levels during the study period excluding the year of 1999, that had only three months of data. This figure provides the annual average and maximum 1-hour CO levels in the Riyadh air quality network for the study period. Over the 6-year period, the citywide annual average trend line (fluctuating from ~0.65 to ~1.1 ppm) was well below the 35 ppm standard. Annual maximum 1-hour values for the study period ranged between 17.2 ppm in 1999 and the lowest recorded value of 6.8 ppm in 2004 (Figure 2). The network recorded any exceedance during the period
Table 1: The Break Points for the Selected Pollutants Break points O3 (ppm) O3 (ppm) PM10 8-hour 1-hour (Âľg/mÂł)
CO (ppm)
SO2 (ppm)
NO2 (ppm)
AQI
0.000-0.064 - 0-54 0.0-4.4 0.000-0.034 - 0-50 0.065-0.084 - 55-154 4.5-9.4 0.035-0.144 - 51-100 0.085-0.104 0.125-0.164 155-254 9.5-12.4 0.145-0.224 - 101-150 0.105-0.124 0.165-0.204 255-424 12.5-15.4 0.225-0.304 - 151-200 0.125-0.374 0.205-0.404 355-424 15.5-30.4 0.305-0.604 0.65-1.24 201-300 - 0.405-0.504 425-504 30.5-40.4 0.605-0.804 1.25-1.64 301-400 - 0.505-0.604 505-604 40.5-50.4 0.805-1.004 1.65-2.04 401-500
Category
good moderate Unhealthy for sensitive groups unhealthy Very unhealthy Hazardous Hazardous
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of study when a value of pollutant showed above standard ambient level. Over the study period there were no 1-hour CO exceedances recorded (Table 2). As shown in Figure 2, there were upward trends in average NO2 level during the study period. The average NO2 levels were well below the 50 ppb annual PME standard. Air monitoring measurements for the study period have shown an annual arithmetic mean NO2 concentration less than two-third of the 50 ppb annual PME standard. During the year 2003, the highest annual average value recorded for NO2 was 29 ppb, whereas during 2001, the lowest annual average concentration value of 13.5 ppb recorded. Annual maximum 1-hour values for the study period ranged between 462.81 ppb in 2003 to the lowest recorded value of 114.62 ppb in 2000 (Figure 2). The standard annual NO2 arithmetic mean was exceeded only once in 2003 (Table 2). There were upward trends in average O3 level during the study period (Figure 2). This figure provides the
Fig 1: Geographical locations of KACST monitoring stations in Riyadh city.
annual average and maximum 1-hour O3 levels for the Riyadh air quality network for the study period. Over the 6-year period, the citywide annual average trend line (swinging from ~9.01 to ~28.17 ppb) was well below the 150 ppb standard. Annual maximum 1-hour values for the study period ranged between 147.28 ppb in 2003 and the lowest recorded value of 89.8 ppb in 1999 (Figure 2). No exceedances of O3 standard were recorded in the city during the study period. As shown in Figure 2, there were upward trends in average PM10 (dust) during the study period. The average PM10 levels were above the 80 mg/m3 annual PME standard (bear in mind that exceptionally high natural background concentrations due to sandstorms/dust storms and aridity in the region play an important role here). Over the 6-year period, the citywide annual average trend line (ranged from ~82.28 to ~146.85 mg/m3). Annual maximum 1-hour values for the study period ranged between 915.7 ĂŹg/ m3 in 2000 and the lowest recorded value of 895.4 ĂŹg/m3 in 2004 (Figure 2). Exceedances occurred in all years except 1999 (incomplete year). The highest number of 1-day exceedances (36) occurred in the year 2003 (Table 2). Although average SO2 levels monitored in the city (excluding 1999) have downward trends, they have been above the 20 ppb annual air quality standard in all years except for 1999 and 2004, as shown in Figure 2. Over the study period, the citywide annual mean SO2 concentration of air quality network sites ranged between ~11.04 ppb and ~ 46.85 ppb. Annual maximum 1-hour values for the study period have ranged between 617.5 ppb in 2003 to the lowest recorded value of 239.86 ppb in 1999 (Figure 2). The number of exceedances of the 1-hour and
Table 2: Annual exceedances recorded during study period in reference to PME standards. Year Annually Hourly Daily NO2 CO SO2 H2S O3 PM10 SO2 H2S 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004
0 0 0 0 1 0
0 0 0 0 0 0
0 5 3 4 15 3
0 7 2 4 2 0
0 0 0 0 0 0
0 24 6 4 36 17
1 1 1 19 10 0
1 11 8 8 16 0
ALHARBI et al., Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(2), 227-236 (2014) 1-day standards on a citywide basis from 19992004 is shown in Table 2. During the study period 1-hour exceedances occurred in all years except in 1999 whereas 1-day exceedances occurred in all years except in 2004. The highest number of 1-hour exceedances was 15 whereas the highest number of 1-day exceedances was 19. The average annual H2S levels monitored in the city have downward trends and have been well below the standard value of 140 ppb (Figure 2). Over the study period, the citywide annual
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mean H2S concentration of the air quality network sites ranged between ~7.08 ppb and ~15.77 ppb. Annual maximum 1-hour values for the study period have ranged between 181.15 ppb in 2002 and the lowest recorded value of 51.2 ppb in 1999 (Figure 2). The number of exceeds of the 1-hour and 1-day standards on a citywide basis from 1999-2004 is shown in Table 2. During the study period 1-hour exceedances occurred during all years except in 1999 and 2004, while 1-day exceedances occurred in all years except in 2004. The highest number of 1-hour exceedances was seven, while the highest number of the 1-day exceedances was 16.
Fig. 2: Annual variation of average and maximum hourly pollutant concentrations.
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Breakdown Analysis and Relative Pollutant Importance: In order to understand the degree of air cleanliness and likely relevance to human health a breakdown analysis of the AQI was carried out. Air quality falling in the “Good” range was considered as clean, since “Good” air has no observable health effects on the humans. The breakdown analysis showed that on average almost 71 % of measurements indicated “Good” air quality on the index and on this basis likely produced almost no health impacts on Riyadh city inhabitants (Figure 3f). The remaining ~ 29% of the measurements showed “moderate” pollution or above, mostly caused by PM10 (~74%). SO2 was the second highest pollutant,
contributing almost 24% to the polluted air. Both O3 and CO had a very limited contribution to the air pollution with almost 2% and 0.52% respectively. Geographic distribution of these pollutants reveals that the north-east of Riyadh features the cleanest air with NG showing the highest percentage of clean air (75.35 %) while the north-west of Riyadh features the most polluted air (KT at 69.05 % clean air) (Figure 3a). The southeast of Riyadh experiences highest PM10 and CO pollution levels and lowest SO2 pollution levels as they contribute to almost 86%, 11.52% and 1.77% respectively of the polluted air of AZ (Figure 3e). O3 had almost no impact on the air quality across Riyadh with the exception of NG
Fig. 3: Air Quality Index breakdown charts.
ALHARBI et al., Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(2), 227-236 (2014) station in northeast, where ozone contributed almost 5.64% to the polluted air (Figure 3b). Air Quality Index Analysis for Individual Pollutants: The AQI gives information on how clean or polluted is the air, and what associated health effects might be of concern for the general public. It focuses on health effects that humans experience within a few hours or days after breathing polluted air. The USEPA has divided the AQI into six categories each corresponding to a different level of health concern. These categories are namely good, moderate, unhealthy for sensitive groups, unhealthy, very unhealthy, and hazardous. A comparison was
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established based USEPA air quality index for five criteria air pollutants including particulate matter (PM10). Data collected over the period of six years indicates that PM10 contributes most to the highest levels of pollution for the city inhabitants. An average of 15.8 % of the index values was recorded in the range of 0-54 µg/m3 corresponding to a “Good” index and relatively cleaner air. Most of the index values (~ 61% on average) were in the “Moderate” range corresponding to PM10 concentrations in the range of 55-154 µg/m3. The USEPA defines the ultimate “Hazardous” range of PM10 as being from 425 to 604 µg/m3, as anything above this range has an equally undesirable
Fig.4: Geographic distribution of air quality index for PM10.
Fig. 5: Geographic distribution of air quality index for SO2.
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impact on health. However, Riyadh occasionally experiences PM10 concentrations as high as 1000 µg/m3. Therefore, the USEPA air quality index for PM10 was modified to count the percentage of index values in the upper range as 425-1000 µg/m3 and it was estimated that 2.57 % of index values were in this range across the city. Such high index values correspond to dust storms as natural feature of Riyadh city. The geographic distribution of the PM10 AQI (Figure 4) indicates that the southeast part of the city (AZ) has the greatest PM10 pollution impact on air quality (most susceptible to dust storms) while the northeast part (NG) has the least PM10 pollution impact.
Geographically, the northern part of the city recorded higher concentrations in the “Moderate” range with KT and NG recording index values of 2% and 5.64%, respectively. CONCLUSION
CO has been recorded in ver y low concentrations in Riyadh. Most of the values recorded were in the “Good” air quality range (99.41% on average) with values less than 0.4 ppm, with only a few exceptions of “Moderate” air quality (0.6% on average) occurring in the range of 4.5-9.4 ppm. Geographically, the southern part of the city recorded higher concentrations in the “Moderate” air quality range with AZ and SH recording index values of 1.98% and 0.6%, respectively.
All investigated pollutants have shown upward trends except for SO2 and H2S that have exhibited downward trends. Among all investigated pollutants, PM10 and SO2 pose the most serious health threat to the city inhabitants since they appeared across almost all air quality index ranges, while CO and O3 have a very limited effect on urban air quality in Riyadh. On average almost 71 % of Riyadh air quality measurements indicated clean air while the ~ 29% of measurements indicated polluted air, mainly by PM10 (~74%) and SO2 (~ 24%). The geographic distribution of PM10 air quality index indicates that the southeast of the city has the highest PM10 pollution impact on air quality while the northeast has the lowest PM10 pollution impact. As for SO2, the southeast of the city has the lowest SO2 pollution impact on air quality whereas the northwest of the city has the highest SO2 pollution impact. In general, the north-east of Riyadh features the cleanest air with the highest percentage of clean air at any site being 75.35 %, while the northwest of Riyadh features the most polluted air with the highest percentage of polluted air at any site being 32.95 %. The present findings in terms of trends and geographical distributions of air pollution, and possible influences on public health in an arid urban environment like Riyadh provide vital information for responsible authorities in decision making, urban planning and is also helpful in maintaining the environmental sustainability.
The O3 index was calculated based on 8 hour averages. The USEPA recommends the use of hourly averages in higher concentration ranges of O3 exceeding 374 ppb, however Riyadh city did not record ozone values exceeding 84 ppb on 8-hourly averages. O3 has been recorded at very low concentrations in Riyadh. Most of the values recorded are in the “Good” index range (98.06% on average) with values less than 64 ppb, with only a few exceptions of “Moderate” concentrations (1.94% on average) in the range of 65-84 ppb.
In relation to human health impacts, as an initial approach to understanding the relationships between air quality and possible health impacts in Riyadh, this study has applied the USEPA AQI. This involves applying the AQI in a completely different environment and to a totally different population than the one for which it was developed. In future work we will use population health statistics and air quality data for Riyadh to begin to establish baseline air pollution-health response relationships for the city of Riyadh.
SO2 has been estimated as the second most significant pollutant in Riyadh. Although an average of ~72% index values were recorded in 0-34 ppb range corresponding to “Good” air quality, about 27.38 % of index values were recorded in the range of 35-144 ppb which corresponds to “Moderate” air quality. The geographic distribution of the SO2 air quality index (Figure 5) indicates that the southeast part of the city (AZ) has the least SO2 pollution impact on air quality whereas the northwest of the city (KT) has the greatest SO2 pollution impact.
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The authors gratefully acknowledge support from King Abdulaziz City for Science and Technology (KACST). REFERENCES 1.
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Current World Environment
The Perception of the Langkawi Community on Solid Waste Management Noor Khafazilah Abdullah*, Zaini Sakawi and Lukman Ismail Centre for Social Studies, Development and Environment, Faculty of Social Sciences and Humanities, National Universityof Malaysia. http://dx.doi.org/10.12944/CWE.9.2.02 (Received: May 19, 2014; Accepted: July 03, 2014) ABSTRACT The process of disposing solid wastes should be systematic and efficient. Various pollution may occur if solid wastes are not properly disposed. Pollution would not only affect the naturalenvironment but also exposed the community to various diseases. Therefore the community should be given exposure to practice efficient solid waste disposalfor their own benefits.Given the signficance of proper waste disposal issues for tourism locations, this study investigated the management of solid waste disposal at the renown Langkawi Island. The focus was on the understanding and awareness of the community of the locals, business people and tourists on the island.The findings indicated that thecommunity inPulau Langkawi was aware of the importance of efficient solid waste management. Yet, theirpractices differed in terms of propriety or impropriety of the method in the perspectives of solid waste management. These practices were found to be influenced by their level of knowledge on waste management issues and their educational background.
Key words: Pollution, Solid waste, Management of solid waste, Community of island
INTRODUCTION Management of solid waste is currently a major challenge in many countries globally (Zafar, M. and Alappat, B.J. 2004; Emmanuel, N. et al. 2013;Joseph, K. et al. 2012). Urbanization, industrialization, housings and population growth are the factors contributing to the increase in generation of solid wastes (Abdul Manaf Bohari, 2006; Wee, S.T. 2006; Moh, Y.C. and Latifah Abd Manaf. 2014). Man various activities compelled increasing consumption of various finite sources (Md. Abdul Jalil. 2010). The advancement of packaging technology altered the parameter for designing facilties for managing solid wastes. The increasing use of plactics and frozen foods reduce generation of household wastes, but inadvertently increased disposal of wastes at processing plants (Wee, S.T and Jamaluddin Md. Jahi. 2003). Due to increasing solid waste generation, environmental stakeholders should develop more disposal capacities as safer means for waste disposal (Martuzzi, M. et al. 2010).
Wee, S.T (2006) defined human produced waste as materials ceased to be useful and no longer needed in human activities. Efficient management of solid waste is vital to reduce demand for natural resources and reduction of pollution. The efficiency willalso save human labour, enhance management system, produce energy, reduce demand for landfills and create job opportunities. Authorities in developing countries in particular tend to overlook the significance of waste minimization strategies, leading to situations where all ‘‘wastes’’ are sent to dumpsites for final disposal. This has made many cities lose sight of the economic value of waste and make them potential candidates for poor solid waste management (Oteng, M. and Ababio. 2011). Thus, Malaysian government have implemented various policies to enhance the efficiency of solidwaste management and prevent undesirable impact on human and the enviroment of Malaysian islands, given their rich biodvesity that should be sustained and prevented from
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degeneration.Significance of waste management for islands environment have attracted various studies from environment scientists. Tan, R.B.H dan Khoo, H.H. (2006) studied methods for solid waste management in Singapore. They discovered that incinerator posed harm to human health and environment. Eventhough energy is produced from the incinerator operation, yet it also caused pollution (heavy metals and dioxides). An ealier study on Langkawi island was by Johan Afendi Ibrahim dan Mohamad Zaki Ahmad (2007) who studied the effects of the Geopark on tourism and solid wastes in Langkawi. Unmanaged or poorly managed solid wastes disposal created dirty landscape and odourous air both ruinous to natural environment. The situation also brought diseases to human. Collaboration between environmental authorities and health professionals are vital to educate the community with innovative and practical information on managing solid waste disposal(Sessa, A. et al. 2009). Efficient solid waste management could be implemented if the authorities collaborate with the local community. To investigate the collaboration scenario in Langkawi, this study therefore aimed to find out the perception of the community at the Langkawi island on the solid wastes management and disposal on their island. Method and area of study Questionnaires were used to gather data for this study. A total of 30 questionnaires were distributed a purposive samplingof respondents, consisting of the locals, business people and tourists on the Langkawi island. Langkawi island is located about 30km offshore from the west coast of Peninsular Malaysia. The size of langkawi, the major island is 32,000 hectares, and the total for all the islets combined is 47,848 hectares.The average temperature is 33oC (33-34 oC) and annual rainfall is at 2500 mm. The areas involved in the study were Kampung Kilim, Kampung Sungai Itau, Kampung Titi Batu Dame Air, Kampung Matsirat, Kampung Belanga Pecah, Kampung Kisap, and Taman Mulia.
Results Background of the respondents The respondents were Malays (60.6%), Chinese (6%) and Indian (4%). Three respondent categories were locals, business people and tourists. Locals made up the most number of respondents at 42.4%, followed by business people 30.3% and tourists at 18.2%.The respondentscategories are for obtainingvaried perception based on their varied personal backgrounds. Several major areas were identified to obtain the factual information from local respondents on the knowledge of solid waste management issues. Kampung Maksirat respondents were the most at 24.2 % (8 persons),followed by those from Kampung Kilim and Taman Mulia both at 18.2% respectively. Respondents from Kampung Sg. Itau, Kampung Kisap were at 9.1% (3 persons). Respondents from Kampung Titi Batu Dame Air and Kampung Belanga Pecah were both at 3% each ( 1 respondent) (Figure 1). More than half of the respondents‘ households consisted of 3 to 5 people (60.6%) compared to those with 1 to 3 members at 30%. The respondents‘ educational level shows that 42.2% were SPM and STPM qualified (14 respondents). About 30.03% (10 respondents) had no schooling. Nevertheless, about 9.1% managed to obtain diploma and university education.Figure 2 shows the number of respondents receiving special training or eduation on management of solid wastes. Regarding exposure to specific education or training on environmental issues, the positive and negative responses were an rather even. About 30% (10 persons) indicated that they obtained the educational exposure on the environmental issues. Yet, same percentage (30%) of respondents indicated otherwise. About 45.4% of respondents never received any special educational exposure on the subject. While 27.3% (9 persons) uncertain. Only 18.2% (6 respondents) received the educational experience. Knowledge on management of solid wastes Fifteen respondents (45.5%) indicated that the solid waste management system shoud be systematic, while 45.5% more (15 persons) noted that efficiency means consistency in solid waste
Abdullah et al., Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(2), 237-243 (2014) collection. The MPL was deemed wholly responsible for the solid waste management and disposal. Regarding respondeents‘ method of waste disposal (Figure 3), 36.4% of the respondents committed open burning, 30.3% (10 persons)did burnand bury. Other 24.2% (8 persons) recycled their solid waste. Yet, incinerators was left out. The respondents did not have much information of the incinerator function in solid waste management and disposal. About 30.3% or 10 respondent opined that solid waste disposal is a major issue in Malaysia (Figure 4). About 24.2% respondents regarded toxic waste as major issue, and 18.2% (6 persons) thought it is the industrial waste. About 12.1% (4 persons) viewed clinical waste as a major problem, followed by gaseous waste at 6.1% (2 persons). Other than those, 51.5% or (10 respondents) noted that inefficient waste management and disposal was a major issue in Malaysia. Thirteen respondents (39.4%) regarded landfills as a major issue affecting efficiency of solid waste management.
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Respondents‘ view on management of solid waste in Langakawi island Some respondents indicated their uncetainty if solid wastes have been the cause of the pollution in Langkawi waters. Many respondents disagreedthat hotels activities and business at Pekan Kuah were the main factors to the pollution. Other factors contributing to the pollution were identified as the indutries and maritime activities. Many respondents also agreed that waste could be a source of income through recycling activities. Almost all respondents agreed that the wastes were harmful to human. About 54.5% (18 persons) opined that inefficient management caused skin diseases. While, 36.4% (12 persons) said it caused cancer. Evidently, the level of respondents awareness of health implication was rather high. Most respondents disposed almost 3 kg of wastes per day, consisting of food leftovers at 54.5% (18 persons); disposed plastics 36.4%. About 60.6% (20 persons) disposed twigs and branches collected in the waters. About 15.2% (5 persons) collected and disposed drink cans from the shores.
Fig.1: Number of Respondents Per Area of Study
Fig. 2: Special Environemtal Education and Waste Management Among Community
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Figure 5 shows the respondents‘ knowledge on the techniques of waste disppsal. About 30.3% (10 persons) understood reduction of sources and recycling. Those who were aware of the landfills were
Fig.3: Method of Respondents‘ Waste Disposal
at 15.2% (5 persons), while 9.1% (3 persons) knew compositing, and 6.1% of the incinerator. Public health, air pollution, odour disturbance, hazardous gas emissions are among the common phenomena occurring if improperly managed of solid wastes was practice (Zamali Tarmudi et al. 2009). Figure 6 shows that 27.3% (9 persons) stated that water pollution could occur due to poorly managed waste disposal. About 21.2% (7 persons) opined that solid wastes could cause airpollution, And 18.2% (6 persons) noted that solid waste caused odour pollution. About 12.1% or 4 respondents agreed that solid waste dumped into drainage could cause sewerage clogging. While 6.1% (2 persons) regarded solid wasste as All respondents agreed that more tourists would flock to Langkawi if it is free from solid waste issues. About 60.6% (20 persons) indicated that they would
Fig.4: Major management issues per types of wastes
Fig. 5: Respondents‘ Knowledge on Techniques of Waste Disposal
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Fig.6: Enviromental Effects Due to Poor Management of Solid Wastes.
disposed their solid wastes at proper places, while 30.3% (10 persons) would pt to reduce usage of sources to contribute towards resolving or mitigating Langkawi solid waste management issues. DISCUSSION Efficient solid waste management and disposal are vital to sustain the rich biodiversity of the island. This study clearly indicated that the community realised the importance of managing efficientsolid waste managent to sustain their wellbeing and conserve Langkawi environment and biodiversity. Yet their various educational backround influenced their way of disposing their own solid waste; which were a mix of proper and improper method with implications on both their well-being and environment. The respondents tend to opt for open burning, dumping at sea and some uncontrolled method to dispose the solid waste. If these attitude and behaviour were not corrected, more serious impact will appear in the near future. Teachers at school play a significant part in determining the successful implementation of environmental education among the young. It was demonstrated that teacher’s attitude, knowledge and behaviour towards the environment affect and influence the students’ attitude (Summers, M. 2000).The study about level of knowledge, environmental concern and ecologically conscious consumer behaviours and identify the extent of involvement in nature-related activities of school teachers in Selangor, Malaysia was conducted by Aini Mat Said et al. 2008. The study found that the
environmental knowledge was fair but generally poor in understanding of the underlying causes of environmental problems. The practices of environmentally showroom behaviours were not in concert with the level of concern and knowledge. The respondents were not actively involved in naturerelated activities. Nevertheless, it is perceived, the community involved in this study were aware of the importance of efficient solid waste management. Generationand management of solid waste involved various strategies such as recycling, reuse, collection, financial capacity, involvement of the authorities, and the public and private sectors.The attitude towards recycling is significantly influenced by perceived value, awareness and actual gains perceived by the consumers. Recycling behaviour was significantly influenced by resistance to change and attitude towards recycling (Ramayah, T. and Rahbar, E. 2013; Hope, E.T and Kingston. 1998; Wan, C. 2012). Plastics are probably the most common recyclable materials with high potential for recycling in Malaysia (Moh, Y.C. and Latifah Abd Manaf. 2014).Educational and promotional programmes highlighting the benefits and importance of recycling activities and convenience of the recycling facilities can be adopted as the key strategies to encourage recycling (Wan, C. et al. 2012). Recycling could reduce the burden of prosessing disposed wastes (Chiemchaisri, C. et al. 2007) and supports the economy as recycling provides wide profitable business ventures opportunities (Moh, Y.C and Latifah Abd Manaf. 2014)
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The community was also aware of the responsibility of the MPL on solid waste management and disposal. Yet, they tend to over relied on the MPL to manage the disposal. This posed an issue to the MPL, for the initial stage of proper collection and binning of the waste prior to MPL collection was not well-practiced by the community themselves. The MPL on its part has been holding community activities like collaborative cleaning campaigns to raise awareness of the community on solid waste management. This is a good practice for good solid waste management begins at home (Aung, M.and Arias, M.L. 2006). Government should necessarily take steps to educate the citizenry on waste reduction and separation as a matter of national policy. Probably, the government will have to enact the appropriate waste minimization legislation as a first step (Oteng, M. and Ababio. 2011). Sharing new information about activities by authorities to community probably will have some positive implications on solid waste management practices (Asmawati Desa et al. 2012). Thus the MPL also should properly informthe community of the services and exact locations of waste disposal facilities. This shall compel the community to practice proper disposal of their wastes. Despite their awareness of an incinerator facility, not many respondents knew of its real function. This happened due to lack of information
and exposure on the function of the incinerator to the community.Other than that, the JAS had not been quite active in conducting exposures and educating the public on proper method for waste disposal in Langkawi. Ignorance of these issues will cause the community great losses and open burning may continue to be practiced in time to come. CONCLUSION Generally the community at the Langkawi areas of study understood and aware ofthe issues on solid waste management. Nevertheless, their method of disposing the solid wastes varied according to the level of education. Respondents without proper knowledge on solid waste management and disposal tend to indiscriminately dispose their wastes such as through open burning.Therefore, the stakeholders such as the MPL(Langkawi Town Council) and JAS (Department of Environment) should be more proactive to handle the issues and monitor the development on the ground throughout Langkawi. More community activities such as environment cleaning programmes should be held to enhance their awareness and love for sustainable environment. Campaigns shouldalso be held at schools and higher learning institutions to inculcate positve attitude and actions towards maitaining and sustaining healthy Langkawi enviroment and biodiversity.
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Abdul Manaf Bohari, Tanggungjawab Social Korporat Terhadap Alam Sekitar Di Malaysia: Kepentingan pelaksanaan, Sintok, Universiti Utara Malaysia(2006). Aini Mat Said, Fakhrul-Razi Ahmadun, Laili Hj. Paim and Jariah Masud, International Journal of Sustainability in Higher Education, 4, 305 (2003). Asmawati Desa, Nor Ba’yah Abd Kadir and Fatimah Yusooff, Environmental Awareness and Education: A Key Approach to Solid Waste Management (SWM), Malaysia, 101 (2012). Aung, M. and Arias, M.L., Management of Environmental Quality: An International
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Journal, 17: 740 (2006). C h i e m c h a i s r i , C. , Ju a n g a , J. P. a n d Visvanathan, C., Municipal solid waste management in Thailand and disposal emission inventory Environ Monit Assess, 135: 13 (2007). Emmanuel, N., Emile, T., Benoit, M. and Pierre, E.S., The Open Waste Management Journal, 6: 5 (2013). Hobe, E.T and Kingston, Solid Waste Management: Critical Issues for Developing Countries, Jamaica: Canoe Press, University of the West Indies, 289 (1998). Johan Afendi Ibrahim dan Mohamad Zaki Ahmad, Sintok: Universiti Utara Malaysia (2007).
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Joseph, K., Rajendiran, S., Senthilnathan, R. and Rakesh, M., Journal of Mater Cycles Waste Management, 14: 75 (2012). Martuzzi, M., Mitis, F., and Forastiere, F., European Journal of Public Health, 20: 21 (2010). Md. Abdul Jalil, Journal of Suistainable Development, 3: 91 (2010). Moh, Y.C. and Latifah Abd Manaf, Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 82: 50 (2014). Oteng, M. and Ababio, Geo Journal, 76: 551(2011). Ramayah, T. and Rahbar, E., Management of Environmental Quality: An International Journal, 24: 782 (2013). Sessa, A., Giuseppe, G. D, Marinelli, P. and Angelillo, I.F., European Journal of Public Health, 20: 631(2009). Summers, M., Environmental Education
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Research, 31: 12 (2000). Tan, R.B.H and Khoo, H.H., Journal of the Air and Waste Management Association, 244 (2006). Wan, C., Cheung, R. and Shen, G.Q., Recycling attitude and behaviour in university campus: a case study in Hong Kong. Facilities, 30: 630 (2012). Wee, S.T., Sintok: Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (2006). Wee, S.T. and Jamaluddin Md Jahi, Bangi: Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (2003). Zafar, M. and Alappat, B.J., Management of Environmenat Quality: An International Journal (2004). Zamali Tarmudi, Mohd Lazim Abdullah and Abu Osman Md Tap, Journal of Technology, 51 :1(2009).
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Current World Environment
The Role of Drinking Water Shortages on Human Psychological Functioning Siamak Khodarahimi1, Abdolrahman Rahimian Boogar2 and Cheryl-anne Johnston3 1
Eghlid Branch, Islamic Azad University, Iran. 2 Universality of Zabol, Iran. 3 Independent Researcher; South Africa. http://dx.doi.org/10.12944/CWE.9.2.03
(Received: May 16, 2014; Accepted: July 11, 2014) Abstract This study is grounded on an ecopsychological approach towards the effect of water shortages on human psychological functioning. The purpose of this study was to: (1) to examine the prevalence of psychological problems in rural residents with and without water shortages; (2) to evaluate human attributions about the possible causes of water scarcity; (3) to explore human coping styles towards water shortage; and (4) to recognize the role of sociocultural factors on the aforesaid factors. Participants included 3850 Iranian rural residents, those with water shortages (WWS), and those without water shortages (WOWS). A demographic questionnaire and several selfrating measures were used. Resulting data indicates that the prevalence of mental health problems is significantly higher in rural residents who suffer with water shortages. Attributional styles towards water shortages consisted of four components: personal, social, natural, and organizational. Coping styles of participants (with water shortages) indicated an emotional-avoidant coping style, the utilization of water consumption methods to optimize water usage, the use of water-free technologies, social adaptation to life with regards to water, and the application of high quality technologies for water saving. Demographic and sociocultural factors influence psychological functioning with regards to water scarcity. This study demonstrates that mental health problems are more prevalent in areas with water shortages. It also indicates the impact of attributional styles, coping methods and the role of demographic and sociocultural factors on psychological functioning when water shortages occur.
Key words: drinking water shortage; Human psychological functioning; Attributional style; Mental health; Coping style.
Introduction The impact of climate change on water resources is the subject of much research and debate, with other factors such as over population also influencing the availability of water resources. Drinking water is essential for life. Of concern, is how access to drinkable water will impact on humans. The majority of people on Earth will experience severe pressure with regards to fresh water availability as a consequence of climate change1. Factors such as climate change, industrialization, and over population may already be impacting on fresh drinking water
resources. This is likely to cause an increase in the frequency and severity of droughts and water scarcity. More than 3.4 million people die each year from utilizing polluted water sources and from unsafe drinking water factors; particularly in the developed world2. In addition, nations in the Middle East and North Africa could face potentially catastrophic water disasters in the near future1. According to Iranian officials this potential for disaster may occur in Iran too2. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to investigate human psychological responses to water shortages in an Iranian sample.
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In the field of drought and psychology, there is substantial international literature about the role of drought on mental health and psychopathology in rural residents who live in drought-affected regions3-6. However, there is limited research about the effect of drinking water shortages on human psychological functioning. The present study is grounded on natural disasters, stress, worry, attributional styles and emotion theories10-16. In line with the aforementioned theories, the present study suggests that people perceive water shortages as a natural disaster which threatens their very existence, and not merely as a source of general stress. Psychological functioning in relation to water scarcity is therefore investigated with this in mind. Psychological functioning includes four constructs: mental health problems, perceivedstress, worry and negative emotions. The role of water shortages on mental health among humans is a relatively well-known issue; however its effect on perceived stress, worry and negative emotions is not as well known and forms the exploratory aspect of this study. It is hypothesized in this study, that human psychological responses towards drinking water shortages are different to human reactions to loss and catastrophic traumas. Therefore, the present study speculates that psychological responses to water shortages could be explained according to the attribution of its causality, human reactions to this disaster, and the role of cultural elements toward this phenomenon, and possible solutions for its management and control. According to the aforesaid theories and literature; the present study has four aims: (1) to examine the prevalence of psychological problems in rural residents with and without water shortages; (2) to evaluate human attributions about the possible causes of water scarcity; (3) to explore human coping styles toward water shortages; and (4) to recognize the role of sociocultural factors on the aforesaid constructs. The first hypothesis is that the prevalence of psychological problems in rural residents with water shortages (WWS) is greater than rural residents without water shortages (WOWS). The second hypothesis of this study is that attributional style towards the cause and effect of water shortages is a multifaceted construct. The third hypothesis of this study is that coping style
towards water shortages is a multifaceted construct in this sample. The fourth hypothesis of this study is that sociocultural factors (i.e. age, gender, the level of education, occupation, ethnicity, marital status, monthly income, the family size, city and village of residence) would have a significant influence on attributional and coping styles towards water shortages in this sample. Method Participants The participants were 4180 rural residents from two regions: Darab and Zarindasht; and Eghlid cities, Fars province, Iran. A total of 330 individuals’ data was removed due to their invalid responses to the measures. Participants in the group with drinking water shortages (WWS) were 3690 rural residents from 57 villages around Darab and Zarindasht cities, from the southern of Fars province. Participants in the Group without drinking water shortages (WOWS) were 160 rural residents from Dejkord district around Eghlid and Sarhad-e-Chahar Dange, the northern of Fars province. This sample included 1927 males and 1923 females. The total sample of rural residents consisted of 3850 participants. The mean (and standard deviation) of the age of the total sample was 41.90 (SD = 8.13). Participants were selected from all the villages in and separated into two groups using the random sampling method. As an incentive, they received psychological consultations to assist in adaptation to water scarcity, as well as technological information about drinking water equipment. This sample was recruited from all those villages with more than 10 families around the aforesaid cities. After informed consent was acquired, participants completed a questionnaire containing several sections on background information, and six selfrating inventories. Instruments The demographic questionnaire included items on age, gender, marital status, ethnicity, educational level, job status, number of family members, monthly income, monthly drinking water usage, monthly water price, and the city and village of residence. Nine inventories were used: (1) Attributional Scale of Water Shortage Causes (ASWSC), (2) the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS17),
khodarahimi et al., Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(2), 244-250 (2014) (3) the General Health Questionnaire 28 (GHQ2818), (4) the Ahwaz Worry Inventory (AWI17), (5) the Perceived Stress Scale (PSS19), and (6) the Coping Styles with Drink Water Crisis (CSDWS8). The PANAS contains 20 items which include a positive affect (PANAS-P; 10 items) and a negative affect (PANAS-N; 10 items). Each item is rated on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (very slightly or not at all) to 5 (very much or extremely). There has been considerable support for the construct validity of the PANAS. The GHQ-28 is a 28 item and a selfadministered screening scale that measures four factors: somatic symptoms, anxiety and insomnia, social dysfunction, and severe depression. AWI consists of 20 items with four possible answers that include “always, “often”, “sometimes” and “never” with numerical values of 3, 2, 1, and 0 respectively, and its scores range from 0 to 60. PSS is a 10-item scale and each item is rated on a 5-point scale ranging from never (0) to almost always (4). The CSDWS was developed to identify types of coping styles towards drinking water shortages in rural residents in the time of drought. All tests were administered in the Persian language. After reading the Informed Consent Form, all participants had the opportunity to ask any questions about the study before signing the informed consent. Results To examine the first hypothesis several calculations for the prevalence rate of psychological problems were conducted with water shortages
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as the independent variable and mental health problems, stress, worry and negative emotions as dependent variables in this sample (table 1). The initial data analysis related to the second hypothesis included an exploratory factor analysis that was conducted to examine the potential factors in the ASWSC. Principal factor analysis with varimax rotation was used to determine the construct validity of the ASWSC, and this analysis considered eignvalues higher than 1. Factor analysis specification was satisfactory, KMO = .86, Bartlett’s Test of Sphericity = .982, df = 508, p = .0001, Rotation Sums of Squared Loadings = 72.46. Factor analysis indicated that ASWSC consisted of four factors and eigenvalues for nine factors ranging from 1 to 5.49. These four factors explained a total of 72.46% of the variance. These factors included: (1) personal, (2) social, (3) natural, and (4) organizational attribution styles. To examine the third hypothesis, a confirmatory factor analysis was conducted to examine the potential factors in the CSDWS. Principal factor analysis with varimax rotation was computed to determine the construct validity of the CSDWS, and this analysis considered eigenvalues higher than 1. Factor analysis specification was satisfactory, KMO = .85, Bartlett’s Test of Sphericity = .984, df = 516, p = .0001, Rotation Sums of Squared Loadings = 75.66. Table 1 shows the significantly rotated correlation of higher than .30 for 52 items in 15 iterations. Factor analysis indicated that CSDWS
Table 1 : The Prevalence Rate of Psychological Problems in Rural Residents with and without Water Shortage Psychological Problems Mental Somatic Complaints Health Anxiety/Insomnia Problems Social Dysfunction Depression Total Mental Health Problems Perceived Stress Worry Negative Emotions
Rural Residents with Water Shortage
Rural Residents without Water Shortage
29.2 27.6 51.7 11.6 20.7
1.2 1.1 1.3 0.2 0.8
10.7 24.1 17.78
0.4 1.3 0.6
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Table 2: The Effects of Demographic and Socio-cultural Factors on Attribution Style, Psychological Problems, Negative Emotions, Stress and Worry in the Total Sample Independents Wilks’k City Region Village Age Gender Marital Status Education Occupation Monthly Income Family Size Ethnicity
.549 .976 .123 .206 .893 .971 .709 .753 .742 .739 .868
F
df
p
95.24 6.48 9.59 11.91 31.36 3.95 13.25 15.35 16.78 13.61 12.71
28,7 14,3 868,5 518,4 14,3 28,7 98,2 70,1 70,1 84,2 42,1
.0001 .0001 .0001 .0001 .0001 .0001 .0001 .0001 .0001 .0001 .0001
consisted of four factors and eigenvalues for nine factors ranged from 1 to 5.49. These four factors explained 75.66% of the variance. These factors included: (1) optimizing water consumption methods, (2) water-free technologies and social changes in life, (3) application of high quality technologies for water saving, and (4) emotional-avoidant styles. To evaluate the fourth hypothesis with regards to the influence of the independent variables from the sociocultural and demographic category, a multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) was computed. The Independent variables considered were age, gender, the level of education, occupation, ethnicity, marital status, monthly income, the family size, city and village of residence; whilst the dependent variables considered were attribution styles, psychological problems (i.e. mental health problems, stress, worry and negative emotions) and coping styles (with water shortages). An overall multivariate analysis demonstrated the significant effects of age, gender, educational level, occupation, ethnicity, marital status, monthly income, the family size, city and village of residence (independent variables) on the specified dependent variables (table 2). Discussion Results from the first hypothesis in this study showed that the prevalence of mental health
problems, stress and worry is significantly higher in WWS rural residents compared to WOWS residents. These findings are consistent with previous research that indicates the role of drought and water shortages on the mental health of rural residents2-8. In addition, these findings are congruent with predictions of ecopsychology relating to natural disasters, stress, worry and emotions10, 11, 14, 21, 22. These findings demonstrate the human-nature interaction in the field of mental health and psychopathology. Therefore natural hazards such as water shortages may reduce human adaptation and, in turn, increase the probability of developing mental disorders. Results from the second hypothesis indicated that the attributional style toward water shortages is a multidimensional construct with four subscales. These factors included: (1) personal, (2) social, (3) natural, and (4) organizational attributional styles. These findings show that the meaning of water shortages, (based on an individual’s approach) motivates people to find a cause and then apply an explanation based on his/her knowledge of the environment. For causal explanations and effect inferences about water shortages, people look for attributions related to the behaviors of others, organizations, and themselves. These findings are congruent with predictions of attributional theory about cause and effect inferences of different physical and social events21. This study shows the application of attributional theory when understanding and managing natural disasters such as water shortages. Also, this study suggests that the nature of cause and effect inferences about water shortages may be influenced by sociocultural factors such as gender, ethnicity, and so forth that need further investigation. In practice, the present finding may be of value in creating an efficient program about water shortages at a community level. This result may prove useful for developing strategies that will ensure that people conserve water resources in rural regions. Therefore people with information may then have personal, social and organizational attributions about the causality of water shortages which provide options on how to change their lifestyles with regards to water consumption and how to prompt water conservation at social level; and will assist them to make social and organizational institutions more responsible about water management and conservation.
khodarahimi et al., Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(2), 244-250 (2014) Results from the third hypothesis in this study using confirmatory factor analysis confirmed the previous structure of coping style with regards to water shortages. This factor structure includes four levels of factors: (1) optimizing water consumption methods, (2) water-free technologies and social changes in life, (3) application of high quality technologies for water saving, and (4) emotionalavoidant styles. This result is in line with previous literature8. Also, this finding may be explained in line with stress and coping theory12. This study suggests that social and personal changes in life style are essential for efficient coping with water shortages in drought-affected regions. This study explores the necessity of changes in primary and secondary appraisal when people encounter a chronic and slow form of natural disaster such as water shortages. According to theses findings, people should be changing their personal and familial life styles towards a standardized procedure for water consumption. For example, they should only use drinking water inclusively for drinking purposes rather than for car washing, horticulture and agriculture purposes. Also, they may teach the standard usage of drinking water to children by the application of modeling and behavior modification principles. People can adapt some of their social rituals to reduce the irrational use of drinking water, particularly rituals about weddings and funerals in the rural regions. In addition, most of the water equipment in the rural areas is old and inefficient for water preservation purposes. Rural residents could use a few modern and standard water pops instead and they can teach these principles to their children and families. Finally, these findings show that people should be educated about the fact that water shortages are real and they can not cope with it by emotional and avoidant styles such as substance abuse, mystery and prayer. Results from the four th hypothesis demonstrated the role of demographics and socio-cultural factors on psychological problems and coping styles toward water shortages in the total sample. Results showed that WOWS rural residents have significantly lower levels of psychological problems, stress and worry and a significantly greater performance in optimizing water consumption methods, water-free technologies and social changes in life, and application of high
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quality technologies for water saving compared to WWS residents. Individuals of 40-years-old and over have significantly higher levels of psychological problems and a greater use of successive coping style with water shortages, than individuals of a lower aged-range. Married people have higher psychological problems, stress and worry than single individuals. Females have greater psychological problems and a lower performance in rational coping with water shortages than males. Individuals with lower educational levels have higher psychological problems and lower performance in the application of a rational coping style with water shortages, compared to individuals with higher educational levels. Farmers, housewives and unemployed individuals have greater psychological problems than governmental employee and sellers. However, farmers, housewives and employed individuals tend to use rational coping styles in relation to water shortages than the unemployed and sellers. Lower income is linked with higher psychological problems and with the application of avoidantemotive coping with water shortages. Also, greater family size is linked to higher psychological problems and the higher use of rational coping toward water scarcity. People with Turkish ethnicity have higher psychological problems, and they use lower rational coping towards water shortages in comparison to Lour and Fars individuals. These findings are consistent with the studies that affirm the roles of sociocultural and demographic factors on psychological functions of individuals, under the conditions of natural hazards and disasters23-27. The influences of demographics and socio-cultural factors on mental health and coping towards water shortages in this study show the beneficial application of a cultural-oriented approach in the ecopsychology of natural disasters management. In conclusion, the present study advocates an ecopsychological approach to the understanding and management of water shortage, because it explains the role of water shortages in the prevalence of psychological problems; multidimensional structure of attribution and coping styles towards water shortage; and the influences of demographics and socio-cultural factors on the aforesaid constructs in a sample of rural residents in Iran. These findings can be applied by clinicians and policy makers for assessment and intervention purposes of
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natural hazards in psychotherapeutic and social settings. This study recommends the training of ecopsychology elements to strengthen psychological function towardst water shortages among people in drought-affected regions. Moreover, these findings highlight the necessity of life style changes toward drinking water everywhere. However, the present
study is limited because it relies on a survey design and the use of a few self-rating scales. Future investigations should examine the role of water shortage on physical health, social behaviors, creativity and innovation and life style in crosscultural samples within longitudinal designs.
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Current World Environment
Strategic Use of Government Procurement to Spur Renewable Energy Generation in Malaysia Khairul Naim Adham1*, Chamhuri Siwar1, Sarah aziz abd ghani aziz and Md. Anowar Hossain Bhuiyan1 Institute for Environment and Development (LESTARI), National University of Malaysia (UKM), 43600 Bangi Selangor, Malaysia. 1
http://dx.doi.org/10.12944/CWE.9.2.04 (Received: May 07, 2014; Accepted: July 13, 2014) Abstract The energy sector plays an important role in Malaysia’s socioeconomic development. However energy production is the largest contributor to air pollution. Malaysia’s emission intensity levels of green house gases (GHGs) in the energy sector are above the global average. In this view, government procurement which refers to the acquisition of supplies, services and works by the government plays a vital role as an economic instrument to promote sustainable use of energy - by intensifying the development of renewable energy (RE) and encourage energy efficiency practices. These would ensure continuous supply of energy for future generation, and reduce the negative impact to human and environment. In the context of Malaysia, its huge public expenditure of 24-33% of Gross Domestic Product (GDP) could be used to spur RE generation by integrating RE requirements in constructing or upgrading government buildings. By having this initiative, the government will show its strong commitment towards promoting RE generation and creating a favourable environment for RE development.
Key words: Government procurement, Government green procurement, Sustainable energy, Renewable energy, Energy efficiency. Introduction Energy sector is the backbone of Malaysia’s economic development striving for high income developed nation, inclusiveness and sustainability by 2020 (KeTTHA 2009; MNRE, 2009; NEAC, 2010a; 2010b). Energy is an essential element for social and economic growth (Haw et al., 2006) and economic competitiveness requires sustainable energy production and consumption (MNRE, 2010). Malaysia’s Green Technology Policy has recognised energy sector as one of the four pillars in accelerating the Malaysia’s economic development (KeTTHA, 2010). However, rapid economic development has drastically increased the country’s energy consumption and subsequently contributing to environmental degradation. According to EU (2011), electricity generation from fossil fuels is one of the principal sources of green house gases (GHGs) emissions globally. Available evidences have shown
energy production is the largest contributor toair pollution in Malaysia (KeTTHA, 2009). Moreover, Malaysia’s GHGs emission intensity levels in the energy sector are above the global average (UNDP, 2009). According to the Second National Communication to the United Nation Framework Convention on Climate Change, energy industries in Malaysia are the largest carbon dioxide (CO2) emitters amounting to 35% of the total CO2 emission (MNRE, 2009). This shows energy sustainability is vital to deal with the growing pressure on environment. For these reasons, sustainable energy development measures have become one of the Malaysian government strategies towards ensuring its vibrant and sustainable economic growth. In recognising the importance of energy sustainability, the Malaysian government has taken various measures to ensure long term reliability and security of energy supply, efficient utilization
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of energy and at the same time reducing the negative impact on the environment. In the context of Malaysia, SEDA (2011a) defines sustainable energy as an energy which in its generation, provision and use has minimal negatives impact to human and environment, and can be supplied continuously to future generation. One of the approaches in achieving sustainable energy is by promoting the use of renewable energy (RE). RE refers to any form of primary energy from recurring and non-depleting resources (KeTTHA, 2009) or energy derived from natural processes that are constantly replenished (MNRE, 2010). According to EU Directive 2009/28/EC on the promotion of the use of energy from renewable sources, RE sources are renewable non-fossil energy sources including wind, solar, geothermal, wave, tidal, hydro-power, biomass, landfill gas, sewage treatment plant gas and biogases (EC, 2004). The use of RE is expected to reduce the environmental pollution due to the GHGs emissions such as CO2, nitrogen oxides (NOx), sulphur oxides (SOx) and particulate matters as a result of power generation from oil, natural gas and coal (Mustapa et al., 2010; KeTTHA, 2011). RE resources in Malaysia include palm oil biomass wastes such as empty fruit bunches (EFB), mesocarp fibres, palm kernel shells (PKS) and palm oil mill effluents (POME); mini-hydro; solar power; solid waste and land-fill gas; wind energy and geothermal; wastes and gases from agro-based and farming industries (KeTTHA, 2009). Malaysia aims to achieve RE target of 985MW (contributing 5.5% to Malaysia’s total electricity generation mix) by 2015 (KeTTHA, 2009) and 2,080MW (11%) by 2020 (KeTTHA 2009).In achieving sustainable energy, the Malaysian government has made efforts to intensify the development of RE and encourage energy efficiency practices. However, the paper focuses only on the development of RE. The paper highlights how government procurement could be used as one of the instruments towards promoting RE generation. Materials and Methods Methods The study is review in nature. The study used secondary sources such as policies and plans from relevant ministries and agencies of the Malaysian Government. The published document
were reviewed in order to obtain an overview of RE initiatives in Malaysia. Government green procurement (GGP) Government procurement refers to the acquisition of supplies, services and works in accordance with government rules and regulations (Adham&Siwar, 2012b). Government procurement plays a crucial role for socioeconomic development in Malaysia as it represents 24-33 percent of gross domestic product (GDP) (Adham&Siwar, 2011). In dealing with environmental degradation issues, government procurement could also be used to minimize the impact to the environment or known as government green procurement (GGP). Bouwer et al. (2005) have defined GGP as the approach by which Public Authorities integrate environmental criteria into all stages of their procurement process, thus encouraging the spread of environmental technologies and the development of environmentally sound products, by seeking and choosing outcomes and solutions that have the least possible impact on the environment throughout their whole life-cycle. GGP among others includes purchasing of energy-efficient computers, office equipment made from sustainable timber, recycled paper, hybrid or low-emission vehicles and constructing green/low energy buildings (EC, 2004; EU, 2011). According to Geng&Doberstein (2008), the effective implementation of GGP could offer greater impacts for the developing countries where many of them are facing natural resource scarcities. Benefits associated with the implementation of GGP are not only limited to environment but also on the economic and social aspects. Empirical studies have found that GGP has the potential to reduce CO2 emissions and operating costs by the government in the long run (PWC et al., 2009; EC, 2004). EU found that if all public authorities across the EU demanded for green electricity, it will save about 60 million tons of CO2 which is equivalent to 18% of the EU’s greenhouse gas reduction commitment under the Kyoto Protocol (EC, 2004). GGP practices have been implemented in many countries throughout the world and have been regarded as an effective means of reducing environmental burdens. For this reason, more and more countries have established GGP policies at national levels to integrate environmental considerations in their government procurement decisions. In the context of Malaysia, GGP is
Adham et al., Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(2), 251-259 (2014) defined as the acquisition of products, services and work in the public sector that takes into account environmental criteria and standards to conserve the natural environment and resources, that minimises and reduces the negative impacts of human activities (KeTTHA, 2012). Environmental criteria in the given definition refer to products, equipment or systems that minimize degradation to the environment, have zero or low green house gas (GHG) emission, safe for use and promote healthy and improved environment for all forms of life, conserve the use of energy and natural resources, and promote the use of renewable resources such as RE as outlined in the NGTP (KeTTHA, 2009). Sustainable energy The importance of energy sustainability in Malaysia had been recognised many years ago. Initial efforts towards achieving energy sustainability have been initiated since 1975 when the National Petroleum Policy (NPP) was introduced to ensure optimal use of petroleum resource. Four years later, the National Energy Policy (NEP) was formulated with three primary objectives which are to ensure the provision of adequate energy supplies, efficient utilization of energy and minimization of environmental burden. In achieving these objectives, subsequent energy policies such as the National Depletion Policy (NDP; 1980) and Four-Fuel Diversification Policy (4FDP; 1981) were formulated. NDP is intended to conserve Malaysia’s energy resources particularly oil and gas whereas 4FDP aims to reduce Malaysia’s overdependence on oil as the energy source (Hitam, 2000).
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Renewable energy initiative in Malaysia In recognising the potential of RE, the Malaysian government has embarked on a number of initiatives to encourage the use of RE as an additional source of fuel as outlined in the FiveFuel Diversification Policy (5FDP; 2001) under the 8th Malaysia Plan (8MP; 2001-2005) (EPU, 2001). Besides oil, gas, hydro and coal, 5FDP has identified additional sources of energy from biomass, biogas, municipal waste, solar, wind and mini-hydro for electricity generation. Efforts to develop and promote the utilization of RE were further intensified under the 9th Malaysia Plan (9MP; 2006-2010) (EPU, 2006). The use of PV systems (solar generating sets and solar hybrids) for rural electrification has been initiated way back in 1980s for rural villages without electricity supply. SREP was launched in 2000 to intensify the utilization of RE in power generation with RE targeted to contribute 5% of generation capacity by 2005. Five RE sources have been identified under SREP which are biomass, biogas, solar, mini-hydro and solid waste. SREP allows renewable energy projects of up to 30MW in capacity to sell output to the utility company (Adham et al., 2013). BioGEN aims at developing and exploiting energy potentials of biomass from palm oil industries while MBIPV attempts to act as a catalyst for greater Building Integrated Photovoltaic (BPIV) technology acceptance among the public and private sector. MBIPV focuses on three major areas namely policy and education, technical skill and market implementation and technology development support to increase BPIV applications and induce long term cost reduction (KeTTHA, 2009).
Discussion The Malaysian government has introduced several initiatives to support the development of RE such as the implementation of photovoltaic (PV) System for Rural Electrification Program, Small Renewable Energy Programme (SREP), Biomass Power Generation and Demonstration Project (BioGEN) and Malaysian Building Integrated Photovoltaic Technology Application Project (MBPIV) (MNRE, 2009). Besides that, fiscal incentives such as the Pioneer Status (PS) or Investment Tax Allowance (ITA), have also been introduced (KeTTHA, 2009).
The use of biofuel has been identified as one of the strategies to reduce dependency on fossil fuels. In this regard, the Malaysian government has set the platform for the development of the biofuel industry in Malaysia with the release of the National Biofuel Policy (NBP) on March 2006. The policy is primarily aimed at reducing the country’s dependence on depleting fossil fuels, promoting the demand for palm oil as well as stabilizing its prices at a remunerative level. NBP envisions use of environmentally friendly, sustainable and viable sources of energy to reduce the dependency on depleting fossil fuels; and enhance prosperity and
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well-being of all the stakeholders in the agriculture and commodity based industries through stable and remunerative prices. Five strategic thrusts are underpinned NBP viz. biofuel for transport; biofuel for industry; biofuel technologies; biofuel for export; and biofuel for cleaner environment. NBP encourages the use of biofuel by providing incentive for biofuel infrastructure development and developing industry standards (MPIC, 2006). The National Green Technology Policy (NGTP) was launched in 2009 to promote the use of green technology in accelerating the Malaysia’s economy and promote sustainable development. NGTP has clearly stated Malaysia intentions to promote the use of renewable resources and attaining energy independence (KeTTHA, 2010). The National Policy on Climate Change (NPCC) was formulated in 2010 to encourage wise management of natural resources and enhance environmental conservation as a measure to strengthen economic competitiveness and improve the people’s quality of life (MNRE, 2010). NPCC in its strategic thrust aims at enhancing RE. The National RE Policy and Action Plan (NREPAP) was launched on April 2010 to enhance the utilization of indigenous RE resources to contribute towards national electricity supply security and sustainable socio-economic development. It has five key objectives namely (i) to increase RE contribution in the national power generation mix; (ii) to facilitate the growth of the RE industry; (iii) to ensure reasonable RE generation costs; (iv) to conserve the environment for future generation; and (v) to enhance awareness on the role and importance of RE. In order to achieve the policy objectives, 5 strategic thrusts have been drawn namely (i) introduction of appropriate regulatory framework such as RE Act and Feedin-tariff (FiT) mechanism; (ii) providing conducive environments for RE businesses such as the provision of fiscal incentives; (iii) intensifying human capital development; (iv) enhancing RE research and development; and (v) designing and implementing RE advocacy programme. NREAP aims to produce 985MW (6%) of RE in the year 2015 and 21.4GW (73%) by 2050 (KeTTHA, 2009). The Malaysia’s RE Policy and Action Plan has highlighted a number of RE resources in Malaysia and their potentials as shown in Table 1.
The 10 th Malaysia Plan (10MP; 20112016) indicates the Malaysian Government path in advancing RE. The 10M Precognizes the importance of RE as one of the new growth areas to ensure reliable, high quality and cost-effective supply of energy. Among other measures to secure and manage reliable energy supply are by enhancing the use of alternative resources (particularly hydro), regulating the use of biofuel in the transport sector, developing new-coal based plants and applying critical coal technology. For these reasons, besides ensuring reliability of electricity supply, the 10MP emphasizes in creating demand for RE to spur business opportunities. In achieving the goals, three main strategies have been outlined namely (i) developing and enforcing regulations especially on energy efficiency in buildings for new developments; (ii) promoting investment in RE to provide long-term contracts for RE providers and create the spill over effects on the related domestic service providers; and (iii) promoting culture of conservation and efficiency in energy and water use. The 10MP is aiming at increasing RE contributions to 5.5% of Malaysia’s total electricity generated by 2015 (EPU, 2010). The Government Transformation Program (GTP) draws the need of using creative and innovative solution such as implementing solar hybrid power generation or micro hydro-electricity as a catalyst for the development of sustainable energy in Malaysia (PEMANDU, 2010a). The New Economic Model (NEM) under its Strategic Reformation Initiatives 8 (SRI8) targets to preserve natural environment by formulating comprehensive energy policy as a push factor to shift to RE (NEAC, 2010a; 2010b). Under the Economic Transformation Program (ETP), the Malaysian government has identified four entry point projects (EPPs) as a platform to promote sustainable energy development namely improving energy efficiency (EPP9); building up solar power capacity (EPP10); developing nuclear energy for power generation (EPP12); and tapping Malaysia’s hydroelectricity potential (EPP12). EPP10 intends to increase solar power capacity of at least 220MW by 2020 while EPP12 realizes the potential of hydroelectricity in providing a secure and long term supply of electricity particularly in Sarawak and Borneo region (PEMANDU, 2010b).
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Table 1: RE resources potential in Malaysia RE Resources
Potential (MW)
Biomass Biogas Mini Hydro Solar PV Municipal Waste Total
1.340 410 500 6,500 400 9,150
Source: KeTTHA (2009)
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In order to provide a more favourable environment for RE development, the Renewable Energy Act (REA; 2011) and Sustainable Energy Development Authority Act 2011 (SEDAA; 2011) have been enacted under the 10MP. REA is an act to facilitate sustainable RE growth and development. REA provides a special tariff system to stimulate the generation of RE and outlines provision for Feed-in Tariff (FiT) mechanism’s implementation. The FiT is a mechanism that allows electricity produced from indigenous RE resources to be sold to power utilities at a fixed premium price for a specific duration (KeTTHA, 2011; SEDA, 2011b). REA is
Table. 2: RE initiatives in Malaysia Year Initiatives 1980s 1998 2001 2002 2005 2006 2009 2010 2011
Photo Voltaic (PV) System for Rural Electrification Program First PV Grid Connected System Application Formulation of Fifth Fuel PolicySmall RE Power Program (SREP) Biomass Power Generation and Co-Generation Project (BIOGEN) Malaysia Building Integrated Photovoltaic Project (MBIPV) National Biofuel Policy National Green Technology Policy (NGTP) National RE Policy and Action Plan (NREPAP) Renewable Energy Act (REA) Sustainable Energy Development Authority Act 2011 (SEDAA)
Source: Adapted MNRE (2009) Table. 3: RE implementation issues Issues Description Market failure exists Inherent factor Arbitrary price setting Tensions and trade-offs Absence of Regulatory Framework Poor governance Limited Oversight Lack of institutional measures Source: KeTTHA (2009)
The RE market “fails” due to misuse of monopsony power and information asymmetries; the RE market is also constrained by financial and technological factors Inherent factors that constrain the performance of the market RE prices set arbitrarily The predicament of expecting that the utility will bear the higher costs of RE power (due to the higher RE price) Market failure compounded by absence of a proper regulatory framework, which prevents proper and legal action from being taken Poor governance detrimentally affects the participation of stakeholders and legitimacy of the action No concerted oversight of implementation problems Lack of proper institutional measures to meet informational and technological needs
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Documents
Commitments
10MP There will be a push towards green technology through the National Green Technology Policy, in preparation for green products and services becoming the preferred choice for public procurement (p. 83) KeTTHA together with SIRIM Berhad, will develop a national eco-labeling scheme and standards for our products and services that match international standards. This will in turn support the government’s green procurement initiative as well as assist local manufacturers to export their products. Increased labeling of environmentally friendly goods and services such as Energy Efficiency Star Rating, Low Carbon Footprint Products and Green Building Index will increase Malaysia’s competitiveness (p. 299) Implementing value-management analysis and life-cycle cost evaluation for procurement. Development programmes and projects costing RM50 million or more will be subject to value-management analysis. This approach requires consideration of various options to arrive at the optimal project design aligned to the desired outcomes. Life-cycle cost evaluation will ensure cost optimization and value-for-money while meeting required performance levels. Ministries and agencies implementing projects costing less than RM50 million will also be encouraged to conduct similar analyses (p.338) NEM Ensure public procurement supports local innovation (p.28) A more efficient procurement process will address wider issues covering long-term economic and social viability, environmental impact, and the residual contingency risks that government may have to bear (p. 93) ETP Boost demand for green products and services. Government will take the lead in raising efficiency and growing the green technology industry. First, the KeTTHA will set efficiency targets stipulating that all ministries must reduce electricity and water consumption by 10 percent per year from 2011 to 2013. Second, KeTTHA will set the target across ministries that 50 percent of the goods and services purchased by the public sector should be eco-labeled by 2020. To this end, a green public procurement policy shall be put in place by October 2011, to give preference to local producers, establish buying guidelines for eco-labeled products and specify the required energy efficiency certification for specific products (p. 417) NGTP Short-term goals: 10th Malaysia Plan (ii) widespread availability and recognition of Green Technology in terms of products, appliances, equipment and systems in the local market through standards, rating and labeling programs, (p. 7). Mid-term goals: 11th Malaysia Plan (i) Green technology becomes the preferred choice in procurement of products and services, (ii) Green Technology has a larger local market share against other technologies, and contributes to the adoption of Green Technology in regional market, (ii) Increased production of local Green Technology products (p. 10) Long-term goals: 12th Malaysia Plan and beyond (ii) Widespread adoption of Green Technology reduces overall resource consumption while sustaining national economic growth, (v) Malaysia becomes a major producer of Green Technology in the global market (p. 10) NREPAP Government should use its strategic public procurement power to spur RE regeneration and industry growth (p.57) SMEMP In many countries, government have played a major role in supporting SME product through specific government procurement policy (p.100) Annual 2010 - give priority to environmentally-friendly products and services that comply with Federal green technology standards in government procurement (p. 19) Government Budget
Adham et al., Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(2), 251-259 (2014) also allows the establishment of Sustainable Energy Development Authority (SEDA) as an implementing agency for FiT. SEDA is tasked to manage the RE Fund to ensure RE becomes a viable and sound long-term investment for companies, industries and individuals (SEDA, 2011b). RE initiatives in Malaysia are summarized in Table 2. Issues and challenges for RE development in Malaysia Prior to NREPAP, the development of RE in Malaysia has been generally slow due to a number of issues and challenges in Table 3. Despite a range of RE’s initiatives and incentives, the RE target set out under 8MP and 9MP was not achieved (EPU, 2010). For instance, the BioGEN was unable to achieve its intended objectives due to inability to control certain parameters (MNRE, 2009). The Government has set a target of 300MW of the country’s electricity from RE by 2010, but only achieved up to 56.7MW (KeTTHA 2009). Presently, RE development has shown good progress but its development is still considered slow. As of December 2013, SEDA has approved RE projects with RE capacity of 482MW, comprising solar PV (40.2%), biomass (27.2%), hydropower (27.2%) and biogas (4.9%) (SEDA, 2013). Based on this trend, the authors find PV has shown good progress while the developments of other RE sources are under-performed. If this trend continues, it will be difficult to meet Malaysia’s goal of producing 985MW of RE by the end of 2015. The issues and challenges need to be addressed wisely to ensure the RE targets could be achieved. Government green procurement in malaysia GGP is still a new concept in Malaysia (Adham&Siwar, 2011; 2012a; 2012b). At this point in time, GGP has not been formally adopted and there is no policy, regulation and legal framework with regards to GGP (Adham&Siwar, 2011; 2012a; 2012b). While Malaysia is somewhat behind the line in term of GGP implementation, as compared to its neighbouring countries, the Malaysian government has acknowledged the importance of GGP and initial steps have been taken towards its implementation. The Malaysian government commitments have been outlined in 10MP, NEM, ETP, NGTP, NREPAP, Small and Medium Enterprises Master Plan (SMEMP) and Annual Federal Government Budget. Under the ETP, the Government has made GGP as one of its Entry
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Point Projects (EPP). Table 4 shows details of the Malaysian government commitments. Strategic use of GGP GGP could be considered as enabling factors that would promote the generation of RE. One of the GGP approaches is by giving preferences to designs which incorporate RE systems or require electricity (or a proportion of electricity) to be generated from renewable energy sources (EC, 2004; EU, 2011). Electricity produced from renewable energy sources refers to electricity produced by plants using only renewable energy sources as well as the proportion of electricity produced from renewable energy sources in hybrid plants also using conventional energy sources (EU, 2011). In this aspect, many EU’s public authorities are now procuring electricity from RE sources. Some related examples can be seen in the construction of school in Pembroke, Malta and hospital in Vienna, Austria. The use of on-site RE production is required in constructing new school buildings in Pembroke whilst the use of RE sources is one of the requirements in constructing new hospital in Vienna. Likewise, government procurement in Malaysia could also be used strategically to spur RE generation. This approach is in line with NREPAP where NREPAP suggests government to include the use of building integrated RE as a requirement in upgrading its federal buildings (KeTTHA, 2009). To achieve this, design elements for RE technology in particular BIPV, could be incorporated into the Malaysia’s government standard and cost guidelines and procedures. The preference to RE, RE technologies and the requirement for building integrated RE could also demonstrate the government’s commitment to RE, create demand for RE materials and enhance RE skills which in turn will encourage market entry of related businesses (KeTTHA, 2009). Conclusion Energy sustainability contributes greatly to Malaysia’s agenda to become high-income developed nation, sustainable and inclusive in the year 2020. Since time of abundant and low-priced resources that the people enjoyed in the past decade is coming to a full stop, the use of RE is one of
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the approaches in dealing with this situation. The implementation of GGP could serve as one of the solutions by utilizing the huge government spending as a market force to spur RE generation. In long term, widespread RE generation would ensure reliability and security of energy supply, reduce GHGs emission and enhance the people’s quality of life. Acknowledgments
University of Malaysia for providing Fundamental Research Grant Scheme (FRGS) on ‘Greening the Economy’ (FRGS/1/2012/SSO7/UKM/01/3) and Exploratory Research Grant Scheme (ERGS) on ‘The measurement of Oil Palm Economic Potential’ (ERGS/1/2013/SS07/UKM/01/1) which made this study possible. Both grants are headed by Emeritus Professor ChamhuriSiwar. Sincere gratitude also to Public Service Department of Malaysia for providing the scholarship under Federal Training Award Scheme to the first author.
The authors would like to acknowledge the Ministry of Education of Malaysia and National
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Hitam, S., Sustainable energy policy and strategies: A pre-requisite for the concerted development and promotion of the renewable energy in Malaysia, Economic Planning Unit Kuala Lumpur (2000). Ministry of Energy, Green Technology and Water (KeTTHA),National Renewable Energy Policy and Action Plan,Ministry of Energy, Green Technology and Water Malaysia, Putrajaya (2009) Ministry of Energy, Green Technology and Water Malaysia (KeTTHA). National Green Technology Policy,Ministry of Energy, Green Technology and Water Malaysia, Putrajaya (2010) Ministry of Energy, Green Technology and Water (KeTTHA),Handbook on the Malaysian Feed-in Tariff for the promotion of renewable energy,Ministry of Energy, Green Technology and Water, Putrajaya (2011) Ministry of Energy, Green Technology and Water (KeTTHA), Pengenalan Perolehan HijauKerajaan Edisi 1,KeTTHA,Putrajaya (2012) (in Malay) Ministry of Finance Malaysia (MOF),The 2010 Budget Speech, Ministry of Finance Malaysia, Putrajaya,Percetakan Nasional Malaysia Berhad(2009a) Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment Malaysia (MNRE), National Policy on Climate Change, Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment Malaysia, Putrajaya (2010) Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment Malaysia (MNRE), Malaysia Second National Communication to the UNFCCC, Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment Malaysia, Putrajaya (2009) Ministr y of Plantation Industries and Commodities (MPIC),National Biofuel Policy,Ministry of Plantation Industries and Commodities, Putrajaya (2006). Mustapa, S.I., Peng, L.Y. and Hashim, A.H., Issues and challenges of renewable energy development: A Malaysian experience, RERIC Asian Institute of Technology, The Empress Hotel, Chiang Mai, Thailand, 2-4 June (2010) National Economic Advisory Council Malaysia (NEAC), New economic model for Malaysia Part 1,Percetakan Nasional Malaysia Berhad,
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Kuala Lumpur (2010a) National Economic Advisory Council Malaysia (NEAC), New economic model for Malaysia Concluding Par t, Percetakan Nasional Malaysia Berhad, Kuala Lumpur (2010b) Performance Management and Management Unit (PEMANDU), Government Transformation Program, Perfor mance Management and Management Unit, Prime Minister Department,Percetakan Nasional Malaysia Berhad, Kuala Lumpur (2010a) Performance Management and Management Unit (PEMANDU), Economic Transformation Program, Perfor mance Management and Management Unit, Prime Minister Department,Percetakan Nasional Malaysia Berhad, Kuala Lumpur (2010b) PricewaterhouseCoopers (PWC), Significant and Ecofys, Collection of statistical. information on Green Public Procurement in the EU - Repor t on data collection results,PricewaterhouseCoopers, Significant andEcofys (2009) http://www. ec.europa.eu/ environment/gpp/pdf/statistical _information. pdf [12 Jun 2013] SME Corporation Malaysia (SME), SME Masterplan, SME Corporation Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur (2012) Sustainable Energy Development Authority (SEDA),Sustainable Energy Development Au t h o r i t y A c t 2 0 1 1 ( 2 0 1 1 a ) h t t p : / / seda.gov.my/ gohome.php?omaneg = 0001010000000101010100010000100 0000000000000000000 & s =147 [accessed on 29 December 2011] Sustainable Energy Development Authority (SEDA),Overview of the FiT System in Malaysia, (2011b) http://seda.gov.my/gohome.php?omaneg = 0001010000000101 0101000100001000000000 000000000000 & s = 6 [accessed on 29 December 2011]. Sustainable Energy Development Authority (SEDA), RE generation (2013). http://seda. gov.my United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), Human Development Repor t 2007/2008, Fighting Climate Change: Human Solidarity in a Divided World, Palgrave Macmillan, New York (2009)
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Three Platforms for Sustainable Environmental Sanitation Sarwoko Mangkoedihardjo Department of Environmental Engineering, Sepuluh Nopember Institute of Technology (ITS) Surabaya, Indonesia. http://dx.doi.org/10.12944/CWE.9.2.05 (Received: May 17, 2014; Accepted: June 05, 2014) Abstract This paper proposed three platforms for sustainable environmental sanitation to strengthen three pillars of sustainable development. Understanding of the sanitation scope was identified. Problem on polluted environment was added and accompanied by the products as environmental resources. Environmental resources, repression and remediation were proposed for the task of sustainable environmental sanitation in the future.
Key words: Resources, Repression, Remediation.
Introduction Understanding of sanitation used by many references had been referring to the definition of sanitation by WHO1,2. Next was the vision of ecological sanitation, shortly ECOSAN3,4 had extended the term sanitation with pollution prevention. In the context of pollution prevention, the important message was change the mindset of “throw away the waste as soon as possible” to “as much as possible utilizing the waste”. In line with ECOSAN was sustainable sanitation, shortly SUSAN5 with the addition of sustainability criteria, namely health and hygiene, environment and natural resources, technology and operations, financial and economic issues, sociocultural and institutional aspects. It also included the provision of drinking water and sanitation, biodiversity and ecosystem management, energy, agricultural productivity and health 6. Because sanitation was meant to sanitize the environment3, the environmental sanitation term used by some countries in all continents7-9, and also in this paper. Most definitions of environmental sanitation were based on the measures or services and on its results. Little was known the definition of environmental sanitation in scientific perspective. However, the following definition could represent it:”
Environmental sanitation means the art and science of applying sanitary, biological and physical science principles and knowledge to improve and control the environment and factors therein for the protection of the health and welfare of the public.”7. Scientific definition was essential to identify the necessity of sciences and technologies, which supported the implementation of sanitation services and for scientific development as well as formal education curriculum. Based on the definition provided for environmental sanitation, this paper proposed a concern regarding the environmental damage caused by natural events, and formulated environmental sanitation platforms to perform problem solving as well as scientific research in the future. Special concern: impact of natural disaster Environmental sanitation as services had been devoted to the health of all human and environmental health simultaneously. Services also included process, which involved other environmental components, i.e. biological components, which consisted of animals and plants; physico-chemical components that covered air, waterand soil. In addition, the service also included the prevention of environmental damage.
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It had been well known that environmental damage could occur due to the efficiency of the process never reaches 100%, resulted in the accumulation of persistent materials, which to some extent could be damaging to the environment. Moreover, it was important to note the environmental damage caused by natural processes, such as catastrophic hurricanes, which brought about physical damage in one place and accumulating contaminants on other places. Natural disasters certainly were difficult to be predicted and might be unavoidable, but the important thing was the
Environmental resources
efforts to minimize the negative impact of disasters. Facing to the post disaster conditions, the impacted environment had to be rehabilitated. However, in the best of my knowledge so far, concerning the remediation, restoration, or rehabilitation ofthe polluted environment had not explicitly expressed in the coverage of environmental sanitation. The addition of such service was to create an environmental sanitation capable of strengthening the three sustainable development pillars: socialeconomic-environment and goals.
Environmental Environmental Products as environmental repression remediation resources
Physico-chemicals components • Air • Treatment - • Rain water, surfacewaters, • Treatment - groundwater as given naturally • Wastewater, solid wastes • Treatment - • Damaged environments, such as - • Treatment • Pollutedair, waters,soil • Desertification10,11 • Solid waste post closure Biologigal components • Plant • Phytotech- - nological proceses12-16 • Pathogenic organisms • Treatment - • Animal manures • Treatment - • Deforestation intentionally - • Forest such as for agriculture and management19, unintentionally such • Phytotechnoas wildfires19 logical
Clean air Clean water Treated wastewater for irrigation, compost for soil improvement etc. as environmental resources. The environmental media were safe to use for various purposes, and thus become environmental resources.
Materials for producing membrane17 Renewable energies such as bioethanol, biogas, etc. Coagulant, antimicrobial agent18 Greenspace Suitable plant for treatment Closing pathways of disease transmission to prevent resources loss. • Compost, fertilizer, biogas. • To be environmental resources.
Mangkoedihardjo, Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(2), 260-263 (2014) Three platforms In addition to SUSAN criteria, environmental sanitation provided the following three platforms for sustainability, i.e. Environmental Resources, Environmental Repression, Environmental Remediation, shortly 3ER. Environmental Resources In this platform, the environmental resources were air, water and land given naturally, with all the content of the physical materials, chemical substances and living beings.With the mindset that wastes were valuable, thus wastewater and solid waste were included in environmental resources. Also, with the obligation to restore the damaged environment, then the one was considered to be environmental resources. Environmental Repression What was meant by the environment repression was pollution prevention efforts. Pollution prevention was important for the purpose of safeguarding environmental resources so that it could continue to be used as a source of life. On this platform involved treatment or process for resources and all the waste materials for reuse.
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Environmental Remediation As described in the special concern, environmental remediation referred to the polluted/ damaged endironment. One should not let the damaged environment remained on the conditions. Therefore, restoration of the environment needed to be done by any one or a combination of recovery methods. The following described each of the platforms in connection to sustainable environmental sanitation. The list was limited to technical aspect in general, because millions of detailed engineering had been available. Moreover, in implemention stage, all SUSAN criteria should be applied. Conclusion The damaged of environment required special attention, and thus should be included in environmental sanitation services. Both environmental repression and environmental remediation efforts were direct benefit for environmental resources to be sustainable. These were identified as sustainable environmental sanitation.
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Simpson-Hébert, M., and S. Woods (eds), 1998. Sanitation Promotion. World Health Organisation, Geneva. http://www.who.int/topics/sanitation/en/, accessed on 15 May 2014. Esrey S et al. Ecological sanitation. Sida, Stockholm, 1998. Claudia Früh, 2003. Ecological Sanitation – An Introductionto the Philippines. General Paperprepared within the DILG-GTZ Water Program towards anIntegrated Water Resources Management for the Philippines. SuSanA. Towards more sustainable sanitation solutions. Version 1.2 (February 2008). Annan, KA. 2002. Toward A Sustainable Future. Environment, 44 (7): 10-15. ProQuest, USC, Los Angeles, 8 May 2004. Available at http://www.proquest.com ht t p: //w w w.o re g o n l aw s.o rg /g l o ssar y/ definition/environmental_sanitation, accessed on 16 May 2014
8. Government of Ghana. Ministry of Local Gover nment and Rural Development. Environmental Sanitation Policy (Revised 2010). 9. Plan. 2004. Plan’s approach to water and environmental sanitation. Working paper series. Plan Ltd UK. 10. UNCCD (United Nations Convention toCombat Desertification), 2002a. Synthesis andpreliminary analysis of information contained inreports submitted by northern Mediterranean,central and eastern European and other affectedcountry Parties. ICCD/ CRIC(1)/5/Add.1.Repor t presented by the UNCCD secretariatat the first session of the Committee for theReview of the Implementation on theConvention (CRIC1, Rome, November).http://www.unccd.int/cop/ officialdocs/cric1/pdf/5add1eng.pdf. 11. UNCCD (United Nations Convention toCombat Desertification), 2002b. Synthesis
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Mangkoedihardjo, Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(2), 260-263 (2014) andpreliminary analysis of information contained inreports submitted by affected Asian countryParties. ICCD/CRIC(1)/3/Add.1. Reportpresented by the UNCCD secretariat at thefirst session of the Committee for the Reviewof the Implementation on the Convention(CRIC1, Rome, November). http:// www.unccd.int/php/document.php?ref=ICCD/ CRIC(1)/3/Add.1. ITRC-Interstate Technology Regulatory Council, 2001. Technical and Regulatory Guidance Document, Phytotechnology. Available at http://www.itrcweb.org UNEP-United Nation Environmental Program, 2004. Integrated Watershed Management Ecohydrology&Phytotechnology — Manual – Available at http://www.unep.or.jp USEPA-United States Environmental Protection Agency, 2000. Introduction to Phytoremediation. EPA/600/R-99/107. Available at http://www.epa.gov/clariton/ clhtml/pubtitle.html
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Measurement of Odour Concentration from Livestock Farm LUKMAN ISMAIL1, ZAINI SAKAWI2 and MOHAMAD KHALIL SAIPI1 1 School of Social, Development and Environmental Studies, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 43600 Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia. 2 Earth Observation Centre, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 43600 Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia.
http://dx.doi.org/10.12944/CWE.9.2.06 (Received: June 19, 2014; Accepted: July 10, 2014) ABSTRACT Odour pollution originated from livestock farms is a form of harmful air pollution.Odour pollution causes health issues to the surrounding local communities. Yet, odour pollution issues have not been given deserving attention by the relevant authorities and the Malaysian public. To raise the awareness, this study highlights a case of odour pollution generated from cattle and buffalo farms in Bandar Baru Bangi, Selangor.Odour measurement was taken using an instrument called Concentration Meter Xp-369 Series III. Measurement was taken during various weather and times, usually on normal days and after rains. Observationswere conducted at different times inthe mornings, evenings and nights. Ten stations were selected as locations for measuring the odour concentration within two kilometres from the livestock farms. The results indicated that after rain odour concentration gave higher readings compared to those of normal days.This phenomenon was caused by the meteorological factors such as temperature, comparative humidity; and variation in wind speed and directions on normal days and after rains.Enhancement of livestock management is suggested for mitigating the odour pollution.
Key words: Odour concentration, Odour pollution, Meteorological factors, Management of livestock farms.
INTRODUCTION Significant increased in productivity of livestock sector have contributed significantly to Malaysian economy. The livestock sector has been gaining increased attention of entrepreneurs for profiting from livestock farming. Populationof livestocks in developing countries has increased at the rate of 3% for the past two decades; and expected to further increase until 20201. Nevertheless, an increase in livestock farming has given rise to odour pollution phenomenon2. An environmental report in Western Australia indicated that one third of the complaints made by the public were related to odour pollution. Many of the complaints were on activities of production and animal processing3. Proximity of residential areas and livestock farms influenced the effect of odour pollution on
the comunity at large and sensitive receivers in particular4. Development of residential areas and business complex near existing livestock farms contributed to odour problem. By the same token, livestock farms built near existing residential areas could continuosly expose the residence to the odour, eventuallycausing health issues. Common health issues due to odour pollution involve respiratory system and skin infections5. Health issues most affected young children around the livestock farms due to their still developing antibody. The common health issues complained by the sensitive receivers were eyesores, nose and throat irritations, headaches and drowsiness6. Many long established livestock farms were located further away from residential areas. Nevertheless, there were entrepreneurs who builtnew farms nearer to residential areas, thus posing problems to sensitive
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receivers. On the other hand, factors such as land scarcity, increasing land price and rapid development caused some residential locations to be built nearer to livestock farms, sewage plants and landfills. According to 7, management of odour control in Malaysia is still at a developing stage. Nevertheless, some weaknesses in managing and controlling odour pollution have been highlighted quite often by the researchers and experts.Some of the weaknesses were poor complaint system, limited research, lack of measurement instruments, lack of specific standard and regulationsand poor enforcement. Currently, most studies on odour in Malaysia have been based on foreign standards8(Table 1). MATERIALS AND METHODS This study was conducted at a cattle and buffalo farms located in Bandar Baru Bangi, Selangor. The livestock farm is at N 020 56’465" dan longitude E 1010 47’103". The farm began operation in 1958 as a family business. There were 300 heads of cattle and buffaloes on the farm. Rapid residential development has brought the residence nearer to the original farm area. The farm is now sorrounded by residential areas, shops and restaurants, motor workshops, train station and the UKM. Thus the farm is now located within the zone of sensitive receivers.
from the livestock farm. The measurement of odur concentration is in ou/m3. The instrument has the capacity to measure odour concentration from 0 to 2000 ou/m3. The standard used was an Australian standard: Assesment and Management of Odour from Stationary Sources in New South Wales. According to the standard9, the level of concentration allowable is 10 ou/m3. Ten stations were set up for sampling collection. The location of the stations was within 2 kilometres from the location of the livestock farms (Table 2). The samplings of odour concentration were collected on normal days and after rains. The measurements were taken three times ina day such as in the morning, evening and night. Meterological data such as temperature, comparative humidity and wind speed were also observed using the anemometer to detect their influence on odour concentration. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The results can be devided into three major components i.e. the average of odour concentration on normal days; concentration after rains and comperative concentration on normal days and after rains.
The Odour Concetration Meter XP Series III instrument was used to measure odour concentration
Odour Concentration on Normal Days Figure 1 shows concentration of odour on normal days. The highest concentration was recorded at night at station 8 with 176.6 ou/m3. Followed with station 7 with 169.8 ou/m3. Boths
Table 1: Odour standard measurement in other country
Table 2: Distance of sampling stations from livestock farm
Country
Odour standard measurement
Station Sampling Area
Australia / New Zealand Netherland European Union France German United States of America
AS/NZS 4323.3:2001
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
NVN 2820 prEN 13725 AFNOR X-43-101 VDI 3881 ASTM E679-91 dan ASTM E544-99
Distance (m)
Source (Cattle/Buffalo farm) 0 Chicken Rice Restaurant 60 UKM Railway Station 320 Restoran Tupai-tupai 420 Shell Petrol Station 730 Rahim Kajai Residential College 870 Bangi Perdana Residential 210 Taman Tasik Residential 900 Petronas Petrol Station 1300 Kajang Terminal 1750
ISMAIL et al., Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(2), 264-270 (2014) stations were at residential areas namely Taman Bangi Perdana dan Taman Tasik located at the back of the livestock farms. These findings were similar to evidence by10that indicated high concentration of odour occured late evening and night due to more stable atmosphere and slower wind speed. The reading on odour concentration also showed a sequence of similar readings that was higher at nigt time, and lower by evening and morning at station 6 and so forth (Stations 1,2,5,6,8 dan 10). The lowest
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reading was recorded at station 9 with 9 ou/m3 in the morning. This reading was the one that did not exceed the standard set for normal days. Odour Concentration After Rains Figure 2 shows the odour concentration after rains. The highest reading recorded was in the morning at station 1 with 132.3 ou/m3. Based of previous study, concentration of odour is the highest nearest to the sources of the odour 11-14.
Fig. 1:Odour concentration on normal days
Fig. 2: Odour Concentration after rains
Fig. 3:Comparison of average odour concentration on normal days and after rains
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Hence the concentration recorded at the staion was the highest compared to those of other stations. Seven other stations such as 3,4,5,6,7,8 and 10 also indicated sequence of uniform odour concentration. Concentration of odour at all of these stations was the highest in the evening, followed by morning and night. The night concentration recorded the lowest concentration reading of all.Lowest reading was recorded at station 7 at 1.0 ou/m3. While five other stations 5,6,8,9 and 10 recorded readings below the fixed standard. This phenomenon indicated that sensitive receivers did not experience odour night time during the period of the study. On the other hand, readings at other stations was the highest at station 1 which was a cattle farm (odour source).
Comparison of Average Odour Concentration on Normal and after rain The findings indicated that there were clear differences between odour concentration on different days and times of measurement15-17. Comparison of average odour concentration during the two situations (Figure 3) indicated that concentration was highest in the evening (106.4 ou/m3), followed by night (48.3 ou/m3) and morning (21.8 ou/m3). While after rain, highest concentration was in the morning (78.8 ou/ m3), followed by evening (73.6 ou/m3) and night (16.3 ou/m3). Furthermore, the analysis also indicated that odour concentration on different days and times exceeded the standardfixed by the DEC9. According to this standard, concentration of odour allowable is at 10 ou/m3. However, as indicated by the analysis shown in the table, the average concentration for all
Fig. 4: Scatterplot of temperature against odour concentration
Fig. 5: Scatterplot of wind velocity against odour concentration
Fig. 6: Scatterplot of relative humidity against odour concentration
Fig. 7: Scatterplot of distance against odour concentration
ISMAIL et al., Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(2), 264-270 (2014) three sessions of measurements on normal days and after rain recorded the concentration values that exceeded the standard limit. Temperature Factor The surrounding temperature is one of the meteorological components that can influence odour concentration. The results of multiple correlation analysis for temperature variables and odour concentration indicated high values of 0.634. This shows strong link between both variables with the value of correlation approaching 1 ( maximum value for multiple correlation). Positive values indicated positve link between both variables (Fig 4). The relationship between variables also indicated significant link at 0.000. The lower value from the significant level wasfixed at 0.01. Figure 4 shows the distr ibution of the concentration is lower at stations with low temperatures and vice versa. The distribution of odour concentration after rain was found to be concentrated at stations with low temperatures of around 25.0 °C to 27.5°C.This condition occured after rain, due to more stable temperature and the presence weaker wind movement.Indeed higher temperatures are capable to influence the increase of odour concentration. This phenomenon occurred for an increase in atmosphere temperature could influence the increase of concentration and odour intensity18. Wind Factor Wind is an athmopheric factor that influence odour concentration. Based on Figure 5, odour concentration is found higher during strong wind. These findings are similar to17,19 who found that high wind speed could influence the spread of gas concentration and odour. Furthermore, the value of correlation analysis at 0.620 out of 1 indicated strong relation (positive) between wind speed variables and odour concentration. The results also indicated significant relationship between the two variables whereby significant values at 0.000 was much lower than the set sifgificance of 0.01. Relative Humidity Factor Figure 6 shows the influence of humidity on odour distribution. Based on the correlation analysis, there was a regressive relatioship between humidity
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variables and observed odour concentration. Correlation values betwen the two variables was at -0.600. Negative values preceding the multiple values indicated the negative relationship between the two variables. Lower distribution of odour concentration was found to concentrate at the observation station that had higher relative humidity exceeding 70%. While, concentration exceeding 100 ou/m3 , was recorded at areas with lower comparative humidity less than 50%. Distance Factor Distance played significant role in influencing odour concentration observed. Generally higher odour concentration was recorded in the areas nearer to the sources of the odour such as livestock farms, sewage treatment plants and landfills17,20-23. However correlation analysis for both variables indicated weak relationship at 0.078, from value 1 for multiple correlations. Significance values 0.554 exceeded the standard predetemided (0.01). However, based on Figure 7, the influence of distance in affecting the presence of odour is still relevant. The presence of odour is recorded higher at distance nearer to the odour sources within 1000 metres. Much less is recorded at distance exceeding 1000 metres. Based on the findings, there were differences or variances of odour concentration on normal days and after rains. On normal days, the highest reading ofodour concentration was recorded at nighttime at 176.6 ou/m3. The maximum concentration recorded after rain was in the morningat 132.3 ou/m3. The average measurement of odour concentration of various stations and times was found to have exceeded the set Australian standard at 10 ou/m3.By implication, high odour concentration could adversely affect the physical and human environments if persistover long period.Furthermore, the influence of meteorological factors were also found significant in affecting odour concentration on normal days and after rains. The correlation analysis, indicated that temperature, comparative humidity and wind speed had strong links in influencing odour concentration from the livestock farms.Distance factor indicated weaker causal effect in influencing odour concentration at each observing station. However, odour concentration at the sources still
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recorded the highest reading in the morning after rains (132.3 ou/m3).
The researchers wish to gratefully acknowledgement financial support for this research by Institute of Climate Change, UniversitiKebangsaan Malaysia under grant code GGPM-2012-018 and DPP-2013-145. REFERENCES 1.
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Current World Environment
The Presence of Mercury Resistant Bacteria in Sediment of Gold Processing Plant at Waekerta Village of Buru District, Maluku Province and Their Activity in Reducing Mercury SARMAWATY KOTALA1, RETNO KAWURI2 and IDA BAGUS WAYAN GUNAM3 Student of Magister Biology Science Udayana University, Bali - 80114, Indonesia. 2 Biology Department, Faculty of Mathematic and Natural Sciences, Udayana University, Bali - 80361, Indonesia. 3 Agroindustrial Technology Department, Udayana University, Bali - 80361, Indonesia. 1
http://dx.doi.org/10.12944/CWE.9.2.07 (Received: April 21, 2014; Accepted: May 17, 2014) ABSTRACT Mercury was one of the heavy metal polute in environment and had the toxic characteristic to the living creatures. Golden mining in Waeapo subdistrict used mercury to extract the gold and exile the waste to the environment freely. Several precedented research showed that waste sediment of gold processing contains mercury resistance bacteria. Mercury resistance bacteria can be used as bioremediation agent because those bacteria can reduce mercury. Mercury resistance bacteria has mer operon which contained in plasmid. The goal of this research is to isolate mercury resistance bacteria which is able to grow on medium nutrient agar (NA) containing 500 ppm of HgCl2 and to analyze the capability in HgCl2 reduction in nutrient broth (NB) medium. Bacteria isolation was done by platting method on Nutrient Agar containing 10 ppm of HgCl2. Bacteria identification was done by kit Microgen TM GnA + B-ID System and to know bacteria capability in reducing mercury was done by CV-AAS (Cold Vapour Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer). Result showed, that the bacteria found in this research were Bacillus sp and Aeromonas hydrophila. Both of these bacteria were able to reduce HgCl2 in the amount of 98,7% for Bacillus sp and 98,33% for Aeromonas hydrophila. In the future those bacteria can be use as bioremediation agent.
Key words: Mercury Resistant Bacteria, Bacillus sp, Aeromonas hydrophila, Gold Processing.
INTRODUCTION Mercury utilizing in golden mining could produce waste, which contains mercury and causes environment pollution. Mercury belongs to heavy metal which is toxic to living creatures. Mercury can attack the arrangement of central nervous and causes memory loss, tremors and decreases motion capability. Poisoning causing destruction of a fetus has been detected. Miniamata desease in Japan is the example of mercury poisoning1,2. Mercury as a pollutant in the environment need attention and problem solving. Mercury detoxification can be done chemically by precipitation,
coagulation, reverseosmosis, ion exchange resins and adsorption using activated carbon3,4.However, this process is relatively expensive and could cause new problems, namely the accumulation of these compounds insediment and aquatic organisms4. Mercury detoxification can be done by using mercury resistance bacteria which have mercury resistance gen, called mer operon,4,5. There is gold mining at Waekerta village, Sub district Waeapo, Maluku Province, Indonesia,where the processing of gold using mercury and the waste is discharged into the environment without regard to the contamination occurred (Figure 1). Based on this background, it is necessary to isolate mercury resistance bacteria
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from sediment of gold processing which able to grow on NA medium containing 500 ppm of HgCl2 and to analize the capability of reduction of HgCl2. MATERIAL AND METHODS Research Materials This study used a sample of sediment taken from a waste disposal site of gold processing in Waekerta Village, Maluku. Materials used in this study were Nutrient Agar (Merck),Nutrient Broth (Merck), and HgCl2. Research Instrument The instrument used in this research is a hot plate, autoclave, vortex, incubator, kit Microgen TM GnA + B-ID System, microscopes, spectrophotometers, CV-AAS, and laminar air flow cabinet. Sampling Samples were taken as much as 20% from 42 gold processing sites in Waekerta Village, so that 9 locations were choose to get the sediment samples. Samples taken from each location on 5 different points were then mixed into one. Land sample from mining land was used as comparative so that total of all samples become ten. Location of sampling sites in the village of Waekerta as shown in Figure 2. Bacteria Isolation Mercury resistance bacteria isolation was done by spread plate method6. Sedimen and soil sample were diluted in a series(10-1, 10-2and10-3) with saline solution(0.85% NaCl). From the 10-3dilution were taken 0,1 ml and spread on petri dishes containing selective media namely nutrient agar (NA) containing 10 ppm of HgCl2. Then incubated at room temperature for 3 days. Grown bacterial isolates with different colonies morphological characters were reisolated again to a new medium in order to get pure cultures and stored in an agar slant for further testing. Mercury Recistance Bacteria Selections Bacteria selection is based on the ability of bacterial isolates grown in medium with various HgCl 2 concentrations. Bacterial isolates were grown by streaking method on NA medium which
contain 25 ppm of HgCl2 and incubated at room temperature for 24 hours. If the isolates grow, then chese bacterial isolates were re-grown by streaking method on the NA medium added with HgCl2 with a higher concentration of 50 ppm, 100 ppm, 250 ppm, 400 ppm, 500 pp min order to obtains uperior isolates, which were able to live in the highest HgCl2 concentration. Purified isolates was stored in nutrient agar slant medium with a temperature of 20° C. Mercury Resistance Bacteria Identification Parameters observed for identification of mercury-resistant bacteria are colony form on NA medium, Gram staining, and character physiology (biochemical test). Physiological characteristics were tested using Microgen™ kit GNA+B-ID System Identification (Microgen Bioproduct, UK). Determination of Optimum Temperature on the Growth of Mercury Resistant Bacteria To deter mine the optimum growth temperature, the bacterial isolates were grown on nutrient broth medium and incubated a variety of temperature is: 25°C, 30°C, 37°C, and 45°C. Cultures were incubated at this temperature for 24 hours. Further growth of the isolates was measured degree of turbidity with a spectrophotometer at a wavelength of 620 nm. Absorbance values of bacterial cells can be observed at a wavelength of 620 nm, each treatment was repeated 3 times. Determination of Optimum pH on Mercury Resistant Bacteria Growth To determine the optimum pH of growth, the bacterial isolates were grown in nurient broth with a pH of 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9. Cultures were incubated at the optimum temperature for 24 hours. Growth of isolates was measured with a spectrophotometer at a wavelength of 620 nm and each treatment was repeated 3 times. Determination of Bacterial Growth Curve Aseptically one ose of superior bacterial isolates at the age of 24 hours (isolates were rejuvenated on NA medium containing 10 ppm of HgCl2) was inoculated in 100 ml of NB medium in erlenmeyer flask, incubated at room temperature on a rotary shaker (100 rpm). 24-hour-old culture was washed using saline solution, then 5 ml of the culture was taken and inoculated into 45 ml of NB
KOTALA et al., Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(2), 271-279 (2014) medium at a concentration of 10 ppm HgCl2 and incubated at room temperature on arotaryshaker (100 rpm). Suspension culture absorbance values were measured at a wavelength of 620 nm. Absorbance measurements were started from 0 hour up to 72 hours with an interval of 4 hours. Obtained absorbance data was then conversed into the growth curve. On the x-axis is time and and on the y-axis is absorbance. The growth curve will be compared with the growth curve of bacteria in NB medium without HgCl2. Mercury Reducing Bacteria Activity Test Mercury reducing bacteria activity test was carried outtolook at the ability of superior isolates in reducing Hg. In this testing phase bacterial isolates were grown in NB medium for 24 hours in 250 ml erlenmeyer, then isolated cells were washed using saline solution and the absorbance was measured using a spectrophotometer at a wavelength of 620 nm. Culture with absorbance value of 2 was taken 0.1 ml and grown in 50 ml NB medium containing a concentration of 100 ppm HgCl2, then incubated for 7 days on top shaker (100 rpm). Furthermore, bacterial cells were separated from the medium by using a membran filter with the size of 0.2 Âľm. Hg concentration remaining in the medium was measured by Cold Vapour NB Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer (CV - AAS). In addition, NB medium containing 100 ppm of HgCl 2 without inoculated with bacteria resistant to mercury was used as a positive control and NB medium without HgCl2 and mercury resistant bacteria was used as negative control. The principle of CV-AAS working is to change the mercury dioxide compounds into the mercury ion, mercury ion subsequently reduced to metallic mercury and the cold vapor atomic absorption of it was analyzed at a wavelength of 253.7 nm. Reagents used were SnCl2 reductant, H2SO4 + HCl acid solution (Rondonuwu, 2011).To determine the levels of mercury removal efficiency, this formula was used:
Eff=(C1-C2)/C1Ă—100% Whereas: C1 = First concentration (ppm);C2 = Final concentration (ppm); Eff = Efficiency
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Data Analysis The data were analyzed qualitatively and quantitatively. Qualitatively is by describing the results of the characterization and identification of mercury-resistant bacterial isolates were able to reduce mercury. Quantitatively, on the pH test and growth curve measurement was done by measuring the number of bacterial cells through the absorbance. The data obtained was made in the form of a bar graph, but the growth curve in the form of a line graph using Microsoft Excel program. Table 1: Characteristic of L.10b and L.10c Characteristic
L.10b
Colony shape Spherical Colony colour Brown Edge Smooth, flat Motility Motil Shape of cell Rod Gram staining + Oxidase + Nitrate + Lysin - Ornithine - H2S - Glucose - Mannitol - Xylose - ONPG + Indole - Urease - V.P. - Citrate - TDA - Gelatine - Malonate - Inositol - Sorbitol - Rhamnose - Sucrose - Lactose - Arabinose + Adonitol - Raffinose - Salicin - Arginine - Species Bacillus sp
L.10c Irreguler Beige Irreguler Motil Rod + + + + + + + + + + + Aeromonas hydrophila
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KOTALA et al., Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(2), 271-279 (2014) RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Two isolates of mercury resistant bacteria capable of living NA medium containing 500 ppm of HgCl2 was found in gold processing sediment samples. The isolates were L.10b and L.10c. After identification, these isolates were identified as Bacillus sp and Aeromonas hydrophyla. Both macroscopic and microscopic forms of the isolate scan be seen in Figure 3 and Figure 4 as well as the character of each isolate are shown in Table1.
found as mercury resistant bacteria compared to Aeromonas hydrophila. Aeromonas hydrophyla has been found in gold mining sediment contaminated by Hgin Bandung, West Javaandable to grow at 550 mg/L HgCl210. In addition, some strains of A.hydrophila is found in sea water, fish, and waste water contaminated by heavy metals in Tunisia11.
Bacillus sp was found as a mercury resistant bacteria in Japan and India7. In addition, Bacillus sp was also found in the Tondano river, Indonesia8. Bacillus cereus and Bacillus subtilis found in the Kalimas river Surabaya are also resistant to mercury9. Bacillus sp is more often
Temperature is one of the environmental factors that influence the growth of bacteria. Bacillus sp. has the highest absorbance value (0.216) at 25째C and the lowest (0.118) at a temperature of 45째C. Aeromonas hydrophila has a high absorbance value (0.404) at 37째C and the lowest (0.224) at a temperature of 45째C (Figure 5). Temperature effect on bacterial growth because temperature affects the activity of enzymes in metabolism. The temperature affect the chemical reactions in the
(a)
(b)
Fig. 1: Gold mining in Waekerta village(a) Gold processing, (b) Waste of gold processing in Environment Table 2: The Test Results in Reducing Mercury The concentration of mercury Average Standard Sample remaining in the efficiency deviation medium (ppm) (%) A 1,67 98,33 0,172 B 1,33 98,7 0,162 P 100 0 0 N 0 0 0 Description: A = treatment using bacteria Aeromonas hydrophila, B = treatment using bacteria Bacillus sp., P = positive control (NB medium containing 100 ppm of HgCl2), N = negative control (NB medium without HgCl2).
KOTALA et al., Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(2), 271-279 (2014) process of bacterial growth, growth rate, and the total amount of the growth of microorganisms12. Although the absorbance values of different bacteria are categorized both mesophilic bacteria. Mesophilic bacteria is a group of bacteria that can grow at a temperature of 20-45°C13.
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In contrast to Bacillus sp,A. hydrophila has the highest absorbance value (0.192 ) at pH 7 and the lowest (0.11) at pH 5 (Figure 6). The degree of acidity affects the growth of bacteria because the pH affects the enzymes in the metabolism of bacteria. Enzyme activity will decrease if the pH is not appropriate, this is because the enzyme will be active in a proper state of ionization. The appropriate ionization conditions for different enzymes are also differ but generally ranges at pH 6-814. The enzyme can be denatured due to changes in pH. The enzyme works at neutral pH and will become inactive when the environment becomes very acidic or very alkaline15. Based on the growth ability in that pH range, Bacillus sp, and
Bacterial growth can be affected by various environmental factors, one of which is the pH of the medium. The degree of acidity of the medium affects the growth of Bacillus sp and A. hydrophyla. Bacillus sp grows optimally at pH 6 with a absorbance value of 0.106 and the absorbance values decreased when the pH of the medium increased (Figure 6).
(a)
(b)
(c) Fig: 2: Map of Sampling Location: (a) Map of Maluku Province, Indonesia (source: Malukuonline. co.id); (b) Map of Buru District (source: informasi-maluku.Blogspot.com); (c) Map of Waeapo Subdistrict, Waekerta Village (arrow) (source: minerthink.wordpress.com)
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A. hydrophila can be classified into the neutrophils bacteria. Neutrophil is a bacterial groups were able to grow at pH 6-814,15. The growth of Bacillus sp and Aeromonas hydrophila in NB medium containing 10 ppm of HgCl2 and incubated for 3 days has not reached the stationary phase. The results obtained were different with control Bacillus sp, which reached stationary phase at 37th and A. hydrophila which reached the stationary phase at the 44th and death phase in the 68th hour (Figure 7). During the period of incubation with medium containing 10 ppm HgCl2, both of these bacteria were only able to reach the exponential phase. Bacillus sp achieve exponential phase at 68th and A. hydrophila at 48th hours (Figure 7). This is because the adaptation phase is long enough. This is due to HgCl2in the medium.In the
(a)
adaptation phase the synthesis of the new enzymes occurs, according to the media and the increase of cell numbers not found14. The length of the adaptation phase in medium containing HgCl2 occur in bacteria Ochrobactrum sp S79 and L6T2 isolates, wherein the second stationary phase of these bacteria occurs on day 4 to day 9 of incubation time16. Aeromonas hydrophila and Bacillus sp resistant and able to reduce mercury levels of 100 ppm to 1.67 ppm for A.hydrophila and 1.33 ppm for Bacillus sp after incubated for 7 days. The results of mercury content remaining in the medium, were used to determine the efficiency of both bacteria in reducing mercury. Bacillus sp able to reduce mercury by 98.7%, where as A.hydrophila was 98.33% (Table 2). The ability of Bacillus sp and A.hydrophila in reducing mercury levels associated with a character
(b)
Fig. 3: (a) Bacillus sp, (b) microscopic, rod shape, 1000 x magnification (arrow)
(a)
(b)
Fig. 4: (a) Aeromonas hydrophila, (b) microscopic, rod shape, 1000 x magnification
KOTALA et al., Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(2), 271-279 (2014) that is resistant to mercury. Bacterial resistance to mercury due to the mer operon contained in the plasmid4,5. Mer operon consists of a wide variety of mergenes. Each bacterium has its own mergene
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variations in the mer operon3. But the mechanism of bacterial resistance to inorganic mercury is almost the same in different bacteria species. This is due to the reduction of mercury from Hg2+ to Hg0 induced by mercuric ion reductase enzyme encoded by the mer operongenes Mer A2. Mercuric ion reductase formsa
Fig. 5: Graph the effect of incubation temperature on the growth of mercury-resistant bacteria (incubation period of 24 hours)
Fig. 6: Graph of the effect of pH on the growth of mercury-resistant bacteria
Fig. 7: The growth curve of bacteriain the medium NB containing HgCl210 ppm
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bond with Hg2+ and reduction occurs by the transfer of electrons through the flavin bond from NADPH into NADP, so that reduced Hg was formed, ie Hg05. The reduction of Hg2+ to Hg0 is away to remove oxidized mercury and to reduce mercury dissolved in a medium17. Some bacteria of the Genus Bacillus are known to have a gene variation in meroperon. Bacillus megaterium and Bacillus macroides is abroad-spectrum mercury-resistant bacteria, whereas Bacillus cereus and Bacillus licheniformis are an arrow-spectrum mercury-resistant bacteria18. Bacteria which only has mercury reductase protein (MerA) is called by a narrow spectrum mercuryresistant bacteria, while broad-spectrum mercuryresistant bacteria are bacteria that have mercury reductase protein (MerA) and protein organo merkurilyase (MerB). Mer Bfunctions in catalyzing the termination of the mercury-carbon bond to produce organic compounds and ionic Hg in the form of salt thiols20. Bacillus sp and A.hydrophila found in
this study are not known the extent of the spectrum which is owned in reducing mercury. Until now there has been no reports of mergene variations that are owned by Aeromonas hydrophila. However other species of the Genus Aeromonas are known variations in the mer operongenes.Aeromonas salmonicida has some mer genes in the mer operon, namely Mer A,Mer P, MerR, MerE, MerT, MerD, and MerB19. Aeromonas hydrophila is able to change the shape of the cells, from rod into a round shape after mercury exposure11. ACKNOWLEDGMENT The authors would like to express their aprreciation to the Head of Magister Biology Science and Udayana University Bali Indonesia for supporting this study. Appreciation is also send to Governor of Maluku province, Indonesia for the support in carrying out this research work.
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Chowdury, S., Bala, N.N., Dhauria, P. International Journal of Pharmaceutical, Chemical, and Biological Science 2(4): 600611 (2012). UNEP. Global Mercury Assesment. InterOrganization Programme for The Sound Management of Chemicals.Issued by UNEP Chemicals. Geneva, Switzerland. (2002) Okoronkwo, N. E., Igwe, J. C., Okoronkwo, I. J.African Journal of Biotechnology 6(4): 337 (2006) D a s h , H . R . , D a s, S. I n t e r n a t i o n a l Biodeterioration and Biodegradation. 75 : 207-213 (2012). Barkay, T., Susan, M. M., Anne, O. S. FEMS Microbiology Reviews. 27: 355-384 (2003). Dubey, R.C., D.K. Maheshwari. Practical Microbiology. S.Chand and Company LTD, New Delhi, 37 (2007) Osborn, A.M., Kenneth, D.B., Peter, S., Donald, A.R. FEMS Microbiology Reviews. 19: 239-262 (1997) Manampiring, A.E., Billy, J.K. Jurnal Ilmiah
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A.F., Erin, M.P., Sarah, E.C., Zachary, B.Z., Ilana, C.G., Russel, D., Keith, A.J., Mike, B., Rachael, R. Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotheraphy. 61; 1221-1228 (2008) Huang, C.C., Chien, M.F., Lin, K.H. Interdisciplinary Studies on Environmental Chemistry — Biological Responses to ContaminantsEds., 23-29 (2010).
Vol. 9(2), 280-286 (2014)
Current World Environment
Rice Husk Ash Derived Zeolite Blended with Water Hyacinth Ash for Enhanced Adsorption of Cadmium Ions G.W. Mbugua1, H.M.Mbuvi1* and J.W. Muthengia2 1
Department of Chemistry, Kenyatta University, P.O. Box 43844-00100, Nairobi, Kenya. 2 Department of Chemistry, Embu University College, P.O Box 6-60100,Embu, Kenya. http://dx.doi.org/10.12944/CWE.9.2.08 (Received: Feburary 28, 2014; Accepted: May 23, 2014)
Abstract In order to help curtail or imposesustained control to the offensive water hyacinth plant, it is essential to explore ways of generating water remediation materials from it. In the current study, the capacity and efficacy of water hyacinth ash (WHA), its insoluble residue (WHAR) and rice husk ash (RHA) to remove cadmium ions and methylene blue from contaminated water was investigated. Mixtures of the two ashes were used to formulate zeolitic materials by hydrothermal reactions. Material A, ZMA was prepared by using rice husk ash and the soluble portion of WHA while for material B, ZMB a mixture of equal amounts the two ashes including the insoluble fraction of WHA were used. Batch experiments was carried out to determine the effect of metal ion concentration, initial PH, contact time (t), temperature (T), shaking speed and adsorbent dose on percentage removal of Cd2+ and methylene blue by the ashes and their zeolitic products. The data obtained for adsorption of Cd2+ on RHA, ZMA, and ZMB was found to best fit in the Langmuir isotherm model while WHA and WHAR data best fitted in the Freundlich model. Adsorption capacities for cadmium on RHA, WHA, WHAR, ZMA and ZMB adsorbents ions were 3.745, 52.00, 56.89, 11.24 and 22.22 mg/g respectively. The findings showed that incorporating the WHAR during synthesis of the zeolitic material enhanced its adsorption capacity and efficiency for Cd (II) ions and methylene blue.
Key words: Adsorption isotherms, Heavy metals, Zeolite, Water remediation, Adsorbents.
Introduction 17.2 million People in Kenya who constitute about 43 percent of the population have no access clean water. The major factors contributing to this water crisis include rapid population growth, droughts, forest degradation, poor management of water supply and water contamination. This water crisis may worsen as industrial development and population grows as projected if drastic measures are not taken immediately. The water hyacinth menace has further complicated the issue by not only contaminating our water bodies but also rendering many Kenya lakes idle with minimal economic activities taking place. The rapid population growth both in rural and urban areas has stressed the existing water supply systems1.This accompanied by
unsuitable water supply infrastructure has hindered access to water by the poor in many developing countries2. There has been remarkable growth in light and informal (jua kali) industries like textiles, leather, paper, plastics, electroplating, cement, metal processing, wood preservatives, paints, pigments and steel fabricating industries3. These industries discharge large quantities of toxic wastes4. Recent studies in Kenya have reported that the open-air mechanical workshops are significant sources of mobile and bioavailable heavy metal contaminants1,2. Several processes exist for removing dissolved heavy metals, including ion exchange, precipitation, ultrafiltration, reverse osmosis, electrodialysis and adsorption3. Many of these approaches demand high energy, advanced operational requirement or difficult to treat and do not enable recovery of metals
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or material. It is therefore most desirable to explore possibilities of developing cheap water treatment materials and curbing or putting water hyacinth under maintained control in tandem.The findings herein suggest that rice husk and water hyacinth can be used as raw materials for synthesizing adsorbent materials for heavy metal removal from contaminated water. MATERIALS AND METHODS Chemicals A stock solution of cadmium with a concentration of 1000 mg/L was prepared by dissolving 2.745 g of cadmium nitrate in 1000 mL distilled water in volumetric flask. The solution was then diluted to obtain standard solutions containing 0.1, 0.2, 0.4, 0.8, 1.6 and 3.2 ppm. Concentrated Nitric acid and sodium hydroxide solutions were used throughout experiments to adjust the pH of the solution. Rice husk ash, water hyacinth ash and water hyacinth ash residue preparation Water hyacinth plants were obtained from Nairobi dam. They were then transported to the laboratory where they were extensively washed with tap water to remove soil and dust, sliced into pieces and then air dried for one week using a procedure already documented by4. Ashing was done using an oven at a temperature of 950o for five hours. The ash was mixed to obtain a composite sample. Samples were sieved to obtain particles of the same size. Fig I shows a sample of water hyacinth ash, WHA. Water hyacinth ash residue (WHAR) was prepared by dissolving 50 g of water hyacinth ash in 250 cm3 of distilled water. The mixture was shaken for five minutes and allowed to settle. Filtration was done using whatsman No. filter paper. The residue was then sun dried for five hours. Rice husks were provided by Euros rice millers in Kirinyaga County, Mwea west district. They were then washed several times with distilled water to remove soil and dust, followed by filtration and then dried at 100°. The clean and dry rice husks were burnt in an oven at 500° for 3hrs to obtain ash. Figure II shows a picture of a sample of rice husk ash, RHA. Potassium hydroxide solution 1M potassium hydroxide was generated
from water hyacinth ash by dissolving 50g of WHA and filtering off the residue. Titration experiments were done to determine the concentration of the alkaline solution using 0.1M hydrochloric acid. Synthesis of zeolitic material, ZMA 25 g of rice husk ash was conditioned into three stainless steel digestion bomb. 250 mL of potassium hydroxide solution was added on this ash; the bomb was closed and introduced into a pre-heated oven at 200°C for a period of 24 hrs. The contents were then allowed to cool and filtered. The solid residue was washed with distilled water to remove the excess alkali and dried at 105°C for 12 hrs. The solid residue was designated as ZMA and is shown in Fig 3. Preparation of zeolitic material B, ZMB For the preparation of ZMB, 50g of rice husk ash and 50g of water hyacinth ash were put in a reaction bomb. 250 mL of distilled water was added to the mixture. The bomb was put in a preheated oven at 200°C for 12 hrs. The formed solid was washed with hot distilled water to remove the excess alkali. It was then dried at 105°C for 12 hrs. The samples were designated as ZMB and shown in fig 4. Preparation of standard and test solution of Cd2+ A known mass, 2.745g of analytical grade cadmium nitrate Cd (NO3)2) was dissolved in 200 mL of distilled water. The resulting solution was diluted to 1000 mL mark using distilled water. This was the 1000 ppm stock solutionof cadmium. Standard solutions were prepared by successive dilution of the stock solution. Instrumentation The Cd2+ ion concentrations in the various solutions were determined using atomic absorption spectrophotometer model AAS 4141, ECIL, India at wave length 283.3 nm in flame mode using airacetylene flame. The pH meter, model PHEP, Hanna instrument, Italy, was used in this study between pH ranges 2-12 at a temperature of 22.7oC and UV-visible spectrometer. The concentrations were determined in triplicates. A standard and blank sample was run after every seven samples to check instrumental drift. Calibration curve method was used to quantify the heavy metal concentration.
Mbugua et al., Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(2), 280-286 (2014) Batch experiments A temperature-controlled water-bath shaker (DKZ-1 NO.1007827) was used for the batch adsorption experiments. The experiments were performed at the same shaking speed. For each experimental run, 50 mL aqueous solution of known concentrations of Cd2+ ion were put in 120 mL plastic bottles that contained known masses of RHA, ZMA, ZMB, WHA and WHAR. These bottles were agitated at a constant shaking rate of 150 rpm and temperature of 25°C, centrifuged and filtered.The concentration of Cd2+ ions in the filtrates obtained were measured using flame atomic adsorption spectrometry. Amount of Cd2+ ions adsorbed per unit mass of adsorbed and the percentage of Cd2+ ions removed were calculated using the equations 1 and 2 respectively
..(1)
...(2)
Where, qe = Amount of Cd2+ ions adsorbed per unit mass of adsorbed at equilibrium. Co = Initial concentration of sorbate. Ce = Concentration of sorbate at equilibrium. m = mass of sorbate (atomic mass). V = volume of solution, Effect of the various parameters on the percentage of Cd2+ ions adsorbed The effects of var ious parameters (adsorbent dose, contact time, initial concentrations, pH and temperature) on the percentage of Cd2+ ions adsorbed were investigated by varying the parameter of interest while keeping all the others constant. The effect of initial concentration was investigated by varying initial concentration from 10 to 500ppm at same conditions of: 0.1g of adsorbents, temperature of 25°C, agitation speed of speed of 150 rpm, pH 5, and contact time of 24 hrs. The effect of the adsorbent dosage was investigated by varying the doses from 0.02 to 2.5g at same conditions of: 10 ppm Cd2 ion solutions for WHA, RHA and ZMA and 100 ppm for WHAR and ZMB, pH 5, agitation speed of speed of 150rpm, temperature of 25º and contact time of 2 hrs. The effect of contact time was investigated by
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varying contact time from 1 to 14400min at same conditions of: 0.1g of adsorbents, 10ppm Cd2+ ion solutions for WHA, RHA and ZMA and 100ppm for WHAR and ZMB, temperature of 25°C, agitation speed of speed of 150 rpm, pH 5. The effect of pH was investigated by varying pH from 2 to 12 at same conditions of: 0.1g of adsorbents, 10ppm Cd2+ ion solutions for WHA, RHA and ZMA and 100 ppm for WHAR and ZMB, temperature of 25°C, agitation speed of speed of 150rpm, contact time 2hrs. Removal of methylene blue dye from water A stock solution of methylene blue of concentration 1000 ppm was prepared by dissolving 1g of methylene blue in a 100 ml volumentric flask using distilled water. The solution was shaken to obtain homogeneity. Solutions of various concentrations were obtained by dilution.The effect of the amount of methylene blue adsorbed was studied by agitating different concentrations of 50 ml of coloured water with 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.4, and 0.5g of WHA, WHAR, RHA, ZMA and ZMB for two hours. The solution was then filtered using whatman No. 1 filter paper and the colour in water was determined using UV Spectrophotometer. All these studies were conducted at 25°C and agitation speed of 150rpm. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS Samples characterization The chemical compositions of RHA, WHA, WHAR, ZMA, and ZMB were determined by XRF and are shown in tables 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 respectively. As shown in table 1, RHA is a good source of SiO2and Al2O3 as it contained 77% and 12% respectively. WHA had 35.8% of K2O followed by 27% of CaO and Cl at 21% hence serving as a good source of KOH base. Effect of theinitial concentrations of Cd2+ ions The percentage of Cd2+ ions adsorbed by ZMA, ZMB, WHA, RHA and WHAR was significantly influenced by the initial concentration of Cd2+ ions in aqueous solutions. The initial Cd2+ concentration was varied from 10ppm to 500ppm while maintaining the adsorbent dosage at 0.1g. Figure 5 shows the effect of initial concentration on percentage removal of Cd2+ ions. The percentage removal of Cd2+ increased from 86.2% to 99.75% for RHA, 85.45% to 99.93% for ZMA, 99.0% to 98.1% WHAR, 50.5% to 99.5%
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for WHA and 97.8% to 99.4% for ZMB at the same contact time and adsorption temperature. Further increase in concentration lead to a decrease in percentage removal of cadmium ions due to an increase in the number of Cd2+ ions for the fixed amount of adsorbent. Effects of temperature on the adsorption of cadmium ions The effect of temperature on the removal of Cd2+ ions by WHA, RHA, WHAR, ZMA and ZMB at initial solution concentration of 10 ppm for RHA, WHA and ZMA and 100ppm for WHAR and ZMB, using 0.1 g and contact time of 120min and agitation speed of 150rpm are shown in figure 6. From the results, it was observed that the percentage removal
of cadmium ions by WHA, WHAR and ZMB remained constant with increase in temperature. There was a rapid decrease in percentage removal of cadmium ion by RHA and ZMA when the temperature was increased from 298k to 374k. The observed initial decrease in cadmium removal with increasing temperature suggests weak binding interaction between the active sites and cadmium ions which support physisorption which are exothermic and therefore favoured by low temperature1. Effect of adsorbent dosage on adsorption of Cadmium ions Experiments were conducted with the adsorbent dose of 0.02, 0.04, 0.06, 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.4, 0.5, 1.0, 1.5, 2.0 and 2.5g per 50mL of test
Fig. 1: High resolution picture of a sample of water hyacinth ash, WHA
Fig. 2: High resolution picture of a sample of rice husk ash, RHA
Fig. 3: High resolution picture of zeolitic material A, ZMA
Fig. 4: High resolution picture of zeolitic material B, ZMB
Table 1: XRF analysis for Rice husk ash, RHA Compound Al2O3
SiO2
K2O
CaO TiO2
% oxide
77%
1.5%
1.3%
12%
0.97%
MnO
Fe2O3
0.21%
7.21%
Table 2: XRF analysis for Water hyacinth ash, WHA Compound Al2O3
P2O5
Cl
K2O
CaO
MnO
Fe2O3
ZnO
% oxide
6.0%
21%
35.8%
27%
7.1%
1.8%
0.2%
1%
Mbugua et al., Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(2), 280-286 (2014) solution. When the addition of the adsorbent dose increased, the percentage removal of metal ions also increased as shown in fig 7. Adsorption of cadmium ions increased due to increase in number of binding sites as the adsorbent dose increased. A maximum removal of 99.99% at 2.0g ZMA, 99.40% at 2.5g RHA, 99.12% at 0.1g ZMB, 100% at 1.5g WHA and WHAR was observed. A further increase in adsorbent dose did not have any significant effect on the removal of cadmium ions from the solution.
Fig. 5: percentage of Cd2+ ions adsorbed at saturation using 0.1g of WHA, WHAR, RHA, ZMA and ZMB at various initial concentrations (amount of biosorbent = 0.1 g, contact time = 24 hours and agitation speed = 150rpm)
Fig. 6: Effect of temperature on the removal of Cd2+ ions by WHA, RHA, WHAR, ZMA and ZMB (initial solution concentration = 10 ppm for RHA, WHA and ZMA and 100ppm for WHAR and ZMB, amount of biosorbent = 0.1g and contact time = 120 min agitation speed = 150rpm)
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Effect of contact time on percentage removal of cadmium ion Experiments were conducted by, varying contact time from 1 to 1440 min while maintaining all other experimental conditions constant. The results obtained are shown in Fig. 8. As shown the adsorption process occurred rapidly when WHA, WHAR and ZMB were used with almost 100% of the cadmium present adsorbed after 1 min.There was an overlap between ZMB and WHA. ZMA achieved 66% removal after 30 min, 95% after 90 min and reached equilibrium within 2 hrs while RHA achieved 72% removal by 30 min, 99% by 90 min and reachedequilibrium within 2hrs. This suggests that the bonding of the cadmium ion to active sites occurs preferably on the solid surface1. Effects of PH on percentage removal of cadmium ion The effect of pH on the removal efficiency of cadmium ions is studied from pH 2 to 12. The percentage removal was found to be 99.73% for RHA at pH 4, 99. 32% for ZMA at PH 9, 99.7% for water hyacinth ash at PH 9, 99.12% for WHA and ZMB at PH 7 and 9 as shown in Figure 9. At low pH, carboxylic and amino functional groups of adsorbents are protonated2, thus active sites are less available for metal ion binding and thus cadmium ions were less absorbed. Thereafter, the percentage
Fig. 7: Effect of adsorbed doses on the percentage removal of Cd2+ ions by WHA, RHA, WHAR, ZMA and ZMB (initial solution concentration = 10 ppm for RHA, WHA and ZMA and 100ppm for WHAR and ZMB, contact time = 120min agitation speed = 150rpm, pH=5
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Fig. 9: Effect of contact time on the percentage removal of Cd2+ ions by WHA, RHA, WHAR, ZMA and ZMB (initial solution concentration = 10 ppm for RHA, WHA and ZMA and 100ppm for WHAR and ZMB, adsorbent dose = 0.1g, agitation speed = 150rpm, contact time = 2hrs
Fig. 8: Effect of contact time on the percentage removal of Cd2+ ions by WHA, RHA, WHAR, ZMA and ZMB (initial solution concentration = 10 ppm for RHA, WHA and ZMA and 100ppm for WHAR and ZMB, adsorbent dose = 0.1g, agitation speed = 150rpm, pH=5
Table 3:XRF analysis for Water hyacinth ash residual, WHAR Compound Al2O3
P2O5
K2O
CaO
MnO
Fe203
% oxide
9.9 %
9.9 %
54.8 %
15.9 %
5.9 %
4 %
Table 4: XRF analysis for Zeolitic material A, ZMA Compound
Al2O3
SiO2
K2O
CaO TiO2
% oxide
7.8%
75%
3.3%
1.1%
1.3%
MnO
Fe2O3
0.45% 10.45%
Table 5: XRF analysis for Zeolitic material B, ZMB Compound Al2O3 % oxide
10.52%
SiO2
K2O
76.22%
2.7%
CaO TiO2 1.76%
0.04%
MnO
Fe2O3
P2O5
2.08%
2.01%
4.63%
Table 6: Langmuir and Freundlich isotherm constants for cadmium
sample qmaxmg/g RHA WHA WHAR ZMA ZMB
3.745 200 250 11.24 22.22
Langmuir b dm /g 3
5.03 0.208 0.018 22.25 0.303
R
2
0.999 0.934 0.842 1 0.998
Freundlich
1/n
Kfmg/g
R2
0.785 1.43 1.486 0.385 5.103
7.59 52.00 56.89 15 5.103
0.674 0.979 0.992 0.908 0.987
Mbugua et al., Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(2), 280-286 (2014) removal of cadmium ions decreased with increase in PH. This is as a result of increase in OH” ions cause a decrease in adsorption of metal ions at adsorbent adsorbate interface33 Langmuir and Freundlich isotherm constants for cadmium As shown in Table 6, adsorption data for WHA and WHAR best fitted inFreundlich model with R2 = 0.979 and 0.992 respectively while RHA ZMA and ZMB best fitted to the Langmuir model with R2 = 0.999, 1 and 0.998. WHAR and WHA had the highest affinity for Cd2+ ions with adsorption capacity of 56.89 and 52.00mg/g respectively. They also had a1/n value greater than one indicating the adsorption
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process was favourable in Freundlich isotherm model. ZMA and ZMB had adsorption capacity of 11.24 and 22.22mg/g respectively indicating that incoperating the insoluble WHAR in the zeolitic synthesis enhances the materials adsorption for Cd2+ ions. The study showed that ZMA, ZMB, WHA, WHAR and RHA could effectively remove cadmium ions and that adsorption was enhanced in WHAR blended ZMB ACKNOWLEDGEMENT We are grateful to Kenyatta University and Chemistry Department for supporting our project
References 1. Green, P.,Vorosmarty, C., Salisbury, J., Lammers R. Global water resources: Vulnerability from climate change and population growth.Science, 5477, 284 (2000). 2. Cline, S., Rosegrant , M., Cai X. Global water outlook to 2025. International Food Policy Research Institute (2002). 3. Chen, C., Dong, C., Kao, C. Distribution and accumulation of heavy metals in the sediments of Kaohsiung Harbor, Taiwan. Chemosphere, (8), 1431–1440 (2007). 4. Cheng, S. Heavy metal pollution in China: origin, pattern and control. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, (3), 192– 198 (2003). 5. Chengo K., Murungi J., Mbuvi H.M. Speciation of Zinc and Copper in Open-Air Automobile Mechanic Workshop Soils in Ngara AreaNairobi Kenya, Resources and Environment, (3), 145-154 (2013). 6. Chengo K., Mur ungi J., Mbuvi H.M. Speciation of Chromium and Nickel in Open-Air Automobile Mechanic Workshop Soils in Ngara Area-Nairobi Kenya, World Environment, (3), 143-154 (2013). 7. Burton, F. and Tchobanoglous, G. wastewater engineering treatment, disposal and reuse
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(Metcalf and Eddy, Inc,). McGraw-Hill, NewYork (1991). Kruatrachue, M., Lu, X., Pokethitiyook, P., Homyok, K. Removal of cadmium and zinc by water hyacinth, Eichhorniacrassipes.Science Asia, 30, 93–103 (2004). Mataka LM, Salidu SM, Masamba WRL, Mwatseteza JF. Cadmium sorption by Moingastenopetala and Moringaoleiferaseed powder. Int. J. Environ. Sci. Technol 3(2):131139 (2010). Blazquez, G. Hernainz, F. Calero, M. RuizNuìnÞez, L.F. Removal of cadmium ions with olive stones: the effect of some parameters, Process Biochemistry, 40: 2649–2654 (2005). Krishnan, K. A., and Anirudhan, T. S. Removal of cadmium (II) from aqueous solutions by steam-activated sulphurised carbon prepared from sugar-cane bagasse pith: Kinetics and equilibrium studies.Water Sa, 29(2), 147–156 (2003). Periasamy, K., &Namasivayam, C. Removal of nickel (II) from aqueous solution and nickel plating industry wastewater using an agricultural waste: peanut hulls. Waste management, 15(1), 63–68 (1995).
Vol. 9(2), 287-300 (2014)
Current World Environment
Impact of Thane Cyclone on Tree Damage in Pondicherry University Campus, Puducherry, India SM. Sundarapandian*, K. Mageswaran, D. Sanjay Gandhi and Javid Ahmad Dar Department of Ecology and Environmental Sciences, Pondicherry University, Puducherry – 605014, India. http://dx.doi.org/10.12944/CWE.9.2.09 (Received: Feburary 26, 2014; Accepted: April 25, 2014) Abstract The heavy wind along with high rainfall of the catastrophic windstorm “Thane” cyclone cause defoliation, uprooting and snapping of stems and branches of trees in Pondicherry University Campus, Puducherry. A total of 1181 (20%) trees (>3.2 cm DBH) in Pondicherry University Campus were uprooted due to the Thane cyclone. Tree mortality (uprooted) and damage (broken) were observed more in Acacia auriculiformis than other species in response to Thane cyclone in Pondicherry University campus. In the present study, wood density did not show any significant relationship between the damage, mortality and resistance (standing with defoliation and minor branch fall). Acacia auriculiformis was more susceptible to Thane cyclone followed by Tectona grandis. However, Azadirachta indica and Mangifera indica were observed more resistance to thane cyclone. The greater uprooting in introduced plantation species such as Acacia auriculiformis and Tectona grandis was higher than native species Azadirachta indica and Mangifera indica which could be attributed to spread their roots in the surface soil and they do not penetrate deeper into the soil.
Key words: Tropical cyclone, Thane cyclone, tree damage, wood specific gravity, severe winds.
INTRODUCTION Heavy wind is known to alter the structure and functioning of forest ecosystems, agroforestry systems and plantations. The intensity and frequency of severe wind events are likely to increase deterioration to the forests. It is important to understand the species and substrate-specific effects of these disturbances. The immediate impacts of tropical cyclones – defoliation, limb loss, snapping of stems and uprooting of trees – have profound impacts on tropical forests1-4. These catastrophic disturbances create canopy gaps, which can cause significant changes in forest microclimates in the understory and canopy5-9, and complex vegetation and faunal responses to newly created light, temperature and humidity regimes10-12. The resulting altered environmental conditions can initiate other changes to the forest. The buildup of debris caused by cyclone damage is coupled with dry weather;
there is a risk of fire incursion into forest13. The increased light intensity in the forest floor due to canopy gaps can release suppressed seedlings of pioneer species/ light demanding species, which may alter floristic composition 4. Storm intensity, topographic protection and disturbance history could influence cyclone damage while certain functional traits of trees can also be important4. Severe cyclones cause widespread defoliation of canopy trees, removal of vines and epiphytes, along with the breakage of crown stems and associated tree falls3,4,8,14-17. Cyclonic disturbance has also been shown to accelerate invasion by exotic tree species leading to a decline in biodiversity of native species18. Cyclones modify the structural components which include the stripping of leaves from branches and the breakage of branches, roots, and stems19. Factors mitigating these effects include plant
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attributes, such as properties of wood20, leaves and petioles21-22, roots and buttresses23-24, forest level physiognomy25-27, properties of the wind event itself28, as well as resource availability29-30. Effects of cyclone on the structure and production of forests are often species-specific1920,25,28,31-33 . Species may vary in their capacity to resist wind (resistance), offset the effects of injury (tolerance), and recover from injury (resilience). It is unlikely that any one taxon will display all three of these characteristics (resistance, resilience, tolerance). This is because of site- and habitatspecific resource limitations which will force a tradeoff among them3,19. Severe wind events, including cyclones, tornadoes, typhoons and thunderstorm downbursts, occur in nearly all forest systems throughout the world. Forest composition, structure, and functioning are affected by the severity and frequency of these events. Although much information on the effects of wind have been gathered from Caribbean, North America, South American forest systems and Australian rainforests, data remain limited for the old World tropics, and in particular to south India i.e., Tamil Nadu and Pondicherry (impact of cyclones on crop damage in terms of economical return and general damage in the prospective of economy has been generated in order to provide relief fund, however scientific generation of data on damage in the ecological perspective in Tamil Nadu and Puducherry was almost nil). The earlier cyclone namely Nisha, Jall and now Thane cyclone have affected Tamil Nadu and Pondicherry. No published information of Nisha and Jall cyclones on tree species damage is available. Therefore, the data generated from the present study would be the baseline data for further comparisons and prediction of future impacts of cyclone intensities. The ‘Thane’ name was given simply by weather reporters so as to reach the people easily. Due to thane cyclone power production was affected at the Neyveli Lignite Corporation as the mines were submerged. Puducherry was cut off from the neighbouring districts of Villupuram and Cuddalore, in Tamil Nadu34. It has caused to fell several trees across the roads due to the impact of gale. Published information on the impacts of cyclone on tree mortality and damages are not available in Tamil Nadu and Puducherry. Therefore,
the present study was intended to assess the impact of severe tropical cyclone “Thane” on forest tree species damage in Pondicherry university campus, Puducherry, India. The present study would also to address the following questions: a) which tree species is suitable for raising plantation near to the tropical coastal region in the red soil conditions? b) Whether wood density provides resistance to the severe winds? Study area and description Pondicherry University (12° 0.97´ N 79° 51.33´ E), located 10 km North of Puducherry town, on the Coromandel coast of India (Figure 1). It covers an area of 780 acres. The climate is tropical dissymmetric type with most rainfall received during the northeast monsoon (October-December) and meager and inconsistent during southwest monsoon (June-September). The mean annual rainfall is 1282 mm for the last two decades (19902010).The dry season lasts for about six months (January-June), but there are summer showers too during this period. The mean annual maximum and minimum temperature are 32.58°C and 24.51°C for Puducherry. The soil is red-ferralitic, sandy in texture and heavily drained. Historically, the 780 acre land of Pondicherry University, in various portions, was composed of Tropical dry evergreen scrub, and palm savannas on the western and southern part of the campus, cashew plantations, rice, and sugarcane and groundnut cultivation on the eastern side. The landscape was modified over quarter century with buildings, roads, lawns and ornamentals. The varied topography of the campus such as forests, scrubs, savannas, scenic Grand Canyon-like Cuddalore sand-stone formation with lateritic cap, is responsible for high diversity in plant species. A natural area of the campus consists of tropical dry evergreen forest, dry evergreen scrub, scrub savanna and tropical thorn forest. The flora of the university campus was illustrated by Parthasarathy et al.35. Cyclone “Thane” “Thane” was a very severe cyclonic storm developed over Bay of Bengal during last week of December 2011. It crossed north Tamil Nadu and Puducherry coast between Puducherry and Cuddalore within 06.30 – 07.30 hrs (IST) of 30th December 2011 with a wind speed of 120 -140 km/ hr,36.
Sundarapandian et al., Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(2), 287-300 (2014) The Joint Typhoon Warning Center (JTWC) issued a tropical cyclone formation alert on the system during December 25 before designating as Tropical Cyclone 06B later that day as 1-minute wind speeds near the centre reached 65 km/h (40 mph) which is equivalent to a tropical storm. The India Meteorological Department (IMD) also reported during December 25 that the disturbance had organized sufficiently to be declared Depression BOB 05, while it was located about 1,000 km to the southeast of Chennai, India. Early on December 26, the IMD reported that the depression had intensified into a Deep Depression, later on it had intensified into a cyclonic storm and named as “Thane”. The JTWC reported that Thane had become equivalent to a category one hurricane on the Saffir- Simpson Hurricane Wind Scale with 1-minute sustained wind speeds of 120 km/h (75 mph) on early 26th December, while an eye feature had become visible on microwave imagery. Later IMD confirmed the same with 3-minute sustained wind speeds of 120 km/h (75 mph). Thane continued to intensify and developed a small pinhole eye of about 20 km (10 mi) on 28th December. The JTWC reported that Thane had peaked early on December 29 with 1-minute sustained wind speeds of 150 km/h (90 mph). The IMD reported that the system had peaked as a very severe cyclonic storm with 3-minute sustained wind speeds of 140 km/h (85 mph). System continued to move westwards and weakened slightly as it started to interact with land and then made landfall as a borderline during December 30 on the north Tamil Nadu coast between Cuddalore and Pondicherry. After it had made landfall, frictional forces made Thane rapidly weaken into a depression36-37. As per JTWC best track data the Thane cyclone was a Typhoon and would be under the Typhoon Category 1 (based on relating wind speed38). Due to cyclonic storm, sea wave were 1.5 m high. Puducherry was caused extensive damages in cyclonic storm. Rainfall was 15 cm on 30th and 10 cm on 31st December 201136. The Eleven number flag (Great danger- signal stated that severe cyclone to cross the cost by port official based on IMD information) was hoisted in Cuddalore and Puducherry harbor. Severe winds with heavy rainfall have damaged houses and uprooted trees. The cyclone was the severest in the history of
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Puducherry34. The first time that a high intensity cyclone was hit the Union territory after the one in the 1950’s. Even in Puducherry and Cuddalore thatched huts of fishermen and wooden frames in slum areas were completely destroyed. Several trees have fallen down in private coconut plantations and cashew-nut plantations. The cyclone damage in the Pondicherry University campus was more severe i.e. several trees were uprooted and broken, damage the electric poles, bus stops and clearing the road in the campus itself took more than three days. Methods For the present study, entire university campus was divided in the three sub sites namely Site I (which is located near to the coastal zone within the campus, i.e. area up to 500 m from the eastern compound wall of the University campus), Site III is one km away from the eastern compound wall of the University campus and site II lies in between the site I and site III. Cyclone effects on each tree were assessed by visually estimated or recorded uprooted and largest broken branch and standing stage in each study site in the Pondicherry University campus by quadrat method. A large number of 10 m X 10 m quadrats were laid in each site (Site I-161 quadrats; Site II-156 quadrats; Site III-93 quadrats) and noted the status of each tree and measured the girth at breast height (the values are converted to diameter at breast height (DBH)) also. Since the trees were uprooted by the cyclone Thane, it was a good opportunity to collect the wood form the main trunk. Wood pieces of main trunk were collected from the uprooted trees and measured the green volume and then measured dry weight of the wood pieces by oven drying at 105°C ± 5°C for 72 hours. To determine wood specific gravity, tree species that are represented by e” 3.2 cm DBH individual in the Pondicherry University campus were considered. Wood specific gravity was determined using sample of stems (2-8 cm long and 8.9-29 cm diameter) cut at the main trunk. The volume of each sample was determined from the volume of water it displaced when submerged, according to ASTM standard norms38. The basic specific gravity was calculated as oven-dry weight divided by volume40-41.
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One Way ANOVA was used to test whether significant difference among the wood specific gravity of the tree species. Linear regression analysis was used to study the relationship between the wood specific gravity and tree damage. RESULTS A total of 1181 (19.59%) trees (>3.2 cm DBH) in Pondicherry University Campus were uprooted due to the Thane cyclone (Table 1). Among the tree species distributed in the campus, Acacia auriculiformis showed highest mortality (27% uprooted) followed by Tectona grandis (18%) and Eucalyptus tereticornis (11%). Snapped trees (part of the tree broken) in the university campus due to Thane cyclone were 929 (15.5%). Among the six dominant tree species Azadirachta
indica showed higher (28%) rate of damage due to snapped off (branch fall) followed by Mangifera indica and Peltophorum pterocarpum. However, the predominant species, Acacia auriculiformis, Tectona grandis and Eucalyptus tereticornis in the campus showed less damage in term of snapped off compared to other species. Tree species standing with minor damage and defoliation were more than 58% of the total population except for Ailanthus excelsa and Anacardium occidentale. Maximum number of mortality (uprooted) and snapped off (broken) trees observed in size classes between 9.7 - 22.3 cm DBH in all the study sites and also in the entire campus pooled data (Fig. 2). However, cyclone has caused damages on all size classes of tree species. Impact of Thane cyclone on various size classes of trees is presented in the
Table. 1: Over all tree damages due to the impact of “thane� cyclone in Pondicherry University campus, Puducherry. Number of Status of trees after the Thane cyclone (%) Name of the species individuals /4 ha Standing Broken uprooted All the trees Tectona grandis L.f. Eucalyptus tereticornis Smith Acacia auriculiformis A. Cunn. ex Benth Azadirachta indica A. Juss. Mangifera indica L. Peltophorum pterocarpum (DC.) Backer ex K. Heyne Aegle marmelos (L.) Corr. Ailanthus excelsa Roxb. Albizia odoratissima (L. f.) Benth Anacardium occidentale L. Borassus flabellifer L. Calophyllum inophyllum L. Casuarina equisetifolia Forster & Forster f. Ceiba pentandra (L.) Gaertner Cocos nucifera L. Ficus benghalensis L. Ficus religiosa L. Manilkara zapota (L.) P. Royen Michelia champaca L. Morinda pubescens J. E. Smith Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels Others
6013 1174 808 3045 438 24 285
64.91 69.68 78.96 57.60 68.72 79.17 70.53
15.50 12.44 9.78 15.34 27.85 20.83 20.35
19.59 17.89 11.26 27.06 3.42 0 9.12
4 2 21 34 36 6 31 1 22 3 4 9 1 31 6 28
25.00 0 71.43 47.06 100.00 100.00 70.97 0 63.64 100.00 75.00 66.67 100.00 80.65 83.33 67.86
75.00 100.00 28.57 47.06 0 0 22.58 100.00 27.27 0 25.00 33.33 0 12.90 16.67 17.86
0 0 0 5.88 0 0 6.45 0 9.09 0 0 00 0 6.45 0 14.29
Sundarapandian et al., Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(2), 287-300 (2014) Figure 3a&3b. In Acacia auriculiformis, maximum tree mortality (uprooting) were observed in the size class in between 9.8 – 28.7 cm DBH in all the study sites while snapped off (broken) were observed in the size class in between 6.5 – 25.5 cm DBH. A similar trend was occurred in Tectona grandis and other species in all the study sites except in the other species mortality (uprooted) in site III. However, cyclone damage on Eucalyptus trees did not show any specific trend in size classes.
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Anacardium occidentale. One way ANOVA analysis indicates that there is a significant difference found among the trees in the present study with respect to the wood specific gravity (F-value: 5.27; P >0.001) among the trees in the present study. Regression analysis indicates that there is no significant relationship in between the wood specific gravity and cyclone damage of trees (uprooting and broken) in Fig.5. DISCUSSION
Cyclone damage on all trees were greater in site I and site III compared to site II (Fig. 4). Cyclone resulted in greater mortality in both site I and site III than that of site II whereas snapped off (broken) was observed more in the site I than that of other study sites. A similar trend was observed on Acacia and Eucalyptus tree species. However, in Tectona grandis and Azadirachta indica, greater damage was observed in site I than that of site II. Wood specific gravity estimated in the present study was ranged 0.559 to 0.812 g/ cm3 (Table 2). Maximum wood specific gravity was obtained in Albizia odoratissima followed by Peltophorum pterocarpum, Azadirachta indica and Acacia auriculiformis. However, the least was
The heavy wind along with high rainfall of the catastrophic windstorm “Thane cyclone” have caused defoliation, uprooting and snapping of branches of trees in its path of Puducherry and Cuddalore district of Tamil Nadu as like that of earlier studies done elsewhere1,2,15,42, either by direct wind damage (wind-throw or defoliation), or indirect effects of wind (large trees and branches damaging small trees43. In the present study the medium sized adult trees (6.5 – 22.3 cm DBH) were damaged due to heavy wind of Thane cyclone. Similarly medium sized trees were damaged due to heavy wind in Kolombangara44. In contrast, forests in Texas and Puerto Rico suffered higher mortality rates among larger diameter trees of some species2,45. Tree size
Table 2: Specific gravity of tree species in Pondicherry university campus Name of the Species Wood specific gravity (mean ±SD) Tectona grandis L. f. 0.684 ± 0.094 Eucalyptus tereticornis Smith 0.708 ± 0.016 Acacia auriculiformis A. Cunn. ex Benth 0.774 ± 0.095 Azadirachta indica A. Juss. 0.778 ± 0.015 Mangifera indica L. 0.703 ± 0.076 Peltophorum pterocarpum (DC.) Backer ex K. Heyne 0.802 ± 0.040 Aegle marmelos (L.) Corr. 0.747 ± 0.004 Albizia odoratissima (L.f.) Benth 0.812 ± 0.028 Anacardium occidentale L. 0.559 ± 0.014 Casuarina equisetifolia Forster & Forster f. 0.795 ± 0.057 Cocos nucifera L. 0.705 ± 0.033 Ficus religiosa L. 0.652 ± 0.064 Morinda pubescens J.E. Smith 0.47 ± 0.03 Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels 0.64 ± 0.05
Source
Present study Present study Present study Present study Present study Present study Present study Present study Present study Present study Present study Present study Mani and Parthasarathy, 2007 Mani and Parthasarathy, 2007
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(DBH) did not confer any increased or decreased resistance to damage from cyclone Thane in Pondicherry University Campus among tree species. Similarly, no specific relationship was obtained by Curran et al.46 from cyclone Larry among Mabi forest trees when tree size-classes and damage categories used for analysis. These results are unexpected, as several studies have found that larger trees experience greater wind damage47-50, although such findings are not universal20 and tree size did not influence mortality in Jamaica3. Everham and Brokaw4 have reviewed many studies of wind damage to forest vegetation. They have suggested that lack of consistent trends between tree size and
damage across studies could be attributed to such factors as variation occurred between the species and within the species regarding the relationship between tree height (which is more directly related to wind exposure) and diameter, as well as different measures of damage and different size-classes used by researchers. Furthermore, Everham and Brokaw4 propose that traits such as crown size may give more accurate estimations of resistance. Preliminary studies on common Mabi forest species showed some relationships between damage and mean canopy spread46. The present study shows maximum uprooting in Acacia trees compared to teak and Eucalyptus. This may be attributed to
Fig.1:Location of the study area, Pondicherry University campus, Puducherry, India.
Sundarapandian et al., Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(2), 287-300 (2014) height and canopy spread because Acacia tree have greater height than that of the teak as well as greater canopy spread compared to Eucalyptus trees. Twenty present (1181) of trees were uprooted in Pondicherry University Campus due to Thane cyclone. This value is greater to overall mortality on plots of subtropical wet forest in Puerto Rico following hurricane Hugo 48 and in lower montane rain forest in Jamaica in response to hurricane Gilbert51-52, although it is within the range for catastrophic windstorms4.
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Tree mortality (uprooted) and damage (broken) in Pondicherry University campus showed that the greater values in individuals of Acacia auriculiformis are more than that of other species in response to Thane cyclone. Other studies have also shown differences between tree species in susceptibility to death or damage during severe windstorms14,25,42,53. These differences may be linked to wood properties2,47 or tree architecture25. Wood density appears to be a trait fundamental to cyclone resistance54. However, in
Fig. 2: Trees size classes wise status after the “Thane� cyclone effect in Pondicherry, University Campus, Puducherry, India.
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the present study, wood density did not show any significant relationship between the damage (broken) and mortality (uprooted). Similarly, no relationship was found between resistance and wood density in Jamaican forest3, Hawaiian forests20, nor across a variety of forest types in north Queensland following Cyclone Larry50. However, relationships between wood density and wind resistance have been found in a number of forest types and environments, including: tropical moist forest at Barro Colorado Island47, subtropical wet forest in Puerto Rico2 and tropical rainforest in north Queensland54. Metcalfe et al.50 based their assertion on the observations viewed that some tree species with different wood density experienced similar types of damage, while others with similar wood density experienced different levels of damage relative to other sympatric species. Similarly, in the present study tree species with closure wood density showed different response to Thane cyclone.
Leaf traits could also determine levels of damage in the context of cyclone resistance46. In the present study, leaf traits may also be induced the effect of Thane cyclone on tree mortality (uprooted) in case of Tectona grandis, Eucalyptus tereticornis and Acacia auriculiformis compared to other tree species. Similarly, leaf size (such as area, length or width) and petiole length could influence defoliation by altering the drag forces experienced during a windstorm21. The same may be true of traits related to leaf strength. For instance, specific leaf area (SLA) (one-sided area divided by dry mass,55 Westoby 1998) is a good, readily measured attribute for leaf strength, owing to its negative correlation with leaf force to fracture and leaf toughness (force to fracture/leaf thickness)56 which determine the level of damage during cyclone resistance. Physical damage from a tropical cyclone might be greatest at edges of the forest or in small
Fig 3a: Impact of Thane cyclone on tree damage (broken) at different girth class in Pondicherry University campus, Puducherry
Sundarapandian et al., Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(2), 287-300 (2014) fragments that have a high proportion of edge57. Similarly, the forest distance from the coastal zone is an important trait to determine the impacts of cyclone. Damage of trees due to Thane cyclone were greater in site I compared to site II and site III. The variation in damage among the study sites could be attributed to distance from coastal zone. However, site III had greater mortality of trees compared to that of site I and II even though this site was for away from the coastal zone. This may be due to greater density of trees per unit area which is mostly in an open space. The study site I that has lesser mortality because heavy wind force at few meter height is reduced by compound wall of the university campus. However, broken (snapped of branches) were greater in study site I because part of canopy of trees in site I is exposed to heavy cyclone wind. In study site II, several buildings are located which may reduce wind speed or alter or change the wind directions. This could be the reason for less damage in site II compared to site I and
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site III. It is likely that the high wind intensity from severe tropical cyclones overrides the modest wind protection provided by surrounding forest. Similarly, the results of the present study also indicate that the tree damage effects of cyclone are patchy at local scale of 0.05 km. The main effect of cyclone Larry at forests was to increase the spatial heterogeneity of forest structure at local scales57. The cyclone’s effects were highly patchy at local scales (0.5–1.0 km), leading to an increase in among-site variation in forest structure and the disappearance of significant spatial autocorrelation among large remnant edgeinterior site pairs which had existed prior to the cyclone57. The present study reveals that the Thane cyclone has caused high rates of defoliation, uprooting and snapped off stems and branches to trees in their path particularly in Pondicherry University campus, Puducherry, India. Acacia auriculiformis was more susceptible to Thane
Fig. 3b: Impact of Thane cyclone on tree mortality (uprooted) at different girth class in Pondicherry University campus, Puducherry
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cyclone followed by Tectona grandis. However, Azadirachta indica and Mangifera indica were more resistance to thane cyclone. This could be attributed to the roots of all introduced species which do not penetrate deeper into the hard red soil. Instead they spread their roots as reported by Narasimhan and Oppili58.
Acknowledgement We thank anonymous reviewer for their valuable comments and suggestion on the manuscript. We also thank Dr. A. Munian, Department of linguistics, Madurai Kamaraj University for language corrections.
Fig. 4: Impact of “Thane� Cyclone on tree damage in different location at Pondicherry University campus, Puducherry, India.
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Vol. 9(2), 301-311 (2014)
Current World Environment
Physicochemical Quality of Irrigation Water in River Katsina-ala Catchment Areas of Northern Nigeria A. T. Ajon1, J. T. Utsev2* and C. C. Nnaji3 Department of Soil science, University of Agriculture, Makurdi-Nigeria. Department of Civil Engineering, University of Agriculture, Makurdi-Nigeria. 3 Department of Civil Engineering, University of Nigeria, Nsukka. 1
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http://dx.doi.org/10.12944/CWE.9.2.10 (Received: May 12, 2014; Accepted: July 20, 2014) ABSTRACT The assessment of water qualities for irrigation in river Katsina-Ala catchment areas of Benue State was carried out. Surface water and groundwater samples from three selected catchment areas namely, Logo, Ambighir and Katsina-Ala, were collected and analyzed for physicochemical parameters. Several soil samples were also analysed for infiltration capacity. All the physicochemical parameters monitored fell within FAO specifications for irrigation purposes. Groundwater samples were found to have higher concentrations of physicochemical parameters than surface water. On the basis of hydrochemical classification, earth alkali types were dominant (100%) in both groundwater and surface water samples while the alkali type was totally absent. Assessment of the water samples for irrigation showed that the water samples posed no problems with regard to sodicity, salinity and lime deposition. However, high risk of infiltration was envisaged as a result of very low values of conductivity (0.03ds/m – 0.13ds/m). At the present, infiltration problem is minimal because of high proportion of sand (68% - 89%) in the soils but this situation may not be sustained for long. A regression model (R = 0.773) was obtained which showed that the rate of infiltration strongly depended on the sand content of soil. Both water and soil samples were found to be suitable for a wide range of irrigation.
Key words: Hydrochemical, Salinity, Infiltration, Groundwater.
INTRODUCTION The demand for water has been on the increase because its uses have become more varied.Water is indispensable in man’s activities. The sources of water for usage include river, stream, lakes, ponds, rain water and groundwater such as spring water, well water, boreholes etc. In the Northern part of Nigeria, subject to the arid conditions, there has been tremendous progress in irrigation development programmes (Ahmed and Tanko, 2000). Benue State is located in the North Central geopolitical zone of Nigeria and lies within the Southern Guinea Savanna agro-ecological zone where rainfall is often erratic and inadequate in amount and distribution for production of some crops. Over 142,200ha of land are cultivated in Benue State (Ayuba et al, 2007).
In Nigeria, annual rainfall varies from about 500mm in the extreme North to about 3000mm in the south and the rainfall is high in intensity. Annual rainfall in Benue varies from about 900 to 1200mm (Jimba and Adegoye, 2000).In Benue State, rainfed agriculture has suffered varying lengths and intensities of agricultural drought, thus necessitating irrigation in order to satisfy the moisture requirements of crops needed to meet the demands for food and fibre. The arable lands in Benue State consist of upland and fadama lands (flood plains). The upland is cultivated to many high value agronomic and horticultural crops. Fadama farming depends on rain in the wet season and residual soil moisture in the dry season. To alleviate the problem of moisture stress during the prolonged gaps between rains as well as in dry season, supplementary irrigation is provided. This is
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done by lifting the water from perennial surface water bodies and deep or shallow wells.Although irrigation is useful for sustaining agricultural production in any locality, it is imperative that only good quality water be used. Poor quality water affects both soil quality and crop production adversely (Bello, 2001; USDA, 2001; FAO, 1994). Considering large hectares of land which are agriculturally productive within River Katsina-Ala catchment areas, there is a felt need to encourage irrigated agriculture. This can support year round crop production on medium and consequently alleviate poverty.The river Katsina-Ala, is the tenth most important river in Nigeria (The National Atlas of the Federal Republic of Nigeria, 1978). It has a length of about 346 km and numerous tributaries (Welcomme, 1976). The main aim of the study is to investigate and evaluate the qualities of surface and ground water within the river Katsina-Ala catchment areas of Benue State, for irrigation purposes. Study Area The research was carried out in three selected catchment areas of the river Katsina-Ala. The catchment areas are Logo, Ambighir and Katsina-Ala. River Katsina-Ala is located in what could be termed the Lower Benue hydrological area, between 6050’ and 7048’N, and 8049’ and 9050’E (Fig.1). It arises from the Bamenda highlands, part
of the Cameroonian mountains, (1000 – 2000m a.s.l.) meandering North-Westerly and traversing the international boundary into Benue State at Kashimbila (6055’N, 9037’E), before emptying into River Benue at Gbajimba (7048’N and 8049’N) about 160m a.s.l, (Ogueri, 2001).It has a length of about 346 km and numerous tributaries (Welcomme, 1976). River Ambighir catchment area is located at Ambighir in Gboko Local Government. The study areas are bounded by longitudes 8036’ and 8045’E and latitudes 7045’ and 8000’N, while, River Logo catchment area is located at Logo in Logo Local Government Area which is bounded by longitudes 9016’E and 9028’E and latitude 7036’ and 7050’N.The maximum elevation of river Katsina-Ala catchment area is 151.5m above mean sea level (a.m.s.l) and minimum elevation is 121.21m a.m.s.l. Ambighir relief ranges from 90 to 262m a.m.s.l., and Logo ranges from about 121 to 159m a.m.s.l. The climate of the study areas is tropical savanna. The minimum temperature is 9.70C and maximum is 33.50 C. The mean monthly temperature is 27.30C. The study areas have distinct dry and wet seasons with total annual rainfall varying between about 900 and 1200mm. Rainy season starts in April and ends in October/November. The vegetation in the study areas is Guinea Savannah type, characterized
Fig. 1: Map of Study Area
Ajon et al., Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(2), 301-311 (2014) by grasses with few scattered shrubs and trees. Commonly cultivated crops include yam, cassava, guinea corn, maize, millet, groundnut, soyabean, benniseed, rice, melon, and other vegetable crops. Trees crops such as mango, palm trees, citrus, cashew and other economic trees are also found in the areas. The crop mostly produced (Figure 2) is yam(26%) followed by soya bean (16%), groundnut and rice (8.67% each). Though Benue state is subject to erratic rainfall, the intense agricultural activities occurring in the state has made it the “food basket of the nation”. Methodology Water samples were taken in both wet and dry seasons. River and well water samples were collected at different locations in the three (3) catchment areas (Ambighir, Logo and Katsina-Ala). The pH of water was measured electrometrically using glass electrode pH meter (Mclean, 1965). Electrical conductivity was measured with electrical conductivity meter. Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC) of the water were analysed in the laboratory based on the Standard Methods (APHA, 1998).Sodium, potassium, chloride and boron were determined using flame photometer. Calcium, magnesium, iron
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and manganese were determined using atomic absorption spectrophotometer (AAS) (Mclean, 1965). Bicarbonate was determined by the titrimetric method using naphtalein and methyl orange as indicator (Landon, 1991).Total dissolved solids in water were determined by evaporation-drying (Chopra and Kanwar, 1991). Infiltration capacity tests were carried out in the three catchment areas of the river Katsina-Ala. Six (6) locations were determined in each catchment area. Infiltration test was done by digging 10cm X 10cm X 10cm pit at each location. Water volume of 250cm3 was poured into the pit and the time in second was taken and recorded for water transmission into the soil. This was repeated four times at each location. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Chemical Characteristics of the River and Well Water Physicochemical parameters are the most important factors used in assessing the suitability of irrigation water (Rhoades, 1977, Rogers, et al, 2003). The mean values of the various chemical constituents when compared with the FAO, (1994)
Table 1: Descriptive Statistics Parameter N Range Minimum Maximum Mean Std. Source with Deviation Max Value Temp (0C) Turbidity (mg/l) pH EC (ds/m) Ca (me/l) Mg (me/l) Na (me/l) K (mg/l) Cl (me/l) B (mg/l) Fe (mg/l) Mn (mg/l) NO3 (mg/l) SO4 (me/l) HCO3 (me/l) TDS (mg/l) Hardness (mg/l) SAR (me/l)
36 2.60 36 69.80 36 2.30 36 0.10 36 0.46 36 .290 36 .320 36 20.32 36 4.70 36 0.23 36 1.89 36 0.140 36 0.01 36 1.02 36 1.33 36 315 36 43.0 36 0.49
26.50 2.30 6.00 0.03 .200 .230 .070 0.08 0.30 0.07 0.41 0.09 0 0.04 0.30 25 21 0.14
29.10 27.60 72.10 33.21 8.30 7.32 0.13 0.07 0.66 0.40 0.52 0.37 0.39 0.22 20.40 4.32 5.00 1.32 0.30 0.14 2.30 0.89 0.23 0.16 0.01 0.001 1.06 0.42 1.63 0.92 340 128.14 64 35.03 0.63 0.35
0.82 18.74 0.71 0.03 0.14 0.09 0.10 5.11 1.24 0.05 0.46 0.04 0.002 0.35 0.32 81.37 11.14 0.14
FAO Limits
Well Water River Water 50 – 100mg/l River Water 6.0 - 8.5 Well Water 0 – 3ds/m Well Water 0 – 20me/l Well Water 0 – 5me/l Well Water 0 – 40me/l River Water 0 – 2mg/l Well Water 0 – 30me/l Well Water 0 – 2mg/l Well Water 0 – 1.5mg/l Well Water 0 – 2mg/l Well Water 0 – 10mg/l Well Water 0 – 20me/l Well Water 0 – 10me/l River Water 0 – 2000mg/l Well Water <80mg/l River Water 0 – 15me/l
Na
K
Cl
B
Fe
Mn
1
NO3- SO42- HCO3- TDS Hardness SAR
1 .361* 1 -.175 .297 1 .285 -.262 -.338* 1 .065 -.128 -.248 .434** 1 .115 -.262 -.187 .644** .869** 1 -.181 -.262 .093 .220 .688** .586** 1 .089 .037 .019 .431** .400* .430** .385* 1 .302 -.129 -.310 .504** .432** .427** .371* .564** 1 .183 -.006 -.192 .334* .043 .115 .064 .338* .263 1 .367* -.235 -.276 .402* .489** .592** .149 .090 .458** .038 1 -.052 .098 .253 .362* .630** .600** .620** .399* .204 .101 .209 1 -.296 -.087 -.021 .154 .308 .280 .343* .381* -.027 .387* -.140 .243 1 .112 .206 .315 -.139 -.412* -.344* -.252 .003 -.150 .015 -.288 -.181 -.191 1 -.008 -.041 .128 .358* -.060 .205 -.406* .022 -.182 -.142 .155 -.047 -.002 -.065 1 -.038 .594** .689** -.575** -.514** -.564** -.201 -.098 -.210 -.047 -.450** -.093 -.206 .382* -.227 1 .097 .146 .191 .445** .616** .542** .584** .582** .429** .207 .140 .753** .418* -.034 -.091 -.048 1 -.301 -.263 .250 .078 .412* .326 .930** .248 .224 .033 -.015 .481** .282 -.108 -.440** -.016 .434**
Mg
Temp Turbidity pH EC Ca Mg Na K Cl B Fe Mn NO3- SO42- HCO3- TDS Hardness SAR
Ca
Temp Turbidity pH EC
Table 2: Correlation of Physicochemical Parameters
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Ajon et al., Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(2), 301-311 (2014) water standards for irrigation were seen to fall within the ranges recommended as suitable for irrigation (Table 1 ).The turbidity of the river water ranged from 42.1 to 72.1 mg/l and from 2.3 to 30 mg/l in the wet and dry season respectively. Turbidity of the well water ranged from 8.1 to 65 mg/l and from 8 to 30
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mg/l in the wet and dry seasons respectively.The pH of the river water ranged from 7.5 to 8.3 and from 7.2 to 8.1 in the wet and dry seasons respectively. The pH of the well water ranged from 6 to 7.81 and from 6 to 7.2 in the wet and dry seasons respectively. The pH of the river water was generally higher in wet season than in the dry season due to high degree
Table 3: Hydrochemical Distribution of Water Samples Subdivision Hydrochemical Facies 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Well Water
River Water
100% 0% 77.8% 22.2% 11.1% 0% 22.2% 0% 66.7%
100% 0% 50% 50% 11.1% 0% 50% 0% 39.9%
Alkali earth metals exceed alkali metals Alkali metals exceed alkali earth metals Strong acids exceed weak acids Weak acids exceed strong acids Magnesium sulphate type Sodium carbonate type Calcium carbonate type Sodium chloride type No dominant type
Table 4: Infiltration Capacity (K) in Study Location Location
Proportion of Sand (%)
River Logo Catchment Area River Ambighir Catchment Area River Katsina-Ala Catchment Area
68 – 75 83 – 89 79 – 86
Range of Effects on land use K(cm/s) (Marshall and Holmes, 1988) 0.00956 – 0.0104 0.0153 – 0.0532 0.0105 – 0.0181
Wide range for crops/irrigation Wide range for crops/irrigation Wide range for crops/irrigation
Table 5: Summary of Possible Hazards Associated with Use of Water for Irrigation Criteria Used
Well Water
River Water
Classification
Sodium Adsorption Ratio Hazard Residual Sodium Carbonate Hazard Lime Deposition Potential Boron Hazard Infiltration Risk Salinity Hazard Chloride Hazard
100% (none)
100% (none)
USSL (1954)
33% (none) 55.6% (low) 11% (low) 44.4% (medium) 56% (medium) 100% (none) 100% (none)
Stevens (1994)
100% (none) 100% (none) 100% (high) 100% (high) 100% (very low) 100% (very low) 50% (safe for most 100% (safe for plants) most plants) 50% ( injurious to onions, pepper,
Doneen (1954) Westcot (1985) Ayers and Westcot (1985)
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of saturation with base-forming cations (Ca, Mg, K and Na) in the rainy season. In the case of well water samples, cations were expectedly leached down the soil profile thereby increasing the base concentration in the well water. All the values indicated a slightly alkaline condition, but fell within the recommended standards range of 6 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 8.5 (FAO, 1994). The pH values of river water indicated slightly alkaline condition; continuous application of this water to the soils within the study areas may be harmful. This is because of the slightly saline status of the soils in the dry season. The values of the electrical conductivity (EC) of the river water ranged from 0.03
to 0.07 ds/m and from 0.04 to 0.09 ds/m for wet and dry season respectively. The EC of the well water ranged from 0.08 to 0.13 ds/m and from 0.03 to 0.1 ds/m in the wet and dry season respectively.The values of calcium in the river water ranged from 0.24 to 0.33 meq/l and from 0.25 to 0.51 meq/l for wet and dry season respectively.Calcium content of the well water ranged from 0.23 to 0.66 meq/l and from 0.2 to 0.6 meq/l for wet and dry seasons respectively. The magnesium values in river water ranged from 0.23 to 0.33 meq/l and 0.26 to 0.42 meq/l for wet and dry season respectively. For well water, Mg ranged from 0.28 to 0.52meq/l and from 0.28 to 0.47 meq/l
Fig. 2: Distribution of Major Crops Produced in Study Area
Fig. 3: Piper Tri-Linear Diagram for Well Water
Ajon et al., Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(2), 301-311 (2014) for wet and dry seasons respectively.Thesodium concentration in river water ranged from 0.09 to 0.21 meq/l and from 0.18 to 0.32 meq/l for wet and dry season respectively. The values of sodium in well water ranged from 0.08 to 0.39 meq/l and from 0.07 to 0.33meq/l in the wet and dry season respectively. The potassium values in river water ranged from 0.44 to 5.41 mg/l and from 1 to 20.4 mg/l in the wet and dry season respectively. The K values in the well water ranged from 1 to 16 mg/l and from
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0.08 to 7mg/l in wet and dry seasons respectively. The values of boron in the river water ranged from 0.46 to 0.76 mg/l and from 0.09 to 0.14 mg/l for wet and dry seasons respectively. In well water, boron values ranged from 0.1 to 0.3 mg/l and from 0.07 to 0.23 mg/l for wet and dry season respectively.The values of Fe ranged from 0.41 to 1.1 mg/l and from 0.41 to 2.3 mg/l for river and well water respectively. Mn ranged from 0.11 to 0.18 mg/l and from 0.09 to 0.23 mg/l for river and well water respectively.
Fig. 4: Piper Tri-Linear Diagram for River Water
Fig. 5: Irrigation Water Quality Classification Based on USSL (1954)
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Sulphate values in the river water ranged from 0.07 to 0.92 meq/l and from 0.4 to 0.7 meq/l for wet and dry season respectively. In the well water, the values ranged from 0.1 to 1.06 meq/l and from 0.09 to 1 meq/l for wet and dry season respectively.The values of bicarbonate in the river water ranged from 0.60 to 1.01 meq/l and from 0.61 to 1.52 meq/l for wet and dry seasons respectively. The bicarbonate in the well water ranged from 0.59 to 1.63 meq/l and 0.3 to 0.96 meq/l for wet and dry seasons respectively. The values of total dissolved solids in water ranged from 87 to 340 mg/l and from 25 to 200 mg/l for river and well water respectively. The water samples were further analyzed by generating plots of Piper trilinear diagrams. Cations were plotted of the left triangle while anions were plotted on the right triangle. The diamond shaped field was then obtained by projecting points from the two triangles to meet in the diamond shape (Figures 3, 4). The dominant hydrochemical type was the CaMg (earth alkali metals) type recording 100% for both well and river water samples (Table 3) followed by the SO42--Cl- type recording 77.8% and 50% for well and river water samples respectively. The Na â&#x20AC;&#x201C; K (alkali metals), sodium carbonate and sodium chloride types were totally non-existent (0%) in both well and river water samples. The proportions of both the HCO3-+CO32- type and the calcium carbonate type in river water samples (50% each) were more than twice their proportions in well water samples (22.2% each).River water is in contact with the atmosphere and this makes it possible for carbon dioxide to dissolve in water to form bicarbonate ion. This does not readily occur in groundwater which is shielded from the atmosphere. The proportion of well water samples belonging to no particular hydrochemical facies was roughly twice the proportion of river water belonging to no particular hydrochemical facies. This can be attributed to the fact that river water experiences more turbulent mixing as it flows while groundwater experiences less mixing. Evaluation of Water Quality for Irrigation For irrigation purposes, both quantity and quality of water are of equal importance (Sangodoyin and Ogedemgbe, 1991). The quality of water is assessed based on its intended use. The quality of water is highly dependent on its source and anthropogenic activities occurring around it. For
irrigation water, the concern is not just its suitability for crops productivity; its effect on agricultural soil and irrigation systems must also be taken into consideration. The suitability of irrigation water (SIW) is expressed as: SIW = f (Q, S, P, C, D) Where; Q = quality of irrigation water, S = soil type, P = salt tolerance characteristics of plant, C = climate, D = drainage characteristics of the soil. Risk of Sodicity Evaluating the concentration of sodium in irrigation water is crucial because of its high solubility in water and the negative effects associated with sodium in irrigation water. Excess sodium content in irrigation water can affect plant growth and affect soil permeability by damaging soil structure. In extreme cases, toxicity to plants becomes a possibility, hence the need to evaluate the sodium content of irrigation water. Percent sodium is obtained as
...(1) The concentration of sodium in the water samples was generally very low. All the samples had sodium concentration within the range recommended by FAO (1994) while percent sodium values were below 3meq/l which means that sodicity problem is not expected. Sodicity is the presence of excess sodium in soil (Singh, 2000). Sodicity causes swelling and dispersion of clay particles, surface crusting and pore plugging (Bauder et al, 2011) both of which aggravate infiltration problems. This condition makes it difficult for plants to get enough water. Excess sodium also causes problem by competing with plants for nutrients since it is extremely reactive. In irrigation systems using sprinklers, excess sodium can cause damage to foliage.Because the ratio of Ca/Mg is greater than one, the potential effect of sodium is reduced. Salinity Problem Evaluation Irrigation water contains a mixture of naturally occurring salts. Soils irrigated with this water will contain a similar mix but usually at a higher concentration than in the applied water (Oster and
Ajon et al., Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(2), 301-311 (2014) Rhoades, 1983). Generally, the electrical conductivity values for the water samples were low. Electrical conductivity is a measure of total dissolved solids. For the river water, electrical conductivity in the dry season was higher than that of the wet season. River water quality is often related to flow. The dilution due to runoff in the rainy periods usually keeps total salt concentration low (Ochtman and Debele, 1975). For the well water, electrical conductivity values were higher in wet season compared to the dry season. Based on the FAO (1994) standards, the value of 3.0 ds/m is the upper limit of conductivity for irrigation water. For proper evaluation of the salinity problem posed by irrigation water, a combination of sodium adsorption ratio (SAR) and electrical conductivity must be considered (Rhoades, 1977). SAR is used to evaluate sodium hazard and is determined as follows:
...(2) Salinity hazard was evaluated using USSL (1954) classification of irrigation water (Figure 5). The three slanting lines can be plotted using the following expressions:
Upper curve S=43.75-8.87LogC ...(3) Middle curve S= 31.31-6.66LogC ...(4) Lower curve S= 18.87-4.44LogC ...(5)
Where S = sodium adsorption ratio and C = electrical conductivity. Figure 5 shows that all the samples analyzed were of excellent quality (class C1-S1) with regard to salinity hazard. Table 6 shows that both river water and well water sampled are very good for irrigation as far as salinity is concerned. The values of pH, EC, Ca, Mg and Na indicate that the water has no salinity problems. The water in the three catchment areas is, therefore, good quality for irrigation. This is significant because saline water increases the osmotic exertion required for plants to absorb water from the soil. Hence as salinity increases, less water becomes available for plant uptake even when there is adequate water in the soil. Excess salt in irrigation water can further cause reduced plant yield, desiccation of plant leaves and discoloration of fruits with consequent reduction in market value. The problem of salinity in irrigation
309
water can be corrected by leaching and dilution with water of good quality. Risk of Infiltration The soil problems most commonly encountered and used to evaluate water quality are those related to salinity, water infiltration rate and toxicity problems (Rogers et al., 2003; FAO, 1994; Ayers and Westcot, 1994; USDA, 2001; Yakubu et al., 2006). Irrigation water of high salinity content can cause salt accumulation in soils which leads to soil structure problems. SAR and electrical conductivity can be used to assess the risk of infiltration as suggested by Ayers and Westcot (1985). As previously noted, the water samples pose no salinity threats but Table 5 shows that they pose serious infiltration problems. All the water samples analyzed had very high risk of water infiltration problem. However, the extent of infiltration risk resulting from irrigation waterdepends on soil characteristics with the risk being higher as clay content of the soil increases. Despite the high risk of infiltration problem posed by the water, the soils have not yet developed infiltration problems because of the high sand content (Table 4). Table 4 shows the results of the infiltration capacity tests carried out in Logo, Ambighir and Katsina-Ala respectively. The values of the infiltration capacity fell within the range suitable for a wide range of crops and irrigation. Table 4 shows that the soils had high values of infiltration capacities varying from 9.56 x 10-3 cm/s to 5.32 x 10-2 cm/s. The infiltration capacity was found to be proportional to the percentage of sand in soil and the clay content increased with depth.A multiple regression model (R= 0.773) relating infiltration capacity to proportion of sand was obtained (Equation 6).
K= 0.1Sand+0.07Silt-0.089
...(6)
K is the infiltration capacity while sand and silt are the proportions (fraction) of sand and silt respectively. Including clay content in the model did not improve the model, hence it can be inferred that clay content should not be of concern when present in the quantities found in these soils. Infiltration problems can also result from extremely low electrical conductivity (too little dissolved salt). The range of conductivity observed in the water samples (0.03ds/m to 0.13ds/m) can cause disintegration of soil aggregates.
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Permeability problem related to water quality may occur when the rate of water infiltration into and through the soils is reduced by the effect of specific salts or lack of salts in the water to such an extent that the crop is not adequately supplied with water and yield is reduced. Residual Sodium Carbonate (RSC) Residual sodium carbonate is estimated as the difference of carbonate plus bicarbonate and calcium plus magnesium. The RSC for well water ranged from -0.573 – 1.594meq/l while that of river water ranged from 0.364 – 1.365meq/l. RSC values below zero are considered safe for irrigation while values above zero render soil susceptible to structural problems. Soil structural problems develop when, as a result of high RSC, calcium is lost from the soil by precipitation (lime deposition). Table 5 shows that all river water samples posed varying degrees (55.6% low and 44.4% medium) of soil problem as a result of high RSC while 33% of well water sample posed no risk at all.This attests to high amount of calcium in well water compared to river water and could be due to the presence of limestone within the lithology. As groundwater flows through the limestone formation, the calcium content increases as a result of cation exchange.Though the RSC values of the water samples indicated the possibility of structural problems, Table 5 shows that lime deposition will not occur. Lime deposition is caused by evaporation, loss of carbon dioxide as gas, increased temperature and increased pH. Lime deposition reduces the marketability of crops by leaving white patches on leaves and fruits, plugs irrigation systems and reduces nutrients available to plants by precipitation or reduced solubility. Other Hazards If the values of the water sample analyses summarized in Table 1 are taken at face value, all
parameters without exception in all the locations fell within FAO(1994) standards. The most common toxicity problem is from chloride in irrigation water. This is because chloride is not adsorbed or held back by soils. Therefore, it moves readily with the soil-water (Maas, 1984). Generally, chloride concentration in both river and well water was below the 30meq/l safe limit (FAO, 1994) for both wet and dry seasons. The low chloride concentration might be due to the presence of basalt which prevents marine cretaceous sediments from getting in touch with the fresh water. However, Table 4 shows that the possibility of chloride hazard exists. All the river water samples analyzed did not pose any chloride hazard while 50% of well water samples are likely to be injurious to such crops as onions, pepper, carrot and grape. High chloride concentration corrodes plant leaves and fruits. This can be prevented by dilution and by avoiding contact between leaves and water during irrigation.Trace elements posed no risk at all since they were allthan 100 µg/l as noted by Pratt, 1972. CONCLUSION An assessment of the quality of water at some locations along the river Katsina-Ala catchment areas of Benue State was carried out to determine the suitability of the water for irrigation purposes. The river and well water qualities were found to be suitable for wide range of irrigation, as salinity, permeability, toxicity and miscellaneous quality related parameters fall within the tolerable limit as recommended by the FAO (1994).Hence, hazards associated with the use of both surface water and groundwater for irrigation are presently very low. However, soil structure problems are likely to develop if proper management practices are not initiated.
REFERENCES 1.
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Agbede, I.O., and Adegoye, M.S. Assessment of the quality of borehole water in Benue State, Nigeria. J. Agric. Sci. and Technology, 13(1): 38-50 (2003). Ahmed, K., and Tanko, A.I. Assessment of water quality changes for irrigation in the river Hadejia catchment. J. Arid Agric., 10: 89-94 (2000).
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Ayers, R.S., and Westcot, D.W. Water quality for agriculture. FAO Irrigation and Drainage Paper 29 Rev. 1 FAO of the UN, Rome (1994). Ayuba, S. A., Akamigbo, F. O. R., Itseghe, S. A. Properties of soils in River Katsina-Ala Catchment Areas, Benue State, Nigeria. Nigerian Journal of Soil Science, 17: 24-29
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(2007). Bauder, T. A., Waskom, R. M., Sutherland, P. L. and Davis, J. G. Irrigation water quality criteria, Colorado State University Extension, Fact Sheet No 0.506 (2011). Bello, S. Water quality and soil characteristics of wetland in Sokoto metropolis. Unpublished B.Sc Project Repor t. Depar tment of Soil Science and Agric Engineering, UsmanDanFodioUniversity, Sokoto, Nigeria. 69pp (2001). Chopra, S.L., and Kanwar, J.S. Analytical Agricultural Chemistry. 4th Edition, New Delhi, India: Kalyani publishers (1991). Doneen, L. D. Salinization of soils by salt in irrigation water. Trans. Amer. Geophy. Union 35; 943-950 (1954). FAO, Water Quality for Agriculture. FAO Irrigation and Drainage Paper. 29 Rev. 1. Rome: FAO (1994). Jimba, S.C., and Adegoye, M.S. An assessment of the reliability of the handdug wells in River Bar catchment areas for smallscaleirrigation, In: The Proceedings of the 26th Annual Conference of Soil Sci. Society of Nigeria (2000). Landon, J.R. Booker Tropical Soil Manual. A Handbook for Soil Survey and AgriculturalLand Evaluation in the Tropics and Sub-Tropics. New York, USA. John Wiley and Son Inc. 474pp (1991). Maas, E. V. Salt tolerance of plants. In: The Handbook of Plant Science in Agriculture. B.R. Christie (ed). Boca Raton, Florida.CRC Press (1984), Mclean,E.O., Aluminum. In:C.A., Black, D.D. Evans , J.L. White, L.E. Ensminger, and F.E. Clark,(eds.) Methods of Soil Analysis. Part2. Chemical and mineralogical proper ties. No. 9. Madison, Wis.USA. Am: Soc. Agon (1965). Ogueri, C. The fish abundance and potentials of river KatsinaAla, Nigeria. J. Agric., and Related Sciences, 1(1): 24-30 (2001). Oster, J.D; and Rhoades, J.D. Irrigation with saline water. In: Soil and Water Newsletter. University of California Cooperative Extension,
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56: 1-3 (1983). Pratt, P.F. Quality criteria for trace elements in irrigation waters. California Agricultural Experiment Station, 46 (1972). Rhoades, J.D., and Merrill, S.D. Assessing the suitability of water for irrigation: theoretical and empirical approaches. In: Prognosis of Salinity and Alkalinity. FAO Soil Bulletin 31. Rome, FAO, Rome. 69-110 (1976). Rhoades, J.D. (1972). Quality of water for irrigation. Soil Science, 113; 277-284. Rhoades, J.D. Potential for using saline agricultural drainage waters for irrigation. Proc. Water Management for Irrigation and Drainage. ASCE, Reno, Nevada. 20-22 July 1977: 85-116 (1977). Rogers, D.A; Lamm, F.R; and Alam, M. Subsurface drip irrigation system (SDI) water quality assessment guidelines. Irrigation Management Series. KansasStateUniversit y,Manhattan, Kansas (2003). Sangodyin, A.Y., and Ogedengbe, K. Subsurface water quality and quantity from the stand point of irrigation and livestock. J. Environ. Studies, 3: 251-262 (1991). Singh, B.R. Quality of irrigation Water in Fadama Lands of Northwestern Nigeria. I. Ground and surface water in Kebbi State Nig. J. Basic and Apl. Sci., 9: 133-148 (2000). USDA, Guidelines for Soil Quality Assessment in Conservation Planning. WashingtonDC, United States Dept. of Agriculture, Natural Conservation Service. Soil Quality Institute (2001). USSL. Diagnosis and improvement of saline and alkali soils. USDA Agr. Handbook No. 60, Washington D. C (1954). Welcomme, R.L. Some general and theoretical considerations on the fish of African rivers. T. Fish Bio., 8: 351 364 (1976). Ya k u bu , M , B e l l o, S, N o m a , S. S. a n d Danmowa,N.M. Quality of irrigation water and soil characteristics of Fadama lands in Sokoto Metropolis. In: Proceedings of the 30th Annual Conference of the Soil Science Society of Nigeria, 333- 341 (2006).
Vol. 9(2), 312-320 (2014)
Current World Environment
Potential Bacterial Consortium to Increase the Effectiveness of Beer Wastewater Treatment PUTU NIA ANGGRAENI1, IDA BAGUS WAYAN GUNAM2 and RETNO KAWURI3 Magister of Biology Science, Graduate School of Udayana University, Denpasar Bali, Indonesia. 2 Laboratory of Bioindustry and Environmental, Faculty of Agriculture Technology, Udayana University, Bukit Jimbaran, Bali 80-361, Indonesia. 3 Laboratory of Microbiology Faculty of Mathematic and Natural Sciences, Udayana University, Bukit Jimbaran, Bali 80-361, Indonesia.
1
http://dx.doi.org/10.12944/CWE.9.2.11 (Received: May 19, 2014; Accepted: June 20, 2014) ABSTRACT The main objective of this research is to determine the effectiveness of microbial consortia in beer wastewater treatment. The research was initiated with the isolation of soil microbial consortium that has been contaminated by beer waste water, followed by the selection of the best potential microbial beer wastewater treatment. At the end, the selection of the best microbial consortium was tested in beer wastewater treatment based on pollutant parameters namely biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), chemical oxygen demand (COD) and total suspended solid (TSS). The most effective combination of microbial consortia to reduce the value of TSS, BOD, and COD is the mixed culture combination of Cronobacter sp. strain NGS4, Pseudomonas fluorescent NGS5, and Aeromonas sp. strain NGS7. After 12 days of treatment the value of the COD, BOD and TSS are 633,69±48,18 with degradation rate 66,06%; 199,09±87,82 with degradation rate 78,91%; and 848,9±206,61 with degradation rate 90,50% respectively.
Key words: Beer wastewater, Degradation, Bacterial consortium, BOD, COD, TSS.
INTRODUCTION Brewery industry wastewater contains organic waste with pollution levels depend on the beer production process and capacity of water consumption during the process (Olafadehan and Aribike, 2000; Driessen and Vereijken, 2003). One of the wastewater treatment system which is interesting to be developed is a biological treatment using microorganisms. Biological treatment system is suitable for handling beer wastewater containing dissolved and suspended organic matter. This system uses microbial activity to oxidize organic compounds with the aid of molecular O2 into CO2, water, and a new cell (Bitton, 2005; Nusanthary et al., 2012).
Degradation processes in the environment are generally carried out by a consortium of microbes rather than by one type of microbes alone (Thompson et al., 2005). Processing system that uses a mixed microbial cultures will provide results that are more effective than single cultures because of the catabolic activity of the bacterial culture complement each other and the resulting decomposition products of a culture can be used by other cultures for further decomposition process that can help to improve wastewater oxidation of organic matter (Jadhav et al., 2008). This study aims to get the best microbial consortium capable of treating wastewater and eventually beer wastewater discharged into the environment can be reused for the life processes.
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ANGGRAENI et al., Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(2), 312-320 (2014) MATERIALS AND METHODS
Sampling of beer wastewater Beer wastewater samples originated from PT. Storm Beer, Sukasada, Bali and performed by using the grab method (Kardono, 2008). Isolation of beer wastewater degrading bacteria The bacteria were isolated from soil contaminated by beer waste water by using platting method and liquid mineral medium consisting of: 1.0g (NH4)2SO4; 1.0g KH2PO4; 3.6g Na2HPO4; 1.0 g MgSO4.7H2O; 0.01g Fe(NH4)S; 1.0 g CaCl2.2H2O; and 0.5g yeast extract (all per litre distilled water). The pH of the medium was adjusted to 7 before autoclaving at 121oC for 15 mins and were incubated at 37°C for 48 hours. Isolates were stored in 40% glycerol (v/v) at -20oC. Furthermore, inoculation of bacteria was using Nutrient Agar medium and then cultivated by using Nutrient Broth medium and incubated at 37°C for 48 hours (Khehra et al., 2006). Growth of Bacterial Cells Bacterial isolates obtained from the isolation and has been cultivated further centrifuged at 3500 rpm for 30 min, then the cell pellet was washed and diluted with 0.8% NaCl solution to a volume of 10 mL. Growth in the number of bacterial cells was predicted by optical density using a spectrophotometer at a wavelength of 660 nm every 24 hours (Waluyo, 2004). Selection of bacterial isolates Selection of potential bacterial isolates was performed by pollutant parameters (COD, BOD and TSS) by measuring the turbidity of the early stages of bacterial inoculum culture (Optical Dencity, OD) using a spectrophotometer. Bacterial isolates obtained from the isolation and has been cultivated further centrifuged at 3500 rpm for 30 min and washed with 0.8% NaCl until clean, then the OD was adjusted to OD5 by diluting 10 mL cell suspension with 0,8% NaCl to 250 ml at a wavelength of 660 nm. Furthermore, after the OD of each isolate has been adjusted then 750 ml of beer wastewater was added. Whereas the other tub only added as much as 1 L of beer wastewater as a control. Each tub was aerated by using aerators and analyzed with different days.
After the measurement of the pollutant parameters of the capabilities of each bacterial isolates, so that the best individual isolates will be obtained, which are capable to reduce the organic content concentration. Each water sample was analyzed for five pollutant parameters such as BOD (biochemical oxygen demand), COD (chemical oxygen demand), TSS (total suspended solid), temperature, and pH by standard methods prescribed by APHA, AWWA, WEF (1998) and Bridgewater et al., 2008. Then the isolates showed the best ability to degrade the beer wastewater were chosen to compose a combination of microbial consortium and tested again to lower the beer wastewater based on pollutant parameters. Identification of bacteria The identification of bacteria using the kit of MicrogenTM GN-ID A + B panel was done by taking bacterial isolates that have been incubated in NA media for 24 hours as much as 7 loop, dissolved in 10 mL of sterile 0.85% NaCl solution and 20 µL was pipetted into each well of Microgen panel kit, and then mineral oil was added into the particular panel well and was incubated for 24 hours. After 24 hours, 20 µL reagent was added into certain panels well. The test results reading was conducted by comparing the color changes in each well to the color chart test panels available (Hadioetomo, 1993). RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Isolation of bacteria and bacterial growth phase Bacteria isolated from soil contaminated by beer wastewater using serial dilution method were obtained 11 isolates of bacteria with different morphological characteristics which include shape, color, edge and size of colonies as shown in Table 1. Generally, microbes will be able to live if the nutrients in the place or location of the microbe lives fulfilled . The bacteria can utilize organic materials contained in the beer wastewater as required nutrients to grow and produce biomass (Bitton, 2005). The increase of the concentration of microbial biomass is closely related to the provision of adequate nutrition for growth and environmental conditions are suitable to support the growth and activities of microbes to break down organic
ANGGRAENI et al., Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(2), 312-320 (2014) materials to be dissolved in a relatively short time (Bitton, 2005; Sumarsih, 2003 ) . The study results of the phase of cell growth to an average of 11 bacterial isolates was found that on the second observation day, the exponential phase had been seen as shown in Fig. 1. Measurement of cell mass can be done by measuring the culture turbidity using a spectrophotometer. The exponential phase achieved within two days in the study. According to Hidayat et al., (2006) the exponential phase shows that microbial enzyme systems already adapt to utilize the media component for growth. After the acclimatization process, the enzyme system will be in accordance with existing components in the substrate, so that the power of microorganisms to degrade will increase.
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D e g r a d a t i o n a c t i v i t y t e s t o f m i c ro b i a l consortium Determination to form bacterial consortium was conducted with capability test from 11 individual bacterial isolates. The capability test results demonstrate that three bacterial isolates capable of degrading wastewater, compared to other isolates based on pollutant parameters BOD, COD and TSS. All three of these bacteria are isolates with the code NGS4, NGS5 and NGS7. Reduction of COD concentration by isolates NGS4, NGS5 and NGS7 at a certain time were 2224.26±853.9; 1724.28±864.8; and 2367.45±604 respectively. Reduction of BOD concentration by isolates NGS4, NGS5 and NGS7 at a certain time were 317.11±25.1; 302.89±29.4; and 350.68±9.4 respectively. Reduction of TSS concentration by isolates NGS4, NGS5 and NGS7 at a certain time were 2493.25±274.5; 1722.50±167.9 and 2660.5±421.7 respectively. The results of the study
Table 1: Morphological characteristic of bacterial colony No.
Isolates Characteristics Code
1. NGS1 2. NGS2 3. NGS3 4. NGS4 5. NGS5 6. NGS6 7. NGS7 8. NGS8 9 NGS9 10 NGS10 11 NGS11
Gram
Cell Shape
Description
Circular colonies, orange yellow, + Coccus Form Colony the edges undulate, non-motile Circular Irregular colonies, white, + Basil Irregular edges entire, non-motile Irregular colonies, yellow, - Coccus Edge of edges undulate, non-motile The Colony Irregular colonies, reddish white, - Basil the edges undulate, non-motile Filamentous Irregular colonies, transparent white, - Basil Entire the edges undulate, non-motile Undulate Irregular colonies, yellow, + Coccus edges undulate, non-motile Cell Shape Circular colonies, transparent - Basil Coccus Basil green, entire edge, non-motile Circular colonies, white cotton, + Basil filamentous edge, non-motile Irregular colonies, white, + Basil edges undulate, non-motile circular Colonies, white, + Basil edges entire, non-motile Circular colonies, transparent white, + Basil the edges entire, non-motile
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ANGGRAENI et al., Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(2), 312-320 (2014) to the pH value by isolates NGS4, NGS5 and NGS7 at a certain time were 6.51±0.4; 6.59±0.4 and 5.98±0.6 respectively. The results of the study to the temperature value by isolates NGS4, NGS5 and NGS7 at a certain time were 26.97±0.8; 27.82±1.1 and 26.74±1.2 respectively for all data are presented in Fig. 2.
Fig. 1: The mean growth curve of 11 bacterial isolates were measured by a spectrophotometer. K1 is the average growth patterns of 11 isolates of bacteria and K0 is the control (medium without microbial isolates)
According to the Hidayah and Shovitri (2012), microbes will be able to live based on the ability to compete with other microbes in competing for nutrients and based on the type of nutrients present in the medium, so if the environment and nutrition in accordance with the origin of the microbes, they will adapt faster. Microbes able to adapt more quickly will improve their ability to break down organic materials contained in the waste. According to the Komarawidjaja (2007), temperature
Fig. 2: Value change of COD, BOD, TSS, pH and temperature by using 11 isolates bacteria in degradating beer wastewater for 12 days treatment
ANGGRAENI et al., Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(2), 312-320 (2014) and pH are environmental factors that influence the microbial population increase and the ability of microbes in decomposition of organic matter. The results of microscopic observation of the three colonies of bacteria are bacteria Gram-negative and has the form of basil cells (Fig. 3). All isolates had the ability to grow at an optimum temperature of 35-37ºC. The results of the study of bacterial species identification is using MicrogenTM kit GN-ID A + B panet, and the results are: Cronobacter sp. strain NGS4, Pseudomonas fluorescent NGS5, and Aeromonas sp. strain NGS7 (Fig. 4). The three of selected bacterial isolates were then retested their ability to degradated beer wastewater in combination of isolates or mixed combination to determine the synergism between them, namely isolates NGS4, NGS5 and NGS7. Combination 1 is a combination of isolates NGS4 and NGS5, Combination 2 is a combination of isolates NGS4 and NGS7 and Combination 3 is a combination of isolates NGS5 and NGS7. The combination of a mixture is a combination of all three isolates NGS4, NGS5 and NGS7.
NGS4
The ability of isolate combination and mixed combination in lowering the COD value indicates that the average of combination 1, combination 2, combination 3, mixed combination and control are 882.64 ± 28.15 mg/L, 859.981 ± 15.62 mg/L, 868.384 ± 29.10 mg/L, 633.69 ± 48.18 mg/L and 886.216 ± 19.69 mg/L respectively. BOD values with microbial consortium combination after processing showed an average of combination 1, combination 2, combination 3, mixed combination and control were 294.174 ± 7.12 mg/L, 280.61 ± 13.46 mg/L, 319.246 ± 12.71 mg/L, 199.09 ± 87.82 mg/L and 312.646 ± 2.26 mg/L respectively (Fig. 5). The results showed a decline in the value of COD and BOD in beer wastewater treatment. COD value will decrease due to oxidation of organic matter, but it is higher than the BOD because the production of some substance that is difficult to degrade. The reductions of COD and BOD c o n c e n t r a t i o n s b e a f fe c t e d by a c t i v i t i e s microorganisms that can break down the organic compounds either suspended or dissolved in the beer wastewater. The reduction of BOD and COD could
NGS5
NGS7
Fig. 3: Results of Gram staining isolates Cronobacter sp. strain NGS4, Pseudomonas fluorescent NGS5, and Aeromonas sp. strain NGS7.
NGS4
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NGS5
NGS7
Fig. 4: Cronobacter sp. strain NGS4, Pseudomonas fluorescent NGS5, and Aeromonas sp. strain NGS7
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be caused by oxidation of organic matter in system that provides energy for microbial metabolism. The organic matter contained in the wastewater provides a substrate for aerobic microbial metabolism and the length of culturization time could lead to a decrease of COD and BOD concentration. In addition, the reduction of BOD and COD were also influenced by the length of aeration time (Metcalf and Eddy, 2003; Suhendrayatna et al., 2012).
The results showed a decline in the value of the TSS of each combination of microbial consortium after processing namely combination 1, combination 2, combination 3, mixed combination and control were 2160 ± 87.68 mg/L, 2531 ± 64.77 mg/L, 2139 ± 38.75 mg/L, 848.9 ± 206.61 mg/L and 189.78 ± 3744 mg/L respectively (Fig. 6). TSS is the amount of suspended solids in waste water is filtered by membrane filters, the
Fig. 5: Degradation rate of COD and BOD value by the isolates combination and the mixed combination in degradating beer wastewater for 12 days treatment smaller the reduction in TSS values show that the smaller the waste biodegradation processes that occur (Wirda and Handajani, 2011). Decrease of TSS value due to particle deposition factors and organic matter decomposition processes from suspended particles become dissolved by microbial.
Fig. 6: Degradation rate of TSS value by the isolates combination and the mixed combination in degradating beer wastewater for 12 days treatment
Organic compounds in the waste is degraded by bacteria by secreting enzymes to hydrolyze complex organic compounds (starch, protein, and fat) into simpler compounds that in the first phase, the complex compounds are converted into simple compounds such as sugars, glycerol, fatty acids and amino acids. The simple compounds
Fig. 7: Degradation rate of TSS value by the isolates combination and the mixed combination in degradating beer wastewater for 12 days treatment
ANGGRAENI et al., Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(2), 312-320 (2014) are used for the metabolism of bacteria which will then be followed by other processes, both aerobic and anaerobic energy thus produced, CO2, H2O and metabolic wastes in the form of a simple mud settles, so that with this mechanisms organic contaminant material presents in the waste will be reduced (Radojevic and Vladimir, 1999). In addition, the aeration serves as a supplier of oxygen so that the microbes can grow and multiply in the presence of oxygen in the water, so it is enough to absorb and digest the organic impurities (Arixs, 2009). The results of the study to demonstrate the value of the average pH in combination 1, combination 2, combination 3, mixture combination and control are 6.07 ± 0.5, 6.30 ± 0.6, 6.31 ± 0.5, 6.85 ± 0.9 and 5.48 ± 0.2 respectively. While the value of the temperature shows average of the combination 1, combination 2, combination 3, mixture combination and control are 25.84 ± 0.4, 26.26 ± 0.3, 25.9 ± of 0.7, 28.39 ± 1.6 and 24.72 ± 0.4 respectively (Fig. 7). Hydrogen ion concentration (pH) indicates the intensity of acidic or basic character at a given temperature. Measurement of pH is one of the most important and most frequently used tests in determining water quality (Choudhary et al., 2011). Changes of pH in wastewater suggests that there has been activity of microorganisms that degrade organic matter. Degradation of proteins and organic nitrogen into ammonium (NH4) raises the pH and becomes alkaline. Increasing of the pH occurs on the hydrolysis process which when H+ is used to catalyze the bond termination on polysaccharides, lipids and proteins (Paramita et al., 2012). Temperature is one of the most important factors in aquatic environment. Temperature also affects solubility of oxygen in water (Singh et al., 2005). The increase in temperature in the wastewater can accelerate the degradation rate of the organic compounds, microbial growth rate (total number of microbial growth, rate of enzyme synthesis and enzyme inactivation rate) and a decrease in gas solubility in water such as O2, CO2, N2 and CH4. In addition, the increase in temperature in the wastewater can be caused by aeration (Haslam, 1995)
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The results show, that synergism between the isolates combination and the mixture combination showed different abilities. The mixture combination is more effective than in the form of single bacterial culture and combination of multiple isolates in degrading organic matter content of beer wastewater. According to Cahyonugroho and Hidayah, (2008) and Jadhav et al., (2008) wastewater is a complex mixture of a compound, while each type of bacteria has limited ability in degrading it. Bacterial consortium can be used as a starter which is potential for wastewater recovery. Therefore, the presence of the catabolic activity of the bacterial culture complement each other and the resulting decomposition products of a culture can be used by other cultures for further decomposition process, so that it can help improve wastewater oxidation of organic matter. Diversity can improve the stability of the community due to the presence of more diverse species and results that the community is being able to adapt to varied environmental conditions (Worm and Duffy, 2003). In addition, bacteria from different genera can work together in an environment and survive through the metabolites interaction because a mixed culture has a more complete overhaul capabilities and have a higher tolerance to toxic metabolites (De Souza et al., 1998; Mlynarz and Ward, 1995). CONCLUSION The most effective microbial consortia combination capable of lowering the value of pollutant parameter is a mixed combination (Cronobacter sp. strain NGS4, Pseudomonas fluorescent NGS5, and Aeromonas sp. strain NGS7) after the treatment for 12 days namely COD, BOD, TSS are 633.69±48.18 mg/L with a degradation rate of 66,06%, 199.09 ± 87.82 mg/L with a degradation rate of 78.91% and 848.9 ± 206.61 mg/L with a degradation rate of 90.50% respectively. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors thanks to PT. Storm Beer for providing samples for the research and wastewater treatment plant (PT. IPAL) Suwung-Bali for the assistant in beer wastewater analysis.
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Microorganism Consortium, Journal of Environmental Engineering, 1 (1): 20-29 (2008) (Indonesian). Worm, B., dan Duffy, J. E., Biodiversity, Trends in Ecology and Evolution, 18: 628"632 (2003). De Souza, M.L., Newcombe, D., Alvey, S., Crowley, D.E., Hay, A., Sadowsky, M.J., dan Wackett, L.P., Molecular Basis of a Bacterial Consortium: Interspecies Catabolism of Atrazine, Appl Environ. Microbiol, 64: 178-184 (1998). Mlynarz, T. D ., dan Ward, O. P., Degradation of Polycyclic Aromatic-Hydrocarbons (PAHs) by a Mixed Culture and its Component Pure Cultures, Obtained from PAH-Contaminated Soil, J. Microb., 41: 470"476 (1995).
Vol. 9(2), 321-330 (2014)
Current World Environment
Palm Oil Mill Effluent Treatment Process Evaluation and Fate of Priority Components in an Open and Closed Digestion System Anwar Ahmad* and Mohd. Z. Krimly Department of Civil Engineering, College of Engineering, King Saud University (KSU), PO Box 800, Riyadh 11421, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. http://dx.doi.org/10.12944/CWE.9.2.12 (Received: April 15, 2014; Accepted: May 09, 2014) Abstract The evaluation for the degradability of chemical oxygen demand (COD) and biogas contents before and after closed tank reactor (CR) and open tank reactor (TP) were observed. COD reduction in the TP (maximum degradability rate of 60%) and CR (maximum degradability rate of 85%). The variation in CH4, volatile fatty acid (VFA) and total suspended (TSS) contents in the effluent was more pronounced in the first six months and found stable afterward. The maximum organic loading rate (OLR) of 11.5 g-COD l/d attained corresponded to 85% overall COD removal. However, there is study to degradability of COD and quantify the actual CH4 recover from the commercial scale wastewater treatment from TP and CR. The findings indicated that the CH4 content was between 49% TP which was lower than the value of 57% reported in TP. The lower VFAs were found in the CR because of variation of palm oil mill effluent quality and quantity from palm oil mill industry.
Key words: Palm oil mill effluent, Aerobic and anaerobic treatment, COD, biogas, Methane.
Introduction Palm oil mill effluent (POME) is a viscous brown liquid with fine suspended solids at pH between 4 and 51 and a highly polluting wastewater that directly and indirectly contaminates the environment2. The chemical properties of POME vary widely throughout the year because of mill operations and seasonal cropping3. Atmospheric methane concentrations incredibly increased by 30% in the last 25 years4. Net carbon emission from POME is approximately 1.4 Ă&#x2014; 106 tons per year5. Assuming a mean annual increase of 29% as experienced from 1990 to 20046, the estimated CH4 gas emission may be 0.502 Ă&#x2014; 106 tons in the year 2020. Certified emission reduction (CER) can be obtained by using methane gas as a renewable energy7. At high organic loadings or at natural environment temperatures, the insoluble organic
degradation of the effluent tends to accumulate within the granules or sludge density region of the ponds, leading to granule destabilization or inhibition of granule formation 8. To date, 85% of POME treatment in Malaysia is based on an anaerobic and facultative ponding system, which is followed by another system consisting of an open-tank digester coupled with extended aeration. For every ton of treated POME, an average of 5.5 kg of CH4 (or approximately 36% of biogas) is emitted from open digesting tanks3. Anaerobic digestion is the most suitable method for the treatment of effluents containing high concentration of organic carbon and thus producing biogas9. A typical biogas would comprise 60-70% methane, 30-40% carbon dioxide, 0-0.1% hydrogen sulphide, and 0-10% hydrogen10. Recently, both conventional single-phase and highrate two-phase anaerobic digestion systems have been widely used, for the production of biogasmethane from various substrates, such as the organic fraction of the municipal solid waste, POME,
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food waste, waste-activated sludge, and sugar beet silage11,12. Periodic research has been performed to find amicable solutions for POME management1315 . The presence and activity of microorganisms in POME treatment are vital to the process. With regard to microbial degradation of POME effluent, biodegradation phenomenon is crucial. Therefore, the steady-state models are basically able to predict the parameters that have been considered in mass balance relations but are unable to estimate the other interrelated effluent quality parameters16. Biodegradation is a metabolismindependent consumption of organic to living cells, nonliving biomass, or microbial extracellular polymers17,18. Specific metabolic pathways resulting in bio-precipitation of organic molecules or their mechanisms of degradation have been provided elsewhere 19,20. Moreover, surface exposure of organic-binding microbes improves organic-binding properties of microorganisms based on degradation and microbial metabolic activities 21. Binding of organic molecules with microbes is known to reduce the COD and selected biogas (CH 4, CO 2, and VFAs)22 Yacob et al., 2006a S. Yacob, M.A. Hassan, Y. Shirai, M. Wakisaka and S. Subash, Baseline study of methane emission from anaerobic ponds of palm oil mill effluent treatment, Science of the Total Environment 366 (2006), pp. 187â&#x20AC;&#x201C;196. Article | PDF (357 K) | View Record in Scopus | Cited By in Scopus (13). Consequently, the removal of COD and treatment of POME effluent with anaerobic and aerobic system also are affected, although many studies have shown that COD can be removed in POME treatment processes23. During POME treatment, a large amount of sludge is produced (approximately 35% of the treated wastewater). The Malaysian government proposed and legalized standards for POME discharge into watercourses24. The results of a oneyear evaluation on the POME degradation was using aerobic, anaerobic digestion of VFA, and removal of COD in terms of selected biogas (CH4, H2, and CO2) by an OT and CR treatment system. The aim of the study were to compare COD, VFA, and biogas contents in the influent and effluent wastewater and to examine the COD and biogas contents in the
effluent before and after digestion and compare the performance of our designed treatment system with LSHC POME treatment plant (LSHC-WTP). Materials and methods Description of the Gambang POME treatment plant The main objective is to reduce the level of organic pollution and COD removal from POME before discharging it to the environment. Treatment processes were used are shown in Fig. 1 Sample collection The raw POME samples were collected every month five sample from LHSC-Palm Oil Mill, situated in the state Pahang, Malaysia. The features and composition of the POME used are summarized in Table 1, which shows the average values of five replicate analyses for each parameter. In comparing the biogas contents in influent and effluent samples (collected from locations 1, 4, 5, and 6), their removal from the influent wastewater was assessed. Because accurate matching of influent and effluent samples was difficult because of large volumes of wastewater or treated sludge, 10 influent and effluent sample pairs were taken to obtain a composite grab sample. Five samples were collected once a month for one year. During each sampling day, three composite grab samples were collected from the influent stream using an automatic wastewater sampler, whereas sample collection from the effluent was done manually approximately 21 h later; this is an approximate time required for the influent stream to pass through all the wastewater treatment operation units between locations 1, 4, 5, and 6 was mentioned in Fig. 1. Grab samples of mixed sludge (location 4) and digested sludge (location 5) also were collected manually. Digested sludge biogas samples were collected 28 days (retention time of sludge in the anaerobic digester) after collecting the mixed sludge sample, which was the influent, into the TP and CR anaerobic digesters. During the period when these investigations were being conducted, the anaerobic digesters (TP and CR) were yet in operation (Fig. 1). To avoid deterioration or contamination of samples, sampling procedures and sample preservation were done according to the Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater 25. Characteristics of raw and pre-treated POME are
Ahmad & Krimly, Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(2), 321-330 (2014) provided in Table 1 and 2, respectively. Analytical analysis All the tests for the samples were analyzed according to the guidelines of the American Public Health Association26 for the examination of water and wastewater. Biogas yield was measured with a wet gas meter (W-NK-O.SA, Shinagawa). Gas samples were obtained through an inverted funnel placed above baffles near the top of the reactor. Biogas composition was determined using a gas chromatograph (GC-8A, Shimadzu, Kyoto) with a thermal conductivity detector equipped with a steel column packed with WG-100 (GL Sciences, Tokyo) at 50°C. Volatile fatty acids (VFAs) were determined with a gas chromatography (W-NK-O.SA, Shinagawa) equipped with a 2 m × 4 mm glass column packed with Suplocopor (100-120 mesh) coated with 10% Fluorad FC 431. The temperatures of the column, the injection port, and the flame ionization detector were 130, 220, and 240°C, respectively. Effluent and biogas production rates were measured and analyzed weekly, whereas biomass concentration was analyzed biweekly for each loading rate. Results and discussion COD removal in TP and CR Fig. 2 presents the average COD removal efficiencies in %. The values were calculated based on the 12-month COD contents in the influent and effluent in TP and CR. The variations in COD concentration and removal in CR was greater than those in the TP (Fig. 2). In the latter case, variations in the concentration of COD in primary treatment lead were sharper than those in the secondary treatment. The maximum degradability rate of COD 59.9% was faster and COD removal was found to be 85.5% by CR, whereas that in the TP was only 70%, which was varying and higher than those of primary treatment where COD removal is approximately 53% Table 3. These trends were observed throughout the study period of 12 months, indicating that these COD originated from the same respective sources. COD degradability depends on the CH4 emission rate in both TP and CR. An average of 0.109 g of CH4 was produced from a 1 g of COD (Fig. 2). During the operation an average COD of POME was 45000 ± 2189 mg/l while the CR treated POME was 2435±1176 mg/l18.
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The COD removal occurs in both primary treatment (where a portion of organics is adsorbed on to the particles) and secondary biological treatment (where COD is removed by anaerobic digestion of volatile fatty acids)8. Biological treatment systems are chiefly designed for the removal of organic carbon by activated sludge microorganisms. Therefore, removal of organics by these systems may be regarded as a side benefit, minimizing the amount of carbon emission and sludge disposal and producing biogas and methane9,20. As shown in Fig. 2, the COD concentration in both tanks was almost the same until September, but open tank showed a comparatively low COD concentration in October and November 2011, perhaps because there was more rainfall during these months in which COD concentration was reduced because of rain water dilution in the open tank. On the other hand, the closed tank was obviously not affected by rainfall because of closed anaerobic environment. 27 studied pollution control technologies for the treatment of POME and reported similar observations. Biogas production, CH4 and CO2 The variation in the contents of CH 4 (Fig. 3) and CO2 (Fig. 4) in the effluent was more pronounced. The variation in the content of CH4 was the most pronounced, whereas that of VFA and CO2 varied in the first six months and later remained stable, with few exceptions. These observed stable contents of CH4, CO2, and biogas in the effluent corresponded well with their respective stable contents in the influent stream. VFA conversion and biogas production are affected by the treatment system itself. For example, when removal efficiencies are calculated, only the COD/VFA contents in the influent stream are considered in comparison with that in the effluent. However, from the conceptual model shown (Fig. 1), the biological treatment system is potentially overloaded with VFA contained in the returned streams, namely, recycled activated sludge and returned wastewater. The treatment and degradation of VFA in the treatment systems seem to be influenced by the following mechanisms: (1) acetogenesis, conversion of butyrate to acetate and hydrogen; (2) methanogenesis, cleavage of acetate
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to CH4 and CO2; and (3) reduction of CO2 to CH4 [28,29]. The effects of VFA contents were in the return streams (Fig. 5) on the wastewater influent and effluent COD/VFA contents (consequently, on their removal efficiencies). In addition, it is not known which organic and inorganic components of the sludge are anaerobically degraded and how such degradation processes affect the contents of CH4 and COD in the sludge. Volatile fatty acid concentration Fig. 5 shows the VFA concentrations in TP and CR during a one-year period. From August to July, the VFA concentration in both tanks was increased slightly, although the CR had higher VFA concentration because of anoxic treatment conditions. However VFA reduction from 790 to 230 mgl-1; this reduction could not increase the biogas production because dilution of normal water during biodegradation of organic matter lowers the reaction rate during the treatment process. The VFA concentrations in the CR were relatively high (400-1240 mgl -1 ) because the treatment process is totally anaerobic. The high concentration of VFA in the closed tank is due to the faster reaction rate in the absence of oxygen. Table 1: Physio-chemical characteristics (POME) Parameter* Raw POME pH Biological oxygen demand (BOD) Chemical oxygen demand (COD) Alkalinity Total solid (TS) Suspended solid (SS) Total phosphorus (TP) Total organic carbon (TOC) Total nitrogen (TN) Total kjeldal nitrogen (TKN) Volatile fatty acid (VFA) Oil &Grease SO4 * All parameters are in g L-1 except pH a as TSS b as total nitrogen
4.5 31.5 65.0 2993 39.0 18.9 950 25000 945 0.77 1900 3.97 5
Moreover, the conversion of acidogenesis into acetogenesis requires less time compared with that during partial anaerobic conditions When the VFA concentrations in the two tanks were compared, the organic decomposition under full anaerobic conditions was observed to be stronger than that under partial anaerobic condition (Fig. 5). Furthermore, by comparing the biogas production at the same time, the closed anaerobic tank produced more gas than the open tank, although VFA concentration in the closed tank was relatively higher than that in the open tank. Fatty acid accumulation inhibits biogas production as reported in earlier studies; however, up to a certain level of VFA accumulation (2,000-3,000 mgl -1), biogas production is not disturbed [30]. Because of this, the biogas production rate in both tanks was almost low, but it was continued because of the low concentration of VFA in the organic matter31 found low biogas yield and organic matter removal because of the accumulation of inhibiting substances, such as volatile fatty acids32 reported that COD removal was greater than VFA removal at the same pH and initial concentrations20. Furthermore, VFA removal efficiency is affected not only by VFA species and concentration but also by other conditions, such as operating parameters and physical, chemical, and biological factors33. For example, it is known that VFA removal by activated sludge is dependent on dissolved organic matter 34 and pH35,36, whereby Table 2: Composition and characteristics of the pre-treated POME Parameters pH COD BOD5 TSS VSS TVFA TKN P Fe Ca Mg Na K
Concentration 4.2 43.4 g/l 9.8 g/l 15.3 g/l 10.5 g/l 2.54 g/l 536 mg/l 98 mg/l 290 mg/l 310 mg/l 235 mg/l 7 mg/l 720 mg/l
Ahmad & Krimly, Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(2), 321-330 (2014) the removal efficiency increases with increasing pH until fatty acids precipitate as hydroxides. Moreover, biological wastewater treatment is normally conducted at pH 7â&#x20AC;&#x201C;9. A major limitation of the anaerobic digestion of fruit and vegetable wastes in single-stage system is the rapid production of volatile fatty acids attributed to pH decrease during acidification that stressed and inhibited the activity of methanogenic bacteria [29]. The relationship between influent COD contents and their removal efficiencies (Fig. 2) is consistent with the findings of other researchers22,37, who observed that COD and VFA removal efficiencies were directly proportional to influent concentrations.
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Comparison of TP and CR treatment The waste sludge from primary and secondary treatment processes is stabilized by anaerobic digestion, which involves microbial decomposition of organic and inorganic matter. In the treatment plant investigated, the mixed sludge was introduced in the TP at intervals, retained in the digester for 38 days, and then intermittently disposed of as digested sludge. COD in the sludge is present as organic compound, precipitates in the sludge flocks, complexes of soluble organics and biopolymers, and degraded soluble organics in the microbial cells [38]Brown and Lester, 1979. M.J.
Fig. 1. Experimental setup of biological treatment systems of palm oil mill effluent (POME) Table 3: Results obtained during primary treatment of POME Time VFA TOC Biogas TSS VSS COD COD (m) (g/l) (g/l) (l) (g/l) (g/l) (mg/l) degradability rate % Aug 10 4.2 0.04 0.092 5.2 4.0 19704 54.6 Sep 10 2.2 0.05 0.049 5.9 4.1 21787 49.8 Oct. 10 3.0 0.03 0.059 5.6 3.9 19053 56.1 Nov. 10 2.5 0.04 0.071 5.5 3.8 24493 58.9 Dec. 10 2.6 0.02 0.035 6.7 5.2 24955 42.5 Jan. 11 3.6 0.02 0.025 5.9 4.3 21222 51.1 Feb. 11 4.5 0.04 0.047 5.6 4.0 17403 59.9 Mar. 11 3.1 0.05 0.036 6.0 5.0 18488 57.4 Apr. 11 4.8 0.05 0.031 5.8 4.4 20181 53.5 May 11 3.0 0.06 0.037 6.1 4.5 19182 55.8 June 11 3.5 0.05 0.063 6.2 4.1 19703 54.6 Jul 11 4.4 0.06 0.078 6.5 4.2 21396 50.7
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Brown and J.N. Lester, Metal removal in activated sludge: the role of bacterial extracellular polymers. Water Research 13 (1979), pp. 817â&#x20AC;&#x201C;837. Abstract | PDF (2013 K) | View Record in Scopus | Cited By in Scopus (120). Fig. 2 and 5 show the results of COD and VFA of organic contents in both undigested and digested sludge. Both streams were characterized by highly fluctuating COD, VFA, and organic contents. Moreover, TP and CR digestion caused a decrease in TSS content in Fig. 6 that mean COD and VFA reduction on dry weight basis. The reduction in TSS contents in the effluent from 3615 to 1026 mgl-1 by TP and from 3617 to 438 mgl-1 by CR. After treatment of POME by CR the reduction of TSS approximately 65% means this technique reduce the burden of sludge in our environment. (Fig. 6) and organic matters are degraded into end products including CH4, CO2, N2, H2S, and some trace gases39.
Because the determination of CH4 contents was based on COD reduction, the reduction of such organic and inorganic matters probably caused the observed increase in CH4 contents in the CR is more than TP, where as the degradation of COD in TP 58% and 85% in CR.40 indicated that the digestibility of organic components in the POME was in the following order: VFA<CH4<CO2<H2. Furthermore, the volatilization/solubilization of organics to the atmosphere from activated sludge systems also is known41. Such organic losses, although probably not a major factor, could have contributed to the inconsistency and variation in CH4 and CO2 content increases in the digested sludge. 8 investigated the treatment of POME using aerobic oxidation based on an activated sludge process. A possible reason for the increased removal of organic matter as well as oil and grease in the anaerobically digested sample was the presence of partially degraded organic and oil
Fig. 2: COD removal % in TP and CR.
Fig. 3: CH4 gas content in TP and CR conditions.
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Fig. 4: CO2 gas reduction mean capture in TP and CR conditions.
Fig. 5: A-VFA concentration B- VFA reduction in TP and CR conditions.
Fig.6: TSS concentration in TP and CR conditions.
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molecules, making them more amenable to aerobic digestion. Fig. 3 show the average CH4 contents in undigested sludge. The increase in the content of VSS, which was the highest in the undigested sludge, was seemingly the lowest. Also, the content of CH4, which was the lowest in the undigested sludge, increased more (approximately 97%) than that of the other parameters. As per survey a total amount of POME was discharge 235640 t in 2005 and COD was 45000 ± 2189 mgl-1. After the treatment of POME by TP sludge was 506±254 and CR 354±127 gl-1 in l-1 of POME. This is best techniques to evaluate the treatment of by TP and CTE to CH4 production g-1 of COD and sludge management. In principle, the results of this study indicate that LHSC meets the compliance limits (COD, VFA, CH4 and TSS) for treated wastewater in accordance with the decree issued by the Malaysian Ministry of Environmental Protection about the characteristics of wastewater for disposal to water or land.
reduction is insignificant. Thus, the COD removal is directly proportional to the influent concentrations. The reduction of COD contents was in the following increasing order: CH4 <VFA <CO2, which directly corresponded to their COD initial influent wastewater contents. A relation was also established between TP and CR for VFA reduction rates where 110 mg/l in CR, where as in TP 570 ml-1 in November month was observed. The investigated CR system meets the compliance limits for treated wastewater. While for every g of COD of POME discharged, an average of 0.106 l of CH4 will be produced from the CR compared to TP 0.072 l of CH4. The results presented herein indicate that a long term observation is crucial to determine the CH4 POME (t-1 d) CH4 (t-1 d). Relationship between CH4 from VFA reduction 86% showing high rate degradability rate of POME through our system. However, after treatment of POME by CR the reduction of TSS approximately 65% means this technique reduces the burden of sludge in our environment. Acknowledgements
Conclusions For the wastewater treatment system investigated, when the contents of COD and VFA are equal to 19.9 and 1240 mgl-1, respectively, their
The authors thank the deanship of scientific research (DSR) at King Saud University (KSU) for its funding of this research through the research group project no. RGP-VPP-316.
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Current World Environment
Removal of Arsenic from Drinking Water by Hydroxyapatite Nanoparticles Mahsa Mirhosseini*, Esmaeil Biazar1 and Keivan Saeb2 *Department of Environment, Tonekabon Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tonekabon, Iran. Department of Engineering Sciences, Tonekabon Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tonekabon, Iran 2 Department of Environment, Tonekabon Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tonekabon, Iran.
1
http://dx.doi.org/10.12944/CWE.9.2.13 (Received: January 24, 2014; Accepted: June 09, 2014) Abstract Arsenic(As) contained in drinking water can cause adverse effects on human health. This study investigated the effect of hydroxyapatite nanoparticles (nano-HAp) on sorption of As(V) ions in aqueous solution. The amounts of arsenic ion,nano-HAp and pH on removal efficiency were also investigated. Results showed that the removal of arsenate from water using hydroxyapatite nanoparticles, improved with increasing pH. The optimum amount of nano-HAp for As (V) removal is found to be 0/6 g/L with the removal efficiency of 88 %. The sorption data were then correlated with the Langmuir, Freundlich, adsorption isotherm models. The results indicated that nano-HAp can be used as an effective adsorbent for removal of As(V) from aqueous solution.
Key words:Arsenic, Water filtration, Hydroxyapatite nano particles, Adsorption, pH.
Introduction Arsenic compounds are common contaminants in the environment. Because of arsenic toxicity and induced carcinogenetic agents (Eblin et al., 2006; Hughes.,2002), higher arsenic concentration in the environment represents serious problems for human health, especially for populations in Bangladesh, Western Bengal, Vietnam,China, Mexico and Chile. The danger of elevated arsenic concentration in waters in these countries was under lined by WHO, which estimated the recommended limit for arsenic concentration in drinking waters up to10 Âľg/L Arsenic-contaminated drinking water can cause adverse health effects in human beings. Arsenic plays crucial role in making disturbance in RNA and DNA synthesis, which consequently lead to cancer. Increasing birth of exceptional child, low birth weight, malformed child and dead births were reported due to Arsenic compounds (Jain et al., 2000; Kiping et al.,1997; Ng et al.,2001; Bissen et al.,2003; Penrose et al.,2009; Ng et al.,2003; Burkel et al.,1999; Smedley et al.,2002). The conventional
technologies for arsenic removal from waters are based on processes of coagulation, sorption, ionexchange reactions or methods of reverse osmosis. Materials used in these processes are Fe0, Fe (III) oxyhydroxides, Mn (II), Al(III), apatite, silicate sands, carbonates, sulphides, ashor various types of coal (ChmielewskĂĄ et al.,2008; Daus et al.,2004; DeMarco et al.,2003; Hiller et al.,2007; Lin et al.,2001; Sato et al.,2002; Song et al.,2006). Now a days, there is a trend to use the alternative and low-cost materials for arsenic removal from the waters in laboratory or medium-scale experiments, too. Effectiveness of chemically modified or native biomass in processes of arsenic removal was evaluated and proved by various authors (Abdel-Ghani et al.,2007; Boddu et al.,2008; Cernansky et al.,2007; Loukidou et al.,2003; Malakootian et al.,2009; Murugesan et al.,2006; Rahaman et al.,2008; Seki et al.,2005). Calcium hydroxyapatite (HAp), Ca10(PO4)6(OH)2, has also been used for the removal of heavy metals from contaminated soils, waste water and fly ashes (Omar et al.,2003; Takeuchi et al.,1990).Calcium hydroxyapatite (Ca-HAp) is a principal component
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of hard tissues and has been of interest in industry and medical fields. Its synthetic particles find many applications in bioceramics, chromatographic adsorbents to separate protein and enzyme, catalysts for dehydration and dehydrogenation of alcohols, methane oxidation, and powders for artificial teeth and bones paste germicides (Elliott et al.,1994). These properties relate to various surface characteristics of HAp, e.g., surface functional groups, acidity and alkaline, surface charge, hydrophilicity, and porosity. It has been found that Ca-HAP surface with to Pâ&#x20AC;&#x201C;OH groups acting as sorption sites (Tanaka et al., 2005). The sorption properties of HAp are of great importance for both environmental processes and industrial purposes. Hydroxyapatite is an ideal material for long-term containment of contaminants because of its high sorption capacity for actinides and heavy metals, low water solubility, high stability under reducing and oxidizing conditions, availability, and low cost(Krestou et al.,2004). HAP has been utilized in the stabilization of a wide variety of metals (e.g., Cr, Co, Cu, Cd, Zn, Ni, Pu, Pb, As, Sb, U, and V) by many investigators (Omar et al.,2003; Ramesh et al.,2012; Vega et al.,1999). They have reported the sorption is taking place through ionic exchange reaction, surface complex with phosphate, calcium and hydroxyl groups and/or co-precipitation of new partiallysoluble phases. In this study, the effect of Hap nanoparticles on removal efficiency of arsenic ions in different conditions investigated. Materials and Methods The hydroxyapatite nanoparticles previously have prepared (Montazeri and Biazar., 2011)and
characterized by using the different analyses. The pH values of the solution were roughly adjusted from 2 to 12 by adding HNO3 and NaOH respectively. The pH of the solutions was then accurately noted. Hydroxyapatite nanoparticles with different concentrations were added to each flask and securely capped, immediately. The suspension was then manually agitated. The pH values of the supernatant liquid were noted.Metal salt of (HAsNA2O4.H2O) was used to prepare metal ion (As(V)) solution. Sorption studies were carried out by shaking aseries of bottles containing different amounts of HAp-nano in 50 mL of metal ions solution with different concentrations and pH. Suspensions were exposed toultrasonic waves (50W,20 min; ), to disperse nanopaticles. The samples were stirred at room temperature at 250 rpm for 1 h (Equilibrium time), then centrifuged for 5 min and the supernatant liquid was analyzed by an atomic absorption spectrometer(S-series, Thermo Scientific; USA). Results and Discussion Effect of pH The pH is a significant factor for determining the form of the metallic species in aqueous media. It influences the adsorption process of metal ions, as it determines the magnitude and sign of the charge on ions (Gupta et al.,2005). The effect of solution pH on the sorption of As(V) ions from the aqueous solution by Hap-nanoin different concentrations was investigated in the pH range of 2â&#x20AC;&#x201C;12 with the As(V) concentrations of 0/6 g/L. The result is shown in Fig 1. It was found that the adsorption capacity of HAp increases with increase in pH in acidic
Table. 1: Comparison of contact time for As(V) removal No. Adsorbent Equilibrium time
References
Activated Aluminasupported iron Oxid Rice husk, maize cobs and sawdust Syzygium cumini L. Bamboo dust carbon Commercial activated carbon Calcite HA
King et al. (2007) Kannan and Veemaraj (2009) Kannan and Veemaraj (2009) Yavuz et al. (2007) Present study
4, 8, 12 and 36 h, corresponding Huang et al. (2007) to Pb(II)initial concentrations of 0.1, 0.2, 0.4 and 0.8 mM, respectively 90 min Abdel-Ghani et al. (2007) 10 min 45 min 35 min 10 min 60 min
Mirhosseini et al., Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(2), 331-338 (2014) medium. But in alkaline conditions, the removal efficiency remains constant, approximately. The effects of pH on arsenate removal by HAp-nano suggest that electrostatic attraction is not a major mechanism responsible for the arsenate sorption under our experimental conditions; otherwise the apparent arsenate sorption would decrease with increasing pH. The sorbent dissolution can result in a decrease of sorbent mass and an increase of phosphate concentration in water, both of which can inhibit arsenate sorption. Lowering pH can favor the dissolution HAp-nano, and thus suppress arsenate sorption (Sneddon et al.,2005; Valsami-Jones et al.,1998; Mohan et al.,2007). Effect of Arsenic concentration For study the effect of solution arsenate amount on the sorption of As(V) ions from the aqueous solution by HAp-nanoin different concentrations was investigated in the range of (0/1,0/2, 0/4,0/6 g/L in pH:8).The result is shown in fig 2. increase arsenate absorption occurred with increasing arsenaterate. Arsenate adsorption, in different concentrations of arsenate in water, investigated in nano-hydroxyapatite, showed a similar increase approximately, As a result, absorption levels for these different amounts of arsenate are significant.
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Effect of contact time The time-dependent behavior of As(V) dsorption was measured by varying the contact time between adsorbate and adsorbent in the range of 5â&#x20AC;&#x201C;120 min. The percentag adsorption of As(V) with different contact time is shown in Fig. 3. From Fig. 3, it can be observed that the rate of removal of As(V) ions was higher at the initial stage, due to the availability of more active sites on the surface of HA and became slower at the later stages of contact time, due to the decreased or lesser number of active sites (Kannan and Karrupasamy 1998). It is apparent from Fig. 3 that until 1 h, the percentage removal of As(V) from aqueous solution increases rapidly and reaches up to 85 %. A further increase in contact time has a negligible effect on the percentage removal. Therefore, a 1 h shaking time was considered as equilibrium time for maximum adsorption. The decrease in rate of removal of As(V) with time may also be due to aggregation of As(V) around the HA particles. This aggregation may hinder the migration of adsorbate, as the adsorption sites become filled up, and also resistance to diffusion of As(V) molecules in the adsorbents increases(Mittal et al. 2010).
Table. 2: Isotherm parameters for sorption of As(V) by HA Langmuir isotherm constants Freundlich isotherm constants xqmax
b
r2
k
n
r2
526
0/053
0/938
6/683
0/207
0/975
Table. 3: Comparison of As (V)) adsorption capacities of different adsorbents Freundlich Author and the parameters source are credited Adsorbents K (mg/g) References Magnetiteemaghemite nanoparticles TiO2 at pH 9 Akaganeite Ce(IV)-doped iron oxide Laterite soil Granularferric hydroxide (GFH) Magnetite HA
10.6 16 69.7 60.4 0.055 10.3 10 526
24 43 44 45 46 47 48 Present Study
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Effect of mass of adsorbent on As(V) removal The effect of HA dosage on As(V) removal was analyzed by varying the dosage of HA and the result is shown in Fig. 4. It was observed that the removal efficiency increases with the increase in HA dosage. This reveals that the instantaneous and
equilibrium sorption capacities of As(V) are functions of the HA dosage
Fig.1: Effect of pH on removal of As(V) ions with concentration of 0/6g/LAs
Fig.2: Effect of As on removal of As(V) ions with pH = 8
Fig.3: Effect of time on removal of As(V) ions with pH = 8
Fig. 4: Effect of dosage on removal of As(V) ions with pH = 8 and As= 0/6 g/l
Fig.5: freundlich Isotherm plots for sorption of As (V) by HA
Fig.6: longmuir Isotherm plots for sorption of As (V) by HA
Adsorption isotherms Equilibrium isotherm is described by a sorption isotherm,characterized by certain constants
Mirhosseini et al., Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(2), 331-338 (2014) whose values express the surface properties and affinity of the sorbent sorption equilibrium is established when the concentration of sorbentin the bulk solution is in dynamic balance with that at the sorbent interface (Oladoja et al.,2008). The adsorption isotherm study is carried out on wellknown isotherms such as Langmuir Langmuir .,1915).
Where b is the constant that increases with increasing molecular size, qmax is the amount adsorbed to form a complete monolayer on the surface (mg/g), X is weight of substance adsorbed (mg), M is weight of adsorbent (g), and Ce is the concentration remaining in solution (mg/L). The
Fig.7: Metal disappearance for removal of As(V) by HAp
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essential features of the Langmuir isotherm may be expressed in terms of equilibrium parameter RL, which is a dimensionless constant referred to as separation factor or equilibrium parameter (Weber and Chakkravorti, 1974).
The value of RL indicates the type of the isotherm to be either unfavorable (RL[1]), linear (RL = 1), favorable (0\RL\1) or irreversible (RL = 0). The Freundlich isotherm is expressed as (Freundlich, 1906) .
Where K f and n are the constants depending on temperature An isotherm plot for sorption of As (V) by HAp-nanois shown in Fig 5 and 6 The diagram indicates that the Freundlich isotherm is favorable for removal of As (V) by HAp-nano. The value of Ralso indicates that Langmuir isotherm is favorable. It can be concluded that Freundlich isotherm is the best fit langmuir isotherms. The adsorption capacity of HAp-nanofor As (V) adsorption is compared with other adsorbents (Table 3). The value of As (V) uptake by HApnanofound inthis work is significantly higher than that of other adsorbents. Three types of reactions may control As(V) immobilization by HAp-nano: surface adsorption, cation substitution orprecipitation. The first mechanism is the adsorption of As(V) ions on the HAp-nanosurfaces and following ion exchange
Fig.8: SEM image of adsorbed As by Hydroxyapatite nanoparticles in optimum condition: As : 0/1g/L, HAp : 0/6g/L and pH: 12) at different magnifications A) 5000 X, B) 15000 X
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reaction between As(V) ions adsorbed and Ca ions of HAp-nano(Suzuki et al.,1984). This ion exchange reaction mechanism (Ma et al.,1994) is expressed as: Ca10 ( PO4)6 (OH)2 +X As5+↔XCa2+ +Ca 10-x Asx(PO4)6 (OH)2 Ca10 ( PO4)6 (OH)2 + 14 H2+↔10 Ca2+ + 6H2O PO4- + 2H20
(Dissolution)
Showed that HAp-nano dissolution and hydroxypyromorphite (HP) precipitation were the main mechanisms for As(V) immobilization by HAp-nanoin the absence of other metals. These chemical reactions can bedescribed as follows: Ca10 ( PO4)6 (OH)2 + 14 H2+↔10 Ca2+ + 6H2O PO4- + 2H20 (Dissolution) 10 As5+ + 6H2O PO4- + 2H20↔14 H2+ + As 10(Po4)6(OH)2 (Percipitation)
Information about the sorption mechanisms have been inferred by the values of molar ratios (Qs) of cations bound by HAp-nanoto Ca desorbed from HAp-nano (Aklil et al., 2004). Fig 7 presents the effect of calcium concentration on arsenate removal by HAp-nano. For all sorbents tested, increasing calcium level appeared to assist arsenate sorption. When calcium concentration increased from 0 to 2.5 mM, the arsenate removal efficiency increased from 2.4% to 5.4% by using HAp-nano. The calcium effects on arsenate sorption
to HAp-nanoare to be due to two reasons. First, according to increasing calcium concentration in water can inhibit HAp-nano, which can inhibit arsenate sorption to the sorbents. Second, Ca2+ in water can complex with phosphate on HAp-nano surface, resulting in an increase of sorption sites and subsequently an increase of arsenate sorption (Czerniczyniec et al.,2007; Sneddon et al.,2005). SEM image of absorb As(V) by nanoparticles of HAp-nanoshown in figure8. Conclusion The result shows that hydroxyapatite nanoparticle (HAp-nano) is a powerful adsorbent for removing As(V) from aqueous solution. The optimum dose of HAp-nanofor As(V)removal is found to be 0.2 g/L with the removal efficiency of 88 %. Freundlich isotherm had best fit than Langmuir, for experimental data. The adsorption capacity of HAp-nano was found to be 526 mg/g HAp-nano dissolution and hydroxy pyromorphite precipitation were the main mechanisms for As(V) immobilization by HAp-nano. Acknowledgments The authors gratefully acknowledge financial assistance of Iran nanotechnology initiative council.
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Current World Environment
Evaluating the Role of Gender Equity in Sustainable Development of Big Cities Maryam Yavari1 and Hamid Reza Saremi2* Department of Urban Planning, Shahr-e-Qods Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran 2 *Assistant Professor in Urban Planning, Tarbiat Modares University of Tehran, Iran. 1
http://dx.doi.org/10.12944/CWE.9.2.14 (Received: Feburary 23, 2014; Accepted: May 20, 2014) Abstract Sustainable development movement and the womenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s movement in the world has shown that in todayâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s world conditions, achieving a just and sustainable society without the active participation of women is not possible. Some social norms and economic constraints in urban areas of Iran, lead to limitation of presence of women. These constraints belong house and the spaces in close to the house for woman. In past centuries, the safe range for women included house spaces, and semiprivate outdoor space of houses, a dead-end alleys and side porch. In the West, despite the claims of providing a civil society, necessary and requirement to attend and enjoy of urban spaces for all groups from industrial revolution was due to the dominant approaches to the thoughts of people in connection with the space, or close space. Descriptive statistics used in this study included frequency tables, the data show (Figure) the central indices and in the level of understanding of factor analysis, ANOVA, Pearson correlation, and several statistics methods were analyzed using SPSS version 17.
Key words: Evaluating, Gender Equity Role, Sustainable development, Big cities.
Introduction Today, all nations came to the conclusion that due to the need to communicate community groups with each other and social interaction, and the right of presence of all people in all urban areas, it is necessary keep justice in the design and planning of urban spaces. Activities and human behavior in urban spaces are shaped by social and cultural relations with other human beings in this area, so, the realm of justice for all age groups, sex, race, etc., are an important issue. It seems that modern urbanization with its all claims based on justice and equality is maledominated, and in most cases it can be seen that many of the needs and values of feminism totally ignored. So, it is regarded that correlation between planning and gender equality has been changed to a fundamental discourse in architecture and urbanism.
To make the city more beautiful, safer and more pleasant, we should consider the role of gender and womenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s values in different issues such as transport, urban housing spaces, and the city the public spaces and leisure places. On the other hand, urban spaces are important issue to reach to a developed society and its important characteristics is coordination of all sociological groups. Justice is one of the fundamental concepts of sustainable development. So that sustainable development will not be achieved without justice possible. In other words, justice is considered as a prerequisite for any action that aims to do for increasing quality of life. Gender justice, is an important issue in field of sustainable development, in a way that, according to the World Bank to achieve gender equality to national economies it is very essential (Barton, 2002).
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Gender equity and equality between women and men, is not only a desire for basic human rights and social justice, but rather as an essential tool and a prerequisite for the preservation of the environment, sustainable development, human security. Twelve keywords have been defined in Fourth World Conference on Women in Beijing in 1995. Considering to them are very important to achieve gender equality. Some of these keywords are poverty, education, health, violence, economics, decision- making, war and women , institutional mechanisms, human rights, communication, etc., that are important issues of gender equality and strategies for its implementation in large cities and to achieve sustainable development. Lang (2007) defines the most important factors affecting gender equality, especially in management and decision -making as follows: Legal discrimination towards women’s needs and rights that are derived from the dominant patriarchal values. • Lack of knowledge about women and their strength in aiding the sustainable development • Patriarchal values that from early childhood slowly affects the attitudes of men and women throughout life and more precise sociological
•
•
norms about gender inequality in the common role of man and woman. Discriminatory social structures and attitudes associated with the level of the individual, collective and institutional. Operating system, culture, organizational structures and policies that affect gender inequality (Lang, 2007).
Regarding to women values and Gender Justice in approaches that are discussed is feminism and women’s rights are the cornerstone of feminism. All feminist theory at the end are agree that women are human beings. Not Doll, Slave, object or animal. Friedman argues in this regard that the idea of feminism is actually an offshoot of the civil rights movement. The strength and vitality of the feminist movement in its diversity have been hidden, i.e. the ability to adapt to different cultures and eras (Franck, 2002). It also should not forget that the true feminist movement does not seek to replace instead of Femininity with Patriarchal but its most fundamental goal is to establish a world not only for some women, but for all of them, and not just for some women, but for men as well to be a better place (Franck, 2002).
Table 1: Distribution of frequency by gender Mode Validity (%) Two exponential
50 50 100
Frequency (%) No. Variable categories 50 50 100
100 100 200
Men Women Total
Table 2: Frequency distribution based on women’s safety in public spaces of cities in terms of sustainable development Median Validity (%) 3.5 1.5 11 37.5 42 8 100
Frequency (%) No. Variable categories 1.5 11 37.5 42 8 100
3 22 75 84 16 200
Very low Low Moderate High Too much Total
Saremi & Yavari, Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(2), 339-349 (2014) The Castells believes womenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s social movements rooted in ancient history, but their modern form, feminism, has been begun from about 1960, first in Europe and America and gradually began to find the range wide. Feminist movement is redefining the essence of womenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s identity, equality of men and women. Feminism is very heterogeneous and varied, but in general it can be a simple expression to be defined as a commitment to end male domination. Feminist movement is redefining the essence of womenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s identity, equality of men and women is sometimes acknowledged, sometimes underscores the inherent superiority of women and feminine ways as a human resources. So common underlying infrastructure that makes up the diversity of feminist movement include: historic efforts, individual and collective, formal and informal,
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to redefine femininity in direct confrontation with patriarchy (Krenichyn, 2004). In examining the issue of gender equity that is an important consideration, the sustainable development in cities has great emphasis on this issue. Gender socialization patterns of culture derive occurs. Gender is determined by social and cultural pattern. Gender is defined by men and women in order to identifying relation between them and their environment. Thus, clear roles and responsibilities for men, women and youth will be levied on the basis of gender in society (Lang, 2007) Problem Statement Gender equality and women issues have been considered from different aspects by international organizations. International Organization for Human Settlements (World Bank
Table 3: Frequency distribution according to gender justice in major cities Median Validity (%) Frequency (%) No. Variable categories 3 2 2 4 Very low 18 18 36 Low 43.5 43.5 87 Moderate 31 31 62 High 5.5 5.5 11 Too much 100 100 200 Total Table 4: Correlation coefficient Equal opportunities Equal opportunities Equal opportunities Correlation for political and etc for social and etc for economic coefficients 0.924 0.951 1000 Equal opportunities for economic 0.975 1000 0.951 Equal opportunities for economic 1000 0.975 0.924 Equal opportunities for political and etc Table 5: K.M.O or measure of sampling adequacy Coefficients Criterion 0.728 1055.805 3 0.000
K.M.O or measure of sampling adequacy The chi-square (x2) Bartlett Degrees of freedom criterion Significant level.
and Gender and Development Groups, 2003) has organized strategic considerations in this regard in several areas: - Basic services - Human Rights - Economic capacity - Transport - Right to safety and to prevent harassment of women (Rezazadeh, 2005)
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Women as citizen participation should enjoy of life in the city, so it is necessary to restrict all barriers to participation in urban life. This includes security, transport, housing and other items above. If suitable planning and design in urban spaces has made, it certainly will have increased impact.
provide conditions that women as well as men can be present in urban spaces. Importance of women presence in various fields of scientific, political, and social, has been demonstrated (Rezazadeh, 2010).
In other words, women as half the world’s In a modern society, taking into account the population, have the right to be present with men pluralistic civil rights and justice-oriented approach, in urban spaces, and should not be limited by the Table 6 - Estimates of the amount of sharing of each component (structural gender justice) with component by the method of principal component analysis The rate of subscription with factor
sharing before Components extracting
0.950 0.984 0.966
1000 1000 1000
Equal opportunities for economic Equal social opportunities Equal political opportunities
Table 7: Estimates of values and variance corresponding to the factor
special values calculated
Cumulative percentage (%) 96.671 99.315 100
Explained variance (%) Total 96.671 2.645 0.685
Table 8: Determining the factor loadings Factor loadings with Components respect to the first factor 0.975 Equal opportunities for economic 0.992 Social and cultural equal opportunities 0.983 Political and civil equal opportunities
Component
2900 0.079 0.021
1 2 3
presence of multiple factors. These barriers include physical problems of space, cultural, social and etc. Gender approach “in planning and designing urban spaces based on the needs of men, lead to make urban spaces as the male and develop”gender blindness”. The presence of women in the society is a inalienable right of all women and they as well as men should have equal conditions
Table 9: Correlation coefficients of variables Develop suppliers
Physical Development
Cultural development
Economic Development
0.751 0.827 0.886 1000 0.829 0.933 1000 0.886 0.864 1000 0.933 0.827 1000 0.864 0.829 0.751 0.007
Correlation coefficients Economic Development Cultural development Physical Development Develop suppliers Determinant of the coefficients
Saremi & Yavari, Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(2), 339-349 (2014) for participation in the urban areas, but today women have been denied their civil rights somewhat. To ensure this equality, society must understand the differences in the needs, circumstances and individual goals, overcome obstacles and limiting
Table 10: K.M.O or measure of sampling adequacy Coefficients
Criterion
0.820 977.665 6 0.000
K.M.O or measure of sampling adequacy The chi-square (x2) Bartlett Degrees of freedom criterion Significant level.
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factors and prepare possibility of social participation (Afsharnia , 2009). In fact, urban spaces as physics of cities should meet social needs, and prepare conditions Table 11: Estimates of the share of each component (construction of sustainable urban development) with factor by using principal component analysis method The rate Sharing subscription before with factor extracting 0.845 0.940 0.928 0.834
Components
1000 1000 1000 1000
Economic Development Cultural Development Physical Development Develop suppliers
Table 12: Estimates of specific values and corresponding variance with the factor specific value calculated Cumulative Explained Total percentage (%) variance 88.672 95.191 98.633 100
88.672% 6.519 3.442 1.367
Table 13: Determining the loading factors Loading factors with respect to the first factor 0.919 0.970 0.963 0.913
Economic Development Cultural development Physical development Develop suppliers
3.547 0.261 0.138 0.055
components
1 2 3 4
to allow users, both men and women, to enjoy the spaces. In Iran, due to various social, cultural, political, and etc, urban spaces monopolized by men and considerations to women problems such as work and family bond or security has not been taken. Poor urban spaces, defenseless spaces, unsafe neighborhoods, cities and urban architecture that are just manly are of the factors threatening the security of reducing womenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s social participation as
Table 14: ANOVA for comparing intra and between groups Sig F-statistic The mean square 0.000 6.367 3.285 0.514
Degree of freedom
Sum of square
Sources of variation
14 185 199
45.996 95.018 141.013
Between-groups Intra- groups total
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an important part of the community (Farrokh seresht, 2011). So in this article we examined the role of gender equality in the sustainable development of big cities. Research hypotheses The main hypothesis of this study was: It seems there is a direct relation to gender equality and sustainable development of cities. 1) It seems that there is direct relation between sustainable development of cities and the safety of women in public spaces in the city. 2) It seems that in cities with higher levels of
sustainable development, women are using of urban spaces like men. 3) It seems that there is a direct relationship between sustainable developments of large cities with high levels of womenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s education. 4) It seems that in cities with higher levels of sustainable development, femalesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; employment levels are at a higher level. Descriptive Statistics This section presents descriptive statistics and tables to examine sample characteristics. Typical characteristics of these are useful to help
Table 15: Pearson Assessment Total 200
Sig The Pearson statistic Variable 0.000
0.545
City sustainable development and gender justice
Table 16: ANOVA for comparing intra and between groups Sig F-statistic The mean square 0.000 18.937 6.028 0.318
Degree of freedom
Sum of square
Sources of variation
14 185 199
84.392 58.888 143.280
Between groups Intra groups Total
Table 17: Pearson Assessment Total 200
Sig The Pearson statistics Variable 0.000
0.734
Sustainable development and security of women
Table 18: ANOVA for comparing intra and between groups Sig F-statistic The mean square 0.044 4.091 1.950 0.477
Degree of freedom
Sum of square
Sources of variation
1 198 199
1.950 94.387 96.337
Between groups Intra groups Total
Table 19: Pearson Assessment Total 200
Sig The Pearson statistic Variable 0.000
0.824
Sustainable development and education of women
Saremi & Yavari, Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(2), 339-349 (2014) the general characteristics of the study population and the general characteristics that are specified for other researchers. Moreover, this knowledge makes generalize the results to other populations, or in the design of future research questions for other communities to use this information. Tip is that gender justice and sustainable urban development level, both are structural and macroeconomic indicators that each of them has formed from several components and reagents that are visible and can be assayed based on the theories discussed. Therefore, we examined descriptive statistics and viewed the frequency distribution (Tables 4.2.4 and 5.2.4), but for the study of inferential statistics using factor analysis techniques examined details and the components of these two constructs. From Table 1 it can be concluded that 50% of the participants were male and the remaining (50%) are women. Because the calculated frequencies are also quite evenly distributed by double exponential, so, there is no mode or more frequency From the figures of Table 3 and, Figure 3 it is inferred that the idea of 1.5% of the sample population, the rate of womenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s security in public spaces in developed cities were very low, and 11%, 37.5%, 42% and 8% were less, moderate, high and very high respectively. The median value was equivalent with 3.5, which implies that the average number of comments about the level of security of samples women in public spaces in cities, in Table 20: Descriptive statistics No. 11 13
SD
Mean Variables
0.820 3.45 0.439 2.23
Sustainable Development Lack of Sustainability
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sustainable development cities is much more than average. In other words, the median index is of index types that characterize the data distribution center that in here is equal to the average or high level. Table 3 shows that 4% of the examined population believed that the gender justice in major cities is very low, and 18%, 43.5%, 31% and 5.5% of them believed low, moderate, high and too much, respectively. The mean value is equal to 3, this figure implies that the sample mean comments about how gender justice in the big cities is about average. In other words, the median index is of index types that characterize the data distribution center (or the 50 percent distributions) which here is equal to the average level. Factor analysis Factor analysis is a multivariate statistical method that establishes a theoretical model between the frequencies of variable. This method is based on the assumption that the observed variables are of linear combinations of hypothetical that are more fundamental. In this study, there are two basic structures: gender justice and sustainable urban development, the basic structure of each reagent composition and indices are composed of a hypothetical. According to the theory associated, structures of gender quality are combined of three references including equal opportunity for economic, social and cultural opportunities and equal opportunities in political and civil and sustainable development as well has been composed of four fundamental (economic development, social and cultural development, physical development, and develop suppliers). Therefore, to determine the validity of each of these reagents for the desired structures should use factor analysis as follows:
Table 21: ANOVA for comparing intra and between groups Sig F statistics The mean square 0.002 5.839 3.427 0.587
Degree of freedom
Sum of square
Sources of variation
3 46 49
10.281 26.999 37.280
Between groups Intra groups Total
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Gender justice As noted, this structure is represented by three postulates: equal opportunity for economic, social and cultural opportunities, and political and civic opportunities. The first step in determining construct validity in factor analysis is to determine the correlation table references with each other and also determining the determinant of the matrix and to estimate K.M.O. The greater correlation coefficients of structure reagents with each other, the more power of reagents indicates. The correlation coefficient always varies between (1 to -1) therefore much closer correlation between stronger and weaker correlation value is closer to zero as possible. As can be seen in the table above, all of the coefficients values are above 0.9, which represents the amount of correlation between the reagents are very powerful. By the way, the main diagonal matrix is equal to 1 that shows the correlation of each item with itself and complete correlation. The amount of matrix correlation determinant is equal with 0.005 that shows the validity and matrix correlation of variables. The closer determinant to zero, the more qualification of variables for factor analysis In the above table, two other criteria for eligibility and validity data are presented: a standard measure of sampling adequacy or KMO and Bartlett. A measure of sampling adequacy maximum and the minimum is zero, so the closer of this figure to 1 the more appropriate measure is considered and the figure under 0.6 is unacceptable. As can be seen in the table above, this measure is above 0.7, and the number is considered sufficient. Bartlett measure also is significant at the level of 99% confidence, so these two criteria, confirm the presence of factor analysis. The above subscription rate of each factor is calculated for each component. The subscription rate of variable indicates the amount of variance that is explained by the greater amount of a component or variable, and the more this rate means that it is represented by desirable way. In the above table, equal opportunities for social and cultural factors is a little more but overall subscription rate of all variables with the factor is above 0.9.
In the above table, specific values and explained variance by each factor is obtained. As, the three factors define high percentages of first factor that determine 96% of these factors. So, second and third factors are ignored and can define with high confidence that all of these three factors including equal opportunities for social and cultural and civil and political opportunities have important role in gender equity in the rate of 96%. So validity is confirmed. The above table represents the highest correlation coefficient with equal opportunities for cultural, social and gender justice factor. But all reagents, have very high operating rates and favorable. Structure of sustainable urban development As noted, the structure is represented by four postulates: economic, social and cultural development, physical development, and develop suppliers. The first step in determining construct validity using factor analysis is to determine the correlation table references with each other and to determine the determinant of the matrix and estimate KMO. The greater the general structure of the reagents correlation coefficients the more power of reagents in the formation of the desired structure. The correlation coefficient always varies between (1 to -1) and as the outcome measure is closer to zero the correlation value will be weaker. As can be seen in the table above, all of the coefficients values are above 0.7, which is the value of the strong correlation between the factors. The main diagonal of a matrix is equal to one that this amount indicates the correlation of each component with itself and is complete correlation. The amount of matrix determinant correlation is equal with 0.007 that this amount shows the validity of variables and correlation matrix of variables. In the above table, two other criteria for eligibility and validity data are presented: a standard measure of sampling adequacy or KMO and Bartlett. A measure of sampling adequacy of the maximum and the minimum is one and zero, respectively. So, the closer of this number to one, the more appropriate measure is considered and the figure below 0.6 is
Saremi & Yavari, Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(2), 339-349 (2014) unacceptable. As can be seen in the table above, this criterion is above 0.8, which is considered a good amount of variety. Bartlett measure also is significant the level of 99%, so these two criteria, confirm the presence of factor analysis for structures The above table shows the rate of subscription with factor. In the above table, social and cultural development is more than the other components, but the total amount of shared variables with factor is above 0.9. In the above table, specific values and explained variance, is obtained by each factor. Since each factor represent a high percentage of the first factor and in fact determine more than 88% of these factors, so, the second, third and fourth factors are ignored and can be concluded that all four factors (economic, social and cultural development, physical development, and develop suppliers) have important role in the form of sustainable urban development and are involved in the formation rate of 88%. So validity is confirmed In the above table, social and cultural developments have the highest correlation coefficient with the factor of sustainable urban development. But all reagents have very high and favorable operating rates. Thus, the validity of the two constructs of gender justice and sustainable urban development can be confirmed and can test the relations of these structures. Results According to the F-statistic values and the error observed in the above table we can conclude that the difference in level of 0.99 is significant. In other words, there is a significant relationship between the sustainable development in big cities and gender justice. Therefore, the null hypothesis is rejected and the research hypothesis is accepted. In the above table, the relationship between sustainable development and gender equality is measured according to the views of 200 samples in major cities. According to the Pearson statistic (0.545) and the resulting error (Sig: 0.000) it can be
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concluded that the relationship between variables is significant at a confidence level of 0.99. In other words, the null hypothesis is rejected and the research hypothesis that there is a relationship between sustainable urban development and gender equality will be accepted. The Pearson correlations between the two variables indicate that the intensity of the direct relationship between two variables is relatively strong and positive. In other words, presence of gender justice impact on sustainable urban development and vice versa with the rate of 54 %. According to the F-statistic values and the error observed in the above table we can conclude that the difference in level of 0.99 is significant. In other words, there is a significant relationship between sustainable development of cities and the safety of women in public spaces in the city. Therefore, the null hypothesis is rejected and the research hypothesis is accepted In the above table, the relationship between sustainable development of cities and security of women in the public sphere, according to the views of 200 samples has been measured. According to the Pearson statistic (0.734) and the resulting error (Sig: 0.000) it can also acknowledged that the relationship between variables at a confidence level of 0.99 is significant. Therefore, the null hypothesis is rejected and the research hypothesis, relation of urban sustainable development and women security in public spaces of cities is accepted. The Pearson correlation between the two variables indicates that the intensity of the direct relationship between the two variables is strong and positive. In other words, sustainable urban development affects on promotion of womenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s safety in public spaces as much as 73 % and vice versa. According to the F-statistic values and the error above table we can conclude that the differences observed is significant at the level of 0.95. In other words, in cities with higher levels of sustainable development, women as equal as men take advantage of the urban area. Therefore, the null hypothesis is rejected and the research hypothesis is accepted.
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In the above table, the relationship between sustainable development and a women’s high level of education in large cities, citing the views of 200 samples has been measured. According to the Pearson statistic (0.824) and the resulting error (Sig: 0.000) it is concluded that the relationship between variables at a confidence level of 0.99 is significant. In other words, the null hypothesis is rejected and the research hypothesis that there is a relationship between sustainable urban developments and to promote women’s education will be accepted. The Pearson correlations between the two variables indicate that the intensity of relationship between the two variables is strong, direct and positive. In other words, the existence of sustainable urban development has contributed to 82% on women’s education level and vice versa. It is a twoway relationship, in other words, the high level of women’s education affects on sustainable urban development with the rate of 82%. In this table the mean and standard deviation of women’s employment in developed cities and undeveloped estimated. It is concluded that the average employment of women in developed cities is more than undeveloped cities. According to the F-statistic values and the error observed in the above table we can conclude that the difference in level of 0.99 is significant. In other words, in cities with higher levels of sustainable development, women’s employment level is generally higher. Also, because the average of employment of women in developed cities is more than undeveloped cities therefore the null hypothesis is rejected and the research hypothesis is accepted.
Conclusions As noted, the issue of gender equality is important in urban areas and this issue has important role in sustainable development is big cities. All citizens have equal opportunities and conditions to access and the use of spaces and amenities, but it seems there is some injustice in urban areas. Urban spaces as could have the same role in instrumental in promoting social justice, it can also be considered as a factor in the deepening social inequality. Women as a half of the population in big cities desire to use city facilities equal with men. Big cities in order to reach sustainable development should prepare conditions that women could work and live in a safe, high quality and diverse space. In many countries including Iran, urban spacers have been designed in most cases by men and for men, too and little attention have been paid to women needs. In countries such as Iran that for reach to development and promotion, women should work in the society like men, women are a main source for innovation and dynamics of cities and urban spaces should be designed and planned in such a way that women could be active as citizen. Regarding the issue of gender equality and women in space designing in recent years much attention has been paid. Therefore more attention has been paid to gender justice and women in urban spaces designing but the main step for reducing women presence limitation in urban spaces, understanding and deep knowledge responsive to the needs and importance of presence of women in outdoor spaces and in second step, exact identifying of women needs in urban spaces are necessary. So, urban spaces should be responsive to women needs. Because women beside of being as a half of the population in big cities, through the social role of child, elderly and patients care, needs spaces that their specific needs and the care ethics of care is considered.
References 1.
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Afsharnia, Azam and Darestani Farahani, Mansooreh. Urban appropriate spaces for women, National Conference on Women and Architecture (2009). Farrokh seresht, Marva. Women and urban
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spaces, urban design master’s thesis, Isfahan University of the Arts (2011). Reezazadeh,razieh. The role of women in good governance,metropolis Conference. Mashhad,Iran (2005).
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World Bank and Gender and Development Groups ,Gender Equality and Millennium Development Goals, 4 April 2003 Lang, John. Typology of urban design practice with over fifty special case. Translated by Seyyed Hossein Bahraini, Tehran University Press, First Edition (2007). Krenichyn, K. ‘Women and Physical Activity in an Urban Park: Enrichment and Support through an Ethic of Care’, Journal of
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Environmental Psychology, 24 : 117-130 (2004). Franck, K. ‘Women and Environment’ in Bechtel, R. & Churchman, A. (eds.) Handbook of Environmental Psychology ,John Wiley & sons, New York (2002). Barton,Carol. Womens’ Movement and Gender perspectives on the Millennium Development Gials (2002).
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Current World Environment
An Analytical Approach to the Issue of Passive Defense in Relation with Preservation of Urban Elements Baghdadi Arash1 and Eghtedar Bakhtiyari Shahla2* Department of Urban Planning, ShahreQods Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran. 2 *Department of urban planning, ShahreQods science and research branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran.
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http://dx.doi.org/10.12944/CWE.9.2.15 (Received: Feburary 05, 2014; Accepted: May 25, 2014) Abstract Preserving territorial integrity and preventing from the attacks of enemies is the only common goal of all states and people of the countries on the earth. Passive defense which is mentioned abundantly today is one of the most important options in preserving this integrity. Passive defense is one of the special topics not only in Iran but also in many countries of the world because all efforts of a state are targeted at securing consent and welfare for its nation and preserving the national resources to produce income. Such incomes play substantial roles in creating substructures and superstructures. That is why preserving security and preventing from internal and international hazards is one of the basic programs of governments. Also spatial distribution of elements, combination of elements and main functions of the city which constitute to the structure of city are effective in the degree of vulnerability of a city against various dangers particularly military attacks. On this basis, the form and shape of the city entails a special attitude from passive defense perspective. Therefore, in the present research it has been attempted to introduce passive defense, define its theoretical fundamentals and application of this defense system in preserving and protecting the countries, and particularly their important and vital elements, express strategies for internalize passive defense in urban planning. Using this method may help save the cities against the crisis in critical situations through a coordinated and organized management process. Research method in this article is a combination of descriptive- explanatory and comparative methods; descriptive method has been used based on the information available in library deeds and documents.
Key words: Defense, Passive Defense, Active Defense, Civil Defense, Urban Elements.
Introduction The subject of the passive defense has the age of human being. Early humans sheltered in caves, above the trees, and other natural shelters to protect themselves from wild animals attack and other enemies and also to allay concerns. With the form of early civilization in the world that are associated with invasiveness, human, distributed the basics of passive defense by armor and shields to individual protect and strong and high castles, towers to provide security for the people. Presence of moat around the cities and establishing strong gateways to prevent sudden enemy attacks were common in all parts of the
world. Passive defense measures against the threat of invasion were establishing fort built in the form of towers, gateways, castles, bastions, ramparts and fortified defensive positions. But after the invention of gunpowder and using it, passive defense subject also gradually changed. During World War II using aircrafts, bombing of cities, industrial and investment centers and after that using rockets by Germans were started. Damages produced by these attacks to human and non military places were more frequent in comparison to First World War, and this led to give more concerns to passive defense by various countries.
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Military powers of each country as a part of a national power are used in order to be ready to repel aggression operations and the ability to apply structural and functional forces. Whenever any of the elements of national power got weakness, military forces will encounter by strong structural and functional crises and should use strong management to solve the crises. Crisis managers must seek ways to reduce the dimensions of the crisis. In many cases of crisis management are not aligned with each other and power and capabilities are not consonant with threat level. So, countries could not be able to face with the threats in each of its components, as expected. Civil defense to avoid getting into financial damages or injuries or to minimize the damage caused by the attacks without the use of any weapons and munitions consist wide range of measures. Their performances are possible with low-cost and only parts of it require relatively high costs. Iran, because of several reasons including its geopolitical situations, having underground rich in oil and mining resources, having high population density and rich history is under threatening. Because of enemies’ high tech and dynamics of modern technology, it is necessary to have a strategy, doctrine, and comprehensive, coordinated, scientific and cultural executive programs to meet the technical demands. For these reasons, the use of passive defense measures against further damage and decreasing enemy invasion is a fundamental issue. In recent years with the development of passive defense in the world, extensive studies were carried out in this area. In Iran, because of political and strategically importance and military tensions from other countries, the importance and paying much attention to passive defense was formed in late 2003. Passive defense measures, in modern asymmetric warfare against hostile attacks and reduce the damage caused by air, land and sea attacks of invasive country are of fundamental issues that its scope comprise all infrastructure and facilities
of military services, civilian and political issues, communication, road , ports, airports, and bridges, headquarters and the city’s population including people and civil properties . Municipal assets are the most important things that damage during attack and are of critical parts of the city. City assets can be divided into three general categories including vital arteries, economic assets and activity centers and human resources. Utilities, municipal equipments, road communication, critical buildings can be counted of city’s major assets. So any disruption leads to impaired performance and threatening life of the urban population. Psychological factors also play a role in the invasion and destruction of the spirit of life in cities and towns, economic damages and social destruction that should be considered (Abolhasani, 2005). The role of Psychological factors during city attacks should bve mentioned as it has a main role in social life in cities and infrastructure of a community with each other. For maintaining assets, series of solutions are presented in the form passive defense that will have an important role in the defense of the city. Defense From the terminology aspect the word “Padafand (in Persian) =defense” is formed of the word “pad” and “afand”. In Persian culture “pad or Paad” is a prefix meaning “against, opposing, following” and when placed before a word makes its meaning to be reversed. The word “afand” means “war or hostility (Dehkhoda ² 1972, pp. 47 and 48). Passive defense Passive defense refers to the set of actions that does not require application of war wares and with using it, we can prevent vital installations damage, sensitive military and non military centers, and human loses and to decrease the extent of damage or to minimize them. Passive defense privacies include tricks, cover, deception, camouflage, distributing secure fortifications and structures and to announce news. Principles of passive defense Passive defense principles consist
Arash & Shahla, Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(2), 350-360 (2014) fundamental and infrastructure actions that can be employed to reduce losses and damages, aims to reduce the ability of systems to identify targets, targeted enemy offensive weapon and to impose more costs to them. Passive defense principles include: 1. Select the safe geographic areas of a country 2. Determine the optimal scale of population and space activities 3. Distribution of the functions with threats and geography 4. Choose the optimal scale of spread and economic feasibility 5. Small and inexpensive construction and initiative in civil defense 6. Parallelism associated support systems 7. Retrofitting structures, defenses and securing vital centers 8. Positioning of operations 9. Crisis defensive management in scenes 10. Camouflage 11. Destruction of enemy intelligence system 12. Coverage with natural terrain 13. Coverage in all areas 14. Deception, initiative and diversity in all actions 15. Protection of critical information systems 16. Production of dual structures (barriers) Passive defense strategy objectives Strategic objectives of passive defense have the most effective on strategy levels. Such goals can be identified as:
1. 2. 3.
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Increased capacity and inhibition capabilities Reduce the start of the invasion and spread of attacks Protection of personnel, facilities and national investments during invasions (Passive defense in the Mirror of regulations and laws, 2010)
Operational objectives of passive defense The most important operational goals of passive defense can be described in the form of stages including: 1. First, try not to be seen the special centers by enemy hiding, camouflage and tricks (creating false targets) 2. Secondly, if being seen by the enemy - not to be known - using coverage and deception aimed at understanding the nature of the goal 3. The third step, if being recognized- can not be targeted by the enemy - using natural and artificial factors, using tunnel and etc. 4. The fourth stage, if to be targeted- not to be vulnerable or having the least vulnerabilities - using the principles of safety and retrofitting or to be less vulnerable with distribution of critical and sensible parts. 5. The Fifth Step, if damage occurs- to quickly rebuild and revive and to sustain an activity â&#x20AC;&#x201C; like refurbishing the parts or components and preparing the repairing plans and alternatives (Passive defense in terms of rules and regulations, 2010).
Fig. 1: Purposes of non-military defense (Tayari, 1989)
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Centers under passive defense All sensible buildings and cr itical infrastructure, main arteries of country including all under study, under execution, or exploitation that are suspected to enemy military attacks are divided to: Vital centers A center that is national in scope and activities and their presence and continued operations is vital for the country. Their capturing or damaging by the enemy cause injury or disorders in the general administration of a country. Sensible centers A center that has distributed local activity and its presence or continued operations is necessary for the parts of a country. Their capturing or damaging by the enemy cause disorders in parts of the administration of a country. Major centers centers that have a range of local activities. Their presence or continued activities are important for parts of a country. Their presence and disruption by the enemy cause disorders in some parts of a country. Software methods of passive defense Software methods refer to methods that do not require specific structures or physical activity but their implementation have important role in success of other ways and even armed defense effectiveness. These methods mainly focus on short, mid and long term planning and sectoral, cross-sectoral, regional and civilian coordination as follows:
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P r o d u c t i o n a n d t ra i n i n g o f d i s a s t e r management programs Training the managers and employees Production of necessities and guidelines for the use of elements and passive defense techniques at different stages of project studies Provide public education to the people in times of crisis Paying attention to land use and spatial planning in the defense of vital and sensitive and important centers (Maysami and Mousavi, 2009)
Hardware method of passive defense Hardware method refers to activities that are required to perform particular physical tasks and includes: • Strong facilities and equipment • Establishment of shelters • Use of camouflage techniques (Maysami and Mousavim, 2009) Active defense Active defense consists of direct application of nullify in order to neutralize or reduce the effects of air, ground and sea hostilities and destruction on targets. Distinction between passive and active defense is “human factor “. It means that active defense is a tool that needs human user and direct management and consists of war machine and equipments, organizing, training and management of human forces in a way that in the absence of human that instrument itself has no validity. While
Fig. 2: Duties in civil defense (Tayari, 1989)
Arash & Shahla, Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(2), 350-360 (2014) passive defense is architectural capabilities in the field of war engineering in a way that in the absence of tools, military and combat forces capabilities, and defensive increase. In passive defense the human presence is not required and anyone possesses it, defensive efficiency in war will be increased (Asgharian Jadi, 2007). Non military defense In Latin sources the term “non-military defense” or “civil defense” is defined as: non-military defense must “guarantee the safety of the civilian population and their life during war” (Tayari, 1989). So, passive defense means defense against military attacks. The term “civil defense or non-military defense” in contemporary literature meant “to prepare and defend against any disaster - whether natural or man-made”. In some Persian sources the boundary between these two words are often ignored
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Types of threats and risks Since the beginning of human life, he has grown among risks and has devised various measures to deal with these threats. Some of these threats do not exist, some are new threats and intensity of some threats is more or less. In recent decades the ways to deal with these threats have taken more practical (Asgharian Jadi, 2007). Threats are divided in two categories including natural and man-made. Man-made threats itself are classified in three categories including 1. Military 2. Security 3. accidental. Threat of military invasion includes air, land and sea invasions. Security threats include terrorist bombings and so on. Accidental threats include fires or spills of hazardous materials and explosion of the fuel tanks. (Building and Housing Research Center, 2009)
Fig. 3: Types of risks and threats (Building and Housing Research Center, 2009)
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According to two theorists of third world,Chang and .Edvard Azer, any definition of national security threats depends on several critical values of the community. So, the natures of the threats have different nature according to their issue, from one country to another, and time (Department of National Defense Writers Group, 2008). Iinmoon
In military threats, large parts of risks are about city, its available facilities and equipment. Aside from the cities that physically are great and fix targets and can be targeted even from a distance contract. Either offensive or unwelcome demands, threats are associated with human life and it seems that in many cases there is no escape from it. Humanity in the history of 5000 years of civilization on planet Earth has seen approximately 14,000 invasive, resulting in more than four billion people death. At this time only 268 years was without invasion and conflict and it is strange that most invasions in third world countries have occurred (Passive defense in the Mirror of regulations and laws, 2010). Invasion whether wanted or unwanted is interwoven with human life, and it seems that in many cases there is no escape from it. Comparison of the invasion crisis and the crisis caused by natural disasters There are certain features in the crisis caused by the invasion, which distinguishes them from the crisis caused by natural disasters. These include the following components: • The natures of the threats are constant in natural disasters; just their severity and intensity will change. But in invasions, the natures of threats are flowing and beside of
•
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•
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its severity and size, its direction and nature is highly variable. In natural disasters such as earthquakes, there is the possibility of different prediction regarding to return periods or floods, droughts and storms, but in invasions, forecasts are strongly influenced by the invasion of foreign agents. In the event of natural disasters, the time of accident is limit (a few seconds to a few days in earthquakes, and storms and floods, respectively). In the case of proper organization after event, we can begin actions. But the time of accident even in the short time invasions, is longer than natural disasters and many actions are not possible during the attack. After natural disasters the amounts of damages usually fix. But in invasion, after finishing the incident the amount of damages including failed Explosives and so on may be increased. In the ways to reduce natural threats, there is no classified information and information about it can be easily exchanged. But in threats, information about attack and ways to deal with it is highly classified, and access and exchange of them is difficult. In natural disasters, losses are not for specific targets and occur in a range of natural geography but in the invading, specific goals of cities and infrastructure are under attack. In invasions, the enemy goals are determined exactly based on priorities and in terms of how much influence in governance but in natural disasters such factors does not happen.
Fig. 4: Invasion (Source: The author)
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Fig. 5: Duties and capabilities of passive defense (Source: author)
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357 •
Arash & Shahla, Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(2), 350-360 (2014) In natural disasters, public fears of before occurring the event is less definable, but in invasions due to enemy psychological operations, usually fears will prevail on whole community. In invasions, the enemy’s psychological warfare before strike lead to fear, general horror and spirit of popular resistance.
The main fundamental difference in the ways of preventing and reducing the effects of natural disasters, and invasions Examples of methods for the prevention and mitigation in natural disasters include retrofitting buildings against earthquake faults, avoid of creating buildings and facilities in stuck and Flood retention, protection of vegetation to reduce flood risk and instructions for construction of new and resistant buildings. Prevention and mitigation measures that can be effective in reducing the attacks of the enemy’s ability include to detect such camouflage, hiding, tricks, nationwide distribution, using natural and secure geography, use of resistance facilities and buildings, use of elevation, shelters and principles and criteria of passive defense in development plans (center of logistic and engineering studies and researches, 2007). Similarities between crises caused by natural disasters, and invasions 1. The need to mobilize the resources and capacity to overcome and manage the crisis situations (organizing emergency). 2. Create a refugee camp 3. Need to aid operations for victims 4. Damage caused by the psychological stress of killed and wounded people. 5. The need to establish peace and public safety 6. The need for special measures to avoid disappointing and defeat sense (Building research center and housing, 2009). To determine the rate of city vulnerability based on body index The city structure Spatial distribution of elements, main compounds, functions and elements that make
up the city’s structure play an important role in the extent of the damage in response to various events, especially military enemy. Physical divisions of the city such as dormitories, neighborhood, district, region, single- core or multi- core are other elements of city structures. Each event has its own talent. For example, in single core structure of the city, economic and human resources focusing on one part of the city in comparison to multi core cities have more vulnerability possibility. While the fall of the city, needs less time, too (Abolhasani, 2009). Raster cities such as Tokyo, Barcelona, or to some extent, Tehran, due to diffraction of new streets and alleys, necessities to stop in red lights, and crossroads during attacks have not very good defense. So, the best street and passageway plans for defending of citizens against novel wars are star like or radial cities that have provided the nearest residences from cities for the citizens. The more the number of united origins streets, the more choice for running away of non military population will be provided. With the possibility of reducing the traffic congestion, the concentration of population that is always good for the enemy, will be solved. Especially, when such lines usually are of road ways and the primary and main targets of enemy (Ayatollahi, 2009). Given the above information, the approach of passive defense, the most favorable structure for the city is structure of the central institutions that each center is connected to its environment in a radius shape Tissue of the city Every tissue of the town or its shape, its size, and how the smallest constituents of the city are, have effective role against military invasions and other city disasters (Abolhasani, 2009). City texture can be studied in the context of different index including: Regular and irregular texture It can be said that regular and irregular texture, depending on the threat, have different vulnerabilities. For example, in military attacks time, regular textures has better escape possibility and seek relief but irregular texture in military invasion has better act and resistance and because of irregular texture, the possibility programming and organized strikes in anonymous neighborhoods will
Arash & Shahla, Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(2), 350-360 (2014) be less. While residents using irregularities texture, vote for the situation. However, each type of urban texture has direct influence on escape capabilities, take refuge in relief options, aid operations and how to clean up and temporary accommodation (Abolhasani, 2009). Fine-grained and coarse-grained texture In fine grained pieces, because of open space and a safe refuge to escape are very low and in crises human death may rise. Generally, the larger the size, the more reduction in human damages and the more temporary accommodation can be more easily done. Dense and sparse texture Density indicates the position and kind of a place. Dense and compact texture is an indicator for a complex. It can be said about population and building density, that the less density, the more reduction in texture vulnerability will occur and the enemy will damage by additional expenses in order to act damages. The rate of filled and blanked spaces In cities because of high cost of landscape and limitation of constructible places regarding limitation of physical development of cities, filled spaces are larger than empty places. Areas where the built surfaces in comparison to open places are medium or low, due to the better possibility of aid operations after destruction or damage, running and passing from area is also easier and take less damages (Abolhasani, 2009). Effect of Invasions on infrastructures Invasion of enemies to infrastructure can be in different ways including blockade, occupation or air invasion of infrastructure. These invasions cause public and special effects to infrastructures. General and specific effects of the invasions to country’s infrastructure can be categorized into following types: Socio-economic impacts associated with production discontinuity and delivery of services in infrastructures The absence of an active and vital installations in industrial manpower due to fear of attacks by the enemy’s attacks to vital centers and cities, reduction in raw material input to the industries
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and disorders in major production process after enemy attack prevent the continued production and service centers in infrastructures. Examples of socioeconomic effects resulting from the lack of continuity and services in infrastructure includes following: 1. Power outage in installations and cities 2. Water blackout 3. Fuel blackout (gas, oil, gasoline and diesel) 4. Disable of air, ground to ground and beach to the sea defense 5. Disordering the military and political decision centers 6. Disconnection of telecommunications 7. Disconnection of notifying information and Broadcasting to people and severe developing rumors 8. Interruption of radar controller and more easily attack of enemy to different parts of the country 9. Cut the economic activity in banks and capital markets 10. Disability of airport, other intra-city and international transportation system such as airports, railway, subway and shipping 11. Reducing health centers services like hospitals, the emergencies, and blood Transfusion organization 12. Severe shortage of medicines and medical equipments 13. Incidence and spread of communicable diseases and poor performance of health- and public and private pharmaceutical centers in non-communicable disease control 14. Food shortages and a rise of speculation and overcharging and at the end food shortages (Shakibamanesh and Hashemi Fesharaki, 2009). Impacts of direct invading of enemy to infrastructures (the scene) After invasion of the enemy to country infrastructures and facilities some accidents will create in the place of enemy’s offensive weapons that can be included as: 1. Fire 2. Killing and wounding of people 3. Disconnection of road to infrastructure and crippling of transport system 4. Disconnection of telecommunication 5. Wa t e r, p ow e r a n d f u e l bl a cko u t t o
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Arash & Shahla, Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(2), 350-360 (2014) infrastructures Blackout the production process due to lack of support resources the underlying injuries and engineering Release of chemical hazardous materials, biological or nuclear weapons in the region The extreme insecurity in and around infrastructure Spreading rumors because of the lack of sufficient announcement The enemy act regarding magnification of the incident and make psychological warfare in the country with advertising and media Spread of spying in the region by enemy for acquisition of detailed information of attacked centers using internal and International agents and organization
Effects of invasions to towns and villages The military attack to cities can be by air, land (surrounded and captured town) or sea. Following the invasion of the enemy, the consequences and effects that may occur in towns and villages include: 1. Destruction of the main decision centers of including political governors, municipal, county 2. Discontinued operations in command and control of military or police centers 3. Spread of insecurity and increased activity of bandits and robbers in attacks to banks, stores, food and weapon stores, homes and other attractive places 4. Lack of control over the population and the influx of people to the output and centers providing facility and services 5. Injuring and killing of people after rocketing or fighting face to face with the enemy 6. Stop sending food, medicine, blood and Medical equipment 7. Spread communicable disease 8. Lack of access to primarily health care services in private and public centers 9. Disability of inter and intra transportation system of the city including bus, subway, trains and plane 10. Major and minor fire 11. Blackout of water and occurring drinking water pollution 12. Power disconnection
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Off gas and other fuels.
Summarizing and presenting solutions Importance of passive defense As mentioned above, passive defense is one of the most effective ways to defend against threats and is crucial for most countries. Even in countries like United states and Soviet with high and top military power pay special attention to this subject. In our country, because of its specific geopolitical importance, the vast oil and gas wealth, entering to new field of technologies, the importance of passive defense will be revealed. War years experience in reducing vulnerability and increasing resilience is a witness and the recent invasion also shows its necessities. Passive defense purposes can be expressed in both the strategic and operational objectives One of the key measures of passive defense is selecting the right location. It should be forbidden to establish vital and sensitive installations on flat or relatively flat plains. The facility has been constructed in such places can not be kept hidden from enemy sight and its vulnerability in the face of increasing threats will be increased. Critical facilities along highways, main roads, along the shores of the sea, rivers and borders of fronts lead to their identification and targeting of them by enemy. Passive defense because of its ability in its deterrence role has great role in reducing the possibility of beginning the military conflict and, if properly implemented, would reduce the damaging effects of ahead invasive. Some key features are essentially in passive defense strategies that can be considered as a guarantee of safety. The main features include: Result War is one of the enduring elements of human history. So, sociologists have introduced it as reality and social phenomenon. Throughout the history of human civilization on Earth, has witnessed numerous incursions that many people have died as a result. Nowadays, the countries that have encountered damages caused by the war, in order to maintain national and vital resources, have given special attention to passive defense.
Arash & Shahla, Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(2), 350-360 (2014) passive defense measures in today’s asymmetric warfare against the enemy invading and to reduce hostile air attacks and damage caused by ground and sea invasive is fundamental and its dimension cover all urban and regional assess including infrastructures, vital and sensitive military and non-military centers, critical communications such as roads, bridges, ports, airports, and headquarters of the country’s population. Passive defense because of its enhanced role of deterrence can have a large role in reducing the risk of military conflict and beginning a destructive
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invasion and in the case of correct implementation can reduce the ahead damages. Passive defense implementation has methods and the solutions that based on them destroying during crises will be the least. One of this ways is to strengthen and reduce the vulnerability of critical assets of cities in crisis based on the principles of passive defense. Among the city’s assets, structures and infrastructures, the role of infrastructures as vital arteries of the city is very colorful.
References 1.
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Ayatollahi Alireza, Proceedings of passive defense website. Defend of cities against novel wars (in Persian) (2009). Asgharian Jedi Ahmad, Architectural requirements in unsustainable defense of Tehran, Shahid Beheshti University Publications Center (2007). Akbari Abbas, Passive defense- Introduction to land use planning and defending of Tehran: Deputy of passive defense Air Defense Base of Khatamolanbia, 7: (2006) Baghdadi Arash, Identification of range of municipal assets and presenting them in terms of positioning model in the case of passive defense. Malek Ashtar University, Tehran (2012). Bolhasani Abdollah, Passive defenseArchitecture and Urban Design in Iran. Tehran: Deputy of passive defense of Air Defense Base of Khatamolanbia. 4: (2005). passive defense in the mirror of laws and regulations. (2010). Dehkhoda Ali Akbar. Dehkhoda wordbook, 4: Institute of Tehran University publication. 47 and 48 (1972). Building and housing research center, Draft of twenty-first issue, national building regulations (2009). Maysami Hossein, and Mousavi Pedram, Fundamentals and principles of passive defense. Tehran: Publication of development
organization (2009). Advisory.Service on International Humanitarian L aw, C i v i l D e fe n c e i n I n t e r n a t i o n a l Humanitarian Law [online]. International Committee of the RedCross,Available from:http://www.icdo.org[Accessed 25 August 2009] (2002). 11. Amanda.j.d.,American Civil Security :The U.S.Public and Homeland Security,[online]. Available from:http://www.paydarymelli. ir[Accessed 8 May 2010] (2004) 12. Hokkaido Government, Hokkaido Civil Protection Plan[online].Bureau of Crisis Management,Department of General Aff airs, Hokkaido, Available from:http://www. kokuminhogo .go.jp/[Accessed 13 June 2010] (2006). 13. Ministry of Housing and urbanism, technical assistant executive center of safe, passive defense in 31 countries, translated by Hamid Tayari, (1989). 14. Center of Logistics Engineering studies and Researches. Records of experiences of passive defense in the history, Tehran, passive defense Supplement, (2007). 15. Shakibamanesh, Amir., Hashemi Fesharaki, Seyed Javad. Passive defense considerations in urban infrastructure. Proceedings of the First Conference on Infrastructure Management, Technical Campus Faculty of Tehran University, (2009). 10.
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Current World Environment
The Role of Urban Landscape Planning in Neighborhood Physical Reconstruction (Case Study: District 4 Area 11) M. Doost Hosseini1 and M. Rahimi2* MSA, Department of Urban Planning, Shahre Qods Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran. 2 *Department of Urban Planning, Shahre Qods Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran.
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http://dx.doi.org/10.12944/CWE.9.2.16 (Received: April 05, 2014; Accepted: June 10, 2014) ABSTRACT Old context, as a complex network of relationships left from previous generations, despite great changes over the last 50 years, yet could not be compatible with the existing conditions of urbanization. The transformation of the socio - economic and political alignment of the present century, in compliance with international trends in developed countries has resulted in the modernization process, creating new spaces in old tissue is physical relations with its past practice. To achieve to overall objective of sustainable development, the main urban areas, especially in vulnerable tissues in studied area as a set in which all the cultural and historical values were underlying, anatomical restoration using urban landscape planning, environment Juicy aesthetically pleasing and healthy. A landscape that deposits in the mind and causes the joy. Evaluation and enhancement of public spaces as places for social meetings and allowing people to interact with the full participation of people in urban management direction has great importance. In this study, assessing public participation in urban management and their attitude towards their environment was carried out using questionnaire. The results showed that the high percentages of people were agree with involving in the affairs of their town, but had no clear view about it. This issue itself showed the importance and necessity of planning for education and cultural programs necessitates for urban management. In this study, with assessing public participation in urban management and their attitude towards their environment, and revolt were studied using questionnaire.
Key words: Planning, Urban landscape, Spatial analysis, Participation, Physical rehabilitation.
INTRODUCTION City is alive, dynamic and in growing. Cities are growing with several factors associated with an increased population and develop with more important factors including resources. The population growth of cities and urban areas require new structural elements, tailored to the needs of the Iranian urban population in recent decades because of industrialization and modernity with nostalgia modeling of Western society. This phenomenon can be seen as a more acute in metropolitan Tehran. With all-round development of human beings in modern human life, the way of and procedures has changed (Ahmadi, 1997; 2004).
This is especially can be visible in parts of Tehran that we called it as a central contextual, historical, old, problematic from different aspects of physical, infrastructural, urban common sense. This part has tissues that prepare traditional needs of inhabitants not by fits and new needs of todayâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s citizens to live in a beautiful, healthy and clean city, clean fitting with different needs of social, cultural and economical for urban society (John and Matlak, 2003; Quinn, 2003). The traditional life requires its special tools, urban spaces, and their body is shaped accordingly. With progress, increasing prosperity and the
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emergence of new needs, new jobs in the service of modern tools, spaces and other traditional buildings are not responsive no longer and space needs are not the cause of this and the next body type to suit the lifestyle, incompatible applications and thus creating a distinct perspective to the landscape and other parts of the city (Ahmadi, 1997; Astrvfsky, 1992).
of the building. The purpose of renewal, is rebuilding an old building or any other object, after its wear. However, reconstruction means restructuring or reorganization that reflects the breadth and depth of its activities. While the concept of the words, rebuilding or renewal, does not content such breadth and depth.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The central part of the city due to its inherent complications face with several problems. So, their problem is multi-dimensional issue that can arise in any particular way. Therefore, to solve their problems often various actions and programs arise that each of them focuses on particular aspect. Common terms and concepts, such as rehabilitation, modernization, reconstruction, resuscitation, repair, restoration, prosperity part, the mental part, cleansing, protection, and the like, all reflect the diversity and complexity of the organization of urban space and urban areas, especially in central cities. According to performed studies, it can be concluded that a dimensional approach to the problems of urban centers are not so successful. Today, it is further recommended that, due to the characteristics and problems of a city, comprehensive, multidisciplinary and coordinated formulation and implementation should be done. Based on the comprehensive reorganization plan for city center diverse factors including the following should be done:
This study is an applied and analytic research. Understanding the problems and offering constructive solutions based on the findings of other scholars and using their knowledge, basic research, and its application to better organize the subject, field methods including direct observation and taking photos, regulation questionnaire (survey) from population by sampling, interviews of scholars, teachers, and citizens have been used. Importance of survey Traditional life needs its special tools and urban spaces and their physics have been shaped based on them. With developing and increasing facilities and creating new jobs for city services, traditional spaces and buildings are not responsive no longer and incompatible applications causes consequently common sense to distinguish faces from other parts of the city. Such textures generally around the city first foci and in relation to it begins to take shape. This section of town between the level of urbanization transition from slow to rapid urbanization was shaped and is not so much of history and new. Even the spatial contour space is between new and historical context. Tissues consisting of low and dense area buildings without architectural value, urbanization principles laws and without any aesthetic value have been formed in recent decades and their buildings value will diminish gradually. Despite of having architectural value supplying aesthetic aspects without any abandoned restoration will be destroyed gradually and their pretty faces gone. Principles of rehabilitation, renovation, reconstruction, and repairing the city Reconstruction in English is to renovation
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Improvement: increasing quality of life in cultural, psychological, and environmental aspects Reconstruction: the reestablishment of old tissues and building new tissues to fit the new form in a new land and restoration of old buildings; Protection: To prevent the degradation of the physical, economic and social; Identity: enhanced features and attractions of each city to suit with the particular characteristics of the geographic environment especially with its cultural construct (Fig 1).
Study of the experiences of a few countries in the improvement and renovation of old texture iran Remediation activities in Iran in the form of modern style and formally opened in 1931 with the
Hosseini & Rahimi, Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(2), 361-370 (2014) construction od space fields, constructed belt around many large cities, destroying unused neighborhoods, non-reversible damage, forcing people to beautifying the buildings, development of some passages in the old quarters of the cities, and so began. (Lari, 1991).
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A few years before the outbreak of World War II, the country of Iran asked to help of experts from foreign countries to intervene again in the context of cities, especially in the old weaving town centers. Thus, the ancient texture of many Iranian cities, such as Tehran, Kashan, Yazd, Kerman, Hamedan, Tabriz, from early Pahlavi dynasty onwards, with plans of these experts were washed away and lost its original identity after entering the cars. When included in 5 years Schedule of urban development and urban master plan for Iranian legal provision can be considered from mid 1961-1971. Besides these activities also took a few spread steps have been done: 1. Cleaning the old tissue surrounding the shrine of Imam Reza, the project was done in spite of objection of experts with the old textures before the Islamic republic revolution 2. Cleaning around Charbagh and destroying several valuable buildings around Charbagh up to Naghshe Jahan Square in Isfahan 3. Mitigation plan for the project area Oudlajan Tehran: this project was done for the oldest areas surrounding the market go back to 1987. The original research of these projects was conducted in the years of 1980 to 1981 and after a bomb blast in a corner the context
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actions stopped. Implementation of more than 700 projects in over 350 building and maintenance of the countryâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s history Criteria for neighborhood renewal project of Julfa, Isfahan, in the year of 1987 Jamaleh mitigation plan in the in the old square of Isfahan and so on ( Javadi , 1998 , p 18 ) UK
A major part of the history and civilization of modern Europe is concentrated in the UK in urban Britain. UK is of central European countries, which has rich experiences in renewing (Lari, 1991, p 298). UK to respond to the needs and problems of older cities that were set up by the industryspecific legislation could eventually cover some of the core issues of the industrial cities of the ancient population so all issues and new needs were taken into consideration and have been answered to them with one vision (Bahraini, 1999) Several major British policies in improving urban spaces: 1. Protection and maintenance of old and semiold buildings, in isolation but in half the visual and historical value of the building and space in urban 2. Oldest housing renewal policy rather than destructing and renewing 3. Emphasize on aspects of public participation in rehabilitation of old fabric texture 4. Emphasizing on visual, beauty, and cognitive
Fig. 1: Strategies for urban rehabilitation (Khaksar, A., Seven Cities, No. 15 and 16, 2004)
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Hosseini & Rahimi, Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(2), 361-370 (2014) value of the physical environment (Bahraini, 1997; 1998) Of the most important improved cities in England, including the cities of:
Beth purpose 1. Participation of people or property owner involved in the repair and deformed structure and function 2. increasing municipal revenue through attracting tourists Chester aims to 1. Protection of the old structure with the aim of attracting tourists 2. Emphasis on public participation in the rehabilitation of old texture Chichester aims to 1. Improving the urban landscape 2. Careful restoration and protection of monuments 3. Damage to buildings without value (Athari, 2001) Netherlands Amsterdam is one of the few cities where the urban and urban planning has been followed consistently (Athari, 2001). In the late of 19 century, development of city and its facilities began in order to overcome to inhabitants needs in big cities. So, efforts began to create urbanization projects in order to create changes in texture. In this city, against London and Paris, rebuilding thrived for low-income and middle-class workers and buildings purchase that were destroyed, it is permissible for urban development programs. And monitoring of all buildings in harmony with the surrounding buildings
laid for beautifully commission (Bene, 2003; Lari, 1991, p: 308). In the case of experiences of rehabilitation and modernization of the Netherlands, following items can be counted: 1. Demolition of dilapidated buildings 2. Improve the quality of life of residents 3. Beautification and decoration of landscape spaces 4. Development of facilities and services equipment in old tissue 5. Adequate parking in non-residential areas (Lari, 1991; Gibbons and Holter, 2001) Germany The old city center of Berlin is Krvzberg. Krvzberg is of parts of downtown Berlin that has quite historic and ancient texture. The texture of the western border of Berlin has been neglected for years. Due to these shortcomings, guidelines for urban restoration in Spring 2003 was raised by the political committee which aims to find a solution to create favorable conditions for human life in the city and live in harmony between old and new. Because todayâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s needs has changed in comparison to past needs. Krvzberg improvement goals include: 1. To preserve and protect its ancient context 2. Granting loans and subsidies to residents 3. Maintain existing residents 4. Engage the citizens and inhabitants in the rehabilitation and improvement planning so that the method is based on citizen participation (Athari, 2001) 5. Using patterns in Europe, not U.S. cities. 6. A thriving urban center as a place for holding
Fig. 2: Street view in area of 11 in Tehran
Hosseini & Rahimi, Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(2), 361-370 (2014) a piece of contemporary architecture and commercial activities (Bahraini, 1998, p 68) Central parts of the city and its range The downtown area of convergence of roads and transportation systems are said “solidarity”. These roads or streets in the downtown area, change to commercial - services issues and have the highest volume of activity and rashes (Ahmadi, 2004). City center, which is part of the city within a confined space is defined and is a symbolic role. So that essential parts of the city consist of elements and complex issues, and it gives unity and consistency. The city center is the focal point of the downtown scene, the formation and accumulation of the most important urban activities, collective memories and people’s presence in the city (Ahmadi, 1997, p 92). Density and business activity in Iran’s major cities, in the old tissue of the city and surrounding tissue of Bazar have lead to space occupied by business and residential areas get smaller. Hence, the wholesale and retail stores, production centers, distribution centers and manufacturing goods along with Bazar neiberhood to be developed and old houses of Bazar area have changed to goods barns and production workshops.This process has deteriorated its first
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identity. City center plays a major role in the city’s life. This area represents the highest land values and economic and social transactions, and a member of the same or different functions compared with urban and ultra city (Ahmadi, 2004). Public participation The public participation is purely a cultural concept. In our country public participation in all areas, especially urban management is growing and appearance. In particular, in the present study, public participation plays an important role in improving the urban landscape in either immediate or gradual landscape. Therefore, these are the people who give Soul to lifeless body, make it and will change it. Today almost “all the experts arena believe on development of participation of group decisionmaking levels and adverse impacts, and determining effective strategies and policies. They emphasize on the role of citizen participation in decision-making. Accordingly, urban managers also plan to increase the probability factor, the legitimacy of a decision, and additional support their actions from the citizens, trying to find strategies and appropriate mechanisms to facilitate this work and examine.
Fig. 3: One of Alley of Mokhtari street with minor width and high walls, old buildings with low autonomy and restoration
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Participation is a selection and a comfortable relationship with the authorities and cooperates with them freely. Participation is a kind of monitoring of individual’s and involvement in order to improve it. Examples of barriers to participation include: 1. Limited economic opportunities and low income 2. Recession, market instability and price inflation 3. Being a rental property 4. Administrative issues related to improving financial affairs. 5. Issues of social environment, presence of addicts, vagrant, dealers, crowded place and so on. 6. Historical beliefs of participation 7. Level of education, degree of urbanization, urbanism and civic life The idea of participatory urban planning “Participation is effective involvement of members of a group or community in all activities and decision-making that are related to the whole community” (Pour Ahmed, 1991, p 45). Public participation is a tool that members of a community can participate in policies and projects that effect on their life. If the citizens of a city participate in policies formulate, plans and programs that prepared to their cities, citizen participation in urban planning has been done. The emergence of participatory urban planning ideas 1. The importance of the people in the affairs of society and the emergence and spread of democratic political systems and social 2. Development trends of the past decade reveals that the lack of public participation lead to less development process because it is coming into great losses. 3. Failure to comply with the needs and demands of the urban development plans and programs and the incidence of dissatisfaction and negative reactions toward these projects from the past decades 4. Importance of urban planning and design process 5. Lack of financial ability of governments to
Fig. 4: Pedestrian way, in the context of the central and commercial center of Birmingham city, which is a shortcut way for accessing the central tissue.
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finance urban development projects felt threatened to citizens
Patterns of citizen paricipation in urban governance in some countries iran In Iran, participation is involved in both traditional and new forms. Traditional forms has existed for a long time, and considering that developments in last hundred years, has continued strength in some of the cities in Iran. New participation is a kind of participation that government use it for its special goals and with organizations try to attract citizens participation in fields that had not historical activities in social life before. In order to be familiar with historical examples of traditional participation in urban governance and new partnerships can include: 1. Due to the importance of religion, it had caused people to restore and to build temples so that you could see that in the book of Pigolosca, by the name of Iranian cities in the Parthian and the Sassanid that has mentioned about public participation in the building of temples. 2. After the invasion of Alexander of Macedon and the Seleucid kingdom some of the customs and traditions of Greek life was introduced to the life of Iranians. Among them was the way the town’s police department. For example, the city of Seleucia ran by the Senate, where three hundred people were selected based on wealth and wisdom. 3. Seleucia Kings avoided direct involvement in urban affairs and urban affairs were managed by the City Council.
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In Iran, an example of a life based on citizen participation is in tribal life. Among tribals, rooted traditional partnerships are existed that is based on the life of society. The most efficient and partnerships production methods among farmers were foundations. Foundations are latent organizations, cooperatives, related to traditional production of agricultural products of Iran. One reason for its creation can be seen as the geographical conditions of water scarcity (Ahsan, 1994, pp. 53 and 54).
United states United States is comprised of fifty-five states, which each have autonomy in their internal affairs. The federal government is interfere only constitutional affairs, national security, to maintain their connectivity, and in cases that have not ability to overcome on them. In the American Management Systems, councils are obvious manifestation of citizen participation in urban management, and have particular importance. In U.S. has been tried that citizen participation in decision-making and urban planning is not only limited to review. However, all individuals, particularly low-income social groups could have been involved in this field. One of the most notable programs in urban planning that tries to make it out of the official dealer of the group is the tnt programs. The residents guide the name stands for one of the neighborhoods of the English master plan planning. This program to maintain low-income neighborhoods in the field of perspectives for the future and development of skills, communication and policies to work together and to turn those ideas into reality (Ahsan, 1994, p 104). Sweden Sweden is among the countries and is gover ned with long democratic methods based on public participation. In Sweden, for the implementation of local autonomy, municipalities exist. Regional autonomy is the State Council. The state constitution in the section of governing rules sets that has in the interpretation of the most important rules of three basic principles, express the principles of governing the affairs of this method. In Swedish municipalities, the highest authority is City Council. In addition, in the level of provincial, makes decisions. Of the tools in Stockholm that are used
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to increase, public participation in municipal affairs could note to the right of citizens to participate in all meetings of the City Council. This time of the meetings that is convened twice a month would be announced through the newspapers. On the other hand, in Sweden to encourage citizen participation in municipal affairs, especially in special section of municipal services, urban local bodies are made up of specific tasks. Local institutions that the City Council shall appoint its members can complete them and sometimes municipal management committees (Carl Kenotsen, 1991, p 33) can replace it. France In France, municipal urban management system have an important and significant role in other areas related to decision making and the preparation and implementation of urban management in this country. Having a look at different steps of a project shows that from first step, consult step, with organizations and associations are based on citizensâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; participation. Another steps including distributing the projects, consult with organization and associations and finally approved plan, demonstrate the importance of public participation in the preparation of this plan (Pour Ahmed, 1991). One of the significant programs in France municipalities is the importance that is given to younger generation. For example, in the city of Plan in the suburbs of Paris, every year during the celebration, one of the young people between 14 to 20 years is elected for one day as the city mayor in 28 December every year. This young is selected by election and is very competent to do the job of a mayor. It is a condition that the person elected as mayor of a municipality must be familiar with the duties and responsibilities of a mayor and usually open facility is of young mayor responsibility (Ahsan, 1994, p 118; Hull, 2003). One of the laws in force in France is a law called â&#x20AC;&#x153;solidarity and urban modernizationâ&#x20AC;? that has been approved in 2000. This law has created many changes in municipal law. Great emphasis of this law is on public participation in urban management. Due to numerous economic and social problems that have recently been made in the French, different methods are tested in response to them. Among them, participatory methods have witnessed the success (Athari, 2001, p 20).
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United kingdom In England, protection and maintenance of existing buildings that have architectural value, has a long history and dates back to the 19th century. First action had cultural aspect and of the people, themselves. In 1877, William Morris founded the Society of conservation of historic buildings that still stands. Keeping the idea of building laws was along with new laws and gradually evolved to sustain, reform and new laws. So that, it changed from attention and emphasis to preservation and renewal of individual buildings in urban areas. Especially, it can be mentioned to urban interoperability and harmony that in 1967, had especial emphasizes on urban values and protection. After decades till now, the issue of public participation in the process of improving urban spaces in the historical part of the city has expanded and filled and always has encountered with lots of issues and guidelines (Bahraini, 1998, p 62). Failure and evils of landscape view Failures and evils are opposite the aesthetic standards. Briefly, the ugly face of the city is dirty and degraded state of many old buildings. This is especially, in areas with powerful business users, especially on the ground floor. Such areas are streets like Enqelab-E-Eslami, Jomhoori Eslami, Hafez, south of Valiasr Street, Arg, Razi square, Rah-Ahan square, Shush, Molavi and Helale Ahmar streets in district 4 of the area. From the aspects of the dirtiness and pollution of streams and rivers parties with atmospheric passages that are in place for domestic wastewater discharge are very ugly effects of area feature. Establishment of garage and other shops in the streets of Kargar, Qazvin, Molavi, Helale Ahmar and so on, usually put ugly landscape and unpleasant view for people. Spotted making particularly true pavements are clear examples of the ugly appearance of the area (Fig 2). Chaharsou Choobi under passing, with the function of neighborhood center, due to the lack of sufficient outreach and monitoring, and due to the richness of architectural and historical value have good prospect. Further, if the size and composition of the structural mass of buildings confining are in a way that surface streets looks relevant bodies, it is said that there is a unity of form synchronized views (Fig 3). Urban landscape of the study area
has anomalous situation and of the reasons for that can be outlined: 1. Lack of visual spatial values 2. Rash and intensity of traffic 3. Renovation and construction criteria of changes 4. I n c o m p a t i b i l i t y b e t we e n s p a c e a n d weaknesses of working 5. Structural compression of surrounding city blocks 6. Severe air pollution in street 7. Business activity and passage blocked because of that 8. Environmental pollution caused by hygiene residents Major obstacles against successful application and practice in physical space Failure mode mainly is because of the communal spaces of such spaces in the formation of spatial structures in Tehran, which spontaneously and during different time steps and with no programming is all discrimination. Therefore, because there is no predetermined schedule for these spaces, major problems in terms of physical and spatial are existed. This particular problem can be analyzed from two perspectives and physical planning. In the context of contemporary urban planning must be acknowledged that any attempt to create urban spaces in major cities in Iran have not done, even yet. Texture of the old and central cities of most Iranian cities are of complete contents of this example. Unfortunately, the urban spaces that have left from past century in recent decades have gradually undergone degradation and physical environment (e.g., spatial and structural changes undertaken in Toopkhane square). In examining the causes and continuation of such trends in contemporary urbanization, diverse and abundant issues have been raised. It seems that one of the reasons is because of entrance of modernism and its effects on Tehran at the late of Qajar govern and its continuity in Pahlavi governs. This is reason that despite the physical expansion of the 11 area mostly occurred in late of Qajar and early Pahlavi, but there is no special collective and urban space in the area and the collective spaces are mostly without special planning and have formed gradually.
Hosseini & Rahimi, Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(2), 361-370 (2014) CONCLUSION Depreciation arises from poor equipment and furniture of the urban, environmental pollution, and many other details in the context of disorganized urban mainly caused by the central cities have led to face with series of uncoord inated urban landscape. The necessity of immediate planning for responsible is required. This research focuses on identifying the challenges facing for organizing the urban landscape, and shows that firstly, range of components and components that need to organize the urban landscape are much broader than physical dimensions. Second, it is emphasized that the actual organization of urban landscape depends on quality control procedures of designed structures from respective organizations, and changes in laws and administrative regulations, monitoring and changes in governmentâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s attitude to the tissues of the urban in bad conditions. Furthermore, despite the substantial challenges, culture and education with the provision of suitable facilities for relaxation on one hand, and the organization of space and improve the spaces facilities, creating the collective memory and creating the public meetings interaction It would increase public participation in improving morale.
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7. Suggestions 1. Develop a comprehensive plan for the organization of Tehran, with view and Urban Landscape and to develop the rules and regulations for renewing the building and how to monitor it. 2. Inspection of serious attention to the third principle of the building facade and monitor them thoroughly in harmony with the surrounding buildings. 3. To develop cooperative and private sectors for technical principles of construction and especially designing and features implementations related to the Islamic-Iranian rich history architecture, and encourage good models to consider concessions. 4. Revision of laws and regulations relating to renewing and landscape beautification developed by the Municipality of Tehran
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and requiring contractors to these principles through effective monitor ing by the municipalities. Creating green and small spaces and development culture by providing free of charge resources such as plants, shrubs and pots and regulate it to give a better view and appearance in old texture in urban landscape. Optimal restoration of the building with architectural value as an aesthetic factor and destruction of old buildings, rather than a coat of paint. Todayâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s, in Tehran, especially in old textures we could see old buildings and sometimes with architectural value that have been covered with thin layer different colors e.g. yellow, brown and so on. These paintings are not effective and useful for visual quality and will be destructed over time. Urban management with planning and implementation tools can order property owners to make improvements and repairs the old buildings. And, in this way an effective step will improve the visual quality of landscape by encouraging facilities by citizen participation in urban management. According to this fact that, feature of good governance, is sustainable development and foster the participation of the people. Establishment of more participation of citizens in the affairs of the city, using the experiences of other countries is essential. In the city of Paris every year, one young that has enough knowledge about urban is elected as a mayor and small projects in the same day, inaugurated by this young mayor. Urban management with an integrated program of education can improve citizenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; participation in effective landscape, ciew, and improving their lives. Identification of alternate routes and shortcuts (which are often a neighborhood of shopping centers with commercial users) within the context of central and busy area into pedestrian ways (Fig 4)
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Ahmadi, H. An approach to urban planning in the world, third part, USA, Tehran, center of studies and Planning Ministry of Interior. (1997). Ahmadi, H. A view on the programming model in the world, Tehran, Urban Planning Center Press. (2004). A h m a d i , H . U r b a n p l a n n i n g , p u bl i c participation. Municipalities Journal (in Persian), 36: 18, (1997). Ahsan, M. Focusing and un-centralize and its physical affects, Abadi Journal (in Persian), 15(4), 22-34, (1994). Astrvfsky, V. Urban Contemporary, translated by Eâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;tezadi L, Tehran University Publication, (1992). Athari, J. Municipal Partnership policies in metropolitan France. Municipalities Journal (in Persian), 37, 20, (2001). Bahraini, H. Analysis of urban spaces, Tehran, Tehran University, (1997). Bahraini, H. Urban planning process, Tehran, Tehran University Press. (1998). Bahraini, M. Environmental Modernism and then urbanization, Tehran, Tehran University Press. (1999). Bene Volvo, L. The Origins of Modern Town Planning, Translated by Katebi M, Tehran, University of Science and Technology.
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(2003). Carl Kenotsen. Local self-government in Sweden, translated by Qadyr motamedi, Abadi Journal, first volume, second edition. (1991). Hull, P. Translated by Kamal Tabrizi. Urban and Regional Planning, Tehran, publication of processing and urban planning. (2003). John, L., Matlak. â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;Familiarity with the environment and landscape design, Volume I, translated by the Education Department of Parks and green spaces of Tehran, Tehran, Tehran, publications, organizations, parks and green spaces. (2003). Gibbons, J., Holter, F. Landscape design of urban streets, Translation by deputy of education, and training of parks and green spaces. (2001). Lari, K. Principles of optimal design of public spaces in cities, Journal of Research, Training and Information of municipalities, 30 November. (1991). Pour Ahmad, A. Geography and building the city of Kerman, Tehran, Tehran University, Jahad Publications Office. (1991). Quinn, L. Urban landscape, translated by Manouchehr Mazini, Tehran, Tehran University Press. (2003).
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Current World Environment
Study on Challenges of Disaster Management in Urban Heterogeneous Tissues (A Case Study in Hassan Abad spot) Molaee Rahil1 and Baghdadi Arash2* Department of Urban Planning, ShahreQods Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran. 2 *Department of Urban Planning, ShahreQods Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran. *Corresponding author Email:baghdadi.arash@yahoo.com 1
http://dx.doi.org/10.12944/CWE.9.2.17 (Received: Feburary 11, 2014; Accepted: May 17, 2014) Abstract This article discusses strategies for crisis management in metropolitan heterogeneous areas. Heterogeneous urban bounds are worn areas in addition to facing people with physical, social -culturaland economic problems, they have been developed with in or adjacent urban tissues. The juxta position of heterogeneous tissue deterioration, particularly in crisis encounters adjacent areas to face serious threats. In this study situation of economic, social, cultural, migration, heterogeneous structure of Tehrancity are examined. Methodology of this was an analytical approach that different prospects of urban planning view and crisis management solutions have been described.
Key words: Heterogeneous areas, Disaster management, Urban textures, Hasan Abad, Tehran.
Introduction Mankind from the beginning until now has been grappling with a variety of natural events and have grown between threats and often irreversible damage have entered because of crisis caused by the invasions on human society. In all countries, especially developing countries, the increasing pace of urbanization continues and it is as a threat to their high damage in the event of natural disasters or invasions. Uncontrolled growth of urban population without coordination with the development of infrastructure in urban areas, environmental pollution and poor quality of life, burn out texture has made most of regions to have uncontrolled margins and heterogeneous spots in the tissue of metropolitans such Tehran city. Due to in attention and neglect of urban primary core and old city, and adding the core radius without strengthening the centers, and today metropolises like Tehran encountered critical problems and crises.
Presence of social, economic, physical heterogeneity in some areas of the city, provided abnormalities. These anomalies that are called urban uneven pots, have lots of problems and these cases in crisis, made the problems more than usual situations. In quiet community situation, presence of such old neighborhood beside the new neighborhood, not only in make Tehran spiky, so threatening and devastating. Imagining the uneasy atmosphere for the community in times of war, earthquakes and other natural disasters there will be unforeseen circumstances. Degradation within the context with greater intensity (relative to the relaxed state), and heightened in security and as a consequent in ability to deal with the crises are of issues that any socioeconomic and political organization should remedy for them according to their own needs.
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These problems in big cities, especially Tehran that strategically has also a unique position in Middle East is so important. So the main aims of this paper are to examine the challenges of crisis management in such areas. Accordingly, the specific objectives of their search are: • Study of structure and texture of the region(state of roads/street mode/height of buildings/population density) • Study of social status of the area • Study of economic situation in the region • Study of crisis management functions in these areas
Top of Form Residential units in this area are very small, with poor construction, poor design and poor technical infrastructure and non- resistance and mostly are made of non-standard units. New housing units have been formed in the initial fragmentation into smaller units.
Study area In the northern parts of Tehran, in addition to tissue aging of the initial core focus that were rural focuses and declining the standards, encounter with acute problems including facing the new neighborhood along with old neighborhood. The primary cores and old dense of northern Tehran, were residence area of indigenous residence area people, and some immigrants from other parts of the country that nearly were homogenous and with increasing immigration growth, not repairing, and also because of low price of housing have changed to slums into the adjacent neighborhoods and immigrant populations with low -absorbing economic and overflowing of crowding from desirable neighborhoods (Baghdadi, 2007).
Literature If we define, management as a science and art of coordination, leadership and control of social activities, to reach to favorite goals with the highest performance, crises management can be defined as: a natural or man-made disaster that creates suddenly or increasingly and imposes hardship to human societies in a way that in order to eliminates it, the need for extra measures are essential (Memarzadeh and Sarfarazi, 2010). In fact, risk management refers to the set of actions that occurred before, during, and after the accident, to minimize side effects (Ghanavati et al, 2009).
Presence of developed areas with probably about 50 meters away from old cores has created problems in this area. A number of old residents who numbers are not less with indigestion gap affluent neighborhood residents against new positions and social and cultural conflict and conflict have exacerbated the problems of poverty and economic and cultural development and the conception of crime and victimization, and ultimately creates criminal closes and untenable spaces (Baghdadi, 2007). These areas develop into undesirable categories of criminals and create an unsafe environment for residents that probably any error happens in it and have been shown that social quiet conditions are of threat and very destructive.
Networks are non-normative, non-standard, inefficient and dangerous. The lack of urban planning in these areas hassled to creating a narrow passage way that welcomes any danger to its residents in times of crisis (Baghdadi, 2007).
Kind of threats and dangers Since the beginning of mankind, human have grown among threats and in order to resist against of them have thought about different measures, some of threats are not existed, the severity of some threats are more or less and some of them are new and novel. In recent decades, the way to deal with these threats have taken a more scientific and in particular the amount of damage, and how to deal with them have been determined (Asgharian Jadi, 1386). Threat are classified into two categories including natural and man-made. Natural threats like floods, earthquakes, hurricanes and man-made threats are classified into three categories: 1) Military threats 2) Security threats 3) The threat of accidental
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Threat of military invasion consists of air, land and sea. Security threats, includes sabotage, bombings, and so on and accidental threats are fires, explosions or spills, fuel tanks or leaking of hazardous materials (Center of Housing and Building Research, 2009).
The role of topography and land Steep are direct factors in the impact of threats, and increase in the rates of damage or casualties. In other words, the location of buildings when they are built on a slope or when the materials are made of heavy contributes increase the mortality rate.
From the areas, that particularly in the case of a disasters such as the earthquake and wardamageis incurred, are urban areas that makes clear the necessity of crisis management. An example of the errors that occur simply in crisis management is that suppose to be one solution for all crises, while because crises are caused by a variety of sources, a number of factors play a role in their occurring. So, for controlling them, different projects and ways should be implemented (Qavacati et al, 2009).
If crisis management has broader concept of reconstruction after the accident and taken in the short term or long term in that sense, a broader communications planning and urban design and architectural finds will be created (Yeganegi and Bay at, 2011).
In â&#x20AC;&#x153;urban areasâ&#x20AC;? of common deleterious effects caused by natural disasters or threats of aggression including physical damage and dysfunction of the consolidated city. Demolition of residential structures, networks and access roads, urban infrastructure, such as telephone, electricity, water piping, etc. are included. Injury rates in cities in crisis situations is highly dependent on its structure, so, the death rate that is of another dimension of the crisis, especiallyin areas that have large populations or compressed tissue is, it will be greater (Safari el al, 2010). Table. 1: Relation between the ratesofvulnerability with the level of constructed area (Bolhasani, 2005) Vulnerability rate High Medium Low
The level of constructed area / total (%) 60< A <100 30< A <60 A< 30
Structure and texture of Hassan Abad region Each of tissue of city based different indexed including regular and irregular, dense and sparse, fine and coarse, and full and empty spaces are reviewed. In fact the context of a city is its shape, size, and how the smallest combinations of components are that will be effective against the military and civil disasters (Bolhasani, 2005). Distribution of elements space, composition and functions of the cityâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s main role have important role in vulnerability of the city in various events, particularly in aggressive attacks. Textures of heterogeneous areas are presented in dense, irregular and small pieces with irregularities in fill and empty spaces and have very limited degree. In these neighborhoods, many narrow ways and twisting restrictions are seen and in narrow alleys as far less than 3 meters in width
Table 2: Relationship between the sizes of pieces with the vulnerability rate Vulnerability Rate High Medium Low
Size(m2) S<200 200< S <500 S> 500
Table 3. Levelof education in HassanAbadcompared toregion 3 Discretions Hasan abad Zargandeh The lowest in the area 90% The highest in the area 2.9%
Region 3 Education 272075 6888
Number of educated persons Number of uneducated persons
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and 30 percent steep, building of residential buildings with a height of 5-stories are seen. Most of heterogeneous network traffic in the area have been created mostly without previous designs and has an irregular structure and accesses are often walking sides.
Dead end of texture, are with less than 6 meters in width and the permeability coefficient of them are less than 30% and this type of structure in the case of risks, make very hard situations, for aid operations.
Fig. 1: Types of threats (Source: Building and Housing Research Center, 2009) Table 4: Employmentstatusofpersonsin HassanAbadin comparison to district 3 Discretions Hasan abad Zargandeh Region 3 Education (number) Highest in the district 2.2% 5783 unemployed Lowest in the district 34% 102303 Employed Medium in the district 20% 57810 Housekeepers 2 7 8 7 7 Table 5: The immigration status of people of Hassan Abad in comparison to district 3 Hasan Abad Zargandeh 14% 12.5% 43%
District 3 Number of immigrants 36579 12.5% 1767
Number of immigrants Rate of immigrants to population Residents in abroad
Arash & Rahil, Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(2), 371-378 (2014) High steep, outdoor pieces and curbs and placement of buildings will make the security, privacy of the residential units in endangered situations. However, grained texture prepare the escape and refuge conditions for criminals but because it provides a completely open space and safe conditions for escape and refuge, so aid operations to residents in the case of risks and natural disasters relief will be very hard will lead to high mortality. Another problem with the approach of passive defense is made of the outdoor area, which is higher than the standard range when the crisis fails. The high density of buildings and population in these areas, prepares a situation exacerbated by
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injuries and damages, and seek to impose higher costs than other urban areas. High density of buildings and population in these areas, are dense and compressed that lead to high vulnerability in times of crisis and will incur additional costs. The social status of Hassan Abad, Tehran The textures of these areas are combination of simple or relatively skilled industrial workers or drivers who often have relatively low income and a social layer that is completely parasitic, or ethnic or folk origin or are composed of different immigrants that because of dark activity, violent criminal and corruption are at very low levels (Baghdadi,2007). Immigrant residents in these heterogeneous regions often have come to Tehran due to lack of adequate economic and cultural facilities of villages or cities and in many cases create on expert jobs including oil change sorretail. Corrupt activities in this area for many residents, especially among young people and adolescents who are often indifferent to education, are very common and most of these persons are addicted.
Fig. 2. Fereidunideadend in Omrani street
Immigrant population and low economic power persons, overflow crowd that are away of more exhaustive than desirable neighborhoods have been forced to choose to live in the old neighborhood because of low housing prices. In fact, such unsafe
Fig. 3. Omrani Street as a heterogeneous spotsin northern Tehran
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environments for the residents are safe place for encouraging criminals Study on function of disaster Management in Hassan Abad, Tehran Crisis management due to the increasing power of inhibition, have important role in initiating to reduce risks of military conflicts or natural disasters and can reduce the devastation caused by the invasions or natural disasters to some extent. Crisis management can be used to establish crisis management activities necessary to ensure a secure communication network and the communication system established in the cluttered situations. It also provides support requirements
and satisfies of all the essential requirements of safe spaces in times of crisis, and the distressed neutral event before and after accidents (Safari et al, 2010). Assess the extent of damage and injuries in one of the most efficient levels directly use in spatial planning and urbanism. In heterogeneous urban spots, influx of rural migrants, overpopulation, improper positioning, pieces of fine and dense textures, texture instability, poor design and non-resistance of technical and organic impenetrable network, unprincipled, and the urban poor structure and such characteristics have important role in increasing amount of damage to cities. So, what makes the threats of natural and man-made disasters, to cities with turning to a range
Proceeding
1.
2.
3. 4.
5.
Design and plan in macro level in execute and the whole country, and management and monitoring the programs in whole country in crisis. Prevent the uncontrolled growth of urban migration in the country and especially in Tehran, in order to reduce risks Decentralization of Tehran Research the law to facilitate the implementation of mitigation projects in the areas of crisis management plans based on the priority assigned Allocation of funding for disaster management, particularly in Tehran and promote it as an example of a Islamic metropolis
Arrangements of urbanization
2. 3. 4.
1. The participation of citizens in planning for disaster Provide regular grid pattern of streets The design of a permeable network of transportation (road widening) Single model to determine the placement and occupancy levels
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of disabilities, in many cases are due to the poor condition of the cities. This situation can be reduced by correcting situations of cities, vulnerability of towns in facing to crises to high levels and can be establish cities resistance to disaster.
structure with texture and structure of adjacent neighborhoods. It also has social and cultural homogeneity and the best and most appropriate way of reducing risks and vulnerability at times of crisis.
Result
Other measures are including integration and overall injured and destroyed tissue, but the problem is also possible and it is a little hard to be done.
Proximity of diverse heterogeneous areas to developed areas of the cities, make particular view in the time of crisis. Areas such this, that aid operations and reducing of dangers and death are nearly impossible, and with positioning of them in close to another regions, dangers and threats for another close areas will intensify. Probability of people, who are living in non-transparent way, will be a risk factor in times of crisis. High overflow of population, leaving the heterogeneous zone, which inevitably have to go through the neighborhoods adjacent to the highway networks and reach the main streets, lead to the lack of authentication services to the residents of the surrounding safe areas. Regarding to these incorrect social behavior and the problems can create during times of crises by residents of old neighborhoods to high employment levels residence and regarding to fine texture and high level of occupation it can be concluded that heterogeneous areas in times of crises can be problematic. So, they need more attention than other metropolitan areas. Regarding the ranges of heterogeneous areas in the city and their needs, specially in crises conditions, in addition to identification of heterogeneous areas in metropolises and to prevent of their creating, following solutions will be presented in order to reduce damages to them in threats and crises situations: S y s t e m s c a p a bl e o f p l a n n i n g fo r heterogeneous areas in the times of natural disasters or invasions, is municipal which due to the nature of these areas, have a main role in reducing the damaging effects of invasion, or natural disasters have (Baghdadi, 2007). Among the actions that can be done in these areas, reconstruction of neighborhoods and integration of body, texture, quality of heterogeneous
Such activities relate on city officials and if doing in proper and principle manner, can guarantee security against threats and aggression management to control the crisis or natural disasters. Other measures in the short-or long-term will be as follows: 1. Identify the uneven spots and threat assessment (attack or natural disaster) in these areas 2. Prioritize critical facilities in each of these areas in times of crisis to mitigate threats 4. Develop plans on how to deal with the crisis of the urban centers 5. Develop a list of the most vulnerable areas in the context of the threats and their classification 6. Identify risks in times of crisis 7. Use of community par ticipation in neighborhood and class preparation and learning to deal with crises 8. Planning, managing at the macro level in all areas, including social, cultural and economic in the country and crisis management and monitoring programs in the entire country. 9. Research on legislation needed to facilitate the implementation of mitigation and crisis management plan for review and approval in accordance with the priority set based on rules 10. The decentralization of Tehran. 11. Funding allocation and risk management, especially for the promotion of Tehran as a metropolis of the Islamic World 12. Reducing the growth rate of city community in a way that shows risks and try to prevent immigration to Tehran that is under threats and natural disasters
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thinks about its needs even with putting its adjacent neighborhoods in danger.
Rapid growth of urbanization and immigration that has not been planned, creating non-principal organic tissue as well, will increase the likelihood of casualties and damage occurring because of natural disasters, or in the time of the invasions and crisis.
Top level neighborhoods in close to low level socio-economic regions, are very dangerous and prepare special situations for opportunistic persons in heterogeneous areas.
In these situations, the things that lead to losses and break the unity of the city in crisis times, are fragmented parts of the city. Each piece is based on class, race, culture and religion and does not seem to be a unique during the crisis. Each group
With performance of operations that have been designed in short-term and long-term measures for the implementation of the proposed solutions, we will have cities with safer neighborhoods and less vulnerable in order to minimize injuries and damages to urban crises that is an important step to be taken.
References
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Baghdadi, Arash. “An analytical approach to the uneven spots in the context of Tehran”. Hoviyate shahr Journal, First issue, 1: 62-51 (2007) . Building and Housing research center, Draft of twenty-first issue on National Building Regulations (2009). Memarzade, Golam Reza; Sarfarazi, Mehrzad “Investigation of growing steps in crisis management organization” Department of Social and Cultural Studies-Page13, (2010) Baghdadi, Arash. “Identifying the scope of municipal assets and present its position in terms of passive defense” Maleke Ashtar University, Tehran (2010). Poormousavi, SayedMusa, Firoozpoor Armin and Darani, Masoud “The role of the community in the improvement of Crisis Management Systems,” Journal of Disaster Prevention and Management, 2 (1): 42-32 (2012). Hamidi, Malihe “The role of planning and urban design mitigation and crisis management,”
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Proceedings of the International Conference on Seismology and Earthquake Engineering, 2: 1660-1654 (2005). Sarbaz, Najmeh. “Urban heterogeneous coordinate constructions” Culture and Society Journal, 1(27 )(2009). Sharifinia, Zahra. “marginalization andsocial and cultural issuesinthe cities,” Fourth Conference on Planning and Urban Management (2012). Safari, Abbas; Shokoohi, Ali; Aslanian, Yashar “The effects of urban planning and crisis management in reducing earthquake damage (2010). FathiRashid,Ali; Qolizadeh, Elham “The urban worn passive defense”. Tehran Safe Community Conference Proceedings, 48-33 (2006). Qanavati, Ezatollah; Ghalami, Shabnam;Abdoli, Asghar. “Empowering the Urban Crisis management in order to reduce the earthquake disaster,” Journal of Geography, 1 (4) :15-23 (2009).
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Current World Environment
Assessment of Cadmium Contamination of Soils in Sewage Disposal Areas of Coimbatore District, Tamil Nadu, India R. VINU RADHA*, K. KUMUTHA and P.MARIMUTHU Department of Agricultural Microbiology, TamilNadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, India. http://dx.doi.org/10.12944/CWE.9.2.18 (Received: March 05, 2014; Accepted: May 04, 2014) Abstract Cadmium is a naturally occurring minor element, one of the metallic components in the earthâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s crust and oceans and present everywhere. Agricultural soils may also be enriched by cadmium which causes itâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s accumulation in plants and pose a potential threat to human health. Also high concentrations of cadmium in soil have detrimental effects on ecosystem as it enters the food chain. Soil samples were collected from different places near sewage disposal areas in Coimbatore where the source of cadmium is likely to be threatening the public. Twenty six samples were collected, their physiochemical properties and total cadmium content were determined. Five soil samples that showed high levels of more than 3 mg kg-1of cadmium were identified as hotspots and their Arbuscularmycorrhizal spore count were assessed.
Key words: Cadmium contamination, Sewage disposal, Coimbatore, AM fungi.
INTRODUCTION The most common heavy metal contaminations found in nature were Cd, Cr, Cu, Hg, Pb and Ni. Environmental pollution by these heavy metals has become extensive due to industrial activities and when they go in elevated level in the environment, they are excessively absorbed by roots and translocated to shoot, leading to impaired metabolism and reduced growth. Heavy metal contamination in soil results in decreased soil microbial activity, soil fertility and yield losses. Cadmium is released into the biosphere naturally by volcanoes, weathering of rocks as well as anthropoegenically through various urban/industrial wastes such as mining and metal refining 1 , compost application2 and cadmium rich phosphate fertilizers3. Increased concentrations of Cd in agricultural soils are known to come from human activities such as the application of phosphate fertilizer, sewage
sludge, wastewater, and pesticides4,5,6, mining and smelting of metalliferous ores with high Cd content 7 . Determination of Cd in soil is very important for evaluating its environmental impact or its risk to agricultural production and soil health. According to the FOREGS geochemical database for European soils, the level of total cadmium concentration ranges between 0.06 and 0.6 ppm. However, the estimated cadmium values are below the most limiting threshold value of 1 ppm for agricultural soils8. An accumulation of cadmium in soil will lead to an increase in pore water concentration and ultimately to increase in ground water and surface water concentrations.According to the Statutory Order 49/2000, the soil quality criteria forcadmium is 0.5 mg kg-1 soil9. Thismeans that areas applied with waste products must not exceed 0.5 mgCd/kg dw in the plough layer. The criterion was mainly focused onsludge application. In the guidance document on waste products used foragricultural purposes, it is
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mentioned that the criterion value is assumednot to prevent the obtaining of sufficient areas for the use of waste products on agricultural soil10. The maximum target permissible level of cadmium according to the waste water quality guidelines for discharge into water bodies or water courses is less than 0.1 mg L-111. Cadmium induced effects include oxidative stress, genotoxicity, inhibition of photosynthetic activity and inhibition of root metabolism. The possible interactions between these modes of toxicity waswell explained12.Chlorosis, leaf rolls and stunting are the main and easily visible symptoms of cadmium toxicity in plants. There is a growing interest in problems concerning heavy metal contamination of cultivated lands and little is known regarding metal homeostasis and tolerance at the organismic level. For that reason, it is essential to clarify those problems related to metal transport, accumulation, detoxification and tolerance, and in this sense, it would be of enormous interest to use model systems other than plants, such asSaccharomyces pombe and Saccharomyces cereviciae, as well as the molecular analysis of hyperaccumulators like Arabidopsis halleri and some of the Thlaspi species13. The expected anthropogenic sources of cadmium in Coimbatore soils are more likely derived from a growing number of adverse anthropogenic sources viz., agricultural and urban runoff, garbage dumps, sewage disposals and gold making wastes. The objectives of this research was to find out the hot spots of cadmium level in the contaminated areas of Coimbatore district, Tamil Nadu, India and explore the native microbial species viz., arbuscularmycorrhizal fungi and the plant growth promoting bacteria like Pseudomonas sp., etc. for cleaning up of contaminated sites. MATERIAL AND METHODS Sampling sites Coimbatore (Tamil Nadu state, India) is located at 11.0161°N and 76.971°E. Most areas in Coimbatore have a large number of open and covered sewage channels that are connected to
each other which spread around the city premises. Almost all channels carry sewage disposed in an untreated form. The sampling locations were nearer to the places where sewage water and solid wastes are dumped for years together and collected from both barren and agricultural fields (Fig. 1). The samples were also collected from and near gold making waste disposed sewage areas (samples 20, 21 and 26) and sewage treated sludge sample (sample 7). Most of the agricultural lands where the soil samples were taken near the sewage disposal areas were cultivated with Palak greens and Amaranthus spp. as given in Table 1. Collection and Processing of soil samples Twenty six soil samples were collected from the nearby areas where sewage water go across the main cityand where it has been irrigated for years in farmers fields. Soil samples were collected from 0-15 cm depth and the sampling protocol to obtain a representative sample from a particular area was followed. The samples were air dried at 25-300C for 2-4 days, ground to pass a 2 mm sieve, stored and labeled in sealed plastic bottles. Analysis of physico chemical properties of soil samples Organic carbon in soil sample was analysed by wet chromic acid digestion14. Total cadmium (Cd) was analysed by acid digestion method and estimated using Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer with graphite furnace. pH, EC and CEC, organic carbon were estimated as per the standard protocol. Isolation and screening of AM and PGPR from collected soil samples Plants in symbiosis with Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi (AM) have the potential to take up cadmium from an enlarged soil volume and provide an attractive system to advance plant based environmental cleanup. Pseudomonas,a plant growth promoter present enormously in the rhizosphere supports the AM symbiosis and thus the combination of AM fungi andPseudomonasoffers suitable system towards the remediation of cadmium polluted soil. ArbuscularMycorrhizal fungi as well as Pseudomonas were isolated from soils where
RADHA et al., Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(2), 379-386 (2014) cadmium concentration was found higher. Totally ten isolates of AM and Pseudomonas were obtained. AM isolates which were observed predominant have been selected for the study.Simultaneously Pseudomonas isolates were tested for IAA production and cadmium tolerance and the best one was selected for the further study. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Observations on the physio-chemical properties showed considerable variations in different samples as specified in Table 2. The pH of almost all samples depicted that the soils were neutral to alkaline in nature which might be responsible for the poor solubility of this heavy metal. This was primarily due to the presence of base cationsfound naturally in soils, resulting in relatively high degree of base saturation.
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Importance of soil pH value for availability of heavy metals to plants was reported15,16.Solubilityof heavy metals is highly pH dependent and, it increases with a decrease in soil pH. Heavy metal sorption mechanisms in soils are influenced by soil pH, and hence, soil sorption capacity will be greatly affected by any change in pH. Various reasons have been reported17for pH-induced changes in the immobilization of metal ions in soils. Firstly, an increase in pH in variable charge soils causes an increase in surface negative charge resulting in an increase in cation (Cd) adsorption. It was also reported18 that CdOH+ species are formed above pH 8 which have greater affinity for adsorption sites than just Cd2+. The EC was found to be high (> 1.0 dSm-1) in samples showing high cadmium levels. The cadmium content of the soils can be positively correlated with
Table. 1: Collection of soil samples near different sewage disposed areas in Coimbatore Sample No.
Location
Land description
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26.
Velalur-1 Velalur-2 Velalur-3 Sungam -1 Ukkadam-1 Ukkadam-2 Ukkadam-3 Ukkadam-4 Ukkadam-5 Ukkadam-6 Selvapuram-1 Selvapuram-2 Kovaipudur-1 Kovaipudur-2 Ukkadam-7 Ukkadam-8 Ukkadam-9 Ukkadam-10 Ukkadam-11 Ukkadam-12 Ukkadam-13 Ukkadam-14 Ukkadam-15 Ukkadam-16 Ukkadam-17 Ukkadam-18
Agricultural land (Sorghum) Agricultural land (Bhendi) Agricultural land (Banana) Barren land Barren land Barren land Treated sewage sludge Treated sludge fertilized Marigold field Agricultural land (Palak field) Agricultural land (Amaranthus spp.) Agricultural land (Palak field) Agricultural land (Amaranthus spp.) Agricultural land (Amaranthus spp.) Agricultural land (Amaranthus spp.) Soil heap near sewage sludge Agricultural land (Palak greens) Agricultural land (Amaranthus spp.) Agricultural land (Amaranthus sp.) Soil heap near sewage sludge Gold making waste disposed sewage soil Soil heap near sewage sludge Agricultural land (Amaranthus spp.) Agricultural land (Amaranthus spp.) Agricultural land (Amaranthus spp.) Soil heap near sewage sludge Gold making waste disposed sewage soil
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EC (r2=0.726)(excluding the samples 7,10,16,20, 22, 23,24, 25 and 26) which includes the treated sewage sludge (Fig. 2), sample taken from a soil heap near sewage sludge and from gold making waste disposed sewage soil (n=17).. Similarly the cation exchange capacity of the sample 7 was so high (135.9 cmol (p+) kg-1 soil) which had a high cadmium level of 3.55 mgkg-1 soil. Soils with high CECs are able to bind more cations such as Ca2+ or K+ to the exchange sites of clay and organic matter particle surfaces. A high CEC soil will also have a greater buffering capacity, increasing the ability to resist changes in pH. Soils with high amounts of clay and/ or organic matter will typically have higher CEC. The twenty six samples analysed in our study depicted a high CEC range of 20.1 to 136.0 cmol (p+) kg-1 soil which are not significantly correlated(r= -0.0072). Butthe samples collected from agricultural and
barren soils (n=22) apart from the samples 16, 20, 21 and 26 were positively correlated(r2= 0.629) with the cation exchange capacity (Fig. 3).This revealed the disparate relationship between the cadmium content and the native soil parameters and it may possibly be due to the recent practices of dumping sewage or gold making waste in a particular area. The report where cadmium level was significantly correlated with soil pH, EC, and CEC with respect to depth and cadmium availability index (CDI), which decreased with an increase in soil depth5 did not support the present investigation. The anthropogenic sources of cadmium are related, first of all, to the influence of sewage sludge deposited at Ukkadam region in North Coimbatore and waste water released to the natural environment which may perhaps begin to pollute the ground
Table. 2: Physicochemical properties of collected soil samples Sample pH No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26
8.06 8.15 8.13 8.41 8.22 7.37 7.08 8.31 8.11 8.79 8.06 8.32 7.46 7.94 8.14 7.99 8.46 8.76 8.65 8.19 7.39 7.5 8.62 7.95 7.94 7.83
EC (dS m-1)
Organic Carbon (%)
CEC cmol (p+) kg-1
Cadmium content(mg kg-1)
0.06 0.29 0.27 0.92 0.86 0.80 0.95 0.50 0.82 0.16 0.51 0.30 0.63 0.71 1.23 0.49 0.81 0.48 0.97 1.14 2.69 3.36 2.08 2.06 0.52 1.11
0.44 1.23 1.49 2.05 2.84 2.46 18.79 1.84 2.46 2.93 0.12 0.23 0.75 0.95 0.06 1.62 1.27 0.92 0.46 1.24 5.48 1.07 1.01 0.35 2.02 1.33
24.4 41.9 34.1 57.1 73.7 106.5 136.0 94.3 65.7 73.2 30.7 33.1 28.2 24.9 45.8 20.1 42.0 42.6 39.9 28.9 48.8 35.6 30.5 41.2 32.3 21.9
0.80 0.95 0.80 1.15 1.35 2.60 3.55 1.60 1.72 2.23 1.65 1.50 1.40 1.45 1.65 3.85 0.95 1.05 1.25 7.65 4.55 0.10 0.40 0.40 1.35 8.20
RADHA et al., Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(2), 379-386 (2014) water by leaching down of this heavy metal to the subsurface soil during irrigation and other cultivation practices. The Palak field which was irrigated nearby the soil heap near sewage disposal area exhibited high level of cadmium content which was a good example for such possibility of contamination. Soil organic matter is able to bind heavy metals. Comparatively the organic carbon was high (18.79%) in the sewage sludge sample after
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treatment (sample 7). Enrichment of soil with organic matter could reduce the content of bioavailable metal species as a result of complexation of free ions of heavy metals. This process could be used for remediation to protect plants against metal pollution16. The concentrations of cadmium was high (> 3.5 mg kg-1) in the soil samples where sewage sludge were applied in the fields. Cadmium level
Fig.1: Cadmium concentrations (ppm) of different land (soil) type in sewage disposal areas of Coimbatore
Fig. 2: Effect of soil EC on total Cd content of agricultural and barren soils (n=17) Table. 3: Enumeration of AM spores from high cadmium content soils Sample Total AM spore load No. cadmium(mg kg-1) (No.)100 g-1 7 3.55 69 16 3.85 52 20 7.65 54 21 4.55 51 26 8.20 43
Population of Pseudomonas like organisms(cfu g-1) 3 x 104 3 x 104 2 x 104 1 x 104 1 x 104
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Fig. 3: Effect of CEC on total Cd content of agriculturaland barren soils (n=22) was not positively correlated (r = 0.2277) with the organic carbon content because the organic carbon influenced the cadmium availability in the soil only when the soil was added with an amendment that is rich in organic carbon with an efficiency of metal immobilization as reported 16. The high organic carbon content of soil in the treated sludge (Sample 7) would have highly immobilized the cadmium level which on other hand would have shot up the soil cadmium level posing a high risk in these area that has to be taken into consideration. Fr o m t h e c o l l e c t e d s o i l s a m p l e s a r bu s c u l a r my c o r r h i z a l f u n g a l s p o r e s and PGPRorganisms were isolated. The observations generally indicated that the number of AM spore load was low in cadmium rich soils than the soil which showed low cadmium content. This result was supported by the results obtained after application of cadmium whichshowed inhibition of the hyphal length of the arbuscular fungi Glomusmosseae and G. deserticola in vitro19. Also cadmium content was high in samples due to direct sewage sludge dumping as soil heap in nearby agricultural fields (ranged from 4.5 to 8.2 mg kg-1) and sewage water treated sludge application (3.55 mg kg-1 ). The nearby Amaranthus field (irrigated by well water as well as direct sewage water) and Marigold field (fertilized with treated sludge) were found with increasing level of cadmium Cadmium in soils can be immobilized by increasing the soil pH through addition of liming materials 20. Decrease in cadium uptake arise from increased Cd2+ adsorption caused by pH,
increase in negative charge, thereby decreasing its bioavailability. It is also recommended that soil pH be maintained at pH 6.5 or greater in land receiving cadmium containing soil amendments such as phosphatic fertilizers and biosolids16. The bioavailability of Cd could be decreased by 2-3fold with ageing which may be attributed to increased immobilization18. Conclusion From the above study regarding cadmium contamination in sewage disposal areas of Coimbatore, it was important to report that despite high level of cadmium content in these areas, a significant proportion of added cadmium existed in a non-bioavailable pool in the soil. Moreover the soil physio-chemical properties were effectively correlated with the cadmium content in agricultural and barren fields. It varied quite substantially among the different land use locations. Exact mechanism in availability was not investigated.In due course of years there may be chances for the movement of cadmium into subsurface layer through leaching or soil diffusion mechanisms if this practice of sewage dumping takes place near the agricultural fields. The transfer of Cd to food chain can be managed through decreasing the bioavailability of cadmium by controlling sorption reactions. Acknowledgement We would like to acknowledge the Department of Science and Technology, Ministry of Science and Technology, Government of India, New Delhi for the financial support of this
RADHA et al., Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(2), 379-386 (2014) project. The suggestions ofDr.K.Arulmozhiselvan, Professor of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry,
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Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore regarding the presentation of is deeply honored and appreciated.
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4 9 a f 2 0 . Ja n u a r y 2 0 0 0 . M i l j ø - o g Energiministeriet(2000). Danish EPA, Affaldsstoffertiljordbrugsformål. VejledningfraMiljøstyrelsen nr. 5, 1990. Vej. nr. 14005 af 01/06/1990, Miljøstyrelsen. (1990). EPA, Summary of studies and on going activities which have relevance to UNEP Scientific review of lead and cadmium. In: Governing Council Decision 23/9 III : Review of Scientific Information on Lead and cadmium. Ref : HA 348/380/01/28, Accra, Ghana. 12th June (2006). Andresen E. and Kupper H., Cadmium toxicity in plants. In: Cadmium from toxicity to Essentiality, Metal Ions in Life Sciences. (Eds.) Sigel, A., Sigel, H. and R.K.O. Sigel. SpringerScience and Business media, Universitat Konstanz, Germany. Pp. 395 (2013). Benavides M.P., Gallego S.M. and Tomaro M.L., Cadmium toxicity in plants. Braz. J. Plant Physiol., 17 (1): 21-34 (2005). Walkley A. and Black C.A., An examination of the Deglgareff method for determining soil organic matter and proposed modification of chromic acid titration method. Soil Science, 37: 29-38 (1934). Fytianos K., Katsianis G., Triantafyllou P. and Zachariadis G., Accumulation of heavy metals in vegetables grown in an industrial area in relation to soil. Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 67:423–430 (2001). Skáodowski P., Maciejewska A. and Kwiatkowska J., The effect of organic matter from brown coal on bioavailability of heavy metals in contaminated soils, In : Soil and Water Pollution Monitoring, Protection and Remediation, (Eds.), I. Twardowskaet al. Springer Publications. Pp. 3 (2006). Bolan N.S., Mahimairaja S., Kunhikrishnan, A. and Naidu, R., Sorption-bioavailability nexus of arsenic and cadmium in variable charge soils. J. Hazardous Materials (2012). Naidu R., Bolan N.S., Kookana R.S. and
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Vol. 9(2), 387-393 (2014)
Current World Environment
Effectiveness of Mole Drains for Soybean Crop in Temporary Waterlogged Vertisols of Madhya Pradesh S.S. Dhakad*1, K.V. Ramana Rao2 and K.P. Mishra3 1 KrishiVigyan Kendra (RVSKVV), Shajapur, (MP)-465001, India. Central Institute of Agricultural Engineering (ICAR), Bhopal (MP), India. 3 Faculty of Agricultural Engineering, Mahatma Gandhi Chitrakoot, GramodayaVishwavidyala, Chitrakoot (MP), India.
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http://dx.doi.org/10.12944/CWE.9.2.19 (Received: March 09, 2014; Accepted: June 19, 2014) ABSTRACT Field experiments were conducted during kharif 2010 to 2011 for sustaining productivity of soybean through mole drainage technology in temporary waterlogged vertisols at farmerâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s fields in Hoshangabad district of Madhya Pradesh.The mole drain spacing selected includes 2, 4, 6 and 8 m and these drains were formed at an average depth of 0.4, 0.5 and 0.6 m from ground surface under a split plot designed experiment with 3 replications.Under various treatment combinations, the plant height, number of branches per plant, root nodules per plant, dry weight of root nodules per plant and yield of soybean crop are highest in 2 m drain spacing followed by 4m, 6m, 8m and control plot in all selected depths.The highest B: C ratio was recorded under S2D1 followed by S3D1, while the lowest net return was recorded under S4D3 in the year 2010-11. In 2011-12 and in pooled data analysis the B:C ratio was recorded higher under S1D1 followed by S1D2 respectively. The lowest B: C ratio under mole drain treatment was found under control plot.Pipe less drainage (mole) technology for vertisols of Madhya Pradesh is found better in view of soybean productivity.
Key words :Drainage, Drain spacing, Drain depth ,Mole drains, Soybean, Vertisols.
INTRODUCTION Mole drainage is a temporary method of drainage. There maximum life of Mole drainage is 10- 30 years. Mole drainage alone, on the hand, usually offers a good solution to drainage problems in most clayed soils. Soil loosening by deep ploughing or subsoilingto improve hydraulic conductivity is only justified in situation where mole drainage would be unsuccessful. Drainage is a big problem in vertisolsspecially in the area having rainfall. There are several drainage technologies available in these area but low cost semi-permanent structure mole drains may be a best option. Mole drains are pipeless drains that are formed a with a mole plough. The mole plough consists of a cylindrical foot attached to a narrow leg connected to the back of the foot is a slightly larger diameter cylindrical expander. The
foot and expander form the drainage channel as the implement is drawn through the soil and the leg leaves a slot and associated fissures. The fissures extend from the surface and laterally out into the soil. Any surplus water above moling depth can therefore move rapidly through these fissures into the mole channel. Mole drains are generally installed at a depth varying between 40 to 60 cm below the surface. The mole drains should be deep enough to be protected from the loads of heavy farm machinery and fro m the swelling and thawing effect of vertisols. The spacing of mole drains generally varies from 2 to 10 m. However, it depends on the soil permeability and the necessity of drainage also. If the spacing is less than 2 m, there is a danger of damage of the previously constructed drain, where as if the spacing is greater than 5 m, the fissuring effect may not cover the intervening space.
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Several researchers, mostly outside India have studied the influence of mole drainage on crop production. Eggelsmenn (1987) reported an increase in crop yield from 20 to over 100% due to pipeless drainage. Mueller and Schindler (1992) also found a significant increase in crop yields due to pipeless drainage over 10 years. Jha and Koga (1995) examined the impact of pipeless drainage on soil properties and on soybean growth in Bangkok soils. The effects of pipeless drainage on soil physical and chemical properties were found to be very significant : basic infiltration rate increased by about 2.7 fold, porosity increased by 14% at 25 cm depth and by 19% at 40 cm depth, soil aeration improved markedly, saturated hydraulic conductivity increased by 34 fold at 25 cm depth and by 61 fold at 40 cm depth, and pipeless drains with liming showed alonglasting improvement in soil pH and EC in the lower soil profile. Because of these improvements in the soil properties it was found that the soyabean crop responded very well to pipe less drainage. There was about 46% increase in grain yield and 118% increase in the dry matter per plant. K.V.Ramana Rao et.al. (2009) a 4- year (2004-2009) field experiment was carried out at Central Institute of Agricultural Engineering (CIAE), Bhopal feasibility of mole drainage for draining excess rain water in Vertisols. A 56 PS wheel tractor was used in the drawing of mole drains at 2, 4 and 6 m spacings and at a constant depth of 0.60 m at grade of 0.8 % .The soil moisture content was 22.5% at moling depth. The quantity of drained water from the plots under each of drain spacing was monitored using water meter. The drained area between each was 480 m2, 960 m2 and 1080 m2 for 2, 4 and 6 m drain spacings respectively. The crop yields increased by about 50% in the mole drained plots as compared to the control. The field capacity of mole plough during formation of mole drains at 2,4 and 6 m drain spacing were 0.14,0.28 and 0.42 ha/h respectively while the cost per ha for construction of mole drains at 2,4 and 6 m drain spacing were Rs 3200,Rs 1800 and Rs 1200 respectively. Considering the above aspects an attempt has been made under the present study to assess effectiveness of mole drains for soybean crop in temporary waterlogged vertisols of Madhya Pradesh.
MATERIALS AND METHODS The study area is located in the farmer’s fields in the village Bamuriya in Hoshangabad district of Madhya Pradesh. The study area is situated between 22o37’30’’ to 22o38’10’’ N latitude and 77o39’30" to 77o40’59" E longitude with an altitude of 307 meters from mean sea level (MSL). The slope of the area is less than 1% with good drainage outlets.The dimensions of the mole plough designed and developed at CIAE include a leg with 1250 × 250 × 25 mm and a foot of 63 mm with 75 mm bullet or expander diameter. With a 3 point linkage the plough can be mounted on a wheeled tractor. The total weight of the plough was 75 kg. The treatments consisted of 13 combinations of mole drain spacing (4 levels) and mole drain depth (3 levels). The details of treatment combinations are given in Table 1.The mole drains installed 4 spacing (2,4,6 and 8m spacing) at 3 depths (0.4,0.5 and 0.6 m depth) under a split plot designed experiment with 3 replications. Measurement of different growth characters and yield of soybean Plant height Plant height at 30, 45 and 60 days after sowing and at harvest stage was recorded. In each net plot five plants were selected randomly and tagged for periodic observation. The height (cm) was recorded at 30, 45, 60 DAS and at harvest stage of the crop in all the plots. It was measured from the ground surface to the main stem apex. No. of Branches per plant Number of branches was recorded at 30, 45, 60 DAS and at harvest stage of the crop in all the plots. It was measured on five plants which were selected randomly and tagged. Root Studies Root is a major part of the plant which provides anchoring and active participation in nutrient, moisture uptake and play effective role in fixation of atmospheric nitrogen. For root studies, observation on root length and root dry weight were recorded and analysed statistically. Root Length Five plants were selected randomly from each plot and the length of root was taken in cm.
Dhakad et al., Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(2), 387-393 (2014) The observation on root length was taken at 45 and 60 days after sowing. Root nodules per plant As the root nodules play a vital role in the productivity, Five random plants dug up randomly in each plot and the root was washed for counting the number of nodules. This study was done at 45 and 60 days after sowing. Table 1:Details of treatment combination for mole drains spacing and depths Symbol Treatments detail for Soybean crop T0 T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8 T9 T10 T11 T12
S0D0 –Control S1D1 (Mole spacing 2 m + depth 0.4 m) S1D2 (Mole spacing 2 m + depth 0.5 m) S1D3 (Mole spacing 2 m + depth 0.6 m) S2D1 (Mole spacing 4 m + depth 0.4 m) S2D2 (Mole spacing 4 m + depth 0.5 m) S2D3 (Mole spacing 4 m + depth 0.6 m) S3D1 (Mole spacing 6 m + depth 0.4 m) S3D2 (Mole spacing 6 m + depth 0.5 m) S3D3 (Mole spacing 6 m + depth 0.6 m) S4D1 (Mole spacing 8 m + depth 0.4 m) S4D2 (Mole spacing 8 m + depth 0.5 m) S4D3 (Mole spacing 8 m + depth 0.6 m)
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Dry weight of root nodules per plant The dry weight of nodules was taken after oven drying at 70 ± 1 °C for 48 hours. This was also done at 45 and 60 DAS Seed yield The soybean plants were harvested net plot-wise and then threshed after the sun drying. The seed yield of each net plot was recorded then converted in to kg/ha. Benefit: cost ratio (B: C ratio) It was calculated by dividing the gross return under a treatment by the cost of cultivation under the same treatment and is expressed as returns per rupee invested. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Plant height under various mole drain treatments The data on plant height, which is an important index of plant growth, were recorded periodically at an interval of 15 days beginning from 30 DAS and analyzed statistically and are presented in Table 2. The interactive effect of mole drain spacings and mole drain depths were found significant at 45 DAS, 60 DAS and at harvest stages
Table 2:Effect of interaction S X D on plant height of soybean.
30 DAS
45 DAS
60 DAS At harvest
Treat- ment
2010 2011 Pooled 2010 2011 Pooled 2010 2011 Pooled 2010 2011 Pooled -11 -12 -11 -12 -11 -12 -11 -12
S0D0 S1D1 S1D2 S1D3 S2D1 S2D2 S2D3 S3D1 S3D2 S3D3 S4D1 S4D2 S4D3 SEm= CD(5%)
14.2 23.7 23.9 21.5 21.2 20.9 20.9 19.7 20.3 17.7 17.8 17.7 15.4 0.47 NS
14.3 24.1 22.3 21.2 21.1 20.7 20.4 20.5 19.4 15.6 17.0 16.4 13.7 0.61 NS
14.3 23.9 23.1 21.4 21.1 20.8 20.6 20.1 19.8 16.7 17.4 17.0 14.6 0.42 1.29
36.1 55.3 53.5 53.2 51.4 50.4 49.3 50.4 49.9 40.2 38.6 40.0 37.1 0.91 2.82
36.7 54.6 53.8 52.2 51.8 51.2 49.7 49.8 47.5 40.3 37.9 38.6 35.9 1.28 NS
36.4 54.9 53.7 52.7 51.6 50.8 49.5 50.1 48.7 40.3 38.3 39.3 36.5 0.89 2.75
44.9 67.0 64.8 64.8 63.6 63.4 64.2 64.0 59.1 51.4 50.3 47.3 46.5 1.66 5.13
45.3 66.3 65.1 64.0 63.5 62.7 62.1 64.6 59.0 50.3 51.3 48.7 46.1 2.10 NS
45.1 66.7 65.0 64.7 63.5 63.1 63.2 64.3 59.1 50.9 50.8 48.0 46.3 1.48 4.57
46.28 69.01 66.78 66.74 65.47 65.34 66.13 65.92 60.91 52.98 51.81 50.30 47.86 1.69 5.20
46.66 68.32 67.05 65.95 65.37 64.55 64.00 63.17 59.74 51.77 51.19 48.25 48.12 1.29 3.98
46.47 68.67 66.92 66.35 65.42 64.94 65.06 64.55 60.32 52.38 51.50 49.28 47.99 1.28 3.94
Dhakad et al., Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(2), 387-393 (2014)
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of soybean in year 2010-11 and pooled data analysis however it was not found statistically significant at 45 DAS and 60 DAS during the year 2011-12. Maximum plant height was recorded in the case of combination S1D1 (mole drains at the spacing of 2 m on the depth of 0.4 m) followed by S1D2 (mole drains at the spacing
of 2 m on the depth of 0.5 m) while it was recorded significantly lowest under S4D3 (mole drains at the spacing of 8 m on the depth of 0.6 m) in all the growth stages during both the years. Jha and Koga (1995), Ramana Rao et.al.(2005) and Kolekar et.al. (2011) also corroborated the same findings due to pipeless drainage. Table 3:Effect of interaction S X D on No. of branch per plant of soybean at different growth and at harvest stages
30 DAS
45 DAS
60 DAS At harvest
Treat- ment
2010 2011 Pooled 2010 2011 Pooled 2010 2011 Pooled 2010 2011 Pooled -11 -12 -11 -12 -11 -12 -11 -12
S0D0 S1D1 S1D2 S1D3 S2D1 S2D2 S2D3 S3D1 S3D2 S3D3 S4D1 S4D2 S4D3 SEm= CD(5%)
1.57 2.37 2.23 2.23 2.13 2.07 2.00 1.83 1.83 1.80 1.77 1.67 1.60 0.07 NS
1.60 2.30 2.27 2.20 2.10 2.00 1.97 1.90 1.87 1.87 1.70 1.70 1.63 0.13 NS
1.58 2.33 2.25 2.22 2.12 2.03 1.98 1.87 1.85 1.83 1.73 1.68 1.62 0.06 NS
2.03 3.37 3.17 3.07 3.10 3.07 3.03 3.07 2.57 2.47 2.37 2.23 2.23 0.18 NS
2.07 3.27 3.23 3.10 3.07 3.10 3.07 2.97 2.57 2.50 2.30 2.27 2.20 0.17 NS
2.05 3.32 3.20 3.08 3.08 3.08 3.05 3.02 2.57 2.48 2.33 2.25 2.22 0.14 NS
3.00 5.40 5.23 4.73 4.70 4.13 4.13 4.07 3.97 3.87 4.50 3.53 3.03 0.17 0.53
2.90 5.10 5.37 4.77 4.30 4.23 4.20 4.10 4.13 3.60 4.77 3.27 2.97 0.24 0.73
2.95 5.25 5.30 4.60 4.35 4.18 4.17 4.08 4.05 3.73 4.63 3.40 3.00 0.18 0.55
4.03 5.83 5.80 5.53 5.33 5.37 5.33 5.30 5.10 4.77 5.67 4.53 4.10 0.17 0.52
3.83 6.13 5.63 5.43 5.37 5.27 5.07 5.27 5.17 4.60 5.37 4.07 3.83 0.12 0.37
3.93 5.98 5.72 5.48 5.35 5.32 5.20 5.28 5.13 4.68 5.52 4.30 3.97 0.11 0.33
Table 4:Effect of interaction S X D on root length of soybean at 45 and 60 DAS
45 DAS
60 DAS
Treatment
2010-11
2011-12
Pooled
2010-11
2011-12
Pooled
10.80 19.29 19.48 17.44 17.62 18.31 16.68 15.78 14.30 14.10 15.83 11.12 11.05 0.70 2.16
9.44 17.16 17.65 16.51 16.66 16.36 16.10 15.26 14.37 10.40 14.96 10.57 10.20 0.85 2.62
10.12 18.23 18.57 16.98 17.14 17.33 16.39 15.52 14.34 12.25 15.40 10.85 10.62 0.46 1.43
12.26 24.34 23.77 23.48 21.18 19.09 20.42 21.23 19.21 14.31 14.41 13.24 13.81 0.98 3.03
13.47 27.52 27.85 26.87 25.10 24.38 24.47 23.88 21.31 15.00 16.22 14.14 13.97 1.15 3.55
12.87 25.93 25.81 25.17 23.14 21.74 22.45 22.56 20.26 14.66 15.32 13.69 13.89 0.59 1.83
S0D0 S1D1 S1D2 S1D3 S2D1 S2D2 S2D3 S3D1 S3D2 S3D3 S4D1 S4D2 S4D3 SEm= CD(5%)
Dhakad et al., Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(2), 387-393 (2014) No. of branches per plant under various mole drain treatments The number of branches per plant increased as the age of the crop advanced. and presented in Table 3 for different growth and at harvest stages of soybean. In case of interaction effects, maximum
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number of branches per plant at almost all the stages of soybean was recorded under S1D1 (mole drains at the spacing of 2 m on the depth of 0.4 m) followed by S1D2 (mole drains at the spacing of 2 m on the depth of 0.5 m). Whereas, the minimum values were noticed under the treatments S4D3 (mole drains at
Table 5:Effect of interaction S X D on Number of root nodules per plant of soybean at 45 and 60 DAS
45 DAS
60 DAS
Treatment
2010-11
2011-12
Pooled
2010-11
2011-12
Pooled
9.83 19.40 19.18 18.40 18.89 17.35 15.42 15.18 13.81 12.98 14.30 11.58 10.11 0.92 NS
9.36 19.15 19.62 18.54 18.70 18.41 18.13 15.00 13.63 12.96 13.77 10.73 10.22 1.10 NS
9.59 19.27 19.40 18.47 18.79 17.88 16.78 15.09 13.72 12.97 14.04 11.16 10.16 0.70 NS
18.89 36.82 33.14 35.19 34.93 33.54 32.34 27.83 27.35 23.81 23.50 20.17 19.52 1.97 NS
19.42 35.99 37.51 34.79 32.33 33.91 32.36 28.53 27.15 23.08 23.85 22.95 19.86 1.57 NS
19.16 36.41 35.33 34.99 33.63 33.73 32.35 28.18 27.25 23.44 23.67 21.56 19.69 1.05 NS
S0D0 S1D1 S1D2 S1D3 S2D1 S2D2 S2D3 S3D1 S3D2 S3D3 S4D1 S4D2 S4D3 SEm= CD (5%)
Table 6:Effect of interaction S X D on dry weight of root nodules per plant of soybean at different growth stages (mg)
45 DAS
60 DAS
Treatment
2010-11
2011-12
Pooled
2010-11
2011-12
Pooled
147.47 260.33 260.87 263.13 237.72 236.24 215.22 209.25 184.65 201.99 182.03 142.57 141.03 6.84 21.07
149.90 268.23 261.21 251.65 260.83 240.13 222.81 204.39 231.53 178.73 174.93 154.23 156.29 7.78 23.97
148.68 264.28 261.04 257.39 249.27 238.18 219.02 206.82 208.09 190.36 178.48 148.40 148.66 4.35 13.41
270.60 450.44 432.67 407.93 415.76 391.03 380.09 404.00 311.95 327.93 281.10 302.21 302.07 15.07 46.42
267.10 450.50 423.59 403.64 410.61 370.08 413.52 326.43 370.95 251.54 343.39 270.64 272.27 15.35 47.29
268.85 450.47 428.13 405.78 413.19 380.55 396.80 365.21 341.45 289.74 312.24 286.43 287.17 8.76 27.00
S0D0 S1D1 S1D2 S1D3 S2D1 S2D2 S2D3 S3D1 S3D2 S3D3 S4D1 S4D2 S4D3 SEm= CD(5%)
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Dhakad et al., Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(2), 387-393 (2014) Table 7:Seed and benefit cost ratio of various mole drain treatment
Seed yield (kg/ha)
B: C ratio
Treatment
2010-11
2011-12
Pooled
2010-11
2011-12
Pooled
S0D0: Control S1D1: 2m S X 0.4 m D S1D2: 2m S X 0.5 m D S1D3: 2m S X 0.6 m D S2D1: 4m S X 0.4 m D S2D2: 4m S X 0.5 m D S2D3: 4m S X 0.6 m D S3D1: 6m S X 0.4 m D S3D2: 6m S X 0.5 m D S3D3: 6m S X 0.6 m D S4D1: 8m S X 0.4 m D S4D2: 8m S X 0.5 m D S4D3: 8m S X 0.6 m D SEm= CD(5%)
888.19 1630.68 1621.58 1572.49 1566.79 1541.18 1479.30 1482.30 1478.51 1382.01 1078.59 1036.99 1034.12 15.87 48.91
805.46 1650.63 1645.97 1536.90 1502.15 1425.79 1482.15 1453.55 1432.17 1284.60 1077.58 1035.77 1016.80 23.59 72.70
846.83 1640.66 1633.77 1554.70 1534.47 1483.48 1480.73 1467.93 1455.34 1333.31 1078.08 1036.38 1025.46 11.41 35.18
1.04 1.52 1.50 1.43 1.62 1.59 1.52 1.61 1.59 1.48 1.18 1.14 1.11 0.02 NS
1.12 2.32 2.31 2.16 2.10 2.00 2.08 2.05 2.01 1.80 1.51 1.45 1.42 0.03 0.10
1.08 1.92 1.91 1.79 1.86 1.79 1.80 1.83 1.80 1.64 1.35 1.30 1.27 0.02 0.05
the spacing of 8 m on the depth of 0.6 m) and S0D0: Control. Similar findings were found by Ramana Rao et.al. (2009) due to pipeless drainage in soybean crop . R o o t l e n g t h u n d e r va r i o u s m o l e d r a i n treatments The root length under different treatments at 45 and 60 DAS is presented in Table 4.The maximum root length was noticed under combination S1D1 (mole drains at the spacing of 2 m on the depth of 0.4 m) followed by S1D2 (mole drains at the spacing of 2 m on the depth of 0.5 m) at both the stages. The significantly least values were recorded under S4D3 (mole drains at the spacing of 8 m on the depth of 0.6 m) at 45 DAS and S4D2 (mole drains at the spacing of 8 m on the depth of 0.5 m) at 60 DAS. The values of root length were recorded lowest under the treatment S0D0: Control. Similar findings were obtained Jha and Koga (1995) due to pipeless drainage in soybean crop. Number of root nodules per plant under various mole drain treatments The root nodules are responsible for the fixation of atmospheric nitrogen in the soil. The data on number of root nodules per plant were taken at 45 DAS and 60 DAS and analyzed statistically and presented in Table 5. Interactive effects of spacing
and depth of mole drains were found significant in the year 2011-12 and pooled analysis only at 60 DAS and treatment S1D1 (mole drains at the spacing of 2 m on the depth of 0.4 m) produced maximum root nodules per plant followed by S1D3 (mole drains at the spacing of 2 m on the depth of 0.6 m) in 201011 and S1D2 (mole drains at the spacing of 2 m on the depth of 0.5 m) during 2011-12 and pooled data analysis. These treatments were significantly superior to control (no mole drains), which produced lowest number of root nodules per plant. Similar findings were obtained Jha and Koga (1995) due to pipeless drainage in soybean crop. Dry weight of root nodules per plant under various mole drain treatments The data on Dry weight of root nodules per plantunder various mole drain treatments were taken at 45 DAS and 60 DAS and analyzed statistically and presented in Table 6. Interaction of spacing and depth of mole drains was found significant in both the years and in pooled analysis of data at 45 DAS while at 60 DAS it was found significant in the year 2011-12 and pooled data analysis. S1D1 (mole drains at the spacing of 2 m on the depth of 0.4 m) and S1D2 (mole drains at the spacing of 2 m on the depth of 0.5 m) produced maximum dry weight of nodules per plant during both the years as well as in pooled
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data; however they were statistically at par with each other. Minimum values were observed under S4D3 (mole drains at the spacing of 8 m on the depth of 0.6 m) and control (no mole drains).
to be lowest as compared to all the treatments. Jha and Koga (1995 and Ramana Rao et.al. (2009 & 2012) also reported an increase in crop yield due to pipeless drainage in Vertisol.
Seed yields and B:C ratio under various mole drain treatments Seed yields and B:C ratio under various mole drain treatment are presented in Table 7.The maximum seed yields was recorded under S1D1 (mole drains at the spacing of 2 m on the depth of 0.4 m) followed by S1D2 (mole drains at the spacing of 2 m on the depth of 0.5 m) and S1D3 (mole drains at the spacing of 2 m on the depth of 0.6 m) during boththe year and pooled data as well. The highest productivity of 16.4 q/ha observed in the treatments with mole drains at 2m spacing with 0.4m depth while it was found lowest under control (8.4 q/ha) followed by S4D3 (mole drains at the spacing of 8 m on the depth of 0.6 m) treatment. The highest B: C ratio was recorded under S2D1 followed by S3D1, while the lowest net return was recorded under S4D3 in the year 2010-11. In 2011-12 and in pooled data analysis the B:C ratio was recorded higher under S1D1 followed by S1D2 respectively. The lowest B: C ratio under mole drain treatment was found under control plot followed by S4D3in pooled data analysis. Under the absolute control the values were found
CONCLUSIONS Under actual field conditions studies on mole drains were taken up in Hoshangabad district of MP. Mole drain formation has bearing on the crop performance, which is also influenced by mole drain spacing and drain depth. In the present study plant height, number of branches per plant, root nodules per plant , dry weight of root nodules per plant and yield of soybean under different treatments were monitored. Mole drain with S1D1 (spacing of 2 m at the depth 0.4 m) was found better in comparison with other spacing and depth as well as the control. B:C ratio of mole drain with S2D1 (spacing of 4 m at the depth 0.4 m) & S1D1 (spacing of 2 m at the depth 0.4 m) were found most profitable during 1st year and 2nd year of experiment respectively. Effect of mole drainage technology on the yield & growth parameter of soybean under waterlogged conditions was found better. Pipe less drainage (mole) technology for vertisols of Madhya Pradesh is found better in view of soybean productivity.
REFERENCES 1.
2.
3.
4.
Eggelsmann, R. Subsurface Drainage Introductions. Bulletin of the German Association for Water Resources and Land Improvement, Verlag Paul Parey, Hamburg, Germany, 83 -120 (1987) Mueller, L. and U. Schindler .Durability and hydraulic performance of mole channels in alluvial clay soils. Proc. of the Int. Agril. Engg. Con., 7-10 ,Bangkok, Thailand, , 889-896 (1992) Jha, M. K. and Koga . Mole drainage: prospective drainage solution to Bangkok clay soil. Agriculture water management, 28(3) ,253-270 (1995). Ramana Rao K.V., Ravi Kishore and RamadharSingh..Mole drainage to enhance soybean production in waterlogged Vertisols. Jouranal of Agricultural Engineering, 46 (4) ,54-58 (2009).
5.
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Kolekar O.L.,S.A.Patil, S.B.Patil and S.D.Rathod. Effect of different mole spacing on the yield of summer groundnut. International Journal of Agricultural Engineering ,4 (01),8285 (2011). Ramana Rao K.V., Ravi Kishore and Ramadhar Singh.. Mole drainage studies in vertisols of Bhopal region- a case study”. Proce. of All India Seminar on Reclamation of waterlogged saline soils through drainage” held at Kota during 4-5 December,124-132 (2005). Ramana Rao K.V., and Ramadhar Singh. Pipe Less Drainage (Mole Drainage) Studies Under Actual Farmers’ Field Conditions – A Case Study in India . Proceeding of 11th ICID International Drainage Workshop on Agricultural Drainage Needs and Future Priorities Pyramisa Hotel, Cairo, Egypt, September 23 – 27, 1-6 (2012).
Vol. 9(2), 394-398 (2014)
Current World Environment
Conservation Strategies for Kavandi Lake Based on Water Quality D. D. BHUTEKAR1,3, S. B. AHER2* and M. G. BABARE3 Department of Environmental Science, Arts, Commerce and Science College, Ambad, Dist- Jalna - 431204, India 2 Department of Environmental Science and Disaster Management, Ramakrishna Mission Vivekananda University, Narendrapur, Kolkata - 700103, India 3 Department of Zoology and Fisheries, Arts, Science and Commerce College, Naldurg, Osmanabad - 413 602, India. 1
http://dx.doi.org/10.12944/CWE.9.2.20 (Received: April 15, 2014; Accepted: May 22, 2014) aBSTRACT Kavandi Lake (located at 18° 07’ N, 75° 37’ E, 530 m above MSL, in Ambad town, Maharashtra, India) was constructed by Devi Ahilyabai Holkar to fulfill the demand of drinking water for Ambad town. The physico-chemical and ecological study of the water body was conducted to assess the present status of water quality and to suggest the conservation strategies based on the findings. In order to determine the water quality, samples were collected monthly during 2012-13 from five different sampling points and analyzed for pH, EC, BOD, DO, COD, phosphates, nitrates etc. Present investigation revealed that, the urban development in the town led adverse changes in the physico-chemical and ecological characteristics of lake water. The discharge of sewage, the agricultural and urban runoff and dumping of solid waste deteriorated the water quality of lake and it is getting enriched with plant nutrients and other pollutants, becoming more and more infested with macrophytes, getting slowly shallower and shallower and shrinking gradually in size. In conclusion, the water is moderately polluted and unfit for drinking purpose without any treatment. The eutrophic condition affected the aesthetic value of lake. The best suggested strategies among conservation of lake on the basis of conducted study includes prevention of pollution, lake cleaning by de-silting, de-weeding, bioremediation, public awareness and public participation.
Key words: Lake conservation, Water pollution, Water quality, Physico-chemical analysis, Kavandi lake.
Introduction Water is a necessary element for endurance of living on earth, which contains minerals, essential for humans as well as for earth and aquatic life1. The availability of good quality water is a necessary feature for preventing diseases and improving quality of life2. Lakes have long been at the center of human attention. Lakes and surface water reservoirs are the planet’s most important freshwater resources and provide numerous benefits. They are used for domestic and irrigation purposes, and provide ecosystems for aquatic life especially fish, in that
way functioning as a source of essential protein, and for significant elements of the world’s biological diversity. They have important social and economic benefits as a result of tourism and recreation, and are culturally and aesthetically3 important for people throughout the world. They also play an equally important role in flood control4 but development of human communities and increase in irresponsible use of water resources has deteriorated river and lake water qualities5. Population growth and pollution caused by toxic waste water, surface water runoffs from
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municipal, industrial and agricultural sources have increased pollution load and further limited healthy water resources6. The quality of surface water is mainly affected by natural processes (weathering and soil erosion) as well as anthropogenic inputs (municipal and industrial wastewater discharge). The anthropogenic discharges represent a constant polluting source, whereas surface runoff is a seasonal phenomenon, mainly affected by climatic conditions7. It is well established that domestic sewage and industrial effluents falling into natural water bodies change the water quality and lead to eutrophication8. Kavandi Lake was constructed by Devi Ahilyabai Holkar to fulfill the demand of drinking water for Ambad town. Considering the importance of the Kavandi Lake, monitoring and control of water quality is essential to conserve the ecosystem and improve management policies. The present investigation was carried out to determine the present ecological status of the Kavandi Lake and to suggest the conservation strategies based upon the observations. MATERIALS AND METHODS Kavandi Lake is located at 18° 07’ N, 75° 37’ E, and 530 m above MSL, in Ambad town, District Jalna of Maharashtra state, India. Water samples were collected at five different sites from the lake for Physico-chemical and biological analysis. Samples were taken once every month from September 2012 to July 2013. Water samples were collected in one liter plastic bottles and collection was usually completed during morning hours between 8:00 A.M. to 10:00 A.M. For each sampling event, temperature was recorded and dissolved oxygen was fixed at the sampling sites while turbidity, pH, electrical conductivity, total dissolved solids, total alkalinity, total hardness, chloride, nitrates, phosphates, chemical oxygen demand and biological oxygen demand were analyzed in the laboratory following the standard methods described in APHA9. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The seasonal variation in the water quality parameters are presented in Table 1. and correlations among physico-chemical parameters are shown in
Table 2. The temperature of lake water ranged from 21.1°C to 26.7°C in different seasons. High seasonal variations were observed at all the sites. In summer, highest water temperature 28.7°C was recorded and minimum 19.5°C in winter was observed. The seasonal variation in water temperature was due to fluctuation in water level, air temperature and stability of atmosphere10.The pH values were found 7.5-8.2 indicating alkaline nature of water throughout the study period. The high values may be due to discharge of municipal sewage and runoff from agricultural fields. It affects the growth of aquatic organisms11. In the present study water turbidity values ranged from 20.9 to 67.0 NTU. The highest turbidity was observed in rainy season (109.0 NTU). During rainy season silt, clay and other suspended particles contribute to the turbidity values, while during winter and summer seasons settlement of silt, clay results low turbidity12,13. The total hardness ranged from 130.3 to 313.7 mg/l in different seasons (Table. 1). The highest total hardness 344.8 mg/l was observed in summer season with lowest in 49.8 mg/l in rainy season. The variation in total hardness was due to mass reduction by evaporation in summer and dilution by precipitation in rainy season respectively. Researchers already reported high total hardness during summer than rainy season and winter season14. The Chlorides was recorded in the range from 265.0 mg/l to 346.9 mg/l with an average of 297.5 mg/l. The Phosphate and nitrate are the most important nutrients and a limiting factor in the maintenance of reservoir fertility and eutrophication. The phosphate and nitrate concentration of water ranged from 4.1 to 6.2 mg/l and 1.3 mg/l to 2.6 mg/l in different seasons. The high value of nitrate and phosphates are responsible for growth of macrophytes in reservoir11. Dissolved oxygen (DO) is an important aquatic parameter, whose presence is vital to aquatic fauna. It plays crucial role in life processes of animals. In the present study the DO values found from 4.5 to 9.2 mg/l. The lower value of dissolved oxygen in summer was due to elevated temperature and higher rate of decomposition of organic matter15. The positive co-relationship between dissolved oxygen and temperature is represented in Table.2 Biological oxygen Demand (BOD) is the oxygen required for degradation of organic matter. BOD is
Min.
SD±
SE
3.930
81.2
70.6
82.0
7.860
35.2 7.517 3.759 14.0 217.7 33.083 16.541 276.8 450.4 76.302 38.151 333.6 281.3 67.916 33.958 207.6 4.1 0.535 0.267 5.0 1.7 0.062 0.031 1.3 9.2 0.528 0.264 3.8 16.2 4.544 2.272 23.6
24.0 7.8 279.0
Min.
44.6 244.0 548.4 354.4 4.7 1.7 9.9 22.8
22.7 21.1 1.400 0.700 8.2 8.2 0.074 0.037 294.4 277.3 11.794 0.264
Max Mean
175.2
30.2 344.8 456.6 340.4 7.5 1.4 5.6 37.0
28.7 8.4 354.2
Max
SD±
SE
Min.
132.3 42.802 21.401
31.4
20.9 7.380 3.690 27.6 313.7 31.291 15.645 49.8 405.3 59.845 29.922 266.8 265.0 56.090 28.045 320.8 6.2 1.080 0.540 2.3 1.3 0.047 0.024 1.5 4.5 0.817 0.409 4.7 29.2 5.779 2.889 6.8
26.7 2.286 1.143 23.5 8.2 0.277 0.138 7.2 320.9 31.221 15.611 173.0
Mean
148.6
109.0 319.4 355.8 387.0 7.2 3.3 9.2 12.2
28.2 7.8 240.0
Max
2012-13 Winter Summer
(All values are in mg/lit except temp., pH, EC and turbidity)
Temp (°C) 19.5 pH 8.1 Electrical 267.4 Conductivity (µ mohs/cm) Turbidity (NTU) 27.6 Total Hardnes 172.4 Total Alkalinity 368.0 Chlorides 214.8 Phosphate 3.6 Nitrate 1.6 Dissolved Oxygen 8.6 Biochemical 12.6 Oxygen Demand Chemical Oxygen 64.0 Demand
Parameter
Table 1. Seasonal variation in physico-chemical parameter of Kavandi Lake
SD±
SE
68.7
67.0 130.3 314.3 346.2 4.3 2.6 7.1 9.4
18.070 63.389 18.640 15.163 1.057 0.405 1.117 1.109 53.961 26.981
36.140 126.778 37.280 30.327 2.114 0.810 2.234 2.217
25.6 1.960 0.980 7.5 0.250 0.125 211.4 28.527 14.263
Mean
Rainy
BHUTEKAR et al., Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(2), 394-398 (2014) 396
COD BOD DO Parameter TEMP pH EC Turbidity Total Total Chlorides P hosphate Nitrate Hardnes Alkalinity
Table 2: Correlation Matrix of Water Quality Parameters of Kavandi Lake
TEMP 1 pH -0.337 1 EC 0.063 0.914 1 Turbidity 0.023 -0.959 -0.991 1 Total Hardnes 0.218 0.851 0.986 -0.976 1 Total Alkalinity -0.617 0.946 0.739 -0.806 0.636 1 Chlorides 0.147 -0.988 -0.978 0.991 -0.939 -0.867 1 Phosphate 0.718 0.424 0.741 -0.67 0.838 0.107 -0.586 1 Nitrate 0.03 -0.958 -0.998 0.999 -0.969 -0.802 0.994 -0.679 1 DO -0.926 -0.063 -0.45 0.368 -0.575 0.266 0.245 -0.931 0.352 1 BOD 0.352 0.762 0.955 -0.921 0.985 0.516 -0.879 0.904 -0.92 -0.7 1 COD 0.637 0.525 0.811 -0.753 0.894 0.218 -0.678 0.996 -0.755 -0.88 0.95 1
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the real representation of quality of the water and organic load present in the water body. During the study BOD recorded from 9.4 to 29.2 mg/l which indicates the degree of water pollution. Maximum and minimum BOD value was observed in summer and rainy respectively. The higher BOD values attributed due to the organic load from discharge of municipal sewage 16. Similarly, COD values observed in the range from 68.7 to 132.3 mg/l in summer and rainy season respectively. The higher values of COD indicate pollution due to oxidisable organic matter17. The physico-chemical parameters are interdependent and a co-relation exists among them. The temperature and pH of the water are the most influencing factors as evidenced in Table. 2. Strategies for conservation of kavandi lake, Ambad The Kavandi Lake is moderately polluted due to the discharge of sewage and agricultural runoff. The conservation of the lake is essential as far as the water demand of the Ambad is concerned. The suggested strategies on the basis of obtained results are prevention of pollution by diverting or treating the municipal sewage entering the lake, lake cleaning by removing the aquatic vegetation, catchment area treatment by watershed development approach and public awareness and participation in lake conservation. CONCLUSION The study revealed that the water of Kavandi Lake is moderately polluted and unfit for drinking purpose without any treatment. The aesthetic value of lake gets deteriorated due to eutrophication in the water body. The best suggested strategies among conservation of the lake on the basis of study includes prevention of lake water pollution, treatment of sewage before discharging in lake, lake cleaning by removal of macrophytes and public awareness and public participation.
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Versari A., Parpinello G. P. and S. Galassi, J. Food Compos. Anal., 15: 251 (2002). Oluduro. A. O., Adewoye B. I., J. plant Sci., 6: 453-438 (2007). Kumar V. A., Sowjajanya V., Ravitra M., Gayatri P., Unnisa S. A. and Mukkanti K., IJEP, 28(9): 816-819 (2008). An. Y.J., Kampbell D.H., Sewell G.W., Environ. Pollut., 118: 331-336 (2002). Sanchez E. and Manuel F., Ecological Indicators, 7: 315â&#x20AC;&#x201C;328 (2007). Simeonov V., Stratis J. A., Samara C., Zachariadis G., Voutsa D., Anthemidis A., Sofoniou M. and Kouimtzis Th., Water Res., 37: 4119â&#x20AC;&#x201C;4124 (2003). Singh K. P., A. Malik., D. Mohan and S. Sinha, Water Res., 38(18): 3980-3992 (2004). Srivastava Neera, GarimaHarit and Rama Sr ivastava,Jour nal of Environmental Biology,30(5) : 889-894 (2009). APHA, Standard methods for examination of water and wastewater, 21st Ed., Washington D, USA (2005).
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Sharma M. S., Liyaquat F., Barbar D. and Chisty N., Poll. Res., 19(1): 147-157 (2000). Umavathi S., LongakumarK andSubhashini., Journal of Ecology and Environmental Conservation, 13(5): 501-504 (2007). Dagaonkar A. and Saksena D. N., J. Hydrobiol., 8(1): 11-19 (1992). Garg R. K., Saksena D. N. and Rao R. J., Journal of Ecophysiology and Occupational Health, 6: 33-40 (2006b). Hujare M.S., Ecotoxicology and Environmental Monitoring, 18(3): 233-242 (2008). Rani R., Gupta B. K. and Srivastava K. B. L., Nature environment and pollution technology, 3(4): 563-565 (2004). D.F. Singh and S.G. Patil, Environ. Poll. and Resource of Land and Water, 365-370 (1991). Rasool S., Harakishore K., Msatyakala and suryanarayanmurty U., IJEP, 2399: 961-963 (2003).
Vol. 9(2), 399-402 (2014)
Current World Environment
Bright Farming: An Innovative Approach for Sustainable Socio Ecosystem in Climate Change Scenario Yogranjan 1, Ajay Kumar Srivastava 2 , Gyanesh K. Satpute 3 and Rakesh S. Marabi4 Agricultural Biotechnology, JNKVV., College of Agriculture, Tikamgarh - 472001 , India. Departmen of Agro-Meteorolohy, JNKVV., College of Agriculture, Tikamgarh - 472001, India. 3 Senior Scientist-Genetics and Plant Breeding, Directorate of Soybean Research, Indore - 452001, India. 4 Entomology, JNKVV., College of Agriculture, Jabalpur - 472001, India. 1
2
http://dx.doi.org/10.12944/CWE.9.2.21 (Received: May 03, 2014; Accepted: June 10, 2014) Abstract Mitigating the effects of global climate change brought about by increasing emissions of greenhouse gases has grown to the worldwide sensed challenges. Possible strategies for lessening the ill impacts of agriculture on climate change and in parallels, optimizing overall yield potential of agricultural crops would certainly consider the initiatives for development of varieties having utmost reflectivity with least/no impact on photosynthetic yield. Crops having traits for maximum reflectivity such as specific plant height, leaf inclination, chlorophyll content, waxy leaf hairs, glossiness and/or canopy structural and morphological traits would be comprised in an ideotype. Genetic manipulation of crop reflectivity and/or selection for specific morphology of canopy might be possible using plant breeding however transgenesis for leaf waxy ness or canopy structure could achieve greater temperature reductions and may offer a viable solution to problem.
Key words: Climate change, Albedo, Crop canopy, Genetic modifications.
Introduction Climate signals observed over India in the last 100 years show an increasing trend in surface temperature by 0.3°C, a change in the spatial and temporal pattern of rainfall with respect to normal and occurrence of more intense and frequent extreme temperatures. Climate change has been attributed to alteration in the composition of the global atmosphere due to the growing greenhouse gas emissions on account of the growing human activities and this is in addition to natural climate variability observed over comparable time periods. The rising concentrations of greenhouse gases (GHGs) of anthropogenic origin in the atmosphere such as carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O) have increased, since the late 19th century. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) projects that the global
climate may warm by 1.4 to 5.8°C and precipitation may increase up to 7 per cent, and global sea level will rise from 0.09 to 0.88 m by the year 21001. The impact would be particularly severe in the tropical areas, which mainly consist of developing countries, including India. A certain part of energy, received from the sun, is reflected back to the space by the earth. The reflection coefficient of a natural surface is often termed as albedo and is defined as the ratio of reflected shortwave radiation to the incidence shortwave radiation on a surface and expressed in percentage. The albedo of crop surfaces is ranging between 23 and 30 %. The albedo of earth and atmosphere is 31 %. Growing agricultural crops having desirably higher albedo could bring down the atmospheric temperature as they reflect more sunlight back into the space than natural
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vegetation. Cultivation of crop varieties having higher albedo traits namely specific plant height, leaf inclination, chlorophyll content, leaf glossiness and/or canopy structural and morphological traits needs to be prioritized and popularized in near future farming practices as “Bright Farming”. Sustainable development has environmental, economic and social dimensions. The likelihood of irreversibility in the consequences of the interactions among climate, ecological and socio-economic systems are major reasons why anticipatory adaptation and mitigation actions are indispensable. Causes of Concern India is vulnerable country to climate change. These unprecedented changes in tropical climate are expected to present several adverse implications for agriculture, health, natural ecosystems, freshwater supply and related processes. Agriculture in India contributes 24% of GDP and provides employment to 1.3 million people. At present the occurrence of extreme climate events have caused serious impact in many sectors of agriculture. Crop production is extremely susceptible to climate change. It has been estimated that climate changes are likely to reduce yields and/or damage crops in the 21st century (IPCC, 2007). The climatic changes associated with increasing CO2 have the potential to affect plant metabolism, growth and yield. Visible leaf injuries including chlrorosis, necrosis and curling of leaves are sometimes observed in connection with CO2 enrichment2. The injurious effects of high CO2 concentrations may be on account of high leaf temperature and shortened nutrient uptake that is affected by reduced transpiration. Under high light level, excessive accumulation of starch results into chlorophyll break down. The immediate and marked response of plants to elevated CO2 owes to the biochemical property of Ribulose-1, 5-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxigenase, the primary caboxylase enzyme in C3 plants. Stomatal conductance and transpiration rates are less in plants exposed to elevated CO2 and hence affecting leaf metabolism. Under climate change condition, high temperature and water availability are the limiting factors. The inter relationship of elevated CO2, high temperature, and availability of water Climate change affects the microbial population of the macro-environment (soil, air and water) and the population of pests or other vectors. It is therefore a contributing factor to the
occurrence and gravity of biotic stresses attributable to (micro) organisms such as fungi, bacteria, viruses and insects. Abiotic factors such as nutrient deficiencies, air pollutants and temperature/moisture extremes also affect plant health and productivity. While the impact of biotic and abiotic factors on crop production and food security are more obvious, it is important to note that these factors may also have significant impact on the quality attributes of food crops. Of further concern is the impact of climate change on the prevalence of environmental contaminants and chemical residues in the food chain. Mitigation approaches to climate change: A state of art The worldwide social and environmental disruptions arising out of climate change necessitate the immediate policy interventions by every country to implement appropriate approaches for mitigation measures. These approaches may be broadly classified as non- agriculture and agriculture. A number of strategies have been proposed under non- agriculture class to deal with climate change. The most obvious way in which CO2 emissions can be reduced is by switching from burning fossil fuels to using non-fossil-fuel sources of energy such as nuclear energy, wave and wind power, and geothermal sources. CO 2 could be removed from the atmosphere by carbon sequestration in ocean. The construction of millions of artificial ‘‘trees’’ that extract CO2 from the ambient air by chemical scrubbing have also been proposed3,4. Solar insolation reaching the Earth’s surface might be reduced by the injection of sulfate aerosols into the atmosphere5,6 or by the construction of a space-based ‘‘sunshade’’7, 8.. India, being a developing country, the ethical considerations as well as heavy public investment required for the creation and implementation of infrastructure pose substantial barriers. Among the agriculture approaches, four biological approaches encompass (i) reducing atmospheric CO2 concentrations through soil carbon sequestration, (ii) afforestation, (iii) fertilizing the oceans to increase primary productivity and (iv) reducing increases in surface temperatures through increasing the albedo of crop plants. The arable
Yogranjan et al., Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(2), 399-402 (2014) crops are primarily grown for food, feed and fodder and the annual replanting of varieties with specifically desired modifications is needed in order to retain continued climatic benefits. Bright farming has the advantage in that the infrastructure required to create and propagate specific physiological leaf and canopy traits is already in place. India is a mega-biodiversity country with forests account for about 20% (64 million ha) of the geographical area and agricultural lands (lands used for agricultural production, consisting of cropland, managed grassland and permanent crops including agro-forestry and bio-energy crops) occupy about 40-50% of land surface. Recent studies imply that changes in land usage are reflected in the spatial distribution of the surface albedo pattern, obviously resulting in changes in the surface radiation balance9. In India, land use pattern has affected the per capita availability of land for agriculture. It has drastically reduced from 0.22 hectare in 1950 to 0.10 hectare in 2000 and projected to be 0.06 hectare in 2050.The total forest cover record was 131 million hectare in 1851, which has further declined from 71.8 million hectare in 1951, and 63.9 million hectares in 1991, to around 67.6 million hectares in 2001, which depicts a consistently declining trend in India’s forest cover till now. Overall the forest cover has been decimated from nearly 40% of India’s geographical area a century ago to 22% in 1951 and to 21% in 2001. Historical land-use change, involving a change from natural vegetation with a relatively low albedo to crop vegetation with generally higher albedo10, has suppressed surface temperatures11,12, partially offsetting the warming due to present-day elevated atmospheric CO2 concentrations. Characterization of albedo variety Higher albedo traits comprise of specific plant height, leaf inclination, chlorophyll content, the presence or absence of leaf hairs, leaf glossiness and/or canopy structural and morphological traits. For crop growing to height of 50 to 100cm albedo is usually between 0.18 and 0.25 when ground cover is complete but values as small as 0.10 have been recorded for forests. In general, maximum values of albedo (0.25) are recorded over relatively smooth surface. The fraction of radiation transmitted and reflected by a leaf depends on the angle of incidence. Chlorophyll exceeds about 4mg/cm2 of leaf surface for greater absorption of radiation. Waxy
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versus non-waxy varieties of barley can exhibit albedo differences of up to 0.16 (with respect to photosynthetically active radiation wavelengths). Canopy albedo depends on morphology of canopy (leaf albedo, orientation, structure etc). Because significant variability already exists, both among different varieties of the same crop plant13–15] and between species11, Different varieties of maize have been observed to differ by up to 0.08. Approaches - biotechnology, breeding Future selective breeding and genetic modification, in their complementarities, would offer the potential for a degree of climatic mitigation through bright farming. It will of course be important to establish that new crop strains with increased albedo will at least maintain and ideally improve on yields of existing varieties. Accordingly, it will be essential to ensure that increased albedo does not impact negatively on yield, water relations or the ability to resist pathogen attack. The manipulation of crop albedo might be possible using conventional plant breeding. Albedo can vary significantly between varieties of the same crop species, for instance because of differences in canopy morphology16 and leaf-surface properties13, 14. Careful selection of the plant variety grown can, by itself, thus provide a degree of mitigation of future warming. As solar elevation is important in determining the net albedo of the canopy, the specific crop variety could be deliberately selected according to the latitude in which it is grown. For optimizing plant albedo, selection for specific canopy properties is one possible avenue. In Arabidopsis, 24 loci are known to affect ‘glossiness’16,17 and many of these have been cloned. There are also ‘glossy’ mutants available in maize and barley; for example, there are 1,560 eceriferum (cer) mutants in barley representing some 85 complementation groups18. These resources raise the prospect of using genetic modification (GM) procedures to increase leaf surface albedo. With the growing understanding of cuticular wax biosynthesis pathway19,20], there are opportunities for using GM approaches to increase canopy albedo. Such genetic modifications could be designed to be wavelength specific and weighted toward wavelengths lying outside of the photosynthetically active radiation region (i.e., <400 nm and >700 nm). Reported results
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reveal that glaucous varieties of wheat and barley are grown under water-limited conditions exhibit increased grain yields as compared to their nonglaucous counterparts21. Temperature reductions could be achieved by genetic modification of plants for high albedo. Choosing the more reflective crop varieties would not disrupt global food production. Thus use of GE plants and selected conventional breeding methods can play important roles in future agricultural sustainability22. Importance for society: A sustainable eco-system The potential inequity of climate impacts has important implications for social justice and geopolitics. Indian farmers in general and farmers of semi arid region in particular are vulnerable to
climate change and need affordable solutions. Since farming is one of the contributors to the problem of climate change, it must play a remedial role. Properly designed climate change responses in crop varieties can be part and parcel of sustainable development and prevent or avoid damages to human systems and, thereby, contribute to the healthy socioecological balance. The above observations imply that a concept of bright farming, based on increasing crop albedo, has some potential to help mitigate climate change on a regional basis. This concept rests purely on modeling23 study and requires to gather data at field level to assess the real potential of the concept, prior to large scale implementation and adoption of bright farming.
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Kovats, R. S., Campbell-Lendrumdh, D. H., McMichael, A. J.,Woodward, A. and Coxj, J. S. T. H. Philos.Trans. R. Soc. B, Biol. Sci., 356: 1057–1068 (2001). Dwivedi, P. and Dwivedi, R. S., Eds Agrobios (India), 35-78 (2005). Keith, D.W., Ha-Duong, M., and Stolaroff, J.K. , Clim. Change. 74: 17–45 (2005). Zeman, F. , Environ. Sci. Technol. 41: 7558– 7563 (2007). Crutzen, P. , Clim. Change. 77: 211–219 (2006). Wigley, T.M.L, Science 314: 452–454 (2006). Angel, R., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 103: 17184–17189 (2006). Lunt, D.J., Ridgwell, A., Valdes, P.J., and Seale, A., Geophys. Res. Lett. 35, L12710. 10.1029/2008GL033674 (2008). Ben-Gai T. , Bitan A. , Manes A. , Alpert P. and Israeli A. , Theoretical and Applied Climatology, 61(3-4): 207-215 (1998). Monteith, J.L., and Unsworth, M. , Principles of Environmental Physics (London: Arnold) (1990). Betts, R.A., Falloon, P.D., Goldewijk, K.K., and Ramankutty, N. , Agric. For. Meteorol. 142: 216–233 (2007). Matthews, H.D., Weaver, A.J., Eby, M., and
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Meissner, K.J. , Geophys. Res. Lett. 30: 1055. 10.1029/2002GL016098 (2003). Febrero, A., Fernandez, S., Molina-Cano, J., and Araus, J., J. Exp. Bot. 49: 1575– 1581(1998). Grant, R.H., Heisler, G.M., Gao, W., and Jenks, M. Agric. For. Meteorol. 120: 127–139 (2003). Hatfield, J.L., and Carlson, R.E. , Agricultural Meteorology 20: 215–226 (1979). Rashotte, A.M., Jenks, M.A., Ross, A.S., and Feldmann, K.A. , Planta 219: 5–13 (2004). Koorneef, M., Hanhart, C.J., and Thiel, F., J. Hered. 80: 118–122 (1989). Post-Beittenmiller, D. , Plant Mol. Biol. 47: 405–430(1996). Kunst, L., and Samuels, A.L., Lipid Res. 42: 51–80. (2003). Samuels, L., Kunst, L., and Jetter, R. , Ann. Rev. Plant. Biol. 59: 683–707(2008). Merah, O., Deleens, E., and Monneveux, P. J., Agron. Crop. Sci. 185: 259–265 (2000). Yogranjan, Satpute. G.K. and Marabi R.S., Elect. J. of Polish Agricultural Universities (Poland). Topic- Agronomy 13 (3): 1-8 (2010). Ridgwell, A., Singarayer, J.S., Hetherington, A.M., and Valdes, P.J. ,Curr. Biol. 19 : 1–5 (2009).
Vol. 9(2), 403-411 (2014)
Current World Environment
Watershed Sustainability Index Assessment of A Watershed in Chhattisgarh, India Surendra Kumar Chandniha1*, M.L. Kansal2 and G. Anvesh3 1 Department of Water Resources Development & Management, Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee-247667 (Uttarakhand), India. 2 Department of Water Resources Development & Management, Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee-247667 (Uttarakhand), India. 3 Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee-247667 (Uttarakhand), India.
http://dx.doi.org/10.12944/CWE.9.2.22 (Received: May 10, 2014; Accepted: June 14, 2014) ABSTRACT In order to achieve continuous sustainable development in a watershed, it is desired that natural resources such as water are assessed and utilized efficiently. Generally, water resources are assessed considering watershed as a unit. Since the water requirements and availability varies in space and time, it is desired to manage the water resources so as to satisfy the demand on sustainable basis. Further, in order to achieve sustainability, it is necessary to consider social, economic and environment aspects of water resources. However it is difficult to bring all these indicators on a single platform. In this study, a watershed sustainability index (WSI) which integrates the hydrology, environment, life and policy (HELP) has been suggested for Piperiya watershed in Chhattisgarh state of India. This watershed has an area of about 2400km2 and is part of Hasdeo river basin which is located in Koriya district of Chhattisgarh. Further, the majority of population in the area is tribal and illiterate. Providing safe and adequate water to the masses is a challenge in this area. The District has numerous hill ranges with rocky geological formation having steep slope. The district faces an acute water shortage for drinking as well as irrigation. Further, the area has number of coal mines and coal washing plants, which contaminate the surface water as well as groundwater. Thus, the availability of safe and fresh water is quite limited. It has been noticed that the WSI for this watershed is about 0.55, which is moderate level of sustainability. In order to improve the water sustainability in this watershed, a watershed management framework and its utilization has been elaborated.
Key words: Sustainability, Hydrology, Environment, Life, Policy, Chhattisgarh.
INTRODUCTION Water is very essential for living beings, and fresh water is finite entity. For managerial point of view, it is very necessary to develop the plan for future perspectives. According to Brundtland Commission's report (Commission and Commission, 1987): Sustainable development means that "development which meets the needs of current generations without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs". Sustainability is depends upon three major indicators
i.e., environment, social and economic. However the dependency of these major indicators also depends upon various sub indicators which is responsible for sustainability of resources. Watershed is a hydrological unit/catchment which conveys the water through the streams and disposed/drained out by single outlet. Watershed management help to improve the design and implementation programs for sustainable development with quantitative and qualitative manner (Gregersen and Lundgren, 1989). As per population India is the second largest country of the world, agriculture in India has
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probably reached its limit and further sustainable increases in food production must come from dryland forming, especially watershed development and management. This calls for an analysis of situations under which watershed technology becomes economically viable, socially acceptable and ecologically sustainable (Reddy, 2000). For sustainable development, various researchers has working under the consideration of major indicators i.e., social, environment and economic (Lawrence et al., 2002; Loucks and Gladwell, 1999; Raskin et al., 1996; Salameh, 2000; Sullivan, 2002). Sustainability assessment covers review of the process of planning, implementation and benefits accrued from watershed in qualitative and quantitative terms. Assessment of the overall impact of watershed planning is carried out on the basis of natural resources (land, water, and vegetation) through qualitative research methods. Suitable programme strategies are required for smooth implementation of various watershed activities and sustainable development in future with a proper line of action. This task must involve professionals from different disciplines in a context much broader than water management. The WSI integrates the Hydrology (H), Environment (E), Life (L) and Policy (P) aspects
of a watershed under three parameters: Pressure, State and Response. Pressure addresses the human activities exerted on the watershed; State assesses the quality of the watershed in the base year of study as well as the quality and quantity of natural resources while Response examines the societyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s level of desire to address ecological problems in the watershed (Catano et al., 2009; Chaves and Alipaz, 2007). Water resources sustainability at the watershed scale within a river basinâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s context, the Water Resources Sustainability Evaluation Model is developed. However four major indicator were considered i.e., economic efficiency, social equity, environmental conservation, maintenance capacity and sixteen sub indicator is considered. The model is successfully applied for to access the water resources sustainability of watersheds in the Geum River basin, South Korea (Kang and Lee, 2011). The objective of this paper is to propose integrated watershed management framework is and how its use can contribute to the watershed sustainability has been discussed. The study based on HELP issues which is associated with water issues and responses. However calculated scores are helpful for development of water sustainability
Fig. 1: Location map of study area (Piperiya watershed of Hasdeo river basin)
Chandniha et al., Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(2), 403-411 (2014) MATERIALS AND METHODS Salient features of study area The Piperiya watershed located in Hasdeo river catchment of Mahanadi basin in Chhattisgarh. It lies between Northern latitude 22째37'46" to 23째35'40" and Eastern longitude 82째01'48" to 82째37'29" and area of the watershed is about 2414km2 (Figure 1). Watershed covers the three district (Koriya, Korba and Bilaspur) of Chhattisgarh and partially intersect the Annuppur district of Madhya Pradesh. However the major part covers under Koriya district of Chhattisgarh. The topography is hilly in the northern part and becomes plain in south. Elevation of the watershed varies from 324 to 1062m where as Northern part of watershed have higher elevations. The Koriya district received about 1411mm rainfall in a year.
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Assessing the WSI using help issues Watershed is a hydrological catchment, it may be intersect the administrative boundary of the district or states. However the calculation of the parameter is more difficult as compare to administrative boundary area (Nyerges et al., 2002). Watershed is an individual integrated natural segment which receives the water from precipitation and drained by single outlet as per the relief. Calculation of secondary parameter i.e., demography, sociology, policy etc. is more difficult as compare to administrative boundary area (block/district/state). Because of that, seldom are watersheds used as the planning and management unit. Sustainability of water resources or watershed in a given basin is directly related to its HELP issues. Though it is known that sustainability of water resources is directly depend on HELP issues an attempt has been made to penetrate all into a single aspect
Where, WSI- Watershed Sustainability Index P1- Pressure (Ratio of long term river mean flow rate to the basin population) S1- State (Percentage change in period of study regarding lean flow rate ) R1- Response (Water use efficiency in the basin (water availability/person/year)) P2- Pressure (BOD5 variation in the period studied) S2- State (Variation in basin BOD5 (mg/lit) in the period studied) R2- Response (Improvement in sewage treatment methods in the period studied) P3- Pressure (Average percentage variation in land use and urban population in the period studied ) S3- State (Percentage variation in forest land in the period studied) R3- Response (Best management practices (BMPz) in the period studied) P4- Pressure (Variation in basin per capita income in the period studied) S4- State (Basin human development index (HDI) in the period studied) R4- Response (Improvement in basin HDI in the period studied) P5- Pressure (Percentage variation in Education development index (EDI) in the period studied) S5- State (Capacity in development of integrated water resources management (IWRM) R5- Response (Institutional expenditures over IWRM in the period studied)
Fig. 2: Flow chart of Methodology for quantify the watershed sustainability index (WSI)
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(WSI). United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) has been deciding the Human Development Index (HDI) which is indicate the intensity score of educational, life expectancy, and income information for municipalities, states and countries. HDI values vary from 0 to 1 and are simple to use, robust and applied worldwide to assess development. Besides poor literacy and health indicators, the state also fares badly on human development indicators. With a Human Development Index (HDI) value of only 0.358, Chhattisgarh ranks last out of 23 states (India, 2010). Recently United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO’s) working in the water sector is built on three tracks, hydrological science for policy relevant advice, education and capacity building responding to the growing needs of sustainable development, and water resources assessment and management to achieve environmental sustainability (International Hydrological Programme IHP-2013) which is directly related to HELP indicators. An integrated basin sustainability index, spanning different socioeconomic and environmental issues and their responses, would be helpful to access the level of sustainability of river basins or watershed, allowing not only for a comparison framework, but also a tool to identify bottlenecks to achieve basin sustainability (Chaves and Alipaz, 2007).
In this study HELP indicators considered as major indicators, it plays a key role for sustainable watershed management. Final score of the WSI has contributed from major indicators (Figure 2). And these indicator a derived from pressure, state, and response parameters which is summarized in Table 1. In this table the constraints of parameters are defined by Chaves and Alipaz, 2007. The assigning score of each parameters varies from 0 to 1. Indicator scores has been assigned by pressure, state and responce parameter constraints in terms of its different levels which is shown in Table 2, Table 3 and Table 4 respectively. Case study of WSI in Koriya district of Chhattisgarh To illustrate the utilization of the WSI, it was applied to the Piperiya watershed of Hasdeo river basin in Koriya district, watershed area is about 2414 km2. The period studied was considered 5 years (2007-2012), Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) model has been used for runoff estimation. ERDAS imagine (Ver. 9.2) and ArcMap (Ver. 9.3) software has been used for pre and post-processing purposes of primary datasets. Environmental, social and economic data were collected from different authentic sources. Since WSI is formed by four indicators, each of them will be presented separately,
Table 1:Indicators and parameters considered in the design of Watershed Sustainability Index Indicators
Pressure parameters
State Response
Hydrology Variation in the basin’s per Basin per capita water capita water availability in the availability (long term period Variation in the basin average) Basin BOD5 BOD5 in the period analyzed (long term average) Environment Basin’s EPI (Rural and urban) Percent of basin area in the period analyzed with natural vegetation Life Variation in the basin per Basin HDI (weighed capita income in the period by county population) analyzed Policy Variation in the basin HDI- Basin institutional Education in the period capacity in IWRM analyzed Source: (Chaves and Alipaz, 2007)
Improvement in water-use efficiency in the period analyzed Improvement in sewage treatment/disposal in the period analyzed Evolution in basin conservation (percent of protected areas, BMPs) in the period analyzed Evolution in the basin HDI in the period analyzed Evolution in the basin’s IWRM expenditures in the period analyzed
Chandniha et al., Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(2), 403-411 (2014) and the overall score of watershed sustainability index (WSI) computed at the end. The adopted methodology for this study is as shown in the form of flow chart which illustrated on Figure 2. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS Hydrology Indicator Quantity Aspect In this study, the score of hydrology indicator has been carried out quantitative and qualitative aspects. In case of water quantity subindicator, surface water is the principal sources in the basin. For measurement of quantitative aspect in the watershed sustainability, per capita water availability (state parameter) was correlate with the long-term river mean flow rate, divided by the basin population in the period studied. In the qualitative term, only variation of the basin BOD5 has considered for
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quality parameter and their score is assign using the predefined Table 3 (Chaves and Alipaz, 2007). The combined score of the hydrology indicator is just average of the both sub-indicators (quantity as well as quality). In case of basin water, quantity pressure parameter, the variation in water availability (Wa) were quantifying for the duration of 5 year period studied. The average changes of long term variation have found 11.1% positively. The assigned score has been chosen from Table 2 (Chaves and Alipaz, 2007), calculated score of the pressure parameter is 1.0 during the period studied. At the end of the watershed, long term average flow rate has been received is about of 36 m3/s during the period studied. Total basin population of the basin is about 3,62,823 (Census 2011) which has dependent on basin water itself. Per capita annual water availability (Wa) is estimated as about 3600 m3. Out of this, about 3125 m3 is from surface water and about 475
Table 2: Description of WSI pressure parameters, levels, and scores Indicator
Pressure parameters
Hydrology ∆1-variation in the basin per capita water availability in the period studied, relative to the long-term average (m3/person year) ∆ 2-variation in the basin BOD5 in the period studied, relative to the long-term average Environment Basin E.P.I, (rural and urban) in the period studied Life Variation in the basin per capita HDI- Income in the period studied, relative to the previous period. Policy Variation in the basin HDI-Education in the period studied, relative to the previous period Source: (Chaves and Alipaz, 2007)
Level
Score
∆1<-20% -20%<∆1<-10% -10%<∆1<0% 0<∆1<10% ∆1>10% ∆2>20% 20%>∆2>10% 0<∆2<10% -10%<∆2<0 ∆2<-10% EPI>20% 20%<EPI>10% 10%<EPI<5% 5%<EPI<0 EPI<0 ∆<-20% -20%>∆<-10% -10%<∆<0 0>∆<10% ∆>10% ∆<-20% -20%<∆<-10% -10%<∆<0 0<∆<10% ∆>10%
0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1 0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1 0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1 0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1 0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1
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m3 from ground water. According to Table 4, the assigned score for quantity state parameter is 0.50 (medium). For quantity response parameter, in the 5 year period studied, there was some improvement in water use efficiency in the basin, which corresponds to a score of 0.25. Therefore, the final score of the Pressure, State, and Response parameters for basin water quantity is carried out 0.58 (average score of the pressure, state, and response parameters)
Conservation Board, 2011). This results in a state score of 0.5. The quality response parameter for the water quality sub-indicator resulted in a score of 0.25 (poor improvement in sewage treatment/disposal in the 3 years studied). The final score has been carried out with averaging the all three quality sub-indicators scores and is 0.33. Hence, the overall Hydrology indicator value is simply the average of the quantity and quality sub-indicators, or (0.58+0.33)/2=0.46.
Quality Aspect In the case of the water quality subindicator, quality pressure parameter corresponds to the variation in the basin BOD5 in the 3 year period (+13.64%), score were assign according to Table 3, the score assigned for pressure parameter is 0.25. In quality state parameter, basinâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s BOD5 longterm average was found about 3.3 mg/l in Hasdeo river basin (Report of Chhattisgarh Environmental
Environment Indicator The Environment indicator was calculated as the average over Pressure, State, and Response parameters. In case of pressure parameter, the combined basin variation in agricultural area and urban population as per land use change in period studied has been increased 1.5% and 9.0%, respectively, however the average value is about (1.5%+9.0%)/2=5.3%. This corresponds to an
Table 3: Description of WSI state parameters, levels, and scores Indicator
State parameters
Hydrology Basin per capita water availability (m3/person year). considering both surface and groundwater sources Basin averaged long term BOD5 (mg/1) Environment Percent of basin area under natural vegetation (Av) Life Basin HDI (weighed by county population) Policy Basin institutional capacity in IWRM (legal and organizational) Source: (Chaves and Alipaz, 2007)
Level
Score
Wa< 1,700 l,700<Wa<3,400 3,400<Wa<5,100 5,100<Wa<6,800 Wa>6,800 BOD>10 10<BOD<5 5<BOD<3 3<B0D<1 BOD<1 Av<5 5<Av<10 10<Av<25 25<Av<40 Av>40 HDI<0.5 0.5<HDI<0,6 0.6<HDI<0.75 0.75<HDI<0.9 HDI>0.9 Very poor Poor Medium Good Excellent
0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1 0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1 0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1 0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1 0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1
Chandniha et al., Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(2), 403-411 (2014) environmental pressure score of 0.5. In the case of environmental state, the basin has 30.3% of its original vegetation cover in the year 2012, which, according to Table 3 (Chaves and Alipaz, 2007), resulted in a value of 0.75. The environmental response (evolution in protected areas and areas with BMPs) was very minute in the studied basin area which resulting, according to Table 4 (Chaves and Alipaz, 2007), the score were assign as 0.50. Therefore, the overall score 0.58 over the studied basin Life Indicator In the life pressure parameter, the basin was estimated by the variation in the basin’s HDIincome sub index in the 5 year period (2007–2012), data has been acquired from UNDP-Chhattisgarh Economic and Human Development Indicators, 2011. In that period, there was an increase in HDIIncome of 3.4% (UNDP 2004), resulting, according
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to Table 3, in a score of 1.0 (Good). In case of life state parameter, the basin HDI in the year previous to the period studied was 0.81, resulting assigned value is 0, according to Table 4. The overall basin HDI was the weighted average of the HDI values of each municipality and its corresponding population of the basin area. For life response parameter, i.e., the evolution of the expenditures in IWRM in the basin, was +5% in the 5 year period, resulting in a parameter value of 0.1 (Table 5). Therefore, the overall Life score for the basin was (1.0+0 +1.0)/3=0.66. Policy Indicator The policy pressure score (variation in the HDI-Education sub-indicator in the 5 year period) for the basin was +2.5%, resulting in a parameter score of 0.75 (Table 2). This indicates that, in the period studied, there was a significant increase in the educational level of the basin, which would have
Table 4:Description of WSI response parameters, levels, and scores Indicator Response parameters Hydrology Improvement in water-use efficiency in the basin. in the period studied Improvement in adequate sewage treatment /disposal in the basin, in the period studied Environment Evolution in basin conservation areas (Protected areas and BMPs) in the basin, in the period studied Life Evolution in the basin IIDI in the basin, in the period studied Policy Evolution in the basin's WRM expenditures in the basin. in the period studied Source: (Chaves and Alipaz, 2007)
Level
Score
Very poor Poor Medium Good Excellent Very poor Poor Medium Good Excellent ∆<-10% -10%<∆<0% 0<∆<10% 10%>∆<20% ∆>20% ∆<-10% -10%<∆<0% 0<∆<10% 10%>∆<20% ∆>20% ∆<-10% -10%<∆<0% 0<∆<10% 10%>∆<20% v>20%
0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1 0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1 0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1 0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1 0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1
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Hydrology Pressure State Response Quantity 1 0.50 Quality 0.25 0.5 E.P.I 0.5 0.75
0.75
Score
0.25 0.58 0.46 0.25 0.33 Environment 0.5 0.58 0.58 Life
H.D.I 1.0 0 1 Policy E.D.I
Average
0.25
0.5
0.66
0.66
0.50
0.50
Combined score of WSl=0.55
Table 5 : Final score of each major indicators, sub indicators and WSI
Bold Numbers: Show poor performance for WSI contributed to the societal participation in IWRM. As for the policy state parameter (basin institutional capacity), although there is a legal framework available (federal and state water, and environmental laws and regulations), little was accomplished in participatory water resources management in the period studied. The Piperiya watershed of Hasdeo river basin has lacks of watershed committee or association and extension work. However, it is necessary to improve the prioritization plan for basin level. As a consequence, the basin was ranked poor in this particular issue, with a corresponding parameter level of 0.25. With regard to policy response, the evolution in the basin expenditures in IWRM was +5% in the 5 year period, yielding a value of 0.5 for this parameter. The overall policy were calculated as averaging the all three parameters, i.e., (0.75+0.25+0.5)/3=0.50. Finally the combined score of the generalized HEPL indicator is 0.55 which has considered as the watershed sustainability index (WSI) of the Piperiya watershed in Hasdeo river basin. CONCLUSIONS In this study a methodology for water sustainability index on the basis of hydrology, environment, life and policies (HELP) has been advocated for a Piperiya watershed of Chhattisgarh state in India. On the basis of this methodology, the watershed sustainability has been estimated as 0.55 which is of moderate level. However, it may be noticed that such estimate is subject to various
assumptions. One of the assumptions is that the weightage of each parameter is considered as equal. However, one can use the expert system for deciding the weightage of each parameter as suggested by (Kansal and Gaur, 2011). Further, watershed sustainability can be improved by improving the hydrology of the watershed. Since the major source of water is rainfall which varies in space and time, one can think of creating storage in the watershed. The areas of the abandoned caol mines can be utilized as sites of natural storage and the same can used for various purposes after proper treatment. Further, the climate can be improved by way of growing more trees and by restricting the pace of urbanization in the watershed. One of the major contributors to environment in this watershed is coal mines. The waste generated from these coal mines should be disposed off properly so that it does not pollute the freshwater in the area. Since the area is mainly dominated by tribal people, there is plenty of scope for improving the education level of the people and hence the human resource in the area. It is desired that the public at large should be involved in order to improve the watershed conditions. People should be made a part of aforestation programme and should be made educated for conservation of water. Acknowledgements The authors wish to thank the Indian Meteorological Department (IMD) and state data
Chandniha et al., Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(2), 403-411 (2014) center Raipur for providing the long range rainfall data. The first author would also like to thank Ministry of Human Resources Development, Government of
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India for providing financial support for carrying out this study.
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Catano, N., Marchand, M., Staley, S., Wang, Y., Development and Validation of the Watershed Sustainability Index (WSI) for the Watershed of the ReventazĂłn River. Tech. rep., Comcure.(2009) Chaves, H.M., Alipaz, S., An integrated indicator based on basin hydrology, environment, life, and policy: the watershed sustainability index. Water Resources Management 21, 883-895.(2007) Commission, B., Commission, B., Our common future. Oxford: Oxford University Press.(1987) Gregersen, H.M., Lundgren, A.L., Linking monitoring and assessment to sustainable Development. Forestry for Sustainable Development Program, Department of Forest Resources, College of Natural Resources, University of Minnesota.(1989) India, U., Results from 2010â&#x20AC;&#x201C;Empowered Lives, Resilient Nations. UNDP India.(2010) Kang, M.G., Lee, G.M., Multicriteria Evaluation of Water Resources Sustainability in the Context of Watershed Management1. JAWRA Journal of the American Water Resources Association 47, 813-827.(2011) Kansal, M., Gaur, A., Expert System Based Water Sustainability Index, Reston, VA: ASCE copyright Proceedings of the 2011 World Environmental and Water Resources Congress; May 22. 26, 2011, Palm Springs, California| d 20110000. American Society of Civil Engineers.(2011) Lawrence, P.R., Meigh, J., Sullivan, C., The water poverty index: an international comparison.(2002)
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Loucks, D.P., Gladwell, J.S., Sustainability criteria for water resource systems. Cambridge University Press.(1999) 10. Nyerges, T., Jankowski, P., Drew, C., Datagathering strategies for social-behavioural research about participatory geographical information system use. International Journal of Geographical Information Science 16, 1-22.(2002) 11. Raskin, P.D., Hansen, E., Margolis, R.M., Water and sustainability, Natural Resources Forum. Wiley Online Library, 1-15.(1996) 12. Reddy, V.R., Sustainable watershed management: Institutional approach. Economic and Political Weekly, 3435-3444. (2000) 13. Salameh, E., Redefining the water poverty index. Water International 25: 469-473. (2000) 14. Sullivan, C., Calculating a water poverty index. World development 30: 1195-1210.(2002) 15. UNESCO, Work in the water sector is built on three tracks: International Hydrological Programme IHP-2013 site: http://www.unesco. org/new/en/natural-sciences/environment/ water/ihp/about-ihp/. (2013) 16. Repor t of Chhattisgarh Environmental Conser vation Board, ACTION PLAN: Development of Comprehensive Environmental Pollution Abatement Action Plan for Critically Polluted Area Korba 6I;CHHATTISGARH.(2011) 17. UNDP, United Nations Development Programme, Chhattisgarh Economic and Human Development Indicators. (2011)
Vol. 9(2), 412-420 (2014)
Current World Environment
Comparative Study of Nirmalya Solid Waste Treatment by Vermicomposting and Artificial Aeration Composting PALLAVI S. CHAKOLE* and D.B. JASUTKAR Department of Civil Engineering, G.H. Raisoni College of Engineering, Nagpur- 440016, India. http://dx.doi.org/10.12944/CWE.9.2.23 (Received: May 13, 2014; Accepted: June 20, 2014) ABSTRACT Temple waste normally contains floral offering, leaves and milk product i.e. “Abishek waste water”, and this solid waste management is one of the important issues in the world, because of shortage ofdumping sites and strict environmental legislation. Now days ‘Nirmalyasolid waste’ is generated in large quantity due toincreased in population are commonly treated using different types of bins by the method of composting or vermicomposting. Vermicomposting of solid waste can be done by using different types of earthworms providing natural and artificial aeration along with mixture of cow dung and soil, artificial aeration is carried out by providing diffused aerators or perforated pipes. The parameters like C/N ratio, temperature, moisture contain are carried out. The main objective of this study is to minimize the problem of solid waste management by treating nirmalya solid waste by vermicomposting and suggesting that which method gives good quality of compost at short interval of time comparing artificial and natural aeration composting.
Key words: Nirmalya solid waste, Vermicomposting, artificial aeration.
INTRODUCTION Solid waste and waste water was Collected from “Ganesh Tekadi temple” Nagpur. Generally 500 kg of nirmalya solid waste containingfloral offering, leavesand 200 to 300 lit of “Abishek waste water” which contain milk, sugar and milk products are generate daily at ‘Ganesh Tekadi’. Generated nirmalya waste is collected in bin and transferred to the collection point; from that point waste is collected by NMC vehicles and transferred to the treatment plant. Solid waste is basically unwanted or discarded material that is not a liquid or a gas; it can include organic waste, paper, metals, glass, cloth, brick and rock, yard waste etc.Now a daysdue to increased in population number of temples are developed and tons of temple waste in the form of flowers, leaves, fruits, sugar, milk and milk products, grains generated daily are disposed in open dumps or river generating foul odor as well as act as breeding centers for disease causingmicroorganism.Looking
into the hazardous impact of the improper disposalof wastes on the environment, emphasis should be given on aerobiccomposting which converts waste into organic manure rich in plant nutrients, common treatment provided for these waste are Composting and vermicomposting. To m i n i m i z e h e a l t h h a z a r d s a n d environmental problem the method of composting is done by making a heap of wetted organic matter (leaves, “green” food waste) and waiting for the materials to break down into humus after a period of weeks or months. Inmodern technique composting is a multistep, closely monitored process with measured inputs of water, air, and carbon and nitrogen rich materials, the decomposition process is aided by shredding the plant matter,adding water and ensuring proper aeration by regularly turning the mixture. N o w a d ay ’s g r o w i n g i n t e r e s t i n vermicomposting of this waste as it adds value to waste, and furthermore reduces the volume to make
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its application easier. Municipal solid waste is highly organic in nature; therefore vermicomposting of MSW has become a suitable option for the safe, hygienic and cost effective disposal. Vermicomposting is known as a sustainable source of macro and micronutrients,plant growth hormones and enzymes (Kale and Karmegam, 2010) which not only enhancemicrobial population but also hold nutrients for longer periods(Ndegwa and Thompson,2001). Becauseofthesebeneficial properties vermicompost can be directly applied to soil to increased soil structure and its capacity by using different species of earthworms i.e.Eisenia fetida or Eisenia andrei,Eisenia hortensis or Dendrobaena veneta. Vermicomposting is the method which, recyclesthe crop residues and significantly increases theamount of N, P and K concentration in compost. The important role ofearthworms in ecosystem is in nutrient recycling,particularly nitrogen. Thus, they affect the physicochemicalproperties of soil. The action of earthworms in the process of vermicompostingof waste is physical and biochemical. Thephysical process includes substrate aeration, mixing aswell as actual grinding while the biochemical process isinfluenced by microbial decomposition of substrate inthe intestine of earthworms. Variousstudies have shown that vermicomposting of organicwaste accelerates organic matter stabilization. Vermicomposting is carried out for three types of waste i.e. kitchen waste, farmyard waste and temple waste for period of 120 day for suggesting good compost for seed germination and plant growth, after analysis of C/N, TK, conductivity, resulted that temple waste using Eisenia fetida is good as compared to other two waste (Akanksha Singh et.al., 2013).
MATERIALS AND METHODS Solid waste Solid waste basically contains paper, plastic, food, yard waste, flower, leaves etc. Out of these “Nirmalya waste” is used in present study, it mainly consist of different types of floral offering and leaves. The nirmalya waste was collected from “Ganesh Tekadi” Nagpur.Generally 500 kg of nirmalya waste are generated daily. In this study total 6400 gm waste was collected and divided into two bins containing 3200 gm of nirmalya waste in each bin. Initial analysis of that solid waste was carried out. pH of solid waste was checked by pH meter; moisture content was calculated by oven dry method and density of that solid waste. Waste water “Abishek waste water” was collected from Ganesh tekadi temple. Basically 200 to 300 lit of waste water were generated daily, to check quality of that water initial analysis was carried out. Total three samples were collected at two day interval and chemical characterization of that abishek water was carried out. Parameter tested is pH, chemical oxygen demand (COD) and hardness. pH was checked by pH meter, COD by COD digester and hardness with simple titration method. Each sample was analyzed thrice to get accurate results. Composting After the analysis of nirmalya waste, actual setup was prepared using two plastic bins with dimensions measuring 50 cm x 28 cm, were used for composting having natural holes, out of two bins one having natural aeration and other having artificial aeration provided by perforated pipe, inlet
Fig. 1: Layout of composting bin
CHAKOLE & JASUTKAR, Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(2), 412-420 (2014) end of the pipe is closed and outlet it connect to air blower. Bins contain nirmalya waste along with cow dung arranged in alternate layer and finally covered with layer of soil. It consists of total 5000 gm waste containing (3200 gm nirmalya waste + 1500 gm cow dung + 300 gm soil). After feeding all the material in each bin, initially analysis of moisture content was
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carried out at periodic interval of time. Moisture content was calculated daily to maintained the value up to 60% throughout the composting period by oven dry method, if it increases above 60% then it reduced by sprinkling of water. Analysis was carried out after Table 1: Abishek waste water" analysis Parameters
Sample1 Sample 2 Sample3
pH 6.51 COD (mg/lit) 616 Hardness (mg/lit) 140
6.36 628 120
6.71 600 124
Table 2: "Nirmalya waste" was collected from Ganesh temple analysis Parameters
Fig. 2: Comparison between Artificial and Natural aeration composting
pH Moisture content Density
Results 6.54 16.34 66.96kg/m3
Fig. 3(a): Line chart for TKN for NAC
Fig. 3 (b): Bar chart for TKN for NAC
Fig. 3 (c): Line chart for TKN for AAC
Fig. 3 (d): Bar chart for TKN for AAC
Fig. 3Variation of nitrogen content before and after composting
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45 to 60 day of composting period. Parameter tested was temperature by thermometer on daily basis, carbon content by muffle furnace and nitrogen was analyzed by Kjeldhal method. Earthworms Adult clitellate worms, Eisenia fetida, ranging in length from 4 to 8 cm was collected from “Gorakshan Kendra” wardha road, Nagpur. Total quantity of 25 to 30 no were added in each bin through the developed cracks after 60 to 65 days of partial decomposition of waste. After the addition of earthworm analysis was carried out at specific interval of time to check the degree of organic waste stabilization. Earthworms species i.e. Eisenia fetida (Red worms) are used in the present study.
as compost is use as instant source of food to the earthworms. After the addition of earthworms physicochemical characterization of waste was carried out at specific interval of time. Important parameter required to check the stabilization of waste are Total Kjeldhal nitrogen (TKN), Total organic carbon (TOC), C/N ratio and pH. To prevent wormsfrom the thermophilic reaction occurring during composting watering wasstopped when the VC was ready as indicated by uniform dark brownto black colour granular structure. Three days later the compostalong with worms was harvested and the worms were removed by sieving. The number of adult worms separated wasweighed. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Vermicomposting It is the process of decomposition of organic waste matter using earthworms. In this work earthworms species i.e. Eisenia fetida is used
Waste water “Abishek waste water” analysis was carried out showing results in Table 1.
Fig. 4 (a) Line chart for TOC for NAC
Fig. 4 (b) Bar chart for TOC for NAC
Fig. 4 (c) Line chart for TOC for AAC
Fig. 4 (d) Bar chart for TOC for AAC
Fig. 4:Variation of carbon content before and after composting
CHAKOLE & JASUTKAR, Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(2), 412-420 (2014) Solid waste â&#x20AC;&#x153;Nirmalya wasteâ&#x20AC;? was collected from Ganesh temple and initial analysis of that waste was carried out. Parameter checked was pH, moisture content and density of solid waste. Results are shown in table 2. Analysis of moisture content and temperature providing natural and artificial aeration After the stabilization of actual setup continuous analysis of temperature and moisture content by using natural aeration and artificial aeration with specific interval of time was carried out, to maintained the moisture content about 60% to 70% by increasing or decreasing the period of aeration and by continuous sprinkling of water because for the process of composting not much more moisture is required it is always in controlled range. Comparative results of natural and artificial aeration are shown in Fig.2.
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From the above graph it is shows that artificial aeration gives less moisture content as compared to natural aeration and it help to maintained moisture to desired level.Composting proceeds best at a moisture content of 40-60% by weight. At lower moisture levels, microbial activity is limited. At higher levels, the process is likely to become anaerobic and foul smelling.When theand mixing of compost ingredients, measure the moisture content.After the composting is underway, donâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t need to repeat this measurement because you can observe whether appropriate moisture levels are being maintained. Compost and Vermicompost analysis The physicochemical properties of natural and artificial aeration composting was initially carried out parameter tested was pH , TOC, TKN and C/N ration after the specific interval of time earthworms are added in the bin and same
Fig. 5 (a) Line chart for C/N ratio for NAC
Fig. 5 (b) Bar chart for C/N ratio for NAC
Fig. 5 (c) Line chart for C/N ratio for AAC
Fig. 5 (d) Bar chart for C/N ratio for AAC
Fig. 5: Variation of C/N ratio before and after composting
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chemical characteristic was carried out which shows significant variation in pH , TOC, TKN and C/N ration before and after the vermicomposting. Comparison of physicochemical characteristic before and after composting inboth the method by natural and artificial aeration From the above graph of natural aeration composting shows that initial nitrogen content was very low i.e. 0.48 as compared to this when earthworms are added it accelerate the process of composting and increased the nitrogen content in both the bin but maximum result is obtained in artificial aeration composting. The increase in total nitrogen content was higher in vermicompost than composts, where cow dung increment resulted in increased nutrient contents. Many authors reported that losses in organic carbon might be responsible for nitrogen upgrading
As the result shows that initially carbon was very high in natural as well as artificial aeration composting i.e. 22.04 and 20.45 due to low concentration of nitrogen as the process of composting proceeds carbon content get decreased to value of 15.82 for artificial aeration composting which is good for compost as compared to this 16.34 for natural aeration composting with same interval of time. The microbial respiration may lead to rapid carbon loss throughCO2 production and also, digestion of carbohydrates, lignin, celluloseand other polysaccharides from the substrates by inoculatedearthworms may cause carbon reduction during the decompositionof organic waste. In the present study to reducethe C/N ratio by minimal incorporation of cow dung, which is a goodsource of nitrogen, in order to make the waste mixture suitable fordecomposition using earthworms. The C/N ratio of the composts in natural and artificial
Fig. 6 (a) Line chart for pH for NAC
Fig. 6 (b) Bar chart for pH for NAC
Fig. 6 (c) Line chart for pH for AAC
Fig. 6 (d) Bar chart for pH for AAC
Fig. 6: Variation of pH before and after composting
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aeration decreased continuously, initially ratio was 45.91 and after composting it is 19.45 in natural aeration compost bin in spite of this in artificial aeration compost bin it is decreased from 37.18 to 17.38 after the addition of earthworm as the same interval of time All final C/N values were less than 20, which illustrated that theorganic wastes had been stabilized. As it is seen that the pH of initial compost was low in both the bin as compared to this pH was increased after the addition of earthworms in bin. pH in artificial aeration composting is more i.e. 8.48 as compared to 7.94 in natural aeration bin. It wasreported by Kadam, 2004 that minimum biomassand cocoon production was obtained at pH 5 and 9while earthworms were killed at pH below 5 andabove 9 and maximum biomass and cocoon production of E. fetida was obtained and make the process of composting faster.
Fig. 7 (a): Line chart for TKN
Comparison of physicochemical characteristic of compost between natural and artificial aeration composting Total Kjeldhal nitrogen content of the compost increased significantly with time in both the bin of natural and artificial aeration composting inthe presence of earthworms. As in the initial phase value of nitrogen content was 0.48 and it is increases in both the method of composting but higher value obtained as 0.91 in artificial aeration composting as compared to natural aeration i.e. 0.84 at the end of vermicomposting periodin different feed mixtures, probably due to mineralizationof the organic matter. From above graph it is clear that total organic carbon content providing artificial aeration is less as compared to natural aeration due to increased amount of nitrogen. As the carbon content
Fig. 7(b): Bar chart for TKN
Fig. 7: Comparison of nitrogen content between natural and artificial aeration Composting
Fig. 8 (a): Line chart for TOC
Fig. 8 (b): Bar chart for TOC
Fig. 8: Comparison of carbon content between natural and artificial aeration composting
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in natural aeration composting is more 16.32 as compared to artificial aeration composting i.e. 15.82 which is good for compost and shows faster rate of decomposition of waste The best and pronounced results were obtained from artificial aeration vermicomposting as it gives the value of C/N ratio is less as compared to natural aeration and the lowest C/N ratio in temple waste depicts faster rate ofdecomposition. Lowering of C/N ratio is mainly caused due to release of part of the carbon as carbon dioxide (CO2) due to respiratoryactivity of earthworms. Although comparison between two method of composting, artificial aeration composting give lower C/N ratio i.e. 17.38 as compared to natural aeration with same interval of time. Hence, C/N ratio less than 20 indicates better degree of organic matter stabilization and reflects a satisfactory degree of maturity of organic waste, the pH of both the method were
Fig. 9 (a): Line chart for C/N ratio
slightly acidicbut the final pH of all the two mature vermicompost was in the neutral range i.e. 7.90 to 8.48, highly favourable for worms whichare reported to survive in pH range 5-9 .The pH of VC is reported to be substrate dependent and earthworms maintain the pH of vermicompost in the neutral range.The slightly basic nature of temple waste might be due to the formation of intermediate products during bioconversion of the organicwastes. CONCLUSION Evidencesfrom the present study revealed temple waste as a potential resourcematerial for Eisenia fetida biomass and nutrient rich homogeneous vermicompost production. Thus, from present study it can be conclude that nirmalya waste vermicomposting using artificial aeration in the form of perforated pipe along with natural as well as artificial aeration give good result at short
Fig. 9 (b): Bar chart for C/N ratio
Fig. 9: Comparison of C/N ratio between natural and artificial aeration composting
Fig. 10 (a): Line chart for pH
Fig. 10 (b): Bar chart for pH
Fig. 10: Comparison of pH between natural and artificial aeration composting
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interval of time as compared to natural aeration vermicomposting is due to better physicochemical characteristic of compost obtained from artificial aeration vermicomposting. Nirmalya waste can therefore, be reuse in the form of compost and it also added value to the waste. Hence, nirmalya waste vermicomposting using artificial aeration is a good technique to minimize the problem of solid waste management at short interval and it can also be used as good quality of compost for plant growth, fertilizing and conditioning of land.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT I would like to express my sincere respect and gratitude towards my guide his encouragement and constant support for study. Thepeople of Ganesh Tekadifor providing essential information and support. I would also like to thank the GHRCE laboratory and supportive staffs for providing essential chemicals and facilities and for the present work.
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Akanksha Singh et al., Waste management, 33: 1113–1118 (2013). Kaleet al., N., Appl. Environ. Soil Sci. 56: 41–43(2010). Ndegwa, P.M. et al., Bioresource Technology, 76: 107–112 (2001). Ademir S.F. Araujo, et al., Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 55: 719– 729(2011). Gurav M. V. and Pathade G. R. Environmental R e s e a r c h a n d Te c h n o l o g y, 1 : 1 8 2 192(2011). J.A.John Paul et al., Bioresource Technology, 10 : 6769–6773(2011). Jaya Nair, et al.,Bioresource Technology, 97: 2091–2095(2006). Mar ina Himanen et al., Bioresource Technology, 102: 2842–2852(2011). Payal Garg et al., Bioresource technology, 97:
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391–395 (2006). Q. Li, X. C. Wang, Bioresource tech-nology, 137: 270 – 277 (2013). Robert et al., Bioresource Technology, 101: 6692–6698(2010). Somjai Karnchana wong et al., Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 55: 548–553 (2011). Singh, A. et al., Bioresource. Technology, 85: 107–111 (2002). Subbiah. B.V et al., Bioresource. Technology, 25: 259–260 (1956). Suthar, S., Ecol. Eng, 35: 914–920 (2009). Ubeyde Ipek et al., Bioresource Technology, 84: 283-286 (2002). Q. Li, X. C. Wang, Bioresource technology, 137: 270-277 (2013). Payal Garg et al., Bioresource technology, 97 : 391–395 (2006).
Vol. 9(2), 421-425 (2014)
Current World Environment
Assessment of Concentration and Variations Due to Seasonal Effect on the Presence of Heavy Metals in the Water of Upper Lake, Bhopal Ranjana Talwar*, Shweta Agrawal1, Avinash Bajpai2 and Suman Malik3 *Sadhu Vaswani College, Bairagarh, Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh, India. Department of Life Sciences, Extol Institute of Management, Bhopal, India. 2 Makhanlal University, Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh, India. 3 Sadhu Vaswani College, Bairagarh, Madhya Pradesh, India.
1
http://dx.doi.org/10.12944/CWE.9.2.24 (Received: March 30, 2014; Accepted: May 14, 2014) Abstract Water is the most precious gift of nature and is a valued natural resource for the existence of living beings. Management of this natural resource is thus of utmost importance. The present study was carried out to determine the presence of a few heavy metals viz, lead, chromium, copper and mercury in the various samples of Upper Lake, Bhopal. The samples were analyzed during both the pre-monsoon and the post-monsoon season. From the observations it was concluded that a general increase in the concentration was observed in the post monsoon season due to surface runoff coming into the lake water in the rainy season.
Key words: Heavy metals, Management, Surface runoff, Post - monsoon.
Introduction Water supports life on earth and is an essential commodity for survival of mankind and other living organisms. The development and growth of a nation is closely related to its water resources. When effectively harnessed, the potential for water resources can be enormous. But today, ignoring all these facts, man is indiscriminately polluting water and unknowingly provoking the nature for complex situations. Bhopal, the capital city of Madhya Pradesh and the city of lakes is situated in the heart of India. It is facilitated with large number of water bodies in and around it. Upper lake, the biggest lake of Bhopal is the chief source of potable water for the residents of the city. The lake was created by Raja Bhoj in 11th century by construction of an earthen dam across the Kolans river, a rain fed tributary of the Betwa river. The lake has a large catchment area of 361 sq.km and at present water spread area is 36 sq.km at full
tank level. Bhopal is fast developing in all directions and fringe areas are converting into a part of urban development at a faster pace rapidly. The increased anthropogenic activities and urbanization in the catchment have caused an increased inflow of the silt, untreated domestic sewage from the nearby areas, nutrients, pesticides and other agricultural wastes from the rural areas, industrial wastes from the urban areas and an overall deterioration of the water quality. Heavy metals are the pillars of all major civilizations. They are natural components of the Earthâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s crust. They cannot be degraded or destroyed. Today, contamination of water by toxic heavy metals in the form of wastes effluents from industries is a worldwide environmental problem. To a small extent they enter our bodies via food, drinking water and air. As trace elements, some heavy metals (e.g. lead, chromium, copper, mercury, manganese, selenium, zinc etc) are essential to maintain the metabolism of the human body. However, at higher concentrations
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they can lead to poisoning. Heavy metal poisoning could result, for instance, from drinking-water contamination (e.g. lead pipes), high ambient air concentrations near emission sources, from domestic sewage discharge, street dust, land runoff, fossil fuel burning or intake via the food chain. Large amounts of heavy metals may cause acute or chronic toxicity, upsetting the biological functions, causing deformity and even death in the end. Mukherjee A. (2005) stated that the biodegradable matter after decomposition recycles to the system while no biodegradable substances form sediments. The non bio-accumulation of heavy metal in biological system transfers the toxic element from producer to consumer level, which can be a future health hazard.
Sultania Road in Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh. The college stands tall on the ground where once Fatehgarh Fort stood. It is adjacent to VIP Road, which is a major tourist attraction due to a beautiful scene of the Upper Lake. Under Bhoj Wetland project due to diversion of Nalla the entry of silt load and hospital wastes into the lake has been prevented. S4 - Sampling station near Lake View This station of the Upper Lake is a site of recreational importance. The tourists get attracted to its scenic beauty. S5 - Sampling station near Prempura This sampling station of Upper lake is majorly affected by bathing and religious activities such as that of idol immersion.
Method and materials The present study was conducted to evaluate the status of water quality of Upper Lake, Bhopal specifically in terms of determination of the concentration of a few selected heavy metals namely, Lead, Chromium, Copper and Mercury. For the study water samples were collected from various sampling sites of the Upper Lake in plastic cans. The heavy metals were preserved by adding 5 ml of 1 N HNO3 in one litre of sample, maintaining the pH to below 4.0. The samples were then transported to the laboratory for analysis of selective heavy metals following the standard procedure given by APHA using Atomic Absorption spectrophotometer. Description of Sampling Stations The sampling stations selected for the study were as under: S1 - Sampling station near Bairagrah Kalan This station of the Upper Lake is near Bairagarh and Sehore nalla and it is more polluted due to substantial inflow of domestic sewage. S2 - Sampling station near Kohefiza There are more than 6,000 accommodations in Koh-e-Fiza. All waste from these residences goes to the upper lake. S3 - Sampling station near Gandhi Medical College GMC is located in Fatehgarh area on
S6 - Sampling station near Kotra Nallah This station receives main untreated drainage from Kotra. It is the confluence point of drainage nalla from charimli area behind Kotra. S7 - Sampling station near Kaliasote This sampling station is situated near the Kaliasote dam and also has agricultural practices going on in the catchment area. Result and Discussion The observations of the current study can be summarized as follows: Lead Lead occurs naturally in the environment. However, most lead concentrations that are found in the environment are a result of human activities. Lead is used in leaded pipes, car batteries, ceramic glazes, screen of computers, in paints, enamels etc. Idol immersion is a common religious practice in India during Ganesh Visarjan and Durga Pooja. These idols are decorated with paints which consist of a considerable quantity of lead. The results have also supported the fact that the concentration of lead in the water samples increases after idol immersions ie during the post â&#x20AC;&#x201C; monsoon period. The highest concentration of lead ie of 3.70 ppm was observed at S5 station during the post monsoon period. Anju Vyas et. al. (2007) have also observed that lead concentration has increased many fo l d s i n t h e
Talwar et al., Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(2), 421-425 (2014) waters of Upper Lake, Bhopal due to idol immersion. Jaswant Singh et. al. (2012) Studied seasonal variations of heavy metal concentrations in water of Ramgarh lake, Gorakhpur and found that in all the seasons only the concentration of lead was found to be beyond limits (0.1mg/ltr). He also reported higher concentration of heavy metals in the pre â&#x20AC;&#x201C; monsoon season and a lower concentration in the post â&#x20AC;&#x201C; monsoon season due to the dilution factor. Copper Copper is a widely used metal employed in many fields like transportation, manufacturing currency, electricity, construction and agricultural fields. It normally occurs in drinking water from copper pipes, as well as from additives designed to control algal growth. It is an essential component of key metalloenzyme that maintains the vascular and nervous system, but its high doses can cause
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anemia, liver and kidney damage, and stomach and intestinal irritation. During the present investigation, highest concentration of copper of 3.30 ppm was observed at S2 station during the post monsoon period while the minimum concentration was observed at S5 station during the pre monsoon period. Anilava Kaviraj et. al. (1999) during his investigation discovered that the concentration of Cadmium, Zinc and Copper in water, sediment and fish of four perennial ponds of an industrial town showed an increased concentration during the summer and diluted concentration during monsoon. These metals were found to concentrate in sediment at much higher rate. Namdev et. al. (2011b) studied accumulation of micronutrients especially Zn, Cu, Mn and Mo and concluded that higher concentrations of these heavy metals were found higher near the station where chemical fertilizers are being used in the catchment area.
Fig. 1: Varaiation of lead, copper, chromium and mercury at different sampling stations of upper lake, bhopal Table 1: Variation of Pb, Cu, Cr & Hg at different sampling stations of Upper Lake, Bhopal
Pb
Cr
Cu
Hg
Sampling Pre Post Pre Post Pre Post Pre Post stations monsoon monsoon monsoon monsoon monsoon monsoon monsoon monsoon S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 S6 S7
0.02 0.90 0.02 1.50 2.90 1.20 0.50
0.05 1.50 0.02 0.90 3.70 1.60 0.20
1.02 2.01 1.04 0.02 2.30 1.40 0.20
1.44 2.15 1.23 0.03 2.61 1.84 0.44
2.30 2.60 2.60 1.40 0.20 0.40 2.00
3.10 3.30 1.90 0.90 0.22 0.70 2.40
2.40 2.13 1.22 1.20 0.41 0.92 0.13
2.71 2.31 1.34 1.41 0.74 1.21 0.17
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Chromium Chromium is mainly used in preparation of alloys such as stainless steel, in chrome plating and in metal ceramics. It is used in metallurgy to impart corrosion resistance and a shiny finish; and also as dyes and paints. For decorating the idols paints are used which is the main source of Cr during idol immersion. Usually Cr is negligible in the lake but after immersion it increases little bit although not significantly. During the present investigation, highest concentration of copper was observed at S5 station during the post monsoon period while the minimum concentration was observed at S4 station during the pre monsoon period. It can be concluded from the above observations that although chromium is used in paints but its concentration does not increase significantly even after idol immersion. The S4 sampling station which is free from such activities showed minimum concentration of chromium in its samples. Dixit et.al. (2008) studied heavy metal pollution in Shahpura Lake Bhopal and concluded that Cu, Cr, Pb, Cd and Mn were present in higher concentration as compared to their permissible limits. As an essential nutrient, chromium is bio accumulated by a variety of aquatic organisms (Moore et. al. , 1984). Water hardness, temperature and to some extent pH affect the bioaccumulation of chromium by aquatic organisms (Faust et.al., 1981). Mercury Mercury is a liquid metal that is used in cell batteries, fluorescent lights, switches and other control equipments. It has been well known as an environmental pollutant. It can enter water supply by industrial and consumer waste or even from acidic rain, breaking down soils and releasing heavy metals
into streams, lakes, rivers and groundwater. Excess mercury in water can lead to loss of muscle control, kidney disease and brain damage. The observations of the present study indicate that maximum concentration of mercury is present at S1 sampling station during the post monsoon season whereas minimum concentration was present at S5 sampling station during the pre monsoon season. Organic compounds of mercury, for example methyl mercury when it enters the human body, concentrates in the brain and destroys the brain cells, damaging the central nervous system, and also causes corrosion and ulceration of the digestive tracts, Bowen H.J.M., 1996. Among the heavy metals, mercury is considered as the most dangerous pollutant to natural environment because of the ability of plants and animals to accumulate it (Porvari and Verta, 2003) and because of its detrimental effects even at very low concentrations (Nriagu, 1979). Conclusion Studies carr ied out in the present investigation revealed that the concentration of a few heavy metals, specifically increases in the post monsoon season that is actually the period after idol immersion. The concentration of lead, which is a chief constituent of paints used for decoration of idols showed a significant increase in the post monsoon period specifically at Prempura Ghat which is chiefly used for the purpose whereas other sampling sites were generally not much affected. An increase in the concentration of copper might be attributed to runoff water from the catchment areas nearby where use of chemical fertilizers is prevalent. Besides, the water quality in terms of heavy metal concentration is not worst although it is alarming and by adopting proper measurements it can be controlled.
References 1.
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APHA American Public Health Association. Standard methods for the examination of water and wastewater, Washington D.C., 19th edition, 1999. Mukerjee, A., Religious activities and management of water bodies, Case study of idol immersion in context of urban lakes management. International Water History
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Association, 3(3): (2005). Vyas, Anju, Bajpai A, Verma N, and Dixit S. Heavy metal contamination cause of idol immersion activities in urban lake Bhopal, India. J. Appl. Sci. Environ Manage., 11(4) 37-39 (2007). Jaswant Singh and Suraj K. Upadhyay studied Seasonal variations in Heavy
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5.
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Metals in Ramgarh Lake, Gorakhpur, India. International Journal of Lakes and Rivers. ISSN 0973-4570, 5(2); 63-74 (2012). Anilava Kaviraj, Das Satabadi. Effect of fertilization on the deposition, partitioning and bioavailability of cadmium, zinc and copper in four perennial ponds of an industrial town. Indian J Environ Hlth, 44(1): 6-15 (1999). [22 Ref] Namdev, G.R., Bajpai, A. and Malik, S. Studies on accumulation of micronutrients through run off in a potable water resource, Bhopal (M.P.). International Journal of Pharma and Bio Sciences. 2(3): 468-472 (2011b). Dixit S. and Tiwari S. Impact assessment of heavy metal pollution of Shahpura lake, Bhopal. International Journal of Environmental Research , 2(1): 37-42 (2008). Moore, James W. and Ramamoorthy, S. Heavy Metals in Natural waters: Applied Monitoring and Impact Assessment, Springer-Verlag; New York, 28 - 246 (1984). Faust S.D., Aly O.S. Chemistry of Natural Waters. Butterworth, Woburn, Mass. Jain, P.C. Monika Jain 1999. Engineering Chemistry, 13th edition. Dhanpat Rai Publishing Company (P) Ltd. New Delhi:29 - 31, (1981) Bowen H.J.M., Trace element in Biochemical (New York: Academic Press Including) (1996).
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Nriagu, J.O. (Ed.) The biochemistry of mercury in the environment. Elsevier/ North Holland Biomedical Press, Amsterdam, New York, Oxford (1979). Porvari V. and Verta M., Total and methyl mercury concentration and fluxes from small boreal forest catchments in Finland. Environmental Pollution 123: 181-191 (2003). Pravin U. Singare, Ravindra M. Mishra, Manisha P. Trivedi. Heavy Metal Pollution in Mithi River of Mumbai. Frontiers in Science , 2 (3): 28-36 (2012). DOI : 10.5923/j. fs.20120203.03 Murehkar Gopalkrushna Haribhau, studied Trace metals contamination of surface water samples in and around Akot city in Maharashtra, India. Research Journal of Recent Sciences ISSN 2277-2502, 1(7): 5-9 (2012) Choudhary R, Rawtani P, Vishwakarma M. Comparative study of Drinking Water Quality Parameters of three Manmade Reservoirs i.e. Kolar, Kaliasote and Kerwa Dam. Curr World Environ :6(1);145-149 (2011). G.N. Tug and F. Duman. Heavy Metal accumulation in soils around a Salt Lake in Turkey. Pak. J. Bot., 42(4): 2327-2333, (2006).
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Current World Environment
Design Approach for Solar Photovoltaic Groundwater Pumping System for Eastern India ATIQUR RAHMAN*1 and B.P. BHATT1 ICAR Research Complex for Eastern Region, PO: Bihar Veterinary College Campus, Patna-800 014, Bihar, India.
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http://dx.doi.org/10.12944/CWE.9.2.25 (Received: March 20, 2014; Accepted: April 27, 2014) aBSTRACT Eastern India has rich resource base for intensive and diversified agriculture, but the production and productivity of this region is quite low due to lack of assured irrigation as even a short dry spell of drought adversely affects the stability of agricultural production. The energy squeeze in terms of lack of grid electricity and substantial increase in diesel prices refrain farmers from operating pumps for required number hours to fulfil their irrigation needs. Eastern India possesses enormous solar energy potential with solar radiation of 4.0 - 6.4 kWh/m2/day and 250 - 300 bright sunshine days/year. Therefore, it can be a year round reliable source of energy for groundwater pumping to meet supplementary irrigation requirements. In addition to energy reliability, the environmental pollution in terms of carbon emission could also be reduced. However, in view of initial investment cost of solar pumping system, cropping patterns and landholding sizes, the solar photovoltaic pumping system should be of appropriate size and should be designed in view of solar radiation availability, groundwater depth below ground level and crop water requirement in different seasons. This paper discusses about the design aspects of solar groundwater pumping system to fulfil these propositions.
Key words: Solar energy, Irrigation, Irradiance, Groundwater.
iNTRODUCTION In Eastern India most of the land holdings are of small category and food production systems are often been risky and relatively of low return due to erratic rainfall. This is expected to worsen in coming decades under the climate change1-2. The smallholders of this region could play an increasingly important role in food production if they had timely access of irrigation water3. The assured irrigation could be providing ample opportunities to the farmers to invest in high yielding seeds, growing high value crops with crop diversification; as promotion of irrigation itself is a strategy for poverty reduction, climate adaptation and food security4-5. The average solar radiation incident over the landscape of Eastern India varies between 4.0 - 6.4 kWh/m2/day with 250 -300 clear sunshine days in a year6-7. Therefore, the promotion of solar energy particularly in groundwater
pumping is indeed required in view of current energy deficit and high growth rate of energy consumption in agriculture 8. In addition to this, the use of modern irrigation technologies could reduce the overexploitation of groundwater and environmental degradation9-10. System Configuration, Sizing of Pump and Solar Array In solar photovoltaic groundwater pumping system the main components are the solar array, power conditioning unit and sun tracking mechanism. If water source is a deep well then submersible pumps are preferred. However, if water source is a shallow well then surface pumps can be a better option. Though, in solar photovoltaic ground water pumping DC pumps are preferred, however, the AC pumps can also be operated by solar energy by using a VFD (Variable Frequency Drives). So for only
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limited capacity DC submersible pumps are available in the market and therefore if higher capacity pumps are required then user has to opt for AC pumps. In solar photovoltaic pumping system, commonly two types of system configurations are prevalent. In first configuration, a submersible pump lifts groundwater into an overhead tank which serves as an energy store and supplies the pressure needed for the pressurised irrigation system. In second configuration no storage system is used and water is directly injected into the irrigation network. Another configuration, developed by authors is shown in Figure 1. In this configuration a submersible pump lifts water into a grounded tank which serves as water reservoir for fish and duck farming. An additional DC centrifugal pump delivers water from the tank to the fields for irrigating crop either by surface method of irrigation or by pressurized method of irrigation by feeding water directly to the irrigation network. The advantage of this configuration is lies in the fact that the water can be delivered to distant fields at relatively high pressure without any increase in dynamic head of submersible pump. Under this configuration, more groundwater can be drafted per day and daily more cropped area can be irrigation. Since, water required to irrigate a cropped area depends upon the number of factors such as types of crop, crop growth cycle, type and condition of soil, land topography, application efficiency etc. This requires quantification of groundwater availability on daily basis as well as season wise. Further, the daily extracted volume of groundwater depends upon the
capacity of the pump, pumping depth and duration of operation. Mathematically, for given water volume, the requirement of energy and pumping depth can be connected as E = ρgVd where, E = Hydraulic energy in joules (J) V= Required volume of water in (m3) d= Head of water (m) and ρ = Density of water (1 million gram per cubic meter or 1000 kg per cubic meter) then: E=
or
E=
9.81 × V × d × 1000000, Joules 1000 9.8 1 ×V×d , Mega Joules 1000
Thus, to lift 150 m3 of water from a depth of 20 m and if pipe head loss is supposed to be10 percent of the total head, then the required hydraulic energy is: 9.81×150×22/1000=30.29 MJ = 8.41 kWh If pump is to be operated for number of hours equal to the number of peak sunshine hours (say 6 hours), then the flow rate (Q) in liters per second (lps) is: Q = 150×1000/6×3600 = 6.95 lps The hydraulic power (P), required to lift a given quantity of water depends on the length of time, the pump requires. As power is defined as the rate of doing work or the expending energy, therefore, the formula for hydraulic power could be obtained from energy formula by replacing volume with rate of water flow, i.e., or
P = rgQd watt
P = 9.81 Qd = 9.81 × 6.95 × 22 = @ 1500 W If η is the efficiency of the pump, then Fig. 1: The schematic of solar photovoltaic ground water pumping system
Motor power = P/ η
With a typical pump efficiency of 70%,
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Fig. 2: The mean monthly diurnal variation in D. C. power output from 3.0 kWp solar panels on cloud free at Patna(25.65° N)
Fig.3: Mean monthly daily water output of submersible pump along with solar global radiation for different months
generally the pumps have, then, the mechanical power required would be of 1500/0.7 = 2150 W. Therefore, the pump size should be of 3 H.P.
groundwater depth below ground level is ranging from 5 - 11 m with annual fluctuations of ±2 to ±4 m in pre and post monsoon seasons. The pump was operated by 3036 Wp solar array. The net drafted groundwater was recorded for every bright sunshine day round the year. The mean monthly daily water output for different months along with global solar radiation of corresponding months are shown in Figure 3. This figure illustrates that the mean monthly daily groundwater output was ranged from 150 - 175 m3 in the months of February to October, while in the months of November to January it was ranged from 100 - 120 m3. The difference in water output per day in different months could be attributed to change in ground water depth and value of global solar radiation.
Since, the solar irradiance varies with day time and does not meet the Standard Test Condition (STC). Therefore, to know the actual power output from a solar array over a day for different months or seasons, a 3 kWp solar array was installed in Eastern region (Patna, 25.65° N) with manual sun tracking mechanism. The DC power output was recorded on every bright sunshine day at the interval of 15 minutes for different months round the year. The monthly averaged value was plotted as Figure 2. It was observed that, between 9.00 A.M. to 2.30 P.M. (IST), the power rating of the array was ranged from 1.9 - 2.4 kW in almost all the months except the months of November to January. Therefore, 3 HP pump could be operated successfully nearly for 6 hours daily nearly at rated power (2.2 kW). Hence, for every horsepower (HP) the operating solar array size should be of 1000 Wp for successful operation of solar pumps in Eastern India. Further, a 3HP-three phase submersible pump with factory rated power of 2.2 kW was used to extract groundwater at Patna. The pump was put at 20 m below the ground level in view of ground water depth scenario of this region, where in general the water depth below ground level is ranging from 2 - 10 m with annual fluctuations of ±2 to ±4 m in pre and post monsoon seasons11. However, in Patna the
Conclusions The design, analysis and the results presented in this paper could be useful for designing of solar powered groundwater pumping systems as per the need and requirements of users in Eastern India Acknowledgement Authors are thankful to the Indian Council of Agricultural Research, New Delhi for providing fund for designing and installation of solar powered groundwater pumping system for this study.
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References 1.
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Lobell et.al. Prioritizing climate change adaptation needs for food security in 2030. Science, 319(5863), 607-610, (2008). Held, I.M., Delworth T.L., Lu J., Findell K.L. and Knutson T.R., Simulation of Sahel drought in the 20th and 21st centuries. Proc Natl Acad. Sci., USA, 102: 17891–17896, (2005). Lipton, M. Can Small Farmers Survive, Prosper, or be the Key Channel to cut Mass Poverty”, Journal of Agricultural and Development Economics, 3(1): 58-85, (2006) Polak P. and Yoder R. Creating wealth from groundwater for dollar-a-day farmers: Where the silent revolution and the four revolutions to end rural poverty meet. Hydrology J., 14: 424- 432 (2006) World Development Report. Agriculture for Development, World Bank, Washington (2008) Sharma, N.K., Tiwari P.K. and Sood Y.R. Solar energy in India: Strategies, policies, perspectives and future potential. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. 16: 933: 41, (2012) Jaswal, A.K. Sunshine duration climatology
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and trends in association with other climatic factors over India for 1970: 2006, Mausam, 60: 437‐54 (2009) Bhattacharya, S. C. and Jana C. Renewable energy in India: Historical developments and prospects. Energy, 34: 981; 91, (2009). Hillel, D. Adaptation of modern irrigation methods to research priorities of developing countries. In: Le Moigne G, Barghouti S, Plusquellec H (eds) Technological and institutional innovation in irrigation. World Bank Technical Paper No. 94. World Bank, Washington, D.C., 88–93, (1989) Keller, J., Adhikari D.L., Petersen M.R. and Suryawanshi S. Engineering low-cost micro-irrigation for small plots. In: Keller K (ed) The Kenya Case Study. Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation, Berne. The decision to develop this paper evolved during a Fact Finding Study conducted in Kenya, India, and Nepal in March 2001. The Study was funded by the Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation under a program championed by Dr. Urs Heierli, (2001) Ground Water Year Book-India 2011-12. Central Ground Water Board, Ministry of Water Resources, Government of India, (2012).
Vol. 9(2), 430-436 (2014)
Current World Environment
Monitoring Land Cover Changes in Coastal Tract of Odisha Using Landsat ETM+ Imagery Ranu Rani Sethi, Amiya SagarSahu, R.C.Srivastava, Madhumita Das, Ashwani Kumar and Jugal Kishore Tripathy* Directorate of Water Management, Bhubaneswar, Odisha. India. *Aul Embankment Division, Department of Water Resources, Govt. Of Odisha, India. http://dx.doi.org/10.12944/CWE.9.2.26 (Received: May 26, 2014; Accepted: July 02, 2014) Abstract Alteration of land cover takes place dramatically because of great forces of natural calamities. Qualitative and quantitative information about these changes are useful for sustainable management of natural resources. Especially coastal areas are prone to land coverage changes due to many reasons, among which natural calamities rank as one of the major factor. Odisha, being located in Eastern part of India, covering 480 km coastal tract is very susceptible to frequent natural catastrophes like cyclone and super cyclone. In this paper, land cover change dynamics were investigated by the combined use of satellite remote sensing and geographical information systems. The main objective of the study was to determine land-cover changes among land cover types in coastal areas of Kendrapara. Landsat ETM+ images of the year 2000 and 2006 were used to gather land cover change data of the coastal belt of Kendrapara district, Odisha. The images were classified using unsupervised classification and a post-classification comparison approach was used in change detection. The results show increase in agricultural areas and other vegetated areas but decrease in water bodies and soil and barren areas.
Key words: Land covers, Change detection, Classification, Landsat ETM+ image
Introduction Land cover refers to surface cover on ground which includes vegetation, settlements, water base soil etc. Delineating and mapping land cover is important for global monitoring system, resource management and planning activities. Identification of land cover provides the baseline from which monitoring activities (change detection) can be performed, and provides the ground cover information for baseline thematic maps. Coastal areas, being favourable on biophysical and climatic conditions,have attracted human settlement since prehistoric times. Early settlements were established on the coastal areas for both commercial and naval purposes (Nurlu and Erdem 2002). More than half of the worldâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s population live on coastal areas (Hinrichsen,1998). All most all worldsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; coastal areas are exposed to rapid urban growth; increasing
population pressure; expansion of major industries. As a result, land use and land cover of the coastal areas are changing dramatically because of natural processes as well as human activities. Land use and/land cover changes have become a central component for managing natural resources and monitoring environmental changes (Bottomley1998). Therefore, a lot of land cover and land use change models have been developed for assessing change on land use patterns for different purposes (U.S. EPA 2000). Satellite data with their repetitive nature have proved to be useful in mapping land use/ land cover patterns and temporal changes. Methods of change detection in remote sensing typically analyze sequential images of the same area and evolve the detection and display of the image space. There are a number of such methods that
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are suitable for continuous monitoring the type of changes, including image differencing (Lyon et al., 1998). There are different methods that can be used in this context, including post-classification comparisons and multidate-classification (Cohen et al, 1998). Land use land cover change pattern of diara land of river Ganga using multi-temporal satellite data has been done by Kumar G. et al, 2008. As a general form, land cover classifications provide the fundamental information to appraise the impact of human interactions within the environment and to assess scientific foundations for sustainability, vulnerability, and resilience of land systems and their use (Han et al. 2004). Changes in land use and land cover are key factors for global environmental change (BĂźrgi, 1999). Growing human population causes land scarcity and the conversion of wild lands to agriculture and other uses and, thus, land use/land cover change. Population growth can push the rural poor onto marginal lands. Other important determinants of changes in land use and land cover include several types of policy: human settlement and land tenure policy, fiscal policy, trade policy, and agricultural policy. In addition, changes in technology (e.g., road building), culture, power, and political/ economic institution scan influence land use/land cover change (Reid et al. 2000).The remote sensing (RS) and Geographical Information System (GIS) in the assessment of changes of land use/land cover are used increasingly(Iverson et al. 1994; Moody and Woodcock1995; Metzger and Muller 1996; Basnyat et al.1999; Mertens and Lambin 1999; Reid et al. 2000;Li et al. 2001; Apan et al. 2002; Backhaus et al.2002; Sahin and Kurum 2002; GĂśksel et al. 2004; Gulinck et al. 2001; Coskun et al. 2006;Nagendraet al. 2006). Remote sensing can provide valuable and timely information on natural resources and the environment (Waseret al. 2007). The percentage of land cover and land use types were calculated using Geographical Information System (Feoli et al. 2002; Weierset al.2004; Shalaby and Tateishi 2007). The Geographical Information System is a special type of tool evolved to analyze geographic data for efficient planning (Sengupta and Venkatachalam 1994).The GIS provided data about the environment by using raster images and other thematic maps which were pre processed, displayed, and analyzed(Apan et al. 2002). GIS and RS may play a vital role at the stages of exploration and analysis of local resources, planning, and evaluation. Current land use was
studied using GIS, satellite RS, field observations, and published records. GIS analysis was carried out to create a comprehensive database, including land use, soil suitability, socioeconomic data, and rainfall (GĂśksel et al. 2004; Chang et al. 2008). Eastern part of India comprising the State of Odisha, West Bengal, AndhraPradeshare vulnerable to multiple disasters such as tropical cyclones, storm surges, and Tsunamis. The threat of the coastal vulnerability to such hazards has increased many folds with the growing population. The economy of these states has received tremendous setbacks because several natural hazards occurred in succession. Especially coastal districts of Odisha have experienced major surges in the past. Severe flooding caused by storm surges during the 1999 super cyclone caused massive destruction to life and property. Extreme sea levels are major causes of concern for coastal flooding in this region. The loss of land to the sea has now become a more recurrent phenomenon. Identification of vulnerable areas and effective risk mapping and assessment is the need of the hour (Srinivasa Kumar et al., 2010). As the struggle for food runs swiftly and primarily, focus is to conserve the area covered by crops from getting eroded. This paper focuses the issue of change in land use/land cover classes and acreage of each class for a coastal village and itsnearbyareas of Odisha. The land cover (LC) is defined as the observed physical layer including natural and planted vegetation and human constructions, which cover thesurface of the Earth. Study area Present study was conducted for Sunity gram panchayat, located in Mahakalapada block of Kendrapara districts of Odisha, which falls within the latitude & longitude range from 20.400 to 20.500N and 86.450 to 86.750E respectively. The mean sea level is only 0-3m along the coast line.Mahakalapadais the most populous and largest in having geographical area of 490.57 sq. km. amongst all the blocks in Kendrapara district of Odisha. Total rainfall received across the year is 1509 mm. Area sown for agriculture is also highest in this block covering area of 28655 ha. Hence, maximum importance was given to this block primarily so as to get the observations for detecting the changes. Fig. 1shows the location of study area.
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To detect the land cover changes within six years from 23rd October 2000 to 24th October 2006 , the ortho-rectified Landsat Enhanced Thematic Mapper+(Landsat ETM+) data downloaded from Global Land Cover Facility (GLCF) website (http:// glcf.umiacs. umd.edu/) was used as reference for geo-rectification (Saranya K.R.L. etal 2014). Imageto-image registration was done in order to register the multitemporal raw images in the projection UTM
Fig .1: Landsat Image showing the study area Materials and Methods Remote Sensing Data Remotely sensed data together with ancillary data (standard topographic map) have been used to investigate land cover change data of Suniti and its surroundings areas overthe past 6 years (2000-2006). Land cover changes were defined using Landsat ETM+ image of 23rd October, 2000 and 24thOctober, 2006. To improve and verify the accuracy of the image, topographic maps of 1:25 000 scale covering the study area, showing the main landscape features such as relief, soils, forests, shrubs, wetlands,etc. were referred. ArcGIS 10.0software was used for interpretation of satellite data by using ground controlpoints and ancillary data. Also this software was used forchange detection analyses.
Fig. 2: Flow Chart of Methodology (Saranya K. R. L. et al., 2014)
Table. 1: land Cover Changes in and around Suniti Village (from the classified images for the year 2000 & 2006) Land Cover 2000 2006 Total Changes Types (Hectares) Hectares Percentage Hectares Percentage Water bodies 2553.84 18.12 2660.40 20.93 106.56 Crop Areas 4361.04 30.95 4951.08 38.96 590.04 Other 5239.80 37.19 3894.12 30.65 1345.68 Vegetation Soil & Barren 1932.12 13.71 1199.52 9.44 732.6 Areas
Change (%)
2.81 8.01 -6.54 -4.27
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Fig. 3: A and B as FCCs (Pre Classified) and C and D as Post classified images of the study area for the year 2000 and 2006 respectively. N45 and datum WGS84 using the first-order (linear) polynomial function. Nearest Neighbor resampling was chosen in order to preserve the radiometry and spectralinformation in the imagery (Sabins 1987). The RMS error of the image to image registration achieved <1 (0.49â&#x20AC;&#x201C;0.78) pixel. To reduce the error due to atmospheric conditions at different dates, top-of-atmosphere (TOA) reflectance program was used (Chavez 1996).ArcGIS 10.0 software enabled system was employed to process the acquired images. Methodology The procedure of the methodology is outlined in fig. Results and Discussions From the acquired Landsat ETM+ image of the study area, change detection analysis was carried out. FCC (False Colour Composite) images
were prepared with the band combinations 7, 4 and 2 to RGB (Red, Green and Blue) channels respectively for both the year 2000 & 2006. Fig.3 shows the FCC images (Pre-Classified) for both the years 2000 and 2006. Though images were well observed, but it could not be discriminated well for detecting the changes because of similar pattern in the images. Change of land cover is a must according to the brutality of natural calamities over those areas. Hence, remote sensing classification method was adopted to detect the changes quantitatively. Image interpretation elements (shape, size, tone, texture, pattern and association) were keysfor identifying the area used for specific purposes. Then satellite images were classified to prepare land use/land cover maps of 2000 and 2006. Iso cluster unsupervised classification was employed to generate land cover maps.Post classified images were observed to detect the changes. Fig.2 shows the post classified Landsat ETM+ images for both the year 2000 and 2006.
Sethi et al., Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(2), 430-436 (2014) Classified images could differentiate well the geographical entities like crops, water, other vegetation and soil and barren areas occupying within the study area showed in Table 1. Major land cover types were classified as agricultural areas, land with other vegetation, water bodies and soil/barren land. From the outcomes of the analysis it was found that water bodies and agricultural crop areas have increased with 2.81 % and 8.01 % within the period of the year 2000 to 2006 whereas other vegetation and areas of soil and barren have decreased with 6.54 % and 4.27% respectively. One of the reasons could be due to the effect of super cyclone in coastal areas during the year 1999. As per the official records, super cyclone damaged all most 90% of the agricultural and other crops in Odisha especially in Jagatsinghpur, Kendrapara districts. Situations prevailing aftermath of this disaster continued to be reconciled at a very slower rate. However, in the present study, analysis was carried out year 2000, which is after 1 year of the super cyclone. Based on the ground truth information collected from the study area, it showed that even in the year 2000, there was comparatively less cropped area due to the effect of post super cyclone in 1999. But gradually over the period of time, there was increase in cropped area in the coastal areas, which was reflected from the image analysis. During 2006 there was increase in crop coverage for most of the coastal Odisha. Water bodies have increased a little due to change in the geomorphology of the landscape within 6 years interval. Land cover having other vegetation inclusive of shrub, bushes and trees etc. have reduced because of the socioeconomic developmental activities. Soil and barren areas have also reduced due to the settlement of
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the dwellings. Burgeoning of the population also induced to cause the change in those land covers. Quantitative outcomes made it easier to take the decision effectively and to promote the planning process for the well being of the locality and the coastal zone of the state as a whole. Conclusion Changes of land use and land cover over a period of 6 years between 2000 and 2006 in Suniti village and its surroundings were monitored by using Landsat ETM+ images. The image classification results showed that the land use and land cover in the study area experienced noticeable changes over the period of 6 years. Water bodies and agricultural crop areas have increased with 2.81 % and 8.01 % within the period of the year 2000 to 2006 whereas other vegetation and areas of soil and barren have decreased with 6.54 % and 4.27% respectively. Intensive agricultural planning must be undertaken to increase the food security and similar approach for the other regions must be carried out so as to meet the challenges. Effective utilization of satellite imagery has been properly done for the classification and to monitor the changes in the environmental components.The findings of this research will definitely be beneficial to the decision makers in making plan and developing strategy for the wellbeing of the coastal inhabitants and the habitats as well. Acknowledgements We would like to be sincerely thankful to Director, all the staffs whose have their active participation in this investigation.
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Current World Environment
Assessment of Water Quality of Subarnarekha River In Balasore Region, Odisha, India A.A. KARIM*1 and R.B. PANDA2 Department of Environment and Sustainability, CSIR-Institute of Minerals and Materials Technology, Bhubaneswar - 751013, Odisha, India. 2 P.G Department of Environmental Science, F.M University, Balasore-756020, Odisha, India. 1
http://dx.doi.org/10.12944/CWE.9.2.27 (Received: Feburary 07, 2014; Accepted: May 21, 2014)
ABSTRACT The present study was carried out to determine the water quality status of Subarnarekha River at Balasore region during pre-project period as Kirtania Port is proposed in this area. River water samples were analysed for physico-chemical parameters by following standard methods (APHA 1985) and the results showed their variations as follows: pH 7.3-7.8,Temperature 26.7-28.20C, Electrical Conductivity 392-514 Âľ mho ,Total suspended solids 118-148 mg/l, Total dissolved solids 241-285 mg/l, Alkalinity 27.3-42 mg/l, Total Hardness 64.63-114.06 mg/l, Calcium 24.6-32 mg/l, Magnesium 9.72-13.8 mg/l, Dissolved Oxygen 4.6-5.3 mg/l, Biochemical oxygen demand 1.1-3.39 mg/l, Chemical oxygen demand 53-147 mg/l, Nitrates 0.4-1.06 mg/l, Phosphates 0.86-2.4 mg/l, Sulphates 113-143 mg/l, Chlorides 26.32-36.63 mg/l, Iron 0.224-0.464 mg/l, Chromium 0.008-0.016 mg/l. The analysed physico-chemical parameters were almost not exceeded the maximum permissible limit of Indian standards (IS: 10500). After physico-chemical analysis, water quality index (WQI) was established from twelve important various physiochemical parameters by following weighted arithmetic index method. The calculated water quality index indicates that the quality of water was good and hence fit for use.
Key words: Subarnarekha River, Balasore, Physico-chemical parameters, Water quality index (WQI).
INTRODUCTION Freshwater resources are under severe and increasing environmental stress. At a global level, two thirds of the withdrawals are used for agriculture and one fourth for industry. By the end of the century, withdrawals for agriculture have increased slightly whereas industrial withdrawals have probably doubled (World watch Institute, 1999). In India, the major 14 rivers i.e. Ganga, Yamuna, Godavari, Gomti, Kosi, Cauvery, Ravi, Sone, Chenab, Jhelum, Narmada, Mahi, Tapti and Krishna receive heavy flux of sewage, industrial effluents, domestic and agricultural wastes which consists of substances varying from simple nutrient to highly toxic hazardous chemicals. Most of the large rivers of the world are nothing but open sewers fit only to take urban wastes, half burnt bodies, poisonous
pesticides and industrial effluents etc. many of our lakes, including Dal and Nagin of Kashmir have severally polluted with foul odour , silt deposits and get chocked due to excessive algal growths(Kaur, 2005). Ports are major hubs of economic activity and potential sources of pollution (National Research and Development Centre (NRDC), 2005). Gupta et al. (2002) suggested that deterioration of surface water quality may occur during both the construction and operation phases of ports. Subarnarekha basin is the smallest of the 14 major river basins of India draining an area of 19,296 square kilometres and covering hardly 0.6 percent of Indiaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s land surface, yet it is an important inter-State river flowing through one of the most important industrial belt and mineralrich areas of India.. The river in its upper and middle reaches remains more or less as a stagnant pool, often highly charged with pollutants, particularly
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during dry periods as has been observed in the study based on the water quality data collected by the Bihar State Pollution Control Board (Priyadarshi, N, 1998, 2004). Subarnarekha is the lifeline of tribal communities and fishing communities, residing on the riverbanks and their life and livelihood is affected by the riverâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s pollution. The basin therefore needs careful environmental management planning to protect its continued existence. A few studies have been undertaken to investigate the pollution of the Subarnarekha River towards its eastern and coastal sides (Mishra et al 1994, Senapati and Sahu, 1996; Panda et al., 2006). The water quality of Subarnarekha River in Balasore region is also in threat because Government of Odisha has proposed Subarnarekha Port or Kirtania Port near the mouth of the Subarnarekha River at Chaumukh in Balasore district of the Odisha coast. The port has been awarded to Chennai-based Creative Port Development Limited (CPDL) to build and operate (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kirtania_port). If the port will come then anthropogenic activities will be increased which directly influence the water qualities of the river and the life of the people residing there to a greater extent. Hence, in present study the water quality assessment of river Subarnarekha in the coastal belt of Balasore during pre-projects period was done .This study can also be used as
reference to monitor the water quality status of the Subarnarekha River during ongoing projects and post-projects scenario. MATERIALS AND METHODS Sampling Locations The sampling locations were selected randomly by considering the population, location and source. Water samples were collected from the locations along the route of the Subarnarekha River basin in Balasore district. The sampling locations were Rajghat, Jamkunda, Asti, Bhusandeshwar, Chaumukh and Chaumukh muhana which are described below (Table-1). Physico-Chemical Analysis Standard procedures as described by APHA (1985) was followed for the Sample collections, stabilization and transportation to the laboratory as well as storage. Water samples were analysed for eighteen parameters to determine the overall quality with respect to Temperature, pH, Total Dissolved Solids (TDS), Total Suspended Solids (TSS), Total Hardness, Calcium, Magnesium Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD), Dissolved Oxygen (DO), Electrical Conductivity (EC), Chloride, Sulphate , Total Alkalinity, Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD),
Fig. 1: Map showing sampling locations (Source- Google Maps / Subarnarekha River)
KARIM & PANDA, Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(2), 437-446 (2014) Fluoride, Iron, Chromium and Nitrate-Nitrogen . The water samples were analysed for various parameters in the laboratory of P.G Department of Environmental Science, Fakir Mohan University, Balasore, Odisha during the period of March to July, 2013. In general, the standard methods recommended by APHA (1985) was adopted for determination of various physico-chemical parameters. Water Quality Index Calculating of water quality index is to turn complex water quality data into information that is understandable and useable by the public. Therefore, water Quality Index (WQI) is a very useful and efficient method which can provide a simple indicator of water quality and it is based on some very important parameters. In current study, Water Quality Index (WQI) was calculated by using the Weighted Arithmetic Index method as described by Cude, C. 2001. In this model, different water quality components are multiplied by a weighting factor and are then aggregated using simple arithmetic mean. For assessing the quality of water in this study, firstly, the quality rating scale (Qi) for each parameter was calculated by using the following equation; Qi = {[(Vactual – Videal) / (Vstandard – Videal)] * 100} Where, Qi = Quality rating of ith parameter for a total of n water quality parameters Vactual = Actual value of the water quality parameter obtained from laboratory analysis Videal = Ideal value of that water quality parameter can be obtained from the standard Tables. Videal for pH = 7 and for other parameters it is equalling to zero, but for DO Videal = 14.6 mg/L Vstandard = Recommended WHO standard of the water quality parameter. Then, after calculating the quality rating scale (Qi), the Relative (unit) weight (Wi) was calculated by a value inversely proportional to the recommended standard (Si) for the corresponding parameter using the following expression;
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Wi = 1/ Si Where, Wi = Relative (unit) weight for nth parameter Si= Standard permissible value for nth parameter I = Proportionality constant. That means, the Relative (unit) weight (WI) to various water Quality parameters are inversely proportional to the recommended standards for the corresponding parameters. Finally, the overall WQI was calculated by aggregating the quality rating with the unit weight linearly by using the following equation: WQi = ΣQiWi/ ΣWi Where, Qi = Quality rating Wi = Relative weight In general, WQI is defined for a specific and intended use of water. In this study the WQI was considered for human consumption or uses and the maximum permissible WQI for the drinking water was taken as 100 score. Chemical analysis of water gives a concept about its physical and chemical composition by some numerical values but for estimating exact quality of water, its better to depend on water quality index which gives the idea of quality of drinking water. The rating of WQI is shown below. WQI level
Water Quality Rating
0-25 26-50 51-75 76-100 > 100
Excellent Good Poor Very Poor Unfit for Drinking Purposes. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Water quality index of the present water body was established from twelve important various physico-chemical parameters. WQI indicates the quality of water in terms of index number which represents overall quality of water for any intended use. The water quality index for each samples
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were calculated and are presented in table-4. The values of calculated water quality index were found to be 40.14, 27.71, 25.16, 38.48, 40.27, 49.47 for the sampling sites S1, S2, S3, S4, S5 and S6 respectively which indicate that the water quality of river Subarnarekha in Balasore region is good. However, different sampling locations shows different water quality, S2 and S3 have more good water quality in comparison to S1, S4, S5 and S6. The above water quality index was also supported by the following physiochemical parameter variations observed in different water Samples and presented in table- 2. Graphs showing values of different physicochemical parameters were presented in figure-2.
pH Most natural waters are generally alkaline due to presence of sufficient quantities of carbonates. pH has no direct adverse effects on health, however a lower value below 4 will produce sour taste; and higher value above 8.5 ,an alkaline taste. In present study, it was found that the pH value ranged between 7.3 at sampling station-5 to 7.8 at sampling station- 6. All the pH values represents alkaline nature of river water samples were within the permissible limit as per IS: 10500. Temperature Arise in temperature of the water leads to the speeding up of the chemical reactions in water,
Table 1: Sampling Locations S No
Sampling Locations
Type of area
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.
Rajghat Asti Jamkunda Bhusandeshwar Chaumukh Chaumukh Muhana
Agricultural And Fishing Area (Located Near Bridge of NH 60) Agricultural And Fishing Area Agricultural And Fishing Area Agricultural And Fishing Area Agricultural And Fishing Area Confluence Point of Subarnarekha River
Table 2: Physico-chemical analysis of river water Sample No Parameters S-1 S-2 S-3 S-4 S-5 S-6 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18.
pH 7.5 7.7 7.3 7.4 7.3 Temperature (0C) 28.20 27.40 26.70 27.10 27.80 Electrical Conductivity( Âľ Mho) 485 464 392 514 427 Total Suspended Solids (Mg/L) 118 132 129 146 121 Total Dissolved Solids (Mg/L) 247 276 243 241 279 Total Alkalinity (Mg/L) 42.30 28.10 34.00 32.42 27.30 Total Hardness (Mg/L) 114.06 85.12 64.63 68.79 96.41 Calcium (Mg/L) 26 31.47 28.46 24.60 26.42 Magnesium (Mg/L) 13.63 13.04 9.72 13.50 13.8 Dissolved Oxygen (Mg/L) 5 .20 5.30 5.10 4.60 4.90 Biochemical Oxygen Demand (Mg/L) 1.10 1.87 1.59 2.80 1.51 Chemical Oxygen Demand (Mg/L) 53 69 74 136 122 Nitrates (Mg/L) 0.80 0.54 1.06 0.68 0.53 Phosphates (Mg/L) 1.74 1.62 1.10 0.86 1.86 Sulphates (Mg/L) 134.41 132.76 113 143 131 Chlorides (Mg/L) 26.32 36.63 31.24 34.10 35.10 Iron (Mg/L) 0.413 0.224 0.241 0.306 0.273 Chromium (Mg/L) 0.012 0.010 0.008 0.014 0.016
7.8 27.30 462 148 285 36.00 83.05 32.00 12.81 5.20 3.39 147 0.40 2.40 123 36.12 0.464 0.014
Standard IS: 10500 6.5-8.5 500 500 200 300 75 30 30 250 45 5 150 250 0.3 0.05
KARIM & PANDA, Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(2), 437-446 (2014) reduces the solubility of gases and amplifies the tastes and odours. Water in the temperature range of 70C to 110C has a pleasant taste and is refreshing .At higher temperature with less dissolved gases the water becomes tasteless and even does not quench the thirst. In present study, the values of temperature were ranged between 26.700C at sampling station-3 to 28.200C at sampling station- 6. Conductivity As most of the salts in the water are present in the ionic forms, capable of conducting current, therefore, conductivity is a good and rapid measure of the total dissolved solids. It has got no health significance as such. In present study, the values of Electrical conductivity were ranged between 392 Âľ mho at sampling station-3 to 514 Âľ mho at sampling station- 4. Total Suspended Solids IS acceptable limit for total solids is 500 mg/L and tolerable limit is 3000 mg/L of dissolved limits. . In present study the Total Suspended Solids (TSS) values ranged between 118 mg/l at sampling station-1 to 148 mg/l at sampling station- 6.
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Total Dissolved Solids In natural waters dissolved solids are composed mainly of carbonates, bicarbonates, chlorides, sulphates, phosphates, and nitrates of calcium, magnesium, sodium, potassium, iron and manganese, etc. In present study, the Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) values ranged between 241 mg/l at sampling station-4 to 285 mg/l at sampling station6. All the TDS values of river water samples were within the permissible limit as per IS: 10500. Alkalinity Alkalinity in natural waters is due to free hydroxyl ions and hydrolysis of salts formed by weak acids and strong bases. In present study, the Total Alkalinity values ranged between 27.30 mg/l at sampling station-5 to 42.30 mg/l at sampling station1. All the Total Alkalinity values of river water samples in study area were within the permissible limit as per IS: 10500 . Total Hardness The total hardness of water is defined as the sum of calcium and magnesium concentrations, both expressed as calcium carbonate, in mg/L.Based on present investigation, hardness varied from
Table 3: Descriptive statistics No
Parameters
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18.
pH Temperature EC TSS TDS Alkalinity Hardness Calcium Magnesium DO BOD COD Nitrates Phosphates Sulphates Chlorides Iron Chromium
No. of Cases Min. 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6
7.3 26.7 392 118 241 27.3 64.63 24.6 9.72 4.6 1.1 53 0.4 0.86 113 26.32 0.224 0.008
Max.
Median
Mean
S.D
Variance
7.8 28.2 514 148 285 42.3 114.06 32 13.8 5.3 3.39 147 1.06 2.4 143 36.63 0.464 0.016
7.45 27.35 463 130.5 261.5 33.21 84.085 27.44 13.27 5.150 1.73 98 0.61 1.68 131.88 34.6 0.289 0.013
7.5 27.417 457.333 132.333 261.833 33.353 85.343 28.158 12.75 5.05 2.043 100.167 0.668 1.597 129.528 33.252 0.320 0.012
0.21 0.527 42.968 12.469 20.203 5.524 18.196 3.038 1.53 0.259 0.871 39.585 0.236 0.552 10.332 3.895 0.097 0.003
0.044 0.278 1846.367 155.467 408.167 30.553 331.096 9.232 2.342 0.067 0.759 1566.967 0.056 0.305 106.746 15.174 0.009 0.000
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64.63 mg/l at sampling station-3 to 114.06 mg/l at sampling station-1. The permissible limit of Hardness for drinking water is 300 mg/l (IS 10500). Hence, all the hardness values of river water samples in study area were within the permissible limit. Calcium and Magnesium The concentration of Calcium varied from 24.60 at sampling location -4 to 32 mg/l at sampling location-6 and Magnesium varied from 9.72 at sampling location -3 to 13.8 mg/ l at sampling location-5 respectively. All the samples were within the permissible limit i.e.75 mg/l for Calcium and 30 mg/l for Magnesium (IS: 10500).
Table 4: Water Quality Index and description of river water samples at different sampling sites S No. Description 1 2 3 4 5
Sampling sites WQI
Rajghat Asti Jamkunda Bhusandeswar Chaumukh
40.14 27.71 25.16 38.48 40.27
Good Good Excellent Good Good
Dissolved Oxygen Low oxygen content in water is usually associated with organic pollution. The fluctuations in Oxygen content depend on factors such as Te m p e ra t u r e, d e c o m p o s i t i o n a l a c t i v i t i e s, photosynthesis and the level of aeration. In present investigation DO was ranged from 4.60 mg/l at sampling station-4 to 5.30 mg/l at sampling station-2 in the study area, where as the prescribed limit for DO is 5.0 mg/l. Biochemical Oxygen Demand Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) is the measure of the degradable organic material present in a water sample. In present investigation, BOD was ranged from 1.10 mg/l at sampling station-1 to 3.39 mg/l at sampling station-6 in the study area, where as the prescribed limit for BOD is 30 mg/l (IS 10500). Hence all the BOD values of river water samples were within the permissible limit. Chemical Oxygen Demand Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) test is an important, rapidly measured parameters as a means of measuring organic strength for streams and polluted water bodies. In present investigation, COD was ranged from 53 mg/l at sampling station-1
Table 5: An example calculation of Water Quality Index for sample-1 S.No Parameters Observed Values
Sample 1 Standard Unit Quality WiQi Values(Si) Weight (Wi) Rating(Qi)
1 pH 7.5 8.5 0.117 33.3333 2 BOD 1.1 30 0.033 3.66667 3 COD 53 250 0.004 21.2 4 TDS 247 500 0.002 49.4 5 TSS 118 100 0.01 118 6 Hardness 114.06 300 0.003 38.02 7 Alkalinity 42.3 200 0.005 21.15 8 Nitrates 0.8 45 0.022 1.77778 9 Sulphates 134.41 150 0.006 89.6067 10 Chlorides 26.32 250 0.004 10.528 11 Cr 0.012 0.05 20 24 12 Fe 0.413 0.3 3.333 137.667 ΣWi=23.539 WQI=ΣWiQi /ΣWi=945.0663/23.539=40.14
3.9 0.121 0.0848 0.0988 1.18 0.11406 0.10575 0.03911 0.53764 0.04211 480 458.843 ΣWiQi = 945.0663
KARIM & PANDA, Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(2), 437-446 (2014) to 147 mg/l at sampling station-6 in the study area, where as the prescribed limit for COD is 250 mg/l (IS 10500). Hence, all the COD values of river water samples were within the permissible limit. Nitrates Presence of high concentration of nitrates is an indication of pollution. Concentration of nitrates
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above 45 mg/L cause a disease methemoglobinemia. In present investigation, Nitrate was ranged from 0.40 mg/l at sampling station-6 to 1.06 mg/l at sampling station-3 in the study area, where as the prescribed limit for Nitrate is 45 mg/l (IS 10500). Hence all the Nitrate values of river water samples were within the permissible limit.
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Phosphates The presence of phosphate in large quantities in fresh waters indicates pollution through sewage and industrial wastes. It promotes growth of nuisance causing micro-organisms. Though phosphate possesses problems in surface waters, its presence is necessary for biological degradation of wastewaters. Phosphorus is an essential nutrient
for the growth of organisms and helps for the primary productivity of a body of water. In present investigation, phosphate was ranged from 0.86 mg/l at sampling station-4 to 2.40 mg/l at sampling station-6 in the study area, where as the prescribed limit for phosphate is 5 mg/l (IS 10500). Hence all the phosphate values of river water samples were within the permissible limit.
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Fig. 2: Graphs showing variations in values of different physico-chemical parameters at different sampling locations Sulphates Sulphates occur in water due to leaching from sulphate mineral and oxidation of sulphides. Sulphates are associated generally with calcium, magnesium and sodium ions. Sulphate in drinking water causes a laxative effect. The prescribed limit of sulphate for drinking water is 150 mg/l (IS 10500). In present investigation, Sulphate was ranged from 113 mg/l at sampling station-3 to 143 mg/l at sampling station-4 in the study area. Hence all the sulphate values of river water samples were within the permissible limit.
Chromium Chromium may exist in water supplies in both the hexavalent and the trivalent state although the trivalent form rarely occurs in potable water. In present investigation, hexavalent Chromium was ranged from 0.008 mg/l at sampling station-3 to 0.016 mg/l at sampling station-5 in the study area, where as the prescribed limit for hexavalent Chromium is 0.05 mg/l (IS 10500). Hence, all the hexavalent Chromium values of river water samples were within the permissible limit. CONCLUSION
Chlorides Chloride ion may be present in combination with one or more of the cations of calcium, magnesium, iron and sodium. Chlorides of these minerals are present in water because of their high solubility in water. Thus, excessive presence of chloride in water indicates sewage pollution. The prescribed limit of chloride for drinking water is 250 mg/l (IS 10500). In present investigation, Chloride was ranged from 26.32 mg/l at sampling station-1 to 36.63 mg/l at sampling station-2 in the study area. Hence all the Chloride values of river water samples were within the permissible limit. Iron Iron can impart bad taste to the water, causes discolouration in clothes and incrustations in water mains. The permissible value of Iron for drinking water is 0.3 to 1.0 mg/l (IS 10500). In present investigation, Iron was ranged from 0.224 mg/l at sampling station-2 to 0.464 mg/l at sampling station-6 in the study area. Hence all the Iron values of river water samples were within the permissible limit.
The physico-chemical analysis and Water Quality Index (WQI) indicates that the water quality of Subarnarekha River is good in the coastal belt of Balasore. Though it is expected to carry some pollution load from the industrial, mining and urban activities of Jharkhand and West Bengal, the river has considerable re -generating capacity. The authors also suggests that proper environmental management should be done to protect the existence of Subarnarekha river. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT The authors are thankful to the Ministry of Minority Affairs and University Grants Commission (UGC) of India for funding the project. The authors are also thankfull to .Honâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;ble vice chancellor, Fakir Mohan University, India for providing all sorts of facilities for the research work.
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American Public Health Association (APHA). Standard methods for the examination of water and wastewater. 21st Centennial Edn. APHA, AWWA, WPCF, Washington DC, US, (1985). Cude, C. Oregon water quality index: A tool for evaluating water quality management effectiveness. Journal of the American Water Resources Association, 37: 125-137 (2001). Gupta, A.K, Patil, R.S, Gupta S.K. Emissions of gaseous and particulate pollutants in a port and harbour region in India. Environmental Monitoring Assessment , 80: 187â&#x20AC;&#x201C;205 (2002). Http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kirtania_port (Accessed on 15th Feb 2013) Kaur H, Environmental Chemistry, 2010 fifth revised edition, Pragati Prakashan, India, pp-223-224. Mishra, A., J.S. Datta Munshi, M. Singh. Heavy metal pollution of river Subarnarekha in Bihar. Part I: Industrial effluents. J Fresh Water Bio, 6(3): 197-199 (1994).
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National Research and Development Centre (NRDC). (2005). Retrieved April, 29, 2013, from http:// www. nrdc.org/ air/pollution/ ports/ execsum.asp. Panda, U. C., Rath, P., Sahu, K. C., Majumdar, S. and Sundaray, S. K.: Environmental Quantification of Heavy Metals in the Subarnarekha, Estuary and Near-shore Environment, East Coast of India. Asian J. Water Environ. Pollut, 32: 85-92 (2006). Priyadarshi, N.: Arsenic in Damodar poisoning West Bengal. Indian Express, July 12, 1998. Priyadarshi, N. Distribution of arsenic in Permian Coals of North Karanpura coalfield, Jharkhand. Jour. Geol. Soc. India, 63: 533536l (2004) Senapati, N. K. and Sahu, K. C.: Heavy Metal Distribution in Subarnarekha River East Coast of India. Indian J. Mar. Sci., 25: 109-114 (1996). World watch Institute (1999). World Resources 1998-99. Oxford University Press. P 3
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Current World Environment
Water Quality Data Analysis for Kanhan River SNEHAL K. KAMBLE*, P.B. NAGARNAIK and R.R. SHRIVASTAVA Department of Civil Engineering, G.H. Raisoni College of Engineering, Nagpur- 440016, India. http://dx.doi.org/10.12944/CWE.9.2.28 (Received: May 13, 2014; Accepted: June 24, 2014) ABSTRACT The Kanhan River originates from the high lands of Chindawara District and flows in south east direction for about 160 kms before it enters the state of Maharashtra near Raiwari village in Saoner Taluka of Nagpur District. Nagpur city is presently getting water for from two major sources namely Kanhan River (Head work located near village Juni Kamptee) &Pench Dam (through Right Bank Canal with Lifting Point at Mahadula at 48.5 Km of canal). Samples were collected from seven major locations along the stretch of river. The samples were subjected to physicochemical analysis and performed during summer, rainy and winter seasons. The physicochemical parameters of the water samples includes pH, temperature, turbidity, conductivity (EC), suspended solids (SS), total dissolved solids (TDS), total solids (TS), dissolved oxygen (DO) and biological oxygen demand (BOD). The water quality index (WQI) is used to evaluate the quality of the river water for drinking in rainy, winter and summer season.The study was carried out to examine the change in the quality of the river water due to addition of human waste discharge, industrial waste discharge into river body and the seasonal variation in the physicochemical properties of the river.
Key words: Water pollution, Kanhan River, Physicochemical analysis, Water Quality Index.
INTRODUCTION Water is the prime requirement for the existence of life and thus it has been man’s endeavor for the time immemorial to utilize the available resources. Water is a ubiquitous chemical substance that is composed of hydrogen and oxygen and is vital for all known forms of life. In typical usage, water refers only to its liquid from or state, but the substance also has a solid state, ice, and a gaseous state, water vapor or stream. Watercovers 71 % of the earth’s surface. On earth, it is found mostly in oceans and other large water bodies, with 1.6 % of water below ground in aquifers and 0.001 % in the air as vapor, clouds (formed of solid and liquid water particles suspended in air), and precipitation. Oceans hold 97 % of surface water, glaciers and polar ice caps 2.4 % and other land surface water such as rivers, lakes and ponds 0.6 %. A very small amount of the earth’s water is contained within biological bodies and manufactured products (Mahesh Kumar. Akkaraboyina et al., 2012).
Surface water pollution with chemical, physical and biological contaminants by anthropogenic activities is of great environmental attention all over the world. Surface water systems mainly mean the waters naturally open to atmosphere, for example rivers, lakes and reservoirs water. Rivers play an important role in a watershed for carrying off municipal and industrial wastewater and run-off from farm land, and are one of the most susceptible water bodies to pollutants. The constant discharges of domestic and industrial wastewater and seasonal surface run-off due to the climate all have a strong effect on the river discharge and water quality. However, rivers are the main water sources for domestic, industrial and agricultural irrigation purposes in a region, river water quality is one of important factors directly concerning with health of human and living beings. Pollution of a river first affects its chemical quality and then systematically destroys the community disrupting the delicate food web. Diverse uses of the rivers are seriously impaired due to pollution and even the polluters like
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industry suffer due to increased pollution of the rivers. River pollution has several dimensions and effective monitoring and control of river pollution requires the expertise from various disciplines. Pollution of river is a global problem. In India it is reported that about 70% of the available water is polluted. The chief source of pollution is identified as sewage constituting 84 to 92 percent of the waste water. Industrial waste water comprised 8 to 16 percent. Therefore, it is imperative and important to have reliable information on characteristics of water quality for effective pollution control and water resource management (Xiaoyun Fan et al., 2010). The River is the one major natural resource which serves as a need for the human beings. The River Kanhan originates from the high lands of Chindawara district near village Tarai in M.P. and flows in south east direction for about 160 kms before it enters the state of Maharashtra near Raiwari village in Saoner Taluka of district Nagpur. During its course it passes through Saoner, Nagpur, Kamptee and Mouda Tahsils of Nagpur District covering a distance of about 80 kms, before it ultimately joins wainganga as a right hand tributary near Jawahar Nagar ordnance Factory in district Bhandara. The Kanhan River is a tributary of Wainganga River with a confluence at Ambhora. Under the WaingangaWardha-Painganga River basin, the department mentions Pench River as a tributary of Wainganga River. It says “Pench River meets the Wainganga River”. In fact, Pench River is a tributary of the Kanhan and meets it at Bina village, upstream from the Nagpur Municipal Corporation’s (NMC) Kanhan water treatment plant. Then, the Kanhan flows for over 40 km before meeting the Wainganga River. River Kanhan serves as a major drinking source for Nagpur district. It has been use as a major river water source for drinking and domestic purposes like washing clothes, bathing etc. from past several years. Kanhan water supply scheme was commissioned in four phases during the year. Under this scheme, two intake wells and two dry wells in Kanhan River are constructed. Raw water is pumped to conventional Treatment Plant of 109 MLD capacity. The two intake wells located approximately 14 km from Nagpur city and 300 m downstream of the confluence of the River Kolar and
the Kanhan was constructed in year 1940. In 1956 a barrage was constructed across Kanhan River about 500 m upstream Kanhan head works with a storage capacity of 7.82 Mm3. The average monthly discharge of the River Kanhan is found maximum in the month of September i.e.760.78 cumecs and minimum in the month of June i.e. 48.96 cumecs. Water supply & respective present drawel as shown in the table 1: Two big thermal power plants, NTPC’s Mouda plant and Mahagenco’s Khaparkheda plant, are situated near Kanhan River. It is reported that the fly ash and other waste from power plants is being released into Kanhan River through its tributaries. Pollution of River first affects its chemical quality and then destroys the community. Pollution of River is a global problem. In India it is reported that about 70% of the available water is polluted. The chief source of pollution is identified as sewage constituting 84 to 92% of the waste water. Industrial waste water comprised 8-16%. Kamptee is located at latitude 21°223' north, longitude 79°2' west. According to the 2001 census, it has an area of 40,706 hectares. National Highway No.7 passes through it. There are three bridges over the Kanhan River. One is a railway bridge, and the other, older bridge, is a road N.H.7 and a newer one small road that goes to Old Kamptee. There is one big water filter plant which supplies water to the larger area of Nagpur city. Kamptee was founded in 1821 when the British established a military cantonment on the banks of the Kanhan River. Kamptee was previously named Camp-T for its geographical shape. The over-exploitation of limited resources has not only caused a perceptible decline in the water table, but also resulted in the enormous increase of pollutants concentration. The ever growing population exerts a great pressure on this resource. The never ending growth of population and ill-planned exploitation of the water resource created a situation, where the very survival of man has become endangered. The concern for protecting the quality and overuse of earth’s natural resources has been increasing in recent years all over the world. The global awareness and concern for the
KAMBLE et al., Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(2), 447-455 (2014) environment have paved way for the installation of various policies to control and preventenvironmental pollution. The objectives of the present paper are (1) to determine the seasonal variation in the river in rainy, winter and summer season and (2)To study the change in the quality of the river water due to addition of human waste discharge, industrial waste discharge into river body. Accurate and timely information on the quality of water is necessary to shape a sound public policy and to implement the water quality improvement programmes efficiently. One of the most effective ways to communicate information on water quality trends is with indices. Water quality index (WQI) is commonly used for the detection and evaluation of water pollution and may be defined as “arating reflecting the composite influence of different quality parameters on the overall quality of water.” (Mahesh Kumar.Akkaraboyina et al., 2012). MATERIALS AND METHODS Study area description The study is carried out to determine the water quality of Kanhan River for the three season viz. rainy season, winter season and summer season for the period of eight months. Seven major locations along the stretch of the River Kanhan were selected for monthly analysis as shown in the Fig. 1and the details of the sations are given in table 2. Station 1 (confluence of Kanhan and Pench), station 2 (confluence of Kanhan and Kolar), station 3 and 4 is the wastewater discharge points at the upstream and downstream side of the point. The wastewater coming from the nearby residents is being discharged directly into the river through a drain without any treatment. Station 5 is the intake well located near the water treatment plant. Station 6 and 7 is the upstream and downstream side Kanhan. Experiment The samples were subjected to the physicochemical analysis which includes parameters such temperature, pH, turbidity, conductivity, total dissolved solids (TDS), suspended solids (SS), total solids (TS), dissolved oxygen (DO), biochemical
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oxygen demand (BOD). Water samples were collected twice in every month to get the cumulative readings for a month from the water quality monitoring stations. Grab sampling was generally applied during the sampling. The samples were taken in BOD bottles and plastic canes and brought to the laboratory with necessary precautions. All samples were labeled properly and analyzed by standard methods. Parameter like temperature of River water was recorded on site. DO and BOD were performed in the laboratory by standard titrimetric method. Water Quality Index Calculation Essentially, a WQI is a compilation of a number of parameters that can be used to determine the overall quality of a river. The parameters involved in the WQI are dissolved oxygen,pH, turbidity, conductivity, TDS, SS, TS, DO, biochemical BOD. The numerical value is then multiplied by a weighting factor that is relative to the significance of the test to water quality. The sum of the resulting values is added together to arrive at an overall water quality index (Dhirendra Mohan Josh et al., 2009; Tiwari, T.N. et al., 1985). RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The result of the water quality parameters (temperature, pH, turbidity, conductivity, DO, BOD, TS,TDS, SS) collected from seven major location of the river from the month September to April. The observations are recorded. The minimum (a) and maximum (b) values in the rainy season (September), winter season (October to February) and summer season (March and April) are depicted in the graphsbelow (Fig. 2-10). The above results, values refer to the minimum and maximum value of the water samples collected from the month of September to April i.e. rainy, winter and summer seasons for the physiochemical analysis. The summary of the findings is given below: Temperature of river water The water temperature of the Kanhan River was found minimum in the winter season and maximum in the summer season. The minimum temperature in the rainy season was recorded as 24.5ºC and 25.5ºC as maximum. In winter season the temperature ranged from 16.3ºC to 24.2ºC. The maximum temperature was recorded
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in summer with minimum 33 ยบC to maximum 40 ยบC. The water temperature showed an upward trend from winter season to summer season followed by a downward trend from rainy season onwards. The temperature differed at every sampling station. The high temperature was recorded in the station 3 (u/s of waste water discharge point). Since, the waste water from the residing area resulting from the domestic use is discharged into the water body. The temperature of that particular stretch of river increases, as the temperature of wastewater is slightly high and discharged in the river water continuously in the large quantity. The minimum temperature recorded in stations 2 (confluence of Kanhan and Kolar) and 6 (u/s of Kanhan).
water becomes more alkaline. The minimum value was 8.5 and maximum 8.8. The pH is high at station 6 (u/s of Kanhan), as the water is used for domestic purpose from the residents near the river bank for e.g.washing clothes, bathing etc. This makes the water more alkaline due to the domestic use of water. Turbidity The turbidity was lowest during the summer season. In rainy season the turbidity ranged from 100 to 230 NTU. The minimum value in winter season was found as 23.8 NTU and maximum 180 NTU. In summer the turbidity ranged from 21 to 96 NTU. The maximum turbidity was recorded at station 3 (u/s of waste water discharge point), the wastewater is continuously discharged into the river body.
pH The pH of the Kanhan River was slightly alkaline. In rainy season the minimum pH was observed as 7.9 and maximum 8.3. In winter season the pH ranged from 8 to 8.8. In summer season the
Conductivity The conductivity increases considerably from the rainy season and was recorded maximum
Fig.1: Map showing location of sampling stations Table 1: Present Annual Raw Water reservation from various sources for city Source Kanhan River Pench project (PRBC) at Mahadula Gorewada Lake Total
Annual reservation Mm3/year 55.00 112.00 78.00 5.80 250.80
MLD
Actual drawel (as per Biling to NMC) Mm3/year
150.70 43.80 306.88 143.00 213.72 16.00 6.80 687.30 217.60
MLD 120 400 20.00 540.0
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Fig: 2 (a)
Fig: 2 (b)
Fig: 3 (a)
Fig: 3 (b)
Fig: 4 (a)
Fig: 4 (b)
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Table. 2: Sampling stations Sampling Locations stations
Distance
1 Confluence of River Kanhan & Pench(Bina village) 2 Confluence of River Kanhan & Kolar(Juni Kamptee) 3 Upstream side of waste water 4 Downstream side of waste water 5 Intake well 6 Upstream side of Kanhan River 7 Downstream side of Kanhan River
23.2 kms from Nagpur 18.6 kms from Bina Juni Kamptee 13.5 km from Bina Juni Kamptee 14.5 km from u/s side of waste water Juni Kamptee 14 km from Nagpur 4.5 km from Juni Kamptee 5.5 km from u/s side of Kanhan River
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Fig: 5 (a)
Fig: 5 (b)
Fig: 6 (a)
Fig: 6 (b)
Fig: 7 (a)
Fig: 7 (b)
Fig: 8 (a)
Fig: 8 (b)
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Fig: 9 (a)
Fig: 9 (b)
Fig: 10 (a)
Fig: 10 (b)
in the summer. The minimum conductivity 306 µmho/ cm and maximum 338 µmho/cm was found in the rainy season. In winter season the conductivity raises to minimum 338 µmho/cm to maximum conductivity 570 µmho/cm. The highest conductivity 531 µmho/ cm to 595 µmho/cm was observed in summer season.Sampling station 4 (d/s of waste water discharge point) has maximum conductivity in every season and minimum at sampling station 3 (d/s of waste water discharge point).
temperature at station 3 was recorded high and low in the stations 2.
Dissolved oxygen In rainy season the DO ranged from 7.3 mg/l to 8.1 mg/l. The higher concentration of dissolved oxygen during winter season was probably due to low water temperature. The minimum DO 7.7 mg/l and maximum 9 mg/l was observed during winter season. In summer season the DO slightly decrease and found minimum 5.7 mg/l to maximum 6.6 mg/l.The DO varies with the temperature. DO was maximum at station 2 (confluence of Kanhan and Kolar) and 6 (d/s of Kanhan) and minimum at station 3 (u/s wastewater discharge point). The
Biochemical Oxygen Demand The minimum BOD 2.8 mg/l and maximum 3.7 mg/l was observed during the rainy season. In winter season 3.1 mg/l minimum and maximum 4.3 mg/l BOD was observed. The BOD decreases in summer season and ranged from 2.3 mg/l to 2.9 mg/l.The maximum BOD was observed at station 3 (u/s wastewater discharge point) and minimum at station 2 (confluence of Kanhan and Kolar). The wastewater discharged at station 3 contents the organic matters. Thus, to oxygen required to decompose organic matter is more at this point. Total Solids The TS was found maximum in rainy season and ranged from 436.03 mg/l to 600.64 mg/l. The minimum TS 415.85 mg/l and maximum 587.9 mg/l was observed in the winter season. In summer season the TS ranged minimum 469.49 mg/l and 558.4 mg/l maximum.The maximum TS
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was observed at station 3 (u/s wastewater discharge point) due to the high concentration of suspended solids and minimum at station 1(confluence of Kanhan and Pench). Total Dissolved Solids The TDS was found maximum in rainy season and ranged from 232.1 mg/l to 253.5 mg/l. The minimum TDS 253.5 mg/l and maximum 427.5 mg/l was observed in the winter season. In summer season the TS ranged minimum 394.5 mg/l and 446.25 mg/l maximum.At station 4 (d/s of waste water discharge point) the TDS concentration is maximum with the minimum at the station 1 (confluence of Kanhan and Pench). Suspended Solids The SS was foundmaximum in rainy season and ranged from 177.82 mg/l to 365.14 mg/l. The minimum SS 78.88 mg/l and maximum 282.28 mg/l was observed in the winter season. In summer season the TS ranged minimum 68.78 mg/l and 154.9 mg/l maximum.The SS was observed high at station 3 (u/s of waste water discharge point) and minimum at station 4 (d/s of waste water discharge point). Water quality index represents the integrated effects of the relevant water quality variables. For Knahan River water, the rating of WQI of water samples was calculated. The values of WQI indicated that the water quality rating, the quality of river water was rated bad in rainy (32.58) and
summer (46.17) season with the WQI range 25-50. While the WQI rages form 50-70, with the medium water quality rating in winter season (46.17). The average WQI for all the seasons ranged from 50-70 resulting having medium (54.84) quality rating. CONCLUSION Based on the analysis and observations it could be seen that the concentration of the physiochemical parameters is high in the summer season compared to rainy and winter season. This is due to the low water level that results in less availability of dilution factor.The quality of water as calculated by WQI was found moderate for drinking purpose in winter season and rated bad in rainy and summer season.Concentration of the parameters like pH, BOD, turbidity, DO, and TDS is found maximum. These parameters was found above the prescribed standards may affect the water treatment plant when processed for drinking water treatment. Parameters like TS and TDS were found within the standards limits. ACKNOWLEDGMENT I would like to express my sincere respect and gratitude towards my guide and co-guidefor their encouragement and constant support for water quality studies. I would also like to thank the GHRCE laboratory and supportive staffs for providing essential chemicals and facilities and for the presentwork.
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Mahesh Kumar.Akkaraboyina et al., International Journal of Engineering Research and Development, 2(3), 29-34 (2012). Xiaoyun Fan et al., Procedia Environmental Sciences 2: 1220–1234 (2010). Dhirendra Mohan Josh et al., Rasayan Journal Chem. 2: 195-203 (2009). Tiwari, T.N. et al., International Journal Environ Prot. 5: 276 (1985). Mohd Ekhwan, T. et al., International Journal of Agriculture and Crop Sciences, 4 (2): 33-39 (2012). Bindu N. Lohani et al., Journal Environ.
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Eng.113: 186-195 (1987). CCME 2001. Canadian water quality guidelines for the protection of aquatic life: Canadian Water Quality Index 1.0 Technical Report. In Canadian environmental quality guidelines. 1999. Winnipeg. Calculation of the Drinking Water Quality Index-Government of Newfoundland and Labrador (Department of Environment and Conservation). M. Meybeck et al., “Chapter 6- River”, Water Quality Assessments - A Guide to Use of Biota, Sediments and Water in Environmental
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Current World Environment
Evaluating the Performance of Urban Management in Community Sustainable: Case Study in Area of Narmak - Tehran Mohammad Habibi1* and Amir hossein Pourjohari2 *Department of Urban Planning, Shahr-e-Qods Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran. 2 Department of Urban Planning, Shahr-e-Qods Branch ,Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran. 1
http://dx.doi.org/10.12944/CWE.9.2.29 (Received: April 07, 2014; Accepted: July 08, 2014) ABSTRACT Uncontrolled urban development that was coincided with the Industrial Revolution, make living in a city faced with new problems that were completely antithetical to sustainable development. To solve this problem, administrators, planners, and urban management in general, have prepared plans for development. Because of their unresponsive to urban neighborhoods, development plans and because of their upward to downward processes, these development projects were incapable of solving problems, and many of them have failed. On the other hand, for better urban governance, participation of all actors in both public and private sector and civil society were essential. In addition, on this level of cooperation, leading to ready all actors for culture governance of democratic were realized. This study investigated the role of community-based management in achieving sustainable urban development deals and has analyzed social stability in four dimensions including cultural, economic, physical and environmental. Study area, was a neighborhood of Tehran, in the area of eight, Narmak. The research was a descriptive - analytical study and collecting information and data were performed in the form of documents and survey. The results suggest that the effects of urban management on stabilizing neighborhoods, in physical and environmental aspects, are quite tangible. However, with regard to social and economic dimensions, this effect was more diminished. Certainly, the role and power of urban management in social and economic dimensions could be obtained more sustainability for Narmak neighborhood.
Key words: Neighborhood management-centered, Participatory, Sustainable development, Narmak.
INTRODUCTION Urban area, with placing the center of the city neighborhoods, as the smallest components inside the city, for achieving optimal management ways of urban communities, are of urban priority programs for the planners. Since, in the division of the city space, urban neighborhoods, are of the smallest organized spaces, so, local communities in cities are the best foci and the workshop of participatory planning and management. Among other categories of institutional, town space, have the most social cohesion. The complexity of urban issues and their importance not only face the planners with
the reality of this phenomenon but also have forced them to leave the urban management approach of the previous and deal with fresh ideas and new methods to overcome these issues. Todayâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s, the evolution of urban management and the adoption of new management consist of the affairs of the city for urban sustainable development at the local level (Fanni and Saremi, 2008, pp: 92 and 93). However, in the current era, plan view base on neighborhood planning and neighborhood management, for urban planning is regarded as the predominant approach. In todayâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s society, urban neighborhoods and urban elements fundamental are important link between the city and citizens. From distant past quarters,
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neighborhoods of the cities have special status in formation and organization of municipal affairs. City was formed based on these coherent whole neighborhoods, each neighborhood has different facilities, and equipments needed for its inhabitants, including primary markets, water storage, mosques, baths, etc. Network of way of communication for neighborhood has the hierarchical relationship between different areas (Rahnamayi et al, 2007). However, rapid spread of urbanization and spread of modernism have left a major effect in changing the structure and function of urban area. Neighborhood traditional system fell apart, and with the institutions of urban management, public management, top-down and centralized management systems, are replaced with the neighborhood management (Rahnamayi et al, 2007). In fact, with the rapid developments in the contemporary era and entering a state of transition, infrastructure of livelihood and social relations stir. In the past, for development management, cleaning and security, and participation were asked from neighborhood residents and in all matters, pertaining to the neighborhood and the role of citizenry was important. However, little by little, this role has been removed from people responsibility and residents were depleted from their special identity of their neighborhood. In such situation, neighborhoods felt themselves apart from city and neighborhood and city problems were managed in absence of citizens. Solving problems related to the neighborhood of Tehran, could lead to a more coherent of neighborhood relations, and in turn, can provide new models of identity construction in the neighborhood. Neighborhoods stability shows their sustainability of the natural and social situation (Shiaa, 2009). Emergences of urban management as an independent concept came to early 1990s in developed countries. The scientific community has considered urban management field as a new discipline in recent decades (Abedi Jafari et al, 2011, p: 180). The establishment of urban management and urban governance authority in terms of cultural and social structure appears based on political, social and cultural structures. City which has the most complicates and variant views of human life, without having urban management discipline that both plans for programs for city development and evaluate the ways for encountering and overcoming
the problems will not be useful (Saeednya, 2010, p:19). Another approach based on the concept of urban management is local government. Local government is an old entity with a new concept that is rooted in ancient human history and at the time of the introduction of social management of human existence has been established. Self managing is one of the natural needs of the human; in a way that inherently and innately want to participate in his/her affairs of their own destiny (Moghimi, 2003; p:1). However, level of local management and administration should be recognized at the national and regional level, followed by, the interface between the two. In fact, today, there is a direct relationship between improving urban management and local decentralization and local democracy has been accepted. Delegation, public participation and institutional context of solving at the lower level, are the success of spatial decentralization policy (Sarafi, 1998, p: 44). In modern urban management system to address the problems and challenges of urban life, several models have been proposed. One of these models is the model that is dominant in urban management, community management model, and is considered regarding dimensions of urban sustainable development. They include “sustainable development”, “urban management” and “neighborhoods.” Therefore, this study seek to answer the question that, to what extent urban management has been successful in promoting local sustainability indicators to be effective for Narmak. MATERIALS AND METHODS The neccessity of research for the study area Urban studies, based on urban neighborhoods, are of the smallest divisions in of system components of the city, in order to achieve optimum management practices for city communities, and are considered as an essential issue for urban planning, and could play an important role in increasing the sustainability and especially empowering of communities. Stability requires decision-making and activities, resulting in capital investment in social capacity to strengthen local, capital, natural, economic or humanity. On the other hand, management in neighborhood-level is a connection link for citizens and urban management. If accepted for city, management, participation
Habibi & Pourjohari, Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(2), 456-463 (2014) of all factors influencing on urban development including governmental and city community are necessary. Management in this level is a solution for actors and participating of all people in managing the city will be occurred. Paying attention to the micro-level (neighborhood) is one way of achieving efficient management of urban. Accordingly, it is necessary to pay more attention to the dimensions of the micro-scale and neighborhood-planning program (Karimi and Tavakoli Nia, 2009; Tavakoli and Ostadi Sisi, 2009). Present research because of its nature, was a fundamental survey and the method used was cross - sectional study and field data collection were conducted. The first plate of each lane were randomly selected and used to fill out a questionnaire regarding demographics of the city and neighborhoods using the general formula Cochran, 284 samples were obtained. To assess the reliability of the questionnaire using Cronbachâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s test, the results of 30 questionnaires have been tested. The alpha values obtained from this test was 0.72, which indicated good reliability. To obtain validity, the KMO test and Bartlettâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s sphericity values of 48 questionnaires have been used and the number of 0.7 was obtained which indicated the validity was acceptable. Study on relationship between performance and stability of the Narmak neighborhood and effectiveness of urban management, urban management, regression analysis and analysis of variance (ANOVA) were used (Table 1).
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Study area Nar mak neighborhood with 25,223 inhabitants (based on 2011 census) has been located in eight area of Tehran and is considered as a historical â&#x20AC;&#x201C; cultural and main nucleus of the area. It is a residential neighborhood, stable, secure and legible identity that is balance in appropriate link with entire area. Narmak city should be considered of the first planned town with a regular structure of the grid in streets in north - south and hierarchical tendencies (Fig. 1). Concepts, principles and main elements In order to analyze the role of communitybased management in implementing the concept of sustainable urban development in the neighborhood Narmak Tehran, neighborhood-based view of sustainable management has been selected as the predominant view. The neighborhood management, which is the closest level of urban management, has the highest contact with city living of the residents. In fact, in neighborhood management, the main objective was to attract greater participation of citizens in solving local problems in their lives and using the ideas, people skills, capacity and expertise that existed in the neighborhood. In this approach, the neighborhood residents were considered who were able to help urban management in order to identify the most significant problems as well as offer a way to solving them. In the simplest case, the administrator was a connection between local communities and local service providers at a
Fig. 1: Location of zone 8 and Narmak neighborhood in Tehran
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local level in order to achieve sustainable urban development. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION To determine the effectiveness of urban management in local stability, linear regression and analysis of variance ANOVA was used. The urban
management performance as an independent variable and sustainability as a dependent variable have been considered. Initially, the performances of urban management in Narmak zone have been investigated. The results showed that presence of significant effects of each dimension of urban
Table. 1: Variables proposed for evaluation of urban management performance Satisfaction with municipal environmental performance Satisfaction of the Municipality for socio-cultural function Satisfaction of the Municipality function in space- - physical in the neighborhood
Noise reduction of neighborhood by preventing the creation of places and occupations that are bothering people Avoidance of placing objects on balconies and beauties of views of buildings and walls Appropriate urban furniture, installing bus stops, installing billboardsâ&#x20AC;Ś. Creating shopping centers for buying recyclable waste or increasing separate reservoirs for recyclable waste Waste tank installed in neighborhood streets Cleaning of streets, alleys and water channels Establishment of appropriate population densities and building Creation of infrastructure and communication networks in urban neighborhoods and providing facilities such as street and Trim Construction of parks, green spaces and trees in neighborhoods, good per capita green space Building elements and indicator signs at the neighborhood level Lighting of neighborhood parks and green spaces Construction of pedestrian bridge Creating play areas for children in neighborhood parks Shopping centers, stores and daily markets Reduce congestion of accident-prone location by modifying the main and secondary intersection Creating centers for recreation Cultural programs such as celebration in religious eves and ceremonies A way to create good places to hold ceremonies Construction of cultural and sporting locations such as libraries and sports stadiums and installing equipment in neighborhood parks Construction of a special place for walking and cycling help the people to solve problems through the Council of community Development projects in order to increase comfort and improve the quality of life in neighborhoods Examination of old texture of neighborhood and more attention to their renewal Installation of alleys names and streets and appropriate homes plating Construction of city landmarks such as construction of entrance name for special buildings or parks in the neighborhood Variation in user services at the neighborhood level for different age and gender groups including women, youth, children Creating equitable access to community services, education, health care, office, on foot, creating equitable access to public transport Construction of Pavement with high quality
Habibi & Pourjohari, Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(2), 456-463 (2014) management functions on the neighborhood sustainability (p<0.05). The above table indicates that the environmental performance of urban management had more effect on environmental sustainability, with the index value of 0.56 in comparison to other dimension. By the way, the economic performance of urban management in economic stability with the coefficient of 0.067 showed the least effect (Table 2). Totally, the perfor mance of urban management in general was the sum of four dimensions (with a significance level of 0.00 and the coefficient determination of R2 of 0.511 had significant effect on the overall stability of Narmak zone (in all dimensions). The following chart based
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on the estimated curve showed the effect of urban performance on global stability (Fig.2). As can be observed with respect to the coefficient of 0.511, the overall performance of urban management had high value on the overall stability (Table 3). Effectiveness of the operational aspects of urban management in community sustainability To evaluate the effectiveness of urban management functions dimensions, the overall stability of the neighborhood Narmak, global stability was considered as the dependent variable and each of the functional aspects were considered as independent variables. The overall stability of the neighborhood is shown in the following table (Table 4).
Table. 2: Impact of urban management functions on aspects of Narmak zone stability Significant F 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
The coefficient of Functional aspects determination R2
55.867 17.925 316.146 202.502
0.184 0.067 0.560 0.450
Socio-cultural performance in socio â&#x20AC;&#x201C; cultural stability Economic performance in economic stability Environmental performance on environmental sustainability Physical performance in physical stability
Table. 3: The effect of urban management performance on the local stability Significant F 0.000
258813
The coefficient of determination R2 0.511
B a s e d o n p hy s i c a l p e r fo r m a n c e , management and economic performance had the most and least impact on neighborhood stability, respectively. It can be concluded that municipalities had the most activity in physical fields and at the level of local, doing physical activity is more important than other municipal activities.
Fig. 2: The effect of urban management on stabilizing of Narmak zone
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Habibi & Pourjohari, Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(2), 456-463 (2014) Table. 4: Effects of each functional aspects of urban management on the overall stability of the neighborhood significance 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.001
Effectiveness Dimension 0.344 0.309 0.224 0.063
In the case of, effects of functional dimensions of socio-cultural and economic in urban management in sustainability aspects related to urban management, it can be inferred that the municipalities do not take any important responsibilities in these areas therefore cannot have a great effect on the stability related to themselves. Totally, performance of urban management with a determination coefficient of 0.511, and a significance level of 0.000 had positive effect on the sustainability of local communities of Narmak. Thus, it can be inferred that better urban management can be effective on neighborhood stability. Effectiveness of urban management functions in Narmak neighborhood stability, physical functioning, with 34.4% had the most effect on the stability of the neighborhood. Then, the effects of other variables were 30.9%, 22.4%, and 6.3%, for environmental, socio-cultural, and economic performance, respectively. The reason for this could be that based on documents, municipal duties is mostly in the spatial and physical domain and in the next grade the most important tasks were the environmental issues. Finally, the municipal duties were in social, cultural and economical context that not important duties have been defined in these two areas. Therefore, in general it can be inferred that such a responsible task manager, will lead to more stability. For example, physical and environmental functions can be called as such duties. Physical and environmental context in such a way had more effect on the stability of the local neighborhood. The reason for this could be that the trustee Physical and environmental management areas, regions and municipalities have their own neighborhoods. Therefore, based on the defined tasks, management was applied. However, in the case of economic and social â&#x20AC;&#x201C; cultural in cities, municipalities regions, local
physical Environmental Socio-cultural Economical
priority 1 2 3 4
areas, important tasks were not much undertaken by municipalities and there were not responsible for certain management for them. Multiple agencies with overlapping functions can be seen in this context. Therefore, we cannot expect municipalities that have an impact in these areas. Therefore, it is necessary for having each of the sustainability dimensions, special duty should be defined and responsibility should be done by a special organization and organization should have positive and useful performance. Conclusion Following the changes in conditions and factors affecting urban development in recent times, synthetic residential neighborhood have special place in forming of cities. While, sustainable urban development, was a main part of the urbanization literature in recent years, so, paying attention to addressing, and neighborhood development principles and standards still need to research. Perspective of sustainable development, solving of urban problems knew using endogenous formidable forces in urban neighborhoods. Communities and local communities as the social investment have societal position and function, particularly in terms of preservation and development of the metropolitan. Putting together, two theories of sustainable development and the school of environment lead to exploring cultural perspective as a sustainable neighborhood development, respectively (Babcock and Larsen, 1990) This view reflects the principle that urban areas have enormous social and cultural themes that only the civic culture and recreation areas as the context of the social life of residents lead to giving the local, sustainable development. The identity beside participation, can organize a missing link in our
Habibi & Pourjohari, Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(2), 456-463 (2014) community. As long as the person did not remember a sense of belonging, was not being responsible. This lack of responsibility is a major obstacle to the active participation of various civil society of the present city (Rajab Salahi. 2002). Narmak zone, Tehran can be considered as a sustainable neighborhood that is because of planning product of planners in contemporary period. However, what is regarded as a warning of serious concern is the capacity to tolerate the neighborhood (Barton et al, 2003). Narmak local has reached to a population and building capacity threshold. If continuous monitoring is neglected as a matter of principle, the principles and criteria that have ensured the stability of the neighborhood so far will be lost. Thus, in addition to the usual principles of planning and designing neighborhoods, the neighborhood tolerable capacity should be a primary determinant as a seriously indispensable and considerable for the stability of the neighborhood (Bidgerlulo, 1999). Suggestions Recommendations for metropolitan, Tehran 1. The elections of metropolitan should be based district council. 2. Strengthen and extend of organizations and neighborhood councils to comply with the City Council and approved sub-councils such as the Council of Adult, Youth Council and Children Council, exercise council and like that in the neighborhood. 3. Encourage and foster of public participation in decision-making and healthy living of neighborhoods and deficiencies of the neighborhood. 4. Reinforcement of social and cultural centers at the neighborhood level through cultural centers and publication, newspapers and weeklies. 5. Community education generalized to different segments of the population in the city and the neighborhood. 6. Director or directors elected from residents of the neighborhood and community trustees. 7. Trust serves residents in the city administrators and local bodies. Great offers in the area 1. Equipping the arterial axis of the body to
2.
3.
4. 5.
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access the important role they play for their neighborhood. Themes such Shahid Madani, Shahid Sani, Janbazan, and Damavand. Diagnosis, classification and making categories, and taping schedule and priorities for the region, especially in the area of old texture, 3. Promotion and strengthening of regional accessibility in the city (highway driven equip, Imam Ali and Damavand mission-driven). Internal and external accessibility of the region and increased permeability. Continuous improvement of living conditions and leisure, work and leisure activities.
Suggestions at the neighborhood level 1. Increasing social security in the heart of the neighborhood beside police station in addition to the guard quarters and taking responsibility of local people and communities, particularly for women and children. 2. Reinforcement of regional identity by more identifying and manufacture of identity at the neighborhood level. 3. Complete separation of traffic and pedestrians and cars supplied by each of them, while maintaining the highest relevance to transform travel. 4. Lighting for streets and sidewalks, and pedestrian 5. Development of green spaces, sports and leisure. 6. Roadway traffic lubricant development and completion of public facilities in the neighborhood. 7. Culture making for spontaneous participation of neighborhood residents. 8. Development and equipment of Narmak tissue as the tissue samples. 9. Construction of Childrenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Games places regarding to distance availability. 10. Revenue by collecting and proper segregation of waste by training of local people to achieve this goal. 11. Creating conditions for the leisure time of young people in order to earn money for their residents. 12. Refining, equip and development of local service centers of Narmak located in Nobovat square (Haft- Hoz).
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different age groups ranging from a play quarters, library, home, homework etc. Reducing and reforming accident-prone intersection of main and secondary routes.
REFERENCES 1.
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Abedi Jafari et al. Constituent component of urban management on the basis of the ten municipalities of the city, Urban Studies, University Dehaghan Journal, 1(I): 202-179 (2011). Babcock, R. Larsen, W.U. Special Districts/ The Ultimate in Neighborhood zoning, Lincoln institute of land policy, Cambridge, M.A (1990). Barton; H ,et al : Shaping Neighborhoods: A guide for health, sustainability and vitality”, London and New York :spoon press, pp: 35-48 (2003). Bidgerlulo.a.e, : Toward an interactional approach to sustainable community development; Journal of Rural Studies, 15(1): 23-37 (1999). Fanni Zohreh, Saremi Farid. Challenges of neighborhood management system based on sustainable development of metropolitan Tehran, platform, 91-180 (2008). Karimi Sargol, Tavakoli Nia Jamile. The role of micro-and local-scale development in sustainable urban development, Journal of Human Geography, 2(3): 81-92 (2009). Moghimi Seyed Mohammad. The administration of local governments, Tehran: Tehran University and Samt Press (in Persian) (2003). Rahnamayi Mohammed Taqi et al. Structural and functional evolution of the neighborhoods
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in the cities. Scientific Journal - Research Geographical Society of Iran, a new era, V(12, 13): 19-43 (2007). Rajab Salahi Hossein. Structure of Local Government, Municipal Administration, Planning and Urban Management Program, theoretical and empirical challenges, Tehran: Publications of municipalities (2002). Saeednya Ahmad. Green book series municipalities, city managers, Volume XI, publisher of the country’s municipalities (2010). Sarafi Mozafar. Decentralization metropolises in southern states (beliefs and strategies), Architecture and Urban Studies, No. 48, publisher of the country’s municipalities (1998). Shiaa Esmaeel. Comparison of Tehran neighborhood with neighborhood criteria for sustainable urban development perspectives, Proceedings of the conference on sustainable development at local, volume 2, Tehran: a new design (2009). Tavakoli Nia Jamile, Ostadi Sisi Mansour. Stability analysis of neighborhood councils in metropolitan Tehran with emphasis on performance; case study in neighborhood Evin, Darake and Velenjak, Research in Human Geography (in Persian), 70: 29-44 (2009).
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Current World Environment
Glacier Geosite of Tale-Tange Valley Kamran Rezaeizadeh Mahabadi1 and Asemeh Soleimanifakhr2* Department of Geography, Faculty of Science, Shahr-e-Rey Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran. 2 Department of Geography, Faculty of Literature, Central Tehran Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran. 1
http://dx.doi.org/10.12944/CWE.9.2.30 (Received: June 03, 2014; Accepted: July 15, 2014) Abstract Geological sites or geosites are the key evidence or specific periods of geological history which are very important in public education of earth sciences and environmental implications. They are also non-renewable parts of the earth as a tool for sustainable development. By its diverse geology, climate, geological features and unique nature, Iran can use geological phenomenon (geotope) across the country, such as caves, canyons, valleys, fossil sites, geological formations, mud volcanoes, types of minerals, mountain glaciers, and Kaluts As a geological heritage in the form of multiple potential geosites following the provision of tourism infrastructure, as a useful tool for geotourism development and establishment of geoparks. Tale-Tange valley is located in northern Jajrud Basin in the southern highlands of central Alborz. Several geomorphological phenomena such Cirque glaciers, moraines, waterfalls, River terraces, wandering rocks in the area can be a geotourist factor to attract tourists to this region. Hence, the area can be considered as a paleoclimatic site or geosite.
Key words: Geosite, Geotourism, Glacier Cirque.
Introduction Geotourism is a branch of tourism as a new term recently used in tourism campaign of countries. Wherever one goes is on the earth, every part of the earth has its geological unique attractions, referring to the tourism based on geologic resources. Geotourism formation in the second half of the twentieth century is a new type of human activities associated with nature and its exploitation. The practical aspects of Geosciences in relation to tourism have resulted in formation of terms such as inheritance, geotope, geotourism, geopark, and geosite (Zandi, 2010). Tourism is the main factor for sustainable development in the economic, social, cultural and environmental levels. Geotourism is the subset of sustainable tourism and its purpose is to conserve tourism land resources and develop tourism
destinations, namely, to guide tourists so that the visited geosite can be used and maintained for future generations (Kazazi, 2006). In one category, Geotourism can be divided into two categories: Geopark Geopark is a National protected area with at least one heritage site of geosciences which is important in scientific, rarity and aesthetics terms (Zandi, 2010). Geosite Geosite refers to a place with a rare and valuable geological or geomorphological phenomenon. These sites should be scientifically and aesthetically valuable and the possibility of visiting should be available publicly. Geosites are unique areas which can be visited by Geotourists.
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In addition, a series of geosites can be found within a geopark (ibid). Tale-Tange Valley with its natural attractions such as river, waterfall, fountain, beautiful mountain scenery along its geomorphological phenomena such as glacial cirques, river terraces, wandering rocks and moraines can be a good platform for research and development of Geotourism and tourism in the region. Problem Statement By glacial and climatic evidence and heritage, Tale-Tange Valley provides valuable information on the life and climate and its changes during different geological periods. However, as a geosite, its geotourism potentials can attract domestic and foreign tourists with various objectives. Development of activities coordinated and consistent with the area, in addition to maintaining environmental integrity, can provide economic development and improve the livelihood of local people. Objective The purpose of this study was to present TaleTange Valley as one of the sites of geomorphological and paleoclimatic studies in line with development of tourism industry and Geotourism. Hypotheses It seems that the research area has a great potential for tourism and paleoclimatic studies. Literature Review Geotourism is a new term in tourism, introduced for the first time in Iran by Nabavi (1999). Afterwards, major works conducted on Iranian geotourism include studies of Kazemi (2002, 2004, and 2006). Kamyabi (2008) evaluated the natural and Geotourism attractions of Hablehrud basin and National Park of Semnan Desert. He suggested that the area had the ability to become a geopark through development planning and optimal utilization of geotourist systems. Using the term, geomorphotourism and geotourism, Zomorrodian (2005) and Servati (2006)
studied the north coast of the Caspian Sea and Hamadan, respectively. Articles are also written in this field. T h e Nojavan and colleagues (2009) considered geotopes of Yazd as potential for development of tourism and geotourism.Taheri and Moradnejad (2010) introduced the glacial alpine environments of Ashtarankooh as a geosite.Studying fossil geosite of Maragheh, Safari Paskeh (2001) studied variety of fossils and places where they were discovered as a fossil site. In the first conference of Geological Heritage of Iran, Shah Amiri Tabatabai and Ghassemi (2012) introduced Tang-Tikab geosite and Devon village, Kazeron, as one of the tourist attractions in the Fars province. Maleki Orsi and colleagues (2012) introduced the Aras Geo Park and Uch Tepe geosite. Methodology Methodology of this survey involves: Methods of Data Collection A) Referring to libraries of universities, institutions and organizations B) Using 1:50,000-, 1:100000- and 1:250000scale topographic and geological maps provided from geographical organizations of the Armed Forces, Organization of Geology and Mapping Agency (type and age of the rocks were examined by geological map). C) Field methods; to record information from field observations, Following methods were used: a. Phenomena recorded on maps or aerial or satellite photographs: 1:55000-scale aerial photographs were prepared and interpreted from geographical organization of the Armed Forces. The satellite images were interpreted using Google earth software. Complications such as faults, valleys, water bodies were detected from these images. b. Explanatory Notes c. conventional photographs and required samples of the land Analysis of Data In this section, the information collected were analysed in this form of sketch or photo. The Best way to adjust the structure of this section
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is to present findings regarding questions and hypotheses. Discussion Tale-Tange Valley is located in southern Alborz Mountains, in the northeast Darbandsar. This valley, as one of the highest branches of the main Jajrud River, is located at 51Ă&#x161;28' east longitude and 36Ă&#x161;15 North latitude (figure 1) Fig. 1: Geographical location of Tale-Tange Valley
Geology of the Area At the entrance of the valley, there are Shemshak formations including charcoal shales, limestone, calcareous sandstones with large amounts of coal between the layers (Figure 1). By 200m to the eastern slope, there is a glacier cirque at an altitude of about 3000 meters. There is a valley at the north of the cirque characterized by a sour-water spring with red sediment (Figure 2). This valley ends to larger cirques at an altitude of about 3400 meters. From this valley to north, there is a lithologic shift from sediment to Igneous (Figure 3). To the end of the valley, igneous rocks form the completely eastern wall (800m) continuing to the heights of the sour-water river.
Fig. 2: lithology sketch of Tale-Tange Valley
According to the geological map, the rocks are related to the Upper Cretaceous mostly seen as green and grey-green. These rocks are strongly influenced by tectonics in different geological periods; so that, some parts of the large and small pieces became mylonitic. Depending on lithology, weather and steep rock as well as slopes, particularly after the sour-water river, there are highly active Debris slopes. This is different in the western foothills. First, the place where grain turn from sedimentary rock to igneous rocks is not too noticeable; there is a freshwater spring which totally wet the environment. In addition, it is Slippery because of Vegetation such as algae. Secondly, there are calcareous sediments on igneous rocks, which caused a relatively good vegetation. This prevents debris; instead, calcareous sediments fall from upside because of Erosion and breakage.
Fig. 3: sour-water spring; photo by author, 2008
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After about 700 meters from the entrance of the valley, there are igneous rocks which are foundation stone of â&#x20AC;Ś limestone. In two places at the contact of limes and igneous rocks, there is a spring. The first spring which has a wall with a nearly Perpendicular slope and less water creates an ice waterfall from November to May; in other warm months, there is only humidity of the waterfall (Figure 5). The next spring at the contact of calcareous rocks and igneous rocks has water at all during the year, some of which are transmitted by a channel to Darbandsar.In General, geological structure of the valley starts from entrance by Shemshak formations and ends to limestone and igneous rocks of the Upper Cretaceous at heights.
To explain, igneous Shemshak formations rose from water in The Triassic Period. Through Next orogenic processes, it is likely that Laramide of igneous materials have fall on them; or given the tuffs and andesite tuff, it is likely that the sea was not too deep to cover the area permanently; therefore, andesites flew on tuffs. After some times, volcanoes extinct and the sea progressed; the limestones deposited on them and then they rose of the water during the early Tertiary orogenic or the same period. Along with dolomite, there was limestone. High altitude and mountainous cool weather prevent fast snow melting; occasionally, snow can be seen in the region until early June. During the cold
Fig. 4: geomorphology of the Tale-Tange Valley
Fig. 5: waterfall of Tale-Tange; photo by author, 2008
Fig. 6: Avalanche in Tale-Tange Valley; photo by author, 2008
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Fig. 7: Snow tunnel; photo by author, 2008
Fig. 8: a boulder on which glacial movements is obvious; photo by author, 2008
Fig. 9: glacier cirques of the valley; photo by author, 2008
period which starts from October, there are solid falls which are not melted because of cold weather. Due to slopes, the snow covering slopes spills into the glacier valley as numerous avalanches (Fig. 6) and covers the entire valley. For example, the snow depth was about 30 m at sour water valley in 2006. This snow remains to the end of the water year. Through tunnels under the ice, stream continues and creates beautiful caves (Fig 7).
in the sunlight indicate their erosion by ice tabs (Fig 8).
Blocked paths due to the avalanche probability in SHEMSHAK-Dizin axis in most cold months prevents further investigation. Given the evidence remaining from this condition, some results can be drawn in relation to cold periods. The fractured angled rocks indicate physical erosion caused by glaciation. Varnished stones which glow
This is true for small and large glacial cirques including the end of the valley which is dead. This relatively large area represents inside of a circus which is terminated to the main valley by a narrow gorge (Figure 9). Morins of these cirques are seen with large boulders in the river valley as a sign of glacial activity. There are three terraces on the western slopes of the Valley indicating reduced temperature. Genesis and evolution of terraces could be related to heavy rains associated with the later glacial stages, effective on sediment erosions or due to continuous orogenic movements, or the performance of both.
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It is noteworthy that, straw fossils found in the beginning of the valley indicate a warm weather prior to Tertiary and a shallow sea. Thus, this region, like other parts of Iran, has been experiencing temperature fluctuations.
Given the location of Iran in desert strip and problems related to water crisis, the valley can be considered as a resource to provide fresh water in future due to the fact that the valley is under ice at most time of the year.
Conclusion
By glacial and geomorphological phenomenon, the valley can be viewed as a potential geosite interested by tourists and geotourists.
Accordingly, Tale-Tange Valley with glacial features along pristine mountain nature can attract domestic and foreign tourists every year. Existence of the natural phenomena provides the potential for attracting tourists and enriching their leisure time as well as a useful platform for scientific studies. It is hoped tourism resort projects and development of tourism infrastructure in the area attract tourists and Geotourists.
Acknowledgement This article is from the statements and guidance of the late doctor Mohammad Asghari Moghaddam; God bless his soul.
References 1. 2.
3.
4.
Kazazi, E., Geotourism, a New Approach to tourism Planning; Zanjan Province (2006). Maleki Orsi, S. & Najaf Zadeh, Uch Tape Geosite in the Suggested Aras Geopark. s.l., s.n (2012). Nojavan, M. R., Amir Hoseyni, A. & Ramesht, M. H., Geotopes of Yazd and Its Attractions. Geography and Development (2009). Safari Paske, H., n.d. Fossil Geosite of Maraghe.
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Shah Amiri Tabatabai, R. & Ghasemi, N., Tange-Tikab Geosite in Davan Village (Kazerun). s.l., s.n (2012). Taheri, K., Taheri, M. & Moradnejad, A., An Introduction to Glacial Geomorphology of Chal Kabud, Oshtoran Kooh; a Glacial Geosite in West Iran. s.l., s.n (2010). Zandi, E., an Introduction to Geoturism and Potentials of Iran (2010).
Vol. 9(2), 470-477 (2014)
Current World Environment
Greenhouse Gas Emissions (CO2-CH4) from Municipal Solid Waste Management Using Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) in Mahdsht City (IRAN) M. Naderi1*, M. salari baghonabad2, m.j. Amiri3 and m. rezazadeh4 The M.S Student of Planning, Management and Training of Environment, Environment Faculty, University of Tehran. 2 The M.S Student of Disaster Management, Environment Faculty, University of Tehran. 3 Assistant Professor, Department of Planning, Management and Training of Environment, Environment Faculty, University of Tehran, Iran. 4 Graduate of Environmental Engineering, Department of Environment, University of Tehran. 1
http://dx.doi.org/10.12944/CWE.9.2.31 (Received: June 17, 2014; Accepted: July 29, 2014) Abstract Waste production is inevitable in any society and consequently waste management is one of the main roles of any municipality. Therefore, it is necessary to evaluate different waste management scenarios. According to the amount and composition of the generated waste, considering environmental, economic and technical issues, several options are existed. Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) as a decision support tool has been used in several cases to select the most appropriate option. In this paper, production of greenhouse gases (CO2-CH4) in different waste management options in Mahdasht city (Iran) has been studied using IWM software and LCA application. Two scenarios has been defined, the first includes direct and complete transferring of waste to the landfill, and the second includes transferring of 76% of total waste to the landfill and recycling 20% and composting 4%. The questionnaires were fulfilled by the staffs and field surveying. The life cycle inventory cataloging was done using the IWM-1model according to environmental point of view. The amount of produced greenhouse gases in the first scenario is about 9,218 tons and in the second scenario is about 6,801 tons. Results indicate that implementing recycling and composting operation can lead to the 26% reduction in greenhouse gas emissions and energy consumption reduction of a waste management system.
Key word: LCA, IWM, Greenhouse Gas Emissions, Solid Waste, Mahdasht.
Introduction By the urbanism expansion and population increases, one of the most important topics is the optimum management of produced residue. Today, in addition to the rapid growth of urbanism, increasing in income level and welfare of the society and rapid economic and social growth in countries, which cause quantity changes in waste production, changes in consumption patterns has led to quality changes.
Integrated solid waste management (ISWM) is a term that is used for all of the activities that related with waste management of a society; the main aim of integrated solid waste management is to organize the society waste in a manner that supplies general health and environmental aspects and peopleâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s demands for reuse of wastes and recycling. A life cycle assessment (LCA) is a technique to assess environmental impacts associated with
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all stages of a product’s life from-cradle-to-grave (i.e. from raw material extraction through materials processing manufacture, distribution, use, repair and maintenance and disposal or recycling) LCA’s can help avoid a narrow outlook on environmental concerns by: • Compiling an inventory of relevant energy and material inputs and environmental releases; • Evaluating the potential impacts associated with identified inputs and releases; • Interpreting the results to help you make a more informed decision. There are four linked components of LCA: Goal definition and scoping Identifying the LCA’s purpose and the expected products of the study, and determining the boundaries (what is and is not included in the study) and assumptions based upon the goal definition;
Table. 1: Municipal waste generation rate (per individual) in Iran and other neighboring and developed countries Country
MSW generation (kg/person/day)
Austria Bahrain Belgium Egypt France India Iran Italy Japan Jordan Kuwait Oman Portugal Qatar Spain Tunisia Turkey UAE UK US
0.89 1.3 0.93 0.81 0.89 0.45 0.61 0.95 1.12 0.60 1.4 0.70 0.70 1.3 0.88 0.41 0.95 1.2 0.95 2.0
Life-cycle inventory Quantifying the energy and raw material inputs and environmental releases associated with each stage of production; Impact analysis Assessing the impacts on human health and the environment associated with energy and raw material inputs and environmental releases quantified by the inventory; Improvement analysis Evaluating opportunities to reduce energy, material inputs, or environmental impacts at each stage of the product life-cycle. The goal of LCA is to compare the foul range of environmental effects an assignable to products and services (such as waste management) in order to improve processes, support policy and provide a sound basis for informed decisions (US EPA, 2010). The choice of selected indicators for LCA can provide options for the improvement of the existing systems. Such a damage assessment based on the existing life cycle of natural gas combustion district heating system at a rural location in British Columbia was conducted by Pa et al(2006,2012) Table. 2: Physical composition of MSW of Mahdasht City Component Organic material Hard plastic Low plastic PET PS PP Mixed paper Boxboard Ferrous metal Aluminum Glass Yard waste Other
Content in Kerman (wt. %)
Amount (ton/year)
74.1 1.1 6.3 0.2 0.5 1.8 3.0 3.8 0.5 0.0 0.5 0.7 7.5
6215 92 530 17 42 152 252 320 42 0 42 59 630
Source: Data gathered in current research
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Fig. 1: Mahdasht city Table. 3: Number of equipment and fuel consumption according to scenarios Scenario Stage
Waste (Ton)
Number of Equipment
Fuel Consumption (Ltr)
Scenario1 Scenario2
8393 8393 8393 8393 6378.7 335.7 1678.6
6 5 2 6 1 1 5
17782.1 16060 2555 12848 1941.8 2574.4 10297.6
Collection Transport Landfill Transport Landfill Recycle Compost
Source: Data gathered in current research Table. 4: Emission factors for the production and delivery of fuels (kg/GJ) CO2 CH4 NOX SOX HCl PM-10 VOCs Air_Pb Ari_Hg Ari_Cd Ari_PCCD/F(TEQ) Water_Pb Water_Hg Water_Cd Water_BOD Water_PCCD/F(TEQ)
Natural gas Diesel 4.94E+00 6.90E-02 2.07E-02 1.90E-02 7.22E-05 1.26E-02 1.10E-02 1.25E-06 3.72E-07 5.91E-08 2.85E-14 6.57E-06 1.07E-07 8.54E-08 3.94E-06 n/a
Source: Derived from Pira International, 1996
1.08E+01 1.01E-01 6.59E-02 6.85E-02 4.18E-04 3.43E-02 1.96E-01 3.60E-06 1.19E-07 8.55E-07 1.10E-16 1.33E-05 1.37E-08 1.44E-06 1.12E-04 n/a
Fuel oil 4.78E+02 0.00E+00 2.93E+00 3.04E+00 1.86E-02 1.52E+00 7.59E-03 1.60E-04 5.30E-06 3.80E-05 4.90E-12 5.90E-04 5.90E-04 6.40E-05 5.00E-03 n/a
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recently. Similar region-specific LCA studies for woodchip-based â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;green electricity generationâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; in Austria (Siegl, S and et al,2012). Municipal solid waste (MSW) generally includes degradable (paper, textiles, food waste,
Municipal solid wastes 8395(ton/year)
straw and yard waste),partially degradable(wood, disposal napkins and sludge) and non-degradable materials (leather, plastics, rubbers, metals, glass, ash from fuel burning like coal, briquettes or woods ,dust and electronic waste).Generally MSW is managed as collection from streets and disposal at landfills (ArvindK.Jha and et al,2007). Temporary transfer station
Collection and transport
% 100
Green House
Landfill
Fig. 2: Scenario 1 Transfer to processing industries
Recycle
%4
Municipal solid wastes 8393(ton/year)
% 100
Temporary transfer station
Collection and transport
Green House
Landfill
% 20
Compost Fig. 3: Scenario 2 Table. 5: Emission factors for the combustion of fuels (kg/GJ) Source
Natural gas
source
CO2 CH4 NOX SOX HCl PM-10 VOCs Air_Pb Ari_Hg Ari_Cd Ari_PCCD/F(TEQ) Water_Pb Water_Hg Water_Cd Water_BOD Water_PCCD/F(TEQ)
48.77E+01 (3) 1.181E-01 (3) 5.00E-04 (1) 2.58E-04 (1) n/a 5.89E-03 (1) n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a
Fuel oil
Source D i e s e l
7.311E+01 (3) 2.40E-03 (3) 1.10E-02 (1) 4.55E-01 (1) n/a 3.57E-02 (1) 8.00E-04 (1) n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a
7.058E+01 0.00E+00 2.15E-02 1.12E-01 n/a 9.31E-02 1.18E-01 n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a
(3) (3) (2) (2) (2) (2)
Naderi et al., Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(2), 470-477 (2014) Life cycle assessment (LCA) is a process of evaluating environmental burdens or benefits associated with the total life cycle of a product. This is conducted by identifying and quantifying the energy and materials used and waste products released into the environment (Siegl, S and et al,2012). The significance of LCA lies in the fact that it equips the policy makers and decision makers for adoption of suitable and sustainable energy supply systems. Increasing global concern due to air pollution and to limited oil reserves has generated much interest in environmental friendly alternatives to petroleum-based fuels (Merola, SS and et al, 2012).
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Liamsanguan and Gheewala,2008; Villeneuve et al., 2009; Manfredi and Christensen, 2009; Banar et al., 2009).Some of the models conduct the Life Cycle Analysis (LCA) of the waste disposal system while other only focus on different environmental elements such as noise or traffic (Chang et al, 1996) or on CO2 emissions from vehicles (Wang at all, 1988).A group of computer models apply the concept of Life Cycle Analysis (LCA). The example of such models are: the US-EPA (Barlazet al, 1995), Integrated Waste Model IWM (White et al, 1997), MIMES/Waste (Sundberg, 1995), ORWARE (Eriksson et al, 2002).
LCA (Life Cycle Assessment) has been used as an effective environmental management tool in much different kind of studies. For example, A number of studies in the literature used LCA as a comparative tool for different MSWM schemes (Su et al., 2007; Ahluwalia and Nema, 2007;
An LCA study on alternatives for residual municipal solid waste management presented Umberto Arena Susan Thorneloe presented a paper on the US EPA landfill life cycle inventory. also we have several studies in different cases such as in order to lower the VOC content of paint in the paint industry (Dobson ,1996), to reduce the environmental burdens of the used automotive batteries (Robertson et al.,1997), to compare different forestry operations
Graph. 1: Comparing elements of two scenarios
Graph. 2: Comparing the two scenarios of energy consumption (GJ)
Graph. 3: Comparing the two scenarios of acid gases emission (tones)
Graph. 4: Comparing the two scenarios of smog gases emission (tones)
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of clear cutting and shelter wood cutting in forest management systems (Berg,1997), to compare three degreasing processes in the metal-processing industry and to optimize each process, both environmentally and economically (Finkbeiner et al.,1997), to assess different scenarios of treatment of municipal wastewater (Roeleveld et al.,1997), etc. Materials and Methods Mahdasht city with a population of about 55â&#x20AC;&#x2122;000 and a square of 6116/1 hectare is situated in the south-west of Karaj city (capital of Alborz province) with a distance of 18km from Karaj. This city with agricultural lands with a square of 2700 hectare is one of agricultural centers of Alborz province. The amount of waste production of this city is about 8400 ton per year (74.1% of wastes are wet and 25.9% solid).
In this paper production of greenhouse gases (CO2-CH4) in different waste management options in Mahdasht city by using Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) method had been studied using IWM3 software. Two scenarios of integrated waste management in the Mahdasht city were compared using the LCA methodology. The scenarios were described using data extrapolation on the basis of data collection referring to 2013. In scenario1 considered that all of the wastes sent to the landfill (100% equivalent with 8395ton) and in scenario2 considered that 20% of produced wastes (equivalent with 1679 ton) transform to compost and 4% of produced wastes (equivalent with 336 ton) are recycled and remained as produced wastes (76% equivalent with 6380 ton) sent to a landfill. Results The broad perspective offered by LCA makes it a powerful tool for environmental comparison of different options for waste management in Mahdasht
Graph. 5: Comparing the two scenarios of heavy metals emission (kg)
Graph. 6: Comparing the two scenarios of greenhouse gas emission (tones)
Graph. 7: Physical analysis of wastes (wet & dry)
Graph. 8: Physical analysis of wastes (dry waste only)
Naderi et al., Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(2), 470-477 (2014) city in 2011, considering the intricate complexities of material and energy flows. By means of this technique results has been shown in the tables below. Conclusion The present study estimates production of greenhouse gas emissions (CO2-CH4) in the waste management system in Mahdasht city in IRAN. Two scenarios are assessed: scenario 1 direct and complete transfer of waste to the landfill and scenario 2 transferring 76% of the waste to the landfill (20% recycled, compostable and 4%). The life cycle inventory cataloging was done using the IWM-1model environmental point of view, the results of this study showed that composting
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and recycling operations have an important role in reducing the burden of pollutants and energy consumption of a waste management system. In this study, the data entered into the software (IWM), and the results provided by the software approach to Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) had been studied and were compared with each other. Given the amount of greenhouse gases in the second scenario (combination of recycling, composting and landfill) produce about 6,801 tons compared to the first scenario (only landfill) which produced about 9218 tons, the results indicates a significant reduction in the amount of harmful gasses. It is concluded that if the combined method (scenario 2) is used, it can lead to reduction in greenhouse gas emissions by as much as 26 percent.
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Ahluwalia, P.K.. and Nema, A.K.. ‘A life cycle based multi-objective optimization model for the management of computer waste’. Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 51: 792-826. (2007). Arvind K.Jha,C.Sharma, Nahar Singh, R.Ramesh, R.Purvaja, Prabhat K.Gupta. Greenhouse gas emissions from municipal s o l i d wa s t e m a n a g e m e n t i n I n d i a n mega-cities: A case study of Chennai landfill(2007). sites,www.elsevier.com\locate\ chemosphere. Banar, M., Cokaygil, Z., Ozkan, A.’Life cycle assessment of solid waste management options for Eskisehir, Turkey’. Waste Management, 29: 54-62. (2009). Barlaz, M.A., Ranjithan, R., Weitz, K.A. and Nishtala, S.R. Life-Cycle Study of Municipal Solid Waste Management, System Description. US Environmental Protection Agency, USA. (1995). Berg S. Some aspects of LCA in the analysis of forestry operations. j clean Prod; 5: 211-7. (1997). Chang, N.B., Shoemaker, C.A. and Schuler, R.E. Solid Waste Management System Analysis with Air Pollution and Leachate Impact Limitations. Waste Management and Research, 14: 463-481. (1996). Dobson ID.Life cycle assessment for painting processes: putting the VOC issue
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in perspective. Prog Org Coat; 27: 55-8. (1996). Eriksson, O., Frostell, B., Bjorklund, A., Assefa, G., Sundqvist, J.O., Granath, J., Carlsson, M., Baky, A., Thyselius, L. ORWARE-a simulation tool for waste management. Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 36: 287-307 (2002). Finkbeiner M., Haffmann E. and kreisel G. Environmental auditing: the functional unit in the life cycle inventory analysis of degreasing processes in the metal processing industry. Environ Manage: 21: 635-42 (1997). Gunilla,J. LCA — A Tool for Measuring E n v i r o n m e n t a l Pe r fo r m a n c e : P I R A International, 190p. Haight.M.(2004). Technical Report: Integrated Solid Waste Management Model, School of Planning University of waterloo, March9. (1996). “ L i fe C y c l e A s s e s s m e n t ( L C A ) . U S Environmental Protection Agency. 6 Aug. (2010). Web.<http://www.epa.gov/nrmrl/ lcaccess Liamsanguan, C. and Gheewala, S.H. LCA: A decision support tool for environmental assessment of MSW management systems. Journal of Environmental Management, 87: 132-138 (2008). M a n f r e d i , S. a n d C h r i s t e n s e n , T. H . Environmental assessment of solid waste
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Naderi et al., Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(2), 470-477 (2014) landfilling technologies by means of LCAmodeling. Waste Management, 29: 32-43 (2009). Merola, SS, Tornatore, C, Marchitto, L, Valenteno, G. and Corcoine, FE. Experimental investigations of butanol-gasoline blends effects on the combustion process in a SI engine. Int. J. Energy Environ. Eng 3: 6(2012). Pa, A, Bi, XT. And Sokhansanj, S. A life cycle evaluation wood pellet gasification for district heating in British Columbia. Biores. Tech 102: 6167–6177(2006). Pa, A, Jill, C, Bi, XT, Staffan, M. and Sokhansanj, S. Environmental footprints of British Columbia wood pellets from a simplified life cycle analysis. Int. J. of Life Cycle Asses 17: 220–231(2012). Robertson JGS, Wood JR, Ralph B. and Fenn R. Analysis of lead\acid battery life cycle factors: their impact on society and the lead industry. J Power Sources; 67: 22536(1997). Roeleveld PJ , Klapwijk A. Eggels PG, Rulkens WH, Starkenburg W. Sustainability W.S. Ustainability of Municipal Wastewater Treatment. Water Sci Technol1997:35:2218. Page CA, Diamond ML, Campbell M. McKenna S. Life-cycle framework for assessment of site remediation options: case study. Environ toxicol and chem., 18: USA’SETAC..p.801-10. (1996).
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Villeneuve, J.; Michel, P.; Fournet, D.; Lafon, C.; Ménard, Y.; Wavrer, P.and Guyonnet, D. ‘Process-based analysis of waste management systems: A case study’. Waste Management, 29: 2-11.( 2009). Siegl, S, Laaber, M. and Holubar, P. Green electricity from biomass, Part 1: environmental impacts of direct life cycle emissions. Waste Biomass, 2: 267–284(2011). Su, J., Chiueh, P., Hung, M. and Ma, H. Analyzing policy impact potential for municipal solid waste management decisionmaking: A case study of Taiwan. Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 51: 418-434. (2007). Sundberg, J. Municipal solid waste management with the MIMES/waste model. A complementary approach to LCA studies for evaluating waste management options. Workshop on LCA and treatment of solid waste. Stockholm, Sweden, 28-29 Sept. 1995, pp. 252-258. (1995). Wang, F.S., Richardson, A.J. and Roddick, F.A. SWIM – A Computer Model for Solid Waste Integrated Management. Computers, Environment and Urban Systems 20(4/5), pp. 233-246. (1988). White, P.R., Franke, M. and Hindle, P. Integrated Solid Waste Management - a Life cycle Inventory. Blackie Academic & Professional. (1997).
Vol. 9(2), 478-484 (2014)
Current World Environment
Pseudomonas aeruginosa SN4 Enhances Seedling Growth of Oryza sativa in Cadmium Contaminated Soil SOUMITRA NATH1*, BIBHAS DEB2, INDU SHARMA3 and PIYUSH PANDEY3 Bioinformatics Centre, Gurucharan College, Silchar-788004, India. Department of Botany, Gurucharan College, Silchar-788004, India. 3 Department of Microbiology, Assam University, Silchar-788011, India. 1
2
http://dx.doi.org/10.12944/CWE.9.2.32 (Received: May 24, 2014; Accepted: July 11, 2014) Abstract Pseudomonas spp.were isolated from different locations of Ponta Sahib, Himachal Pradesh, India and were characterized on the basis of morphological, biochemical and 16S rRNA gene sequencing analysis. Minimal inhibitory concentrations of Cd2+ for all Pseudomonas isolates were detected and P. aeruginosa SN4 exhibited highest cadmium tolerance upto 1800Âľg/ml. Most of the isolated strains showed multi-metal and multi antibiotic tolerance. In pot experimental studies, application of P. aeruginosa SN4 showed a remarkable increase in shoot length when sown in Cd incorporated soil (at 50 mg/kg). After 20 days of seedling inoculation in Cd incorporated soil and application of P. aeruginosa SN4, it has been observed that rice plant attains 12% increased seedling growth and germination as compared to uninoculated control pots. Overall study demonstrated that P. aeruginosa SN4 could increase the growth of Oryza sativa in cadmium incorporated soil, thus dedicating the sites which are set aside for long term agricultural purpose.
Key words: Minimum inhibitory concentration, Cadmium, Tolerance, Oryza sativa, Pseudomonas aeruginosa SN4
Introduction Pseudomonas is a genus of gram negative, nonspore forming, rod-shaped bacteria. They are commonly found in soil, water and decaying matter and including some species that are plant and animal pathogens. Pseudomonas aeruginosa is a typical example of double assessment; in a clinical environment, it is one of the most significant opportunistic pathogenic bacteria and is responsible for the majority of nosocomial infections1. However, in the field of environmental protection, the human health concerns of this organism are not recognized, and the strains of this species are commonly used for bioremediation purposes. Pseudomonas spp. have been employed efficiently as biocontrol agents and some commercial products in the market has already shown their
efficacy, nevertheless, the applications of purified siderophores, as bacteriostatic or fungistatic agents in combination with other antibacterial factors will certainly raise a great interest. Pseudomonasspp. produces numerous compounds which are responsible for disease control and also helps in the growth of plants. These inhibitory compounds are siderophores, HCN, degradative extracellular enzymes such as chitinase, protease, cellulose, â-1,3glucanase and antibiotics such as pyrrolnitrin, pyoluteorin and phenazine2,3,4. Materials and methods Collection of soil sample and selective isolation of Pseudomonas spp. Soil samples were first collected randomly from seven different locations of Ponta Sahib, Himachal Pradesh, India. Sampling was done from
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garages, welding shops, petrol pumps and other polluted sites. Samples were collected in sterilized polythene bags after proper labeling and immediately bought to the laboratory. Soil plating was done within 72 hrs. of sample collection. Selective isolation of Pseudomonas spp. was done by spreading the samples on Pseudomonas Isolation Agar (PIA) media and incubatingat 37ºC for 24 hrs. Pure cultures were finally obtained by repeated sub-culturing followed by cadmium tolerance tests. Characterization of the bacterial isolates Pure culture of Pseudomonas spp. that were tolerant to cadmium were identified up to species level by their morphological and biochemical characterization5,6and finally confirmed by 16S rDNA sequencing. Identification by 16S rDNA sequencing Pure cultures were grown until log phase and genomic DNA was extracted from bacterial isolates 7. The amplification of 16S rRNA gene was done by using forward primer and reverse primer. The ~1.4 kb-PCR products of 16S rRNA genes were used for DNA sequencing. After sequencing, the sequence was analysed by BLAST (http://blast.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Blast.cgi) and Ribosomal Database Project (http://rdp.cme.msu. edu/) for finding the closest homologous sequence. The first ten homologous sequences were selected based on their maximum identity score. The sequences were than aligned and a distance matrix was constructed followed by the construction of a phylogenetic tree byNeighbour-Joining method. Screening for cadmiumtolerance All the isolates were checked for metal tolerance. Minimum Inhibitory Concentration (MIC) was determined against cadmium (CdCl2) by gradually increasing the concentration of the cadmium on Nutrient Agar (NA) plates until the strains failed to give colonies on the plate. The initial concentration was 50ìg/ml and the cultures grown on last concentration was transferred to the higher concentration by streaking on the plate. MIC was recorded when the isolates failed to grow on plates. Minimum inhibitory concentration for copper, lead and zinc were also determined.
Antibiotic sensitivity and resistance pattern of the recovered isolates The isolates were tested for antibiotic sensitivity according to Kirby-Bauer disc diffusion method8 and the antibiotics discs were procured from ‘HIMEDIA’. The antibiotics that were used in the present study are Amikacin, Amoxycillin, Ampicillin, Cefalexin, Cefixime, Ceftriaxone, Chloramphenicol, Gentamicin, Kanamycin, Methicillin, Ofloxacin and Tetracycline. The diameter of the inhibition zones was measured to the nearest mm and the isolates were classified as resistant (R), intermediate (I) and susceptible (S) following the standard antibiotic disk sensitivity testing method. Pot experiment Preparation of bacterial inoculum Pseudomonas aeruginosa SN4, which showed a greater degree of tolerance for cadmium, was taken under consideration for the preparation of bacterial inoculum. The isolate was inoculated in nutrient broth and kept in shaker incubator at 120 rpm at 28 ± 2°C for 48 hours. After incubation period, 5 ml of broth was added to 45 ml distilled water for the formulation of biofertilizer and to carry out the pot experiment. Collection and pre-sowing treatment of Oryza sativa seedlings Seeds of Oryza sativawere collected from KrishiVikas Kendra, Masimpur, Assam. The size and weight of seeds were homogenous. Clean seeds were dipped in water; floating seeds were discarded, while seeds settled on bottom of container were selected. Seeds were surface-sterilized with 95% alcohol for 30 seconds, followed by 0.1% (w/v) HgCl2 for 1–2 min and then washed with sterile distilled water for 5–6 times9. The seeds were then put in a sterile petridish containing Hogland Solution and kept overnight. Pot trial studies The earthen pots (24 cm X 12 cm X 12 cm) were filled with sterilized sandy loam soil. Seeds were sown on all the pots to study the role of P. aeruginosa SN4on shoot growth of Oryza sativa sown in cadmium incorporated soil (at 20 mg/kg and 50 mg/ kg of soil). Pot experiment was performed by adding the biofertilizer formulation to cadmiumcontaminated
NATH et al., Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(2), 478-484 (2014) soil. Seedling germinationand its growth pattern was recorded everyday for three weeks. Statistical analysis After performing the pot experiment, SPSS 16.0 was used to analyze the statistical data. Descriptive statistics calculates the means of all replicates with standard error and deviations. Multiple comparison tests were performed to evaluate the effectiveness of each bacterial isolates. When analysis of variance (ANOVA) showed significant effects, Tukey’s-b test (assuming equal
480
variances) and Games-Howell test (assuming unequal variances) was done to make comparison between groups at P<0.05 and P<0.01. Results Characterization of selected isolates A total of thirty two Pseudomonas spp. were isolated fromPonta Sahib, Himachal Pradesh, India. Total viable counts ranges from 32 X 104 (CFU/g) to 43 X 104 (CFU/g). All the isolates were gram negative rod. Most of the isolates were found to be indole
Table. 1: Minimum inhibitory concentration of all the isolated strains Isolate
Minimum Inhibitory Concentration
code
Cadmium Lead
Copper
Zinc
Ps-1 Ps-2 Ps-3 Ps-4 Ps-5 Ps-6 Ps-7 Ps-8 Ps-9 Ps-10 Ps-11 Ps-12 Ps-13 Ps-17 Ps-15 Ps-16 Ps-17 Ps-18 Ps-19 Ps-20 Ps-21 Ps-22 Ps-23 Ps-24 Ps-25 Ps-26 Ps-27 Ps-28 Ps-29 Ps-30 Ps-31 Ps-32
1400 µg/ml 1100 µg/ml 800 µg/ml 700 µg/ml 1000 µg/ml 1200 µg/ml 700 µg/ml 400 µg/ml 1100 µg/ml 1000 µg/ml 1800 µg/ml 600 µg/ml 1700 µg/ml 1400 µg/ml 300 µg/ml 500 µg/ml 1200 µg/ml 800 µg/ml 800 µg/ml 600 µg/ml 1200 µg/ml 600 µg/ml 400 µg/ml 400 µg/ml 1500 µg/ml 1200 µg/ml 1800 µg/ml 1000 µg/ml 1200 µg/ml 600 µg/ml 300 µg/ml 1000 µg/ml
50 µg/ml 60 µg/ml 40 µg/ml 30 µg/ml 40 µg/ml 50 µg/ml 50 µg/ml 30 µg/ml 20 µg/ml 50 µg/ml 60 µg/ml 60 µg/ml 60 µg/ml 60 µg/ml 30 µg/ml 20 µg/ml 60 µg/ml 50 µg/ml 40 µg/ml 30 µg/ml 60 µg/ml 50 µg/ml 40 µg/ml 40 µg/ml 40 µg/ml 50 µg/ml 60 µg/ml 40 µg/ml 30 µg/ml 30 µg/ml 30 µg/ml 40 µg/ml
1800 µg/ml 1500 µg/ml 1600 µg/ml 1100 µg/ml 1600 µg/ml 1700 µg/ml 1200 µg/ml 1000 µg/ml 1200 µg/ml 1300 µg/ml 1800 µg/ml 1000 µg/ml 1600 µg/ml 1800 µg/ml 1000 µg/ml 900 µg/ml 1300 µg/ml 1000 µg/ml 1300 µg/ml 900 µg/ml 1400 µg/ml 1300 µg/ml 1300 µg/ml 1000 µg/ml 1200 µg/ml 900 µg/ml 1800 µg/ml 1500 µg/ml 1200 µg/ml 900 µg/ml 1000 µg/ml 1500 µg/ml
150 µg/ml 80 µg/ml 100 µg/ml 110 µg/ml 150 µg/ml 160 µg/ml 120 µg/ml 100 µg/ml 140 µg/ml 150 µg/ml 170 µg/ml 100 µg/ml 160 µg/ml 170 µg/ml 100 µg/ml 120 µg/ml 170 µg/ml 140 µg/ml 150 µg/ml 120 µg/ml 150 µg/ml 120 µg/ml 120 µg/ml 120 µg/ml 130 µg/ml 120 µg/ml 170 µg/ml 130 µg/ml 120 µg/ml 120 µg/ml 100 µg/ml 130 µg/ml
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negative, MR negative, VP negative and urease negative. Oxidase tests for Pseudomonas isolates were positive indicating them to be aerobic strains. Positive result for citrate test was observed, infers the ability of these organisms to utilize citrate as the sole source of carbon and energy.
similarity with the species of Pseudomonas aeruginosa and occupied the same phylogenetic branch (figure 1). The sequence has been identified as Pseudomonas aeruginosa SN4 and submitted to NCBI-GenBank. The accession number thus obtained is KF447770.
Isolates were also able to produce an enzyme “nitrate reductase” resulting in the reduction of nitrate (NO3). The isolate which showed highest tolerance for cadmium and also showed significant result in pot experiment was selected for 16S rDNA sequencing. A neighbour-joining tree was generated using the sequence from Ps-11 (1393 bp) and representative sequences from databases. It has been observed that the strain code Ps-11 had maximum sequence
Minimum Inhibitory Concentration (MIC) of the recovered isolates All the bacterial isolates exhibited resistance to cadmium and the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) rangesfrom 300 µg/ml to 1800 µg/ml. There is a great variation in the tolerance capacity of isolated bacterial strains against cadmium chloride. Around 53% of the tested isolates were tolerant at 1000ìg/ ml CdCl2 concentration. Pseudomonas aeruginosa SN4 (Isolate code: Ps-11)exhibited high resistance with MIC for cadmium as 1800 µg/ml. Multi-metal
Fig. 1: Phylogenetic relationship between studied sample (Ps-11) and representative species based on partial 16S rDNA sequences constructed using the neighbour-joining method. Studied sample (Ps-11) has been submitted to NCBI-Genbank and the accession number thus obtained is KF447770 (Pseudomonas aeruginosa strain SN4) Table. 2: Seedling growth of Oryza sativa inoculated with cadmium resistant P. aeruginosa SN4 in cadmium incorporated soil Experimental setup Control (without Cd and P. aeruginosa SN4) Uninoculated control (with Cd only) P. aeruginosa SN4 + Cd
Shoot length (in cm) Cd at 20mg/kg soil
Cd at 50mg/kg soil
31.66 ± 0.42 27.62 ± 0.35 28.58 ± 0.98ns
31.66 ± 0.42 25.18 ± 0.26 28.18 ± 0.49*
Values are mean ± standard deviation of five replicates; ns= non significant; *= significant at P<0.01; compared with uninoculated control
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result demonstrates the maximum bio-absorption of cadmium by P. aeruginosa SN4 at elevated levels of cadmium in soil. Discussion Increased concer n over the impact of cadmium on our environment, especially the vegetation has resulted in the increased interest in bioremeditation strategies. Microscopic evidence showed that isolated bacteria were gramnegative, rod-shaped. Further, biochemical tests and 16S rDNA confirms the isolates as Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Fig. 2: Effect of P. aeruginosa SN4 on seedling growth of Oryza sativa inoculated in 50 mg/ kg cadmium in soil and compared them with control sets tolerance test showed that the MIC value for P. aeruginosa SN4 for lead was 170 µg/ml, copper was 60ìg/ml and zinc was 1800ìg/ml (table 1). Antibiotic sensitivity and resistance pattern of Pseudomonas aeruginosa SN4 Most of the Pseudomonas spp. isolated in the present studyexhibites high resistance pattern towards a group of antibiotics. It has been observed that P. aeruginosa SN4 were resistant to amoxycillin, ampicillin, cefalexin, cefixime, kanamycin, methicillin and tetracycline.This fact was also established by other researchers that multiple metal resistance bacterial isolates exhibits high resistance towards a group of antibiotics10. Effect of Pseudomonas aeruginosa SN4 on growth of Oryza sativa inoculated in cadmium incorporated soil Inoculation with P. aeruginosa SN4 significantly increases seedling germination and growth of Oryza sativa when compared with control sets. After 20 days of seedling germination, multiple comparison result reveals that P. aeruginosa SN4 attains 12% increased seedling growth as compared to uninoculated control pots at 50mg/kg concentrations of cadmium in soil (table 2). However, at 20mg/kg cadmium in soil, a slight increased germination (mean difference = 0.96 ± 0.63 cm)was observed which was statistically non-significant. The
A decrease in growth (cfu/g) of bacterial colonies was observed on increasing the cadmium concentration on culture plates at any given time interval compared to the control without metal amendment. The lower values of microbial load at higher metal concentrations showed correlation with the study of Anyanwu et al.11. Present study demonstrated the cadmium resistance pattern of Pseudomonas isolates. Based on the MIC values and antibiogram pattern of the isolated strains and as studied by Bruins et al.,12, Pseudomonas sp. shows resistance to a variety of toxic substances, heavy metal and antibiotics. Pseudomonas aeruginosa SN4 can tolerate upto 1800 mg/ml cadmium and also showed multi-metal tolerant activity. The toxic levels of heavy metals effect structural and permeability properties of inner membranes and organelles, that results in inhibition of enzymatic activities, nutrient imbalances, decreases in rates of photosynthesis and transpiration13,14, stimulate formation of free radicals and reactive oxygen species resulting in oxidative stress 15, suppress seed germination and seedling growth, reproductive development, seed yield and seed quality16 and induce deleterious anatomical and ultrastructural changes in crop plants17,18.In the present study, application of Pseudomonas aeruginosa SN4 showed a remarkable increase in seedling growth and germination when sown in cadmium incorporated soil (at both 20 and 50mg/kg). After 20 days of seedling inoculation in Cd incorporated soil and application P. aeruginosa SN4, it has been observed that rice plant attains a significantseedling growth as compared to uninoculated control pots. Several studies have
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evidenced the fact that cadmium-resistant and plant growth-promoting bacteria can protect plants from the toxic effects of metals19,20,21. Overall experiment demonstrated that P. aeruginosa SN4 (Genbank Acc. No: KF447770) could increase the growth of Oryza sativa in cadmium contaminated crop field (figure 2), thus dedicating sites which are set aside for long term agricultural purpose. Further research is still required to expand the knowledge of the P. aeruginosa SN4 before being used for commercial purpose However, in the second pot, cadmium was added at concentration 50 mg/kg in soil; demonstrates the toxic effect of cadmium in seedling germination and growth. In the final test pot, addition of Pseudomonas aeruginosa strain SN4 results in attaining a significant seedling growth as illustrated in table 2. Conclusion Present study isolated 32 cadmium tolerant bacteria from contaminated sites of Ponta Sahib, Himachal Pradesh, India. Most of the isolates exhibited multi-metal tolerance and were resistant to a group of antibiotics.P. aeruginosa SN4 showed
the highest tolerance for cadmium and was taken under consideration for pot experimental studies. Compared with control treatments, inoculation with P. aeruginosa SN4 influences the seedling germination at 50 mg/kg cadmium concentration in soil. It has been observed that, microbial inoculation altered the bioavailability of metals in soil, resulting in 12% increased seedling growth after 20 days of bacterial inoculation. It is evident from the present study that the application of HMRB specifically adapted to high concentrations of heavy metals will increase the ability to remediate heavy metal contaminated soils. Further research is still required to evaluate the bio-absorption potential of P. aeruginosa SN4 by field trials and the underlying mechanism of action. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors wish to extend their grateful thanks to Department of Biotechnology, Govt. of India, New Delhi for the establishment of Institutional Level Biotech Hub and Bioinformatics Centre in Gurucharan College, Silchar, India. Authors also extend their grateful thanks to Himachal Institute of Life Sciences, Ponta Sahib, H.P, India for providing help in the initial phase of the present study.
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Azadeh B.F. and Meon S., Molecular Characterization of Pseudomonas aeruginosa UPM P3 from Oil Palm Rhizosphere. Am. J. Applied Sci, 6: 1915-1919, (2009). Dowling D.N. and O’Gara F., Metabolities of Pseudomonas involved in the biocontrol of plant disease. Treads Biotechnol, 12: 133141,(1994). Haas D. and Défago G., Biological control of soil-borne pathogens by fluorescent Pseudomonads. Nat Rev Microbiol, 3: 307319, (2005). Deshwal V.K., Devi M.S., Bhajanka N., Mistri J., Bose A. and Saini N., Pseudomonas aeruginosa strains and their role in plant growth promotion in medicinal plant. Global J Appl Agr Res, 1: 49-55, (2011). C a p p u c c i n o J. G . a n d S h e r m a n N . , Microbiology: A Laboratory Manual, 7th Ed,
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pp 161-204. Pearson, India, (2005). Har ley J.P., Laborator y exercises in Microbiology, 6th ed. McGraw Hill, New York, NY, (2005). Sambrook J. and Russell D.W., Molecular Cloning: A Laboratory Manual, 3rd Ed. Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, (2001). Bauer A.W., Kirby W.M.M., Sherris J.C. and Turk M., Antibiotic susceptibility testing by a standardized single disk method. American Journal of Clinical Pathology. 45: 493–496, (1966). Singh N., Pandey P., Dubey R.C. and Maheshwari D.K., Biological control of root rot fungus Macrophomina phaseolina and growth enhancement of Pinus roxburghii (Sarg.) by rhizosphere competent Bacillus subtilis BN1. World J Microbiol Biotechnol, 24: 1669–1679, (2008).
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Current World Environment
An Approach to Geotopes of Jajrud Catchment Basin from Meygun to Darbandsar Asemeh Soleimanifakhr1 and Kamran Rezaeizadeh Mahabadi2* Department of Geography, Faculty of Literature, Central Tehran Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran. 2 Department of Geography, Faculty of Science, Shahr-e-Rey Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran.
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http://dx.doi.org/10.12944/CWE.9.2.33 (Received: June 03, 2014; Accepted: July 14, 2014) Abstract Development of urbanization imposed many mental and physical stresses on citizens. Air Pollution, noise pollution, Overcrowding, cars and the lack of green space caused Urbanites to need to have more leisure time. These causes resulted in interests of authorities to tourism. Tourism plays an important role in both Increasing revenues and employment and cultural and social aspects. Geotopes and geological phenomenon including caves, canyons, valleys, fossil sites, beaches etc., as a geological heritage, can be examined as potential geosites in developing geotourism and establishing geoparks. The studied area has various Climatic and geomorphological heritage including glacial cirques, terrace, wandering rocks, canyons and cliffs, caves and springs reflecting the ancient climates. Hence, it can be introduced as a platform for more geographical research as a geosite.
Key words: Geotope, Geosite, Geotourism, Geopark.
Introduction Tourism is the main factor for sustainable development in the economic, social, cultural and environmental levels (Papoli Yazdi & Saqaei, 2006). Recently, tourism industry has found a wide approach to ecotourism. By its inherent objectives, that is environment protection, commitment to local communities and respect for cultural characteristics of the host community, Ecotourism is a plan option with most consistency with the concept of sustainable development (Ghazi & Ghadiri, 2011). Iran is considerably capable of tourism development. In terms of latitude and climate variability, there are various geotopes under Natural conditions of Iran which can play as an important role in tourist attraction and tourism development (Hamedi & Rezvani, 2012).
Geotourism, as an interdisciplinary subject, deals with all tourism infrastructures including management, accommodation and tours. Unlike ecotourism which deals with animate attractions, geotourism generally addresses inanimate nature attractions (Nekoui Sadri, 2009). In the studied area, located in southern Alborz Mountains, the climate is favourable for attracting tourists. The mountainous landscape of the region and the Jajrood River, Shemshak and Dizin ski resort and Hamloon Cave can be a factor in attracting tourists to the area. Besides these factors, the existence of climatic and geomorphological heritage is also suitable for studies of geologists and geographers.
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Problem Statement Geotourism is a branch of tourism as a new term recently used in tourism campaign of countries. Wherever one goes is on the earth, every part of the earth has its geological unique attractions, referring to the tourism based on geologic resources (Zandi, 2010). Geotopes or geological phenomena are effective factors on Geotourism development and establishment of geoparks (Wikipedia). These areas, mostly interested by geotourists, are scientifically important; so that, ecologists and those interested in natural history are attracted to geotopes (Nojavan, et al., 2009). The studied area has many different geotopic areas. Glacier cirques, moraines, river terraces and fossil straw indicate climatic variations of different geological periods. Glacial cirques are of great importance in environmental and paleoclimatic studies, because the height of the outlet opening of cirques represents an annual temperature of zero degrees. With respect to the above, it can be concluded that glacial cirques, wandering rocks and morins created a situation where the environment can be considered as a paleo climate geotope in paleontology studies. Lack of scientific resources in relation to this phenomenon is a critical problem in planning and development in the tourism sector (Nojavan, et al., 2009). Despite the various tourist attractions and high capability to attract tourists, there is no study and planning for using these areas and providing facilities for tourism development can be important from different aspects. The Importance and Necessity of Research Geotourism is a nature-related tourism dealing with introducing the geology phenomena to tourists. Audience of geotourism are not only experts, but also ordinary tourists interested in the nature (Abedi, 2012). By diverse geology, climate, geologic features, there are various geotopes such as caves, beaches, and Kalut in Iran, which can be used as geological heritage in the form of potential geosites following provision of tourism infrastructures as a
tool to work towards the establishment of geoparks and geotourism development (Wikipedia). Due to the high altitude of the region, the snow remains longer on slopes. Mountain glaciers in the form of snow filed maintain snow until midsummer. Hence, it can play a critical role in providing fresh water. The studied area is capable of tourist activities; it also can be used as a Laboratory for studies of geology and geomorphology students. Hypotheses It seems that the studied area is highly capable of tourist attraction and tourism and geotourism development in terms of ecology and geomorphology as well as favourable climatic conditions. Literature Review Definitions Geotourism is one of the newest approaches to recognize geology and identify natural capital of any area using Earth Sciences, geomorphology, geology and other natural sciences (Maleki Orsi & Najaf Zadeh, 2012). Geotope refers to the area including natural heritage which reflects the history and development of the region (Nojavan, et al., 2009). Geosite refers to a place with a rare and valuable geological or geomorphological phenomenon. These sites should be scientifically and aesthetically valuable and the possibility of visiting should be available publicly (Zandi, 2010). Geopark refers to lands with unique geological phenomena and evolutionary history of geology. In fact, â&#x20AC;&#x153;geoparkâ&#x20AC;? is an area where geological heritage are well and sustainably conserved and managed. In other words, geopark is a territory of one important site, or more, in scientific (not just geological, but also archaeological, ecological or cultural) terms (Salimian, 2007). Background Geotourism is a new term in tourism, introduced for the first time in Iran by Nabavi (1999).
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Afterwards, major works conducted on Iranian geotourism include studies of Kazemi (2002, 2004, and 2006).
that the area had the ability to become a geopark through development planning and optimal utilization of geotourist systems.
Kamyabi (2008) evaluated the natural and geotourism attractions of Hablehrud basin and National Park of Semnan Desert. He suggested
Using the term, geomorphotourism and geotourism, Zomorrodian (2005) and Servati (2006)
Fig. 1: Geographic location of the studied area
Fig. 2: glacial cirque and terrace; photo by author, 2008
studied the north coast of the Caspian Sea and Hamadan, respectively. Articles are also written in this field.Nojavan and colleagues (2009) considered geotopes of Yazd as potential for development of tourism and geotourism.Taheri and Moradnejad (2010) introduced the glacial alpine environments of Ashtarankooh as a geosite.Studying fossil geosite of Maragheh, Safari Paskeh (2001) studied variety of fossils and places where they were discovered as a fossil site.Ghazi and Ghadiri evaluated geotourist capabilities of National Desert Park using new strategic planning model and SWOT to provide solutions for geotourism management. In the first
Fig. 3: glacial cirques near Shemshak; photo by author, 2008
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conference of Geological Heritage of Iran, Shah Amiri Tabatabai and Ghassemi (2012) introduced Tang-Tikab geosite and Devon village, Kazeron, as one of the tourist attractions in the Fars province. Maleki Orsi and colleagues (2012) introduced the Aras Geo Park and Uch Tepe geosite.
The Studied Area The Studied Area is a part of Central Alborz in 51°35’ and 51°25’ east longitude and 36°5’ and 35°55’ north latitude located in the north of Tehran (Figure 1). The area is limited from north to Koloon Bastak Mountain (4124 meters) and Khortunak
Fig. 4: gradual melting of the snow; photo by author, 2008 Mountain (4156 m), from east to Garmabedar Basin, from west to Dizin Basin, and from south to Meygun. The highest point of the area is 4156 meters and the lowest point is 2200 meters. The study area is 58 square kilometers. The climate of this region can be used to explain the causes of ancient glacial conditions. Therefore, evaluation of the glacial forms can be conducted by analysis of climatic elements.
Fig. 5: The physical erosion, the limestone Hamloon; photo by author, 2008
In glacial periods (initial Quaternary), the studied area was also affected by ice conditions. Glacial conditions are more or less similar to the erosion of the southern slopes of Alborz, which can be verified through geomorphological evidence. In
Fig. 6: rocky walls; photo by author, 2008
Soleimanifakhr & Mahabadi, Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(2), 485-491 (2014) glacial periods, morphology of the area formed under climate and local topography at different levels under influence of dominant erosion processes such as glacial erosion. Following climatic conditions and warming, the upper limit of erosion domains was mostly Ascending. Due to the reduced height of the mountains, glacial erosion was substituted by other morphoclimatic conditions. This has happened several times intermittently in this area. To identify the effects of glacial erosion, studies have been carried out on 1:50000 and 1:250000 topographic maps and field studies. Existence of cirques and glacial valleys with glacial deposits in the northern part of the area indicate glacial conditions (Figure 2,3). Sometimes there are big rocks on the riverbed which do not appear to have the ability to move by water
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Due to the Height, amount and type of precipitation is different from other regions. In the north, precipitation is mostly snow which remains on foothills for 9 months. After the end of the cold season, snow starts to melt from low to high amplitude (Figure 4) and melts completely by August. Some of the water from melting snow penetrates into the foothill as underground storage. Some others flow on the slopes and then flow into the hydrographic network. However, other parts of the mountain have been directly affected by streams during the cold season. Simultaneous to gradual melting of snow and penetrating into the ground, the cold allows its re-freezing in rock gaps and thin surface layers (Figure 5). Mechanical weathering is the other simultaneous factor to deform heights. Mountains are west-east following the general trend of Alborz. Entry into the area starts from Meygoon in the southeastern and continues to Dizin at an altitude of 4100 meters in the North West. Slope decreases from the North West to South East. In the first stage, orogenic movements formed current Alborz (Figure 6).
Fig. 7: entrance of Hamloon valley; photo by author, 2008
Fig. 8: antelope herd of Meygun highlands
The fractured angled rocks indicate physical erosion caused by glaciation. Varnished rocks which shine in the sun indicate that they were carried by ice tabs. The three terraces on the western slopes of Tale-tange Valley indicate reduced temperature. Genesis and evolution of terraces can be a result of heavy rains that have been associated with later
Fig. 9: foothills of Meygun; photo by author, 2008
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Fig. 10: right: sour-water Tale-Tange Spring; left: lime spring of north Meygun; photo by author, 2008 Hamloon Strait is located between Geirud and Meygoon, 35°59’ latitude and 51°28’ longitude at an altitude of 2311 meters. In this strait, there are remains of a cave called as Asbool by inhabitants. The valley is about 4 km in length and 50 meters in width. There are many fountains in the area (Figure 7).
Fig. 11: snow tunnel of the Tale-Tange valley; photo by author, 2008 glacial stages. Mountains of the area attract many Climbers from all over the country. Climbing tours are held in all seasons. This section is located in the middle Central Alborz. Mountain ranges surrounded the area as a belt. Abak Mountain (3488) is a rock anticline in the East of the basin and South of the Shemshak ski resort. There are Pey Tosum Mountain inside the resort from east (3350m), Mian Lalun (3420m) from north and northern east, Large Koloon Bastak (4150) and Small koloon Bastak (4100m) from north and Sichal (3719m) from West. The Bareh Char Mountains (3614m) is located in the west of Shemshak and Geirud. There are Ahangarak (3357m), Starchal and Hamloon mountains between Sichal and Meygun.
Hamloon Mountains are made of Ruteh limestone in the lower parts; the thin limestone sediments and basic chromium are seen in west and east sides of the mountain. Hamloon cave is the result of dissolved Ruteh limestone in water penetrating the higher levels (Mehrpouya, 2000). In different seasons even in winter, snow and ice-covered rock walls attract rock climbing and ice climbing sports enthusiasts to the region, which is the other factor to attract tourism. Due to the weather (cold to temperate), there are Astragalus, Artemisia, Allium, Blackberry, sumac, Rosa canina, Alhagi, Rheum, and Hypericum perforatum in pastures of the area. At heights of Meygun, antelope herds can be seen in the pastures (figure 8). Because of sandy and clay soils with good drainage, and abundant springs as well as Geirud and Shemshak rivers, crops and gardens can be seen in some places. The crops include wheat, alfalfa, and vegetables. Fruit tree in most valleys include cherry, fig, strawberry, apple, apricot, pomegranate and Greengage.
Soleimanifakhr & Mahabadi, Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(2), 485-491 (2014) In some tourist spots, there are species such as Tabriz cedar, Spruce, Willow, ailanthus, acacia and sycamore that are partly grown by man (Figure 9).
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avalanche. The river continues to flow at the surface and creates a cave under snow accumulations, which is a beautiful phenomenon (Figure 11) Conclusions
There are 13 springs in the studied area, of which 7 springs are located in the eastern north, 4 springs in the Quaternary sediments and 3 springs in Shemshak sediments; these springs indicate Permeability of the rocks. There is one spring in Bare Char Mountains in the west and three parallel springs in the foothills of Abnik Mountain in eastern north Meygun which is close to basin outlet (Figure 10). There is a bitter-water spring in the north Shemshak; the bitter taste is due to minerals in the rocks. In the cold season, which begins in late November, precipitation is often in the form of snow. This snow accumulates and sometimes remains until late June. On the shallow valleys, sometimes snow accumulation covers the valley with snows from
Because of its favourable climatic conditions and the presence of geomorphological phenomena such as glacial cirques, wandering rocks, waterfalls, and numerous fountains can be a good platform for further research and the introduction of the area as Jajrud basin geopark. Evidence of glacier indicates glacier period in this region; therefore, this region can be called a paleoclimatic geosite. Given the extent of constructions, it can be predicted that the area will become one of Tehranâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s major tourist hub in the future. Existence of favourable weather and ski resorts of Dizin and Shemshak attract many tourists to the area. Therefore, a proper policy can make the region one of the main tourist hub of Tehran.
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Vol. 9(2), 492-501 (2014)
Current World Environment
Considering the Effective Factors on Land use Changes in the Villages Around Metropolises (Case study: City of Rasht, Khomam rural) Reza Samimi Sharami*, Seyyed Rahim Moshiri, Masoud mahdavi and Parviz Kardavani Department of Geography, Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran. http://dx.doi.org/10.12944/CWE.9.2.34 (Received: July 06, 2014; Accepted: August 09, 2014) Abstract Land use in villages around metropolises, especially in fertile areas such as Guilan plain, is experiencing basic changes. Mutual dependence between the metropolis and its surrounding villages will change rural perspective to urban one and it leads to change rural functions and structures. This review is in the area of Rasht metropolis and about Khomam rural land use changes during 19662013. In this study, research method is descriptive analytical, the data in use is observed through documents and evidences (the oldest and newest map of Khomam rural), and questionnaires and interviews are collected. Research results indicate a significant change in agricultural and horticultural lands and an increase in constructed lands and roadways. This research has tested different indices in order to considering and determining effective factors on land use change. According to research founding, 21 factors have the most effects on agricultural and horticultural land use respectively and 4 factors have the most effects on land use in order to staying unchanged, respectively.
Key words: Land Use Changes, Effective Factors, Metropolises Outskirt Lands, Rasht Metropolis, Khomam Rural.
Introduction The pattern of land use leading in villages has being provided by various guidelines and within their framework of physical development. But it has been affected by the mutual relations (metropolis and village) in villages around metropolises, and the development pattern of land use of such villages will be influenced by metropolises. Therefore, the expansion of city of Rasht, as well as many metropolises, has being made to create full domain changes in different fields of surrounding visages life based on demands and needs of urban community. The rapid rate of urban development of Rasht metropolis and the focus of a variety of
services in the area has caused vast changes in the pattern of land use of its surrounding villages. This will be carried out faster especially about the villages which have a central role and are affective.For example, in Khomam rural (one of the villages around Rasht metropolis) from 1966 to 2013, the way and the kind of lands exploitation has been changed. In the past due to the lack of proper networks, people of the village were inevitably self-sufficient for their livelihood and supplying the necessaries. Thus, the agriculture and animal husbandry were considered as the main jobs of rural people, so that many parts of the village lands were under cultivation of rice. But gradually and due to many reasons including immigration and the establishment of appropriate communication networks, the family agricultural system has been dissolved in the villages of
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Khomam and has gradually changed the perspective of Khomam rural areas and caused broad changesin the structures and functions of this village. This researchassessed various measures to determine and investigate the effective physical, socio economic and cultural-political factors in the change of land use in the village. The present study seeks to answer this question that, firstly, what changes have been occurred in land use in Khomam rural during 1966-2013 and what are the factors affecting the changes(Hall and Pfeiffer 2013) Materials and Methods Theoretical Basics The rapid rate of urban development has caused wide changes in the pattern of land use of the cities surrounding villages (Hall and Pfeiffer 2013). Since the best developing agricultural lands were covered by urban development, buildings and urban equipment, in the developed countries of Europe and North America, the best and most urban motherlands have been allocated to the agricultural sector and the most of lands were supported in the state plans titled as theuse plan of national lands. So that in 2000 in the United States, nearly 4 percent of the lands were supported by urbanization and the development of urbanization and urbanism did not lead to the destruction of agricultural lands. In other developed countries, almost 64% of lands have been also allocated to the agricultural sector and only 6%has been dedicated to the urban sector. In these countries, after a period in 1930s when a part of agricultural lands was occupied by the suburbs (Shakoubi, 1994), factors such as the rise in revenues derived from agriculture, the reduction of birth rate, the implementation of environmental laws and the formulation of regional planning, limited the use of agricultural lands in the urbanization and urbanism. In the years after the Second World War, most of the developed countries created systems of spatial planning. England and the United States were thepioneers in the field of passing necessary laws to organizing the urban lands with an emphasis on the Government involvementto supply the public sector needs to the lands (Housing Foundation of
Islamic Revolution, 2008).In England since far the spatial planning programs has been existed in order to protect agricultural lands from urban development and urbanization and to create a balance betweenregions and territoriestopreservenaturalperspectivesand views.Today, the country’s planning system, despite the pressures of economic and social changes, also puts an emphasis on the balance between the natural and built environments. In the United States the spatial planning is also going slowly because there is lots of prejudice and bias about the lack of government involvement in personal and privacy rights, therefore the vast rural areas have made balanced a conflict between cities and rural environments balanced.In the states of this country, the agricultural areas usually have properties such as stopping the increase of the urbanization, the increase of expensive public services, preventing the destruction of natural sensitive perspectives and protecting the open spaces (Simmons, Walker et al. 2010). In a study titled “human motive forces in land use change” in Kunshan of China, the use changes between 1987 to 1994 and 1994 to 2000, using satellite imagery and economic and social information, was investigated. Researchers noted that industrialization, urbanization, population growth and economic development of China are the four human motive forces that have caused the land use changes in Kunshan area(Long, Tang et al. 2007).Japan has provided a successful sample of exact spatial planning and determination of a variety of lands use in Asia. Despite the limitations of soil, the country (whether in terms of the extent and topography) and the relatively high population density and the development of the urban and industrial programs, has been able to control and guide the use changes. A detailed study conducted in the Ookayama University (Japan) on the land use change of Japanbetween 1975-1990, indicates lack of change in the amounts of forests, increase of the level of orchards as well as the increase of cities and roads level and farmlands have only a reduction of 0.9 The study has tested a variety of indices in order to determine and investigate effective physiographic and socio-economic forces in land use change. According to the findings of the research, the following factors have had the most roles in farming land use change.
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Competition between agricultural and urban land Increase of the age average is considered as a factor in the reduction of paddy field. Increase of non-agricultural employment opportunities that is increased parallel to the growth of urbanization. Decrease of the agricultural work returns that will cause immigration to the nonagricultural and decrease of agricultural land. The changes amount of full-time or part time farmer families(Hoshino 2001).
In another research in countryside of Ecuador, it has been expressed that demographic changeshave had a significant effect on agricultural land changes (Jokisch 2002).Davao the second largest city of the Philippines has placed wide rural areas in its legal district, while more urban built parts have been extended on a narrow strip of coast with length of 36kmm and despite it constitutes 3.6% of the total city area. It has placed 85% of the population (Hodder 2005) made in a narrow strip of coast length of 36 km wide and despite being among the total percentage of the area of city, 85 percent of the population will have its place in city (Hodder 2007). In a study titled “the impact of housing and the cover and land use change" in the Amazon forests of Brazil, these changes and the impact of the housing in four areas was reviewed and it was specified that the level of forests has been decreased between 1986 to 1999 that the lowest and highest amount was 533.97 HA (3.4%) and 13755.69 HA, respectively (9.05%) (Simmons, Walker et al. 2010).In a study titled “human forces affecting landuse changes on the margins in rural areas in cityof Tonekabon” the economic difficulties and non-economic agricultural activities of the habitants were mentioned as the most important factor of land use change (Mohammadi et al, 2012).
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Research Methodology This was a descriptive and analytical method. To carry out the study, the customary practices of collecting information (including documentary and field) have been used. The librar y studies have dealt with investigating the theoretical resources and the studied records of the discussed topic (in Iran and other countries).In the field study, primary and secondary information has been used and the primary information includes observation and interview (of the authorities and the habitant families) and the secondary information based on study axes have used maps-aerial photos-satellite images and administrative statistics. First, in order to obtain the land use levels of Khomam rural, basic maps of the village was prepared in a 47-year period (It includes the basic map related to 1967, and the basic map related to 2013 of Khomam). Then, based on the existing realities on the maps, the land use status was provided and using the map the levels of each use were separately obtained.The statistical populations of the present paper consist of the land parts that are located in the area of Khomam rural. These parts are divided into two groups: a: The land parts that have changed the land use in a 47-year period, b: the land parts that have been without any land use change in a 47-year period. Because of the wide distribution and relatively large size of thestatistical populations, a sampling method was used in collecting the field data that the amount of this sample is 1000 land parts from which the 600 parts have land use change and 400 parts have been without land use change. In the implementation of the desired test (investigating the factors affecting land use changes) some questionnaire were prepared to be able studying land use changes reasons (whether change or no change) from the land owners’ opinion. The prepared questionnaires have been completed
Table 1: The percentage of land use change in Japan between 1975 up to1990 Type of Farmlands Long Orchards Forests Arid Urban and Level of roads Other land use mountainous built land and uses land transportation 1975 18.3 7.3 3.6 56.3 3.2 8.2 0.4 2.8 1990 17.4 6.8 3.8 56.3 3.3 9.2 0.5 2.7
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in the form of interview during the past two years by the author. (It is remarkable that in the use change or non-use change, the land parts have not merely been an effective factor from the owners’ opinion, but a set of factors have played role. In fact, in studying the factors affecting, each of the options has been calculated of 100% of the interviewees.) The Study Area Representation The study area is Khomam rural that is located in the North of Rasht metropolis in a distance of 5 km. Abutting Rasht metropolis and being established in a plain bed, being contiguous with pond and beach of Caspian Lake, appropriate climatic conditions, abundant rainfall, high relative humidity and abundance of surface and underground water resources have created competitive advantages for this settlement, since 1966 up to now it has experienced wide changes, particularly in the field of land use changes. Due to the tight connectionwith city of Rasht as the province center capital and very low distance with it, the settlement has always
supplied its public services and the needs of city and one of the reasons is the easy access to city of Rasht. Khomam rural despite sending the immigrant has being always faced demographic positive developments and immigration. The economic activities in the village include agriculture, industry and services which have always been reduced in number in agricultural sector by passing the time and added to two other parts especially the services. Traditionally, the agricultural products of the village including rice are distributed all over Iran including Rasht monopolies and Tehran, etc. Discussion The process of demographic developments and land use in Khomam rural Parallel to the drastic increase of Rasht metropolis population (Table 1) Khomam rural has faced the increase of population despite the external migration. (Table 2) Such changes in the context of the residing population in Khomam rural are the field of changes in physical and space structure of the village (especially in the use of the lands). For a
Table. 2: The population changes trend in Rasht metropolis during 1966 to 2011 Time The population of the The population of The rate of period beginning of the period the end of period population increase 1976-1966 1986-1976 1996-1986 2006-1996 2011-2006
146346 189263 290897 417748 557366
189263 290897 417748 557366 639951
42917 101634 126851 139618 82585
Table 3: The population changes trend in Rasht metropolis during 1966 to 2011 Time period The population The population The rate of of the beginning of the population of the period end of period increase 1976-1966 1986-1976 1996-1986 2006-1996 2011-2006
3067 4014 7814 8585 12909
4014 7814 8585 12909 17106
Resource: statistical center of Iran, census of 1966 to 2011
947 3800 771 4324 4197
Sharami et al., Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(2), 492-501 (2014) detailed review of the land use changes of Khomam rural between 1966 to 2012, different levels of use and changes percentage in the referred years have been separately presented in Tables 4 and 5. According to the Tables 4 and 5 as well as the land use map of Khomam rural in 1966(Fig. 1-Map no. 1), agricultural use has allocated the most area and orchard use, built (including residential, administrative and commercial) roads and the others have allocated the least area to them. While in 2013 (Fig. 2- Map no. 2). The use area of agricultural land and orchards has been significantly reduced and its area has been decreased to 179 acres. The built use has included the most area so that it has reached from 29 acres to 181. The developments resultant shows that along with increasing the level of built land and roads, the levelof orchards and agricultural lands has been substantially reduced. The continuation of this trend could be very alarming (Center 2008).
Fig. 1: Map no.1: Land use of Khomam in year 1966
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Determining and investigating the effective factors on the change and lack of change of land use More, this research has tested a variety of indices in order to determine and investigate the effective physical, socio-economic and cultural-political factors on land use change of the village. Based on the findings of the study, the following factors have respectively had the most important role in land use change: The proximity to Rasht metropolis Based on the findings of the study, 94% of the interviewees have known the proximity of Rasht metropolis and access to many public and services needs as the most significant cause of the rural land use change. In fact,from the people‘s perspective this positional advantage has caused people to tend living in the village and the consequence of such residence is of the effective factors on land use change.
Fig.2: MaP no.2: Land use of Khomam in year 2013
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Reduction of the agricultural work efficiency Based on the findings of the study, 83% of the interviewees that have changed the use of their lands have stated the reduction of agricultural work efficiency and non-economical agriculture as the reason. Lifestyle change Based on the findings of the study, 82% of the interviewees know the urbanism, the predominance of urban culture, consumerism, and production, work and such these factors’ spaces removal as the effective factors on the change of type of life and of course the way of using the land, and form their perspective all these factors have caused the land use change.The research findings show that 78% of the interviewees have known the average land value rise as one of the important causes in land use change. This issue has caused their major investments to be on land and their perspective to be as a family investment. They know the rise indebted to the appropriate climate position of Khomam, proximity to the metropolis of Rasht and immigration. Increasing the average age of land owners and no willingness of the new generation to agriculture Based on the results of the study, 70% of the interviewees have stated the farm and orchard owners’ aging of the reasons for the land use change,while the new generation does not desire to work on the farms and orchards.
T h e l a ck o f G ov e r n m e n t ’s s u p p o r t fo r agriculture The results of this research indicate that 68% of the interviewees know the lack of Government’s support of agriculture of the reasons of land use change and from the people’s perspective it’s of the most important items of their unwillingness to the agriculture. The items such as the import of foreign rice, high cost of planting operation, planting and harvesting, low cost of guaranteed purchase and products sale difficulties have been considered of the difficulties. The changes of the member of households (especially the farmer households) The research findings show that 67.5/% of the interviewees believed that the reduction of households’ members of the change reasons, they have suggested that in addition to the lands owners’ ageing, the number of households’ members have been gradually decreased that this is considered as the reasons of change. Demographic developments Based on the results of the research, 65.3% of the interviewees have known factors such as birth (increase in population), migration and etc. of the factors of the change and they believe that a part of the changes in land use has been due to the demographic changes.
Table 4: levels of use land of Khomam rural between 1966up to 2013 Type of use Built lands Orchard 1966 2013
291514 1814067
1880658 441133
Farm
Separated (arid)
2370895 1790896
- 278762
Road Others 200660 480671
118578 56776
Source: author calculations, 2013 * levels to M2 Table 5: Percentage of use land changes of Khomam rural between 1966 up to 2013 Type of use Built lands Orchard 2.9 4.1 0 1.22 9.88 5.7 Source: author calculations, 2013
Farm
Separated (arid)
48.8 36.8
38.3 9.1
Road Others 5.9 37.3
1966 2013
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Proper climate conditions The research results show that 63.7% of the interviewees have considered the appropriate status of the village (reason such as abundant rainfall, high humidity, surface water resources abundance, etc.) as the cause of individuals’ tendency to remain in the village for a permanent and temporary residence (in the form of second homes) and the residence has caused many of the use changes.
The lack of appropriate plan by government for employment The results of this research show that 56.7% of the interviewees now the lack of government’s plan for employment as the reason of their land use change, especially for their children, this has caused them to looking for achieving maximum capital by selling their gardens and lands (either in general or with shrinking them) to be able solving their children employment difficulties.
The provision of housing and schooling and marriage expenses The results of the study show that 60.8% of the interviewees have stated reasons such as providing housing for the children, paying their marriage and education cost as the reason to change the land use, in fact from their perspective the land is considered as the most important assets that help them in critical conditions of life.
The conversion of Khomam rural to town Based on the results of the study, 55.5% of the interviewees know, the decision of the Interior Ministry between 1976-1986 and the conversion of Khomam rural to the town as of the reasons of land use change in this settlement. They believe that the Government action for it as the stock market of land, the increase of land prices, etc. has caused significant changes in the land use type.
Division of the inheritance and land fragmentation Thefindings show that 59.6% of the interviewees have known the law of inheritance division as the reason of land use changes especially farming and crop lands that this will lead to shrink the land parts. From their perspective the lands below 2 to 3 acres have no economic aspect for farming and gardening.
The eland conversion to high-profit use and investment on residential and commercial sections in Rasht metropolis Our findings showed 54.1% of the interviewees have stated that changing their agriculturalland and garden use and shrinking them they have proceeded to sell them and invest in various residential and commercial sectors (services) in city of Rasht.
The economic problems and supplying the necessities of life Total of 58.7% of the interviewees have known supplying the necessities of life as one of the reasons for land use change and expressed that the economic pressure of life has caused it.
Land brokersactivity 53.3% of the interviewees have known theincreasing activity of the people as land brokers and jerry builders (especially of Rasht metropolis and surrounding villages) of the factors affecting land use changes and they believe that this has had greater intensity especially in the last 15 years. They emphasized on the increase of such people and real states.
Existence of appropriate infra- and superstructure services in the village Findings showed 56.9% of the interviewees know the existence of services such as tap water, electricity, gas, appropriate ways of communication, telephone, etc. of the reasons that have caused the absorption of the population particularly of the surrounding villages, Rasht metropolis etc. and this has caused the land use change from their perspective.
Type of land use management by administrative departments The results showed that 48.6% of people know the use change of agricultural lands and gardens in non-compliance practices as the influencing factors on the issue and they believe that despite the existence of the law of not changing lands use especially agricultural ones to other uses, this
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would not be observed particularly in settlements areas, and individuals attempt to do it hidden or through bribes.
and a 20-year interruption (Since 2003 to 2012) about the issuance of the document has been the cause of their land use lack of change.
The high priceof land and buildings in the metropolis of Rasht and high immigration to Khomam rural The results showed that 43.2% of the interviewees have proceeded to reside in the village due to the high cost of land and buildings in Rasht and after residing they have changed the land use where they live or work in this village.
Legal obstacles The research findings show that 85.2% of the interviewees have considered the legal obstacles of their lands land ownership for some reason such asconflict and not clear ownership and capture and long process to specify its status, not clear status of agricultural land, etc. of the factors affecting their land use lack of changes.
Thehostelry role of Khomam rural Based on the results of research, 9/39% of the interviewees expressed that their employment in the metropolis of Rasht and the hostelry role of Khomam rural has caused them to proceed changing their land use in order to reside, second job, etc. The security of investment on land Based on the results of the study, 35% of the interviewees know the added value resulting from the investment on land and assurance of the individuals’ investment return as a reason for land use change particularly (agricultural and garden). The research findings show that the following factors play respectively the most important role in land use lack of change: The existence of guide plans for Khomam Based on the findings of the study, 93% of the interviewees have known the existence of guide plans (for some reason, such as considering proposed uses in this plan, the right of separation (5 to 25%), designed passages in the plan, etc.) and from their perspective it’s better their land to remain in the same form than use it as it’s not pleasant to them. No clear land status and not having ownership document The research findings show that 88.6% of the interviewees have known the lack of ownership document as a reason of the use not to change. They have also suggested that the long process of issuing a document of ownership
Maintenance land for sale 35% of the interviewees have stated land maintenance and keeping it ready for sale as the cause of their land use lack of changes to achieve the most economic added value. Conclusions Settlements act as the space-location system and on this basis, all the systems’ adherence is true about them. Hence any changes in any parts of the system components including physical, socialeconomic and cultural political componentsare related to each other and arethe field to change other components (Moshiri and Saeedi, 2010). Thus, changes occurred in all components of this system, including land-use changes- cannot be and should not be merely considered as changes in physical structure of the settlement. But this basic point must be always noted considered that the components of space-location system of settlements are interconnected and the applied transformation has being derived from other components and it will sooner or later also emanated in other aspect and dimensions of other settlement negatively or positively. The results of the studies of land use changes of Khomam rural from1966 present the fact that these changes have been effective on land-use changes as a set related to each other, and the relation has gradually changed the perspective of Khomam to an urban perspective. Proximity with the metropolis of Rasht and the tight physical, economic, and services relation between the metropolis of Rasht and Khomam rural, the reduction of agricultural work return, a change in life
Sharami et al., Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(2), 492-501 (2014) style (urbanization), the increase of land prices more than inflation, farming lands owners’ aging and new generation tendency to unwillingness to do agricultural work play respectively the most role in land use change and also factors such as the guide plan for Khomam, not clear status of lands and not having the ownership document, the legal obstacles and maintenance the land for sale have respectively the most role in the land use lack of change.
7.
Finally, since in spatial planning, protecting agricultural lands, orchards (especially fruitful), forests and other environmental areas is necessary and according to the climatic situation of the study area it is recommended to consider the following items: 1. Deep identification factors affecting space structure and organization of each of the settlements and their relation with each other. 2. Formulate the optimal pattern of landuse planning consideration all the legal, economic, social, cultural, and political (ideology), environmental (natural and artificial) factors. 3. Provide ter ms and conditions of the exploitation of the land in order to avoid indiscriminate increasing of land prices, the stock, etc. 4. Consider the appropriateness of applied developments in usewith cultural and social and economic activities and functions. 5. Pay attention to the limited environmental resources, especially water and soil resources, in rural environments and apply appropriate usewith such restrictions.6. Pay attention to uses conflicts that are more urban and have not much appropriateness with living in rural environments.
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Pay attention to the future needs of the rural population, especially in the field of the provision of housing and the lack of excesses or wastage in lands allocation in residential units. Balance at the level of the residential uses with the other uses (including services uses). Special attention to the valuable architecture tissue in the uses allocation or change. Attention to the rural identity and face (especially when the socio-economic separations is raised with separation of the village space to traditional and modern parts, in this way in low income strata usually reside in the main cores and old neighbors and around it where the more income groups would settle and therefore the social links will be getting weak). In a comprehensive review, the way of regulating the villages land parts (considering the way of capture and operation) the analysis and the obtained information should be implemented on map (Saeedi, 2008). Acknowledgement
This article is adapted from the rural planning Ph.D. thesis titled as “the physical changesthe space of parts around the centers of provinces during the last four decades in Iran. Case study is Khomam rural-City of Rasht” by Reza Samimi Sharemi under the supervising of Dr. Seyyed Rahim Moshiri and consulting by Dr. Masoud Mahdavi and Dr. Parviz Kardovani in Islamic Azad Usiversity of Science and Research of Tehran.
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364 (2007). Hoshino, S., Multilevel modeling on farmland distribution in Japan. Land Use Policy, 18(1): 75-90 (2001). Jokisch, B.D., Migration and agricultural change: The case of smallholder agriculture in highland Ecuador. Human Ecology, 30(4): 523-550 (2002). Hodder, R., The Philippine legislature and social relationships: Toward the formalization of the polity? Philippine studies, 63-598
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“Rural land use studies Guide”, The Sharif publishing Co., 1: 172 (2008). Saeedi, Abbas, “The basics of rural geography”, Samt publisher., 1: 189-191 (2009). Shakoubi, H., new perspectives in urban geography”, Samt publisher, 1: 166 (1994). Sasba, Tavana, M., Amir Entekhabi, Sh., , “The process of converting the village to the town and its implications in city of Talesh”, geography and development, 10: 107-128 (2007). Mohammadi, M., “effective human powers on land use changes on the silelines of rural areas in city of Tonekabon, geography, 35: 279-298 (2012). Moshir i, M., Saeedi, A., “Rural land use patterns and methods of preparation”, The Islamic revolution Housing Foundation publisher, 1: 411 (2010). The basic map 1966, Khomam, mapping organization. The basic map 2013, Khomam, mapping organization.14.
Vol. 9(2), 502-518 (2014)
Current World Environment
Explanation of Environmental Aesthetic Factors of Urban Design Ali Reza Sadeghi1,Mohammad Reza Pourjafar2, Ali Akbar Taghvaee3 and Parviz Azadfallah4
PhD Candidate of Urban Design at Art and Architecture Faculty of Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran. 2 Full Professor and Dean of the Department of Urban Design & Planning, Faculty of Art and Architecture at Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran. 3 Associate Professor and Education Deputy Manager of Art and Architecture Faculty at Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran. 4 Associate Professor and Dean of the Department of Psychology, Faculty of Humanitiesat Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran.
1
http://dx.doi.org/10.12944/CWE.9.2.35 (Received: July 12, 2014; Accepted: August 17, 2014) Abstract The main objective of this manuscript is to investigate the effects of environmental aesthetics elements of urban designing on formation of the main part of the city (as the fundamental characteristics of the urban form). For this purpose, this comparative article explains the environmental aesthetic elements that are affecting the formation of main structure of the cities during the history of urbanism history (Teotihuacan, Beijing, Athena, Rome, Paris, Washington, Brasilia, and Isfahan) to pave the way for analysis of environmental aesthetics and improvement of contemporary citiesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; quality. For this purpose, the present study employs analytical-descriptive research methods, and literature, references, and visual documents reviews. The results from this study indicate that environmental aesthetic elements of urban designing are affecting the formation of an urban form in two ways, namely visual-form and cognitive-semantic. Visual-form elements include the quality of landscape and its factors, the quality of urban buildings and their elements, the quality of public spaces and their elements, continuity, enclosure, diversity of forms, the quality of views and vistas, and coordination with the context. Cognitive-conceptual elements include identity, legibility, concept, perceptibility, coherent mental image, customizability, social and cultural environment, and richness of activities.
Key words: Environmental Aesthetics, Main Structure, Form of City, Visual-formal factors,Perceptional-meaning factors.
Introduction There are two views on the concept of form. The first one looks at form versus content. Based on this old point of view, form or aspect is the shape and content is the performance of a phenomenon. On the other hand, according to the second perspective, form represents the aspect, structure, and the way content is developed, visualized, and expressed. From this standpoint, aesthetics is defined as
emotional, obvious, and sensory presentation of a phenomenon which exposes itself to judgment. Construction of a city or cityâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s spatial structure shows the discipline and relationship between physical elements and uses and activities in the city. This structure is formed in the urban space and from the resultant of forces affecting the city over time. However, to such thinkers as Christopher Alexander and Edmond Bacon, construction of a city
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as a whole can be divided into core and non-core sectors. In effect, it is the major part that forms the vertebral column of the city and represents stability, continuity, identity, originality, and meaning of the city. In other words, this core structure is responsible for transferring the city’s message to its citizens and visitors. Other parts of the city, which comprise the non-core part of it, are taken to be environments for showing diversity, freedom, authority, and change. At this time, it appears that if we consider the urban form as all elements of natural and human-made environment that surrounds human being, which men can potentially connect with it, the core structure of the city can be a fundamental characteristic of the urban form. Since, the main structure of the city is comprised of such elements as the key axes of communication, major open spaces, public buildings, etc., with which people are always connected. (Picture1) On the other hand, environmental aesthetics is one of the two or three important areas of aesthetics which have been taken into consideration since the second half of twentieth century. The most significant subjects, with whom environmental aesthetics is involved, are those related to understanding of the universe aesthetics and world aesthetics whose constituents are not merely objects and phenomena. They are, rather, bigger elements found in the environment. Therefore, the domain of environmental aesthetics goes beyond the limited borders of the art world and human understanding and broadens to aesthetic understanding of natural and human-made artificial environments which are influenced by the presence of men. In this regard, it seems that in this era analysis of environmental aesthetics characteristics of urban form is more essential than ever. Since, today with expansion of cities, implementation of several projects in such human societies and ever increasing changes in form of the city and main structure of metropolises, the need for analysis and explanation of the effects from implementation of urban projects and plans on citizens and environment is sensed more than ever. Indeed, analysis of human-made environment and investigation of urban plans’ impact on human being and environment are the main responsibilities of urban designers to meet high spectacular goals such as improvement of the quality of human-made environment.
Materials and Methods Through reviewing the previous researches in fields of form aesthetics and urban landscape in the past half century, it is evident that discussions about aesthetics in this field have gone through changes from a visual-artistic standpoint into an issue with perceptional-meaning tendencies. This is quite clear in the move from picturesque style to a conceptual tendency in the aesthetics of form and city landscape. picturesque which had an architectural focus on the artistic-visual aspects of landscape such as the plurality and diversity, humane scale, naturalism and organic order in form and color combination, has been popular by a group of scholars including Sitte, Gibberd, Halprin1,2. Despite modernists who advertise “object-like architecture”, Collin takes “the art of communication” more into account, combines the Genius Loci (sense of place) with movement and brings about the constant views of the urban environment, 3. On one hand, Collin’s approach, however original and moving, is faced with criticism in the field of perception of beauty due to its focus on personal perception and feeling of an urban landscape experience. On the other hand, urban aesthetics do not have the capability to compete with Jacobs and Newman’s approach which have been developed in the 60s and 70s in social-behavioral science4,5. In addition, it could not fit in with the phenomenological theories of Relph and Jakson6,7 or with theoretical and philosophical factors of Norberg Schulz in the following decade8 These new thought trends and considerations to different dimensions of urban design weakened discussions about aesthetics and particularly those related to picturesque and Collin’s approach. Gradually, urban landscape aesthetics has moved its focus from a subjective, sentimental and professional attitude related to visual qualities such as form, color and context to a cognitive-perceptional study of urban landscape.For this reason, theories of form aesthetics and urban landscape are discussed more in psychological studies of the environment than in the field of urban design. Such theories include Appleton’s survival theory in beauty preferences that seeks a relation between an appropriate condition for survival and beauty9. In his evolutionary theory, Stephen Kaplan puts his focus on the obedience of people and the
Sadeghi et al., Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(2), 502-518 (2014) degree they are familiar with landscape, orientation, and obtaining new data in beauty preferences10. Regarding what was said, explanation of environmental aesthetic elements of urban form and spaces seems essential. Therefore, the main objective of this text is to investigate the effects of environmental aesthetics elements of urban designing on formation of the main part of the city (as the fundamental characteristics of the urban form). Since, human is always interacting with surrounding environment and takes feeling, understanding, and intuition of its different aspects through his senses, especially sense of sight, into consideration. In fact, these feeling, understanding, and intuition of citizens of superficial aspects of the main structure form of the cities shape the ground for formation of coherent mental picture and good memory in them. In addition, with respect to urban design and environment quality improvement related issues, enhancement of objective and subjective aesthetic qualities (visual-form and conceptual-cognitive qualities) is very important in urban public realms, and it seems to have a fundamental role in form of legible and original cities. This comparative article explains the environmental aesthetic elements that are affecting the formation of main structure of the cities during the history of urbanism history (Teotihuacan, Beijing, Athena, Rome, Paris, Washington, Brasilia, and Isfahan) to pave the way for analysis of environmental aesthetics and improvement of contemporary cities’ quality. For this purpose, the present study employs analytical-descriptive research methods, and literature, references, and visual documents reviews. Environmental Aesthetics in Urban Design Theoreticiansof aesthetic theories are divided into three general groups including premodern era, modern and postmodern. The premodern period dates back to the times before the renaissance, i.e. the time when arts were serving the religion. (Those arts are also called traditional art). There was not much innovation and creativity in that period. Everything was reproduced in a traditional way and the artist did not have any opportunity to express his own imagination. Natural beauty (inspired by the nature) is prior to artistic and creative
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beauty11. The modern period emerges when tradition is expelled and everything is renewed. This renewing starts with the emergence of new territories and fields for human beings. Modern thought is actually rational thinking, self-centered and regards objective thinking, pragmatism, emotionalism and individual intuition and is, as a result, a kind of creativity and innovation which finally values the work’s integrity and independence. When defining the modern aesthetics, we can refer to Frank Lloyd Wright and Le Corbusier who are two major modernist architects. Wright takes the concept of beauty in organic architecture from nature and believes that principles and order are the basic factorsfor an evolved beauty. Beauty is a proportional display as color, line and form. This proportion is so honest as if forms and colors seek their existential cause in displaying an eternal design. Here, it should be noted that it is not only the form and color that Wright considers as important in beauty; rather, he values the systematic nature, order, balance, and the hidden integrity of nature, and Le Corbusier as a pioneer of modern techniques utilizes forms which are products of modern engineering12. Quite the opposite, the postmodern era focuses on plurality, does not give any credit to the work’s independent nature, takes non-artistic issues such as social-political status into account, and finally pulls the aesthetic value of a work of art to the edges.Postmodernbeauty is a plural beauty that is good for every “cultural taste” and for diverse impressions of a good life13. But, the present era in which capitalism is dominant in relations between human and his environment, aesthetic values are being neglected as a result of economic relations and also due to the necessity of a benefit-seeking attitude toward natural and artificial environment surrounding people. Therefore, to challenge this narrow-minded way of thinking toward the relation between human and his surrounding environment, new concepts are put forward in aesthetics which are in fact framed in an environmental aesthetics. Indeed, environmental aesthetic is a concept which should not be merely limited to contexts of place, ethics and spiritual thoughts, but rather, it should inevitably be implemented in a social, economical and political body.Environmental aesthetics is a multi-senseand widespread engagement with the environment of which human beings are the main components. In environmental aesthetics, when a sublime feeling reaches its peak, experience of beauty can be truly
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Picture1: approaches about city's form. Source: the authors using different sources Suggestions about the future of the city like conservation and restoration or design guidance
Clarifying the samples which evolved the shape of the city through morphological components
Moughtin
Form of the city or in other words, how elements and physique of the city are combined, follows features named "pattern" and "size". Micro-scale
each period Benevolo
Historical
Explaining major changes in urban production organizations
Contextualization
Aesthetics
Structuralism Surveying the structure of urban design
The goal of the city's formation is to make a coherent urban shape
Taking citizens more into account (urban sociology)
City as a whole physical entity
Instructive nature
population growthin
Morris
Investigating the historical process of change in cities change Systematic Holism
Surveying the city's texture
Analysis of cities' evolution based on
Architecture
Urbangeograp hy
Major approaches of the study
Form of the city
Major Fields of study
Urban pattern studies
Pattern is a solution used to solve many diverse issues needless to subjective repetition.
Descriptive nature
Form of the city is all factual and subjective information and includes all environmental elements to which humans are potentially connected. Macro-scale
Structural studies
By structure of the city it is simply meant how the elements of city's complex system are connected.
Picture1: approaches about cityâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s form. Source: the authors using different sources
Sadeghi et al., Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(2), 502-518 (2014) strong and contain valuable mental stimulations. In this kind of aesthetics, beauty or the sublime can be a routine and typical pleasure, present in human being’s surroundings the highest level of which is in an environment filled with integrity, complexity, and mystery. In Whitehead’s aesthetic theory, it is stated that size or diversity of forms along with quality of intensity and comparative magnifying, needless to a variety of qualities, are able to generate a powerful environment. In fact, in environmental aesthetics, qualities of integrity, complexityofand are Picture 2: engagement themystery city's form, combined together in order to give meaning to
aesthetic factors; Source: the authors Form
the beauty and sublime in human’s surrounding environment14. In respect to this, Schulz makes a connection between architecture, place and cultural identity and believes that experience of the place is actually the experience of the meaning of the place; and experience of beauty in an environment is indeed an appreciation of meaning 8. In his book, “The Image of the City””, Lynch considers visualizing space and time as the basis to reach an understanding of environment, and thus, believes that of these elements together have a close mainall structure and environmental affinity with beauty15. In his normaltheory of the good
Sensual and clear pretention of a phenomenon exposes itself with judgment
Form is the felt aspect of a phenomenon, Form does not always carry a physical sate
City's form
Fundamental characteristic
Main structure of the city
Environmental Aesthetic Factors
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It is all the environmental elements with which humans can potentially have interaction. All the real data in the city's environment are called "city's form". It presents city's stability, perseverance, identity, originality and meaning
Visual-form: including visual qualities of the contextual environment such as form and subjective landscape of the city Conceptual-cognitive: including cognitive qualities of the social and behavioral environment like appearance and mental image (landscape) of the city.
Picture 2: engagement of the city’s form, main structure and environmental aesthetic factors; Source: the authors
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Table 1: Presentation of environmental aesthetic factors by urban design scholars. Sources: the authors using diverse sources Theoretician
Environmental Aesthetic Factors in Urban Design
Visual-form factors Cognitive-conceptual factors Jane Jacobs Considering street elements (1961) Kevin Lynch Compatibility and Fit (1984) Violich (1983) Urban forms reminding of the past (cultural heritage) Ian Bentley and Visual intrusion; diversity of forms; visual Others (1985) compatibility Ragger Trancik Enclosure of the spaces; fusion of edges; (1986) controlling point of views and perspectives Coleman (1987) Historical conservation and urban restoration; architectural values Allen Jacobs and Delightfulness (visual diversity) Appleyard (1987) Prince Charles Hierarchy; scale; harmony; enclosure; materials; (1989) decorations; art; symbols; signs and lights Michael Structure; form; view and landscape Soutworth (1989) Francis Learning from the past; respecting the present Tibbalds(1988- texture 92) Greene (1992) Order includes: coherence, clarity, continuation. Appeal includes: scale; visual coordination; harmony Brian Goodey Coordination with the current context; diversity (1993) LPAC, (1993) Intensity of texture; visual richness
Flexible spaces:The possibility of socializing Richness of activities Sense, Vitality
Haughton and Hunter (1994) Nelessen,
â&#x20AC;&#x201D;-
Diversity; concentration, proper scale, creative co- relations The core(concentration center); street landscape;
legibility of the environment, freedom of choice, possibility of a social life legibility; flexibility; customizability compatibility of interior and exterior spaces Cultural environments, delightfulness and variety of Functions Originality and meaning; collective life; identity and dominance Position; local community; (genius loci, sense of place and belonging) Legibility; genius loci; identity; human scale; (passerby) Considering places before buildings; human scale; legibility Identity includes: centre; unity; character; delightfulness Delightfulness; human scale; customizability; legibility; richness of activities Structure, legibility and identity, human scale, public and specific places
Human scale
Sadeghi et al., Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(2), 502-518 (2014) (1994) diversity; use of design terminology PMUDTF Considering the context and local character; (1996) beholding capability Punter and Objective urban landscape; artificial form; ground Carmona landscape (1997) Richard Rogers Character; considering sights and positions; context; (1999) scale Department of Character, continuity and enclosure, structure of environment, urban space, urban divisions, i.e., street decoration transportation and patterns ;( blocks, pieces, and buildings); natural regions in Britain landscape; scale: altitude; scale: building; exterior: (2000) details; exterior: materials Summary The quality of natural landscape and its factors, the quality of urban buildings and their elements, the quality of public spaces and their elements, continuity, enclosure, diversity of forms, the quality of views and vistas and coordination with the context
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—Public perception; quality evaluation; functions and perceived appeals; reminder of cultural concepts; legibility —Identity; legibility
Identity, legibility, concept, perceptibility, coherent mental image, customizability, cultural and social environment, richness of activities
Table 2: Explanation of the role of aesthetic - form factors in the main structure of cities. Source: the authors How environmental aesthetics has effected these cities
The name of the city
Structure of this city: it was a center for magnificent feasts; there were pyramids called the Sun and the Moon pyramids which were used as an axis (place) to worship gods and it also had a main rout called “Road for the Dead” and other diverse elements located around it.
Teotihuacan, capital city of a civilization under the same name in central America, (first century A.D)
Positioning of all huge buildings in a vertical (upright) network Its base is on a pivot which has a specific geographical direction based on religious beliefs. its general structure is not symmetrical Positioning of minor pyramids’ shafts is proportionate in relation to minor axis and disproportionate in relation to the “Road for the Dead” or the major axis. The city is indeed a series of square-like modules. It is influenced by two powerful axis, namely, the king’s seat and the Sun pyramid. Dominant characteristic: diversity of combinations which are creatively free from the dominance of symmetrical pivots. It is like branches of a tree and has an organic growth (organized growth). There is a possibility of pursuing harmonious functions with the whole system.
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Base of the work is on continuity and hierarchy Beijing, china The focus is on the orientation of the main structure along with adding to the floors of the building Clarifying direction of the movement of the main axis with the building, kind of the movement in pavements and gaining a chain of space experiences Moving in the space and passing from the spaces with different colors Passing from one scale into another Presence of a specific rhythm of basic units from open and close spaces to the emperor’s seat in the main axis. Presence of an extensive pivot and several supporting units in the fringe Presence of a strong pivotal balance and lack of a stiff pivotal symmetry Structure of the city and its main elements surround Acropolis, Agora, Athens, Greece some entertainment and cultural spot, a religious area and at times an industrial port Agora is the beating heart of the city and a place to practice different activities Formation of Agora in a place that was a market and meeting spot before and was located on the path of Panathenaic road or the main commuting road. Agora was in the physical center of the city between city’s gate and Acropolis Around Agora, there were pavements, porches, and aprons for holding meetings and court sessions. Pattern of organizing the main structure includes two major center and several marginal (minor) ones. The link between the two major centers, that is, Agora and Acropolis, is done through a strong communication path The most important element of the city, namely, acropolis and particularly Parthenon temple, has a great visual dominance over the whole city and the meeting center and that is due to its location on the highest part of the city. Every building complex has an internal order with the new ones around one pivot which has only one center. There is a link between surrounded spaces, and a mutual adherence among the buildings There is an eternal beauty and diversity resulting from a link between spaces and the internal order of buildings. A city beside the Tiber river and surrounding the Seven Hills Rome, the Capital of Roman Emperors The river and the Seven Hills had a great impact on space order of the structure of the city There were sanctuaries and shrines, graveyards and necks (causeway), public bathrooms, stadiums, theaters and special places for meetings, markets, gardens, and also squares in central part of the city. Forums or the city’s meeting place and traditional markets are located in a valley among the hills and have the view of Jupiter temple which had been considered another important element of the city The city center’s growth through a series of royal forums connected to each other and in a row ( the axis) are linked and the forums are connected to the new ones. The main idea of the designers of the city monuments was to display their magnificence and splendor and their form in order to be dominant over all buildings of the city( Rome in the first century) Apart from the river and the Seven Hills, The main structure of
Sadeghi et al., Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(2), 502-518 (2014) ancient Rome around 3 A.D. consisted of isolated monumental buildings in the central areas of the city. There were a plethora of public buildings in the adjacent and connected complexes and all have orderly geometrical forms. The main idea of the cityâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s organization in Middle Ages was to make points or centers in the space which were defined by vertical elements and communication lines between them. The central spots include intersections among the appealing forces (i.e. place of ancient buildings, churches, gates, and public squares). Endless diversity of angel communication spots and a vast variety of marginal places having different angles in relation to each other. When the structure was reorganized by Sixtus V and influenced by baroque urbanization, places were designed to characterize some elements in the formless shape of buildings. Some pivots and places were designed to define, explain and clarify the connection between sings of the old city. In times of Sixtus V, in order to make communication possible among the main parts of the city, some parts were built in a lower level in order to have a greater view of the monuments. The main structure of the city consists of two major axes, that is, east-west and north-east axis intersection of which is actually making the central part of the city. The east-west axis is known as the main monumental axis and it is the ceremonial (formal) path. many outstanding buildings are formed on margins of the main axis In one side of the main axis, there is governmental triangle or square which has a view of a lake. Location of the central churches, universities, trade centers and embassy buildings of the city are in a way which have cultural and entertainment centers in the margins of the two main axis of the city Building a monumental place in the entertainment spot of the beach between the congress building and TV tower through a pathway of shortcuts. Presentation of a new outlook toward the city as a whole structure. Presence of visual and symbolic values of the elements not only in regard to architectural qualities or exterior structure of buildings, but also, in regard to their positioning and combination. Remarkable buildings and monuments of the city are at times located on the main axis of the urban roads. The axis owns a definite and specific beginning and ending point. The Victory Gate is located in the center of the branching pattern of main streets and is seen from 12 streets. There can be seen a visual continuity, passage of time and history over this city which bring a kind of order to the buildings that belong to different historical periods. Regarding the visual order of the elements, their combination with marginal axis is performed in a way in which all significant elements are seen from the major axis in Champs-Elysees avenue. There is an appropriate symmetry between the qualities of signs in the city in relation to its size. There are agreeable distances between buildings so
Brasilia, Brazil
Paris, France
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that they can be beheld from the adjacent monuments. Observing principles of aesthetics in order to add to visual impact of urban signs Combination of buildings and urban signs with open urban spaces Having appropriate gradient and hills in order to a have a better display of buildings. Having unique visual characteristics on walls of the main pathways which include buildings with designed exteriors. The essential focus of the designer is on making pleasant urban views and dominant perspectives. Elements and main central areas are being under spotlight from different directions through main streets. Main streets determine the spotlights and access to main areas of the city Making exterior yards, axes, and pavements for entertainment and designing signs. Three monuments including the Capitol Building, the White House, and the Washington Monument, are the main elements which dominate the city regarding, legibility and visual image and are truly influencing the total image of the city. Making a visual connection among the streets by through defining elements Cyclic patterns are utilized and the elements are put in a way that are seen easily and thus make closed perspectives and add to the visual aspects of the cityâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s signs. Making strong connections among monumental buildings while providing enclosed and formed spaces for human activities. A porch (private spot) was designed for buildings which gives them dominance over the surrounding environment based on the position of the building. There is a kind of visual attachment in the whole city, particularly in the central core. There are proportionate architecture and similar forms in buildings located in main streets. There are series of buildings with same height and continuation and substantial shapeless spaces which have a height limit. Rows of planted trees in both sides of certain streets have made defined landscapes. The city has topographical relation with street lines determining the position of the main axis and its main elements. Using natural geographical facilities of the place in designing main structure of the city. Main axis are selected in a way that not only give pleasant views toward the river, but also are contributing to the topographical land issues of the city in the best way possible. There are engineered spaces, all in order and substantial. Presence of diverse spaces Having major views and perspectives There is a coordination with context
Washington, the United States of America
Isfahan, Iran
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Diversity of space enclosures Focusing on main buildings in public spaces Using natural elements such as trees and rivers to put the city in order. Continuity and attachment of older textures to newer ones Arrayed construction of exteriors using special architecture and ornamentation form of a city, he points at insufficiency of concepts such as harmony, diversity, and order present in an object or landscape and believes that one should begin with cognitive images and users’ priorities and see the person and place as a whole16. Boyer also discusses the role of collective memories and semantic dimensions in achieving the pleasure of an environment and understanding of its beauty17 From the environmental aesthetics point of view, an urban space is a beautiful space in which aesthetic criteria are involved in its construction and that means urban designing is actually the very creation of a beautiful urban space. There are two schools of thought in understanding beauty. One takes perceptional elements in time of perception into account and the other discusses non-perceptional elements such as culture, scientific knowledge and patterns as the influential factor. Explanation of Environmental Aesthetics Factors in Urban Design As mentioned above, nowadays, considering environmental aesthetics, explanation of its factors and utilizing them in analyzing urban spaces is of great significance in urban design. Authors of this article believe that environmental aesthetic factors in urban design are divided into two groups that are, visual-form qualities and cognitive-semantic qualities (conceptual-cognitive qualities). Visual-form elements include visual qualities of the contextual environment such as form and subjective landscape of the city and conceptual-cognitive elements include cognitive qualities of the social and behavioral environment like image and mental landscape of the city. Fur thermore, many of urban design scholars who have explained the qualities of a good urban design through a normal approach, have focused on taking environmental aesthetic factors into consideration in urban design. In table 1, both visual-form and conceptual-cognitive qualities of
environmental aesthetics discussed by some urban design scholars are presented. Discussion and Conclusion It has been said that the main structure of every city is a fundamental characteristic of the city’s form which has a remarkable role in that city’s stability, continuity, identity, originality and meaning. It has also been noticed that environmental aesthetic factors have always played a vital role in the formation of a city’s structure. (Picture 2) Moreover, in this research, analysis of aesthetic factors presented by urban design scholars has led to the division of suggested environmental aesthetics of city’s form into two groups, namely, visual-form factors and cognitive-conceptual factors. These factors include: 1. Aesthetic-form factors including: the quality of natural landscape and its elements, the quality of urban buildings and their elements, the quality of public spaces and their elements, continuity, enclosure, diversity of forms, the quality of views and vistas and coordination with the context 2. Cognitive-conceptual factors including: identity, legibility, concept, perceptibility, coherent mental image, customizability, social and cultural environment, richness of activities. Besides, despite having different patterns of city structure and belonging to diverse civilizations, most ancient cities’ form in different parts of the world have some things in common, and thus, through examining them, we can find certain principles about their shaping, survival and restoration of the main structure of the city. However, it seems that one common reason of the survival and restoration of these cities is use of environmental aesthetic factors, namely, visual-form factors and cognitiveconceptual factors, in urban design and in organizing
Visual- form factors Cognitive- conceptual factor
The quality of the earth’s natural landscape and its elements The quality of urban buildings and their elements The quality of public spaces and their elements Continuity Enclosure Diversity of forms Quality of views and vistas Coordination with the context Identity Eligibility Concept Perceptibility Coherent Mental image Customizability Social and cultural environments Richness of activities
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The suggested factors How the factors impact the formation of cities Teotihuacan Beijing Athens Rome Brasilia Paris Washington Isfahan
Explanation of visual-aesthetic evaluation factors of the main structure of the cities ( high impact; medium impact; low impact )
Table 3: Explanation of environmental aesthetic factors of the city's form through a comparative approach. Source: the authors
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The quality Shape and form of the land of natural Plants and trees landscape Texture of the land Orientation Coordination Considering the organization of with the context architectural context Conservation the historical links Development pattern The quality of Conservation of physical identity of urban buildings the context Color and texture Diversity of exteriors and walls Specific building elements Rhythm and pattern Appealing details Construction materials Decay and decomposing of physical appearance Continuity Division and intensity of physical texture How old are the buildings and structures in the so-called area?
What kinds of construction materials are used in the buildings which form public places?
How was the formation of the current context and texture during the course of time? Are there any continuity and consistency seen in different periods of time? How are street patterns of the texture and development orientations performed? Are features of the context truly coordinated? Have conservation of physical, historical and their identity of the texture been taken into consideration for future developments? What remarkable colors and textures are seen in buildings, structures, and surface of the area? How many remarkable views are seen in the buildings? Are they various and diverse? Are there any particular construction elements such as windows, doors, margins, fences, protections, balconies and chimneys in the so-called area? What kind of order and principle does the combination of buildings in the so-called area have? Are there any clear and identifiable pattern and rhythm? Are details and construction materials used to add to the attraction of the buildings?
What is the landform like? How are the gradients? What kinds of trees are used in the so-called areas? Location spots, species, conditions, size. How are the materials of the land surface? Do they have influential and palpable features? How is the landâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s gradient in the so-called site connected with the natural light and climate features? How is the architecture of the current context and texture done? Does it have any particular organization? Are these organizations taken into account?
Environmental Aesthetic Factors Concept
Table 4: environmental aesthetic factors in urban design. Source: the authors
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Enclosure Continuity of the order in buildings The quality of Active partitions (walls) public spaces Spaces being Enclosed and limited (narrowed) A sense of enclosure Visual intrusion Visual aptness The quality of construction and materials Green spaces Urban furnishings Having structures with movement capabilities) movable) Skyline Ceiling line Night view Diversity of forms The quality of views and vistas What aspects of the area or buildings in it help the place adjust to the diversity of forms? Have the diversity of details in shapes and forms of the buildings resulted in diversity of forms in the so-called area?
Do the lightening and night view elements help enhance the quality of public places?
What kinds of signs, branches, rubbish bins, blockages and fences are there in public spaces of the so-called area? What kinds of bus stations, booths, newsstands, information desks, Street lights, traffic lights and structures are there in the area? Do the buildings which make the skyline of public places possess a harmonious quality and are they coordinated or noticeable? What is the landscape of the roof like from the inside and outside of the area?
How is the quality of the construction and materials used on the grounds, walls, stairs and gradients of public spaces? What kinds of trees, gardens or green spaces are there in public spaces?
What are the most appealing visual characteristic of the so-called area?
Is there any physical decay or decomposition in the buildings? Does the division of buildings have balance? Are the heights of the buildings harmonious? Are the building lines continuous or are there any unusual detachments or construction causing a halt in the buildings? Is the activity in the ground floor walls (partitions) continuous or detached? Is the continuation of the active walls are protected along with the structure? Are the public spaces truly enclosed by the buildings or green elements? Which side of buildings plays a role in enclosing spaces? How are the features of buildings, structures or natural elements increasing or decreasing the enclosure feeling? Are public spaces exposed to any view?
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Identity Legibility Signs Gates Areas Physical knots Complexity and controversy Perceptibility Order and coordination Coherent Mental-perceptional landscape mental image
Are there any beautiful views seen from inside the area to the elements located there? Are there any places in the so-called area which give beholders the chance to enjoy a panoramic view toward specific borders from the site? Is there a good chance to see the view from inside the so-called area toward far-away landscapes which have a greater quality? Is there a view from far-away spots outside the area toward a beautiful landscape inside it? Are there any â&#x20AC;&#x153;view corridorâ&#x20AC;? in the so-called area which gives a chance of viewing significant signs and visual qualities? Is the border of the area identifiable from specific elements? Are there any particular borders and obstacles especially on the edges of the so-called area which grant a special quality to that place? Can some thresholds potentially be identified on the edges or inside the area in which sequences, functions, and characters change in the area? Are there any buildings in the so-called area which are known because of their architectural or historical values? Are there any united local community formed in the so-called area? Are there any human-made buildings or structures or natural green elements (located in the so-called area or seen from it) which are perceived remarkably and clearly facing their background landscape? Are there any places in the edges of that area or inside it which could be considered as an entrance gate (or have the potentials and conditions to be a gate)? Are there any clear areas regarding the physique, function or social texture in the so-called are that contribute to the legibility of that place? Are there any focal and noticeable points with a particular and harmonious architecture in the area? Are there any complexity and paradox in the relation among the elements which could contribute to a better understanding of those relations? Are there any clear and discernible organization and order seen in the relation among the elements in the area? Do people (residents or strangers) have a clear mental image of the area? If so, what is that image like?
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Are there any places in the area that can be transformed into a secondary Customizability Presence of territories territory for individuals or social groups? Comfortable and private spaces Is there a chance for individuals or social groups to have a private and soothing place in the area? Social and Should there be a particular and permanent behavior in that area? cultural Behavioral places Are there any annual events and cultural and artistic festivals held in the environment festivals and events so-called area? Does the so-called area have any cultural heritage related to people’s life style in the past and present time? Richness of Cultural heritage aspects Are there any intersection of pathways and focal points in the so-called area? activities Activity Knots Do the functions in the so-called area possess coordination and harmony along with diversity? Amalgamation and harmony of activities Is combining of functions and activities appropriate for the so-called area? Combination of functions
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these cities’ form. In table 2, the main structure of some important cities and the role of environmental aesthetics in their formation are explained. To explain these characteristics, mostly visual-form factors are taken into account since they provide the context for the formation of cognitive-conceptual factors. In addition, in table 3, through a comparative study of the main structure of the cities discussed above and based on the suggested factors, the aesthetic-visual evaluation factors of the structures have been explainedthoroughly. (Table 3) Regarding table 3, it seems that most of the suggested environmental aesthetic factors are appropriate for evaluating the main structure of the cities. In addition, apparently, among visual-form aesthetic factors, the quality of views and vistas are of more significance. Moreover, among cognitiveconceptual factors, identity and legibility are very vital to analyze the environmental aesthetic forms of the city, while, it seems that among the cities discussed above, form of the main structure of Paris and Washington have used visual-form quality of the environmental aesthetics more than any other city. Like-wise, in table 4, the environmental aesthetic factors, namely, visual—form and cognitiveconceptual factors, and the issues related to them have been explained thoroughly. It is hoped that the results of this research could be used in visualaesthetic analysis of mega-cities’ form based on the environmental aesthetic factors. Acknowledgements The research for this paper was financially supported by “Tehran Urban Planning and Research Center (TUPRC)”. The Authors would like to thank them for their support.
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Jencks, Ch., “What Is Post-Modernism?”, NY, St. Martin’s Press, (1986). Bell, S., “Landscape: Pattern, Perception, and Process”, London, E & FN Spon Press, (1999). Lynch, K.,”The image of the city”. Mass, MIT Press, (1960). Lynch, K.,”Good city form “, Mass, MIT Press, (1984). Boyer, Ch., “The city of collective memory”,MIT press, USA, (1994). Bacon, E., “Design of Cities”, NY, Penguin Books, (1976). Bentley, I; Alcock, A.; McGlynn, S; Murrain, P. Smith, G., Responsive environments: A manual for designers. Oxford, Butterworth Architecture, (1992). Carmona, M. et al., Public spaces – Urban places: The dimensions of urban design. Architecture Press, (2003). Encyclopedia of aesthetics, Editor in chief: Michael Kelly, vol (2), entry of formalism, pp 213-225, oxford, (1988). Kaplan. R. and Kaplan. S., “The Experience ofNature: A Psychological Perspective”, CambridgeUniversity. Cambridge,UK, (1991). Porteous, J.D., Environmental Aesthetics: Ideas, Politics and Planning, London, Routledge, (1996). Nasar, J., “Urban Design Aesthetics- The Evaluative Qualities of Building Exteriors”, Environment and Behavior, 26(3): 377-401, (1994).
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Current World Environment
Rainfall Variability in Chhattisgarh State Using GIS Sanjay Bhelawe, J.L. Chaudhary, A.S. Nain, R. Singh, Rajesh Khavse and S.K. Chandrawanshi Department of Agrometeorology, Indira Gandhi Krishi Vishwa Vidyalaya, Krishak Nagar, Raipur (Chhattisgarh state)- 494 005, India. http://dx.doi.org/10.12944/CWE.9.2.36 (Received: June 23, 2014; Accepted: August 05, 2014) ABSTRACT Chhattisgarh state located in central India covers total area of about 13.5 million hectares. The region has a great variety and diversity of weather conditions. Three major agro-climatic zones has been demarcated in the state viz., Chhattisgarh plains zone, Bastar plateau ACZ and Northern hill region. Here an analysis of rainfall for 16 districts has been made and interpretation drawn regarding pre-dominant crop rice cultivation. Further stress has been made to conserve surplus monsoonal rainfall in On Farm Reservoirs (OFR’s) as rainfall is occurring in intense storms and utilize this rainwater for sustainable crop production and also for enhancing cropping intensity. The high potential of OFR’s and other harvesting structures in alleviating drought, increasing productivity and stability of rainfed ricelands has been tested in this region for meeting this challenge of rainfed rice production.
Key words: Rainfall, Stable rainfall periods, Dependable rainfall, Rice crop,Dependable Rainfall, Rainfed crop.
INTRODUCTION In India despite recent progress in industrlization, the soundness of economy is significantly dependant upon the gross production of agricultural commodities and agriculture is the mainstay of millions of teeming population with crops pre-dominantly dependant upon natural rainfall. Excepting the south-eastern part of the peninsula and Jammu and Kashmir, the south west monsoon (June – Sept.) is the principle source of rain in the entire country. During monsoonal period more than 75% of annual rainfall is received over a major portion of the country. India’s economy has traditionally been agricultural in nature and excess climate anomalies, deficient and flooded rainfall years have a dramatic impact on the economy as well as on the living conditions of the inhabitants of the affected regions (Parthasarthy et al. 1988). The green revolution on technology has increased the rice production and productivity substantially.
However, the sustainability of rice based system is threatened due to • • • • •
The insufficient use of inputs Scarcity of resources especially water and labour Changing climate Rising cost of cultivation Emerging source of economic change
As changing climate and erratic distribution of rainfall and increased field water losses account for unreliability and shortage of water for crop production, here stress has been laid on regional climate change. Most of precipitation occurs between June to September and during this period about 50% of rainfall occurs in about 20-30 hours (Pishroty, 1987). This duration hardly accounts for 1% of total rainy season during which rainfed rice is grown. A large amount of water from these storms is lost by runoff, seepage and percolation.
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According to Gates (1988), experience of the world is sufficient to convince people that even a temporary change of climate can have profound impact on agricultural production and on the use of energy and water resources. Water stresses are a common feature during growth cycle of crops. Although water in form of precipitation is availble freely and right at the site where it is to be used, yet so tenuous and delicate is the balance between the demand for water by crops and its supply by precipitation that even short term deficit periods often reduce the production significantly (Gupta et al. 1990). Interpretation of climatic variables is essential because of these variations (Subramaniam and Raju, 1988). Chhattisgarh state, situated in eastern India stretches between 80Ú152 to 84Ú242 E longitude & 17Ú462 to 24Ú 52 N latitude. It covers total geographical area of about 13.5 million hectare. Rice crop is grown in 3.7 million hectares and rainfed rice production has always remained a challenge in this region. This state has three agro climatic zones viz., Chhattisgarh plains, Bastar plateau and Northern hills region. Its climate is of dry sub-humid type. Under wide range of farming situations and soil conditions, except upland light soil, rice is widely accepted and grown by the farmers depending upon their socio-economic conditions. During kharif, growing of rice is a tradition and is widely accepted depending upon farmers socio-economic conditions. While, in rabi, there are fewer options for the stakeholders to take profitable and/or suitable crops. Under these circumstances, they generally follow rice – wheat, rice – mustard and rice – winter vegetables under partially or assured irrigation and rice- fallow, rice – utera (Lathyrus, chickpea and linseed) under rainfed situation. Rainfall analysis is important in view of crop planning for any region. In order to stabilize crop yield at reasonable levels in rainfed situation, it is essential to plan rainfed crops and their management practices in consonance with the rainfall pattern prevalent in the region. Rainfall studies, particularly its variability and probability analysis give more information for rainfed crop planning. Among the climatic elements the rainfall is the first index, ever thought of by farmers and climatic analyzers as it is the most important single factor which determines
the cropping pattern of an area in general and the type of crop to be cultivated and its success or failure in particular. The study of rainfall pattern is very important for the agricultural planning of any region. Monsoon depressions and cyclonic storms are the most important synoptic scale disturbances which play a vital role in the space– time distribution of rainfall over India (Sikka, 1977).All of the natural conditions, rainfall should be regarded as the fundamentals so for as progress of the society is concerned. Rainfall is a crucial agroclimatological factor in the seasonally arid parts of the world and its analysis an important perquisite for agricultural planning in India (Gadgil 1986). India is a tropical country its agricultural planning and utilization water is depends on monsoon rainfall, more than 75% of rainfall accruing during the monsoon season~ monsoon rainfall is uneven both in time and space, so it is important factors to evolving the rainfall analysis. Jagannadha sarma (2005) has analysed the rainfall pattern of the coastal zone of Krishana Godavary River Basin Andhra Pradesh, India. He has made analysed the annual, monsoon and non-monsoon rainfall and spatial and frequency distribution of rainfall intensity and Vennila (2007) has analysed rainfall variation analysis of Vattamalaikarai subbasin, Tamil Nadu, India by interpreting monthly, seasonal variation, intensity and frequency of rainfall. Daily rainfall and rainfall on different timescale plays a great role in weather phenomena in tropical countries and helps to determine the agricultural land use potential and hydrological investigations. Further, a precise understanding of agro -climatic conditions is a pre-requisite for efficient crop planning in any given region. This type of understanding is of more relevance in rainfed area where crop productions depend on vagaries of monsoon and other climatic parameters. Therefore rainfall distribution pattern is a major determinant of crop yield in rainfed areas. In this context, collection, scrutiny and analysis of historical weather data available in the region are essential to characterize the agricultural climate of the region. Materials and methods Data base used Various data sets of Chhattisgarh state
Bhelawe et al., Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(2), 519-524 (2014) were used during the study course. The basic data, which were collected and used during the work, were: Soil type, soil depth, soil physiography, digital elevation map, temperature, precipitation, length of growing period, land use land cover map, administrative boundary, available water capacity . These preliminary data were collected by visiting various areas concerned of the state. The very first data collected was the maps related to soil resource of Chhattisgarh. Such map includes maps showing the soil type, soil depth and soil physiography of the state. These soil resource maps were than digitized to prepare the digital soil resource database. The second most important parameters which were collected includes the different meteorological data like rainfall and temperature data from different meteorological stations where the visiting was done for the data collection. The stations visited for the data collection were: â&#x20AC;˘ â&#x20AC;˘
Revenue department of Chhattisgarh College of agriculture Raipur, Bilaspur, Ambikapur, and Jagdalpure.
Annual average rainfall The entire state has been divided in to five major categories (Fig. 1) namely very high rainfall zone (rainfall >1600 mm), high rainfall zone (15001600 mm), medium rainfall zone (1400-1500), low rainfall zone (1300-1400) and very low rainfall zone (<1300mm). The spatial distribution of rainfall shows that south Easter Bastar region comprising of some part of Jagdalpur and Dantewara, eastern part of northern hills zones comprising of most part of Jashpur and some part of Sarguja and north eastern parts of Chhattisgarh plains zone comprising of most part of Raigarh and some part of Janjgir, Raipur and Mahasamund receive high to very high rainfall. The reason being that in these part of state the onset of monsoon is bit early than other parts of the state, thus monsoon remains active for longer period in these part. Other regions contributing of high rainfall can be the thick forest cover and orographic sector of rainfall due to undulating area. The whole districts of Bijapur and parts of Dantewara, Narayanpur, Jagdalpur, Koriya, Sarguja, Korba, Bilaspur, Janjgir, Raipur, Mahasamund, and Raigarh receive medium
For the computation of water balance of different parts of Chhattisgarh, the rainfall data for those areas as well as, temperature data, humidity data, wind speed data, radiation data of the related areas were also collected. Apart from all these data the land use land cover map of the Chhattisgarh state was also collected. And last but not the least, SRTM (Shuttle Radar Topography Mission) data of the state for DEM generation were also collected. Data generation The weather data of recent 30 years. The spatial surface of the rainfall data was generated in ARC-view 3.1 GIS software using the Inverse Distance Weigtage (IDW) algorithm. We used 0.0150 pixel during mapping. All the primary maps of Chhattisgarh which were collected were geo referenced and digitized using ARC-view 3.1 GIS software. Results and Discussion The spatial surface of the rainfall data was generated in ARC-View 3.1 GIS software using the IDW (Inverse Distance Weightage) algorithm.
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Fig. 1: Annual rainfall variability in Chhattisgarh state
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rainfall, while other part of the state which mainly include the Chhattisgarh plains zone and some parts of Bastar plateau and northern hills zone receive low rainfall due to the various factors such as distance from bay of Bengal, rainfall shadow effect availability of orographic lifting being plain zone. A small geographical region consisting of central Raipur and Durg receive very low rainfall due to the higher degree of urbanization. Rainfall during Kharif season Maximum rainfall occurrence in the state falls in between July to September months of the year, which includes kharif season (Fig. 2). As like Average annual rainfall, sate has been divided into 5 major categories namely very high rainfall zone (>1525 mm), high rainfall zone (1450-1525 mm), medium rainfall zone (1375-1525), low rainfall zone (1300-1375) and very low rainfall zone (<1300mm). During Kharif season spatial distribution of rainfall shows that eastern part of northern hill zone
Fig. 2: Kharif season rainfall variability in Chhattisgarh state
comprising head quarter of Jashpur district and its surrounding area. The reason is that, due to hilly region onset of monsoon is early and also active mainly during Kharif season, made to get maximum rainfall during this season. The maximum area of northern hilly zone like Surguja, Jashpur and nor th eastern par t of Chhattisgarh plains zone like Raigarh and some part of Janjgir receives high rainfall where as large part of Bastar plateau comprising Jagdalpur, Bastar and part of Dantewara includes Barsur, Gidam, Karka, Koleng. Parts of northern hill zone like Sarguja comprising Ramanujganj, Tattapani, Lundra, Sitapur and Jashpur includes Kunkuri, Mahnai, Pathalgaon, and Kotaba. Maximum part of Chhattisgarh plain comprising part of Raigarh like Dharmjaygarh, Bhojpur, Lailunga and Sakti, Jaijapur, Nawagarh of Janjgir Champa. Part of Bilaigarh, Tala, Sirsiwa of Raipur district and also Saraipali and Basna block of Mahasamund district comes under medium rainfall area.
Fig. 3: Rabi season rainfall variability in Chhattisgarh state
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Most part of Bastar platue like Dantewara, Middle part of Jagdalpur and Makri, Kondagaon, Narayanpur, Sonpur, Chitrakote of Narayanpur districts receives low rainfall during Kharif. Most part of Korea and Sarguja district Middle part of Korba includes Pali, Katghora, Korba; Kendai also comes under this group. West part of Janjgir, East part of Bilaspur comprising Baloda, Akaltara, Pamgarh, Bilha, Bilaspur, Ratanpur, Kota and areas like Kasdol Balodabazar Bhatapara Palari which are the part of Raipur and Patewa, Pithora and Bagbahra of Mahasamund district comes under this category.
of Northern hill zone and parts of Chhattisgarh plain comprising of Bilaspur (Pendraroad, Parasi, Keonchi, Kotmei and Marvahi), southern Raipur, Pasan part of Korba, Dhamtari (Bora, Umargao and Parasgaon) and Kanker (Pakhanjur) and maximum part of Bastar plateau come under medium rainfall of 100-130 mm. Only small part of state comes under high (130-160 mm) to very high (>160 mm) rainfall categories in Rabi season comprises only part of Bastar plateau regions.
Kawardha, Rajnandgao, Durg, Kanker, Dhamtari, More than 60% area of Raipur (Sigma, Tilda, Abhanpur, Rajim, Gariaband, Deobhog, Chhura), Mahasamund (Sirpur and Mahasamund) and Korba (Pasan and Ahirpara) of Chhattisgarh plain, Northern Jagdalpur and Narayanpur (Keskal, Paralkot and Koylibera) of Bastar Plateau and Korea of Northern hill zone come under very low rain fall category.
Looking into rainfed rice situation, implication is that our future agricultural planning must take account of rainfall variability and crops and varietal selection as per this variability. Short duration but high yielding varieties need to be developed in this region and brought under cultivation for successful agriculture including weather package as an input. Information generated will be helpful in planning and refinement of crop productivity in rainfed areas of Chhattisgarh. Also another feasible strategy is to alleviate this limitation is to harvest excess rainwater in a farm pond or OFR (On Farm Reservoir) during wet season and use conserved water for crop production in both wet (as insurance against drought) and dry seasons by adopting suitable crop and cropping systems (Rathore et al. 1996).
Rainfall during Rabi season As mentioned above maximum rainfall of the state occurs in Kharif season, rainfall during Rabi season only ranges between 80 mm to 160 mms. Most part of Chhattisgarh plain, northern hill zone and northern part of Bastar plateau falls under very low rainfall (< 85 mm) during Rabi season (Fig. 3). Maximum part of western part of Northern hill zone, some part of south east and south west region of Sarguja and Jashpur district and some pats of Chhattisgarh plain comprises Near about 50% of Korba(Pali, Katghora and Piparia) and parts of Bilaspur (Achanakmar, Lormi, Kota, Tkhatpur and Ratanpur), Kawardha (Pandaria), Mahasamund (Bagbahra and Suarmar), Raipur (Chhura, Gariaband, Rasela and Mainpur), Rajnandgao (Dogergaon, Ambagarh chauki, Mohala and Manpur), Durg (Dhallirajhara and Dondi), Dhamtari (Siphonpara and Nagri), Kanker (Antagarh and Bhanupratappur) comes under low rainfall (85-100 mm) also including some parts of Bastar plateau like Jagdalpur (Parasgaon and Dongar) and Koylibera of Narayanpur district. Eastern part
CONCLUSIONS
Variability of rainfall has led to the conclusion that rainfall quantity is less in Kawardha, Rajnadgaon and Durg districts and therefore need arises for better water management in eastern zone. Rainfall pattern is determining the suitability of crops and change in cropping pattern accordingly. Further stress has been made to conserve surplus monsoonal rainfall in On Farm Reservoirs (OFRâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s) as rainfall is occurring in intense storms and utilize this rainwater for sustainable crop production and also for enhancing cropping intensity. The high potential of OFRâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s in alleviating drought and increasing productivity and stability of rainfed ricelands can have significant impacts on rice productivity and other kharif crops too.
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Gadagil, Alaka. Annual and weekly analysis of rainfall and temperature for Pune: a multiple time series approach. Inst.Indain Geographers. 8(1): (1986). Gupta, S. K., Rao, G. G. S. N. and Rajput, R. K. Rainfall characteristics and Rain water management strategy for crop production. Mausam 41: 357-264 (1990). Jagannadha Sarma V.V., Rainfall pattern in the coastal zone of Krishna Godavary basin Andhra Pradesh India. Journal of applied hydrology.Vol.XVIII.No.1&2 pp111 (2005). Parthasarthy, B. A.A. Munot and D.R. Kothawale. Regression model for estimation of Indiaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s foodgrain production from summer monsoon rainfall. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology 42: 167-182 (1988). Pishroty, P.R. Water management and
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watershed management. Wasteland News, 3(1):3-11 (1987). Rathore, A.L., Pal, A.R., Sahu, R.K. and Chaudhary J.L. On-farm rainwater and crop management for improving productivity of rainfed areas. Agricultural Watermanagement 31: 253-267 (1996) . Sikka DR. Some aspects of the life history, structure and movement of monsoon depression, Pageoph. 115: 1501â&#x20AC;&#x201C;1529 (1977). Subramaniam, A.R. and P.A.N. Raju. Rainfall variability and crop production in south coastal Andhra. Fertilizer News, 33(4): 39-49 (1988). Vennila G. Rainfall variation analysis of vattamalaikarai sub basin, Tamil Nadu. Journal of applied hydrology.Vol.XX.No.3: 5059 (2007)
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Current World Environment
Study of Indoor Air Quality of Kitchens of Rural Areaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s in Lucknow Aakanksha*1, Ratna Katiyar1 and S.K.Rastogi2 Department of Botany, Lucknow University, Lucknow- 226007, India. 2 Ex. Emeritus Scientist, I.I.T.R., Lucknow-226001, India.
1
http://dx.doi.org/10.12944/CWE.9.2.37 (Received: June 18, 2014; Accepted: July 11, 2014) Abstract Study deals with the assessment of Indoor Air Quality (IAQ) in terms of Particulate matter, Gaseous pollutants, Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAH) during domestic combustions of biofuels (i.e. Fire wood, animal dung and Crop residues) in the cooking and non-cooking area of rural kitchens of the rural suburbs of Lucknow (North India). The indoor air samples of kitchens when analyzed for various pollutants, revealed very high concentrations of CO, CO2, NO2 and SO2 in cooking area (kitchen area) as compared to non-cooking area (living area). Burning of biofuels (Fire wood, animal dung and Crop residues) produced highest emission of PAH. Increment in PAH level was found in the cooking area (kitchen area) as compared to PAH level in the non-cooking area. The concentration of PM10 in the indoor air sample was 3.7 times more than that found in the living area. Similarly, the concentration of PM2.5 was four times higher in kitchens using biomass during cooking hours.
Key words: Indoor air quality, Domestic cooking, Rural women, Biomass fuel.
Introduction In developing countries the problem of indoor air pollution is increasing at an alarming rate. In rural areas of India, the most important indoor air pollutants are combustion products of unprocessed solid biomass fuels used by the poor rural folk for domestic cooking (ICMR Bulletin, 2001). Approximately half of the worldâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s population and up to 90% of rural households in developing countries still rely on unprocessed biomass fuels such as wood, dung and crop residues (Bruce et al., 2000). A recent report of the world Health Organization (WHO, 2005) asserts the rule of 1000 which states that a pollutant released indoors is one thousand times more likely to reach peoples lung than a pollutant released outdoors. It has been estimated that about half a million women and children die each year from indoor air pollution in India (Smith, 2000). Biomass fuels viz. animal dung, crop residues and wood, which are the most hazardous fuels, are used mostly by very poor rural women for cooking. It has been
estimated that these fuels on combustion release at least 50 times more noxious pollutants than LPG (Smith, 2003). The biofuels are not burnt completely and release complex mixtures of organic compounds which include suspended particulate matter (SPM), Carbon Monoxide (CO), Poly Organic Material (POM), Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAH), and intrinsic contaminants such as sulphur, and trace metals etc. Incomplete combustion of biofuels produces CO. use of biofuels poses serious disease burden among Indians as compared to other countries (Smith, 2000). While during the use of liquid petroleum gas (LPG) a negligible amount of CO is released. A study by the National Institute of Occupational Health (NIOH, 1995) reported indoor air CO levels of 144, 156, 94, 108 and 14 mg/m3 during cooking by dung, wood, coal, kerosene and LPG respectively. The gaseous by products such as sulfur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), Ozone (O3) have been the most implicated pollutants
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found in indoor air due to combustion of biofuels (Devalia et al., 1997; Davlis et al., 2003 and Rios et al., 2004). Aim of the study was to report the findings of indoor air quality (IAQ) of the rural households using different biofuels viz. firewood, animal dung and crop residues in terms of particulate matter as the primary pollutant, gaseous and other particulate products at two sites i.e. Cooking area (kitchen area) and Non-Cooking area (living area) as most of the rural domestic cooking is done in these areas. Methodology The indoor air samples from cooking area (kitchen area) and non-cooking area (living area) were collected during cooking and non-cooking times from nearly 30 households situated in rural suburbs of Lucknow (North India). The households in the study group used earthen chullahs. Personal samplers were installed in these areas for monitoring purposes. For respirable dust measurements the samples were collected by drawing air through battery operated constant flow pumps. The concentration of PM10 in cooking area and non-cooking area were measured by portable, real time aerosol monitor (Dust Track TM, model 8520, TSI Inc, MN, USA). The apparatus contains 10 mm nylon Dor-Oliver cyclone, operates at a flow rate of 1.7 liters/minute and measures particles load in the concentration range of 10ìg-100 mg/m3. Since the biomass using women, cook in a sitting posture at 2-3 feet away from the open chullah, the monitor was placed in the breathing zone of the women cooking at 2.5 feet above the floor level on a wooden stool, 3 feet away from the chullah. Measurements of CO, CO2, PM2.5, SO2, NO2 and PAH were monitored and analyzed using HPLC/FLD (High Performance Liquid Chromatography/Fluorescent Lumen Devices) and UV (Ultraviolet) during cooking and non-cooking area of indoor air. These PAH or polynuclic aromatics (PNA) are the principal pollutants from incomplete combustion which are of special interest due to their toxicity. Results Burning of biofuels resulted indoor smoke leading to particulate pollution. The indoor air
during cooking hours showed significantly higher concentration of gaseous pollutants i.e. CO, CO2, SO2 and NO2 in the indoor air (kitchen area) during cooking hours with the highest values at breathing level is depicted in Table-1, Fig-1. High concentration of CO2 and CO release was observed in cooking area compared to NO2 and SO2 release during cooking hours. Data clearly depicts that biofuels burning released more of NO2 compared to SO2 (Fig-1). Burning of wood fuel produced the highest emission of PAH due to intensive use of biofuels for domestic combustion. The PAH level was found to be in the range 395-1157 µg/m3, compared to 62.3-127.5 µg/ m3 in outdoor air (Table-2, Fig-2). The concentration of PM10, PM2.5 in cooking as well as non-cooking area during cooking hours is depicted in Fig-3 and 4 respectively. Concentration of PM10 was significantly 3.7 times more in kitchen area as compared to non-cooking area during cooking hours (P<0.001). Even during the non cooking hours, PM10 level in cooking area was significantly more than double when compared to non-cooking area i.e. living area (736 vs. 198 ìg/m3, P<0.001) respectively. Similarly, the concentration of PM2.5 (Fig-4) in biomass using kitchen was three times significantly higher in cooking (367 vs. 121 ìg/m3, P<0.001) and two times higher in non-cooking area during cooking and non-cooking hours respectively (177 vs. 81 ìg/m3, P<0.001). The concentration of PM10 and PM2.5 during 24 hour monitoring in kitchen and living areas of rural households were found significantly different during cooking and non-cooking hours (Fig-5), including maximum concentration of smoke particles in the environment of indoor kitchens as compared to separate living area. Discussion Kitchen measurements of CO, CO2, NO2 and SO2 and the respiratory particulate matter (RSPM, 2.5ì and the ultrafine particles (UFP) (size range 0.007 to 0.1 ìm) in the indoor environment emitted by the combination of biofuels during domestic cooking used by the rural women folk studied in this survey are comparable to a number of other similar studies (Naeher et al., 2000; Smith et al., 2003; Ellegard, 2007; Dockery and Pope, 2009).
Aakanksha et al., Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(2), 525-530 (2014) Although it is difficult to fully compare the current study to the others because each deals with different cooking fuels, different sample durations, techniques and different size of the particulate pollution. The levels of classical air pollutants such as CO, CO2, NO2, and SO2 were found to be significantly higher both in the breathing zone i.e. cooking area near the chullah and also in the indoor ambient air i.e. non-cooking area during cooking using biofuels in comparison to TLVs (Threshold Limit Value) laid down by National Ambient Air Quality Standard (NAAQS, 2000), American Council Of Government Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH, 1983) and United Nation Environmental Protection (UNEP, 1997). The high concentration of these gases is considered to be the major source of respiratory and cardiac mortality among the exposed rural women, their families including new born infants. The epidemiological studies (Mac Nee et al., 2002; Mann et al., 2004; Kreuter, 2004) have shown that the inhalation of the combustible products from biomass fuels can exacerbate the outgoing disease processes in the
exposed rural women. Alarming rate of increase in PM10 and PM2.5 has been observed by several researchers which is detrimental for health of living beings. Today, the focus is on PM2.5 emission resulting from combustion and its implications for air quality and human health are linked to the major etiological factor for indoor air pollution (WHO, 2000; Akinson et al., 2001). Significantly high emission of the PAH in the Indian rural kitchens observed could be due to several factors during combustion of biofuels. The PAH are the principal pollutants , which are of special interest due to their toxicity, carcinogenicity and imposing ubiquitous pressure to the environment is primarily produced due to incomplete combustion of biofuels during domestic cooking. The other studies on PAH emission from combustion of biofuels indicated its intensive use, leading to high emission factors of PAH which is probably related to the high volatile content of biofuels, which commonly correlates to higher possibility of incomplete burning
Fig.1: Gaseous pollutants in the indoor ambient air of kitchen area and living area Table. 1: Concentration of air- borne gases (ppm) released during cooking using biofuels in rural area Cooking area Non-cooking area Pollutants (kitchen area) (living area) (ppm) CO2 CO NO2 SO2
Mean
Range
Mean
Range
12.00 ± 3.40 8.40 ± 3.30 0.90 ± 0.11 0.25 ± 0.10
9.00 - 44.50 6.80 - 31.20 0.60 - 0.99 0.21 - 0.40
8.09 ± 2.65 4.40 ± 2.10 0.10 ± 0.01 0.15 ± 0.04
6.80 - 30.40 4.00 - 18.60 0.05 - 0.21 0.12 - 0.21
Values are means of replicates ± SD.
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(Oanh et al., 2005). Poor kitchen ventilation is an important factor for high concentration of PAH in rural Indian kitchens. We found very poor kitchen ventilation in most of the rural houses surveyed by us during the study. There were no chimneys or exhausts in any of the rural kitchens. This in together with low efficiency cook stoves or chullahs and large Table. 2: Concentration of PAH (µg/m3) in cooking and non-cooking area PAH concentration (µg/m3) Mean Range
Inside the kitchen Living area (cooking area) (non-cooking area) 957.0±100.4 395.0-1157.0
157.6±24.6 62.3- 127.5
amounts of biofuels usage resulted in serious indoor air pollution thus leading to high levels of PAH (World Health Organization (WHO, 1999); United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA, 1997). High values of PAH, CO, NO2, PM were accounted at sitting breathing zone when biomass (dung cake, fuel wood and other agricultural residues) were used. This accounts for more than 90% of the total fuel consumption in rural areas, during domestic cooking. Several studies have reported that in rural houses of developing countries the PAH level was found to be in the range 100-10,000 ng/m3 (Khandpal et al., 1995; Gupta et al., 1998). The magnitude of air pollution from biomass smoke can be judged from the report that concentration of RSPM in Indian kitchens is thirty times of the WHO guideline while its outdoor concentration is two and half times of the
Values are means of replicates ± SD.
Fig.2: Mean value of PAH in Cooking Area (Kitchen Area) and Non-Cooking Area (Living Area) using biofuels in the rural kitchens.
Fig.3: Particulate Matter (PM10) in Cooking hours (Kitchen area) and Non-Cooking (Living area) in Rural kitchens using biomass.
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Fig.4: Particulate Matter (PM2.5) in rural kitchens during cooking and non-cooking hours using biomass as fuel.
Fig.5: Concentration of PM2.5 and PM10 during 24 hour monitoring in non-cooking (living area) and cooking area (kitchen area). guideline of Tata Energy Research Institute (TERI, 1997; WHO, 1999). Engle et al., (1997) observed that the people of the developing countries are typically exposed to very high levels of indoor air pollution for 3 to 4 hours a day. Since it is always the women who cook daily household meals, their exposure is much higher than menâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s (Behera et al., 2001).
It can be concluded on the basis of survey study that there is significant health risk associated with increased concentration of gaseous pollutants and suspended particulates including PAH. Our study, therefore, recommends more stringent bio monitoring studies and use of high efficiency cooking devices to cut down the emission of toxic chemicals, gases etc during combustion of biofuels in Indian rural kitchens along with better kitchen ventilation.
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ACGIH, Encyclopedia of Occupational Health and Safety. A Technical Report, New â&#x20AC;&#x201C; York, USA, 71-75 (1983). Akinson, A.E., Ball, J.C. and Lighty, J.S. Particle characteristics responsible for effects on lung. Res Health Eff Inst, 110: 67-76 (2001). Albalak, R., Keeler, G.J. and Frisancho, A.R.
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Bruce, N., Neufeld, L., and Boy, E. Indoor biofuel air pollution and respiratory health. Int. J. Epid., 27: 454-458 (2000). 6. Davelis, O., Dary, J. and Pineda, P. carbon monoxide in dwellings in poor rural areas of Gantemala. Bull Environ. Cont. Toxicol, 26: (2003). 7. Devalia, H.N., Wang, X. and Ding, H. Domestic environment and health of women and children. p 77, TERI Annual Report (1997). 8. Dockery, D.W. and Pope, C.A. Acute respiratory effects of air particulate pollution. Annu Rev Public Health. 15 : 107- 132 (2009). 9. Ellegard, A. Cooking fuel smoke and respiratory symptoms among women in low income areas of Maputo, Environ Health perspect, 104: 980-985 (2007). 10. Engle, P.L., Hurtado and Ruel, M. Smoke exposure of women and young children in highland Guatemala. Human organiz. 56 : 408-417 (1997). 11. Gupta, S., Saksena, S. and Shankar, V.R. Biomass Bioenergy. 14: 547-559 (1998). 12. ICMR Bulletin, Indoor Air pollution in India A major environmental and public health concern. 31(5) , ISSN 0377-4910, May (2001). 13. Khandpal, J.B., Maheswari, R.C. and Khandpal, T.C. Energy Convers. Manage, 36: 1067-1072 (1995). 14. Kreuter, R.O. and Hoylaerts, H.M. Particulate and gaseous emission form wood burning. Environ Sci Technol. 16 (10): 639-645 (2004). 15. MaCNee, J.D., Swartz, R.C. and Movier, G, Biomass fuel combustion and environmental Health. Bull Toxicol. 63: 11-17 (2002). 16. Mann, A., Nemar, M.F. and Hoet, P.H., Size effect of intra tracheally instilled particles on pulmonary inflammation Thrombosis, 186: 38-45 (2004). 17. NAAQS, Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB), New Delhi, India, Report No. 98: 16-21 (2000).
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Naeher, L.P., Smith, K.R. and Leaderer, B.P. Indoor and outdoor PM 2.5 and CO in high and low density Gautemalan Villages. J Exp Anal & Environ Epid. 10: 544-551 (2000). NIOH, Domestic source of air pollution and its effects on respiratory system of housewives of Ahmedabad. 32: (1995). Oanh, N.T.K., Reutergardh, L.B. and Dung, N.T. Emission of PAN and particulate matter from domestic combustion of selected fuels. Environ Sci. Technol. 33: 2703-2709 (2005). Rios, J., Vedal, S. and Pare, P. Exposure to biomass smoke and chronic airway disease in Mexican women. Am. J Respir. Crit Care Med, 154: 701-706 (2004). Smith, K.R., Indoor air pollution implicated in alarming health problems. In: Indoor Air Pollution Energy and Health for poor. News Letter, 1: (2003) Smith, K.R., Samet, J.M., Romien, I. Indoor air pollution in developing countries and acute respiratory infections in children. Thorax, 55: 518-532 (2000). TERI, Biomass Energy Systems, Ramana V., Srinivas SN, TERI, New Delhi, India (1997). UNEP, Maximum allowable concentration and safe exposure levels of harmful substances in the environment. Moscow centre for International Profeel, GKNY (1997). USEPA, Depositon of air pollutants to the Great Lakes, First Report to congress, EPA 453/ R93-055 (1997). WHO, Guidelines for Air Quality, WHO, Geneva Switzerland (1999). WHO, Indoor air pollution form Biomass fuel Report of a WHO consultations, June, WHO/ PEP/ 92.3B, Geneva, Switzerland (1999). WHO, Guidelines for Air quality WHO publications, Geneva, Switzerland (2000). WHO, Heath effects of chronic exposure to smoke from biomass fuel burning in rural areas. SE/07/11828 (2005).
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Effect of Combined Application of FYM, Fly Ash and Fertilizers on Soil Properties and Paddy Grown on Degraded Land BHARAT LAL1, VINOD NAYAK2 , PRIYANKA SHARMA3 and K. TEDIA4 PG Student, Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, IGKV , Raipur, India. 2 ,3 SRF, Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, IGKV, Raipur, India. 4 Principal Scientist, Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, IGKV , Raipur, India. 1
http://dx.doi.org/10.12944/CWE.9.2.38 (Received: June 12, 2014; Accepted: August 14, 2014) ABSTRACT A field study was carried out on a sandy loam soil at the KVK farm Janjgir Champa , Chhattisgarh to study the effect of enriched fly ash (FA) on rice and soil characteristics of inceptisol during kharif 2013-14 . The test crop was rice var. MTU-1010. The application of different treatment FA combinations increased paddy yield compared to 100% GRD. However the control treatment failed to produce the yield in degraded land. Among the treatments, the 75% GRD +60t FAha-1+5t FYMha-1 gave highest paddy yield (42.6 q ha-1) than all other treatments. The straw yield was not significantly influenced by FA treatments, but the beneficial effect of enriched fly ash on higher rice straw yield was observed. Application of 75% GRD + fly ash@ 60 t ha-1 + FYM @ 5 t ha-1 recorded the highest soil available phosphorus, potassium and zinc compared to other treatments and soilavailable N was highest in application of 75% GRD + fly ash@ 40 t ha-1 + FYM @ 5 t ha-1. The soilavailable Cu,Mn and Fe content were not significantly influenced by different combination of FYM, FA and Fertilizers. The organic carbon storage on degraded land increased significantly with the application 75% GRD + fly ash@ 60 t ha-1 + FYM @ 5 t ha-1(6043.33 kg ha-1) than the 100% GRD and control .
Key words : Fly ash, FYM, Rice, Soil properties, Yield.
INTRODUCTION Coal is a predominant source of global energy; at present in India it is major source of electrical energy in thermal power plants, which produce 175 million tonnes per year fly ash , which would require about 40,000 hectares of land for the construction of ash ponds (Lal et al., 2012). Fly ash an amorphous ferroalumino silicate, Physically fly ash occurs as fine particles ( 60-70% ) with a size below 0.075 mm is a by product of pulverized coal fired thermal power station low to medium bulk density, high surface area and very light texture with pH ranged from 4.5 to 12 depending upon S content in the coal ( Lal et al., 2012). It can act as a secondary source of fertilizer nutrients like P, K, Ca, Mg, S, Cu ,
Fe, Zn, Mn, Mo etc. (Totawat et al., 2002). Fly ash increased the yield in various crops by 20-25 % with high nutritional value and found beneficial for soil and crop when fly ash was applied on soil> 10%by weight (Yavarzadeh et al., 2012). Hence, an experiment was conducted with the objective to find out the effect of enriched fly ash on soil health , growth and yield in degraded land. MATERIALS AND METHODS A field experiment was conducted in a sandy loam soil at the KVK Research Farm, Janjgir Champa,Chhattisgarh during the kharifse as on, 2013-14. The experiment design was randomized block design comprised of eight
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treatment combinations with three levels of fly ash (20, 40 and 60t ha-1) and two levels of FYM ( 0 and 5 t ha-1). Fly ash and FYM applied as per the treatments before transplanting the rice. All the plots received the 75 percent of general recommended dose (GRD)of NPK fertilizers (100-60-40 kg ha-1) except control and 100 percent GRD. Thericevar .MTU-1010 was used as the test crop. The fly ashwas collected from Madhya Bharat Paper Ltd. Village – Birgahni Champa Dist.- Janjgir Champa ,Chhattisgarh . The nutrient contents of used FYM and Fly ash applied in the experiment was given in Table 1. Table 1: Chemical properties of FYM and FA used in experiment Particulars
FYM
FA
Organic carbon ( %) N (%) P (%) K (%) Fe (%) Mn (%) Zn (%) Cu (%)
5.07 0.92 0.239 0.361 0.55 0.12 0.009 0.005
0.36 0.084 0.043 0.33 0.73 0.016 0.007 0.003
FYM = Farm Yard Manure , FA = Fly ash
The effect of different treatments was evaluated in terms of soil available major and micro nutrients at crop harvest and the crop yield. Available nitrogen was estimated by alkaline potassium permanganate method (Subbaiah and Asija, 1956). Available phosphorus content was extracted by Olsen’sreagent and determined by ascorbic acid method (Watanabe and Olsen, 1965). Available potassium was extracted by using neutral normal ammonium acetate (Muhr et al.,1965) and determined by flame photometer. Organic carbon was determined by Walkley and Black rapid titration method as described by Piper (1957) and storage calculate 0-10 cm depth of soil with having bulk density. Available micronutrients (DTPA extractable) Fe, Mn, Cuand Zn were analyzed by DTPA method using atomic absorption spectrophotometer (Lindsayand Norvell, 1978). RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The soil belongs to sandy loam texture and the soil status was low in available nitrogen , phosphorus and high in potassium (Table 3). The soil available micronutrients were above the critical limits except for Zn (Table 4). The control plots failed to produce the yield due to very low N and P status of soil (fig. 1 and Table 2, 3).The application of different treatment combinations except 75% GRD + 20t Fly ash ha-1 with and without FYM increased
Table 2: Effect of combined application of FYM , FA and fertilizers on grain and straw yield of rice Treatments T1 - Control T2 - 100% GRD (100:60:40) T3 - 75% GRD + 20 t FA ha-1 T4 - 75% GRD + 40 t FA ha-1 T5 - 75% GRD + 60 t FA ha-1 T6 - 75% GRD + 20 t FA ha-1 + 5 t FYM ha-1 T7 - 75% GRD + 40 t FA ha-1 + 5 t FYM ha-1 T8 - 75% GRD + 60 t FA ha-1 + 5 t FYM ha-1 SEm± C.D. ( P = 0.05)
Grain yield (q ha-1) 0.00 31.67 26.83 33.67 31.83 28 37.67 42.67 2.05 6.22
Straw yield (q ha-1) 10 47.50 44.83 46.33 41.50 47 49.42 51.50 1.74 5.30
FA = fly ash, FYM = farm yard manure and GRD = general recommended dose of N, P and K
LAL et al., Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(2), 531-535 (2014) the grain yield compared to General recommended dose (GRD). The highest grain yield (42.6 q ha-1) was recorded by application of 75% GRD + 60 t
533
FAha-1 + 5 t FYMha-1 , which was at par with 75% GRD+ 40 t FAha-1+5t FYMha-1. Thus application of fly ash not only increased the paddy yield by 30%
Fig. 1 : Effect of different fly ash treatments on crop growth Table 3 :Effect of combined application of FYM , FA and fertilizers on available major nutrients and organic carbon storage of soil at harvest. Treatments
Available major nutrients ( kg ha-1 ) Nitrogen
T1 - Control T2 - 100% GRD (100:60:40) T3 - 75% GRD + 20 t FA ha-1 T4 - 75% GRD + 40 t FA ha-1 T5 - 75% GRD + 60 t FA ha-1 T6 - 75% GRD + 20 tFA ha-1 + 5t FYM ha-1 T7 - 75% GRD + 40 tFA ha-1 + 5t FYM ha-1 T8 - 75% GRD + 60 tFA ha-1 + 5t FYM ha-1 initial SEmÂą C.D. ( P = 0.05)
109 135.89 135.89 137.98 133.80 137.98 139.89 137.80 107.40 2.13 6.46
Phosphorus
Potassium
0.74 1.16 1.28 1.43 1.22 1.28 1.37 1.52 0.80 0.043 0.13
550.36 580.49 562.01 576.57 565.37 569.93 600.06 616.09 549.81 12.03 36.5
SOC Storage C ( kg ha-1 ) 5045.33 5188.67 5457.33 5346.67 4728.00 5484.00 5776.33 6043.33 4710 126.22 382.84
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LAL et al., Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(2), 531-535 (2014) Table 4 : Effect of combined application of FYM , FA and fertilizers on available micronutrients
Treatments Soil available micronutrients ( mg kg-1) Iron Manganese Zinc Copper T1 - Control T2 - 100% GRD (100:60:40) T3 - 75% GRD + 20 t FA ha-1 T4 - 75% GRD + 40 t FA ha-1 T5 - 75% GRD + 60 t FA ha-1 T6 - 75% GRD + 20 t FA ha-1 + 5t FYM ha-1 T7 - 75% GRD + 40 tFA ha-1 + 5 t FYMha-1 T8 - 75% GRD + 60 t FA ha-1 +5 t FYMha-1 Initial SEmÂą C.D. ( P = 0.05)
7.63 8.63 9.43 9.86 8.74 9.63 10.07 11.02 8.09 0.79 NS
but also saved the 25% of NPK fertilizer. The straw yield was significantly higher in different treatments over control and further combinationof fly ash with or without FYM was found similar to GRD but showed at most 8.42% increased in straw yield. The supply of nutrients, conductive to physical environment leading to better aeration, root activity and nutrient absorption and the consequent complementary effect by fly ash application with organic and inorganic fertilizer would have resulted in higher grain and straw yield of rice this finding are in conformity with that of Reddy et al .,(2010) . The beneficial effect of fly ash on yield was also reported by Aggarwal et al.(2009) in wheat and sorghum and by Arivazhagan et al. (2011) in rice , wheat , maize , ragi. An increase in soil available major and micronutrients status ondegraded soil was observed (Table 3 and 4). The soil available N status was significantly higher by the application of the treatments over control. The soil test Phosphorus was significantly higher under the combined treatment over 100% GRD and control, the treatments 75% GRD + 60t FAha-1 + 5t FYM ha-1 and 75% GRD+ 40 t FAha-1 + 5 t FYMha-1 showed higher soil test P compared to GRD . Similarly in different FA combination treatments 75 % GRD + 60t FAha-1 + 5t FYM ha-1and 75% GRD+ 40 t FAha-1 + 5 t FYMha-1over GRD showed higher available K status in soil, further the fly ash when combined with organic and chemical fertilizer showed remarkable increase in soil available K over 100% GRD . The
8.35 9.11 10.61 10.94 10.20 9.71 11.77 12.75 9.72 1.0 4 NS
0.70 0.74 0.82 1.21 1.13 1.24 1.30 1.42 0.68 0.12 0.38
0.38 0.39 0.56 0.82 0.52 0.62 0.90 0.92 0.43 0.13 NS
organic carbon storage was increased with the combination of treatments and was maximum in 75% GRD + 60t FAha-1 + 5t FYM ha-1(6063.33 kg ha-1 ) as compare to GRD and control . The application of 75% GRD + 60 t FAha-1 + 5 t FYMha-1 has recorded higher available Zn as compare to 100% GRD and control ( Table 4) . The Fe , Mn and Cu content was not influenced by the different combination of treatments. The increase in soil available major nutrients status due to fly ash application was reported by Khanet al. (2008) and Ramet al. (2011) the increase in available major nutrients except K concluded by Dey et al. (2012). The organic carbon was increased application of FA and FYM reported by Karmakar et al., (2009). The beneficial effect of fly ash on improvement of soil health in respect of physico-chemical parameters, nutritional status and microbial population may be due to the cumulative effect of improvement in individual physico-chemical characteristics ( Yeledhalli et al.,2008). ACKNOWLEDGEMENT The authors are grateful to the Head and advisor Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, College of Agriculture, IGKV, Raipur for providing Laboratory facilities and co-operation of Krishi Vigyan Kendra , Janjgir Champa is also acknowledged.
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Current World Environment
Physico-Chemical Analysis of Municipal Wastewater Discharge in Ganga River, Haridwar District of Uttarakhand, India Saba Shirin1, 2* and Akhilesh Kumar Yadav1, 2 Department of Mining Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology (Banaras Hindu University), Varanasi – 221 005, India. 2 Civil Engineering Department, Madan Mohan Malaviya Engineering College, Gorakhpur – 273 010 (U.P.), India. 1
http://dx.doi.org/10.12944/CWE.9.2.39 (Received: May 21, 2014; Accepted: June 25, 2014) Abstract This study was aimed to screen the water quality of Ganga River in Haridwar city, Uttarakhand, India. The study was conducted based on their water source, origin of pollution such as utilisation by human and animals. Monthly changes in physico-chemical parameters such as pH, Temperature, Total Dissolved Solids, Total Solids, Total Suspended Solids, Chemical Oxygen Demand, Dissolved oxygen, Biochemical Oxygen Demand and Volatile Suspended Solids were analyzed for a period of two year from January 2010 to December 2011.The results of this study reveal the status of water quality of Ganga River it may helpful to protect the water resources and create awareness about the water pollution among the people living around the city. The results indicated that physico-chemical parameters of the water were within the permissible limits.
Key words: TDS; COD; BOD; TSS; VSS; Water Quality.
Introduction
The wastewater pollutants are harmful to environment and public health. The biological decomposition of organics could result in fish kills and foul odours. Water borne diseases are also eliminated through proper wastewater treatment. There are many pollutants that could exhibit toxic effects on aquatic life and the public.The wastewater treatment is removal of contaminants from water in order to decrease the possibility of detrimental in part on the ecosystem including humans (Zhang, et al., 2010). The major port of the soluble BOD contained in the primary effluent. The chemical contamination of water sources due to certain industries or from natural sources (Wang, et al., 2004). High turbidity can inhibit the effects of disinfection against micro-organisms and enable bacterial growth. Drinking water should be colourless,
since drinking water colouration may be due to the presence of coloured organic matter. Organic substances cause water odour, though odours may result from many factors, including biological activity and industrial pollution also microbial pathogens cause health hazards (Mahananda, et al., 2010). The present study was under aken in Haridwaron Ganga Rive rto analyze water quality parameters of municipal wastewater discharge of various sources. Material and methods Study Area Haridwar is one of the important tourism of Uttarakhand. It is situated on the right bank of river Ganga and at the foot hills of Shivalik ranges. It is located at 29°58' N of latitude and 78°10' E of longitude. It is one of the most ancient towns and a very important pilgrim centre of India where people from all over the country come round the year to
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have a dip in the river Ganga on an average around two lakh people visit this city daily. It is closely inter woven with culture and tradition and the health, and years the river has been indiscriminately polluted. The study area is showing in the Fig. 1. Important religious centre, Haridwar has gained its importance as an industrial town with the establishment of Bharat Heavy Electrical Limited (BHEL) at Ranipur. Adjoining to the BHEL, SIDCUL has also developed a big industrial area for 550 industries out of which about 350 units are in the process of installation where as about 150 units has started their production. Few important industries planed in study area i.e., Hindustan Lever Limited, Mahindra and Mahindra, ITC, Hero Honda, Calvin care, Somani, Eveready, Hevell’s India, etc. The above planed industries are located at 10 km from Haridwar toward Delhi.
then sterilized in an autoclave at 15 lbs pressure, (121 oC) for 15 to 25 minutes. Pipettes of different volume size were washed and fitted with cotton plug at the upper end, these were then wrapped in butter paper and sterilized in an autoclave at 15 lbs pressure at 121oC for 15-20 minutes. Petridishes were washed and then sterilization in an oven at (160 oC - 180 oC) for 1 to 2 minutes. Physico-chemical analysis The samples were analyzed using the Standard Methods (APHA, AWWA, and WCF 1998). The primary parameter Total suspended solids (TSS), Dissolved oxygen (DO), 5-day Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD5), Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD), chlorides and sulphates, the ratio of COD to BOD5; while secondary parameters are, covering physical, chemical, and biochemical properties of the wastewater.
Sampling and Analysis Collection of Samples The experimental method involved the collection of grab samples in clean plastic containers of 5 liter capacity at four different locations inlet chamber (before treatment), primary clarifiers, c-tech basin and outlet chamber (after treatment) on a weekly basis for two years (January 2010 – December 2011). Total n=114 samples were collected. Sample were collected from the depth of 6 inches below the water surface in throughly cleaned plastic containers of 5 liters capacity provided with the double cap device. Opening and keeping the mouth of the container against the flow of water collected it. The plastic containers was cleaned by 25% vw HNO3 (kept in 24 hours) and rinsed with double distilled water 2 - 3 times.The preservation procedure includes keeping the samples in the dark, adding chemical preservative, lowering the temperature to retard reactions or combinations of these. The preservation methodologies are given the Table 1.
Temperature of water was measured using centigrade thermometer. The turbidity of water was measured with the help of “Jackson’s Candle Turbidity meter”. Total solids is the term applied to the material residue left in the vessel after evaporation of the sample and its subsequent drying in an oven at a temperature of 103 -105oC. Total solids include Total Suspended Solids (TSS), and Total Dissolved Solids (TDS). Dissolved solids are solids that are in dissolved state in solution. Waters with high dissolved solids generally are of inferior palatability and may induce an unfavourable physiological reaction in the transient consumer. Electronic digital pH meter measured the pH of the water sample. The dissolved oxygen was determined using Winkler’s titrimetric method. The samples were incubated for 5 days at 20°C to measure BOD, COD of the sample is determined by oxidizing the organic matter in the sample with potassium dichromate in the presence of strong acid. Alkalinity of the sample was determined by titrating with standard solution of mineral acid using pH indicators i.e., Phenolphthalein, methyl orange, Chloride and Sulphite.
For BOD, the capacity of 300 ml of sample was used in BOD bottle made by Borrosil. These were washed with chromic acid and washing soda and rinsed with tap water followed by double distilled water, the neck and stopper were wrapped with butte paper with the help of rubber band. The bottles were
Results and Discussion The outline of the analysis of data in respect of Municipal Wastewater Discharge in Ganga River, Haridwar district of Uttarakhand, India are discussed here –
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Concentration and Variation of Physico Chemical parameter of municipal wastewater Table. 1: Preservation methodologies of wastewater quality parameter Experiment Preservative holding Biochemical Oxygen Demand Chloride Chemical Oxygen Demand Dissolved Oxygen pH Phosphorus
Max. time
Cool, 4°C
4 hours
Cool, 4°C Cool, 4°C
7 days 24 hours
Fix on site None -
6 hours 6 hours -
Hydrogen ion concentration (pH) The p H is a measure of the hydrogen ion concentration in water and indicates whether the water is acidic or alkaline. The measurement of acidity of p H is required to determine the corrosiveness of the water. The pH values were vary from 7.08 - 7.31 (Table 2). Monthly variation of pH in Municipal wastewater is shown in the Fig. 2. The standard alkalinity and values of pH for drinking water by BIS is between 6.5 - 8.5 as well as WHO standard range 7.0 - 8.5. High value of pH may results due to waste discharge, microbial decomposition of organic matter in the water body (Patil, et al., 2012). All observe samples have pH values well within the
Table 2: Physico-Chemical properties of Municipal Wastewater Discharge in Ganga River, Haridwar Parameters Flow Rate (MLD) pH Temperature0C Total Dissolved Solids (mg/l) Total Solids (mg/l) Total suspended solids (mg/l) Chemical Oxygen Demand (mg/l) Dissolved oxygen (mg/l) Biochemical Oxygen Demand (mg/l) Volatile Suspended Solids (mg/l)
Range
Average
41.0 – 60.0 7.08 – 7.31 16.0 – 27.5 376.0 – 484.0 103.1 – 688.1 276.0 – 366.0 276.0 – 392.0 6.03 – 7.24 83.0 – 167.0 100.0 – 200.0
53.53 ± 4.97 7.26 ± 0.05 19.35 ± 2.26 426.63 ± 23.15 336.86 ± 149.53 311.65 ± 18.81 339.16 ± 21.12 6.68 ± 0.34 148.69 ± 14.17 153.01 ± 20.40
Skewness Kurtosis -0.42 -1.50 1.50 0.08 0.68 0.33 -0.48 -0.06 -2.80 -0.63
-0.86 1.91 2.89 -0.11 -0.32 0.04 0.77 -1.11 9.60 -0.18
Table. 3: Correlation Coefficient (r) among physico-chemical parameters of Municipal Wastewater Discharge in Ganga River, Haridwar Flow Rate pH T TDS TS TSS COD DO BOD VSS
Flow Rate pH
T TDS TS TSS
COD
DO BOD VSS
1.00 -0.10 1.00 0.05 -0.55 1.00 0.22 0.05 -0.05 1.00 0.13 0.02 -0.08 -0.05 1.00 0.01 0.19 -0.03 0.10 -0.02 1.00 0.10 -0.11 0.08 0.20 -0.21 0.19 1.00 -0.10 -0.08 0.02 -0.17 -0.04 -0.11 0.06 1.00 0.10 -0.08 0.11 0.24 -0.14 0.16 0.64 0.05 1.00 -0.16 -0.21 0.17 0.11 -0.47 -0.11 0.10 0.05 0.22
Critical value for 2-tailed test is 0.164 at 95% CI (n=100)
1.00
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prescribed limit BIS as well WHO (BIS, 1982 and WHO, 1993). Temperature (T) The temperature is one of the most important ecological factor which controls the physiological behaviour and distribution of the organisms. The catabohc energy released in the form of heat during the decomposition of organic matter and respiration also slightly added to the temperature. In the present study water temperature values ranged from 16.0 to 27.5 °C (Table 2). From the Fig. 3 shows that the monthly variation of temperature. Total dissolved solids (TDS) TDS value of 500 mg.l-1 as the desirable limit and 2000 mg.l-1 as the maximum permissible limits (Jain, et al., 2003). In the present study, it is found that almost all samples have TDS values well within the prescribed standard. Total dissolved solids value observed to be 426.63 ± 23.15 mg.l-1 (Table 2 and Fig. 4). Total Solids (TS) Total Solids is the total matter that is left behind after drying a sample of water at 105°C. Total solids may be separated into several different fractions. The two primary ways fractions are
established or classified is dissolved or suspended and fixed or volatile. In study period, the TS were observed to be 336.86 ± 149.53 mg.l-1 (Table 2 and Fig. 5). Total suspended solids (TSS) TSS is an impor tant parameter for designing wastewater treatment plant and the length of time for which wastewater should be retained for primary treatment. Suspended solid do not mean that they are floating matters and remain on top of water layer. They are under suspension and remain in water sample. Total suspended solids play an important role in water and wastewater treatment. Their presence in water sample cause depletion of oxygen level. The value for TSS are shown in Table 2 and variation shows in the Fig. 6. The TSS were observed to be 311.65 ± 18.81 mg.l-1. Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) COD test is commonly used to indirectly measure the amount of organic compounds in water. Most applications of COD determine the amount of organic pollutants found in surface water making COD a useful measure of water quality which indicates the mass of oxygen consumed per litre of solution. COD were vary from 276.0 - 392.0 (339.16 ± 21.12) mg.l-1 (Table 2). All the water samples
Fig. 1: Map of Study Area
Shirin & Yadav et al., Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(2), 536-543 (2014)
Fig. 2: Graph showing Monthly variation of pH
Fig. 3: Graph showing Monthly variation of Temperature
Fig. 4: Graph showing Monthly variation of Total Dissolved Solids
Fig. 5: Graph showing Monthly variation of Total Solids
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analyzed in the present study had COD content within the prescribed limits and shown in the Fig. 7 (BIS, 1982 and WHO, 1993). Dissolved Oxygen (DO) Dissolved oxygen is important parameter in water quality assessment and biological processes prevailing in the water. The DO values indicate the degree of pollution in the water bodies. It depends on factors like temperature of water. DO values were found to be 6.68 Âą 0.34 (6.03 - 7.24) mg.l-1 as well as monthly variation of Dissolved Oxygen is shown in the Fig. 8 (Table 2).
Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) Biochemical Oxygen Demand is nothing but the amount of oxygen utilized by microorganisms to stabilize the organic matter. BOD determines the strength of sewage, effluents and other polluted waters and provides data on the pollution load in all natural waters. It is most commonly expressed in milligrams of oxygen consumed per litre of sample during 5 days of incubation at 20°C and is often used as a robust surrogate of the degree of organic pollution of water. BOD can be used as a gauge of the effectiveness of wastewater treatment plants. In the study period BOD were vary from 83.0 - 167.0
Fig. 6: Graph showing Monthly variation of Total Suspended Solids
Fig. 7: Graph showing Monthly variation of Chemical Oxygen Demand
Fig. 8: Graph showing Monthly variation of Dissolved Oxygen
Shirin & Yadav et al., Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(2), 536-543 (2014) mg.l-1 which is within the permissible range (Figure 8) and statistical data analysis is given in the Table 2 (BIS, 1982 and WHO, 1993). All the water samples analyzed in the present study has BOD content within the prescribed limits. Volatile Suspended Solids The suspended solids associated with volatile fraction are termed volatile suspended solids (VSS). In the study area, the volatile suspended solids were measure to be 153.01 ± 20.40 mg.l-1 as well as statistical analysis given in the Table 2. The monthly variation of volatile is shown in the Fig.10. Correlation coefficient relationship among different physico-chemical parameters In the present study, the correlation coefficient (r) between each parameters pairs in computed by taking the average values as shown in Table 3. Correlation coefficient (r) between any two parameters are calculated for parameter such as water Flow Rate, p H, Temperature 0C, Total Dissolved Solids, Total Solids, Total Suspended Solids, Chemical Oxygen Demand, Dissolved oxygen, Biochemical Oxygen Demand and Volatile Suspended Solids of Municipal Wastewater
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Discharge in Ganga River, Haridwar. The degree of line association between any two of the water quality parameters as measured by the simple correlation coefficient (r) is presented in Table-2 as 10×10 correlation matrix. The water pH has found to be show positively correlated with Total Suspended Solids while Volatile Suspended Solids negatively correlated with pH. Temperature has been correlated with Volatile Suspended Solids. The Total Dissolved Solids has been found to show positive correlation with Chemical Oxygen Demand, Biochemical Oxygen Demand while Dissolved oxygen negatively correlated. There is a strong positive correlation (r=0.64) between Chemical Oxygen Demand and Biochemical Oxygen. Biological oxygen demand showed significant positive correlation Volatile Suspended Solids. The p H and Temperature showed a highly significant negative correlation (r=”0.55). Data is the mean value of weekly collected samples. Conclusion In the present study, All analysed samples for physical and chemical properties of municipal wastewater discharge in Ganga River was found
Fig. 9: Graph showing Monthly variation of Biochemical Oxygen Demand
Fig. 10: Graph showing Monthly variation of Volatile Suspended Solids
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to be within desirable limits by various agencies. Therefore, the present study, Based on scientific methodology clearly shows that the said study sites can be easily treated for further used and however it is suggested to monitor the same regularly for sustainable usage.
Acknowledgement The authors express their sincere thanks to Er. Mohd. Irfan Ansari and Mohd. Auranzeb Ansari for their encouragement and support during the study.
Reference
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BIS, IS: 2490 Standards for Industrial and Sewage effluents discharge, Bureau of Indian standards, New Delhi (1982). Jain C. K, C. P Kumar, Sharma M. K., Ground water qualities of Ghataprabha command area Karnataka, Indian. Journal of Environment and Ecoplanning, 7(2), 251-262 (2003). Mahananda M. R., Mohanty B. P., Behera N. R., Physico-chemical analysis of surface and ground water of Bargarh district, Orissa, India. IJRRAS, 2(3), 284-295 (2010). Patil S. G., Chonde S. G., Jadhav A. S., Raut P. D., Impact of Physico-Chemical Characteristics of Shivaji University lakes on Phytoplankton Communities, Kolhapur, India,
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Research Journal of Recent Sciences 1(2), 56-60 (2012). Wang Y. C., Peng Y. A., Li Y. M., The characteristics of water pollution and engineering-oriented prevention on Dianchi. Areal Research and Development 23, 88â&#x20AC;&#x201C;92 (2004). WHO, World Health Organization, Guidelines for drinking water quality-I, Recommendations, 2nd Ed. Geneva (1993). Zhang L. Y., Zhang L., Liu Y. D., Shen Y. W., Liu H., Xiong Y., Effect of limited artificial aeration on constructed wetland treatment of domestic wastewater. Desalination 250(3), 915-920 (2010).
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Current World Environment
The Potential Use of Arbuscular Mycorrhiza in the Cultivation of Medicinal Plants in Barak Valley, Assam: A Review Dhritiman Chanda1, G.D. Sharma2, D.K. Jha3 and Mohamed Hijri4 Microbiology Laboratory, Department of Life Sciences and Bioinformatics, Assam University,Silchar,India. 2 Vice-Chancellor, Bilaspur University, Chattisgarh, India. 3 Department of Botany, Gauhati University, Guwahati, India.
1
4
Institut De Recherche En Biologie Vegetale, University De Montreal, Montreal, Canada. http://dx.doi.org/10.12944/CWE.9.2.40 (Received: Feburary 26, 2014; Accepted: April 06, 2014) ABSTRACT
AM fungi are widespread and are found from arctic to tropics in most agricultural and natural ecosystems. They play an important role in plant growth, health and productivity. They increase seedling tolerance to drought, high temperatures, toxic heavy metals, high or low pH and even extreme soil acidity. The cultivation of medicinal and herbal plants has assumed greater importance in recent years due to their tremendous potential in modern and traditional medicine. They are also used as raw materials for pharmaceutical, cosmetic and fragrance industries. Indian system of medicine (ISM) uses 25,000 species belonging to more than 1000 genera. About 25% species are used by the industries. The Barak Valley is the southernmost part of the Assam and consists of three districts namely Cachar, Karimganj and Hailakandi. Different tribes staying here are directly using of medicinal plants for the treatments of different ailments. Comparatively very less attention has been given for the conservation of some of these rare and endangered medicinal plants which are extensively used by the tribes of Assam. So, AM fungi can play an effective role in the conservation of some valuable medicinal plants where Glomus sp. was found to be widely used for the increase yield of important medicinal plants. This review summarizes the data from recent studies to elucidate the potential use of AM fungi for promoting growth and disease resistance in medicinal plants found in southern part of Assam, which in turn provide a natural enhancer for the commercial production of traditional drugs from various important plants.
Key words: Arbuscular mycorrhiza; Medicinal plants; Traditional drugs, Barak Valley, Bioremediation. Introduction Arbuscular Mycorrhizal(AM) fungi interact either directly with other soil organisms or they may influence these organisms indirectly by affecting host physiology that could change root morphology, physiology and patterns of exudation into the mycorrhizosphere. Mycorrhizae form mutualistic symbiotic relationships with plant roots of more than 80% of land plants including many important crops and forest tree species 1, 2. Seven kinds of mycorrhiza: arbutoid mycorrhiza, ectomycorrhiza, endomycorrhiza or arbuscular mycorrhiza, ect-
endomycorrhiza, ericoid mycorrhiza, monotropoid mycorrhiza, and orchidoid mycorrhiza have been recognized 3-5 . However, AM fungi are most commonly found in the rhizosphere roots of a wide range of herbaceous and woody plants 6. The plant roots provide substances for the fungi and the fungi transfer nutrients and water to the plant roots 7, 8. Endomycorrhizal fungi are inter and intracellular and penetrate the root cortical cells and form finger like branched structures called arbuscule and vesicles to be known as vesicular arbuscular mycorrhiza (VAM). In some cases no vesicles
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are formed and they are known as arbuscular mycorrhiza (AM) 9 .Arbuscular Mycorrhiza (AM) mycobionts forming symbiosis with approximately 90% (>200000) of the terrestrial plant communities. They are essential components of soil biota and are found in almost all ecological situations particularly those supporting plant communities with high species diversity 10 .So far more than 170 species of AM fungi have been recorded and described 11 .AM fungi belong to nine genera: Acaulospora, Archaeospora, Enterophospora, Gerdemannia, Geosiphon, Gigaspora, Glomus, Paraglomus, and Scutellospora 12, 13. Benefits of AM fungi with the host plant AM fungi are a widespread group and are found from the arctic to tropics and are present in most agricultural and natural ecosystems. They play an important role in plant growth, health and productivity 14. AM fungi help plants to absorb nutrients, especially the less available mineral nutrients such as copper, molybdenum, phosphorus and zinc 15.They increase seedling tolerance to drought, high temperatures, toxic heavy metals, high or low pH and even extreme soil acidity 8, 16. AM fungi can reduce the severity of soil-borne pathogens and enhance resistance in roots against root rot disease 17, 18 . Competition between mycorrhizal fungi and pathogenic fungi of the same root tissues and production of fungistatic compounds results in protection of mycorrhizal seedlings 19, 20. AM fungi have been shown to have benefits to host plants by increasing herbivore tolerance, pollination, soil stability, and heavy metal tolerance. The use of AM fungi as biofertilizers is not new, they have been produced for the use in agriculture, horticulture, landscape restoration, and soil remediation for almost two decades 21. Mass production of AM fungi has been achieved with several species such as Acaulospora laevis, Glomus. clarum, G. etunicatum, G. intraradices, G. mosseae, Gigaspora ramisporophora and Gigaspora rosea but Glomus intraradices is the most common inoculum of endomycorrhizae products 22..Effective management of AM fungi involves increasing population of propagules such as spores, colonized root fragments and hyphae using host plants and also by adoption soil management techniques 1, 23.
The traditional medicinal plants and the use of AM fungi The cultivation of medicinal and herbal plants has assumed greater importance in recent years due to their tremendous potential in modern and traditional medicine. They are also used as raw materials for pharmaceutical, cosmetic and fragrance industries. Indian system of medicine (ISM) uses 25,000 species belonging to more than 1000 genera. About 25% species are used by the industries .The criteria for selecting AM fungi will depend on the climate soil and host medicinal plants. The AM fungi must 1) colonize roots rapidly after inoculation, 2) absorb phosphate from the soil, 3) transfer phosphorus to the plant, 4) increase plant growth, 5) persist in soil and reestablish mycorrhizal symbiosis during the following seasons and 6) form propagules that remain viable during and after inoculum production 24. Inoculation of AM fungi during an early stage of acclimatization process has become an alternative strategy for better establishment by improving the plant growth. The AM fungal association had not only enhanced the growth of medicinal plants but also improved the productivity of medicinal compounds. Hence, there is a need for research in improving the quality and quantity of drugs produced from native medicinal plants in relatively shorter period and at lower expense by using AM fungi 25. AM fungi are also responsible for enhanced uptake of mineral nutrients especially phosphorus from the soil by the host plants and thereby enhancing vigor 26. Traditional herbal medicines are increasingly being used not only by the developing countries but also by the developed countries in their primary health care system. A bulk of our rural population relies on the drug resources of plant origin. Thus, the cultivation of medicinal plants is increasing steadily to maintain a regular supply and to support their increasing demand. But corresponding research works on the occurrence of AM fungi and their associations in medicinal plants have received very little attention as compared to the studies on forest species and field crops. Out of 150 naturally growing and frequently used medicinal plants, 24 plant species have been found to be on extinction due to over-exploitation for medicinal purposes, particularly
Chanda et al., Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(2), 544-551 (2014) used by local tribes of Barak Valley. Among various medicinal plants, Cassia fistula, C. tora, Caeselpinea pulcherima, Melastoma malabatricum, Acacia nilotica, Shorea robusta, Artocarpus sp., Tectona grandis, Dillenia pentagyna ,Albezzia lebbeck are very important medicinal plants which are necessary to conserve for their various traditional as well as commercial medicinal values (Table 1) 27. Thus,it is essential to have a proper use of AM fungi in the cultivation of medicinal plants and thus to develop a protocol for traditional drugs in pharmaceutical, cosmetic and fragrance industries.
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Interaction of AM fungi with the Medicinal Plants Mycorrhizal colonization resulted in increased accumulation of nutrients, chlorophyll, carotenoids, sugars and proteins. This was further confirmed from the presence of spores belonging to different VAM fungal species in the rhizosphere soils. VAM inoculation significantly increased the uptake of N, P and, but most markedly increased of P uptake. The effects of inoculation with vesicular arbuscular mycorrhizal (VAM) fungus Glomus fasciculatum on the root colonization, growth, essential oil yield and nutrient acquisition in three cultivars of menthol mint
Table 1: Traditional uses of some Medicinal important plants of Barak Valley27 Plant
Family
Achyranthes aspera Amaranthaceae Cassia fistula Fabaceae Caesalpinia Caesalpiniaceae pulcherrima Acacia nilotica Fabaceae Dillenia pentagyna Dilleniaceae Tectona grandis Verbenaceae Melastoma Melastomaceae melabatrricum Terminalia arjuna Combretaceae Rauvolfia serpentina Apocynaceae Artocarpus chama Moraceae
Uses Leaf juice extract used internally in otorrh ea, young twig paste used as bandage in external wounds and injury. The leaves are employed there for erysipelas, malaria, rheumatism, and ulcers. In Brazilian herbal medicine, the seeds are used as a laxative and the leaves and bark is used for pain and inflammation. Plant pacifies vitiated kapha, pitta, fever, jaundice, colic, flatulence, malignant tumors. It is a proven anti-cancerous drug. Acts as an astringent and It is used to treat diarrhoea, dysentery, and leprosy. Bark and root decoction, said to impart courage, even aphrodisia, and the root is said to cure impotence. The bruised leaves are poultice and used to treat ulcers. Plants are used in the treatment of anal fistula, wounds, diabetes, diabetic carbuncle, neuritis, pleurisy, pneumonia, and burning sensation. Plants are used for inflammation, burning sensation, skin diseases, diabetes, stomatitis, ulcers, hemorrhages, urinary retention, kidney diseases, urinary calculi and arthritis. The seeds are used to produce a black dye, the roots, a pink dye Traditionally, Leaves are used to treat diarrhoea and dysentery wash for ulcers, to prevent scarring from smallpox and to treat piles. Bark,young stem & leaf extract is used as cardiotonic, in high blood pressure and liver complaints. Leaf juice is used for curing and controlling high blood pressure. Bark extract used in jaundice; dried fruit powder is used in stomach troubles.
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(Mentha arvensis); Kalka, Shivalik and Gomti was found significantly higher as observed by different workers 28. It was clearly evident from the data as discussed by different workers that the root systems of all medicinal plant species grown in both control and VAM fungus infested soils were invariably found to harbour VAM association. The VAM colonization and growth response of G. fasciculatum was observed in all the four medicinal plants .In the VAM inoculated plants, the percentage of VAM associations were observed significantly higher than the control one. In the inoculated plants, the percent VAM association were significantly higher
from 10 to 65; 20 to 85%, 12 to 58%; 15 to 75% in the tested plants O.Sanctum, Catharanthus roseus; Coleus forskholii and Cympbopogon flexuosus respectively 25. The Mycorrhizal root intensity of Vesicles and arbuscules were also recorded higher in the inoculated plants than the control ones (Table 2) 29,30. Medicinal plants inoculated with VAM fungus have shown improved growth and development as compared to control plants. The significant increase was observed not only in AM colonization but also in biomass production (dry wt. of root and shoot) due to inoculation with Glomus fasciculatum in all the four medicinal plants. The root and shoot
Table 2: Intensity of VAM formation of some medicinal plants with Glomus fasciculatum 25 Plant
Control plants VAM inoculated plants
% VAM
VAM status Intensity % of formation
% VAM
Intensity % of formation
association Vesicles Arbuscules association Vesicles Arbuscules
Ocimum sanctum Catharanthus roseus Coleus forskholii Cympbopogon flexuosus
10+1.5 20+1.5 12+0.5 15+1.0
12+0.75 20+0.5 10+0.5 19+0.5
10+1.0 12+0.5 8+1.5 11+0.5
65+1.0 85+2.5 58+1.5 75+3.5
60+1.5 70+1.5 58+1.5 65+1.5
40+2.0 30+1.5 42+2.5 35+2.5
Values are mean of three replicates Âą SD. Table 3: Effect of G. fasciculatum inoculation on the shoot and root weight dry protein content and total chlorophyll of medicinal plants25
VAM status
Control Plants Plant
VAM inoculated plants
Shoot dry Root dry PC (mg/g T CC (mg S hoot dry Root dry PC (mg/ TCC (mg wt(g/plant) wt (g/plant) of plant) /g plant) wt(g/plant) wt(g/plant) g plant) /g plant)
Ocimum sanctum 12.44 7.64 60.40 1.20 18.44 11.04 80.20 Catharanthus 15.66 8.44 70.66 1.90 25.22 14.98 94.00 roseus Coleus forskholii 8.00 5.66 53.40 1.00 15.91 10.00 79.27 Cympbopogon 13.00 8.00 65.20 1.50 20.10 15.20 84.00 flexuosus CD (p=0.05) 1.52 1.64 3.56 0.34 1.58 1.54 4.24 SD 0.74 0.84 7.92 0.96 3.64 3.72 8.72
2.20 3.40 1.96 2.60 0.34 0.98
PC = Protein content, TCC =Total chlorophyll content, CD = Critical differences, SD = Standard deviation.
Chanda et al., Curr. World Environ., Vol. 9(2), 544-551 (2014) biomass of the inoculated plants were found to be maximum and significant than that of control in all the four medicinal plant species. The reason may be due to the formation of external mycelium around the roots by VAM fungi. Similar improved growth response was also observed in 10 medicinal plants when inoculated with three AM fungal species (G. mossae, G. fasciculatum and G. monosporum) for their efficiency 31. The inoculation with G. fasciculatum resulted in increased total chlorophyll content and protein content in all the four medicinal plants over control plant. The highest chlorophyll and protein content was recorded in C. roseus, followed by C. flexuosus, O. sanctum and C. forskholii. The increase in total chlorophyll content and protein content in inoculated plants may be due to increased uptake of phosphorus, which will increase the photosynthetic activity of the plants and ultimately the chlorophyll content in plants. Similar findings were reported already by different workers who found that plants inoculated with mycorrhiza showed significant increase in the growth over nonmycorrhizal plants and also had higher percent of phosphorus over non-mycorrhizal plants after six months field survey 32-36. Earlier studies also showed such a trend for medicinal plants subjected to AM inoculation with significant increase in growth and production of active secondary metabolites in some medicinal plants viz. Hemidesmus indicus, Gymnema sylvestris, Andrographis paniculata, A. alaba and Clerodendrum phlomidis 9, 37-39 . Glomus aggregatum and Glomus fasciculatum were predominantly present and associated with all the Ocimum species. Among the seven AM fungal treatments, Pre-inoculation with Glomus fasciculatum improved the total seedling biomass, and nutrition uptake better in some medicinal plants also observed and reported by different workers 40-44. So, the application of AM inoculum will play a very effective role for the commercial production as well as cultivation of medicinal plants which are rare, native to the Southern part of NE of Barak valley.
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Conclusion The following conclusions can be drawn from the above discussion 1.
2.
3.
Medicinal plants are used as Traditional herbal medicines and are increasingly being used by people for primary health care system. Thus, the cultivation of medicinal plants should be increased to maintain a regular supply and to support their increasing demand by the use of Mycorrhizal fungi for sustainable medicinal plants productivity. The beneficial role of rhizosphere AM fungi is to enhance the tolerance to various biotic and abiotic stresses, thereby increase the growth of medicinal plants. Mycorrhiza inoculated plants showed significant increase in growth and production of active secondary metabolites in some traditional medicinal plants. In order to develop a successful and sustainable protocol, the inoculum of AM fungi could be of great use for promoting growth and disease resistance in medicinal plants specifically found in Barak Valley, Assam for their great medicinal values by local tribes as well as for future commercial production. In improving the socio-economic and cultural status of native people for collection of medicinal plants and their mycobionts like AM inoculum to increase the yield of medicinal plants along with their secondary metabolites to utilize these natural resources on a sustainable basis as a traditional and herbal medicine for the human welfare. Acknowledgements
The authors wish to thank the University Grants Commission (UGC) New Delhi for providing financial support while carrying out this work.
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