The Honors Platform A CMU HONORS PROGRAM JOURNAL
C E N T R A L
M I C H I G A N
Volume 3 Number 1
•
U N I V E R S I T Y
Summer 2016
I
HONORS PLATFORM
SUMMER 2016 STAFF Editors in Chief: Ashley Howell Kristyn Turner
Editors: Alyssa Shepard Amanda Platt Francesca Farzalo Paige Sheffield Alex Farrington
Cover Design: Cierra Toliver
Honors Program Director: Dr. Phame Camerena
Contact Us! honorsplatform@cmich.edu
Copyright, 2016. Central Michigan University Honors Program ISSN: Forthcoming
CMU
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CMU
FROM THE EDITORS Welcome to the third edition of the Honors Platform. This journal is produced by Central Michigan University’s undergraduate Honors Program in an effort to showcase the rich variety of interests and accomplishments of students within the program. We’ve all been lost. College is particularly good for this. Its all too common to feel as if the world is melting around us and there’s no sense to be made of any of it. Sometimes, however, out of the uncertainty comes understanding, understanding of which direction to choose. Some students wander, only to discover their passion in the back row of a required class. Others make their choice even before middle school graduation and come to CMU with a clear plan. Any many fall somewhere in between. In each case, the honors protocol and community allow students to grow as scholars, global citizens, individuals and to find their unique perfect path.
Cierra Toliver introduces our theme on the cover with her submission entitled
“Direction”, which is a sculpture created using a
piece of 8.5x11” white paper and two scissor cuts. The piece was selected as a visual representation of the many different directions taken among honors students. Describing the theme of the piece, Cierra remarks,
“The piece itself suggests direction
through the use of arrows, but also through the shadows created with light. It embodies the many paths and choices each student has to make here while at Central and of course afterward. We all have our own paths.”
Submissions were chosen for this edition that exemplified the core values that form the foundation of our honors community and demonstrated the contrasting directions taken to express these values. Andrew Stow begins our text submissions with his essay entitled,
“Lost Identity: An Examination of Native American History in a Secondary Setting”, in which he explores how
Native American history was portrayed in secondary school textbooks and the effects of that portrayal on American students today. Tristan Tibbe follows this submission with our first creative work entitle
“The Wild’s Creatures”, in which he explores
themes of family, grief, and revenge. Next, Alayna Smith explores availability of resources and the impact of social biases in her essay
“When Culture and Country Collide: Opportunities of African American and Latin@ Youth in Detroit and Miami.” “Lost in the Wind”, “Ruminating”, and “She was a Redwood”, follow, which express the extremes
Kristopher Kieft’s poems,
of emotion including love, regret and grief. Nicole Rombach then comments on the positive and negative implications of
“International Service Learning: An Evolution of Thought”. Another creative piece follows, as Ashley Howell explores how loss is understood in her poem, “A Funny Thing”. In our final piece, Sabrina Thelen examines the factors involved in suspects’ decision to waive or invoke interrogation rights in her essay entitled “Acquiescence Bias Versus the Power of Innocence: Signing without Knowing or Signing Naively?”. service learning in her piece,
Each submission in this publication of The Honors Platform illustrates the role the Honors Program’s core values play in Honors students’ lives as they find their own direction and expand their various academic and creative interests at Central Michigan University.
Acknowledgments
This volume would not have been possible without the support of Dr. Phame Camarena, the director of the Honors Program at CMU. Without his unceasing encouragement and patient conversations over coffee, the Honors Platform might not have found its own direction to pull together this edition. We would like to thank our editors, Alyssa Shepard, Amanda Platt, Francesca Farzalo, Paige Sheffield, and Alex Farrington. A special thank you to those of you who dedicated your time even throughout the summer to make this edition possible. Thank you all for your input and dedication to this publication.
Sincerely, Ashley Howell and Kristyn Turner Co-Editors-in-Chief
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CONTENTS 1
Lost Identity: An examination of Native American history in a secondary setting Andrew Stow
Pg.#
The Wild's Creatures Tristan Tibbe
Pg.#
When Culture and Country Collide: Comparing educational opportunities of African American and Latin@ youth in Detroit and Miami Alayna Smith
Pg.#
Poems: Ruminating, Lost in the Wind, She was a Redwood Kristopher Keift
Pg.#
International Service Learning: An evolution of thought Nicole Rombach
Pg.#
A Funny Thing Ashley Howell
Pg.#
Acquiescence Bias Versus the Power of Innocence: Signing without knowing or signing naively? Sabrina Thelen
Pg.#
Contributors
CMU
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LOST IDENTITY: AN EXAMINATION OF NATIVE AMERICAN HISTORY IN A SECONDARY SETTING Andrew Stow Abstract This paper looks into Native Americans and how their history is taught and examined in a secondary setting. Textbooks were examined to see how textbooks have portrayed Native Americans from the 19th Century to the present day. The paper also looks at the consequences of the boarding school experiment, and how it has impacted Native Americans and how they view academics. State curriculums are examined and how they do not provide adequate standards for Native American history, leaving American students unprepared and ill-equipped to successfully interact with Native Americans. Finally, the paper offers practical suggestions into how to make history more inclusive of Native Americans.
On 22 September, 2014, Elissa Washuta posted an article
Native Americans should not have to be ambassadors to
on the popular website Buzzfeed entitled This Indian
their own culture; a lack of knowledge and understanding
Does Not Owe You. Elissa conveys deep emotional
has created this aura of them that makes Native
response at constant inquiry about her culture and
“her
Americans seem like exotic groups of people. Modern
people” by curious-but-ignorant outsiders. [1] She
Americans have become fascinated with Native
emphatically concludes that she will not be the answer to
Americans, but not with their current issues, only with
questions outsiders have about what it is like being a
their past. This has left Native Americans unwilling and
Native American; she does not owe anyone those
at times unable to want to interact with outside groups,
answers. [2] The main point of this article was that many
increasing the divide between Native Americans and
Native Americans are tired of being de-facto ambassadors
United States citizens.
to their own culture, owing to their exclusion from educational texts and exercises. Many do not like being
This problem traces back to education. Textbooks and
asked about their ancestry (or to prove it), hearing people
curriculums have excluded Native Americans from
claim relations to a Cherokee princess, or express feelings
education, which has bred ignorance in American
about casinos. This author is hardly the first to experience
citizens. In order to reduce the ignorance of Americans,
frustration at these occurrences.
textbooks and state curriculums need to be more inclusive. By providing an accurate history and cultural
In an interview, renowned Native American scholar
education of Native Americans, a better foundation will
Anton Treuer accounted being honestly asked about his
be laid that leads to a greater understanding between
tomahawk while in college. [3] This person was most
Native Americans and Americans.
likely not trying to draw offense, but said something highly culturally insensitive because she lacked the
Recounting History: Textbooks from the 19th Century
background knowledge to understand Native
to the Present
American history and modernity. When people lack the
Textbooks set uniform learning standards which guide
background knowledge of a person’s culture when
learning outcomes throughout classrooms. Many
interacting with them, it usually leads to people saying
educators also use textbooks heavily to teach their
ignorant statements. Moreover, at times it forces Native
students and it is important to have a textbook that is
Americans to become ambassadors to Native culture.
inclusive. As American education has progressed,
This drives a person to become hard and insensitive to the
textbooks have been adapted to fit the current educational
curiosity of others.
needs of the students; the textbook can also be used as an
1“This Indian Does Not Owe You,” Buzzfeed, 22 September, 2014, http://www.buzzfeed.com/elissawashuta/this-indian-does-not-owe-you. 2 Ibid. 3 Anton Treuer, Everything You Wanted to Know about Indians but were Afraid to Ask (St. Paul, MN: Minnesota Historical Society Press, 2012), 3.
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example of what was considered the major educational
negative light; in fact, some were attempting to create a
necessitates of the time of its usage. While Native
balanced account of Native Americans and their culture.
Americans appeared in textbooks dating back to the 19th
A History of the United States of America endeavors to
Century, their role is less than flattering and in some
give the school children an idea of what Native American
cases openly negative.
life was like in a greater detail that was previously seen in other textbooks, describing their dress, housing, religion,
Nineteenth Century textbooks presented a clear message
diet, daily life, and other details. While this is a major
about Native Americans: they are/were savages and
improvement from other textbooks of the era, it implies
merely temporary obstacles in the way of American
that Native Americans were just another group of
society. The textbook History of the United States: From
individuals to be Christianized by the settlers and an
their first settlement as colonies, to the close of the war
obstacle the English had to overcome in order to settle
with Great Britain in 1815 provides insight into what
America. [8]
American children were learning around 1835. For example, in the section accounting life in the Virginia
One final textbook, succinctly summarizes 19th Century
colony (the first chapter) the text refers to Native
attitudes towards Native Americans that seeped into
Americans as
“savages” with primitive and less civilized
cultures than the English in Jamestown, with phrases such as
“possessed all the vices and virtues of the savage
educational materials. Analysis of Civil Government, notes the following about how Native Americans fit within the United States government, with such quotes as:
state,” painting a negative picture of Native Americans. [4] Along with the obviously offensive diction, the textbook gives an account of
“princess” Pocahontas and
“The Indians have always been treated as merely lawful occupants, having at most only a qualified right to the
how she saved the life on John Smith, a man who
soil. The powerful nations of Europe, and our own
singlehandedly saved Jamestown from certain doom. [5]
government, have recognized them only as tenants-atwill, subject to removal at the pleasure of superior
In the 1880’s, Elementary Geography was published and
power.” [9]
also uses unflattering diction, but tries to present some information in an unbiased setting. When it comes to the section about Native Americans in the West, it describes Native Americans as
“wild,” but notes that some
“A large portion of the territory in the United States to which the Indian title is now extinguished has been acquired by purchase; and a still larger portion by the
interactions between the United States and Native
irresistible power of arms, over a brave, hardy, but
Americans are so that they can get supplies such as
declining race, whose destiny seems to be to perish as fast
“blankets and other things they need” and that many of them have “settled down” in Indian Territory. [6]
as the white man advances upon his footsteps.” [10] This creates an idea in a child’s mind that Native
It should be noted, however, that not all textbooks during
Americans are nothing more than an obstacle in the way
the 19th Century were describing Native Americans in a
of the United States, and because they are a weaker
4 Salma Hale, History of the United States: from their first settlement as colonies, to the close of the war with Great Britain in 1815 : to which are added questions, adapted to the use of schools (Philadelphia: Uriah Hunt, 1835; 19th Century Schoolbooks, 2003), http://digital.library.pitt.edu/cgi-bin/t/text/text-idx? c=nietz;cc=nietz;view=toc;idno=00z329908m. 5 Ibid, 18. 6 Elementary Geography (New York: D. Appleton and Company, c1880; 19th Century Schoolbooks, 2003), http://digital.library.pitt.edu/cgi-bin/t/text/text-idx? idno=00abv2767m;view=toc;c=nietz, 48. 7 Charles A. Goodrich, A history of the United States of America: on a plan adapted to the capacity of youth, and designed to aid the memory by systematick arrangement and interesting associations : illustrated by engravings (New York: Collins & Co., 1825; 19th Century Schoolbooks, 2003) http://digital.library.pitt.edu/cgi-bin/t/text/text-idx?type=simple&rgn=full+text&c=nietz&cc=nietz&idno=00z329961m&q1=Indians&submit=Go. 8 Ibid. 9 Calvin Townsend, Analysis of civil government: including a topical and tabular arrangement of the Constitution of the United States : designed as a class-book for the use of grammar, high, and normal schools, academies, and other institutions of learning(New York: Ivison, Phinney, Blakeman, & Co., 1869; 19th Century Schoolbooks, 2003) http://digital.library.pitt.edu/cgi-bin/t/text/text-idx? type=simple&rgn=full+text&c=nietz&cc=nietz&idno=00z469484m&q1=Indians&submit=Go, 12. 10 Ibid, 12-13.
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In the 1960’s, minority groups actively demonstrated for ways to increase their influence and representation in
The early to mid-twentieth century textbooks proceeded
American society. Not surprisingly, textbooks reflected
to get worse in terms of inclusiveness. While 19th century
the activism of this period. Despite this effort, textbooks
textbooks used derogatory diction, they still portrayed
failed to acknowledge conflicting views of the United
“noble savage.” In the 20th century, textbooks removed the “noble” and proceed to Native Americans as the
push the idea of assimilation vs. annihilation. [11] Many described Natives as individuals trying to stop the
States that went against the accepted norms, and were nationalistic over comprehensive. [18] Another missing component was the perspectives of those minority groups. [19] Even though this was an improvement from
Manifest Destiny, and that the superior race was fated to
textbooks of the early 20th century, it was still written in a
destroy the inferior. [12] In an attempt to justify this
way that presented the idea that: Native Americans have
brutality, texts provide detailed accounts of massacres
adapted and changed over time, and that they are still
and pictures of women and children being killed. [13]
present.
Descriptive words such as
“childlike”, “lazy”,
“uncivilized”, etc, filled textbooks along with statements
Progressing to textbooks from the 1980’s to the present
that Native Americans never advance beyond barbarism.
day, there is clear improvement on creating a more
[14]
inclusive setting for Native Americans and their history. A History of World Societies, printed in 1988, rarely
This change in textbooks during the early to mid-
mentions Native Americans at all, with roughly 14 out of
twentieth century reinforces several policies. First, it
1,280 pages dedicated to the Native American cultures
propelled the idea of whites being of the superior race.
and lifestyle of the Olmec, Maya, Aztec, and Inca people.
[15] The idea of race superiority was something that was
[20] When it comes to the American Revolution and the
widely accepted during the early to mid-twentieth
drafting of the Constitution of the United States, the only
century, and that idea is reflective in the textbooks of this
mention of Native Americans comes from the Boston Tea
era. The typical hierarchy was: Caucasian, Mongolian,
Party, noting that colonists dressed as Native Americans,
Malaysian, Negro, and the Native American making up
while ignoring Iroquois influence on the Constitution of
the bottom of this racial pyramid. [16] By focusing on the
the United States and numerous Native warriors on both
“barbaric” nature of Native Americans, this
sides of the conflict. [21] One of the final mentions about
“science” of racial superiority was then verified by those
Native Americans in A History of World Societies comes
who supported it. The textbooks were also designed to
after a section about Manifest Destiny, in which it briefly
negative and
“temperate, frugal, moral, well-educated, and religiously sober citizenry,” which textbook writers help create
describes the resistance of Native Americans from the fighting of William Henry Harrison and the Supreme
believed were best modeled by European societies and
Court’s decision against the state of Georgia, a total of
the exploits of white Americans. [17] What these
four paragraphs.
textbooks of the early 20th century sought to do was reflect the major societal pushes of the time, such as
Moving into the 1990’s, textbooks improved dramatically,
Social Darwinism. They attempted to justify the actions
with greater mention of United States/Native American
of the United States and validate the ideas of Manifest
interactions. One of the biggest influences of this change
Destiny and
“kill the Indian, and save the man.”
11 Stuart J. Foster,
was the idea of
“New Indian History," which was
“The Struggle for American Identity: Treatment of Ethnic Groups in United States History Textbooks,” History of Education, 28 (Sept. 1999),
263. 12 Ibid. 13 Ibid. 14 Ibid, 264. 15 Ibid, 256. 16 Ibid. 17 Ibid. 18 Ibid, 267. 19 Ibid. 20 John P. McKay, Bennett D. Hill, John Buckler, A History of World Societies, 2nd ed. (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1988), 472-487. 21 Ibid, 776.
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gaining popularity in the late 1980’s and 1990’s. One
While the history curriculum has not received the
textbook, The Great Republic, covers key events
attention of subjects like math and science, the history
following Removal, including that acumen for the market
curriculum is one of the more important subjects.
economy. [22] When it comes to one of the United States’
Examining Arizona, Michigan, Massachusetts, and Ohio
most beloved Presidents, the textbook presents Abraham
it becomes apparent that some states require a history that
Lincoln in a more human view, by mentioning his quote
is very in depth of Native Americans and their culture,
to several Native American leaders after Fredericksburg,
while for some states the students will be lucky if they
“We are not, as a race, so much disposed to fight and kill one another as our red brethren,” and mentioning the 1862
even know what a Native American is. [24]
Sioux Uprising with Lincoln commuting the sentences of
In Arizona, students are expected to recognize that Native
all but 38 of the 303 Native Americans sentenced to be
Americans were the original inhabitants, how Euro-
executed. [23] While this textbook offers a greater
American colonization affected their way of life, that
inclusiveness of Native Americans not previously seen in
Native Americans played a role in the Thirteen Colonies,
the textbooks, major improvements still need to be made.
and recognize current Native American tribes before they enter grade eight. [25] When a student enters high school
Textbooks present a double-edged problem for both
in Arizona, they are expected to be able to examine the
Natives and Americans. Textbooks have presented them
experiences of a wide variety of people, including Native
as conquered people, savages, princesses, and other
Americans. [26]
negative stereotypes. What American children understand from textbooks is that Native Americans are
“savages”
Looking at Michigan’s curriculum, there are a few
and that for the most part, Native Americans are gone.
standards that try to give students an understanding of
This leaves American children ill-equipped to interact
Native Americans and the diversity of them. For example,
with modern Native Americans.
one of the standards calls on students to be able to
“Describe the diverse characteristics of early State Curriculums and Inclusive History
American civilizations and societies in North, Central,
State curriculums are the biggest thing in shaping what
and South America by comparing and contrasting the
American children need or need not know. States have
major aspects (government, religion, interactions with the
taken a more proactive role in what the children of their
environment, economy, and social life) of American
state need to learn, especially in the late 20th Century.
Indian civilizations and societies such as the Maya,
Modern curriculums have changed to reflect these radical
Aztec, Inca, Pueblo, and/or Eastern Woodland peoples,”
changes. States then went though all educational
along with evaluating
categories, adding, cutting and shaping their curriculums
setbacks in civil rights and liberties for American
to create something that they believe will create complete
minorities over the 20th century including American
and responsible citizens; something traditionally tasked to
Indians, Latinos/Latinas, new immigrants, people with
the social studies and history curriculums.
disabilities, and gays and lesbians.” [27] However, these
“the major accomplishments and
are high school standards; Native American life is
22 Bernard Bailyn, Robert Dallek, David Brion Davis, David Herbert Donald, John L. Thomas, Gordon S. Wood, The Great Republic: A History of the American People 4th ed. (Lexington, MA: D.C. Heath and Company, 1991). 23 Ibid, 712-13.
“strong” presence “weak” presence? Using data from the 2010 United States Census, it is easy to find out the population compilation based on responses from each county. Out
24 Before examining those state curriculums, these states need to be categorized based on their Native American presence. What constitutes a to a
of the 15 counties in the state of Arizona, three have Native American populations of between 10 and 15 percent, two countries are between 26 and 43 percent, and one has over 71% of the population claiming as Native American. Michigan has 83 counties, and within those counties, only four (all in the Upper Peninsula) have a population between 8 and 17%. Ohio has 88 counties, and all have a Native American population of less than one percent. In Finally, in Massachusetts all counties have a Native American population of less than 1%. It should be noted, that this method is a rough estimate of the Native American population and while may not be a scientific way to measure influence, state’s laws reflect the demographic of their populations. 25
“Arizona’s Social Studies Standards,” Arizona Department of Education, last updated May 2006, http://www.azed.gov/standards-
practices/files/2011/09/socialstudiesstrand1.pdf. 26 Ibid. 27
“High School Content Expectations,” Michigan Department of Education, last updated on October 2007,
http://www.michigan.gov/documents/mde/SS_HSCE_210739_7_470248_7.pdf.
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extensively covered in grade five, but by the time student
Some states are doing a mediocre job in trying to be
return to evaluating Native Americans, it has been several
inclusive, but most of the information that is being
years and thousands of concepts and ideas in-between,
covered is before 1900; in fact, 87 percent of any
meaning that the student has limited background to build
references to Native Americans come before 1900. [33]
upon.
Along with that startling statistic, many people are coming to college with the incorrect belief that Native
Ohio starts mentioning Native American history in grade
Americans are dead. [34] This is not the student’s fault.
four, only having students understand that prehistoric and
Many standards are out of date, politicians
historic Native Americans lived in Ohio
historical background- are deciding what students
–students must
–with any
“need”
also know conflicts with Native Americans led to the War
to learn, and what is being created is a white-washing of
of 1812. [28] In grade five, students must be able to
American history. [35] This, combined with a lacking
classify Native Americans
“into culture groups based on
textbook, produces a citizen that is grossly ill-equipped to
geographic and cultural similarities.” [29] This at least
interact with modern Native Americans, furthering the
introduces students to the understanding that not all
current problems.
Native Americans are the same culturally. In grade eight, U.S. studies starts at 1492, cutting Native Americans out
Implementing Change
entirely except to only mention that North America was
Debasish Mridha said
originally inhabited by Native Americans. [30] Besides
those looking for them. So look for the solution, not the
failing to mention that there were Native Americans in
road block or the problem.” Fortunately, many of the
South America, this creates an understanding that Native
issues that have been presented are issues that can be
American history is not relevant until Columbus. The
fixed, and with those changes we can begin to see a
final mention of Native Americans (also in grade eight)
change that is more inclusive and more understanding of
focuses on Westward expansion and the displacement of
Native Americans and their culture.
“Problems are always there for
Native Americans. [31] According to the state of Ohio, this is where Native American history
“ends” and
It is important for Native American scholars to review
reinforces the idea that Native Americans have
textbooks and curriculum to insure that an inclusive
contributed nothing to American history since the late
history is being presented to students. These are plenty of
1800’s.
examples of
“scholars” reviewing textbooks who do
not have the background necessary to make factual Out of all the states evaluated, Massachusetts was the
corrections. History is vast to the point where topics and
most disappointing. The only mention of Native
events need to be picked out, and that is understandable.
Americans in their curriculum was on a grade four
However, it is important to provide an inclusive history in
learning objective which was to have students be able to
order to lift the aura over Native Americans. With an
identify two Native American tribes
inclusive history, people will be less likely to make
[32] Other than that specific standard, there is no mention
ignorant comments and not burden Native Americans
of Native Americans in the curriculum. This excludes
with questions that should have been asked in a
important historical perspective for Massachusetts
classroom. It is time to stop with the bare minimum when
students, especially considering Native Americans major
it comes to Native American history.
…in Canada.
role in Massachusetts’ history.
28
“Ohio’s New Learning Standards: Social Studies Standards,” Ohio Department of Education, last updated October 2013,
http://education.ohio.gov/getattachment/Topics/Ohio-s-New-Learning-Standards/Social-Studies/SS-Standards.pdf.aspx. 29 Ibid. 30 Ibid. 31 Ibid. 32
“Massachusetts History and Social Science Curriculum Framework,” Massachusetts Department of Elementary & Secondary Education, last updated August
2003, http://www.doe.mass.edu/frameworks/hss/final.pdf. 33 Alysa Landry,
“’All Indians Are Dead?’ At Least That’s What Most Schools Teach Children,” Indian Country Today Media Network, 17 November, 2014,
http://indiancountrytodaymedianetwork.com/2014/11/17/all-indians-are-dead-least-thats-what-most-schools-teach-children-157822. 34 Ibid. 35 Ibid.
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Unfortunately, the United States education system is still lacking, especially when it comes to the history of Native Americans. While there have been major improvements in textbooks since the 19th century, many aspects of Native American history are discarded because of the picking and choosing done by textbook companies and state governments. Some state curriculums offer a semiinclusive history about Native Americans, while other states barely cover the fact that there were Native Americans at all. With this lack of background knowledge, students are going out into the world and forcing Native Americans to become ambassadors to their own culture. Students are saying ignorant statements that are borderline offensive to Native Americans, simply because they do not have the necessary background knowledge needed. With a history of broken promises, treaties, and acts to force Native Americans to assimilate with citizens from the United States, Native Americans are hesitant to educate or join the United States educational system.
The United States is a country founded on the idea of creating a diverse population, a worthy goal that we have striven for, for centuries. However, we cannot reach that goal if the population is not educated about the diverse population that it has, and while we may be united under one banner, we will in fact be divided by our own ignorance.
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BIBLIOGRAPHY “Arizona’s Social Studies Standards.” Arizona Department of Education. Last updated May 2006. http://www.azed.gov/standards-practices/files/2011/09/socialstudiesstrand1.pdf
Bailyn, Bernard, Robert Dallek, David Brion Davis, David Herbert Donald, John L. Thomas, and Gordon S. Wood. The Great Republic: A History of the American People. 4th ed. Lexington, MA: D.C. Heath and Company, 1991.
Elementary Geography. New York: D. Appleton and Company, c1880; 19th Century Schoolbooks, 2003. http://digital.library.pitt.edu/cgi-bin/t/text/text-idx?idno=00abv2767m;view=toc;c=nietz.
Foster, Stuart J.
“The Struggle for American Identity: Treatment of Ethnic Groups in United States History Textbooks.” History
of Education 28 (Sept. 1999).
Goodrich, Charles A. A history of the United States of America: on a plan adapted to the capacity of youth, and designed to aid the memory by systematick arrangement and interesting associations : illustrated by engravings. New York: Collins & Co., 1825; 19th Century Schoolbooks, 2003. http://digital.library.pitt.edu/cgi-bin/t/text/text- idx type=simple&rgn=full+text&c=nietz&cc=nietz&idno=00z329961m&q1=Indians&submit=Go.
Hale, Salma. History of the United States: from their first settlement as colonies, to the close of the war with Great Britain in 1815 : to which are added questions, adapted to the use of schools. Philadelphia: Uriah Hunt, 1835; 19th Century Schoolbooks, 2003. http://digital.library.pitt.edu/cgi-bin/t/text/text- idx?c=nietz;cc=nietz;view=toc;idno=00z329908m.
“High School Content Expectations.” Michigan Department of Education. Last updated on October 2007. http://www.michigan.gov/documents/mde/SS_HSCE_210739_7_470248_7.pdf.
Landry, Alysa.
“’All Indians Are Dead?’ At Least That’s What Most Schools Teach Children.” Indian Country Today Media
Network. 17 November, 2014. http://indiancountrytodaymedianetwork.com/2014/11/17/all-indians-are-dead-least-thats- whatmost-schools-teach-children-157822.
McKay, John P., Bennett D. Hill, and John Buckler. A History of World Societies. 2nd ed. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1988.
“Massachusetts History and Social Science Curriculum Framework.” Massachusetts Department of Elementary & Secondary Education. Last updated August 2003. http://www.doe.mass.edu/frameworks/hss/final.pdf.
“Ohio’s New Learning Standards: Social Studies Standards.” Ohio Department of Education. Last updated October 2013. http://education.ohio.gov/getattachment/Topics/Ohio-s-New-Learning- Standards/Social-Studies/SS-Standards.pdf.aspx.
“This Indian Does Not Owe You.” Buzzfeed. 22 September, 2014. http://www.buzzfeed.com/elissawashuta/this-indian-does-notowe-you.
Townsend, Calvin. Analysis of civil government: including a topical and tabular arrangement of the Constitution of the United States : designed as a class-book for the use of grammar, high, and normal schools, academies, and other institutions of learning. New York: Ivison, Phinney, Blakeman, & Co., 1869; 19th Century Schoolbooks, 2003. http://digital.library.pitt.edu/cgibin/t/text/text- idx?type=simple&rgn=full+text&c=nietz&cc=nietz&idno=00z469484m&q1= Indians&submit=Go.
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BIBLIOGRAPHY CONTINUED Treuer, Anton. Everything You Wanted to Know about Indians but were Afraid to Ask. St. Paul, MN: Minnesota Historical Society Press, 2012.
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PAGE 9
KIEFT POEMS
RUMINATING Kristopher Kieft I played connect the dots
On the million tiny stars
that dotted her cheeks
I wished for everything
Like memories strewn
About all we used to hold
In the soft silks of her bed.
I whispered her name.
She smiled at me as
I reminded her that
I read her a poem of love about
Wishing for the moment
When I first met her
To never be wasted
Telling her that to refuse me
Was completely useless,
Would only make me want
More time to hold her
To kiss her deeper,
And to tell her again that I love her
Which I knew
Wouldn't make things right, yet...
It was the right thing to do. (poem can be read vertically and horizontally)
LOST IN THE WIND Kristopher Kieft She tumbled to the ground like a delicate leaf, Still vibrant despite her tree’s lack of desire.
The wind came to caress her addictively as she went, Bringing her nowhere, just a little higher.
She felt the rush of weightless life, Until the wind began to tire . . .
Life dropped her again, now like a stone, Gray with a cold internal fire.
Currents stopped and seasons worn, She let go, ready to retire.
But I was there before the ground took hold, I saw her again as vibrant, eyes of sapphire.
She tumbled into my arms like a delicate leaf, Ready for a new life to transpire.
KIEFT
PAGE 10
SHE WAS A REDWOOD Kristopher Kieft My grandma died like a tree, She began to hollow out But stayed sturdy until the end.
If you saw her standing there, You wouldn’t have known The inside from the out.
Her roots began to shrivel, But the rings that defined her inside Stayed strong to be remembered.
She still let the birds chirp On her browning limbs, she still enjoyed The sun on her falling leaves.
Eventually a gentle wind came by, And fell her sturdy trunk Down to the soft, waiting ground.
She was still all there of course, Not giving up being a sturdy tree Even when her trunk couldn’t hold.
So she lay there peacefully, At the feet of the trees she left behind, Enjoying her new view of the sky.
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KIEFT
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SMITH
WHEN CULTURE AND COUNTRY COLLIDE:
COMPARING EDUCATIONAL OPPORTUNITIES OF AFRICAN AMERICAN AND LATIN @ YOUTH IN DETROIT AND MIAMI Alayna Smith A growing epidemic in American education exists in the
I. Historical Context
lack of available and equitable resources for students labeled as "at-risk" of dropping out or failing before
Grasping the current context of education as it operates
completing high school. Too often, these students are
for African American students in Detroit and Latin@
members of racial, ethnic, and/or socioeconomic
students in Miami requires an understanding of the
minorities. By examining the resource availability in the
historical treatment of each of these groups in the United
comparable urban centers of Miami, Florida and Detroit,
States.
Michigan, as well as the role of race and culture for Latin@ [1] and African American students respectively,
African Americans came to what is now America at the
patterns of limited access and unequal resources emerge.
beginning of the 16th century, as some of the earliest groups of European settlers brought the slave trade to the
These factors are particularly important to consider given
New World. This marked an early establishment of social
the number of students affected by potential biases or lack
institutions in the Western world which designated black
of resources in the classroom. Latin@ children account
people as inferior to white people; although less formal
for about two of every three students added to U.S.
now, these sentiments still resonate in American policy
schools, and Latin@ student enrollment has increased by
and society today (Johnson & Campbell 19). In 1879, Pap
more than 4 million in the past decade with current totals
Singleton, a black leader of the Kansas Exodus,
at just under 13 million students (L pez and L pez 4;
commented on the social and political forces that kept
Brown and Patten, Table 24). African American students
blacks disadvantaged in American society and argued that
currently account for just under 9 million students in
the situation could only be remedied with a more equal
American schools ("School Enrollment" Table 1).
economic system. He also noted that this equality could
贸
贸
only be achieved in a system unburdened by white With the resegregation of schools in the United States,
supremacy (Johnson & Campbell 53). Over 150 years
issues surrounding minority education become
after these comments, the white power structure is still in
particularly relevant with so many students highly
place in the United States and African Americans have
concentrated in specific areas. This resegregation affects
remained unable to make any substantial sociopolitical or
both African American as well as Latin@ students.
economic gains.
Supreme Court data from 2001 reports that 76.3 percent of Latin@ students and 71.6 percent of African American
Another consequence of bringing slaves to the New
students attended schools where minorities made up the
World is that it fostered feelings of displacement, which
majority of the students body ("Grutter v. Bollinger" 345).
are still felt today. Documentation of the origins of these
These schools are often underfunded and operating in
slaves was largely lost or destroyed and resocialization
impoverished communities, overcrowded, and lacking in
eliminated any opportunity to maintain traditional African
the resources and materials necessary to ensure the
customs and culture, making any physical or emotional
educational achievement of their students (L pez and
connection with a homeland virtually impossible
L pez 105).
(Johnson & Campbell 12). Unlike the Hispanic
贸
贸
population with strong roots in a variety of Latin American nations and a strong cultural identity, African
1 "Latin@" is used throughout this paper to remain gender inclusive of Latinos and Latinas.
PAGE 12
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SMITH
Americans often do not feel attached to a homeland. And
outside of that dominant culture, such as African
when racism and discrimination are so prominent in the
American and Latin@ students, may operate in varying
states, it may be hard for these individuals to feel
ways for each group.
comfortable or at home even where they were born and have grown up. Latin@s who identify strongly with their
A. Language Barriers
ethnicity are also the victims of race- and culture-based discrimination, and may similarly feel displaced in their
Language is one of the biggest obstacles faced by teachers
own country.
and students alike in today's classrooms. English as a
– also referred to sometimes as "white – in post-industrial 1950s Detroit led to the rapid
Second Language (ESL) programs are becoming more of
Suburbanization
a necessity as the Spanish-speaking population continues
flight"
to grow drastically in this country. In 2012, over 1.6
concentration of minorities in urban centers. White people
million people identifying as Hispanic between the ages
fled the city seeking higher quality housing, education,
of 5 and 17 and with a language other than English as the
and employment opportunities, which exacerbated
primary language spoken in the home reported being able
poverty conditions for the African Americans who
to speak English less than well (Brown and Patten, Table
remained in the city.
20). This has tremendous implications for classroom learning environments, as teachers and schools must
Latin@ immigrants are the fastest growing minority
incorporate methods of catering to students with different
population in the country and often come to the United
linguistic backgrounds. English may be approached in
States of their own volition, but that does not mean they
different ways by educators, though some of these
are welcomed with open arms. They are often refugees
methods may actually be harmful to the students who they
from nations fraught with violence and tyranny, such as in
are trying to help. Educators who forbid the use of the
the cases of Cuba and Venezuela. Others come to
native language or try to erase all linguistic aspects of
America seeking new opportunity, and unfortunately only
culture contribute to racist social structures that champion
find discrimination and limited opportunity. Miami is one
English and English-speakers (Leiding 14). Punishing
of the few places in the country Latin@ immigrants may
students for continuing to use their native languages also
feel entirely at home, given the large Spanish-speaking
enforces this linguistic hierarchy. Students who are still
population and cultural similarities, but many still face
learning English are often tracked into lower ability
poverty, unemployment, and a lack of opportunity to truly
groups, held back, and often have much lower
engage in American culture.
expectations from their teachers. These factors further limit the opportunities for success for Spanish-speaking
This historical context of institutionalized oppression in
Latin@ students.
America is essential in understanding why both African American and Latin@ students are more educationally
The practicality of speaking a different language in a
disadvantaged than their white peers.
school system that enforces the use of English is damaging, but concerns of identity formation with regard
II. Student Learning Environment
to language may also affect students drastically. Language is inextricably linked to culture and identity,
Classrooms often serve as microcosms of society at large,
and many bilingual students struggle with the
reflecting and even contributing to the reproduction of
reconciliation of competing forces within the family and
various socio-historical processes. American schools,
at school. Students who learn to predominantly speak
both public and private, are structured in such a way that
English and conform to the social and linguistic norms of
is inherently biased in favor of the dominant white,
American schools may undermine important family
middle-class culture. These biases appear in the use of
connections and even alienate themselves from family
language, curriculum content, pedagogical styles, school
members. The increased use of English by a student may
infrastructures, and more (Lamont & Lareau 155). The
be damaging for the structure of that family, particularly
ways these educational biases affect those who fall
if parents or other family members only speak Spanish.
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Acquisition of the dominant language and culture may be
SMITH
C. Pedagogical Method and School Structure
beneficial, essential even, for academic success, but may come at the cost of familial support (Bettie 417).
This erasure of culture and experience can also take place through the pedagogical methods utilized by educators.
Although language is generally regarded specifically as a
Authoritarian teaching styles that emphasize black-and-
Latin@ issue in education, African Americans are deeply
white textbook answers remove opportunities for students
affected by it as well. American schools teach Standard
to share their own experiences, and the textbook answers
English strictly, and therefore do not recognize African
may in fact entirely contradict those experiences.
American Vernacular English (AAVE) as the valid dialect
Textbooks and other teaching materials may not reflect or
that it is. AAVE has structured, established linguistic
value all perspectives equally, or may fail to include
rules; however, since these rules may contradict Standard
diverse multicultural voices, and students may end up
English at times, many educators tend to perceive it as a
feeling ignored by teachers who strictly adhere to the
collection of random errors and not as an appropriate form
content in these resources. These authoritarian teaching
of communication (Leiding 92). This refusal of educators
styles may also contribute to stricter behavioral
to adapt to cultural differences in their classrooms can
reprimands, which disrupts learning and often removes
have devastating effects for students. African American
students from the classroom, eliminating any further
boys are the most highly represented group in special
opportunities to contribute or learn. Minority students,
education courses, largely due to perceived learning
particularly male students, are disproportionately affected
deficiencies, including their ability to learn "proper"
by these behavioral reprimands and therefore also by the
English (U.S. Commission on Civil Rights 14, 25). By
negative effects of being removed from the classroom
limiting the forms of expression deemed appropriate in
(L pez 1196). While authoritarian teaching styles may
classrooms, Latin@ and African American students are
undermine student voice in the classroom, infusing
both being silenced and their cultural heritages devalued.
discussion with cultural traditions and patterns reflective
Ăł
of the student body may be one effective way to B. Academic Curriculum and Content
encourage student engagement. An example of this is the use of African "call and response" tradition, which
Another way the dominant culture is reflected in
motivates students to contribute and validates their
classrooms is through a Eurocentric curriculum that
experiences by explicitly including them in the
ignores the histories and accomplishments of minority
conversation (Hall and Martin 98).
groups such as Latin@s and African Americans (Leiding 260). This erasure can be disorienting for students who do
The background and experiences of educators who work
not identify with the European perspective on American
in schools with large percentages of students who identify
history presented in most standard curricula. Textbooks
as racial minorities is another important factor to examine.
discuss the history of the white people who contributed to
Many educators and administrators of African American
America extensively, but tend to only briefly highlight
and Latin@ youth are themselves white and often
minority groups and their contributions. Feelings of
monolingual, meaning the experiences and sociohistorical
invisibility in the classroom can deeply affect students by
perspectives that become embedded in classrooms
essentially telling them that their history and culture do
through the teacher's pedagogical methods and content
not matter in the greater understanding of the country they
may not necessarily align with that of the students (Garc a
live in, and that their experiences are therefore invalid. By
and Otheguy 8). Differences in experiences can lead to
emphasizing a more multicultural education, lessons will
tension in the classroom and can also be potentially
become more relevant and useful for students. They will
alienating for students and teachers alike if teachers are
be more engaged, will be able to identify personally with
not well-trained to work with students of varying ethnic
the material, and will be more successful in the classroom.
backgrounds. Teachers may favor a "colorblind" perspective, which views the students’ cultural experiences as irrelevant to the curriculum and learning environment. This may lead to further alienation and
Ă
PAGE 14
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SMITH
disengagement from academic material when the students
inclusive of all students have taken shape in the
feel as though they are unable to relate to teachers or to
development of such educational practices as "hip hop
schoolwork (Lieding 80). Multicultural education and a
pedagogy" that recognizes the influence of hip hop music
greater understanding of student experiences and values
on students and African American community more
may be a more fitting approach that embraces their
broadly, weaving the hip hop culture
differences while remaining objective in the treatment of
language, attitudes, modes of dress and dance, and more
all students.
into relevant, engaging curriculum for students (Hall and
– including its
–
Martin 94). Another pedagogical practice that has been Another complex phenomena contributing and in part
found to be particularly effective for Latin@ students is
shaping the educational experiences of minority students,
testimonio, the use of personal storytelling to understand
including both Latin@ and African Americans, is the idea
broader themes, ideas, and contexts operating in social
of "acting white." Due to the emphasis of white, middle-
processes. Like hip hop pedagogy, testimonio strives to
class culture in curricular content, educational
provide a voice to students who frequently are denied a
achievement and whiteness have become closely
platform to share and validate their experiences
correlated in the minds of many students. This association
(Benmayor 508). Communication, history, reading and
may also derive from the perpetual refusal of mainstream
writing, and many other subjects in school are enhanced
American culture to recognize the intellectual
with the inclusion of culturally relevant materials to study.
achievements of minority individuals, which has been
–
internalized by students to mean that academic excellence
The embeddedness of particular hierarchical American
does not or should not happen for minority students. In
and therefore typically white, middle-class
order to avoid being called out by peers, teased, or bullied,
public education may contribute further to the conflicting
some minority students may actively downplay their
learning environment minority students find themselves
intelligence or academic ability. Some students
in. European American culture tends to champion
may continue working discretely for academic success
individualism and competition, and these values are
while taking great measures to keep this fact hidden, while
expressed in the classroom through curriculum, teaching
others may entirely opt out of the educational system and
methods, testing practices, and more. African and Latin
refuse to do homework, perform on tests, or even show up
cultures, however, tend to historically emphasize
to class (Fordham & Ogbu 177). This averse attitude
collectivism and group harmony. These values are
toward school manifests in other ways that are closely
inherently oppositional and when students are confronted
related to the correlation of academics and whiteness:
with the conflicting expectations between school and
distrust of institutional infrastructures, including teachers
home, disengagement from academics or a devaluing of
and support systems that may be in place; fear of asking
school may be the result (Bempechat, Graham, and
questions or of being perceived as stupid or lazy;
Jimenez 140; Leiding 56). This contradiction is
perceived trauma associated with the transition to college,
particularly prevalent among Latin@ students who
especially for first generation students; and a general
maintain strong cultural ties to the concept of la familia,
intimidation of school systems and processes (Nelson
which places family relationships and obligations above
Laird et al. 41). "Acting white" and its related implications
all others. The permeation of competition and
are cultural phenomena that have the potential to
independence into public education may actually serve to
undermine the academic achievement of minority
prevent the involvement of minority parents and families
students, but are also something that may be dealt with by
in school activities, disconnecting a potential support
providing more role models for minority students, as well
system and resource for students (Bempechat, Graham,
as altering curriculum to be more relevant and inclusive.
and Jimenez 140).
– values in
Altering curriculum to better incorporate and highlight the great achievements and contributions of Latin@s and
Perhaps one of the biggest challenges in addressing many
African Americans throughout history may help to
of these concerns is the very structure of schools
emphasize the importance and impact of education for all
themselves. Although Brown v. Board of Education meant
students, and not just white students. Efforts to be more
to desegregate schools in 1954, schools remain
HONORS PLATFORM
PAGE 15
almost entirely segregated today, particularly in large
รณ
รณ
urban areas (L pez and L pez 7). Segregation keeps students from ever interacting with students of different races, ethnicities, and backgrounds, and prohibits them from fully understanding the diverse range of experiences and lifestyles that come with the many cultures found in this country. This is particularly harmful for minority students who may not be familiar with mainstream expectations or aspirations, and are therefore met with lower expectations from themselves, their teachers, and society. This isolation could lead to an incredibly distorted worldview of the opportunities that are available for other (typically white, suburban) students and the fact that they are capable of achieving those same ambitions (Gandara & Contreras 32).
The cumulative effects of all of these various educational factors are tremendous. African American and Latin@ students are more likely to be placed in low-level educational tracks and to be overrepresented in special education classes, to have a negative classroom climate and to have teachers who are either under-trained for the particular needs of minority students or who discipline heavily. These students are more likely to lack social and peer support for academics, to be forced to repeat grades, to lack access to necessary supplemental instruction for language or other cultural barriers, and to drop out of school. These students are also more likely to have internalized racism and low expectations that lead to low self-esteem and academic performance (Leiding 136, 162). The collective effect of these forces make American public schools an antagonistic environment for many Latin@ and African American students, and educators and legislators have not found effective means to combat all of these issues in the classroom.
SMITH
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SMITH
BIBLIOGRAPHY Aysa-Lastra, Mari. Diaspora Philanthropy: The Colombia Experience. The Philanthropic Initiative, Inc. and The Global Equity Initiative, Harvard University, May 2007.
Bempechat, Janine, Suzanne E. Graham, and Norma V. Jimenez. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology 30.139 (1999): 139-58.
Bettie, Julie. "Exceptions to the Rule: Upwardly Mobile White and Mexican American High School Girls." Gender & Society 16.3 (2002): 403-422.
Brown, Anna, and Eileen Patten. "Statistical Portrait of Hispanics in the United States, 2012." Pew Research Centers Hispanic Trends Project, 29 Apr. 2014. Web.
Collier, Michael W., and Eduardo A. Gamarra. The Colombian Diaspora in South Florida. Colombia Studies Institute's Colombian Diaspora Project, 27-29 Mar. 2003.
Duany, Jorge.
“Dominican Migration to Puerto Rico: A Transnational Perspective.” Centro Journal 17.1 (2005): 242-69. City
University of New York. Web.
Fordham, Signithia, and John U. Ogbu. "Black Students' School Success: Coping with the Burden of 'Acting White.'" The Urban Review 18.3 (1986): 176-206.
Gandara, Patricia C., and Frances Contreras. The Latino Education Crisis: The Consequences of Failed Social Policies. Cambridge, MA: Harvard UP, 2009. Print.
Grutter v. Bollinger, 539 U. S. 306. United States Supreme Court. 23 June 2003.
Hall, Tracy, and Barbara Martin. "Engagement of African-American College Students Through the Use of Hip Hop Pedagogy." International Journal of Pedagogies and Learning 8.2 (2013): 93-105.
Johnson, Daniel M., and Rex R. Campbell. Black Migration in America: A Social Demographic History. Durham, NC: Duke UP, 1981. Print.
è
Lamont, Mich le, and Annette Lareau. "Cultural Capital: Allusions, Gaps, and Glissandos in Recent Theoretical Developments." Sociological Theory 6.2 (1988): 153-168.
Lieding, Darlene. Racial Bias in the Classroom: Can Teachers Reach All Children? Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Education, 2006. Print.
ó
L pez, Nancy. "Rewriting Race and Gender High School Lessons: Second-Generation Dominicans in New York City." Teachers College Record 104.6 (2002): 1187-1203.
ó
í
ó
ó
L pez, Mar a Pab n, and Gerardo R. L pez. Persistent Inequality: Contemporary Realities in the Education of Undocumented Latina/o Students. New York: Routledge, 2010. Print.
Benmayor, Rina. "Digital Testimonio as a Signature Pedagogy for Latin@ Studies." Equity & Excellence in Education 45.3 (2012): 507-24.
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SMITH
BIBLIOGRAPHY CONTINUED Nelson Laird, Thomas F., Julie M. Williams, Brian K. Bridges, Michelle Salinas Holmes, and Carla L. Morelon-Quainoo. "African American and Hispanic Student Engagement at Minority Serving and Predominantly White Institutions." Journal of College Student Development 48.1 (2007): 39-56.
Novas, Himilce. Everything You Need to Know about Latino History. New York: Plume, 1998. Print.
Orozco, Maunel. Diasporas, Philanthropy, and Hometown Associations: The Central American Experience. (2006): 1-32. Web.
"School Enrollment: CPS October 2013 - Detailed Tables. "Census.gov. United States Census Bureau, Oct. 2013. Web.
Sugrue, Thomas J. The Origins of the Urban Crisis: Race and Inequality in Postwar Detroit. Princeton, NJ: Princeton UP, 1996. Print.
United States Commission on Civil Rights. Minorities in Special Education. Washington D.C.: n.p., 2009.
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PAGE 18
TIBBE
THE WILD'S CREATURES FOR ADAM.
Tristan Tibbe
tensed and his pupils dilated. An antagonistic and
“These are the biggest paw prints I've ever seen! This wolf must be enormous!” Salem took off his buckskin
unnatural sound rang out amidst the arctic air. It
satchel and laid it against an adjacent tree as he said
reverberated throughout the towering evergreens, rustling
this. He sank to a crouch in the snow, hovering over the
their snow-laden leaves and scattering skittish squirrels
prints like a young boy might do while examining the
that were busy storing acorns in their trunks. A shot had
captivating carcass of some rarely-seen rodent or
been fired.
amphibian that he'd found by chance in his backyard.
The hair on the back of his neck stood up. His muscles
“Have you ever seen anything like these before, Anton?” He recognized the sound like a veteran mother recognizes the wails of her infant child as it screams in the night. A
“No, Salem, I haven't. Judging by the depth and detail of
noise that is piercing and perturbing yet, at the same time,
the imprints, the wolf must be well over 150 pounds, and
familiar and assuring. .308 Winchester, packed with a
it was probably here no more than a few hours ago.”
lighter powder load than usual. The round had missed its
With this, Anton unslung his 1950 Winchester Model 70
target; he had heard the faint pangs and whistles that
rifle and traced the path the paw prints made in the
accompanied a bullet striking frozen bark. The caribou or
ankle-deep snow through his scope. He saw them
elk that it had been intended for would live out its life,
oscillate irregularly between the pine trees until they
blissfully unaware of how close death had come to
disappeared into the dimly-lit distance. Dusk was
enclosing his frigid fingers around its neck.
grasping the Alaskan wilderness and Anton could feel the bone-touching cold that accompanied the coming of night
Although his own hands seemed colder than the chilled,
through his thick, fur-hooded jacket.
morning air that surrounded them, he never noticed these near-frostbitten extremities. After all, there is no place for
He hung the rifle back on his shoulder and looked behind
physical pain in the body of a person who is possessed by
him at the fair, clean-cut face of his little brother. He
revenge. Grief fills the mind and anger severs the nerve-
could feel the subzero temperatures touch his chin
endings. Mental anguish was the only agony that sat on
through his own heavy beard, so he knew that Salem must
his furrowed brows while a recent memory played and
be freezing. He also knew that his brother would never
replayed inside his head, intensifying his despair and
acknowledge this fact since his excitement was alleviating
amplifying his ire...
the effects of the frost.
“Dark is on the rise, Salem. We'll
need a fire for the night. I'll gather wood, you stay here
“Anton, do you see them?!” A middle-aged man with a
and try to keep warm. Be safe.”
face filled with youth and vitality asked the question. His eyes were wide and his breathing was rapid, creating a
Salem rose from his perch above the paw prints and
cloud of water vapor in the air every time he exhaled. A
glanced at the miraculous marks one more time before
sense of childhood awe and excitement was imbued in his
turning his attention to his brother.
voice.
you be careful too. I know how lost you are without me
“Alright, Anton, but
there to guide you.” He gave a playful punch to his
“Yes, Salem,” another middle-aged man answered, older than the other and lacking all adolescence and elation, “I see them.” Where emotion was absent in this second man,
brother's padded shoulder and, even though he'd never admit it, Anton felt a spark of brotherly-love warm the core of his stern heart...
there was experience instead. Four days and five nights of tracking had passed. He
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TIBBE
prayed to the God he knew wasn't there in hopes that this
dropped to his knees and slid through the snow, stopping
string of clear skies would continue. If a storm came
at his brother's lacerated left flank. Multiple fissures had
through then all the evidence he could trace in the snow
been torn in his chest, and blood was erupting from them
would be gone: the feces, the prints, the blood.
like crimson water pouring up and over the brims of bottomless pits in a sea of flesh. There was also a deep
He hadn't eaten, and his only source of hydration had
cut in his head that ran from the tip of his close-cropped
come from snow he'd melted using a pie tin set over a
hair all the way down to his upper-lip.
small fire. His hunger meant nothing to him. He had failed his duty, and now he had to make amends. Family protects family, no matter what the cost.
“Anton,” a weak whisper escaped his throat, “is that you?”
white snow, but the fur-lined hood of his jacket shielded
“Yes, Salem, it's me. Please, brother, try not to move so much. Save your strength.” With this, Anton gently slid
his eyes so he could see. The once-fresh paw prints were
his left arm behind Salem's hemorrhaging head and
now a part of the thin layer of ice that garnished the soft
cradled his bloody body across his lap. To aid the
snow beneath like icing on cake, and with each step that
helpless cause of stemming the loss of blood, he tore
layer cracked and his elk-skin boots sank down a little
pieces of cloth from his own outerwear and stuffed them
past the ankle. He was led due north as he followed the
in the open wounds. Distress and dismay distracted
animal's imprints, and he noticed that the blood trail
Anton's attention, but instinct guided his every action.
The morning sunlight reflected blindingly off the bright
accompanying them was diminishing from thick puddles to a repressed trickle. The creature was weakening, and soon, he knew, he would meet it face to face...
“It... was... the wolf, Anton.” Salem gasped for breath as he tried desperately to relinquish his last words. “Bigger than anything... Not even what we thought... It was... It
After about half an hour of gathering wood, Anton walked
was... Anton, I feel no pain. Is that all right?”
nimbly, but not hurriedly, back to the clearing where Salem had found the prints. Most of the trees' abundant branches were iced over, and it had taken him awhile to find tinder that was dry enough to use. Night had
“Yes, brother,” Anton answered with unwilling tears welling in the pits of his cold, concentrated eyes, “Yes, that's just fine.”
commandeered the sky, but a full moon was out that provided ample light to allow accurate navigation of the
“You're a great hunter, Anton. I... could never be... like
forest.
you. But thank you for the chance... the chance you gave me to hunt beside you. Anton... the wolf... it was... it
He had his rifle strapped across his back and two armfuls
was...” The water vapor present in Salem's final breath
of kindling resting against his chest. As he approached
condensed in the air, and it hung around his head as
his destination, he realized that, besides the occasional
these last words hung in Anton's ears. The air was
crunch of snow beneath his elk-skin boots, the air was
unnaturally quiet again...
abnormally, ominously, quiet. His pace and his pulse quickened as a gut feeling ripped at his bowels and
As the fifth morning turned into the fifth afternoon,
flipped his stomach.
blinding daylight lost its reign in the sky to a thick layer of murky gray clouds that was aided in its subjugation of
The air remained dead quiet until death found his voice in
the sun by a strong wind swiftly carrying it above the
a low moan escaping from the mouth of a middle-aged
arctic tundra. A thin mist of snow blew over the ice-
man writhing alone in a patch of scarlet snow at the far
veneered ground, highlighting the aerodynamics of its
end of the clearing.
slopes and curves. Patches torn out of his coat and pants allowed this frigid air to penetrate his outer layers and
“Salem!” Anton yelled, dropping the wood and sprinting toward his wounded brother. For the last five feet, he
strike his thin thermals unhindered.
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The tracks had led him to a river that ran east to west
oriented back toward the intruder, ready for another
across his path. The current was strong and the water
assault. The two stood in stalemate for several seconds,
foamed where jagged rocks broke the surface and
and then the grizzly bowed its head and drove directly at
obstructed its flow. Salmon floundered bountifully in the
him, paws tearing up chunks of snow and turf below as it
shallows, and several jumped up into the air as he knelt
charged. He dove away again, but this time he landed on
down and cupped his hands to ladle some of the gelid
his feet and broke straight into a sprint back toward his
water into his mouth.
starting position where the Winchester lay half-buried in a drift of displaced snow.
After he was done drinking, he sat on his knees and absently observed the fish as they launched themselves up
The rifle was in his hands and shouldered by the time the
and out of their liquid home into the atmosphere of an
bear had doubled-back from its previous charge. Taking a
environment completely unexplored. Besides the few feet
deep breath, he brought the scope to his eye and fixed the
of air they attained as they heaved themselves out of the
cross hairs directly on the grizzly's forehead; there was no
frothy water, the fish would never be able to roam this
need to account for bullet drop at this close a distance. As
new world of dirt and earth and sun and sky, for one foul
the bear crossed the half-way point between them, he
stroke that sent them out onto the icy ground would result
exhaled slowly and squeezed the trigger.
in a slow, struggling death by asphyxiation. The bear hit the forest floor like a freight train toppling He consoled himself by remembering that the opposite
off its tracks. The earth shook and birds broke for the
was true for him. One firm step into the river's raging
safety of the sky as its corpse collided with the ground. It
rapids would submerge him beneath their violent surface
slid several meters and then skidded to a stop at his feet, a
where he could live out the final minutes of his agonizing
lifeless mound of gore and fur. Without looking at the
life in unparalleled peace and prosperity. He gripped his
creature's carcass, he lowered his rifle, slung it across his
arm and bit his tongue, forcing the fantasy out of his head.
down-turned shoulders, and set out on the path of the
He couldn't leave this world just yet, not while he still had
wolf prints again...
a job to do. Family protects family. Family always protects family. He had broken this sacred creed, failed to
Anton's ears rang with the words Salem had said just
uphold the principles it implied, and now he had to make
moments ago. The last words he would ever say. With a
up for what he could, even though there was already so
heavy heart, Anton used his thumb and forefinger to close
much he could not.
his brother's empty eyes. The moon cast a pale light that illuminated the body's upturned head and highlighted the
His thoughts were shattered as a mighty roar erupted from
features that weren't coated in blood. Even in death,
the tree line to his back. He felt the ground tremble and
Salem looked young and vibrant. A single unchecked tear
instinct carried him into a defensive roll to the right as
trickled down Anton's cheek, and it fell to the ground
something big and black charged and mauled the air
between his crossed legs, meeting its millions of icy
where he had just been. He had sensed the rifle leave his
brothers in the same spot where a separate set of siblings
person as he'd tucked to begin the evasive maneuver, and
just said goodbye. This was the only sign of emotion he
a quick glance over his shoulder confirmed this feeling.
ever let slip. After a moment more of embracing the body
The look also revealed to him that his attacker was a
that had once been his little brother, he delicately laid it
towering fifteen-hundred pound grizzly bear. He knew
down to rest for the final time. On a bed of frost and
that the beast must be protecting its territory, and censured
frozen earth, Salem would sleep forever.
himself for having foolishly stayed in the vicinity of the fish-filled river for so long.
Rising to his feet, Anton looked about the clearing. Nebulous paw prints lined the open area, dividing it into
He rose to his feet and stood on his toes, ready to vault in
sections that looked like the pieces to some somber,
any direction in case the creature came at him again. By
monochromatic jigsaw-puzzle, and a single series of them
this time the bear had recovered from its charge and was
continued back into the denser woods, intermixed with
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pools of burgundy blood. He knew that this meant the wolf
wood. Anton felt for a blanket inside the backpack. While
had been injured, and he decided to stay to see what other
he searched, his hands came to grasp something sturdy
evidence he could find. At an angle from his position,
and smooth.
about five meters away, there laid his brother's Remington 700 rifle. He advanced adamantly towards it, and after a
He removed the object and saw that it was a nickel-plated
few steps the essential details of the gun revealed
hunting knife inside a deer-skin sheath. Under the dull
themselves through the dark. He could see a splintered
light of the approaching dawn, he examined the beautiful
stock and a crooked barrel protruding from a hand-grip
blade and noticed that a single Inuit word had been
that had been broken in two. He maintained his pace and
carved into its polished oak handle: ani, or brother. He
once the gun was within arm's reach he crouched down
gripped the weapon tightly and brought it to his chest
and grasped it in one hand, bringing it closer to his face
with white knuckles, and then he strapped it to his waist
so he could see its finer features.
and searched the bag once more before finding a blanket. He gently laid the sheet over Salem's empty frame and
Further examination of the rifle revealed that its wooden
stood in silence and respect for several moments. The
components were covered in teeth marks that penetrated
moss-colored blanket resembled a patch of grass peeking
several layers of its solid outer grain and that the only
through the dull-white snowdrifts, and if Anton tried hard
parts of the gun still intact were the breech and the bolt at
enough he could almost imagine that it really was just a
the end of the twisted barrel. He grabbed the handle and
mound of earth surrounded by snow and that his brother
pulled back on the bolt, launching a chambered round into
was actually off ambling among the millions of trees in
the air. He caught it as it crested and, bringing it down
the vast conifer forest, just out of sight. Then reality
close to his eyes, noted that it was spent: His brother had
gripped his dream and tore into pieces that plunged to the
been able to fire a shot before the wolf had destroyed his
ground like snowflakes in a winter storm. Without
weapon.
another word, but with many more thoughts, he turned and began to follow the trail of bloody paw prints out of
Anton immediately began to scan the clearing, traveling in
the clearing and into the forest...
lines across it, east to west, then west to east, as if he were following some invisible grid. After an hour of straining
The bear's body had probably been discovered by scanty
his eyes to see into the shadow-veiled ground, he finally
scavengers of the backwoods by now, and in a normal
caught sight of a bleached beam of moonlight reflecting
situation this knowledge would've brought him great pain.
off something in the snow. He bent down and picked up
If any part of an animal went unused by a hunter then it
the object and found that it was the missing bullet: a
was wasteful and dishonorable to the deceased. Innards,
single .30-06 shell partially painted with blood. He had
meat, and muscle could be used for food, skin and fur for
found the cause of the wolf's weeping injury.
clothing. The anatomy of a single bear could serve a thousand purposes, and he left it all to rot in the cruel,
The projectile was completely intact, still perfectly smooth
forsaken wilderness. Normally, he would feel ashamed
and conical, indicating that the round had gone straight
and immoral, but family protects family, and any act done
through the animal without hitting any bones or crucial
in the name of that protection is forgivable.
organs. It had been a clean shot, making a hole about the size of a pencil as it entered the body and one about the
As he remembered this, the path of paw prints brought
size of a golf-ball as it exited. With this knowledge in his
him into the vicinity of another open clearing. He stopped
head and a trail of blood and prints for him to follow in
himself at the edge of the tree line and continued
the ground, he knew he'd be able to find Salem’s killer.
following the faint trail of blood and tracks only with his eyes. They went about halfway into the thirty meter
Before he departed, he decided to cover his brother's
clearing and then disappeared behind the roots of a
body. Solemnly walking across the clearing and kneeling
gigantic fallen conifer. He slid his rifle off his back and
beside his motionless sibling, he reached into the rucksack
gripped it with both hands, barrel pointed down to the
that his brother had set aside before he'd left to gather
ground but ready to be raised at a moment's notice. With
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cautious steps, he slowly approached the downed tree.
of bravery.
Its girth was wide and created a blind spot directly behind
The wolf set off at the same time as him. Each bounding
its upturned roots that he would not be able to see around
stride it took stole twice as much ground as Anton could
until he was almost parallel with them. Once he'd taken
with four of his sprinting steps. Still, Anton was ready for
about twenty paces toward the timber, he heard a low,
it once it reached him. At the last second before they
malevolent growl escaping from behind its base. He raised
connected, he bowed forward and let his left shoulder take
the rifle and quickened his clip, angling out and around so
the brunt of the wolf. He collided with the animal's neck
he could put some space between him and whatever was at
and pushed back with enough force to send it head-over-
the bottom of the tree. He had given a berth of about ten
heals into the freshly powdered earth. He landed on top of
meters and was almost able to peer behind the blind spot
it, and it snapped viciously at his head and throat as he
when an immense, 190 pound gray wolf emerged around
forced it away from him with his forearm. Salem's knife
its side.
was still in his right hand, and he was about to plunge it deep into the beast's belly when the wolf unexpectedly
He froze in place and so did it. They stood staring at each
ripped its body around with enough force to break the arm
other with eyes of intelligence and fortitude. He observed
bar Anton had been pinning it with.
the murderer of his little brother: It had neutral fur and pointed ears atop a streamlined head that led a body of
It bolted around him before he could turn back to face it,
incredible strength and mobility. Its sapphire eyes bore
and it pushed him into snow with its massive paws. He
into his but did nothing to phase or frighten him. He
lost the knife as he fell, and it slid somewhere beneath the
returned the stare with equal intensity, and they remained
thick layer of precipitation that coated the ground. Anton
like this, two hunters examining each other in silent
gritted his teeth as the monster dug its claws through his
respect and understanding, for a time that could only be
coat, puncturing his skin, but no internal organs. It lunged
determined by the amount of new-fallen snowflakes that
for him again, but he wrapped a hand around its neck and
had begun to rain down from the celestial sphere above.
forced its sharpened canines away from his face. With his
They truly were the wild's creatures: the only beings that
other hand, he swiftly sifted through the snow, trying to
still sustained their own flesh unaided and forged their
get a grip on the misplaced blade.
own maxims and morals to live by in this encroached back country that was once the majestic and massive frontier. A
He was strong but the wolf was stronger, and it gradually
dying breed, forced against each other by the very creeds
pushed his arm down until its growling mouth was close
and dogmas that made them kindred spirits.
enough to his eyes for him to see the saliva that stuck to its tapered teeth. Its fangs were just about to sink into his
Anton thought about this as he gazed at the wolf. He
fragile flesh when, suddenly, he felt the dagger's glossy
admired his adversary, its muscular legs and ashen mane,
handle in a snowdrift above his head. He ripped it from its
the way its stance reflected beauty and grace even as it
wintery refuge and thrust it into the wolf's heaving breast.
served as a harbinger death. Perhaps in some other reality he and this wolf would have parted ways without
The power behind the animal's downward drive abruptly
bloodshed, and they would have left each other with an
and utterly perished. Its neck went limp and its legs gave
understanding that could only be shared by creatures of the
out as it sank to the ground, bloody and beaten. Anton
same kind. Perhaps this could have been, but the other
rolled over and forced himself onto his feet. He glanced
creature killed his brother, so Anton knew what he had to
down at his chest for only a moment to make sure that the
do. Family protects family.
wounds he'd received weren't fatal, and then he stood over the wolf and examined its body. The hilt of the knife stuck
In a voice as cold as the air into which it was dispersed, he said,
“My name is Anton, and I am going to kill you.� He
out of a gory gash it had made in the animal's chest and it was dispelling blood at a rapid rate. The crimson liquid
let the rifle go in the name of integrity, drew out Salem's
was trying desperately to coagulate, but the wound was
knife in the name of honor, and charged, in the name
too large and the sanguine stream flowed from it too
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fast. In the dying light of the approaching dusk, this scene
could still feel her looking back at him. The sensation
reminded Anton of the night five days ago, when his
compelled him to lower the rifle, so he did. He peered at
brother was lying in a spot such as this covered in cuts and
her through the open air. The indistinguishable shapes of
carnage much like the wolf was now. This memory
the dark approached his empty eyes. Nothing more of her
reminded Anton of the single rifle round he had found
could be seen without the scope so, firmly and finally, he
lying in the snow, and he began to scan the wolf with even
brought the rifle back to his shoulder.
more attention in order to find the injuries the shot had inflicted on its figure. But, despite several minutes of close
The hair on the back of her neck stood up. Her muscles
observation, he found no other wounds on its body. No
tensed and her pupils dilated. An antagonistic and
bullet had ever struck its solid frame.
unnatural sound rang out amidst the arctic air. It reverberated throughout the towering evergreens, rustling
As Anton made this analysis, something small and soft
their snow-laden leaves and scattering skittish squirrels
yelped and made its way weakly around the tree trunk
that were busy storing acorns in their trunks. A shot was
from which the great wolf had come. He turned and stared
fired.
through the twilight as a baby wolf, no more than four weeks old, painfully dragged itself towards him. After a few delicate steps, the infant creature collapsed to the earth. As it lay still in the slumber of death, Anton noticed a pencil-shaped hole on its upturned side. He rose from the wolf he'd fought to the ground, where it lay gasping for air to keep itself alive, and proceeded toward the little pup. Once he reached it, he gingerly slid a hand beneath its fuzzy shoulder and turned it over. On the opposite flank of the wolf, in line with the hole on the other side, there was an open wound about the size of a golf ball from which blood weakly flowed. He gazed at the laceration in solemn realization: Family protects family. Turning his neck to see over his downcast shoulder, he peered back at the adult wolf, noticing the maternal stare it gave the young pup. With great care, he moved his hands away from her deceased child.
Anton thought about this for a very long time. What could be done when the law demanded one course of action while the heart demanded another? What would happen when passion stood in the way of principle? Was it better to forgive, or avenge? He did not know the answers to these questions, but he did know what he was going to do.
With adamant resolution, Anton stood up and made his way over to the rifle he'd discarded in the snow. The brisk winter air assaulted his senses and the darkness of night distorted his sight. As he approached the silhouetted weapon, he slowly bowed, picked it up, and sighted in on the wolf with Salem's knife in her chest. He stared at her through the scope, nothing more than an obscure mound of scarlet hair and hemoglobin in the vanished light, but he
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INTERNATIONAL SERVICE LEARNING: AN EVOLUTION OF THOUGHT Nicole Rombach My Own Experience
also able to witness the resilient nature of children firsthand. To this day, in fact, I am unable to explain the
Like many Honors students at Central Michigan
impact those kids had, and though our exchanges were
University, I was intrigued by the idea of a service learning
simple, I was struck by how much we could learn from
course that would take me to a different country. Maybe it
each other. I was also able to wrestle with all sorts of
was my desire to travel, my motivation to serve those less
thought-provoking questions I otherwise would not have.
fortunate than myself, or perhaps I was already looking to build my future resume. In truth, it was probably a
After witnessing a new level of poverty, I was forced to
combination of all three. Regardless, after hearing about
face my own privilege and was provided with new
Los Ni os de Oaxaca, I knew it was the program for me.
inspiration to serve others. I was forced to consider
Imagine, three weeks in Mexico volunteering at an
common displays of ethnocentrism and was able to
orphanage when you not only want to work with children
explore the importance of cultural sensitivity. I gained a
in the future, but also want to minor in Spanish. It seemed
new understanding for the obstacles non-native English
pretty much perfect.
speakers face as I struggled to navigate this new language
ñ
barrier and found myself making errors with code Somewhere around Week 2, however, I was slightly less
switching. Furthermore, I was able to come to the
enchanted. The question was posed whether or not we as
realization that while my work as an individual might not
individuals were actually making a difference and
leave any sort of lasting effect, after years of building this
unfortunately, it seemed that the answer was no. We were
relationship, I was part of something larger than myself.
not single-handedly improving the lives of these children
Yet, more importantly, I was able to come to the
and if anything, the short duration of our stay was only
realization that my perspective would forever remain
creating more inconsistency. To make it worse was the
altered as a result, as I would always be analyzing new
notion that only countries with a certain economic standing
situations through the lens of Oaxaca.
can even conceive something like this in the first place, and
“‘relatively well-off people in this world to travel long distances to experience other people’s misery,’” essentially for their own betterment (Grusky, 2000, pg. 866). It’s safe to say this caught my attention. that it basically allows
So, when it was proposed that I help survey potential sites for a new service learning course based out of Costa Rica as part of my Honors Capstone Project whilst studying abroad, I immediately fell in love with the idea. Granted, I realized that my own contribution would be minute, but
Was what we were doing, in all actuality, selfish? Were we
I was still doing my part to ensure that other students
unintentionally exploiting the people we meant to be
were given the same opportunities as I was.
helping? It didn’t seem like it, but the point was that suddenly we were forced to think about international
Reporting on the Research
service learning from a different perspective. At its basis, service-learning looks to combine In the end, I somehow remained a proponent. And, by the
meaningful service activities with more traditional
conclusion of the course I could personally attest to the
instruction and reflection in order to enrich learning,
powerful and, in some cases, life-changing nature of these
promote civic responsibility and strengthen the
experiences
community (Bradley & Saracino, 2013). Surprisingly,
– my own transformation serving as proof. Not
only was I given the chance to interact with some of the most inspiring, selfless individuals I’ve ever met, but I was
though, it is a movement which can be traced back to early philosophers including Plato and Aristotle. It was
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ROMBACH
Dewey, however, who argued that direct application results
But still, there is the question of effectiveness.
in greater learning than memorizing facts and theories, and
Fortunately, there is an ample body of literature (apart
congruent with this line of thinking, service learning
from my own experience) which claims that these
requires students to utilize concepts from the classroom in
programs are more than effective in terms of benefiting
order to find real solutions to real social issues (Speck &
students. Crabtree (2008) summarizes many of these
Hoppe, 2004).
findings including: more egalitarian student-teacher relationships, personal development and self-discovery,
With this in mind, programs geared at service learning
greater knowledge of subject matter, confidence,
have become increasingly more common and have been
language skills and a more complex understanding of
implemented across disciplines at colleges and universities
other cultures and social issues. Kiely (2005) reports an
across the country (Bradley & Saracino, 2013). They have
increase in intercultural sensitivity, intellectual
also become more diverse, varying from introductory
development and global citizenship and Chang, Chen,
classes to graduate seminars and including anywhere from
Huang & Yuan (2012) report increases in intercultural
short units to semester-long commitments or, in some
competence, language skills, appreciation of differences
instances, projects that extend across years and courses.
across cultures and first-hand knowledge of global
The type of service can vary as well, from direct to
problems, reporting that these experiences can also
indirect, with high to low levels of responsibility, and
influence future study and career choices.
partners that include small grassroots initiatives, large nonprofits or, in some cases, for-profit organizations that
Still not convinced? Sutton (2011) adds that many
serve anywhere from the on-campus community to local
students develop a more global perspective of their
neighborhoods, nearby municipalities or other states and
profession and gain a sense of how others perceive the
countries (Felten & Clayton, 2011).
place they call home, along with a sense of the socioeconomic and political landscape of the host country.
International programs (like the one in Oaxaca) have
This knowledge, in turn, encourages the generation of
become increasingly popular, as globalization has led us to
more philosophical questions such as why there is such a
prioritize cross-cultural understanding and global
great discrepancy in wealth, and motivates them to find
citizenship (Crabtree, 2008). In fact, most American
the answers (Grusky, 2000).
institutions now include a clause within their mission statements, pledging to produce leaders with the ability to
The kicker though, is that as Felton & Clayton (2011)
understand and operate in a diverse and progressively more
emphasize, in order to ensure that students are actually
complex world (Jacoby, 2009).
growing in terms of efficacy, identity, agency, leadership, morality and academy, these experiences must be well
That being said, international service learning is the
designed. This notion becomes even more important as
intersection between service learning, study abroad and
Crabtree (2008) points out, that the intent of these
international education. More specifically, it is an
programs is to reciprocally benefit the community. Seems
academic experience in another country where students
obvious, I know; however, international service learning
participate in service activities that address the needs of the
is not without its criticism.
community, interacting with others and contributing to a cross-cultural dialogue while participating in reflection.
First and foremost, the impact on communities and
This in turn allows them to not only understand course
agencies is largely unknown and it has been argued that
content, but global and intercultural issues alike. It also
students benefit much more than those they are
allows them to gain a new appreciation for both the host
supposedly helping. This is largely because while
country and their respective disciplines, encouraging them
programs seek to make a real contribution, in most cases,
to realize their responsibilities as citizens, on both a local
it is unclear as to whether or not they are actually
and global scale (Crabtree, 2011; Bringle & Hatcher,
fulfilling the needs of the community.
2011). It is here, that the Grusky article (2000) I mentioned
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ROMBACH
before, comes into play as he also warns that because everyone
community, presence of an on-site advocate, resources to
involved has different goals, there is the potential for conflict.
accommodate volunteers and the ability to provide direct
For example, students may be looking for an adventure, faculty
service, although willingness to partner and potential for a
might be interested in research and communities might be
sustainable relationship should also be evaluated (e.g.
hoping to generate awareness, bring a better image or secure
Crabtree, 2008; Crabtree, 2013; Jenkins & Sheehey, 2011;
more votes, tourist money, exchange programs or further
Sharpe & Dear, 2013; Grusky, 2009; Bringle & Hatcher,
donations, all of which have the potential to interfere or obscure
2011; Felton & Clayton, 2011; Camarena & Collins,
the original goals of service.
2013; Amerison, 2014 )
Furthermore, without thoughtful preparation and program
The last piece, however, came from the area in which the
development, there is the possibility of simply perpetuating
site was located, as it too, must be able to meet the needs
cultural misunderstandings and stereotypes, drawing additional
of the program. In this vein it was important to account
emphasis to disparities in wealth and opportunity (Grusky,
for: presence of tourists, opportunities for cultural
2000). Crabtree (2008) warns of this as well, in addition to the
immersion, access to technology and ability to
sense of absence when the visitors leave, the prospective
communicate with home, safety of the area, availability of
dissatisfaction with home and the inability for others to
housing and the discrepancy in climate, diet and language,
understand the students’ experiences upon their return, which
which might show students what it means to not be an
can result in their continuation down a path of privilege
American, facilitating border crossing and culture shock
(Crabtree, 2013).
(e.g. Sharpe & Dear, 2013; Whitney & Clayton, 2011; Change, Chen, Huang & Yuan, 2012; Camarena &
There is also the possibility that communities can be partnered
Collins, 2013; Chapdelain, Ruiz, Warchal & Wells,
to the point of exhaustion and made to feel like learning
2005).
laboratories (Jacoby, 2009) as good intentions can quickly become insulting to the host country (Plater, 2011).
Critical Reflection
So, how do we go about navigating these challenges? Despite
It was with this criteria in the mind that I began to explore
my experience with Oaxaca, it quickly became clear to me that I
potential sites for my project, still feeling that the benefits
had previously failed to consider the more practical elements of
of service-learning opportunities were worth trying to
international service learning, or more specifically, the elements
navigate the associated challenges. And, after having
which might make one site preferable to another.
some initial luck with sites and making some potentially valuable contacts, it seemed that my project was running
Constructing a Framework
ahead of schedule. It was then that I started hitting roadblocks.
It was with this that I set out to develop a framework for the purpose of site evaluation. In the end, I identified three essential
However, through this exploration I was able to validate
pieces to this puzzle. In regard to the program’s ability to meet
my framework. So, let me digress. Not long after
the needs of the site, it was important to consider the time of
successfully completing my first site visit, I finally
year volunteers were needed, the frequency and duration of
learned why I had yet to be contacted by a man affiliated
service; the knowledge, skills and resources required for project
with a religious organization. Apparently, in order to be
completion; and the ability to complete the project within the
put in contact with the organizations he had described, it
given timeframe. It was also necessary to create minimal
was necessary for me to go to bible study because he
disruption, while leaving a lasting impact (e.g. Amerison, 2014;
apparently needed
Jacoby, 2009; Jones & Steinberg, 2011; Sharpe & Dear, 2013).
despite any qualifications or experience I might have. I
“proof” that I was a “good person”
had suspected that this might be an issue to begin with, Likewise, it was important that this site was able to meet the
but didn’t realize it would be to this extent, which begs
needs of the program. In this regard, it was vital to consider the
the question, who qualifies as a
perception of the organization, alignment of goals with the
“good” person?
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ROMBACH
He later explained himself though. Apparently they had had a
we continue down the same path, reassured by the fact
bad experience with two boys taking inappropriate pictures of
that our intent at least, is good?
children. Furthermore, the program directors from the university had been sending anyone who expressed interest, and the
While wrestling with these questions myself, I went back
organizations had been complaining that there was little to no
and forth several times, and you may as well. Let me be
commitment and consistence, and the students were only
clear though, I am no way undercutting the benefits of
interested in playing with the children, not really helping with
international service learning, nor do I mean to advocate
anything else. While I was sorry to hear this, I was also
against it. I myself, would not be the person I am today
intrigued by the relevance to my project. Although we were
without it. However, in order to minimize the chance that
unable to discuss it further, one volunteer did mention that she
these experiences will be harmful, careful consideration
felt it was more for the students than for the organization.
must be given to plans for implementation by program directors and sites must be chosen in order to emphasize
I was later able to talk about this with a couple of my friends
partnership, reciprocity and sustainability.
and liked that it was something I could start a conversation about
– that I could use what I had learned throughout this
More so than that, we as participants must go into it with
project to make others think about things they had yet to
the right mindset. Chances are, these were not
consider. That being said, while I felt that it was unfair of this
considerations you had prior to reading this. Chances are
man to make me go to bible study, I recognized that it was his
you had not considered the complexity of this issue
way of being careful and protecting the sites, which was also
before. But this is part of learning. This is part of growing.
my goal in developing this framework.
Your conclusions may not be the same as mine, but the point is, that your perspective on the topic will forever
Beyond that, I was forced to consider things I hadn’t before.
remain altered. We may not be single-handedly saving the
The first, was that volunteering is not a common activity for
world, but in most cases our work will not only be useful
those in Costa Rica. In fact, the verb
“to volunteer” doesn’t even
exist in Spanish, if that says anything. Thus, it was glaringly obvious that this was more of an American concept in general. I was also suspicious of the number of American students who were interested in helping, wondering if it was just another thing for their resumes (pot meet kettle, I know).
The second, was that Costa Rica happens to be one of the most well off countries in Central and South America and is relatively stable in terms of the economy, government and literacy rates. Because of this, I couldn’t help wondering if they really needed the help. I also felt that there was a lot of English spoken in the city and that the cultural experience wouldn’t be nearly as rich as it had been in Mexico. I felt that there was probably another country, another place where we could go and make a difference, or else we might as well just be working at home, this time presenting the question, who really needs the help?
Concluding Thoughts
But what does this all mean? Should we stop service learning initiatives all together? Should we focus our efforts at home? Or do the benefits simply outweigh any potential for harm? Should
in the moment, but appreciated long-term. And, in most cases, we will learn more than we ever thought possible.
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REFERENCES Amerison, R. (2014). Research-based recommendations for implementing international service-learning. Journal of Professional Nursing, 30(2), 175-179.
Bradley, C. L & Saracino, M. (2013). The case for service-learning: Overcoming the obstacles. Journal of Family & Consumer Sciences, 105(2), 41-44.
Bringle, R. G. & Hatcher, J. A. (2011) International service learning. In R. G. Bringle, J. A. Hatcher & S. G. Jones, International service learning conceptual frameworks and research (3-28). Sterling, VA: Stylus Publishing.
Camarena, P. & Collins, H. (2013) Lessons from ten years of a faculty-led international service-learning program: Planning, implementation and benefits for first-year honors students. In M. Mulvaney & K. Klein, Preparing Tomorrow’s Global Leaders: Honors International Education (pp. 85-104). Lincoln: National Collegiate Honors Council.
Chang, W., Chen, C. L., Huang, Y. & Yuan, Y. (2012). Exploring the unknown: International service and individual transformation. Adult Education Quarterly, 62(3), 230-251.
Chapdelain, A., Ruiz, A., Warchal, J. & Wells, C. (2005). Service-learning code of ethics. Bolton, MA: Anker Publishing Company, Inc.
Crabtree, R. D. (2008). Theoretical foundations for international service-learning. Michigan Journal of Community Service Learning, 15(1), 18-36.
Crabtree, R. D. (2011). Progress and promise for international service-learning. Michigan Journal of Community Service Learning, 17(2), 78-82.
Crabtree, R. D. (2013). The intended and unintended consequences of international service-learning. Journal of Higher Education Outreach and Engagement, 17(2), 43-66.
Felten, P. & Clayton, P. H. (2011). Service-learning. New Directions for Teaching & Learning, 2011(128), 75-84.
Grusky, S. (2000). International service-learning: A critical guide from an impassionate advocate. American Behavioral Scientist, 43(5), 858-867. Jacoby, B. (2009). Facing the unsettled questions about service-learning. In J. Strait & L. Lima, The Future of Service-learning� New Solutions for Sustaining and Improving Practices. (pp. 90-103). Sterling, VA: Stylus Publishing.
Jenkins, A & Sheehey, P. (2011). A checklist for implementing service-learning in higher education. Journal of Community Engagement & Scholarship, 4(2), 52-61.
Jones, S. G. & Steinberg, K. S. (2011). An analysis of international service learning programs. In R. G. Bringle, J. A. Hatcher & S. G. Jones, International service learning conceptual frameworks and research (89-112). Sterling, VA: Stylus Publishing.
Kiely, R. (2005). Transformative international service-learning. Academic Exchange Quarterly, 9(1), 275-281.
PAGE 29
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ROMBACH
REFERENCES CONTINUED Plater, W. M. (2011). The context for international service learning: An invisible revolution is underway. In R. G. Bringle, J. A. Hatcher & S. G. Jones, International service learning conceptual frameworks and research (29-56). Sterling, VA: Stylus Publishing.
Sharpe, E. K. & Dear, S. (2013). Points of discomfort: reflections on the power and partnerships in international servicelearning. Michigan Journal of Community Service Learning, 19(2), 49-57.
Speck, B. W. & Hoppe, S. L. (Eds.). (2004). Service-learning: History, theory and issues. Westport, CT: Praeger Publishers.
Sutton, S. B. (2011). Service learning as local learning: The importance of context. In R. G. Bringle, J. A. Hatcher & S. G. Jones, International service learning conceptual frameworks and research (125-144). Sterling, VA: Stylus Publishing.
Whitney, B. C. & Clayton, P. H. (2011). Research on and through reflection in international service learning. In R. G. Bringle, J. A. Hatcher & S. G. Jones, International service learning conceptual frameworks and research (145-187). Sterling, VA: Stylus Publishing.
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A FUNNY THING FOR FAYE. Ashley Howell Death is a funny thing. I pictured him large, intimidating, with a barbed wire tattoo encircling a large bicep. I expected to find him lurking in the dark, with the face of a monster.
Instead he showed up in the daylight, unassuming, wearing a bow-tie and a shiny smile. I only later noticed that under his trench coat, he hid his secret weapon of cell mutation.
He politely knocked on your door and insisted to come in and sit down for tea. Sensing your apprehension, he engaged in silly negotiation to disguise his true determination.
In the end, he gently took your hand and slowly pulled you away from me. He got off on the agony that manifested itself within my heart and on my face. His pleasure increased with each inch he dragged you, only reaching ecstasy with the final yank, when I was sure that my children would never know your kindness as I had.
HOWELL
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ACQUIESCENCE BIAS VERSUS THE POWER OF INNOCENCE: SIGNING WITHOUT KNOWING OR SIGNING NAIVELY? Sabrina Thelen Faculty Advisor: Dr. Kyle Scherr Abstract Suspects are guaranteed interrogation rights to protect them from police intimidation. However, most suspects choose to waive rather than invoke their interrogation rights. One factor that is thought to increase the tendency of suspects to waive their rights is the acquiescence bias (i.e., individuals’ inclination to passively comply). Yet, innocent suspects’ mindsets may overwhelm their inclination to acquiesce and instead motivate them to waive their rights willingly. We compared innocent and guilty individuals’ willingness to waive and invoke their rights in an experimental setting mirroring a pre-interrogation. Results demonstrated that guilty individuals tended to passively comply with social pressures and engage in a preinterrogation acquiescence bias by signing the waiver and invoke forms at an equal rate. However, innocent individuals were more likely to sign a waiver form compared to an invoke form thereby suggesting the power of their innocence was overwhelming the acquiescence bias. These findings have implications for guilty and innocent suspects’ pre-interrogation decision-making and policy decisions aimed at reforming pre-interrogation protocols.
Keywords: acquiescence bias, power of innocence, interrogation rights, Miranda, social influence
During custodial pre-interrogations suspects are presented
people’s tendency to acquiesce is their preference for
with rights in which they can choose to remain silent and
social desirability (Diers, 1967). Other reasons for
to receive legal representation (e.g., Miranda rights).
acquiescing are to avoid dislike from the questioner and
However, many suspects choose to waive these rights
to protect one’s self-image (Couch and Keniston, 1960).
(Leo, 1996), and this decision is influenced by a range of
Additionally, people might acquiesce because such
situational and dispositional factors (for a review see
behavior is linked to a cognitive process in which
Kassin et al., 2010). Because this decision has a
affirming a request is effortless and the first step in
substantial influence on how any potential subsequent
understanding the solicitation (Gilbert, 1991).
interrogation plays out, it is important to identify underlying factors that influence suspects’ pre-
The idea that individuals engage in acquiescing because
interrogation decisions.
they believe doing so will promote their social desirability, self-image, likeability, or ability to
The Acquiescence Bias
understand a situation can be problematic in a preinterrogation setting. Pre-interrogation contexts are
The acquiescence bias is the mindless inclination of an
characterized by social influences that are designed to
individual to agree to a given request (McGee, 1967) and
capitalize on suspects’ tendencies to acquiesce. It is
has been speculated to influence suspects’ pre-
important to look at the potential influence of the
interrogation decisions. Previous research has shown that
acquiescence bias on both guilty and innocent individuals
people have a tendency to acquiesce across myriad
because the possibility exists that pre-interrogation
situations, both trivial and important. For example,
acquiescence may operate differently depending on
individuals tend to agree regardless of item content
suspects’ status. That is, the power of innocence may
(Couch & Keniston, 1964) and people more often
overwhelm the acquiescence bias among innocent
respond with a yes rather than a no (e.g., Zuckerman,
suspects.
Knee, Hodgins, & Miyake, 1995). One explanation for
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PAGE 32 The Power of Innocence
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not differ, evidence will be provided for the idea that both innocent and guilty persons tend to acquiesce. However,
Innocent suspects differ from guilty suspects across a
if innocent suspects rely on their naive mindset and
variety of dimensions. One critical difference concerns
consequently sign the waiver form at a higher rate than
the mindset in which innocent and guilty suspects
the invoke form, evidence of the power of innocence will
approach the pre-interrogation. Innocents approach the
be demonstrated.
ï
pre-interrogation with a na ve disposition in which they believe they have nothing to hide and the truth will set
METHOD:
them free (Kassin, 2005). Research has shown that suspects’ mindsets, especially innocents’, have a strong
Participants
influence on their pre-interrogation decision-making (Kassin & Norwick, 2004; Scherr & Franks, 2015).
Undergraduate students (N = 106) from a large
Although this naivet
Midwestern university were recruited from the
innocents cope with the stress of an accusation (e.g.,
psychology department subject pool for partial course
Guyll, et al., 2013; Scherr & Franks, 2015), the mindset is
credit. All participants were native English speakers with
disadvantageous to innocent suspects’ decision-making
the average age of 19.24 (SD = 1.98). The sample was
because innocents’ may more willingly and mindfully
predominately White (79%). The sample consisted of 73
waive their rights during pre-interrogations (Scherr &
females (68.9%).
é is advantageous because it helps
Franks, 2015). If this is true, then the power of innocence may overpower the influence of the acquiescence bias for
Experimental Design
innocents. If this idea is supported, it would provide strong evidence of the power a suspects’ innocence can
Participants were randomly assigned to a 2 (Status:
have on decision-making and the negative consequences
innocent vs. guilty) x 2 (Rights Form: waiver vs. invoke)
the na ve mindset has on pre-interrogation decision-
between-subjects experimental design. All participants
making processes.
were accused of violating the experiment rules by sharing
ï
answers with a confederate during an experimental task. Research Overview
Innocent participants were wrongly accused, as they followed the rules of the experiment; guilty participants
The present study was an attempt to examine competing
were rightly accused, as they violated the rules of the
ideas that are both supported by the extant literature.
experiment. All participants were told they would have to
Based on research bearing on the acquiescence bias, there
meet with the professor in charge of the experiment to
is reason to believe that all suspects will acquiesce during
discuss their misconduct. Participants were given a form
their pre-interrogation decision-making processes.
that indicated they had the right to have a student
However, based on the literature demonstrating the power
advocate with them while they met with the professor.
of innocence, it also could be the case that innocent
The forms participants were given either indicated that by
suspects are less influenced by the acquiescence bias,
signing, the participants would invoke or would waive
and, instead, sometimes base their pre-interrogation
their right to the student advocate. All participants were
decisions on their underlying na ve beliefs.
told that the form was unimportant and a trivial part of
ï
—much like what commonly occurs during
the process In the current research, innocent and guilty individuals
naturalistic pre-interrogations (Domanico, Cicchini, &
were presented with different rights forms relating to their
White, 2012; Levesque, 2006). This social influence is
pre-interrogation decision-making (i.e., either an invoke
important to note because it means that signing either
or waive form) to determine whether acquiescing rates
form demonstrates acquiescence and passive compliance
are similar for innocent and guilty individuals or whether
to what participants are being requested to do during the
the power of innocence overwhelms the acquiescence
experimental session. Participants’ decisions to sign or
bias among innocent individuals. If signing rates between
not sign the rights form was used as the dependent
innocent and guilty individuals across the two forms do
measure.
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MATERIALS:
THELEN
true aim of the research and also indicated that they were 100% certain with the suspicion were labeled as
Demographic questions. Participants completed
suspicious participants.
assessments of their age, race, and sex. PROCEDURE: Previous Arrests. Prior experience with the criminal justice system can impact suspects’ willingness to waive
Upon arrival to the lab, participants were taken, with a
their rights (Leo, 1996; Softley, 1980). To control for this
confederate who posed as another participant, to a room
influence, participants were asked to report the number of
where they were each given a consent form. After the
times they had been arrested. A frequency analysis
experimenter collected the completed consent forms, the
specified that 98 participants (95%) reported that they had
cover story was explained to the pair in which they were
never been arrested, five participants (5%) reported that
told that the aim of the experiment was to examine
they had been arrested once, one participant (1%) reported
individual differences associated with individual and team
being arrested twice, and one participant (1%) reported
decision-making. The pair was told that they would be
having been arrested at least five times. One participant
completing different tasks to measure their abilities to
did not report the number of times of arrest.
work independently and with each other. The first task participants completed was an independent demographic
Rights forms. Two documents, both of which were the
assessment on a computer. When the assessments were
same length (i.e., single-spaced and one half-page long)
done, the pair was left alone for a few minutes to get to
were used to inform participants of their rights. However,
know each other. The experimenter then entered the room
the two documents differed in the contents of the signature
with individual and team logic problem packets and
line. Participants assigned to the waiver condition were
instructed the participant and confederate to work alone on
given a form with a one-sentence statement which
the individual logic problems and together on the team
informed the participant that by signing the document, the
logic problems.
participant would be waiving the right to have a student advocate present at the meeting with the professor.
During the completion of the logic packets, the status
Participants assigned to the invoke condition were given a
manipulation occurred. In the innocent conditions, the
form with a one-sentence statement which informed the
participant and confederate worked on the independent
participant that by signing the document, the participant
logic problem packets alone and did not discuss their
would be invoking the right to have a student advocate
answers, thereby following the rules of the experiment. In
present at the meeting with the professor. Each of these
the guilty conditions, confederates solicited help from the
documents was printed on resume paper to enhance
participant on the last individual problem, thus violating
authenticity of the document.
the rules of the experiment. Only the confederate was knowledgeable of the guilt status of the participant (i.e.,
Suspicion check. When sessions were finished,
experimenters remained blind to their guilt status).
participants completed open-ended questions pertaining to their suspicions about what was being studied. Participant responses were coded as suspicious if any of the following was evident from their responses: They had ideas about the main aims of the research, they did not believe the accusation, or they did not believe that the confederate was another participant like themselves. When participants listed their suspicions about the aims of the research, they were also asked to rate how confident they were on a scale from 1 (Not at all certain) to 5 (100% certain). Participants who shared an accurate suspicion related to the cover story, confederate, or the
When all of the logic problems were completed, the experimenter administered a one-page filler survey that the pair was to complete while the experimenter presumably graded the logic packets. When the pair informed the experimenter that they had completed the survey, the experimenter returned to the room looking irritated, collected the surveys while informing the pair that their logic packets were still being examined, and then exited. A minute later the experimenter returned, informing the pair that there was a problem and that s/he needed to speak to each of the two separately. The
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confederate was then escorted from the room for
THELEN
RESULTS:
questioning. Preliminary Analysis After five minutes had passed, the experimenter returned to the participant’s room and accused the participant of
Background factors. Preliminary analyses found no
cheating on the individual logic packet because the pair
significant relationship between signing rates and
each had written down the same wrong answer. The
ethnicity, ps > .27; number of arrests, ps > .56; age, ps
participant was also told that the professor had been
>.27; or sex, ps >.18. Therefore, none of these factors were
informed of the incident and was irritated about the
included in the main analyses.
situation, and that the participant was going to have to meet with him after the session to discuss disciplinary
Suspicion check. Examination of participants’ responses
action. Before exiting the room, the experimenter
to the open-ended suspicion check items and
informed the participant that, in accordance with
accompanying confidence assessments indicated that no
departmental policy, another individual would assist in
participants expressed accurate suspicions about the cover
handling the incident.
story, confederate, or the true purpose of the research.
After the experimenter left the room, a second
Main Analyses
experimenter entered carrying an official-looking document (i.e., the rights document). The participant was informed that the document listed students’ rights in alleged instances of academic integrity violations, but the experimenter did not elaborate on the document’s information. The document informed participants that they could choose to have a student advocate present with them during any meetings with the professor. In the invoke conditions, the document indicated that by signing the form, participants were choosing to exercise their right to have a student advocate present during the meeting with the professor; in the waive conditions, the document indicated that participants were choosing to forego their right to a student advocate. All participants were told that the form and process was a formality and not important. Participants were then given the rights document and made the decision whether to sign it or not (either invoking or waiving their right to a student advocate).
Rights decision. Forty-three of the total 52 participants (83%) signed the waiver document, waiving their right to a student advocate. Forty-three of the total 54 participants (80%) signed the invoke document, invoking their right to a student advocate. Two chi-square analyses were conducted to examine the competing hypotheses of whether all participants would acquiesce and sign the forms at equal rates or whether guilty participants would sign the forms at equal rates, but innocent participants would sign the waiver form at a higher rate than the invoke form. The first chi-square analysis examined the signature rates of guilty participants between the invoke and waiver forms. Results demonstrated that guilty suspects signed both forms at similar rates, χ2 (2, N = 106) = .346, p = .68, suggesting these participants were acquiescing across both forms to the social influence (Figure 1). However, the second chi-square analysis which examined the signature rates of innocent participants between the invoke and
When participants finished deciding to sign or not sign the rights document, they were given a suspicion check form to complete. When these forms were completed, the experimenter debriefed the participant by disclosing the deception used in the study and explaining the need for the deception. The experimenter then answered any research-related questions the participant had and then thanked and dismissed the participant.
waiver forms yielded a different result. Innocent suspects signed the waiver forms more than the invoke forms, χ 2 (2, N = 106) = 1.86, p = .15, suggesting that these
ï
participants are motivated by their na ve mindset and are not mindlessly acquiescing (Figure 1).
HONORS PLATFORM
PAGE 35
THELEN ï
reassured by their na ve mindset that the truth will be realized and therefore decide to waive their rights are left unprotected and vulnerable to police interrogation tactics. From that moment on, innocent individuals become a target for police intimidation and are likely to be placed in high-stress situations that can lead to false confessions (Kassin et al., 2010) and wrongful convictions (Garett, 2011). Innocent individuals often waive their rights naively believing that the police are there to help and will eventually discover their innocence, but this is far from
ï
reality. As such, the na ve mindset that motivates Figure 1. Innocent vs. Guilty Signing Tendencies. This figure illustrates invoke and waive signing tendencies among innocent (n = 60) and guilty (n
innocents’ decisions to waive their rights increases the likelihood they will be involved in intense interrogations
= 46) individuals.
with no legal counsel that could have been avoided altogether with innocents’ choosing not to waive their
DISCUSSION:
rights. This research demonstrated a critical difference between innocent and guilty individuals’pre-interrogation
The Acquiescence Bias
decisions were influenced by the acquiescence bias, which promotes their tendency to respond in a compliant
The observed patterns also support the idea that guilty
manner to the requests made during a pre-interrogation.
individuals’ decision-making during pre-interrogation
Innocent individuals, however, tended to be influenced
settings is greatly influenced by the acquiescence bias. In
instead by their na ve mindset. These innocent
the accusatory context of pre-interrogations, research has
individuals’ specious beliefs that the truth will set them
demonstrated that guilty individuals experience higher
free overwhelmed the acquiescence bias and motivated
stress than innocents and this stress interferes with their
them to waive their rights.
cognitive functioning (Guyll, et al., 2013; Scherr &
ï
Franks, 2015). This stronger experience of stress among guilty individuals serves to undermine their cognitive
The Power of Innocence
resources and capabilities. As a result, guilty individuals The observed effects support the idea that innocent
may have difficulties understanding the pre-interrogation
individuals hold powerful na ve mindsets that are
situation and their rights.
ï
extremely influential during their pre-interrogation decision-making process. The results of the current
These results also support the idea that guilty individuals
research advance the literature by demonstrating that
are highly susceptible to social influences and symbols of
these na ve mindsets motivate innocent suspects to
authority present in a pre-interrogation context and these
engage in problematic decision-making. Indeed, these
factors may motivate guilty individuals’ likelihood to
results suggest that innocent individuals in the present
acquiesce. When guilty individuals are presented with a
study did not mindlessly comply, but rather understood
rights form during the pre-interrogation, told that the
that by waiving their rights they were choosing not to
form is trivial, and asked to sign a form, the acquiescence
exercise their rights and by invoking their rights they
bias will influence them to mindlessly sign the form
would choose to exercise the right to a student advocate.
thereby waiving their interrogation rights. This is evident
Problematically, many innocents waived their rights more
from the results of the present study because guilty
often than they invoked their rights.
individuals’ signing tendencies did not differ across
ï
forms. Consequently, in an actual pre-interrogation they These findings shed light on the problematic reality of
will waive their rights and be unprotected and vulnerable
innocents’ fate when they decide to waive their rights in
for the remainder of the interrogation.
pre-interrogation settings. Innocent individuals who feel
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Legal Implications
THELEN
undergraduate students who were very homogenous in regards to age, ethnicity, and sex. Additionally, the
These findings corroborate the concern for the alarmingly
sample of college students were likely to have had a
high waiver rate observed in pre-interrogations
higher intellectual level of functioning than most criminal
(approximately 80%; Leo, 1996). One way to further the
suspects do (Ceci & Williams, 1997), which could impact
prophylactic intended via interrogation rights is to require
pre-interrogation understanding and decision-making.
police to emphasize the importance of the interrogation
Consequently, it is imperative that future research
rights to suspects. Such protocols would reduce the
examine whether or not the effects observed in the
tendency of police to undermine the importance of the waiver form by telling suspects that the document is simply a formality and unimportant. The requirement would likely decrease suspects’ willingness to waive their rights and help the original intent of interrogations become realized.
By further understanding the naivety of innocent individuals, other protocols can be developed to reduce the probability that innocents will choose to waive their rights in pre-interrogation situations. Suspects should be
present study generalize to a more heterogeneous range of individuals and to suspects from more susceptible populations.
Future research should examine the impact that legal rights education and awareness have on innocent and guilty individuals’ tendencies to waive their rights during pre-interrogation settings. If educating individuals on the importance of legal rights during pre-interrogation settings prior to their involvement in a pre-interrogation
informed that after waiving their rights, they will become
setting causes their waiver tendencies to decrease and
part of an interrogation which they will experience
invoke tendencies increase, important guidance for future
completely alone for an unknown period of time. With an
education programs can be created. Programs could be
explanation of the process that will immediately follow the
developed in school systems that assemble students and
waiving of their rights, innocent suspects might be
discuss the problematic issues that waiving rights has on
discouraged to waive their rights and rather choose to not
suspects to achieve individual rights awareness.
continue alone. Consequently, the occurrence of false confessions and wrongful convictions should also
CONCLUSION:
decrease, promoting the civil liberties the legal system intends to offer suspects.
Innocent and guilty individuals’ decision-making is influenced by different factors during pre-interrogation
Limitations and Future Directions
situations. Guilty suspects’ pre-interrogation decisions are motivated by the acquiescence bias and innocent
One limitation is that the procedures used in this research are not entirely reflective of actual suspects’ experience during a pre-interrogation, because individuals’ experiences during the laboratory sessions were less extreme than the experiences of actual suspects. Because these factors could potentially reduce student perceptions of the situation’s severity, the findings of this research could differ from effects observed in a naturalistic preinterrogation setting. However, our findings are consistent with the literature, so it is likely that any differences would be in magnitude and that our findings are more conservative than what would be observed in a naturalistic pre-interrogation situation.
The sample used for this research study consisted of
suspects’ pre-interrogation decisions are motivated by
ï
their na ve mindset that the truth will set them free. In both instances, suspects are susceptible to waiving their rights and subsequently being subjected to police intimidation. In the case of vulnerable suspects, such as innocents, these instances put them at an increased risk for providing false self-incriminating information and wrongful convictions. Therefore, it is critical that policy reforms further the prophylactic intent of interrogation rights and that research programs identify ways to help suspects, especially those who are vulnerable, exercise these safeguards.
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REFERNCES CONTINUED Softley, P. (1980). Police interrogation: An observational study in four police stations. London, England: Royal Commission on Criminal Procedure.
Zuckerman, M., Knee, C. R., Hodgins, H. S., & Miyake, K. (1995). Hypothesis confirmation: The joint effect of positive test strategy and acquiescence response set. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 68, 52-60.
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CONTRIBUTORS
CONTRIBUTORS: Ashley is pursing an English degree at Central Michigan University as well as a certificate in creative writing. She hopes to one day bring the infective magic of poetry workshops into local prison enviroments and give voice to those who have been silenced.
Ashley Howell
Kristopher is a biology student who wishes creative writing paid more. He enjoys gene transformations, mosquito microinjections, and writing poems that connect on an emotional level. His future goals include writing a fantasy novel and creating a viral vaccine. He owns plants and drinks coffee religiously.
Kristopher Kieft
Nicole Rombach graduated from Central Michigan University in May 2015 with a major in Psychology and minors in Child Development and Spanish. She is currently working on Masters of Education in College Student Affairs Leadership at Grand Valley State University and has a Graduate Assitantship in Academic Advising. She hopes to continue working in Higher Education.
Nicole Rombach
Alayna Smith graduated from Central Michigan University last year. She's a die-hard optimist who believes in the power of communities to create a better world. She is currently serving as an AmeriCorps member in Washington, D.C. working to provide educational opportunity and equity.
Alayna Smith
Andrew Stow was born in Las Vegas in 1991. After graduating from DeWitt High School in 2010, Andrew attended Central Michigan University to study Secondary Education. During his time, Andrew joined the Sigma Alpha Epsilon Fraternity and the Reserve Officer Training Corps. Andrew will commission as a Military Intelligence Officer.
Andrew Stow
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CONTRIBUTORS
Sabrina received her BS in psychology from Central Michigan University. She was an assistant in Dr. Scherr’s psychology and law lab for three and a half years. Sabrina now works in Dr. Slatcher’s lab as a first year doctoral student in Social Psychology at Wayne State University.
Sabrina Thelen
Tristan Tibbe is a sophomore at Central Michigan University. His interest in creative writing started in grade school after he first learned how to string multiple sentences together on paper. Over the years, he has started numerous short stories, but
“The Wild’s Creatures” is his first
finished creative writing endeavor.
Tristan Tibbe
COVER ARTIST: Cierra Toliver is a senior at Central Michigan University majoring in General Political Science and minoring in Art. She hopes to attend grad school after graduation or pursue an internship in her field. She hopes to someday work in a career using community based art to influence positive social change.
Cierra Toliver
CMU Honors Mission Statment Providing high academic ability students with unique educational opportunities and experiences, the CMU Honors Program challenges students to aim higher and to achieve more academically, personally, and professionally for the greater good of our disciplines, our society, and our world.
CMU Honors Core Values The primary values that guide the implementation of the Honors Program mission include: Critical thought, scholarly inquiry, and creative expression Respect and appreciation for diverse peoples and ideas in a global society High standards for integrity and personal aspirations Active Citizenship and service for the greater good
"Everyone has his own specific vocation or mission in life; everyone must carry out a concrete assignment that demands fulfillment. Therein he cannon be replaced, nor can his life be repeated, thus, everyone's task is unique as his specific opportunity to implement it." -Viktor E. Frankl
Features Lost Identity: An examination of Native American history in a secondary setting Andrew Stow Poems: Ruminating, Lost in the Wind, She was a Redwood Kristopher Keift When Culture and Country Collide: Comparing educational opportunities of African American and Latin@ youth in Detroit and Miami Alayna Smith The Wild's Creatures Tristan Tibbe International Service Learning: An evolution of thought Nicole Rombach A Funny Thing Ashley Howell Acquiescence Bias Versus the Power of Innocence: Signing without knowing or signing naively? Sabrina Thelen