GAULLE, CHARLES DE them, they proved ruthless opponents who killed hundreds of civilian bystanders. García tried negotiating with the guerrillas, but when this failed he responded with additional force. In addition, the government faced large-scale drug cartels that raised coca, produced highquality cocaine, and shipped it to the United States. The cartels acted with considerable sophistication and frequently paid the guerrillas for protection. By the time García’s term ended in 1990 he, like his predecessor, had been unable to rectify Peru’s problems. In fact, his free spending nearly bankrupted the nation: inflation for common commodities reached 7,000 percent annually. García was succeeded by Alberto Fujimori and retired to a seat in the senate, but in 1992 he fled the country to escape corruption charges. The former president remained in self-imposed exile for nine years until 2001. That spring most charges against him were dropped and he came home to resuscitate his political fortunes. García’s recovery was impressive, and in April 2001 he forced Alejandro Toledo into a run-off election scheduled for summer. But by June his hopes were dashed. He lost the final tally by 53 percent to 46 percent. García has since declared his intention to remain active in APRA affairs.
family had supplied the country with distinguished soldiers since the 13th century, de Gaulle entered the St. Cyr Military Academy in 1907 and graduated four years later as a second lieutenant. During World War I he served in the 33rd Infantry Regiment under Colonel PHILIPPE PÉTAIN, whom de Gaulle idolized as a father figure. He fought bravely in combat, was thrice wounded, and captured. De Gaulle returned to France in 1918, a heavily decorated war hero, and resumed his military career. However, over the next two decades he acquired a reputation as an acerbic outsider, quick to criticize superiors and prevailing military dogma. He also published several well-received treatises on military leadership and tactics, and one volume. Towards a Modern Military, that anticipated the rise of tank-driven armies. The correctness of de Gaulle’s tactical insights was amply demonstrated in May 1940 when the German blitzkrieg rolled over static French defenses. De Gaulle,
Further Reading Crabtree, John. Peru under García: An Opportunity Lost. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1992. Graham, Carol. Peru’s Apra: Parties, Politics, and the Elusive Quest for Democracy. Boulder, Colo.: Lynne Rienner Publications, 1991. Marks, Thomas A. Maoist Insurgency since Vietnam. Portland, Ore.: Frank Cass, 1996. Poole, D. G. Renique. Peru: Time of Fear. New York: Monthly Review Press, 1992. Rudolph, James D. Peru: Evolution of a Crisis. New York: Praeger, 1992. Stern, Steven J. Shining and Other Paths: War and Society in Peru, 1980–1995. Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1998.
Gaulle, Charles de (1890–1970) president of France Charles-André-Marie-Joseph de Gaulle was born in Lille, France, on November 22, 1890, the son of a history teacher. He inherited from his father an intense love of history and a passionate French nationalism. Because his
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Charles de Gaulle (Library of Congress)