The Honors Platform, Volume 4, Issue 1 by Honors Program

The Honors Platform A CMU Honors Program journal volume 4 | issue 1

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staff

spring 2017

Co-Editors in Chief: Ashley Howell Kristyn Turner Editorial Board: Amanda Platt Brenna Fitzmaurice Francesca Ferrara Kaci Clayton Leah Umberger

winnie ervin is a third-year honors student at CMU. She is pursuing majors in Sociology and Psychology, as well as a minor in Visual Art. She hopes to attain a graduate degree in counseling and eventually specialize in art therapy.

Cover Design: Winnona Ervin Graphic designer: Celeste Hay Advisor: Dr. Phame Camarena, Honors Program Director

dedication: Matthew echelberger On behalf of our honors community, we would like to dedicate this volume of The Honors Platform to the late Matthew Echelberger. Matt was an honors faculty member within the English department who lost his battle with cancer early this year, to the profound sadness of all who knew him. The following tributes from his students speak to the positive and enduring impact he made in the lives of his students and within our honors community. â&#x20AC;&#x153;Matt joins the rank of individuals that were lost far too soon. Throughout his near 20-year career at CMU, he has had the opportunity to teach hundreds of students, and I am lucky enough to be one of them. There are specific qualities about Matt

that stick out in my mind as a professor. I doubt to ever come across someone as passionate about taking an individual interest in their students. He accommodated students by tailoring their assignments to their academic backgrounds. On Fridays, he would hold his office hours in Kaya Coffee House, encouraging students to come talk about assignments over coffee. Once or twice, he cancelled our formal class in order to meet with students individually to monitor their progress in the class. Fostering this sense of individuality helped students succeed inside and outside of the classroom. It was in his class that I felt my writing style elevate in structure and critical thought, which have persisted throughout my other

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college classes and professional endeavors. I am indebted to him for this, and more.” – Emileigh Stoll “Matt was more than anyone could’ve asked for as a professor. He truly cared about his students in all areas of life. This alone speaks volumes for those who didn’t have the pleasure of getting to know him. I enjoyed his ENG201H section every day. He was one of my favorite professors, always making the class laugh, smiling constantly. Joy radiated off of him, and it immediately spread to us all. He was the type of person that you wanted to excel for. I’ll never forget how one of the only times I’ve ever felt like a good writer was because of him. I wrote a personal statement that needed work. After edits, he told me it was one of the best ones he’s ever read. I could not have been happier. He often talked about his granddaughter, too. You could tell within seconds how much he loved her. My class sent cards, thoughts, and prayers. We knew how much Matt would’ve wanted to be there. He will be beyond missed. He was the epitome of wonderful. Matt, I hope you can see the impact you’ve had on me, as well as all of us. Your smile and laughter better be there too!” – Savannah Fullmer “I remember dreading ENG201H during my first semester Sophomore year at CMU, thinking it would be a non-beneficial class to me academically, just a class I had to get through to graduate. However, from day one, Matt pushed me to become a better writer and challenged my creativity. He not only cared about his students

academically, but also personally and was an extraordinary man to have conversations with. He had a knack for keeping his students engaged during every class! I am deeply saddened by his passing. Prayers and condolences to his entire family and the entire CMU community he has touched. Matt, you will be deeply missed.” – Gretchen Imel

great peace and assurance.” –Jac Ewasyshyn “In my four years at CMU, I don’t know that I have come across a professor who was more passionate and dedicated to his students than Matt Echelberger. Certainly, no other professor has held class

Joy radiated off of him, and it immediately spread to us all. He was the type of person that you wanted to excel for.

“In trying to create a substantial tribute to Matt, I went through old papers from class for inspiration. What I found within every paper was overwhelming evidence for the thing I loved most about Matt: his ability to empower others. Matt was single-handedly the most encouraging professor I’ve had at CMU. Every single assignment in his class was designed to be molded so that students could pursue what they really cared about. Matt knew that even an English class could become a meaningful course if students were able to highlight their experiences, passions, and questions. During the semester that my Centralis cohort had Matt, most of our dinner conversations included what projects we were working on and what cool things we’d gotten to do that day (having class outside is still a notable favorite). It was a privilege to have a class with Matt because it was painfully obvious that he cared about each of us. Matt allowed all his students to embrace English by embracing themselves. With great certainty I can say that Matt’s empathy and dedication will leave a lasting impact on all of his students. May he rest in

outside at the request of his students—an encounter that remains to me one of my favorite class periods in my entire school career. Matt demonstrated a remarkable commitment to his students, dedicating his Friday afternoons to meet with students at Kaya, while leaving his office door open whenever he was there. I could always count on finding him in his office, a smile on his face and a genuine interest in talking about life, any time I was passing through. I remember how infectious Matt’s positivity and happiness was; I always left his presence with a smile on my face. I especially loved hearing him talk about his granddaughter; he clearly loved her more than words could express. The world has lost an amazing man, and he will be greatly missed by many.” –Kristyn Turner

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contents 6

Awareness and Management of the Rising Cost of Post-Secondary Education jordyn guilmette

Bohemian Elephant katelin crane

A Tale of Two Narrative Tests: Comparing the Test of Narrative Retell and the Test of Narrative Language for Interchangeability lydia wetters

Alleviate Gina Torre

Morning Glory shane guenin

The evolution of monsters to monster high jade driscoll

green at midnight Kristopher Keift

The Use of a Narrative Approach to Investigate Quality of Life in Aphasia amanda platt

Little league soccer Meghan Dyer

harry potter and the secularization of britain kristyn turner

CMU Honors MissionÂ Statement Providing high academic ability students with unique educational opportunities and experiences, the CMU Honors Program challenges students to aim higher and to achieve more academically, personally, and professionally for the greater good of our disciplines, our society, and our world.

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From the Editors Welcome to the fourth edition of The Honors Platform. This journal is produced by Central Michigan University undergraduate honors students in an effort to showcase the rich variety of interests and accomplishments of students within the program. In keeping with that mission, we have collected an outstanding array of work from honors students that highlights the program-wide core values of (1) critical thought, scholarly inquiry, and creative expression and (2) respect and appreciation for diverse peoples and ideas in a global society. We believe the works we have collected for this edition reflect these values and represent the program’s commendable intentions. In reading through the final versions of each submitted piece, we identified several themes the pieces share. In particular: Anything can be a story. This idea of narrative, especially in relation to the impact narratives can have on humans, is repeated throughout this edition. As humans we have “life stories” that work to create identities and influence choices. These stories are usually created and retold through glimpses of the past communicated through language and/ or images. Telling these stories is how we know ourselves and come to know others. Words live in the language centers of our brains, but also on our tongues, in our creativity, and in the air of dialogue between us all. Visual expression of identity exists in the art and the artist, in the paint brush, in the lens, and in all manifestations of

artistic inspiration. As undergraduate honors students, in this time of finding our place and passions, it is especially important to use our words, research, and art to communicate who we are and what we stand for. This edition of The Honors Platform enables this goal of artistic and critical communication of identity. This edition demonstrates why words matter and why freedom of expression is so vital. It features poems that include themes of coming of age, memories of religion and childhood, and discovery of what it means to be an individual. It includes visual art that reflects the spirit as well as the talent of each artist. It also includes several critical papers regarding the significance of the individual’s narrative and the impact of literature and language. We hope you find the featured papers and creative works as valuable and engaging as we did.

Celeste Hay is an honors senior studying fashion design and french. celeste is passionate about promoting social justice and equity across campus, in the local community and across the diverse global community. this is celeste’s first year assisting with the honors platform.

Acknowledgments This volume would not have been possible without the support of Dr. Phame Camarena, the director of the Honors Program at CMU. Without his unwavering patience with trivial concerns and willingness to meet and discuss ideas for this journal, it would not exist. We would like to thank our editors, Amanda Platt, Brenna Fitzmaurice, Francesca Ferrara, Kaci Clayton, and Leah Umberger, whose dedication and enthusiasm made this edition possible. We would also like to express our gratitude for the time and skill shared with the journal by our graphic designer, Celeste Hay. Sincerely, Ashley Howell and Kristyn Turner Co-Editors in Chief, The Honors Platform Honors Platform | 5

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Awareness and Management of the Rising Cost of PostSecondary Education jordyn guilmette

Introduction Education has been highly valued for centuries. Over the last few decades, more and more people have been graduating high school and heading to college for a degree. The twenty-first century is a time when most people in the country have the

percent), making it difficult for people to afford this incredible opportunity (Jackson 2015). To lessen the financial burden of earning a college degree, there are a number of options available for prospective students and their families including grants, scholarships, loans, 529 plans, jobs, and other forms of aid. Many people, however, are not aware of many of the options available to them, and because of this, they either do not attend college because they do not think they can afford it, or they attend college by taking out loans and then find themselves in significant debt upon graduating with their college degree. Although a college degree is beneficial, there are still ways to lessen this burden and lower the amount of debt students acquire during their time at a university.

Over the last few decades, more and more people have been graduating high school and heading to college for a degree. The twenty-first century is a time when most people in the country have the opportunity opportunity to attend college after high school and pursue a degree in a field of their choice. College not only trains people in their field, but it also trains people in their lives by broadening their minds and strengthening their personal characteristics and skills. College is a place where people can strengthen their weaknesses as well as pursue their strengths. Unfortunately, over the last thirty years, the cost of higher education in the United States has increased significantly (nearly 260

Average Cost of College The cost of higher education has increased significantly over the last thirty years. Since 1976, the cost of attending a private, nonprofit four-year institution rose from $10,680

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to $33,480 for tuition and fees per year. For a public four-year institution, the cost of tuition and fees rose from $2,600 to $9,650 per year (CollegeBoard). In addition to tuition and fees, the CollegeBoard offers information on the increase in the cost of higher education with the cost of room and board included. For private, nonprofit four-year institutions, the cost of attendance rose from $16,760 (room and board alone costing $6,080) in 1976 to $45,370 (room and board costing $11,890) in 2016. For public four-year institutions, the cost of attendance rose from $8,160 (room and board costing $5,560) in 1976 to $20,090 (room and board costing $10,440). The percentage increase in the cost of attendance at a private four-year institution is approximately 35.5%, and the percentage increase in the cost of attendance at a public four-year institution is approximately 146.2%. These numbers are significant especially when compared to the average inflation rate of 4.08% over the last thirty years (usinflationcalculator.com). Options available for saving for college Parent savings/contributions. With the high cost of college, there are a number of ways students and their families can save to prepare and lessen the financial burden of higher education. The first and most obvious of these options is personal savings. It is not uncommon for parents to start a separate savings account to help fund their child’s college education as soon as they are born. With this account, they will add a certain amount to it each month or other determined period to grow the balance over eighteen years. Based on a study from the University of Michigan, approximately 60% of college students between the ages of 18 and 22 received some form of financial assistance from their parents to pay for tuition, rent, and

transportation. According to the study, the average amount parents contributed to their children was about $7,500 per year. Thirty years ago, this number would have been sufficient to fully fund a student’s college education (CollegeBoard). Today, however, $7,500 per year would only cover approximately 37% of the total cost of a college education (at a public four-year institution). There are parents who have enough income to fund their child’s education completely, but this is not common. According to Sallie Mae’s (2014) national study of college students and parents, students neither paid out of their own pocket nor borrowed for college in only 31% of cases—their parents fully covered the cost of their education in these cases. Interestingly, parents did not contribute anything to their child’s education in 31% of families as well. Michigan 529 plan. Another way for families to save money to pay for college is through a Michigan 529 investment plan. This is an investment growth plan that is defined and regulated by Section 529 of the Internal Revenue Code. Created by the Small Business Job Protection Act in 1996, 529 plans are also called qualified state tuition plans. These plans help families to save more money over time through investing and can be used for qualified tuition expenses as well as other education expenses such as fees, certain room and board costs, books, supplies, and computer and Internet access fees and printers. The Michigan Education Savings Program (MESP) explains that the 529 plan earnings grow “free from federal tax, and many states offer a state income tax deduction or tax credit for contributions . . . and withdrawals are tax-free at both the federal and state level when used for qualified higher education expenses.” To present some more history on the 529 plan, savingforcollege.com began providing ratings

Jordyn guilmette is a student in the College of Business Administration graduating this spring with a degree in Business Information Systems. She is excited to start her career after graduation and begin building upon her experiences she had in at CMU and in the Honors Program. Jordyn also hopes that students and their families can benefit from her research when it comes time for them to pay for their vital college education.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to extend a special thank you to the faculty advisor who worked with me on this research, Dr. James Felton in the College of Business Administration. I would like to thank him for his willingness to assist me in this opportunity, and also for guiding me in the research process. Thank you, Dr. Felton!

of various 529 plans in 1999, in addition to the publication of the first edition of a journal by Joseph Hurley titled “The Best Way to Save for College – A Complete Guide to 529 Plans.” In 2001, the Tax Relief Act was signed into law by President George W. Bush, “turning 529 plans from tax-deferred college savings plans to tax-free college savings plans through the year 2010” (Hurley 2005). Also, “529 plan assets under management reach[ed] $13.5 billion” (Hurley 2005). The private college 529 plan was introduced in 2003 – to help parents save for their child’s education – as an “institution-sponsored prepaid contract plan,” and represents over 200 private colleges (Hurley 2005). Three years later, the Pension Protection Act of 2006 made federal tax-free treatment a permanent tax benefit for 529 plans. Only a year later, “The College Cost Reduction and Access Act was signed allowing a student-owned 529 account to be reported on the Free Application For Student Aid (FAFSA) as a parent asset” (savingforcollege.com). Also in 2007, 529 plan assets under management reached benefits of $129.9 billion. However, in the midst of the economic recession, 529 assets fell to $105 billion in 2009, but rose to $204.5 billion in 2013 (savingforcollege.com). Clearly, there have been fluctuations in the use of the 529 plan, and it is a fairly new option for saving for college (less than twenty years old). However, in general, it has become increasingly popular over its lifespan thus far. The tax-free benefit availability is highly attractive to families who want to support their children in pursuing a higher education degree. Persons eligible to open a 529 account include United States citizens or resident aliens with a valid Social Security Number or Taxpayer Identification Number that are at least 18 years of age. The beneficiary is the student and can be anyone with a valid Social Security Number or

Taxpayer Identification Number. This is typically the child, the grandchild, or oneself (MESP). The person who opens the account does not “need to be related to the beneficiary, [and] there may be only one beneficiary per account” (MESP). In regard to contributions, MESP allows a maximum balance of $500,000, but an account can be opened with as little as a $25 per investment option. However, even if the account reaches the maximum value of $500,000, it will “continue to accrue earnings [and] further contributions would be returned and not applied” (MESP). The MESP explains that there are various ways to make contributions, including a one-time electronic funds transfer, a recurring automatic funds transfer from a checking or savings account, an automatic payroll deduction, a rollover from another state’s 529 plan, or a personal check, bank draft, or cashier or teller’s check. As for withdrawals, only the account owner can make them. Withdrawals may be requested by mail, by phone, or from the plan’s website. The funds may be paid directly to the institution, sent directly to the beneficiary for use in educational expenses, or to reimburse the owner for payments made to the beneficiary’s education (MESP). There are three main types of withdrawals. The first type is a qualified withdrawal, which are not taxed and include “any withdrawals that will be used for Qualified Higher Education Expenses for the student at an Eligible Educational Institution” (MESP). Qualified Higher Education Expenses include tuition, certain room and board expenses, and any fees, books, supplies and equipment required for enrollment and attendance at an Eligible Educational Institution, as long as the student is the primary user of the equipment. The MESP also distinguishes special needs students, stating that any additional costs needed for their education

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will also be covered as qualified withdrawals. Additional limitations include that the student must be enrolled for at least half-time in order to use withdrawals for room and board expenses, and withdrawals for room and board expenses may not exceed the cost of attendance. The second type of withdrawal is a taxable withdrawal. The MESP explanation of a taxable withdrawal states that the “earnings portion of this withdrawal is taxed but doesn’t include any additional penalty.” For example, if a child receives a full scholarship, withdrawals could still be used to pay for school but earnings would be taxed. If a child received a partial scholarship, a portion of the withdrawal equal to the amount of the scholarship would be taxed. The third type of withdrawal is a non-qualified withdrawal, of which “the earnings portion…can be taxed normally and also subject to a 10% additional federal penalty” (MESP). This would include withdrawing money to buy a car, pay for a vacation, pay for a home improvement, or any other expense irrelevant to the beneficiary’s education. But even if one urgently needed to pay a medical bill and withdraw money from his 529 plan as a last resort – “it would still be taxed and penalized” (MESP). The Michigan 529 plan also allows several tax advantages to the account owner including federal income tax benefits, estate tax planning benefits, and state income tax benefits. Contributions to a 529 are not deductible for federal income tax purposes; however, investment earnings grow tax-deferred and qualified withdrawals are made tax-free. For estate tax planning purposes, the MESP states: There’s another tax advantage

unique to the 529 plan. There’s no federal gift tax on contributions up to $14,000 per year for single filers and $28,000 for married filers. There’s even an option to gift amounts up to $70,000 for single filers and up to $140,000 for married filers if pro-rated over 5 years. This means you could make a one-time gift equivalent to the 5-year amount and it could all qualify for the federal gift tax exclusion. For state income tax purposes, contributions are deductible up to $5,000 per year for a single filer and $10,000 for joint filers (Internal Revenue Code Section 529). Rollovers from another 529 account, however, are not eligible for a deduction. Qualified withdrawals are not subject to Michigan state income tax for neither the owner nor the beneficiary. One of the many benefits of the 529 plan is that there are no application fees, no cancellation fees, and no change in beneficiary fees. There are only program management and underlying mutual fund fees. Like any other investment, portfolios for the 529 plan range from conservative to aggressive in terms of their risk options. The MESP also clarifies, “Assets in an account are not guaranteed or insured. The value of your account may decrease and you could lose money, including amounts contributed.” Part-time jobs. Students may also decide to work a parttime job to save money for college. According to a study done by Concordia University in 2015, professor Caitrin Blake writes that the Bureau of Labor Statistics reported that 22.3% of high school students worked part-time jobs in the year

2014. On average, these students spent approximately 19 hours a week at a part-time job. With 52 weeks in the year and working a minimum of two years during high school and earning a minimum wage of $8.50 (U.S. Department of Labor 2016), this means a student can earn up to $16,000 in their high school years. This may not cover the entire cost of a four-year education, but it certainly can make a significant contribution. An even greater percentage of college students work part-time jobs to help pay for college and living expenses. Nearly 80% of college students work in addition to taking classes (Fottrell 2013). MarketWatch claims this number is a result of the recession of 2008 during which students experienced a financial wakeup call. However, being a college student is an expensive endeavor. It is hard to imagine not having any type of income unless the student’s parents are filling his bank account. Even if the parents are contributing the average $7,500 a year to their child’s education, there is still a large amount of expense that needs to be covered. The average college student works approximately 19 hours a week at a minimum wage job. With 40 weeks in the school year and the student working all four years of college, they can make nearly $26,600 in those four years. This number can do so much to cover living expenses during college, especially when students move to off-campus apartments, typically after their second year. The average monthly rent for students living in off-campus apartments at Central Michigan University is approximately $513; this is the per person cost, as most students live with roommates that help to offset the full cost of rent Honors Platform | 9

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(based on numbers from ForRent University at Central Michigan University). For example, for an apartment that costs $750 per month with two roommates, each person would pay $375 per month. Most student housing complexes provide amenities such as laundry, cable, and Internet, but the tenants are responsible for paying for electric and gas. Additional expenses for the student would include groceries and gas for their vehicles since they might have to commute to campus. The $8,375 a student can make per year, working 19 hours per week, can help significantly to cover these costs so the student can avoid using loans or other means to pay for those living expenses. Since most students do not take classes during the summer, they can make money in a full-time or part-time job or internship. If they are making minimum wage working 40 hours a week for approximately 12 weeks of summer break (for each summer prior to each year of school), a student could make approximately $16,320. Students will often use this amount of money to pay expenses for the following year of college. Financial Aid Options The FAFSA. The first step to receiving any type of financial aid is filling out the Free Application For Student Aid (FAFSA) through the United States Department of Education. Filling out a FAFSA is not required; however, opting out of this step could mean missing out on a significant amount of aid. It is the form families fill out to apply for grants, loans, work-study programs and other various forms of aid for college students. A student’s eligibility for grants and federal loans is based on financial need.

Filling out the FAFSA is important because many colleges and universities use it to decide to whom they will give out scholarship money, as well as how much each student will receive (Daugherty 2015). There are different types of aid available when filling out the FAFSA: Federal student aid, State student aid, College or career school aid, and other financial aid. Loans. The first type of aid available for students is borrowing loans. Loans must be paid back after the student is done taking classes. Loans come in two different types: subsidized and unsubsidized. Undergraduate students with financial need are eligible for Direct Subsidized Loans, but the college, university, or trade school determines the amount a student can borrow. The awarded amount cannot exceed financial need. The United States Department of Education pays the interest on a Direct Subsidized loan while the student is in school at least half the time (6 credits), for the first six months after the student leaves school (grace period), and during a period of deferment (postponement of loan payments) (U.S. Department of Education: Office of Financial Aid). There is a limit on the amount of time a student can receive Direct Subsidized Loans. The time limit is based on academic years, which is defined by the U.S. Department as “the amount of academic work [a student] must complete each year as defined by the [institution]” (for example, most institutions’ academic years are made up of fall and spring semesters but may include a summer semester as well during which the student must complete at least 24 credits). The time limit for Direct Subsidized Loans is “deter-

mined by 150 percent of the published length of the program” (U.S. Department of Education). The U.S. Department of Education has decided that the maximum amount of time a student enrolled in a fouryear bachelor’s degree program is six years (150 percent of four years is six years). Examples given by the United States Department of Education Office of Financial Aid include: “If a student is enrolled in a two-year associate’s degree program, the maximum period for which he or she can receive Direct Subsidized Loans is three years (150 percent of two years is three years).” The Department of Education also clarifies “Because your maximum eligibility period is based on the length of your current program of study, your maximum eligibility period can change if you change to a program that has a different length.” Also, certain types of enrollment might “cause a student to become responsible for the interest that accrues on his or her Direct Subsidized Loans when the Department of Education would have paid for it” (U.S. Department of Education). These enrollment types include no longer being eligible for a Direct Subsidized Loan; no longer being eligible for a Direct Subsidized Loan, not graduating from a prior program and enrolling in an undergraduate program that is the same length or shorter than the prior program; transferring to a shorter program and losing eligibility for Direct Subsidized Loans due to receiving Direct Subsidized Loans for a period that equals or exceeds the new, lower maximum eligibility period, which is based on the length of the new program. Direct Unsubsidized Loans are also available to graduate students in addition to undergraduate

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students, and there is no financial need requirement. The amount a student can borrow is determined by the higher education institution, based on the cost of attendance and the amount of other financial aid the student will receive. This feature is also applied to Direct Subsidized Loans. However, the borrowing student is responsible for paying the interest on Direct Unsubsidized Loans. This feature makes the Direct Unsubsidized Loans different from the Direct Subsidized Loans. If you decide not to pay the interest while you are in school “and during grace periods and deferment or forbearance periods, your interest will accrue (accumulate) and be capitalized (that is, your interest will be added to the principal amount of your loan)” (U.S. Department of Education). Loans (both subsidized and unsubsidized) have aggregate, annual limits. The following table, obtained from the United States Year

Department of Education website, are those limits for both dependent students with parents borrowing PLUS loans (explained later in this paper) and independent students who are not eligible to receive PLUS loans. PLUS Loans. Direct PLUS Loans are another option for dependent students whose parents are assisting them in covering the cost of their higher education. With PLUS loans, the United States Department of Education is the lender, the borrower must not have an “adverse credit history,” and the maximum amount of the loan is the cost of attendance minus any other financial aid received (U.S. Department of Education). According to the definition given by the United States Department of Education, a person’s credit history may be considered “adverse” in any of the following conditions: • Bankruptcy discharge within the past five years Dependent Students

• Voluntary surrender of personal property to avoid repossession within the last five years • Repossession of collateral within the last five years • Foreclosure proceedings started • Conveying real property that is subject to a mortgage (by deed) to the lender to avoid foreclosure • Accounts currently 90 days or more delinquent • Unpaid collection accounts • Charge-offs/write-offs of federal student loans • Wage garnishment within the last five years • Defaulting on a loan, even if the claim has been paid • Lease or contract terminated by default • County/state/federal tax lien within the past five years Eligibility for a PLUS loan includes a number of factors. First, the student must be a graduate or professional student enrolled at least inDependent Students

First-Year Undergraduate Annual Loan Limit

$5,500 - no more than $3,500 of this amount may be in subsidized loans

$9,500 - no more than $3,500 of this amount may be in subsidized loans

Second-Year Undergraduate Annual Loan Limit

$6,500 - no more than $4,500 of this amount may be in subsidized loans

$10,500 - no more than $4,500 of this amount may be in subsidized loans

Third-Year and Beyond Undergraduate Annual Loan Limit

$7,500 - no more than $5,500 of this amount may be in subsidized loans

$12,500 - no more than $5,500 of this amount may be in subsidized loans

Subsidized and Unsubsidized Aggregate Loan Limit

$31,000 - no more than $23,000 of this amount may be in subsidized loans

$57,500 for undergraduates no more than $23,000 of this amount may be in subsidized loans

Table 1: United States Department of Education Annual Limits for Subsidized and Unsubsidized Loans – adapted from the U.S. Department of Education Honors Platform | 11 96025 CMU Honors Platform Book.indd 11

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half-time at an eligible school in a program leading to a graduate or professional degree or certificate, or be the parent of a dependent undergraduate student enrolled at least half-time at an eligible school. Second, the borrower must not have poor credit. Lastly, the borrower must meet the general eligibility requirements for federal student aid. If the borrower is the parent of a student, the student must also meet those requirements. For a borrower eligible for a Direct PLUS Loan, he or she must sign a Direct PLUS Loan Master Promissory Note (MPN), agreeing to the terms of the loan. The MPN can be used to “make one or more loans for one or more academic years (up to 10 years)” (U.S. Department of Education). The current interest rate for Direct PLUS Loans is 6.31% (applicable between July 1, 2016 and July 1, 2017). Direct PLUS Loans have fixed interest rates for the life of the road. Direct PLUS Loans also have a “loan fee,” which is a “percentage of the loan amount and proportionately deducted from each loan disbursement” (U.S. Department of Education). The average is currently about 4.274% (U.S. Department of Education). To receive payment from a PLUS Loan, “the institution applies the loan directly to the student’s school account to pay for tuition, fees, room and board, and other school charges” (U.S. Department of Education). If there is any money left over, the institution will give it to the borrower to help pay for other educational expenses. Parent borrowers are expected to start making payments to pay back the loan as soon as the loan is fully paid out. However, parent borrowers may also request a deferment while their children are enrolled at least half-time for an additional six

months after their children graduate, leave school, or drop below half-time enrollment. Direct Consolidated Loans. The U.S. Department of Education also allows borrowers to consolidate loans. A Direct Consolidated Loan “allows you to combine multiple federal education loans into one loan. The result is a single monthly payment instead of multiple payments” (U.S. Department of Education). Loan consolidation has its advantages and disadvantages. One major advantage is that it can greatly simplify loan repayment by pulling them into one monthly bill; however, it can also lower monthly payments by giving the borrower up to thirty years to repay his or her loans. Also, loan consolidation allows the borrower to switch his or her variable interest rate loans to a fixed interest rate. The downside of this, however, is that the borrower will be making more payments and will be paying more interest over time. Before deciding to consolidate loans, the borrower should compare monthly payments for both non-consolidated loans and consolidated loans. Many loans have borrower benefits that might disappear if the borrower is to consolidate his or her loans. This is also an important factor to consider before deciding to consolidate. Some of these benefits may include interest rate discounts, principal rebates, or cancellation benefits that significantly reduce the cost of repaying loans. These points need to be considered before making the decision to consolidate because once the borrower consolidates his or her loans into a Direct Consolidated Loan, they cannot be removed. The following loans are eligible for consolidation:

• Direct Subsidized Loans • Direct Unsubsidized Loans • Subsidized Federal Stafford Loans • Unsubsidized Federal Stafford Loans • Direct PLUS Loans • PLUS loans from the Federal Family Education Loan (FFEL) Program* • Supplemental Loans for Students (SLS)* • Federal Perkins Loans* • Federal Nursing Loans* • Health Education Assistance Loans* • Some existing consolidation loans (Direct quote from the U.S. Department of Education Office of Financial Aid) * These loan types are not discussed in this paper but information may be found at the United States Department of Education Federal Student Aid website. Loan repayment plans. Several types of loan repayment plans are in place to help borrowers repay their loans in the best way possible. The following table, obtained from the United States Department of Education, shows a few of these repayment plans and which loans they apply to, as well as a few other details (Table 2). Grants & scholarships. The most preferable type of financial aid is receiving grants and/or scholarships. The U.S. Department of Education also calls this form of aid “gift aid” because it does not have to be repaid (2016). Grants and scholarships alike may come from various givers such as the federal government, the state government, the institution, or a private or nonprofit organization. Federal grants available include the Federal Pell Grant, the Federal Supplemental

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Table 2

United States Department of Education Types of Loan Repayment Plans – adapted from the U.S. Department of Education

Repayment Plan

Eligible Loans

Monthly Payment and Time Frame

Eligibility and Other Information

Standard Repayment Plan

Direct subsidized and unsubsidized loans, subsidized and unsubsidized Federal Stafford Loans, all PLUS loans, all Consolidation loans (Direct or FFEL)

Payments are a fixed amount.

All borrowers are eligible for this plan.

Up to 10 years (up to 30 years for Consolidation Loans)

Borrowers pay less over time than under other plans.

Graduated Repayment Plan

Direct subsidized and unsubsidized loans, subsidized and unsubsidized Federal Stafford Loans, all PLUS loans, all Consolidation Loans (Direct or FFEL)

Payments are lower at first and then increase, usually every two years. Up to 10 years (up to 30 years for Consolidation Loans)

All borrowers are eligible for this plan.

Extended Repayment Plan

Direct subsidized and unPayments may be fixed or subsidized loans, subsidized graduated. and unsubsidized Federal Stafford Loans, all PLUS Up to 25 years loans, all Consolidation Loans (Direct or FFEL)

If a direct loan borrower, you must have more than $30,000 in outstanding direct loans. If a FFEL borrower, you must have more than $30,000 in outstanding FFEL Program loans.

Revised Pay As You Direct subsidized and Earn Repayment unsubsidized loans, Direct Plan (REPAYE) PLUS loans made to students, Direct Consolidation Loans that do not include PLUS loans (Direct or FFEL) made to parents

Monthly payments are 10% of discretionary income. Payments are recalculated each year and are based on updated income and family size. If married, both spouses’ incomes or loan debts will be considered, whether taxes are filed jointly or separately. Any outstanding balance on your loan will be forgiven if you haven’t repaid your loan in full after 20 or 25 years.

Any Direct Loan borrower with an eligible loan type may choose this plan. Monthly payment can be more than the 10% Standard Plan amount. Borrower may have to pay income tax on any amount that is forgiven. Good option for those seeking Public Service Loan Forgiveness (PSLF)

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Education Opportunity Grant (FSEOG), and Iraq and Afghanistan Service Grants. Each of these grants is available to students with financial need that meet the other qualifications for each one. The maximum award for Federal Pell Grants is $5,815. However, the amount received depends on financial need, the cost of attendance at the given institution, the student’s status as full or part-time, and the student’s plans to attend the institution for one academic year or less. For a FSEOG, a student may receive between $100 and $4,000 per year. Each participating institution receives a certain amount of money for FSEOG grants per year from the U.S. Department of Education office of Federal Student Aid. If a student is not eligible for a Pell Grant or an FSEOG and his or her parent or guardian was a mem-

ber of the U.S. Armed Forces and died as a result of military service performed in Iraq or Afghanistan after the events of September 11, 2001 then they are eligible for up to $5,815 in Iraq and Afghanistan service grants. The award from these grants cannot exceed the cost of attendance (U.S. Department of Education). The other type of gift aid is scholarship aid. There are thousands upon thousands of scholarship opportunities available from all kinds of organizations. Eligibility for these scholarships is sometimes as simple as being left-handed (Fastweb.com). There are two types of scholarships that are awarded to students: need-based and merit-based. Need-based scholarships are based on a student’s financial need, whereas merit-based scholarships are based on a student’s

Figure 1: Cost Comparison between Community College and Public University $25,000.00

Community College Public University

$20,000.00

$15,000.00

$10,000.00

$5,000.00

Average Tuition

Average Room & Board

skill or ability. Merit-based scholarships are awarded based on grade point average, ACT/SAT scores, or sometimes a student’s performance on an essay. Sports scholarships are another example of merit-based scholarships as they are based on the student’s performance in a particular sport and whether or not they plan to continue playing through college. Some common websites to find scholarships include, but are not limited to: • Zinch.com • Fastweb.com • Scholarships.com • Scholarshippoints.com • Cappex.com • College Board’s Scholarship Search The Community College Option There is always the option for students to attend a community college or other two-year institution to receive their general education credits before attending a university or other four-year institution to pursue their bachelor’s degree. This is a money-saving option for many students. Attending a community college for general education credits has its advantages and disadvantages, and one of its perks is financial. Also, students can walk away with a general associate’s degree after two years of study in addition to saving thousands of dollars on their higher education. The cost of attendance at community colleges is slightly higher for out-of-district students than for in-district students. Likewise, the cost of attendance at a public university is higher for outof-state students than for in-state students (this is not true for private universities as the cost of tuition is the same for all students). In addition to tuition, the cost of room and board must also be considered

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for public and private universities alike. This is typically the same across the board for all students and for all universities. The cost of attending a community college versus the cost of attending a public university is shown in Figure 1. The Awareness of the various options A sample of 500 undergraduate students in the College of Business Administration at Central Michigan University were surveyed to discover what methods they used to pay for their college education and their knowledge of the options available to them. Approximately 45% of respondents reported that they receive subsidized and/or unsubsidized loans. 18% reported that they are receiving loans, but were not sure which type. An overwhelming majority of respondents (83%) reported that they are receiving scholarships to help pay for their education. 25% reported that they receive various types of grants. Only 5% reported that their parent or another relative is using a 529 plan to help fund their education, and 19% reported that their parents took out a parent PLUS loan to help pay for their education. Approximately 9% of students have a part-time job on campus as part of a work study financial aid package. 31% of respondents reported that they have a part-time job on campus that is not part of a work study financial aid package, and 32% reported that they have a part-time job off-campus. 37% reported that they are using money they saved by working a part-time job during their time in high school. Only 1% of respondents reported that they

are using a tuition reimbursement benefit from an employer. About 22% of respondents reported that their parents or another relative are fully funding their education. A small 2% of students reported that they have no idea how they are paying for college.

only 5% of students actually had a 529 created and built for them to help them to go to college. With the benefits that a 529 plan offers, the expectation is that the number would be much higher. These results are overwhelming. One of the first noticeable results from this research is that the percentage of students who said they have no idea how they are paying for college is any greater than zero. Another point in this research is that students truly benefit from the assistance of their parents. Pursuing a higher education degree at the young age of 18 is always much easier when students have their parents supporting them both financially and academically. Parents are taking out parent PLUS loans, saving in 529 plans, and even paying for their childâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s education completely. It is also interesting that only 5% of students actually had a 529 created and built for them to help them to go to college. With the benefits that a 529 plan offers, the expectation

is that the number would be much higher. It also means not necessarily having to pay out of pocket if the student has an account designated specifically for their higher education. Many students are working part-time jobs; however, there are more students (based on this research) who are not working while going to school than students who are working while going to school. Students would find that the extra income helps significantly with educational expenses, especially living expenses. The research also found that 84% of students say they are involved in the financial process of their education. This involves keeping track of expenses, making payments (or knowing what payments are being made and how they are being made if a parent is taking care of the payment portion), and possibly working a part-time job while going to school to help lessen the financial burden of paying for college. However, this still leaves 16% of students who say they are not at all involved in the financial process of their education, meaning their parents or someone else takes care of it for them. This number should also be lower, because these students likely are unaware of how they are making payments and how much debt they may or may not be accumulating through their four plus years of college. The next area of research was the FAFSA. The goal was to find out whether or not families actually fill out the FAFSA to receive financial aid for their students attending college. 13% of students reported that they do not fill out a FAFSA each year. This means that their parents are paying out of pocket, they have a full ride Honors Platform | 15

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scholarship, or they are missing out on a significant amount of aid they may be eligible for and be completely unaware. On the contrary, 35% of respondents did report that they fill out the FAFSA with their parents. Upon graduating from their bachelor’s

did not feel that they were clearly informed of the many options available to them. This is much too large of a number. 48% of students are heading to college without the information they need about the most stressful part of higher education—their finances. How are

When asking if students felt like they were well-informed about the options available to them to help lessen the financial burden of higher education, only 52% of students said yes. 48% of students did not feel that they were clearly informed of the many options available to them. This is much too large of a number. program, 28% of students reported that they expect to have between $0 and $5,000 in student debt. 10% of students expect to have between $5,000 and $10,000 of student debt. 16% of students expect to have between $10,000 and $20,000 of student debt. 22% of students expect to have between $20,000 and $30,000 of student debt. 6% of students expect to have between $30,000 and $40,000 of student debt. 8% of students expect to have between $40,000 and $60,000, and another 8% expect to have between $60,000 and $80,000 of student debt. Finally, 2% of students reported that they expect to have more than $80,000 in student debt upon graduating from their bachelor’s program. When asking if students felt like they were well-informed about the options available to them to help lessen the financial burden of higher education, only 52% of students said yes. 48% of students

they going to pay for their degree? The solution/What we can do to improve the awareness/management Clearly there is some room for improvement for thoroughly informing prospective students and their families about the many options that are available to them. College is expensive, but when efficiently planned for, it is not an impossibility. Much like retirement, if one does not start saving until the last minute, they will find themselves having significant difficulty paying off their debt, and may even find themselves in more debt than necessary. This is an area of improvement for the university itself. For example, Central Michigan University should more clearly inform their prospective students of their financial options. The grants, the scholarships, the savings—there are a number of options available before even considering taking

out loans. Loans should be the last resort. Based on the research in this paper, if students save efficiently, work part-time jobs (full-time jobs during the summer), receive some assistance from their families where possible, and even attend community college to receive general education credits before attending a university, it is likely that there would be less students taking out loans and finding themselves in deep student debt upon graduating. A college education is highly important and beneficial; however, it must be properly planned. The better informed these students are and the earlier they are informed, the better. Families should be advised to begin saving for their child’s education as soon as their child is born. A 529 is a good option for families at this point because that means it has 18 years to grow. By the time the student is a junior in high school, they should be able to begin working a part-time job to start saving for themselves. They should also have started their college search at this point and begun seeking out scholarship opportunities that they can pursue to help pay for college. While attending high school, maintaining good grades and being a wellrounded student is also important. This makes students more competitive for scholarships.

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References Alma College (2016). Admissions & Aid: Tuition & Fees. Retrieved from http://www.alma.edu/admissions/tuition-fees/ Blake, Caitrin (06/04/2015). Concordia University. Professional Students: Benefits and Risks of Working While in High School. Retrieved from http://education.cuportland.edu/blog/news/high-school-student-jobs/ Calvin College (2016). Costs & Payment. Retrieved from https://calvin.edu/offices-services/financial-aid/costs-payment/ Central Michigan University (2016). 2016-2017 Tuition and Fees. Retrieved from https://www.cmich.edu/featured/Pages/2016-2017-tuition-and-fees.aspx College Board (2008). College Board Trends in Higher Education. Job Satisfaction by Education Level. Retrieved from https://trends.collegeboard.org/education-pays/ figures-tables/job-satisfaction-education-level-2008 College Board (2016). College Board Trends in Higher Education. Tuition and Fees and Room and Board over Time 1976-77 to 2016-17, Selected Years. Retrieved from https://trends.collegeboard.org/college-pricing/figures-tables/tuition-and-fees-and-room-and-board-over-time-1976-77_2016-17-selected-years Concordia University Ann Arbor (2016). Undergraduate Tuition and Financial Aid. Retrieved from https://www.cuaa.edu/admissions/undergraduate/tuition.html Cutler, David M., Lleras-Muney, Adriana (03/2007). Gerald R. Ford School of Public Policy: National Poverty Center University of Michigan. Policy Brief #9: Education and Health. Retrieved from http://www.npc.umich.edu/publications/policy_briefs/brief9/ Daugherty, Greg (11/13/2015). Money: College Planner. What Is FAFSA and Who Should Fill It Out? Retrieved from http://time.com/money/4108122/what-is-fafsaand-who-should-fill-it-out/ Flynn, Kathryn (05/14/2014). Savingforcollege.com The History of the 529 Plan. Retrieved from http://www.savingforcollege.com/articles/infographic-history-of-529plan Fottrell, Quentin (08/08/2013). MarketWatch. 80% of students work at least part-time: Many students are flipping burgers for tuition or spending money. Retrieved from http://www.marketwatch.com/story/nearly-4-out-of-5-students-work-2013-08-07 Grand Valley State University (2016). Office of Financial Aid & Scholarship: Tuition and Fees. Retrieved from http://www.gvsu.edu/financialaid/tuition-fees-68.htm McMahon, Tim (04/01/2014). Long Term U.S. Inflation. Average Annual Inflation by Decade. Retrieved from http://inflationdata.com/Inflation/Inflation_Rate/Long_ Term_Inflation.asp Michigan Education Savings Program (2016). Details & Information. Retrieved from https://www.misaves.com/plan/details.shtml Michigan State University (2016). Office of Admissions. Retrieved from https://admissions.msu.edu/cost-aid/ Northwood University (2016). Estimated Tuition and Fees. Retrieved from http://www.northwood.edu/financial-aid/tuition-and-fees.aspx Oreopoulos, Philip (2013). NBER Working Paper Series. Making College Worth It: A Review of Research on the Returns to Higher Education. Retrieved from http://www.nber.org/papers/w19053.pdf Pfeffer, Jennifer (4/9/2014). Rasmussen College. More Than a Degree: The Hidden Benefits of a College Education. Retrieved from http://www.rasmussen.edu/student- life/blogs/college-life/hidden-benefits-of-college-education/ Robison, Jennifer (9/24/2002). Gallup Poll. Does Higher Learning = Higher Job Satisfaction? Retrieved from http://www.gallup.com/poll/6871/does-higher-learninghigher-job-satisfaction.aspx Sallie Mae (2014). Sallie Maeâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s National Study of College Students and Parents. How America Pays for College. Retrieved from http://news.salliemae.com/files/doc_ library/file/HowAmericaPaysforCollege2014FNL.pdf Shoemake, Lindsay (01/23/2012). Her Campus. The 10 Best Sites to Look for Scholarships. Retrieved from http://www.hercampus.com/career/money/10-best-siteslook-scholarships?page=2 Spring Arbor University (2016). Undergraduate Tuition and Fees: Undergraduate tuition for main campus: 2016-17. Retrieved from https://www.arbor.edu/admissions/ financial-aid/undergrad-finaid/tuition-and-fees/ Swanbrow, Diane (2009). University of Michigan Institute for Social Research. How much money parents give to college-age kids: U-M study. Retrieved from http:// home.isr.umich.edu/sampler/how-much-money-parents-give-to-college-age-kids-um-study/ University of Michigan (2016). Undergraduate Admissions. Retrieved from https://admissions.umich.edu/costs-aid/costs United States Department of Education (2016). Federal Student Aid: An Office of the U.S. Department of Education. Completing the Free Application for Federal Student Aid (FAFSA) is the first step toward getting federal aid for college, career school, or graduate school. Retrieved from https://studentaid.ed.gov/sa/fafsa United States Department of Education (2016). Federal Student Aid: An Office of the U.S. Department of Education. The U.S. Department of Education offers lowinterest loans to eligible students to help cover the cost of college or career school. Retrieved from https://studentaid.ed.gov/sa/types/loans/subsidized-unsubsidized United States Department of Education (2016). Federal Student Aid: An Office of the U.S. Department of Education. PLUS loans are federal loans that graduate or professional students and parents of dependent undergraduate students can use to help pay for college or career school. Retrieved from https://studentaid.ed.gov/sa/ types/loans/plus

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United States Department of Education (2016). Federal Student Aid: An Office of the U.S. Department of Education. Glossary. Retrieved from https://studentaid.ed.gov/sa/glossary#Master_Promissory_Note United States Department of Education (2016). Federal Student Aid: An Office of the U.S. Department of Education. Consolidating your federal education loans can simplify your payments, but it can also result in loss of some benefits. Retrieved from https://studentaid.ed.gov/sa/repay-loans/consolidation United States Department of Education (2016). Federal Student Aid: An Office of the U.S. Department of Education. Work with your loan servicer to choose a federal student loan repayment plan thatâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s best for you. Retrieved from https://studentaid.ed.gov/sa/repay-loans/understand/plans

Katelin crane is a junior psychology major. She enjoys reading, watching Netflix, and painting things. Kate wants to go to an Ivy League graduate school to be a pediatric nurse practitioner after graduation. She loves the tiny humans and cannot wait to make a difference in the world!

United States Department of Education (2016). Federal Student Aid: An Office of the U.S. Department of Education. Grants and scholarships are free money to help pay for college or career school. Retrieved from https://studentaid.ed.gov/sa/types/grants-scholarships United States Department of Education (2016). Federal Student Aid: An Office of the U.S. Department of Education. A Federal Supplemental Education Opportunity Grant (FSEOG) is a grant for undergraduate students with exceptional financial need. Retrieved from https://studentaid.ed.gov/sa/types/grantsscholarships/fseog Wayne State University (2016). Tuition and Fee Schedule Fall 2016. Retrieved from http://reg.wayne.edu/pdftuition/tuition-fee-chart-fall-2016.pdf Wayne State University (2016). Cost of Attendance. Retrieved from https://wayne.edu/facts/2016/costs/ attendance/ Zimmerman, Emily B. (01/12/2012). Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality: Advancing Excellence in Health Care. Population Health: Behavioral and Social Science Insights: Understanding the Relationship Between Education and Health. Retrieved from https://www.ahrq.gov/professionals/education/curriculumtools/population-health/zimmerman.html

Bohemian Elephant

Art by Katelin Crane

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A Tale of Two Narrative Tests: Comparing the Test of Narrative Retell and the Test of Narrative Language for Interchangeability Background Information Narratives are an integral part of a child’s communication arsenal and are predictive of academic success (Rowe, 2012). While the type and complexity of a narrative can vary, narratives themselves are a natural activity that span all ages and cultures. They are developmentally appropriate, making narratives a perfect tool for assessment as long as they remain age appropriate and culturally sensitive (Burns et. al., 2012). As a whole, language is a complex framework of semantics, pragmatics, syntax, morphology, phonology, and discourse that intertwines as it develops to form literacy. If any of the individ-

by Lydia Wetters

ual parts is damaged or delayed, significant impacts can be made on a person’s ability to read. In order to effectively relay a narrative, a student has to be able to access all areas of language. A relatively typical question, “What did you do at school today?” evokes a narrative response from a child. Perhaps the child responds with, “In art I drew a flower. Mrs. Hannah said I did a good job. In math class we added numbers. It was hard. During recess Mr. Boyd yelled at me. We all read a story about bears. Charlene invited me to her birthday party Wednesday. Can I go?” The response

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

This research was supported by Central Michigan Universityâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Honors Program. I thank Dr. Katie Squires Ph.D. CCC-SLP for her contribution to this capstone project. This research could not have been completed without her expertise, advising, and support.

to this question draws upon semantics, syntax, morphology, phonology, and pragmatics to provide a coherent narrative that correctly answers the question. The child must take into account the meaning of their words, organize them into grammatically correct sentences, produce the correct sounds, and deliver it in an appropriate narrative structure, all while interacting with the conversation partner. Because reading also requires all areas of language in order to decode and comprehend text, narrative development has been tied to strong implications of emergent literacy, especially in preschool children. In fact, McCabe and Rollins (1994) suggest the ability to tell a coherent narrative predicts successful adaptation to school literacy. Narratives can be broken down into two main components, macrostructure and microstructure. Macrostructure is a conceptual framework of the story including the common story grammar elements essential for a well-rounded story so both the narrator and listener can understand the narration. Common story grammar elements include characters, setting, an initiating event, actions, feelings, and a conclusion (Kelly & Bailey, 2012). Microstructure elements consist of elaborated noun phrases, adverbs, coordinating conjunctions, subordinating conjunctions, and mental state verbs and are considered a more literate aspect of language (Hoffman, 2009). Microstructures exist within the syntax of narratives and explain relationships between words and other elements relevant to the dialogue. While different narrative assessments focus on either macro or microstructures, some do combine components of each. A study by Squires et. al. (2013) showed elements of macrostructure incorporated across different cultures and languages. Microstructure, however, does not have the same transferability. These elements can still transfer, they just cannot do so as easily or consis-

tently as macrostructure story elements. This is due to the influence of cultural-specific grammatical forms and specific vocabulary within the narrative microstructure. Additionally, data gathered from bilingual children within this study suggested macrostructure from narrative retells to be indicators particularly sensitive to narrative competence within a spectrum of performance. Both Spanish and English contain a similar sequence of events to construct a narrative, allowing for macrostructure to be transferred. The individual elements of the narrative, or microstructure, are not necessarily similar across languages and cultures. For example, Spanish and English differ in the types of verbs that are most commonly used in language. The fact that microstructure items generally are later developing is also a factor in transferability. A narrative containing all of the story grammar elements provides enough information about time, place, characters, and events that allow the listener to follow along with the narrator. The literate language elements add to the complexity of the narrative. Theory of mindâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;the thoughts, emotions, and desires of a personâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;is considered a crucial development for children working to improve their language abilities as it allows the children to connect with the concept of thought and relate those thoughts, emotions and/or desires to their own lives. Within the theory of mind, mental state verbs begin to increase and become more complex as the child develops, eventually reaching the point where the child can put aside their knowledge about what is true to respond to what was said within the narrative, that is, a false belief (Burns et. al., 2012). As various conjunctions are added to narratives cohesion can become positively affected. Because narratives weave numerous aspects of language together, they are a great predictor of future language

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deficits in young children. Children who have trouble telling a coherent narrative can be assessed for more specific language deficits, resulting in an earlier diagnosis of disorders and better prognosis for the child. Narrative assessments are being used to both screen children as young as preschool for language deficits and diagnose language disorders in children. When this is done at the preschool level, children are able to receive intervention during their most formative developmental years (McCabe & Rollins, 1994). In an article titled, “Assessment of Preschool Narrative Skills,” McCabe and Rollins (1994) outline some research highlighting the links between the identification of children at early ages who are at risk for language problems and narratives. This includes an overall prediction of literacy achievement through oral narration and a strong correlation between common literacy measures in children as young as five years of age (such as phonemic awareness, early print skills and the ability to define words) and narrative comprehension. One study even found the best predictor of overall language development to be the retelling of a short story. In response to this surge of research, narrative tests have been designed to take the links between narration and the development of language and literacy and assess children while their language skills are emerging. Doing this has helped to identify the children at risk of language disorders and delays, increasing the amount of language intervention given to preschoolers. A strong vocabulary base gives the best platform for all of the other parts of language to build and flourish. A study by Meredith Rowe (2012) suggests that the

vocabulary size of a kindergartener is one of the biggest predictors of later school achievement and reading proficiency. She continues to deduce that while quantity and quality of vocabulary input as an early age are an important, narra-

variations of narratives, culturally sensitive narrations must look at the content, not the structure, of the narratives to accurately assess a child’s narrative abilities. Beck, McKeown, and Kucan (2013), organize vocabulary into

Vocabulary within assessments, especially narrative assessments, is also important due to its linguistic sensitivity and variability within different cultures. tives are the most beneficial vocabulary building skill for four year olds (p.1771). Vocabulary within assessments, especially narrative assessments, is also important due to its linguistic sensitivity and variability within different cultures. Although narratives are used across all cultures, not all cultures value the use of the same type of narrative. For example, McCabe & Rollins (1994) reference Japanese children telling a narrative in a form similar to haiku. This narrative is very concise, using only three lines to relay an assortment of experiences. In contrast, North American children telling the same narrative would relay each experience as a detailed narrative. African American children may tell a Topic-Associating Narrative; these narratives are an array of stories from different events that are thematically combined into a single narrative. Latino cultures usually do not focus on sequenced events within their narratives; instead they concentrate on family relationships. Children in Hungary add drastic embellishment in their retelling of a narrative. Teasing and fantasy are woven into Hawaiian children’s “talk-stories” (p. 52). With so many

three tiers. The base level, or tier one, is the most generic level of vocabulary available to use. These terms are basic, everyday words that require no formal training to understand. These words are generally learned through exposure. For example, “sad” is a tier one vocabulary word (McKee & Dodson, 2015). “Upset,” however, would be a tier two vocabulary word. This tier is more specific and specialized than tier one vocabulary. It appears across all domains and requires some form of instruction for full comprehension. Lastly, tier three vocabulary are words that appear at a low frequency in the English language. These words are only used in specific, specialized contexts (McKee & Dodson, 2015). For example, virology is a tier three word and would only be used as a part of a specific medical professional’s everyday language. Considering all of the above factors, the researcher was curious about what vocabulary, macrostructure, and microstructure was modeled within narrative tests. Additionally, the researcher wondered if narrative tests could be used interchangeably and if preschoolers would be able to understand the Honors Platform | 21

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content. The Test of Narrative Language has been used as data in various studies and was cited in both The Utility of School-Age Narrative Microstructure Indices: INMIS and the Proportion of Restricted Utterances, and Dialect-Neutral Indices of Narrative Cohesion and Evaluation, whose information was used in the background information section of this paper. It is a test that is widely accepted as a measure of narrative ability for children. The Test of Narrative Retell is a fairly new narrative assessment. In fact, parts of it are still being developed as more data is gathered. Due to their common goal of evaluating young children’s narrative abilities, and the lack of other narrative tests with shared commonalities, these assessments were compared and contrasted by the researcher to evaluate their tiered vocabulary, microstructure, macrostructure, and overall interchangeability level. The Test of Narrative Retell The Test of Narrative Retell Preschool (TNR-P) is a narrative test specifically designed for administration to preschoolers. The TNR-P is a subtest of the Narrative Language Measures (NLM) assessment which includes subtests for children in K-3rd grade as well. Each subtest has nine separate narratives. A grouping of three of the narratives are administered backto-back during each testing session. The sessions are spread out to be administered in the fall, winter, and spring of a typical academic year to provide the most information regarding narrative growth possible. The content in each test is similar. All nine consist of a short story and a prompt for the child to then retell the story to the best of their ability. Pictures can be used

for each test; however, in real-life contexts pictures are not realistic. The TNR was designed with the hope that the pictures will be removed if the child does not need the extra visual support (Spencer & Petersen, 2013). No repetitions are allowed during administration, but prompting examples are provided on the protocol sheets. Points are awarded if the child retold specific predetermined details of the story. Additionally, language complexity can be calculated using a frequency measure of four specific subordinating conjunctions that are used: then, because, after, and when. The purpose of the TNR-P is to assess various aspects of narrative language in a way that

Narratives also can be used as an encouragement to others to create personal narratives based on their own personal experiences or experiences of others close to them. is akin to standardized measures. Although it is a criterion referenced test, the standardized practices within the makeup of the TNR-P, including a regimented script, allow it to inform educational practices (Spencer & Petersen, 2013). Uniquely, all of the materials for the various TNR subtests are currently free online due to the developmental nature of the test. A measurement of a child’s ability to retell a narrative, the TNR presents age-appropriate stories to children

and then prompts them to retell the same narrative to the best of their ability. Spencer & Petersen (2013) identify retelling a narrative as a pathway to integrate other important language skills such as, “listening comprehension, cognition, memory, and expressive language skills” (p.3). Narratives also can be used as an encouragement to others to create personal narratives based on their own personal experiences or experiences of others close to them. The Test of Narrative Language The Test of Narrative Language (TNL) is a narrative test designed for children aged 5;0 through 11;11. This test has six tasks. The first task has no picture and includes a narrative read aloud by the clinician. Afterwards, the client responds to specific questions about the narrative. The second task uses the same narrative as the first but the clinician does not read it again. The client retells the narrative as best as he/she can. Task three and four use a lineup of five sequenced pictures as the narrative is read. The third task models the narrative for the client and the client responds to nine questions regarding the content of the narrative. A different five picture sequence is given for the fourth task; however, no narrative is presented to the client. Using their knowledge based on the setup of the previous task, clients must create their own narrative based on the pictures provided. Tasks five and six operate similarly, with one picture instead of a sequence. Repetitions are not allowed at all for this test and only very specific prompts can be used. The completion of all six tasks allow the TNL to evaluate narrative comprehension and oral narration.

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The purpose of the TNL is to measure the comprehension and production of connected speech used to tell stories (Gilliam & Pearson, 2004). Psychometrically, it has been proven to be both reliable and valid and is a well-established way to assess the acquisition of narrative language abilities. This test can identify children with language impairments, determine discrepancies between a child’s narrative comprehension and oral narrative production, as well as document the progress narrative intervention has on a child’s narrative language (Gilliam & Pearson, 2004). Unlike the Test of Narrative Retell, the Test of Narrative Language is not free online. It is available through the publishing company, Pro-ed, for around $200 (http://www/proedinc.com/customer/ productView.aspx?ID=3316). It is a standardized, norm-referenced test that compares the child’s scores to percentile ranks and age equivalents. The norming population accounts for family income, language impairments, geographic area, gender, ethnicity, and age. Determining Interchangeability There are two major differences between these two narrative tests. The first is that the Test of Narrative Retell is criterion-referenced and the Test of Narrative Language is norm-referenced. Norm-referenced tests take the client’s scores and compare them to the data from the sample population gathered using the same test. A good sample population is representative of the U.S. demographic and takes into account age, gender, socioeconomic status, ethnicity, people with language impairments, etc. All of the data is then transcribed onto a bell curve to which the client’s score is then compared, to see if the score is within the range of “normal.” Criterion-referenced tests do not have a set of norms to which the score is compared. Instead, the test establishes if the client’s performance meets the predetermined

learning criteria. In this case, criteria pertaining to narrative language. The TNR manual does include additional instructions on how the clinician can gather their own normed data to turn the TNR into a norm-referenced assessment. Although criterion-referenced tests and norm-referenced tests are very different, they can both be standardized. This is the case for the TNL and TNR. The term standardization causes much confusion, as it is often used interchangeably with norm-referenced. This, however, is incorrect. Standardization refers to the manner the test is administrated. Both the TNR and TNL have a strict script the clinician must follow, that allows only specific, preapproved prompts. This allows each administration of the test to be the same no matter who administers it or where it gets administered. Therefore, both are standardized assessments. The way each test measures narratives is the second major difference between the TNR and TNL. The TNL focuses on both oral narration and retell to glean information on the client’s narrative abilities. The TNR only has the client use retell strategies. This fundamental difference causes both tests to be independent of each other. Clients who take the TNL are challenged with an entirely different modeling technique that can provide vastly different information than the TNR. The TNR’s more simplistic narrative allows the language complexity to be tested as well. It is because of this that the TNR and TNL cannot be used interchangeably. However, both tests are very comparable, as they both measure the child’s narrative ability and can pinpoint language strengths and weaknesses. Both tests identify children at risk for language impairments at the preschool level so that they can be set up for better academic success in the future. Further analysis also shows further, although less substantial, differences between the Test of Narrative

Lydia wetters is an Honors student at Central Michigan University. She is currently finishing up her undergraduate degree and will graduate in May 2017 with a Bachelor of Applied Arts. Upon completion, Lydia plans on continuing her education and obtaining a Master’s degree in Communication Sciences and Disorders.

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Language and Test of Narrative Retell in the area of cultural sensitivity. To be truly sensitive to various cultures, a narrative must be presented in such a way as to allow both the macrostructure and microstructure elements to transfer. It has already been determined that generally the macrostructure transfers fluidly between cultures. Microstructure, however, does not transfer as easily. The TNR successfully completes the microstructure transfer, and is culturally sensitive. The narratives within this assessment are on topics that are recognized across cultures. For example, task number five centers around a girl, Cindy, falling and scraping her knee. No matter what culture a person is from, everyone bleeds the same after a fall. In contrast, the TNL is less sensitive to culture. While figure 1. Tierd Vocabulary in the TNL 450 400 350

Total number of words

300 250 200 150 100 50 0 1 2 3 TNL Tasks with narratives

there are a variety of cultures that may transfer the TNLâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s microstructure successfully, that cannot be said of all cultures. The first narrative within the TNL involves a family going to order food at McDonalds. Some cultures identify fine with this. Others, however, do not eat food that contains mixed meat and dairy products. A story about a cheeseburger and milkshake, therefore, cannot be considered culturally sensitive. It should be noted that the Test of Narrative Language is being revised for this reason. Hopefully a more culturally sensitive version of this assessment will be available soon. Vocabulary Analysis An analysis of each test narrativeâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s vocabulary was conducted to determine if the narratives were appropriate for preschool students. Each word in the narrative was classified according to the tiered vocabulary system. A percentage of tier 1, 2, and 3 words was then formulated based on the total number of words in the narrative. Additionally, each narrative was inspected to determine the presence or absence of macrostructure and microstructure content. Figure 1 shows the amount of tier one, two and three vocabulary words in tasks one, three, and five of the Test of Narrative Language. Tasks two, four, and six of the TNL are retell based or have pictures that the child creates a narrative from based on a model from the previous task. Therefore, narrative vocabulary information cannot be determined for those tasks although the child uses vocabulary cues to complete the task. The TNL has an average of 238 words per narrative. None of the narratives contained tier three vocabulary; however, all narratives had over 80% tier one vocabulary. Tier two vocabulary ranged from 13.62% in task five to 19.32% in task three. Overall, children taking this assessment will be responding to vocabulary that challenges them in less than 20% of the narrative.

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figure 2. Tierd Vocabulary in the TNR

80 70 Total number of words

Figure 2 depicts the tier one, two, and three vocabulary in the Test of Narrative Retell. All nine narratives had similar vocabulary statistics. Tier one vocabulary ranged from 82.61% to 92.65%. Tier two vocabulary was present in 7.35-17.39% of the narrative. No tier three vocabulary was used. The average number of words was about 70 per narrative. In this test, all narratives could have vocabulary information derived from them, as there was a fixed narrative used during each portion of the assessment.

60 50 40 30 20 10 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 TNR Narratives

Table 1. Test of Narrative language

Vocabulary % of Tier 1 Vocabulary % of Tier 2 Vocabulary % of Tier 3 Vocabulary Total Number of Words in Narrative Macro: Character Macro: Setting Macro: Initiating Event Macro: Feelings Macro: Plan Macro: Action Macro: Resolution Micro: Elaborated Noun Phrases Micro: Mental and Linguistic Verbs Micro: Coordinating Conjunctions Micro: Subordinating Conjunctions Micro: Adverbs Table 1 is a chart representing the presence or absence of the various macro and microstructures within the TNL. It also depicts the percentage of tiered vocabulary and the total number of words present in the narrative. All macrostructures are present in the narratives. Tasks four and six present the child

makes Dragon *client McDonald *client makes up story up story Shipwreck Late for School Story McDonald Retell Aliens “Task 3” “Task 1” “Task 2” “Task 5” “Task 6” “Task 4”

"X" = present, "<-->" = not present, "N/A" = not applicable, "R" = response based: Model was given, but presence is determined by the response of the client

82.66% 17.33% 0% 150 x x x x x x x x x x x x

80.68% 19.32% 0% 176 x x x x x x x x x x x x

with a model, but do not give a specific narrative to the client with the microstructures, therefore making their presence response based, as signified by “R.” Additionally, tasks four and six do not have a total number of words or percentage for tiered vocabulary due to the absence of a narrative. Because task

N/A N/A N/A <--> x x x x x x x R R R R R

86.38% 13.62% 0% 389 x x x x x x x x x x x x

N/A N/A N/A <--> x x x x x x x R R R R R

two is a retell of task one, a narrative was considered to be present and the original vocabulary of task one was used for analysis. Tasks one, three, and five all had the various microstructure elements embedded in the narrative. Honors Platform | 25

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Table 2. Test of Narrative Retell

Test 1

Test 2

Test 3 Test 4 Test 5 Test 6 Test 7 Test 8 Test 9 "X" = present, "<-->" = not present, Vocabulary 82.61% 87.32% 85.51% 85.71% 91.30% 88.57% 91.18% 86.36% 92.65% % of Tier 1 Vocabulary 17.39% 12.68% 14.49% 14.29% 8.70% 11.43% 8.82% 13.64% 7.35% % of Tier 2 Vocabulary 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% % of Tier 3 Vocabulary 0% 0% 0% 71 70 70 70 68 Total Number of Words in Narrative 70 69 70 70 x x x x x x Macro: Character x x x x x x x x x Macro: Setting x x x x x x x x x Macro: Initiating Event x x x x x x x x x Macro: Feelings x x x x x x x x x Macro: Plan x x x x x x x x x Macro: Action x x x x x x x x x Macro: Resolution x x x x x x x x x Micro: Elaborated Noun Phrases x x x x <--> <--> Micro: Mental and Linguistic Verbs <--> <--> <--> <--> <--> <--> x x x x x x Micro: Coordinating Conjunctions x x x x x x x x x Micro: Subordinating Conjunctions x x x x x x x x x Micro: Adverbs x x x

Table 2 represents the percentage of tiered vocabulary, total number of words, and presence or absence of macro and microstructures with the different narratives of the TNR. All of the macro and microstructure elements were present in all TNR tests except for mental and linguistic verbs. Mental and linguistic verbs are used outside of external evaluation; they are actions taken inside of a personâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s mind, such as deciding, thinking, or wishing. Only the first test had a mental/linguistic verb; the rest did not. Vocabulary Summary To summarize, the average narrative length of the Test of Narrative Language was 238 words, while the Test of Narrative Retell had an average of 70 words. The TNR lacks a presence of mental/ linguistic verbs, but a part from that, all macro and microstructure items were present in each narrative within both assessments. The TNL had an average of 83.1% tier one vocabulary and 16.9% tier two 26 | Honors Platform 96025 CMU Honors Platform Book.indd 26

vocabulary. The TNR was similar with an average of 87.9% tier one vocabulary and 12.1% tier two vocabulary. Neither assessment included tier three vocabulary. The TNR concentrated exclusively on narrative retell to collect data. The TNL used retell as well as modeling narratives and pictures to have the client create their own story to be used for data collection. Pictures can be used in both tests; however, the TNL requires them, and the TNR uses them as a support only. In the event the client can complete the assessment without the use of the pictures, the TNR prefers the pictures not be used to keep the assessment as close to real-life situations as possible, while still maintaining its standardization criteria. Both assessments are standardized, but, the Test of Narrative Language is norm-referenced and the Test of Narrative Retell is criterion-referenced with instructions to the clinician on how to create their own normalized data if they wish. It should be noted that both narrative assessments used similar modeling

techniques. Both tests used retellings of narratives as a means of assessment. Both tests used a vast majority of tier one words to do this, with some tier two vocabulary as well. Both also avoided the use of tier three vocabulary, as is appropriate for the targeted age group for these assessments. Although the TNL deviated from a direct retell procedure during some tasks, each narrative the child elicited had a model of what the narrative should contain preceding it. Conclusion Narratives have been proven to be an integral piece of an SLPâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s testing battery. Narrative assessments can identify children as young as preschool who are at risk for language impairments, increasing their likelihood of success due to earlier intervention. Vocabulary is one of the foundational building blocks of language and literacy. It can be broken down into tiers ranging from non-academic, everyday speech, to highly specialized terms found in select settings. For

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narrative assessments to truly work, they must be culturally sensitive. This requires their vocabulary content to be relevant across cultures, languages, and customs. The Test of Narrative Language and Test of Narrative Retell are two unique, and yet comparable narrative assessments. Both have vocabulary content that is age appropriate for

preschoolers, and with the exception of mental/linguistic verbs in the TNR, all the components of macro and microstructure used in narratives. The TNR is culturally sensitive, and the TNL is not, although it is in the process of being revised. The two assessments do differ in setup, resulting in an impossibility for interchangeability.

They are, however, very comparable and can be used in tandem to best assess a child’s needs.

References Beck, I. L., McKeown, M. G., & Kucan, L. (2013). Bringing Words to Life, Second Edition; Robust Vocabulary Instruction. The Guilford Press. Retrieved 6 April 2016 Burns, F. A., Villiers, P. A., Pearson, B. Z., & Champion, T. B. (2012). Dialect-Neutral indices of narrative cohesion and evaluation. Language Speech and Hearing Services in Schools Lang Speech Hear Serv Sch, 43(2), 132. Retrieved February 5, 2015. Gilliam, R. B., & Pearson, N. A. (2004). Test of Narrative Language: Examiner’s Manual. Austin, TX: Pro-Ed. Hoffman, L. (2009). The utility of school-aged narrative microstructure indices: INMIN and the proportion of restricted utterances. Language, Speech & Hearing Services in Schools, 40(4), 365-375. Doi:0161-1461(2009/08-0017) Kelly, K. R., & Bailey, A.L. (2012). Becoming independent storytellers: Modeling children’s development of narrative macrostructure. First Language 33(1), 68-88. doi:10.1177/0142723711433582 McKee, K., & Dodson, E. (2015, March 11). Morphemes, Cognates, & Vocabulary: A Governor’s Teacher Network Study. Retrieved January 9, 2016, from <http://www.slideshare.net/kennymckee/morphemes-cognates-vocabulary-a-governors-teacher- network-study> McCabe, A., & Rollins, P. R, (1994). Assessment of preschool narrative skills. American Journal of Speech Language Pathology Am J Speech Lang Pathol, 3(1), 45. Retrieved February 5, 2016. Rowe, M., (2012). A longitudinal investigation of the role of quantity and quality of child directed speech in vocabulary development. Child Development 83(5) 1762-1774 Spencer, T. D., & Petersen, D. B. (2013). Test of Narrative Retell – Preschool: Examiner’s Manual. Retrieved November 16, 2015 Squires, K. E., Lugo-Neris, > J., Pena, E.D., Bedore, L.M., Bohman, T.M., & Gillam, R. B. (2013). Story retelling by bilingual children with language impairments and typically developing controls. International Journal of Language & Communication Disorders, 49(1), 60-74. doi:10.1111/1460-6984.12044 Honors Platform | 27 96025 CMU Honors Platform Book.indd 27

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Alleviate Art by Gina Torre Gina Torre is a senior at Central Michigan University from Dryden,Michigan majoring in Broadcast & Cinematic Arts, minoring in Cinema Studies. She is working towards becoming a director and producer of film and videography. Some of her passions include working with and empowering youth, photography, crafting, and watching Netflix.

Morning Gloryshane guenin The purples and pinks climbing the garden fence proclaimed Glory to God every Sunday after church in the dewy April months

shane guenin Just as the Norse believe that life was formed at the song of fire and ice, Shane was formed by an unholy union of unabashed egotism and crippling self-doubt. He enjoys plants, poetry, and the occasional bird. If he is not writing, he can most likely be found talking to large trees in the woods.

I watched them climb taller among the tomatoes and weeds as potatoes fried on the skillet every Sunday that was holy in the warming May middays And then they opened later their praise singing softer my choral hymnals fading every Sunday that I wandered through the shady Woods of June And then the morning glories were just another bloom I picked out from a textbook every Sunday that I wondered what became of a divine July.

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The evolution of monsters to monster high by Jade driscoll As cultures have evolved, the anxieties and fears that their monsters and stories represent have evolved as well. Monsters are transferred from culture to culture, generally altering their appearance and the specific fears they represent in the process. The constant exchange of monsters allows for the monster to reappear throughout the world in various forms, “each time to be read against contemporary social movements or a specific, determining event” (Cohen, “Monster Culture” 5). These altered interpretations of the monster as it appears in new forms throughout cultures create the numerous portrayals of it that now exist. The representations of various monsters have been redesigned and updated constantly—sometimes simultaneously—to create present-day adaptations and descriptions of those monsters. In becoming characters of the Monster High series by Lisi Harrison, the vampire, the werewolf, and Frankenstein’s creature are depicted in completely new ways, with physical characteristics that are almost entirely different and

portrayals of anxieties—such as racism, sexism, and parental approval—that are far from the ones their original predecessors represented. The Monster High series by Lisi Harrison consists of four novels that feature the sons and daughters of many “original” monsters, creating characters whose names are plays on the type of monster they are (some characters include Lagoona Blue the sea creature, Ghoulia Yelps the zombie, and Cleo de Nile the mummy). Rather than considering themselves monsters, the group of non-humans is referred to as “RAD” (Regular Attribute Dodgers). All of the RADs disguise their unique traits and hide their abilities so that they can attend school with humans and obtain regular jobs. In the first three books of the series, the children of the RADs fight for equality with the humans, attempting to show their parents that they do not need to hide the qualities that make them unique. The fourth book focuses on how the RAD children adapt to life once they are finally accepted with regular humans. Harrison

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subtly brushes topics such as racism and equality while writing about the descendants of old-school monsters trying to survive in contemporary settings. The Evolution of the Werewolf The standard physical definition of a werewolf is generally rather consistent across stories and cultures, with the monster sharing attributes of a normal man and a frightening wolf. Some stories describe the werewolf as “tall, hairy human beings with fierce wolves’ heads,” and some simply describe them as “wolves with human faces,” but most descriptions of the werewolf contain regular humans who “simply turn into extra-large, terrifying wolves, many times stronger and more cunning than ordinary wolves” (McHargue 11). The transformation of human to werewolf usually takes place during the full moon, or, in some stories, when the person’s anger gets out of control. Regardless of which of the three descriptions a werewolf takes on, they are always portrayed as terrifying beasts that have the physical and mental capacities of both a human and a wolf. Original fears represented by werewolves are extremely hard to pinpoint, as there are numerous theories as to what exactly caused people hundreds and thousands of years ago to create fearful stories about creatures that were half man, half wolf. Many people believe that early stories about werewolves resulted from the “natural circumstances of hostility existing between the wolf and man” (Smith xi). This idea makes sense since it clearly ties the beginning of the werewolf myth to a natural fear that many people had. Related to that, the stories could have evolved from a fear of “large, predatory (or seemingly predatory) animals” that many people have in childhood (Robisch 206). In highly specific cases,

some folk tales involving werewolves (such as “Little Red Riding Hood”) could have come into existence solely for the allegorical lesson that children would learn by listening (Dunlap). In the case of “Little Red Riding Hood,” children are warned of the dangers they could encounter if they stray from the path, both literally and metaphorically. The werewolf story also holds roots in the medical world; the medical condition hypertrichosis causes people to grow excessive hair all over their body, especially the face, giving the illusion of wolf-like traits (Dunlap). Especially before many medical conditions could be explained through science, the sight of a person with excessive hair growth most likely would have been cause for alarm. The idea of the werewolf also finds origins in the fear that humans are actually evil and savage creatures merely hiding behind a mask. The change to werewolf unleashes the beast and the evil impulses that lurk underneath the skin. Perhaps the most foreboding interpretation of the werewolf today is the warning as to “why species differences must remain firm” (Cohen, “The Werewolf ’s Indifference” 352). Humans do not seem scary to other humans, and wolves can certainly be managed, but the combined result is a terrifying and monstrous beast. If species lines were not crossed, this beast would not be a concern. No single theory may be right or wrong; some may have been combined to create the story in one culture, or some may be culture-specific. Regardless of the exact origins of the werewolf story, the monster most likely evolved from fears of legitimate animals, a lack of scientific knowledge, or the knowledge that humans are not as nice on the inside as they seem on the outside. In the Monster High series, the werewolf undergoes a major transformation both physically and symbolically. Clawdeen Wolf is a sophomore

jade driscoll is a sophomore Honors student majoring in Early Child Development and Learning and minoring in English with a certificate in Creative Writing. She wants to run her own child care center and work with children’s literacy. She enjoys reading, writing, music, and watching YouTube videos.

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werewolf who has a fierce sense of style but a hard time hiding her fur from the normal people at school. She does not fit the common idea of a werewolf being either all human or all wolf at a given time, as Clawdeen and the other members of the Wolf family are in a constant state of limbo—trapped between one group or the other, only fully transitioning to one side during full moons. Although Clawdeen and the rest of her family make the full transition to wolf during the full moon, the days prior to that moon phase result in accelerated nail and hair growth all over the body. They take those days off school and work to hide the noticeable growth that results in numerous inches of hair growing in mere hours (Harrison, Where There’s a Wolf). Clawdeen is not given the terrifying description of the common werewolf, either; she has “yellowish-brown eyes, a mess of auburn curls,” and a pelt of amber fur that sometimes sticks out from underneath her clothes (Harrison, Monster High 83, 125). The character of Clawdeen Wolf, although still a werewolf, is described far differently on a physical level from the werewolves on which she is based. Many of the terrifying traits of the werewolf are removed in the transformation of Clawdeen to a high school girl who retains and hides her wolf-like qualities daily. However, Clawdeen also differs greatly in the anxiety she represents. Clawdeen does not stand as a representation for childhood fears, physical deformities, or natural hostilities. Rather, Harrison subtly pens her to represent feminism. Clawdeen is constantly underestimated and put under the watchful eye of her brothers. While the family is hiding from humans

who may try to harm them, both her father and one of her brothers make comments about how Clawdeen and their mother need to be protected and kept safe (Harrison, Where There’s a Wolf 7, 48). Clawdeen, however, is tired of having to hide behind her brothers. She wants to live her own life, liberated of the constant feeling that she is “being overprotected and underestimated” (Harrison, Where There’s a Wolf 48). Clawdeen tries to understand why her brothers treat her the way they do; she knows that “worrying about women was instinctive for the Wolfs. The males were stronger. Their hearing was better. They ran faster. Those were the facts” (Harrison, Where There’s a Wolf 77). However, she wants to fight the facts and prove how strong she can be. As the book progresses, Clawdeen gradually gets more frustrated with everyone’s inability to take her seriously or treat her equally. She is constantly forced to stay behind and act like the quiet girl they all expect her to be. Clawdeen represents the current anxiety of sexism in the United States through her constant desire to stand up for herself and act on her own. She does not want all of her siblings constantly watching over her to ensure she acts according to her gender; rather, she wants to live by her own rules and make her own mistakes. When she finally breaks away from the men who believe they are better and stronger than her, she achieves the goal that the RADs have been trying to reach for decades: equality. The United States is currently in the midst of a feminist wave, causing Clawdeen’s fight for rights as a woman to be especially present in today’s society. This update to the werewolf allows current readers to stay interested

with the story, rather than trying to instill a fear that is no longer prominent. The Evolution of Frankenstein’s Creature The story of Frankenstein’s monster came alive under the pen of Mary Shelley in 1811. In her novel, the creature is a terrifying being whose human resemblance is not enough to take away from the monstrous qualities of his piecemeal body. The creature is assembled by Victor Frankenstein from various body parts that he acquires mostly through grave robbing. The resulting monster has yellow skin that stretches tight over his insides, straight black lips, and “watery eyes that seemed almost of the same color as the dun-white sockets in which they were set” (Shelley 58). His appearance is terrifying to behold, resulting in shrieking children and fainting women when he goes to villages (Shelley 112). The creature simply looks terrifying, even though he is supposed to represent a human. This crude human representation arguably makes the creature even scarier. When Shelley wrote the story of Victor Frankenstein’s creation of the creature, she had the Greek myth of the man-creating titan Prometheus in her mind (many copies of the novel even hold the subtitle The Modern Prometheus). Knowing this makes it easy to see how Shelley laced her story with the fears of playing God, the rapid advancement of science and knowledge, and the consequences of humans trying to control those sciences. While constructing the creature, Victor directly reveals that “it was the secrets of heaven and earth that I desired to learn” (Shelley 36). This desire to know how

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the world works is what leads him to attempt to play God and create life in a completely scientific environment. In doing this, “Victor seeks not to replace but to bypass God. The aim is neither to set up a humbling experiment to create a robot nor an arrogant experiment to create a superman,” but to attempt to create the exact human that God did (Buchen 107). The creature may come to life, but it is far from human; rather, it is a violent brute that wreaks havoc and is responsible for the deaths of numerous people. Shelley shows how playing God becomes dangerous and even lethal extremely quickly by emphasizing how easily the creature went from simple experiment to deadly monster. Victor did not create the creature with intentions of it becoming a murderous monster; rather, “it is the failure of Victor Frankenstein and society generally to provide a space for him in the human family that turns the creature into a monster” (Asma 11). This is a representation of how quick people are to judge simply based on appearances. This theme of the novel combines with the prominent fear of technology, creating the argument that the creature would not have become a monster if he had been well-received. As with the werewolves in Monster High, the character based off Frankenstein’s creature also undergoes major alterations. The first major difference that the story undergoes is that Frankenstein is actually referred to as the original monster, not the creator of the monster. The family lineage of the monster then continued as such: Frankenstein received his bride, they built a son, that son built himself a wife, and then that cou-

ple built a daughter. That daughter is Frankie Stein, and she is transformed from the feared creature of her “grandfather” to an outgoing high school sophomore. Frankie’s father, Viktor Stein, explains to her that she was built by him, given fifteen years’ worth of knowledge, bolts on her neck for charging, and green skin because there is no blood flowing beneath it (Harrison,

vancement. If anything, she would relate most to the creature’s inability to be accepted by society because of looks. Frankie represents the ever-present anxiety of racism. She is feared simply because of her skin color and the fact that she does not look like everyone else. When she realizes that people are afraid of her and may even want to harm her, she assumes that they will come af-

Frankie Stein bears no relation to a fear of rapid scientific advancement. If anything, she would relate most to the creature’s inability to be accepted by society because of looks. Monster High 13). Unlike the creature, she is not simply a finished being once her parents let her off the operating table; she needs to be charged at least once a day via her neck bolts or she will power down (Harrison, Monster High). This is due to the fact that she does not have blood or internal organs like the creature; she runs solely off of electricity. Physically, Frankie looks more like a regular high school girl with green Halloween makeup than the terrifying creature from whom she is essentially descended. At first glance, some students even think her neck bolts are gutsy piercings (Harrison, Monster High). However, her different skin color and odd accessories do not keep people from being frightened by her appearance. People are still scared because she is different. Frankie Stein bears no relation to a fear of rapid scientific ad-

ter her like they did with her grandfather: with “pitchforks, burning bales of hay, and major intolerance for electrically powered neighbors” (Harrison, The Ghoul Next Door 36). She cannot help the way that she looks, and she acts just like the average high schooler, but society cannot overlook her different skin color. After being discriminated against numerous times and being persecuted just for being alive, Frankie even begins to believe that maybe looking different does make her a monster. After accidentally scaring some cheerleaders when trying to befriend them, Frankie looks in the mirror and sees “the ugly truth [glaring] back. Her looks were frightening” (Harrison, Monster High 45). Frankie knows she is not a monster and that she is beautiful in her own way, but the actions of other people cause her to ask questions. She goes on to hide Honors Platform | 33

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her natural skin color so that she can be treated normally while trying to find a way to bring equality to anyone who looks different. Harrison even makes a direct comparison between Frankie and the civil rights activist Martin Luther King, Jr., saying that “like Martin Luther King Jr., Frankie dreamed of living in a nation where people would not be judged by the color of their skin but by the content of their character” (Harrison, Where There’s a Wolf 27). Frankie goes on to spend the first three books of the series trying to lead a movement that will bring equality between the RADs and humans. She is tired of covering her natural green skin in peach-colored makeup and thinking how differently people treat her when she is covered up versus when her normal skin is exposed. Even once equality is won for the RADs, it takes months for people in the town to fully accept them in their natural states, and the rest of the world takes even longer. Racism is still an issue that is prominent almost everywhere in the world, causing Frankie’s fight for equality—and story of adjustment once it is won—to be especially appealing for current readers.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

This paper was written for the final project of the Honors seminar Monsters and Their Meanings, taught by Doctor Jeffrey Weinstock.

The Evolution of the Vampire Although myths about vampires have been around for centuries, Bram Stoker’s Dracula is considered the original contemporary vampire. Since the writing of Stoker’s novel, the appearance of the vampire has seen many alterations while the overall physical traits have mostly stayed consistent; that is, the gender, age, race, and hair colors of vampires have seen numerous changes, while traits such as lack of heartbeat, contempt toward the sun, and cold skin have remained. Dracula is described by Jonathan Harker to have profuse amounts of hair growing all over his head, bushy eyebrows, a heavy moustache, and extremely sharp canine

teeth that appeared to “[protrude] over the lips, whose remarkable ruddiness showed astonishing vitality in a man of many years” (Stoker 20). Besides the sharp teeth, Dracula could perhaps pass as a normal, albeit unkempt, elderly man. However, various other physical aspects of the old vampire give him away. When Harker shakes his hand, Dracula held on with extreme strength and had skin “as cold as ice” (Stoker 18). Harker also discovers that Dracula has no reflection when the man comes up behind him while he is shaving and fails to appear in the mirror (Stoker 27). The man has many of the physical traits of a vampire, making it no surprise that he actually is one. However, a vampire is sometimes given a more specific definition than a being with certain physical characteristics. A vampire is defined by some people as anything “whose paramount desire is to absorb the lifeforce or ingest the vital fluids of a living organism in order to sate its perverse hunger and perpetuate its unnatural existence” (Boyd 606). With this definition in mind, many of the physical characteristics seem less important and a vampire is merely distinguished as a selfish parasite that kills its victims in order to obtain blood. As with the physical representations, though, the fears that the vampire symbolizes have been altered numerous times over history. Early stories about vampires most likely represented the fear of being unclean or unholy, and a lack of knowledge in regards to science also added fuel. In 1988, Paul Barber created four categories that he believed signified the four main ways a person could become a vampire: predisposition, predestination, unnaturalevents, and “things left undone” (Atwater 72). These categories broke down to mean that anyone who did not believe in a god, had a birth defect, killed themselves, or was

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buried improperly could become a vampire. Since the categories are based on the fears of earlier times, the ways in which a person can become a vampire were probably written to ensure people would follow a god, prepare proper funerals for the dead, and refrain from self-inflicted death. The stories also sprung up based on events that could not be explained by any means besides the supernatural. Before modern sciences evolved, the only explanation people had for the tendency of the human body to continue to change color, move, or bleed after death was if the body was not actually dead (Atwater 74). A lack of medical understanding caused people to see a still-animated body as being undead. Until knowledge of the human body was unlocked, the moving, undead bodies remained a prominent fear. When Stoker wrote Dracula, the vampire moved beyond a lack of knowledge and became extremely sexually driven. Dracula goes after his victims not only for the life-giving blood they provide him, but for the provocative desire which he can create in making them like him. When he bit Lucy Westenra and turned her to a vampire, for example, her entire being changed: “the sweetness was turned to adamantine, heartless cruelty, and the purity to voluptuous wantonness” (Stoker 196). Simply by becoming a vampire, Lucy is transformed from a charming young lady to a promiscuous blood-craving monster. All of the people who become vampires are turned into an overly-sexualized version of themselves, representing desire in the most unattainable form. In Monster High, the entire concept of the vampire undergoes thorough alterations. Draculaura

is the daughter of Dracula (by bite, not blood), but she is vastly different from her scary father (Harrison, Back and Deader 121). Although she is always cold, has fangs, and fails to have a reflection, that is where the physical similarities with her “father” cease. She has pinkand-black-striped hair and, before the RADs are granted the freedom to show their unique traits, she laughs and smiles with her “lips tight against her teeth” to hide her fangs (Harrison, Monster High 67). The greatest difference between Draculaura and other vampires is her extreme dislike of blood. She is an extremely compassionate being who hates the thought of harming any animal, even if it means being unable to consume the blood that keeps her vampiric body going; the simple sight of blood actually makes her weak and faint. Instead, she is a vegan, taking in her protein and iron through various pills throughout the day (Harrison, Monster High 67). According to the definition from earlier, she actually would not be considered a vampire because of her unwillingness to consume blood. Draculaura is far from the average vampire, but she is still undead, the daughter of Dracula, and retains most of the common physical qualities of the vampire. As with the physical representation, the symbolized fears of the vampire are also drastically updated in Monster High. As a high school sophomore, Draculaura represents an anxiety that is now common among many real-life high schoolers: the fear of not being “good enough.” Her father finally visits her from Romania, and even though she is in his presence, he is focused only on work. No matter what she does, she cannot seem to

get his attention or show him the great activities with which she has been involved. She gets extremely upset that he will not pay attention to his daughter, and she thinks it is due in part to the fact that she is not obsessed with power or being a frightening authority figure to her friends (Harrison, Back and Deader 27). After continued ignorance and hearing rumors that her father is already considering going back to Romania—without having spent any time with her—Draculaura wonders if she would “ever be good enough to stay put for” (Harrison, Back and Deader 68). Although she constantly tries her hardest to prove to her father that she has been working hard, he simply does not notice her or any of her accomplishments. In a society that is constantly pitting people against each other in competition, feeling inadequate is a common feeling, especially among high schoolers. Draculaura must win a contest that brings millions of dollars to her school in order for her father to notice what she has done. However, her relationship with her father is strengthened immensely when he finally realizes just how hard she was working (Harrison, Back and Deader). Although Draculaura had to work toward a goal that seemed improbable, she was able to win her father’s approval through her dedication. When she finally gains her father’s approval, her anxiety about not being enough is assuaged. The Meaning Behind Updated Representations If monsters, their stories, or the fears they represent were not altered or updated to satisfy present-day cultures, people would get tired of them and cease to find pleasure in the stories. People Honors Platform | 35

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would not be afraid of a story that discussed a fear that is not prominent to their culture or era, and that also calls for constant alterations. Although the Monster High series takes the fear out of the monsters, the topics it discusses are revealed in a more positive way than through fear and terror. Rather than using the monsters to show readers that they should be scared of something, Harrison uses her monsters to show readers that they can overcome any fears or obstacles if they are dedicated and hard-working. The characters in her books are fearless, and they try to convey that same fearlessness to the readers. If it were not for the terrifying physical characteristics, References Asma, Stephen T. On Monsters: An Unnatural History of Our Worst Fears. New York: Oxford University Press, 2011. Print. Atwater, Cheryl. “Living in Death: The Evolution of Modern Vampirism.” Anthropology of Consciousness 11.1-2 (2000): 70-77. Wiley Online Library. Web. 1 Dec. 2015. Boyd, A. “Gustav Meyrink and the Evolution of the Literary Vampire: From Feared Bloodsucker to Esoteric Phenomenon.” Neophilologus 90.4 (2006): 601-620. Springer Link. Web. 1 Dec. 2015. Buchen, Irving H. “Frankenstein and the Alchemy of Creation and Evolution.” The Wadsworth Circle 8.2 (1977): 103-112. Marilyn Gaull. Web. 24 Nov. 2015. Cohen, Jeffrey Jerome. “Monster Culture (Seven Theses).” Monster Theory: Reading Culture. Ed. Jeffrey Jerome Cohen. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1996. 3-25. Print. ---. “The Werewolf ’s Indifference.” Studies on the Age of Chaucer 34 (2012): 351-356. Project Muse. Web. 24 Nov. 2015.

many of the characters would be hard to classify as monsters. The fear is removed from the storyline, giving both the characters and readers hope and courage instead. Harrison does not just change what the monsters represent, she changes the way they make those representations. Although the anxieties and fears of cultures have evolved, so have the monsters and stories which represent them. The Monster High series not only reimagines classic monsters, but gives them new fears to embody and new perspectives to take. Clawdeen Wolf is a werewolf who shows the importance of feminism and allowing women and girls to finally

lead their own lives; Frankie Stein is a piecemeal creature who reveals the negative effects of racism from the side of the oppressed and also shows how liberating it is once equality is gained; Draculaura is a vampire who displays that hard work does not go unnoticed, and the people who care will appreciate how truly “good enough” that work is. Lisi Harrison may have completely redesigned numerous monsters and creatures from history in her Monster High series, but those updates allow for contemporary representations of anxieties and new perspectives on the way monster stories are interpreted.

Wordpress. Wordpress, 29 Mar. 2013. Web. 1 Dec. 2015. Harrison, Lisi. Back and Deader Than Ever. New York: Poppy, 2012. Print. ---. The Ghoul Next Door. New York: Poppy, 2011. Print. ---. Monster High. New York: Poppy, 2010. Print. ---. Where There’s a Wolf, There’s a Way. New York: Poppy, 2011. Print. McHargue, Georgess. Meet the Werewolf. New York: Dell Publishing Co., Inc., 1976. Print. Robisch, S.K. Wolves and the Wolf Myth in American Literature. Reno, NV: University of Nevada Press, 2009. Press. Shelley, Mary. Frankenstein. New York: Signet Classics, 2013. Print. Smith, Kirby Flower and M.D. Learned. “An Historical Study of the Werewolf in Literature.” PMLA 8 (1893): xi-xii. Modern Language Association. Web. 24 Nov. 2015. Stoker, Bram. Dracula. New York: Oxford University Press, 2011. Print.

kristopher kieft is a biology student and moving on to graduate school to research molecular virology. He enjoys geeking out over fun facts and fully supports eating too much. He advocates that you can never be too scientific for creativity and imagination.

Dunlap, Alyson. “Werewolves: Narrative and Symbolism in Film and Literature.”

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Green at midnight by Kristopher Keift Green says wake up, today means something. Green is the dizzying moment of your first kiss. It tickles your nostrils and makes you cry. Green will take the morning sun and give it purpose in ocean fields of bursting life. It’s spruce trees giving winter the finger. It’s snapdragons itching to be nettles, hidden splendor. Fresh-cut lawns and clean oxygen. It’s savory, not in taste, but in ripe avocadoes picked from trees in Thailand. Green is herbal tea. It smells like sassafras and cedar and goes well with any wine. Green is not the reflecting sky. It’s not Jupiter’s Great Red Spot. It’s not humanity skyrocketing through space 390 kilometers per second.

Green doesn’t, isn’t, won’t, can’t be death. But Green is remembering your Grandma’s hugs on her deathbed. Green is moss reminiscing fallen trees. Green sounds like clouds gasping at the sun’s afterglow, of microscopic cells generating life. Green is DNA, the enigma of Earth. When it basks on your retinas you thank two billion years of evolution for eyesight. It’s the first day of spring, the entirety of summer, and the last Green leaf of autumn holding on to crisp breaths of existence. Autumn is Green’s generosity. If you close your eyes, Green feels like touching constellations with the warmth of sleeping lovers.

Green is grandpa’s driving on a country road. It’s the lotus flower taking its time to peek through ripples. Svalbard in May.

Green watches Saturday morning cartoons. It’s the reason for windows and the argument against shades; Green is the shade on a hot day.

Green isn’t just the grass and leaves, it’s a four-leaf clover found by a child, a chameleon’s favorite color, the soul of a Malachite caterpillar.

Green is how laughter makes you feel. It’s the ink on paper, Swirling emotions and unexplained smiles; Romanesco and Aloe polyphylla. In darkness, Green is all I see.

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The Use of a Narrative Approach to Investigate Quality of Life in Aphasia a central michigan university Honors senior capstone project by amanda platt INTRODUCTION Aphasia is a communication disorder that impairs an individual’s language functioning in expressive modalities, receptive modalities, or both, due to brain damage, most commonly stroke, to the language dominant hemisphere. The communication deficits caused by aphasia impact individuals in a variety of ways, including their communicative and social functioning and quality of life, which necessitates a holistic approach to providing services for people with aphasia. The World Health Organization’s International Classification of Functioning, Disability, and Health (ICF) provides a framework that is useful in providing holistic care to people with aphasia. The ICF framework focuses not only on treating the health condition at the impairment level, but also providing treatment that targets an individual’s activity limitations and participation re-

strictions in any aspect of their life. Providing treatment at all levels of the ICF framework has the greatest impact on the individual’s quality of life, which in persons with aphasia is often negatively impacted to some degree (Papathanasiou, Coppen, & Potagas, 2013). Even without the presence of aphasia, a stroke is a major life event that causes numerous changes in an individual’s life, which can be overwhelming and create challenges. When a communication disorder is present after this type of injury, these emotions can increase greatly. When working with persons with aphasia, helping them to come to terms with where they were before their injury, the changes that have occurred in their life, and how they want to move forward can greatly improve their quality of life (Shadden, Hagstrom, & Koski, 2008). The communication deficits present with aphasia create difficulties for

people with aphasia in regards to interacting with others and participating in the community. Cortsen et al. (2014) explain that aphasia significantly impacts quality of life negatively, and that this is often associated with changes in identity. The loss of communication abilities causes substantial changes in the individuals’ lives and the way that others interact with them, which can change how they see and define themselves. According to Hinckley (2008), “impaired narrative ability, whether limited in development or newly impaired due to injury or disease, results in a loss of one’s self and one’s own identity” (p. 127). Working with an individual who has aphasia to share their life story, who they were before their stroke, how aphasia is impacting them now, and where they see themselves in the future, can help them to come to terms with what has happened to them and improve their quality of life. In their study on the use of biographic-narrative intervention, Cortsen et al. (2014) found that “there was a significant improvement in health-related QoL and in mood” (p. 448). By giving them an opportunity to share their story, a drive inherent to human nature, creating a biography can help a person with aphasia to understand their place in the community and gives a sense that their life will continue to go on, even if in a different direction than they once anticipated (Shadden, Hagstrom, & Koski, 2008). Jordan and Kaiser (1996) explain the importance of the therapy process being a partnership between the clinician and the person with aphasia. Allowing the person with aphasia to become actively involved in their own therapy process and to have some

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self-determination over the process can help to build a self-confidence around their impairment. This dynamic between clinician and client is a key factor in the approach to creating a life story with the person with aphasia, allowing them to share their story how they wish and to get the most out of the experience. The purpose of this study is to describe what it means to live successfully with aphasia for an individual in her home through the creation of an aphasia-friendly biography to use as a tool to aid quality of life. Aphasia significantly impacts an individual’s quality of life and helping them to share their life story can be an approach that sheds light on their social functioning and participation in the community. These aspects, possibly more so than the specific language impairments due to the aphasia, determine an individual’s quality of life and the ability to live successfully with aphasia. Methodology Participants A woman (Helen) living in her home with chronic aphasia volunteered to participate in this study, along with her husband (Al), who is her primary communication partner. Helen presents with Broca’s aphasia and verbal apraxia, or difficulties creating and sequencing motor plans for speech, following a left hemisphere stroke 4.5 years ago. Her aphasia is characterized by deficits expressive language, including effortful speech production; reliance on stereotyped or automatic language (e.g. frequent use of the phrase “I like that”); anomia, or word finding difficulties; perseverations, or getting “stuck” on a word (e.g. during a naming

task, continued to say “dishwasher” when presented with new stimuli such as “coat” or “laundry”); and paraphasias, or errors in the production of language at the sound or word level (e.g. saying “mouch” instead of “couch” or “pear” instead of “apple”). Materials Your Life: Looking Back, Moving Forward, a resource published in a format designed for use with persons with aphasia, was used to conduct semi-structured interviews with Helen and Al. Specific pages of the booklet were selected based on the information Helen and Al were most interested in sharing and these pages were shown to give Helen a visual cue for the questions asked in the interviews.

Procedure Over the course of 6 meetings, each approximately 1 hour in length, Helen and Al participated in semi-structured interviews regarding Helen’s life. At the first meeting the participants were introduced to the interviewer, the purpose of the study, and the format interviews would take. In the following meetings, 2-3 questions were selected as interview topics. Topics ranged from Helen’s life and family growing up; her life, family, and career before her stroke; her stroke and recovery process; as well as her life now with aphasia. The questions asked in each interview are compiled in Table 1.

Interview 1

1. Tell me about your family. 2. What did you like to do before your stroke? 3. What jobs have you had?

Interview 2

1. Tell me about religious celebrations in your family (e.g. baptisms, first communion). 2. Tell me about how you and Al (e.g. first date, wedding). 3. What are some of your favorite vacations or trips you have taken?

Interview 3

1. Tell me about your stroke. 2. What are some things you lost after your stroke? 3. What has your recovery been like?

Interview 4

1. What strategies do you and Al use for communication? 2. How have you worked to overcome the barriers you’re your aphasia has created?

Interview 5

1. What goals do you have for the future? 2. What things do you hope to do in the future?

Table 1. interview questions Honors Platform | 39

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Helen was able to use the book as an aid to answer some of these questions, but much of the information provided came from her husband, Al. Working together, Helen and Al were able to provide a wide range of information about Helenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s life and the impact her stroke and resulting aphasia have had on both of them. The answers to each of the interview questions were taken and adapted to create an aphasia-friendly biography for Helen to use as a resource to talk about her life, stroke, and aphasia.

Amanda Platt is a senior graduating in May 2017 with a Communication Disorders major and minors in Child Development and History. She will be attending graduate school for a Masters in Speech Language Pathology in order to work in a hospital with individuals with communication and swallowing disorders.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT I would like to thank Dr. Natalie Douglas from the Department of Communication Disorders, without whom this project would not have been possible. In addition to mentoring me as I completed my project, she also traveled with me to Bay City twice a month so that I could interview my participants.

Results The data collected throughout the interviews was not only used to compile a biography for Helen to use to help communicate about her life story and her aphasia in the future, it also provided valuable information on her quality of life and what it means for her to live successfully with aphasia. Throughout the process, Helen was able to communicate both positive and negative emotions that came up when she and Al shared their answers to the questions. It should be noted that due to the severe expressive language deficits faced by Helen, much of the information that was used to compile her biography came from Al, her husband and primary communication partner; however, Helen was still able to use compensatory strategies such as gestures and facial expressions to supplement the information provided by Al. Both of them shared about the struggles faced due to the stroke and resulting complications, not only the communication difficulties present with aphasia, but also the physical impairments she faces, such as being wheelchair bound and having limited use of her right arm.

By comparing the different stages of Helenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s life, before her stroke, her stroke, her recovery, and her plans for the future and listening to the emotions of both Helen and Al, important information regarding quality of life and aphasia was noted. Things as simple as the activities Helen participated in before her stroke compared to those now shed light on quality of life issues. There were activities such as driving or clowning (dressing up as a clown and visiting hospitals or nursing homes to visit with patients) that Helen enjoyed previously but is no longer able to participate in. Additionally, Helen and Al both noted that a number of friends were lost because of the difficulties Helen faced following the stroke. There are also a number of therapy activities Helen spends a lot of time participating in, which require effort not only from her, but also Al, causing large impacts to their quality of life. In discussing life post-stroke, a lot of difficulties and challenges were mentioned by Helen and Al, but there was also much hope and positivity as they discussed goals and hopes for the future, which are important considerations when evaluating quality of life. Discussion The data obtained in the interviews with Helen and Al point to some key considerations for factors that can impact quality of life in persons with aphasia as well as implications of using a biographical-narrative approach with patients who have aphasia. Helen and Alâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s journey through therapy, recovery, and acceptance of their lives now show some factors that can help promote positive quality of life and living successfully

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with aphasia. Despite a number of challenges that they faced and will continue to face, from physical deficits to communication difficulties, both of which have the potential to impact their ability to participate in social activities and their community, Helen and Al attempt to remain positive and hopeful. They both noted the significance of hard work and staying active when asked about how to overcome the barriers created by aphasia. Helen works daily on therapy activities to attempt to improve her language and conversation abilities. They also try to continue to participate in a variety of community activities when possible. Al noted that, in his opinion, one of the most significant factors in Helen’s continuing recovery is remaining positive and being thankful for the opportunities they still have. Therapy for aphasia often focuses on the impairment level, attempting to improve a specific skill; however, quality of life is largely impacted at the activity and participation levels of the ICF framework (Papathanasiou, Coppen, & Potagas, 2013). The information obtained through interviews with Helen and Al demonstrated the importance of implementing activities at all levels of the framework in successfully improving quality of life. There were also a number of implications for the use of a biographical-narrative approach with persons with expressive aphasia, notably the necessity of the participation of a communication partner and considerations for the way information is presented to the person with aphasia. With persons who have aphasia characterized by severe expressive deficits such as Helen’s, this approach is only possible when they have a communica-

tion partner present who is familiar with a wide range of information about their life. With Helen, it was possible to conduct this study because Al was there to support her in sharing her story. Because the questions used in this approach were relatively open ended, it would have been extremely difficult to obtain the necessary data from Helen alone. Additionally, there are a number of considerations present with the administration of this approach. Though clinicians can create their own interview questions to create a biography, it is essential to always use both auditory and visual stimuli that are designed to be easily understood by someone with aphasia. Adaptations may need to be made in order for the person with aphasia to participate successfully; for example, early drafts of pages created for Helen’s biography proved to have

phrases that were too long and hard for Helen to read. These pages were adapted and more simple words or phrases were used instead so that Helen could successfully use the biography as a tool to share her story. Also, a limited number of questions were asked in each session to avoid frustrations as Helen got tired and had greater difficulties in communicating successfully. This study used a single participant to investigate the use of a biographical-narrative approach to investigate quality of life in aphasia. Further research should be completed to investigate this topic with larger participant groups, as well as investigating other methods to collect information on quality of life, particularly approaches that are appropriate for use with individuals with severe expressive deficits who do not have communication partners available to participate.

References Corsten, S., Konradi, J., Schimpf, E. J., Hardering, F., & Keilmann, A. (2014). Improving quality of life in aphasia – evidence for the effectiveness of the biographic-narrative approach. Aphasiology, 28(4), 440-52. doi: 10.1080/02687038.2013.843154 Hinckley, J. J., (2008) Narrative-based practice in speech-language pathology: Stories of a clinical life. San Diego, CA: Plural Publishing. Jordan, L., & Kaiser, W. (1996). Aphasia – A social approach. London, England: Chapman & Hall. Papathanasiou, I., Coppens, P., & Potagas, C. (2013). Aphasia and related neurogenic communication disorders. Burlington, MA: Jones & Bartlett. Shadden, B. B., Hagstrom, F., & Koski, P. R., (2008). Neurogenic communication disorders: Life stories and the narrative self. San Diego, CA: Plural Publishing. Sinden, E. (2014). Your Life: Looking Back, Moving Forward. Toronto: Aphasia Institute. Honors Platform | 41

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Little league soccer Meghan Dyer I wish my life was a perpetual game of little league soccer. Tiny cleats on tiny feets, tiny legs making tiny strides, kicking balls like stress so tightly woven into the confines of my aching mind, like a thousand tiny fists beating their way out, out, out, into the space between my hazel eyes, the wrinkle that only appears when my forehead cannot bear the tiny palms alone and the slack of my face tightens, like the fists kids thrust into the air upon their victory. I wish my life was like rec soccer, where the only people keeping score were us and society didn’t care if we won or lost because we tried our hardest and that was what mattered most, the slapping rhythm of thighs like so many withered leaves trying to take flight. We fought long and hard for victory and that was all that mattered. And I could drown in the applause of parents and float to the

bottom of the sea but still feel that it was me that created this feeling of euphoria, rushing through my veins like frothy LSD, a drug that I never tried but always wanted to for the chance to feel, feel as if the world was a hallucination and reality wasn’t real. The wriggling fingers like snakes on my aching hand reach over and over again with outstretched thoughts of the future. But if the future is just sticks and stones and words that break my fragile bones and Earth is as God intended, I’ll take my chances in Hell, because life is not fifth grade and shoving no longer ends on the blacktop. Like a hole that could swallow you up and make you feel smaller than a pebble. Small enough to toss away to some pond and forget about forever. Smooth and round and brown and perfect for skipping. No, in kiddie soccer life made sense and rules were fair and I didn’t care if I

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scraped my knee because I could see the trophy, the heart patched with Band-Aids and rainbow stickers and Eskimo kisses. and I knew that if I could make the trophy mine I could fix it for real, with words like Elmer’s glue, not those fickle replacements for bricks and mortar. I did not expect to make the heart my own but now it is so, shattered, no longer my heart, my trophy, in my cavern of a chest but a gaping miasma of circling confusion. Which came first, the ball or the game? I don’t know, But I want OUT, OUT, OUT of this game of life that was meant to be fun but ended up like so many unspoken, undigested words, always bitter in the stomach but abstaining from the tongue. I wish my life was a game of pick-up soccer, shared with friends over a field of comfort that doesn’t hurt when you fall down and doesn’t care when you mess up because it’s full of so many yellow dandelions just like you. And my head hurts from being the ball of stress that rolls so well on grass with white lines and red flags and tucked in jerseys that prevent kids from tugging.

but I was a player in tiny cleats on tiny feets, tiny legs making tiny strides toward life, the ball woven from so many smiles and conversations. And I could choose to pass or to dribble or to shoot and it didn’t matter because the choice belonged to me and, no matter the decision, everyone was happy and everyone won. I wish my life was a perpetual game Of little league soccer, but instead of the ball, always kicked when I’m down and turned all around, I was the victorious player.

meghan dyer is a first-year CMU Honors student and English in Secondary Education major. She writes poetry, dabbles in prose, and thinks about deep philosophical things. Essentially, she’s your average 18-year-old with an odd propensity for undergoing existential crises. If she isn’t writing, she’s probably crying over dogs or Shakespeare.

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Harry Potter and the Secularization of Britain

by kristyn turner

cccccccSince the release the first book, the Harry Potter series has been shrouded in significant controversy with regard to religion. As the first few books of the series gained significant popularity, many conservative Christians spoke out against the book series, claiming the series promoted violence, sorcery, magic, witchcraft, and “occult activity” (Stephens 52). Significant debate soon erupted concerning the religious implications of the series, with much of the early debates concerned with the impact the books would have on children who read them. Despite claims by several readers that the series was merely fantasy that should not be considered dangerous to children, some religious commentators, such as Kathy Smith of Fill the Void Ministries, warned that believing in the innocence of the book series would mean allowing children to be “indoctrinat[ed]” into the occult. Although some of the harshest critics such as Smith provide no indication that they have ever so much as opened a 44 | Honors Platform 96025 CMU Honors Platform Book.indd 44

Harry Potter book, others such as Linda Harvey turn to the text itself to support their theories about the dangers of the series. For example, with only a few choice references to the text of Harry Potter, Harvey concludes that the characterization of the Dursleys encourages “anti-Christian bigotry” among readers because, Harvey claims, the Dursleys represent Christians in their scorn for magic and are thus villainized in the books. Of course, such a conclusion is difficult to accept among the general readership of the series, namely given that the neglectful and highly materialistic Dursleys are not characterized in such a way as to reflect the values of Christianity. However ridiculous some of these initial arguments might have seemed to some—with Rowling herself calling claims about the occult influence of the books absurd (Armstrong 51)—the controversy continued to grow along with the series. By 2000, the books had become some of the most frequently challenged as parents and religious

leaders began to call for the banning of the books in schools and libraries, and the series remained at the top of the banned books list until 2005 (Senland and Vozzola 150). Despite continued outrage from conservative Christians, some Christians began to speak out in defense of the series. Apostolides and Meylahn, for example, claim that the series promotes largely Christian values that ultimately provide a context for practicing “lived theology,” a growing practice where popular culture texts are used to teach Christian theology (“Lived theology” 5). Others such as John Granger, John Killinger, and Connie Neal turned to scripture itself to defend the series and even consider it an attempt at a Christian allegory. In fact, it seems that, by the conclusion of the series, much of the outrage concerning the book series had diminished, with only fundamentalist Christians still voicing concerns at the conclusion of the series (Stephens 14). According to Stephens, as the series’ themes of sacrificial love, good versus evil, and life after death became more pronounced toward the end of the series, some Christians who had previously opposed the series began to speak out in favor of the series (19). By the time Rowling described the role of Christianity in the series following the release of the final book, stating that “the religious parallels have always been obvious,” the series had been explored from several angles (qtd. in Petre); however, some questioned the quality of many of those explorations. In regard to those fundamentalist Christians who remain opposed to the series, Leanne Simmons observes that there exists a “great divide between the worldview of

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Harry Potter and that of fundamentalist Christians” (54). Critics such as Armstrong, however, contend that both arguments that posit the series as anti-Christian and those which consider the possibility of a Christian allegory are weak because they warp both scriptures and the Harry Potter texts to fit their own agendas. Armstrong particularly questions the findings of Granger, calling his conclusions “strained”; she remarks, “While some Christians mistake the significance of the magic of the novels, wrongly linking it to occultism, others [such as Granger] overstate the importance of the religious elements” (53). Armstrong makes a compelling argument in this regard. With differing sides of the controversy twisting the same texts to meet directly opposing views, it would certainly seem that the methodologies of many of these critiques contain significant limitations. The decision by many of the critics to turn to the scriptures themselves to support their views is in itself a concern (Smith; Harvey; Granger; Killinger; Neal). The place of Harry Potter within the genre of Children’s and Young Adult Literature is an important consideration in this regard. As Apostolides and Meylahn observe, “particularly the youth (adolescents) struggle to find meaning in the ancient texts of scripture as the metaphors and language of the Bible is foreign to them” (“Lived Theology” 2). As such, linking the series to the scripture itself seems a useless task because many adolescents remain unfamiliar with them. In fact, Apostolides and Meylahn claim that fantasy novels such as the Harry Potter series offer an alternative means of encouraging a Christlike life as they provide a medium for

“lived theology”; however, they observe that, in doing so, the gospel moves from the Bible to the Harry Potter books themselves (5). As a result, it seems that referencing the Bible in relation to the Harry Potter books is ineffective, given children’s general lack of knowledge of the scripture and the difficulty involved in presenting the series as any form of direct Christian allegory. Even Granger, who likens Harry’s sacrifice in the final book to Jesus’s sacrifice, makes it clear that Harry is in no way a direct representation of Christ (114). Indeed, when arguing that the series promotes Christianity, many recognize that the key is to look at how the series expounds such Christian values as immortality, sacrificial love, or acceptance (Stephens; Armstrong; Apostolides and Meylahn). Given the novels’ place within the genre of fantasy, it is also necessary to take a broader view than most critics do when considering the issue of representations of religion within the novel; rather than focusing simply on the reception of the novels or the values they promote, it is important to look instead at the construction of the fantasy world and its significance. As Apostolides and Meylahn observe, the development of a fantasy world is often very deliberate (“Lived Theology” 3), so it is important to consider what the construction of a wizarding sub-culture within the Muggle world itself might signify, as well as what the implications of that might be. Apostolides and Meylahn consider this themselves in a separate work, eventually concluding that the Christian themes exhibited by “Harry and the ‘good’ wizards,” when juxtaposed with the materialistic ways of the Dursleys—the primary representation

of the Muggle world within the series—is meant as a critique of consumerism and power within the real world (“Crucifixion” 4). While their argument is certainly compelling, it again gives too narrow a picture. While the argument considers the significance of the “good” wizards and the Dursleys, it does not consider the implications of the Dursleys’ place within the Muggle world nor the “good” wizards’ within wizarding society—an important consideration given the series’ focus on the differing perspectives among both societies. Although the Dursleys may indeed serve as a critique of materialism and consumerism, I would argue that one must consider the bigger cultural concern of secularization. Considering the steady rise of secularism within Britain, the critique of society likely has more to do with secularism than consumerism—however related the two may be. In fact, I contend that the construction of the wizarding world as a sub-culture within the Muggle world is representative of the diminishing role of Christianity within Britain. Moreover, I argue that the further separations within each “society”—between the pure-bloods and half-bloods/ Muggle-borns of the wizarding world and the Dursleys and “other Muggles” in the Muggle world—is representative of a history of religious intolerance in Britain and the impact of secularism on the current religious atmosphere. Changing Religious Norms In establishing the parallels between the current religious atmosphere of Britain and the development of the world of Harry Potter, a vastly simplified history of religion within Britain is Honors Platform | 45

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Kristyn turner is a senior at Central Michigan University double-majoring in English and math for secondary education. After graduation,she hopes to teach English at an at-risk high school while working toward a master’s degree and eventual PhD. Her lifelong goal is to ensure equitable learning opportunities for all.

necessary. Such a history is first and foremost one of religious persecution in the face of religious reform, both inside and outside the Christian faith. Particularly around the time of the Reformation, when power easily shifted hands between the Protestants and the Roman Catholics, intolerance was rampant. Religious leaders who were at the height of their power could just as soon be the victims of persecution from those they had themselves been persecuting (Walsham13). It is important to note that, around the time of the Reformation, persecution was considered a “charitable hatred,” as religious pluralism was viewed as “an invitation to apocalyptic destruction” (Walsham 2). Such “charitable hatred” was certainly severe; for much of the sixteenth century, heresy was punishable by death. It was not until the late sixteenth century and early seventeenth century that the humanity of such executions began to be questioned (Walsham 56). As the sixteenth and seventeenth century progressed, persecution remained, but conventional Christianity began to face scrutiny as more “humanistic and evangelical forms” gained ground (Sheils 151). Following Henry VIII’s break from the Roman Catholic church to become head of the Church of England, evangelical forms of Christianity began to quietly spread among the citizenship of Britain at the risk of persecution (Sheils 154). When King Edward VI took power as a Protestant, the persecuted became the persecutors, as orthodox Christians were faced with the option to convert or face persecution themselves. In the next several years, this cycle repeated as power continued to shift, giving rise to the practice of faked religious faith as people faced persecution from the opposing Church with each shift in power (Sheils 154-6). It was not until the end of the seventeenth century, and the passing of

the Act of Toleration of 1689, that this cycle of persecution began to decline (Walsham 19). However, a legacy of fear remained long after as people continued to fear persecution. Later centuries would give way to further shifts in the religious map of Britain; as religious pluralism grew, tolerance became the ideal and persecution became worthy of abhorrence (Walsham 1). Christianity, once the dominant religion within Britain, has seen significant decline with the rise of secularization and pluralism. Badham postulates that by the 1990s, Christians only made up 65% of the religious landscape of Britain, with only 55% of them actively attending church; of the remaining 35%, he estimates that 27% were atheists or agnostics and 8% were religious non-Christians (488-9). Not only that, but he argues that the lifestyle of the 55% of non-Churchgoing Christians was ultimately more consistent with agnostics than a devotee of any other faith (489). The role of secularization within this shift in the religious landscape of Britain cannot be overstated. According to Alan Gilbert, despite some references to secularization throughout the 18th century, many agree that the rise of secularization truly took off during the Victorian era along with increased modernization (“Secularization” 504). This shift towards secularization was met with differing views among devoted Christians, with some of the most orthodox Christians encouraging an anti-modern movement in response to secularization and the more liberal Christians believing that “religion could survive only by adapting theological beliefs to the inevitable realities of modern, secular culture” (“Secularization” 506). But, as Gilbert himself observes, both would prove futile as Britain moved toward a “post-Christian society,” which he claims is “not one from which

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Christianity has departed, but one in which it has become marginal;” it is “a society where to be irreligious is to be normal, where to think and act in secular terms is to be conventional, where neither status nor respectability depends upon the practice or profession of religious faith” (The Making ix). Such a society certainly contrasts deeply with Britain’s history of religious persecution for the sake of Christianity, but it is exactly this extensive shift in the religious framework of Britain that can be seen in the world of Harry Potter. Secularization and Modernization In establishing a connection between the religious landscape of Britain and the society of the Harry Potter series, it is useful to first establish what is meant by “religion.” Within the scope of this exploration, is seems appropriate to employ Alan Gilbert’s definition of religion as we explore its significance within the Harry Potter novels; he describes religion as “any system of values, beliefs, norms, and related symbols and rituals, arising from attempts by individuals and social groups to effect certain ends, whether in this world or a future world, by means wholly or partly supernatural” (The Making 5). Such an inclusive definition could suggest that the wizardry of Harry’s world is in itself a religion, with its own divergent sects using their supernatural abilities to effect differing ends. In response to the “secular” influence of the Muggles, two differing wizarding ideologies are revealed: the pure-bloods who seek a wizarding world free of Muggle-borns and those who embrace them. In establishing the wizarding world as a representation of

religion within the Harry Potter series, the role of persecution within the series is worth consideration. Rowling establishes the history of the wizarding world as extensive, with the wizards facing severe per-

Just as Britain itself was home to severe religious persecution, the world created in Harry Potter seemed an intolerant place. secution from Muggles, leading to their isolation as a sub-culture hidden within the Muggle world. This history of persecution is alluded to by the expert in the history of magic himself, Professor Binns, when he remarks that Hogwarts was established “far from prying Muggle eyes for it was an age when magic was feared by common people, and witches and wizards suffered much persecution” (Chamber 1589). Just as Britain itself was home to severe religious persecution, the world created in Harry Potter seemed an intolerant place. However, it was in the response to this persecution that a schism formed within the wizarding world. Some, who could be described as “fundamentalists,” were unwilling to accept the influence of the Muggles in isolating or integrating within the wizarding world; others seemed to accept that this integration was the only way to keep the magic alive. The Muggles themselves are representative of secularization. Just as secularization overtook Britain and led to current religious

landscape in which religion— namely, Christianity—occupies a subset of society, the Muggles have overtaken the wizarding world and forced them into a sub-culture hidden away within the Muggle world. The first indication that the Muggles are representative of secularization is their lack of the “religion” that is magical ability. Indeed, most Muggles give no indication of any belief in the supernatural, and even the Dursleys, who know it exists, vehemently pretend otherwise. By accepting Gilbert’s assumption that secularization can be tied to modernization (“Secularization” 505), the role of modernization in both the wizarding and Muggle world provides further indication that the Muggles represent secularization. When Harry enters into the wizarding world after being raised in the Muggle world, one of the most peculiar differences is the lack of technology in the wizarding world. Arthur Weasley observes that it is “Ingenious, really, how many ways Muggles have found of getting along without magic” (Chamber 45), and Fred and George admit that there are certain Muggle ways that are worth knowing. Fred remarks that, although “a lot of wizards think it’s a waste of time,” they “feel they’re skills worth learning, even if they are a bit slow” (Chamber 27). Although picking a lock, the Muggle skill Fred was specifically referring to, is probably much slower than a simple “Alohomora” spell, there are other forms of technology used in the Muggle world that appear far more modern than within the wizarding world. For example, wizards use candlelight in place of electricity; write with parchment and quill instead of pen, paper, or computers; and deliver post by owl instead of Honors Platform | 47

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

This paper was originally written for HON 321H: To Hogwarts, Harry: An Intensive Study of Harry Potter Through the British Isles, taught by Dr. Joseph Sommers.

through mail or email or by use of the telephone. If Ron’s comical attempt at using the telephone (Phoenix 4) or Molly’s overuse of stamps when using the “Muggle post” (Goblet 31-35) are any indication, the wizarding world still resists modernization, and by extension, secularization itself. The development of the wizarding world as a subculture hidden within the Muggle world is also noteworthy. As Gilbert observed, Christianity itself has begun to blend into the backdrop of British society, just as the wizarding world has within the Muggle world. Just as churches within Britain have either fallen into disrepair or have been adopted for secular uses enough that they are no longer noteworthy (The Making xi-ii), the wizarding world has come to occupy small, unnoticeable pockets of the Muggle world. The entrance to the Hogwarts Express lies hidden in the midst of a busy Muggle train station, though none of them seem to notice the hordes of wizards disappearing into the seemingly solid barrier every first of September. Muggles never look twice at the Leaky Cauldron: “Their eyes slid from the big book shop on one side to the record shop on the other as if they couldn’t see the Leaky Cauldron at all” (Stone 73). Nor do the Muggles recognize the entrance to St. Mungo’s for what it is (Phoenix 482-3). Harry is also shocked to find that Muggles do not notice the large Knight Bus careening through the Muggle world, though Stan Shunpike is not, as he remarks that Muggles “don’t listen properly, do they? Don’t look properly either. Never notice nuffink, they don’t” (Azkaban 36). This sentiment is echoed in the words of Arthur Weasley, who remarks that Muggles go “to any lengths to ignore magic” (Chamber 40). The Muggles’ disregard of any hints of magic or the wizarding world in general is reflective of the decline in Christianity within Britain

and its relegation to the background of British society. The Impact of the Muggles It is the issue of the Muggles that demonstrate the impact of secularization on the wizarding world itself, particularly in the development of the divide between the two schools of thought regarding the acceptance of Muggle-borns into the wizarding world. Salazaar Slytherin and his descendants, namely the Gaunt family, long held the opinion that Muggles were “filth” and any wizarding children who came from them were “Mudbloods” (Prince 206). The Gaunt family is a perfect example of a family who believed that maintaining their pure-blood status was more important than anything else, and they are representative of fundamentalists who promote the persecution of outsiders who would threaten the stability of the wizarding order. Both Morfin and Morvolo Gaunt are shown to have attacked Muggles, believing that in doing so they were giving them “what was coming to [them]” (Prince 210). To their horror, it was Morvolo’s daughter who would “dirty” their blood by marrying a Muggle, but her son, after facing persecution from his Muggle father and being abandoned in an orphanage, would become the new leader of this fundamentalist sect calling for the persecution of Muggles and Muggle-borns. Voldemort, despite being half-blood himself, would lead the more fundamentalist wizards in a battle to rid the wizarding world of the Muggle-borns and their influence. Indeed, just as the victims of religious persecution in Britain were outsiders (Walsham 141), the Muggle-borns who are unfamiliar with and unaccustomed to the wizarding world become the targets of Voldemort’s persecution as he tries to “weed out” the Muggle-borns and give the wizards control over the

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Muggles (Hallows 210). However, as some Christians within Britain “concluded that religion could survive only by adapting theological beliefs to the inevitable realities of modern, secular culture,” many wizards accepted that compromise was necessary to continue the wizarding legacy (“Secularization” 506). In response to Malfoy’s elitism in considering Hermione a “filthy little Mudblood,” Ron remarks that “It’s mad. Most wizards these days are halfblood anyway. If we hadn’t married Muggles we’d’ve died out” (Chamber 117, 122). Even Dumbledore, the accepted leader of this school of thought within the wizarding world, is shown to have amended his beliefs in the face of this reality. In Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows, Dumbledore is revealed to have previously had ambitions to overtake the Muggles “For the Muggles’ own good,” or, moreover, “for the Greater Good” (357). Such a sentiment echoes the widely-accepted notion within early Britain that persecution was a “charitable hatred” (Walsham 56). Of course, Dumbledore clearly underwent a shift in perspective and came to accept the role Muggles, or secularization, would play among the wizarding world. As a result, his focus, as well as those sharing his views regarding the acceptance of Muggle-borns within the wizarding world, became that of maintaining a strong and tolerant wizarding world that acts as a sub-culture within the Muggle world. The Significance of the Dursleys While the impact of the Muggles within the wizarding world illustrates a shift in perspectives on the issue of persecution or tolerance, the place of the Durs-

leys within the wizarding world is worthy of its own exploration. The Dursleys are quickly villainized within the series, but it is made clear early that they cannot be taken as a representation of all Muggles. Harry himself remarks

Their ghastly neglect of Harry stems from a fear that they will be linked with his peculiar nature. early in Harry Potter and the Philosopher’s Stone that “not all of them [Muggles]” are horrible (106). Thus, it would seem that the role of the Dursleys is to illustrate the danger of intolerance among the opposite side as well. The Dursleys demonstrate the signs of those who fear persecution themselves, but who respond with their own form of persecution. Their ghastly neglect of Harry stems from a fear that they will be linked with his peculiar nature. Throughout the series it is made abundantly clear that they want nothing more than to be perceived as normal and to outshine their neighbors. From the very first line of the first book, they are characterized as “proud” to be “perfectly normal, thank you very much,” a sentiment that remains throughout the rest of the series (Stone 1). They are described as “the last people you’d expect to be involved in anything strange or mysterious” (Stone 1). With this characterization, their decision to accept Harry into their home is so uncharacteristic as to be worthy of serious consideration. The first hint as to why

the Dursleys would do something so uncharacteristic is in Petunia’s description of her parents’ reaction to her sister’s magic. In response to Harry’s outrage at never being told that he was a wizard, Petunia exclaims: “How could you not be [a wizard], my dratted sister being what she was? Oh, she got a letter just like that and disappeared off to that—that school—and came home every holiday with her pockets full of frog-spawn, turning tea-cups into rats. I was the only one who saw her for what she was—a freak! But for my mother and father, oh no, it was Lily this and Lily that, they were proud of having a witch in the family!” (Stone 57). Her frustration with her parents’ pride in Lily suggests a deep jealousy of her sister and a belief that her parents loved her sister more. Of course, it is later revealed that the true source of her jealousy is a longing to have magical abilities herself—such a strong longing, in fact, that she once wrote to Dumbledore begging for admission to Hogwarts (Hallows 669). This jealousy perhaps sheds some light on why Petunia might have accepted Harry into her home. The news that her sister had sacrificed herself for her son and that Petunia was his only refuge likely sparked guilt for the way she had always resented her sister and a belief that simply allowing him into her home would assuage her guilt. However, after accepting Harry into her home, it would appear that Petunia uses him as a means to improve her public image while in reality grossly neglecting him. Although to the public she herself performs a selfless act in accepting her orphaned nephew into Honors Platform | 49

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her home, behind closed doors she treats him like a criminal. Forever worried about how they are perceived within society, the Dursleys control the public narrative surrounding Harry to make themselves look good. In Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets, when they entertain business associates, they make him hide in his room pretending he in not there, but when his presence is realized, they paint him as “disturbed” (20). They later describe him as a criminal who attends “St. Brutus’s Secure Center for Incurably Criminal Boys” (Azkaban 19). As they negatively characterize him within the public eye, they “other” him, separating him from themselves while painting themselves as charitable, “good” people for taking him in, a sentiment expressed by Aunt Marge when she remarks to Harry that, “It’s damn good of Vernon and Petunia to keep you. Wouldn’t have done it myself. You’d have gone straight to the orphanage if you’d been dumped on my doorstep” (Azkaban 23). Even as Vernon and Petunia attempt to villainize Harry to the public and thereby encourage a perception of themselves as “good” people, their treatment of Harry outside of the public eye is anything but “good.” While initially they appear to treat Harry with mostly indifference and neglect— e.g., forcing him to live in a cupboard under the stairs, only giving him hand-me-downs from Dudley, and never allowing him to go out with them—their ill treatment of him appears to intensify once Harry’s magical ability presents itself. When Harry receives his letter from Hogwarts, Petunia is undoubtedly reminded of her own experience with her sister leaving for

Hogwarts and thus begins to take her jealousy and anger at her sister out on Harry with renewed fervor. This can be seen particularly in the Dursleys’ treatment of Harry in Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets, when they punish him by treating him like the criminal they proclaim him in public to be: He [Uncle Vernon] paid a man to fit bars on Harry’s window. He himself fitted the cat-flap in the bedroom door, so that small amounts of food could be pushed inside three times a day. They let Harry out to use the bathroom morning and evening. Otherwise, he was locked in his room around the clock (Chamber 22). As Petunia’s guilt diminishes and she is again consumed primarily with jealousy and anger at her sister, her treatment of Harry becomes more severe, as she treats him with the scorn and persecution that she believes such a “freak” deserves. As time passes and Petunia feels less guilty about her treatment of her sister, her and Vernon experience no reservations in kicking Harry out of the house when he appears to put their beloved Dudley in danger—that is, until Petunia receives a howler reminding her to “REMEMBER MY LAST, PETUNIA” (Phoenix 40). Although it is later revealed to be Dumbledore who sent the howler, Petunia’s reaction to these words gives no indication of this (Phoenix 836). It is her reasoning that she gives to Vernon that is worth noting, as she says, “He stays. […] If we throw him out, the neighbors will talk. They’ll ask awkward questions, they’ll want to know where he’s gone. We’ll have to keep him.” (Phoenix 41). Although Dumbledore claims that his intention with the howler was meant only as a reminder “of the pact she

had sealed by taking you [Harry]”, it is likely that the howler brought back her feelings of guilt that had prompted her to accept Harry in the first place. In remembering “my last”, she is perhaps reminded of her sister’s last act, that of sacrificing herself for her son—a selfless act that can be respected by all. In turn, she is forced to reconcile her own treatment of Harry in the face of her jealousy and, in the interests of maintaining her public image of being good, she explains to Vernon that they must let Harry stay. The Issue of Tolerance Ultimately, then, it seems that the commentary regarding religion within Harry Potter has more to do with toleration and acceptance than with any specific references to Christianity or attempts to develop a Christian allegory. The use of magic as a representation of religion within Harry Potter is in itself significant, as it illustrates the shift in British religious culture. While a publication sporting magic without direct and easily recognizable references to Christianity would never have been allowed in early Britain, the trend toward secularization and more liberal ideologies allows such a text to exist in popular culture. Although many fundamentalist Christians still abhor the references to magic and would certainly reject the idea that the magic could be meant to symbolize Christianity, the development of the wizarding world within the Muggle world certainly suggests such a connection. However, it is not my assertion that a direct correlation between the magic in Harry Potter and Christianity itself exists. Rather, I assert that in the careful development of the wizarding world and the impact

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of the Muggles on that world, Rowling alludes to the secularization of Britain. In doing so, Rowling offers commentary about the importance of toleration and acceptance. The vilifying of both the supporters of Voldemort and the Dursleys suggest that persecution on either end—to-

ward the religious or the non-religious—is unacceptable. Once everyone can accept the changing realities of the world and embrace religious and ideological pluralism, all will be well.

Works Cited Apostolides, Anastasia, and Johann-Albrecht Meylahn. “The crucifixion of consumerism and power and the resurrection of a community glimpsed through Meylahn’s wounded Christ in conversation with Rowling’s Christ discourse in the Harry Potter series.” HTS Teolo giese Studies/Theological Studies 70.1 (2014): 1-7. Web. 4 June 2016. AOSIS. doi:10.4102/hts.v70i1.2794 ---. “The lived theology of the Harry Potter series.” HTS Teolo giese Studies/Theological Studies 70.1 (2014): 1-6. Web. 4 June 2016. AOSIS. doi:10.4102/hts.v70i1.2713 Armstrong, Ari. “Religion in Harry Potter: Do J.K. Rowling’s Novels Promote Reli gion or Undermine it?” Skeptic 17.1 (2011): 51-53. Web. 4 June 2016. ProQuest.

Simmons, Leanne. “The Perils of Shape-Shifting: Harry Potter and Christian Fun damentalism.” Pastoral Psychology 62 (2013): 53-68. Web. 4 June 2016. Springer. Smith, Kathy. “Harry Potter: Seduction into the Dark World of the Occult- Part One.” Fill the Void. Fill the Void Ministries, 2001. Web. 25 July 2016. Stephens, Rebecca. “The Lightning Bolt Scar as a Lightning Rod: J.K. Rowling’s Harry Potter Series and the Rhetoric of the Extreme Right.” Reading Harry Potter Again: New Critical Essays. Ed. Giselle Liza Anatol. Santa Barbara, CA: Praeger, 2009. 13-29. Print. Walsham, Alexandra. Charitable Hatred: Tolerance and Intolerance in England, 1500-1700. Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2006. Print.

Badham, Paul. “Religious Pluralism in Modern Britain.” A History of Religion in Britain: Practice & Belief from Pre-Roman Times to the Present. Eds. Sheridan Gilley and W.J. Sheils. Oxford: Blackwell, 1994. 488-502. Print. Gilbert, Alan. The Making of Post-Christian Britain: A history of the seculariza tion of modern society. London: Longman Group, 1980. Print. ---. “Secularization and the Future.” A History of Religion in Britain: Practice & Belief from Pre-Roman Times to the Present. Eds. Sheridan Gilley and W.J. Sheils. Oxford: Blackwell, 1994. 503-521. Print. Granger, John. Looking for God in Harry Potter. Carol Stream, IL: Tyndale House. 2007. Print. Harvey, Linda. “Harry Potter and Anti-Christian Bigotry.” WND. WND, 18 July 2007. Web. 25 July 2016. Killinger, John. God, the Devil, and Harry Potter: A Christian Minister’s Defense of the Beloved Novels. New York: St. Martin’s Griffin, 2004. Print. Neal, Connie. The Gospel According to Harry Potter: The Spiritual Journey of the World’s Greatest Seeker. 2nd ed. Louisville: Westminster John Knox Press. 2008. Print. Petre, Johnathon. “J.K. Rowling: ‘Christianity Inspired Harry Potter’.” The Tele graph. Telegraph Media Group, 20 Oct. 2007. Web. 23 June 2016. Rowling, J.K. Harry Potter and the Philosopher’s Stone. London: Bloomsbury, 1997. Print. ---. Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets. London: Bloomsbury, 1998. Print. ---. Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban. New York: Scholastic, 1999. Print. ---. Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire. New York: Scholastic, 2000. Print. ---. Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix. New York: Scholastic, 2003. Print. ---. Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince. New York: Scholastic, 2005. Print. ---. Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows. New York: Scholastic, 2007. Print. Senland, Amie, and Elizabeth Vozzola. “Christian Perspectives on Harry Potter: Tool of Satan or Christian Parable?” Journal of Research in Character Education 5.2 (2007): 149-165. Web. 4 June 2016. ProQuest.

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