Paleography of Four Modern Hebrew Scrolls: Analysis of Their Script in View of Earlier Writings by Micha Mark Jerusálmi

Paleography of Four Modern Hebrew Scrolls: Analysis of Their Script in View of Earlier Writings

by Mark Farnadi-Jerusálmi, M.A.

under the supervision of Dr. Edna Engel, The Hebrew Palaeography Project, The National Library, Jerusalem

Submitted as a Master’s thesis to the Jewish Theological Seminary – University of Jewish Studies, Budapest in the academic year 2015/16

Table of Contents

Acknowledgements .............................................................................................3 Overview ..............................................................................................................4 Methodology ........................................................................................................7 1.

Manuscripts presented in this work .........................................................9 1.1. Index of Manuscripts and Scrolls Used in This Work ............................9 1.2. Introduction to the 15th-16th century manuscripts...............................10 1.3. Introduction to the 18th century manuscripts ......................................11 1.4. Introduction to the 19th-20th century scrolls ......................................12

Analysis of the letters ...............................................................................20 2.1. List of features for each of the chosen letters of each the manuscripts 21 2.2. Comparison tables ...............................................................................105 2.3. Graphic Analysis .................................................................................112

Summary and conclusions .....................................................................161 3.1.Graphic overview of the shape of the letters over the centuries ......161 3.2.Overview of the shape of the letters over the centuries in words ....168 3.3.Conclusion .......................................................................................170

Bibliography ....................................................................................................172

Acknowledgements I wish to dedicate this thesis to the memory of my dear father-in-law, Yisrael David (Tom) ben Shraga Feivel Schmelzer, who would have loved to have done the English-language editing of this work but wasn’t able to carry out this plan, because his Creator seemingly needed him for other tasks. On his hospital bed he was pleased to hear that (temporarily we hoped) the professional editor Sara Tropper would take over this job. Thanks to her for a great job that she does with her neshama, and especially for the fantastic speed in which she did the work. Special thanks to my academic advisor, Dr. Edna Engel, who guided me in the writing of this work and the whole research project behind it. She introduced me to the fascinating world of paleography and gave me the tools to dive within its sea. Thanks to the staff at the University, especially to the rector, Dr. Alfred Schőner, the head of the Facuty of History of Jewish Culture, Dr. Tamás Lichtmann, and particularly to Dr. Gábor Balázs for his ongoing support throughout the thesis seminar. My gratitude as well goes to János Oláh for encouraging my enrollment in this institution. Thanks to those who helped me find dated scrolls and manuscripts: to Gábor Árvai and Balázs Csányi who checked and photographed Torah scrolls in Budapest, Dr .Yaakov Fuchs of the National Library and Dr. Ari Greenspan for the Esther scroll from Sofia. Thanks to David Yehoshua for helping me with the graphic design and to Shel Bassel for sharing his thoughts about the findings of my thesis. Thanks to my dear wife, Shana, who took care of our home and family while letting her husband work on his thesis for so many months and so many hours, days and nights. Last, but far from least, thanks to the Holy One, blessed be He, who, according to the Talmud, created the Heavens and the Earth through the Hebrew letters1 for letting me know his building blocks from closer and closer and from more and more different angles over the years. May He give me strength to continue this job.

Berakhot 55A

Overview The paleography of the Hebrew script2 can be investigated, among other ways, by comparing religious artifacts which are known to originate from different time periods, such as Torah scrolls. By examining changes in the structure and the form of the letters, one can mark the evolution of Hebrew script expressed in the development of letter writing in 19th century scrolls.

Rationale behind the choice of this topic The science of paleography deals mainly with manuscripts dating up to the invention of the printing press in the 15th century, at which point manuscripts became increasingly scarce. However, items used for Jewish ritual purposes such as Torah scrolls, phylacteries and mezuzahs (sifrei Torah, tefillin and mezuzot in Hebrew, or “STaM” ) until today continue to be handwritten by scribes. This practice offers an excellent opportunity for a paleographic study of more modern documents. Unlike cursive and semi-cursive Hebrew script, changes in the so-called ‘square script’3 used for StaM occured only very slowly due to the rigid clinging of Jusdaism to its ancient traditions and religious laws. Nonetheless, even these stringent frameworks provided room for a certain individualism. One scribes’ style was never exactly the same as another. Scribal practice varies in accordance with, for instance, with the amount of hand pressure applied to the calamus. Until approximately a century ago, Jews living in different countries followed slightly different traditions as to the script used in religious scrolls. In the last century the halachic (legal) decisions of Rabbi Israel Meir Kagan (1839– 1933) from Poland (Radun’ or Raduń, today in Belarus) became widely accepted in Ashkenazic communities. Rabbi Kagan ruled that the script of Rabbi Netanel Tfilinsky (1866-1918) fulfills all halachic requirements for such writing. Subsequently, his script became the model for most Ashkenazic scribes, leading to a certain standardization in the script used in STaM today.

“The idea of constructing a new discipline of medieval Hebrew paleography came of itself. Manuscripts are historical objects: paleography is an historical science. Latin and Greek paleography are ancient: Latin paleography began with Jean Mabillon’s De re diplomatica, published in 1681, which laid the initial foundations of Latin paleography. Greek paleography got it start [sic] in 1708, with the publication of de Montfaucon’s Palaeographia Graeca. These two disciplines are well represented in France. This historical perspective, which had been developed for Greek and Latin only, exists for all scripts and handwritings. Since the 1950s, many other paleographies have emerged, including Hebrew paleography.” (http://colettesirat.com/index.php/en/presentation/themes/la-paleographie-hebraique-medievale) 3 Thus called because most of the letters of the Hebrew alphabet can be fit into an imaginary square.

The documentation of the different traditions followed up until the standardization process has both historical and halachic value. Such research would serve to preserve existing STaM. Moreover, it would help to ensure that traditions different from those used today will not mistakenly be considered unfit for ritual purposes. In this thesis, I aim to investigate whether or not the script used in modern scrolls has its roots in manuscripts dating to the 15th-16th centuries. My hypothesis is that the variations of script today indeed can be traced to the medieval period. In each time period I will deal with two different writing traditions: Ashkenazic and Sepharadic. “The Ashkenazic script [is] 4 notable for its intricacy and elegance. The unique character of the writing texture and the fine crafting of the letters are facilitated by use of the quill pen (or bone stylus), the writing instrument of the Ashkenazic letter. The flexible quill, as opposed to the stiffer reed, increases the possibilities for creating delicate elements such as fine lines or ornate embellishments to beautify the basic letter lines.5 It also seems to have been the means for creating a unique, droplet-shaped flourish used to embellish the vertical lines of the letters in many Ashkenazic kinds of scripts.” “Until the thirteenth century, the Sefardic script was characterized by its many different styles, which were influenced by the development of the semisquare and proto-semi-cursive modes. Both of these modes appeared at the end of the tenth or the beginning of the eleventh century, confirming our assumption that this was the period when the Sefardic script took shape. Examination of tenthcentury North African manuscripts leads us to the hypothesis that the Sefardic script originated in the Maghreb, inspired by the Oriental script, which most probably was brought to the Maghreb by Babylonian Jewish immigrants.(…) Unlike the full-fledged Oriental letters of this period, the Sefardic letters still lag behind, showing affinity with the Oriental proto-square script. After a transitional period following its initial emergence and growth in the tenth and eleventh centuries, the Sephardic script came to a peak in the thirteenth century and continued to flourish through the fourteenth century. The thirteenth century, which also saw the crystalization of several other Hebrew 4

Engel, Edna and Beit-Arié Malachi: Specimens of Medieval Hebrew Scripts, Volume 3:.The Ashkenazic Script. The Israeli Academy of Sciences and Humanities: Jerusalem, 2016 (in print?) 5 The point of the quill was given a short vertical or diagonal slit that spread apart with the application of slight pressure, allowing the creation of a decorative ‘fish-tail’ element at the end of the letter’s horizontal or vertical line. This element does not appear in any of the other types of Hebrew scripts and is one of the most visually striking characteristics of the Ashkenazic letter. See, e.g., the square script from the year 1260 shown in Plate 17, or the semi-cursive script from 1232/3 shown in Plate 78; and see A. Yardeni, The Book of Hebrew Writing, Jerusalem 1991, pp. 202–211 (Hebrew).

scripts, was a period of increasing social and cultural activity in the Sefardic communities. It was at this time, with the fading of the Oriental traces in the script, that a unique, fully formed Sefardic script developed. The square letters changed their proportions and became more square. A shift in the weight of the letters is also apparent: the letters are formed by even strokes, creating regularity in the thickness of both horizontal and vertical lines.â&#x20AC;?6

Beit-AriĂŠ and Engel 2002

Methodology In order to do a paleographic examination of Torah scrolls, I will identify and select scrolls whose age and place of origin can be traced from the inscription on the atzei chayim7. First, I will choose two Torah scrolls from the 19th and early 20th century, and analyze their script by describing both the structure and the form of particular letters in these two scrolls. Next, I will choose manuscripts dating from the 15th to the 16th centuries, and analyze the script in these documents. In the third and final stage, I will analyze the script in scrolls from the period between these two periods. Eventually, I will attempt to show the linkages between all of these stages. My aim is to clarify the development of the script over time. For the analysis I will use a methodology developed by Edna Engel, which is described in her work, “The Analysis of the Letter8”. “ The method emphasizes the value of the smallest elements of the single letter, aiming to prove that these morphological changes can best be expressed in terms of the modification of the individual parts of the letter rather than of the letter as a whole. Analyzing the individual parts of the letter, graphing and putting them together again, enables us to trace the evolution of the letter as a whole.”9 “The model is based on two principles: ‘structure’ and ‘form’. The term ‘form’ implies the treatment of the morphology of the letter with regard to ornamental elements (serifs). Modification of the ‘form’ in a letter can be attributed to changes in ornamental features. It can also be attributed, however, to the sharpening of the calamus or the exchanging it for another one. This will be manifested either in the alteration of the letter's line (for example, turning a straight line into a curved one) or in a variation of its thickness. The term ‘structure’ expresses the mutual relationship of the lines of the letter. Without its ornaments, the Hebrew letter consists of 2-4 straight lines. These lines determine the basic structure of the letter. Movement or shortening of lines, or changing the angle, may cause a change in the structure. By distinguishing between ‘form’ and ‘structure’, we can compare letters which do not possess the same ornaments.”10

Literally, “trees of life”. These are wooden poles to which the parchment of the Torah scroll is attached 8 Engel, Edna: The Analysis of the Letter – a New Palaeographical Method, in: Rück, Peter (ed.) Methoden der Schriftbeschreibung, Historische Hilfwissenschaften, Jan Thorbecke Verlag:Stuttgart. 1999, pp 43-50. 9 Engel 1999, p. 43. 10 Ibid., p. 43-44.

The thesis includes the following chapters: Chapter 1 Introduction to the Torah scrolls and the manuscripts In the first part of this chapter I will present several manuscripts from the 15h16th centuries. Next, I will introduce a number of manuscripts from the 18th century. In the third and final section of Chapter 1, I will discuss the selected scrolls from the modern era (19th-20th centuries). Chapter 2 Analysis of the aforementioned Torah scrolls and manuscripts. This chapter has two main sections: (1) an analysis of the ‘skeleton’ (structure); and (2) an analysis of the ‘flesh’ (form) of chosen letters of the aleph-bet. Both of these sections will be illustrated. Chapter 3 In this chapter I will demonstrate the similarities and differences between the shape of the letters found in Torah scrolls of different styles and periods. I will show that the shape of the letters of Torah scrolls from the 19th and 20th centuries originate in earlier styles, as it can be seen in medieval and later manuscripts. Moreover, I will demonstrate that despite their different appearances, one ductus evolved from the other.

1. Manuscripts presented in this work 1.1. Index of Manuscripts and Scrolls Used in This Work Name of the Manuscript

Current place

First Nuremberg Haggadah New York Siddur

London. Private collection

Oxford Manuscript New York Haggadah

Copenhagen Haggadah

Amsterdam Haggadah

Ettingen Haggadah Amsterdam Benedictions

Torah Scroll Gomperz

Torah scroll Deutsch Torah Scroll Ahavat Re’im

Esther Scroll Sofia

Jewish Theological Seminary, New York Bodleian Library, Oxford Jewish Theological Seminary, New York The Royal Library National Library of Denmark Bibliotheca Rosenthaliana, University of Amsterdam OCLC number 20492894 Bibliotheca Rosenthaliana, University of Amsterdam Dózsa György Street Synagogue, Budapest Berhlen Square Synagogue, Budapest Nagyfuvaros Street Synagogue, Budapest Private Collection of Dr. Ari Greenspan

Signature

Code at sfardata.nli.org.il, Machon Ot or sofer.hu ZA008

Code in this Work

MS. 4804

0D077

NYS

MS. Can. Or. 42 MS. 4817

0C009

0D057

NYH

1NH

MT 9

AMST Ros 131 (Cat. Fuks

EH AMST Ros 147 (Cat. Fuks

14625 (at Machon Ot)

14613 (at Machon Ot)

23 (at sofer.hu/echumash_e.html)

1.2. Introduction to the 15th-16th century manuscripts11 The first manuscript from this era is known as the “First Nuremberg Haggadah.” I wilI refer to it in the current work as 1NH. It was copied by “Joel ben Simeon (called Feibush Ashkenazi), scribe and illuminator active in Germany and Italy in the second half of the 15th century. Of German origin, probably from Cologne or Bonn, he established a workshop in northern Italy. In his signed manuscripts he referred to himself as a sofer (“scribe”), lavlar (“scrivener“), and a ẓayyar (“painter”). Probably he himself was not the copyist and illuminator of all the manuscripts signed by him, but he was head of an atelier which moved from town to town, with several craftsmen in his service. In style and iconography his workshop combined Ashkenazi and Italian art.” 12 “Active in both his native Germany and in northern and central Italy – especially in Florence – Joel ben Simeon had a profound influence on the illustration of Hebrew manuscripts. Unlike other scribes and artists, he signed most of his works, and we are able to identify more than a dozen manuscripts he created. This Haggadah, copied for Nathan ben Solomon, is thought to be the first and therefore represents his style while still a young man”13.It is written between the years 1449 and 1154.14. It can be found today in the Israel Museun, in Jerusalem. The second Ashkenazic manuscript is a siddur (Jewish prayer book) from this era. It was copied by Abraham HaSofer ben Eliakim HaKohen, who served as a cantor in Padua in northern Italy in 1508. The siddur was likely written in Mestre, a town that today is in Venice. It can be found at the Jewish Theological Seminary in New York, and for this reason will be called the “New York Siddur,” or “NYS.” Of the Sepharadic manuscripts of this era, the first is a “manuscript that deserves our attention, a lesser-known Bible copied in 1470 by Samuel ben Abraham Altires, in the small village of Moura (south of Portugal), for the renowned Lisbon merchant, Isaac ben Gabbay (Oxford, Bodleian Library, Ms. Can. Or. 42). Its copious micrographic decoration, with a grammar that is essentially mudéjar, establishes a connection with the ‘Andalusian school’, where the influence of Islamic art is more strongly felt (not only in manuscripts, but also in synagogal architecture); on the other hand, the decoration of this Bible is open to colour, particularly gold, a frequent feature of the manuscripts from Lisbon produced in the next decades.”15 Since this manuscript is housed today in Oxford, 11

All the 15th-16th manuscripts are available online at http://sfardata.nli.org.il [online] [2016.04.10.]< https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/judaica/ejud_0002_0011_0_10198.html> 13 [online] [2016.04.10.]< http://www.imj.org.il/imagine/galleries/viewItemE.asp?case=26&itemNum=201638> 14 According to http://sfardata.nli.org.il 15 Tiago Moita, University of Lisbon, Portugal The Hebrew Bible from Moura. A Testimony of 12

I will call it “ Oxford” or “ O.” The second Sepharadic manuscript from this era is a Haggadah copied in 1515 by Abraham ben Mordechai Farissol in Ferrara, Italy. “Farissol was an Italian scholar and geographer; born at Avignon, France, 1451; died, according to Grätz (“Geschichte,” ix. 44), in 1525; Zunz, however (“G. S.” i. 178), says that he was living in 1526. In 1468 he was at Avignon, but soon afterward went to Mantua, and in 1473 to Ferrara. (...) and occupied himself besides in the copying of manuscripts.” 16 He was a famous scribe, some fifty, pertially very superior manuscripts remaining from him. This manuscript is kept today in the Jewish Theological Seminary in New York, so I will call it the “New York Haggadah” or “NYH.”

1.3. Introduction to the 18th century manuscripts The following manusript from the 18th century will be analyzed in this work. The first of the two Ashkenazic manuscripts is the “Ettingen Hagggadah“ written in 1729. “The scribe and illustrator was probably Jacob ben Michael May Segal of Innsbruck”17 who made it, according what is written on the top of title page for “Izek the son of the late Zeliman, Ettingen (Öttingen?) of blessed memory”. I will call this manuscript the “Ettingen Haggadah” or “EH.” The second Ashkenazic manuscript from this era is a book of benedictions18 to be recited by women, given by Feivish ben Joel Mindin to his fiancée, Esther bat Nathan Eisenstadt. The name of the scribe is unknown. Written in 1728, the manuscript is today is housed at the Bibliotheca Rosenthaliana, in Amsterdam, Netherlands. Thus I will refer to this work as the “Amsterdam Benedictions, or “AB.” The first Sepharadic manuscript from this era is known as the ”Copenhagen Haggadah”, “The background for its appellation seems twofold: it belongs to the Copenhagen community, and two of the panels show what has been perceived as Danish motifs, i.e. the two wild men (fol. 4a), known from e.g. the Danish Royal Coat of Armsand the heavenly Jerusalem (fol. 31a), which is generally perceived to be very similar to Rosenborg Castle (even if both motifs Mudéjar Art in Portugal. [online] [2016.04.10.]<http://hebrewilluminationinportugal.weebly.com/news> 16 Gottheil, Richard Seligsohn, M. : FARISSOL (PERIZOL), ABRAHAM BEN MORDECAI. In: Jewish Encylopedia. 1906 17 Pessach Haggadah : Ashkenaz, 489 (1729). Facsimile edition: Nahar ṿe-ʻAm ʻoved: Tel-Aviv, 1985. 18 This manuscript is available online at The National Library of Israel [online] [2016.5.11.] <http://rosetta.nli.org.il/delivery/DeliveryManagerServlet?dps_pid=IE15090621&amp>

are known from other European contexts).”19 Its scribe and illuminator was Uri Feibush ben Isak Eisik Segal. He “was born in 1719, and worked as a scribe in the so-called triple-community (‘Dreigemeinde’) Hamburg-Altona-Wandsbeck. Sometime between 1751 and 1755, he moved to Copenhagen, where he remained until his death in 1795.” I will refer to this manuscript as the “Copenhagen Haggadah” or “CH.” The second Sepharadic manuscript from this era is a Haggadah written in 1741 by Jacob ben Judah Leib Shamash of Berlin. This manuscript is kept today in Bibliotheca Rosenthaliana Amsterdam Netherlands 20 , so I will call it the “Amsterdam Haggadah” or “AH.”

1.4. Introduction to the 19th -20th century scrolls My work of examining and repairing old Torah scrolls has brought me, for the most part, into contact with scrolls from Hungary. While the Jewish community of Hungary is largely Ashkenazic in origin, it isn’t rare to find Sepharadic Torah scrolls in the arks of Hungarian synagogues. My aim was to present both Ashkenazic and Sepharadic scripts, through two examples of each style. Toward the goal of making the research as precise as possible, I specifically sought dated scrolls, meaning that information about the scroll’s date (and perhaps also place, name of donor, etc.) appears on the atzei chayim. I located two Ashkenazic scrolls that met these criteria, but was unable to find any dated Sepharadic scrolls in Hungary. Thus I eventually chose one undated Hungarian Sepharadic scroll and one dated Esther scroll (Megilat Esther) from nearby Bulgaria. The latter has a scribal style that is relatively similar, but still sufficiently different from the above-mentioned undated Torah scroll.21 The older of the two Ashkenazic Torah scrolls bears an inscription on its etz chayim which can be translated as follows: “This Torah scroll with an embroidered “cloak” was donated by the noble gentleman Feivel Gomperz for God’s sake and for glorifying the Great Synagogue at the time of its inauguration, 5619 (1858-59).” This inscription does not mention in which city this ‘Great Synagogue’ is located. Nonetheless, because the scroll is housed in Budapest (at the Dózsa Street Synagogue) and because in 1859 the Great Synagogue of Budapest was the sole ‘great’ synagogue inaugurated in the region (or anywhere that a person named Philipp Gomperz ((Philipp is not a translation of Feivel, but those with the Jewish name “Feivel” are often called “Philipp” in a secular context)) was living), it is 19

’The Copenhagen Haggadah’ In: The Royal Library [online] [2016.05.11.] <http://www.kb.dk/en/nb/samling/js/MT9.html&gt;> 20 This manuscript is available online at The National Library of Israel [online] [2016.5.11.] <http://rosetta.nli.org.il/delivery/DeliveryManagerServlet?dps_pid=IE16456648&amp;> 21 Photos of the Bulgarian megillah courtesy of Dr. Ari Greenspan

likely that we are talking about the renowned Great Synagogue of Dohány Street. We even have a receipt that shows that one “Herr Phil. Gomperz“ paid for his seat for twenty years in advance at the synagogue inauguration.

This Philip Gomperz is probably the grandfather of the wife of the famous David Kaufmann. He wound up not using the seat for twenty years as he died in 1867. I will refer to the Torah scroll donated by Feivel Gomperz as ‘Gomperz’ or ‘G’. The other Ashkenazic Torah scroll is from the Bethlen Square Synagogue in Budapest and bears the inscription on its etz chayim: “Donated by our master R’ Avraham Tzvi Deutsch, in the year of 5690” (1929-30). Since Deutsch is a very common name and no place of origin is inscripted, I know nothing more about it. In this thesis, I will call this Torah scroll ‘Deutsch’ or ‘D’. One of the Sepharadic scrolls is from the Nagyfuvaros Street Synagogue (Congregation Ahavat Re’im) in Budapest, and bears no inscription. I will call this Torah scroll ‘Ahavat Re’im’ or ‘A’ The other Sepharadic scroll is a Megillat Esther with the inscription: The holy community of the capital city of Sofia –may God protect it- in the year “hi Esther bat dodo,” meaning 5675 (1914-15). I will call this scroll ’Sofia’ or ‘S’

Samples from the 15th-16th centuriesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; manuscripts

The First Nuremberg Haggadah

The New York Siddur

The Oxford Manuscript

The New York Haggadah

Samples from 18th century manuscripts

The Copenhagen Haggadah

The Amsterdam Haggadah

The Ettingen Haggadah

The Amsterdam Benedictions 17

Samples from 19th-20th century scrolls

Torah scroll “Gomperz”

Torah scroll “Deutsch”

Torah scroll “Ahavat Re’im”

Esther Scroll “Sofia”

2. The Analyisis of the letters In this thesis I analyze the following letters: aleph, gimel, he, lamed, mem, ayin and pe. The analysis22 will be done according to the following viewpoints:

•

The square in which the letter fits. “This square fits the outlines of each variant of the letter and has been constructedby drawing four perpendicular lines through the extreme points of the letter”23, not taking into consideration decorative elements of the letter. Letter skeleton. Three or four straight lines connecting the foremost points of the letters, drawn in the middle of the stroke made by the calamus. Letter conjunction. “The conjunction is defined as the Pc junction of two strokes converging from different Sc directions. It is in fact not found in every letter. There may, however, be two conjunctions in the same letter. In the latter case the first one, called the Primary Conjunction –Pctakes place between the two long strokes. The second one, defined as the Secondary Conjunction –Sc- exists between a long and a shorter stroke.” 24 The above-mentioned square has been divided into four quarters. Form elements. “Form elements, are, on the one hand, decorative elements like serif, and on the other hand elements which developed due to [a] mutation of the structure line itself, such as curving or thickening. In the following, each of the form elements will be called [a] ‘formative feature’. In order to record the formative features, it is necessary to group the letters into graphical units”.25 Long horizontal ceiling lines

•

Short horizontal ceiling lines

•

Right vertical lines

•

Oblique left lines which may develop ornamental heads

•

Please note: the black, grey or white colors bear no particular meaning in this thesis. Engel., 1999. p. 44. 24 Engel., 1999. p. 44. 25 Engel., 1999. p. 44 23

2.1 List of features for each of the chosen letters of each the manuscripts26 First Nuremberg Haggadah Aleph a

Pc where line c joins line b. It is at the top of line b, in the upperleft quarter of the square. Sc is in the upper-left quarter of the square.

short line, descending to the right.

line descending to the right. Generally slightly bent, sometimes

with a high spike on the top left, upwards.

The alephâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s foot is an upright line with an thick part at its bottom.

This line is drawn with two movements without raising the calamus. There is a short spike descending from the bottom left corner.

The terms I use to describe the parts of the letters are mostly borrowed from Ada Yardeni's Book Of Hebrew letters, (Yardeni 2002, Chapter E, pp, 145-156)

Gimel a

at the bottom-right quarter of the square.

relatvely long horizontal ceiling line.

This line descends slightly to the right, gradually thickening very

slightly and then narrowing.

The gimelâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s foot is a short line (shorter than a) descending to the left

and ending below line b.

at the upper-right quarter of the square.

Horizontal line with a serif in its upper-left corner.

This line descends slightly to the right, while gradually narrowing.

Short vertcial line, gradually thickening and then narrowing.

Lamed a

Pc at the very middle of the height of the letter at the right side. Sc at the very middle of the height of the letter at the left side. Sc

a Thin vertical line descending very slightly to the left or totally straight with a slightly thicker part at its top, which is often disconnected from the rest of the letter. b

Thick horizontal line.

Thin vertical line, descending slightly to the left.

Mem a d b c

Pc at the upper-right corner of the square. Sc

Sc1 at the bottom-right corner of the square. Sc

Sc2 at the upper-left quarter of the square.

Curved convex thick horizintal line, with a thin joint at its bottom

left that connects it to line d.

b c d

Vertical line, the connection between lines a and c. Thick horizontal line. Vertical line descending slightly to the left, narrowing towards its bottom. Its top shaped like a comma turning leftward. Line d is

often

divided into two separate parts, marked as d1 and d2, where d1 is

the thick horizontal and d2 is the thin verttical part.

Ayin

Pc at the bottom-left quarter, close to the center.

a Curved left, its left

downstroke. Its top turning in a sharp angle to the part forming a relatively long horizontal ceiling, being

the thinnest part below this horizontal line, then thickening gradually when the thickest part is at the very bottom.

Thin line descending to the right with a short thick vertical ceiling line at

the top. In some cases lines a and b are disconnected.

Pe a b d c

Pc at the upper-right quarter of the square.

Sc1 at the upper-left quarter of the square. Sc

Sc2 at the bottom-right quarter of the square.

Thick horizontal line.

Vertical line, the connection between lines a and c. Its thinnest part is close

to the bottom.

Thick line slightly descending to the left.

Thick and short horizontal line which is disconnected from the rest of

the letter.

New York Siddur Aleph

a b

Pc where line c joins line b. It is at the top of line b, in the upper-left quarter of the square. Sc is , in the upper-left quarter of the square.

short line, descending to the right.

line descending to the right. Generally slightly bent, sometimes

with a high spike on the top left, upwards.

The alephâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s foot is an upright line with an thick part at its bottom. This

line is drawn with two movements without raising the calamus. There is a short spike descending from the bottom left corner.

Gimel a

b c

at the bottom-right quarter of the square.

relatively long horizontal ceiling line.

This line is descending slightly to the right, gradually thickening very

slightly and then narrowing.

The gimelâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s foot is a short line (shorter than a).

He a

at the upper-right quarter of the square.

Thick horizontal line.

This line descends slightly to the right, gradually narrowing and then

thickening and narrowing again.

Short vertcial line, gradually thickening and then narrowing.

Lamed a

b c

Pc at the very middle of the height of the letter at the right side. Sc at the very middle of the height of the letter at the left side. Sc

Thin vertical line descending straight with a slightly thicker

part at its top, which is often disconnected from the rest of the letter.

Thick horizontal line.

Thin vertical line, descending to the left.

Mem a d b

c Sc

Pc at the upper-right corner of the square.

Sc1 at the bottom-right corner of the square. Sc2 at the upper-left quarter of the square.

Curved convex thick horizintal line, with a thin joint at its bottom left

that connects it to line d.

Vertical line, the connection between lines a and c, narrowing at the middle.

Thick horizontal stroke.

Vertical line descending slightly to the left, narrowing towards its bottom.

Its top is shaped like a comma turning leftward.

Ayin a

Pc at the bottom-left quarter, close to the center.

a Curved downstroke. Its top turning in a sharp angle to the left, its left part forming a relatively long horizontal ceiling, being the thinnest part below this horizontal line. It then thickens gradually, with the thickest part at the very bottom.

Thin line descending to the right with a short thick vertical ceiling line

at the top.

Pe a

b c

Pc at the upper-right quarter of the square. Sc1 at the upper-left quarter of the square.

Sc2 at the bottom-right quarter of the square.

Thick horizontal line.

Vertical line, the connection between lines a and c, its thinnest part close to

the bottom.

Thick line, horizontal or sometimes slightly descending to the left.

an upright line with a thick part at its bottom. This line is drawn with

two movements without raising the calamus.

Oxford Manuscript

Aleph a

c Pc where stroke c joins line b in the top-left corner.

Pc Sc

Sc is where line a joins line b. It is very close to the center of the whole square.

curved thickened in the middle and narrow at the bottom, where it joins

the body, line b.

Line descending to the right. The whole line is straight or slightly

curved, while its left end is curved upwards at the top.

c The alephâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s foot is a line descending to the left. This line is drawn with two movements without raising the calamus.

Gimel a

Pc at the bottom-right quarter of the square.

is a short horizontal line that joins line b with a neck-shaped joint,

extending line b to the left only.

descends straight. Its thinnest part is at its top just below line; from there it

gradually thickens very slightly toward its bottom.

the gimelâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s foot is a relatively long horizontal line, gradually narrowing

towads its left end. The joint of line b and c is very smooth, giving the gimel an almost nun-like shape when seen with modern eyes.

He a

Pc at the upper-right quarter of the square.

Thick horizontal line.

Vertical line slightly descending to the right, narrowing towards its end.

Short vertical line, narrow at both ends.

Lamed a

Pc letter at bottom-right quarter of the square. Sc at the very middle of the height of the letter, on the left side.

Vertical line slightly curved to the right with a thicker part at the top,

extending the vertical part slightly. b

Thick horizontal line turning downwards at its right end where its

joins line c.

curved thin line descending leftwards and narrowing towards its bottom.

Mem

c Sc

Pc at the upper-right corner of the square. Sc1 at the bottom-right corner of the square. Sc2 at the upper-left quarter of the square.

Thin vertical line slightly descending to the left. Its top part is thick and

turns leftwards in a horn-shaped form.

Line b

is straight and thick at the very top-left horizontal part and thinner

at its right part; the two parts are drawn by one curved line.

Thick straight line, rounded at the bottom at its right end where it

joins line b.

Ayin

Pc at the bottom-right quarter.

Line a

and c

together form an angular downstroke. At its top it

turns angularly to the left and extends slightly to the right as well. The downstroke is narrow at part a, then thickens gradually from the beginning of line b.

Thin, slightly curved line open to the right and descending to the right

with a thick line on the top with a crown. The ornament joins the thin line with a neck-shaped joint. The thick part sometimes extends the line to its left only and sometimes extends it slightly to its right as well.

a c Pc at the bottom-right quarter of the square.

Sc at the top of the square, at its middle. Pc

an upright line with a thick part at its bottom. This line is

drawn with two movements without raising the calamus.

curved, thick line slightly descending at the very top-left part,

connected to a thin straight vertical bottom part by one curved line.

Thick curved line descending slightly to the left, rounded at its right

end where it joins line b.

New York Haggadah Aleph a b

Pc where line c joins line b. In the top left corner.

Pc Sc

Sc is where line a joins line b. It is very close to the center of the whole square.

curved thicking in the middle and narrow at the bottom, where it joins the

body, line b.

line descending to the right. The whole line is straight or slightly

curved, while its left end is curved upwards at the top.

The alephâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s foot is a line descending to the left. This line is drawn with

two movements without raising the calamus.

Gimel a

b c

Pc at the bottom-right quarter of the square.

is a short line descending to the right that joins line b with a neck-

shaped joint, extending line b to the left only.

Line b

descends straight. Its thinnest part is at its top just below the line;

from there it gradually thickens very slightly toward its bottom.

the gimelâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s foot is a relatively long horizontal line, gradually

narrowing towards its left end. The joint of line b and c is very smooth, giving the gimel an almost nun-like shape, looking at them with modern eyes.

Pc at the upper-right quarter of the square.

Thick horizontal line.

Vertical line slightly descending to the right, narrowing towards its end.

Short vertical line, narrow at both ends.

Lamed a

Pc Sc

Pc letter at bottom right quaerter of the square. Sc at the very middle of the height of the letter, at the left side.

Vertical line slightly curved to the left and to the right with a thicker part at

the top. This thick part extends the vertical line to the left. b

Thick horizontal line turning downwards at its right end where its joins

line c.

curved thin line descending leftwards, narrowing and then thickening again

towards its bottom.

Mem a c

Pc Sc

Pc at the upper-right corner of the square.

Sc1 at the bottom-right corner of the square. Sc2 at the upper-left quarter of the square.

Thin vertical line slightly descending to the left; its top part is thick and

turns leftwards in a horn-shaped form.

is a thick curved line.

Thick straight line, rounded at the bottom at its right end where it

joins line b.

Ayin a

Line a

Pc at the bottom-right quarter.

and c

together form an angular downstroke. Its top turns

angularly to the left and extends slightly to the right as well. The downstroke is narrow at part a, then thickens gradually from the beginning of line b .

Thin, slightly curved line open to the right and descending to the right

with a thick part on its top , which joins the thin line with a neck-shaped joint. This thick part sometimes extends the line to its left only and sometimes extends it slightly to its right as well.

Pc at the upper-right quarter of the square. Pc

Sc1 at the top of the square by the very middle of its width. Sc

Sc2 at the bottom-right quarter of the square.

line a descends towards the left and then turn towards the right, with a

thick part at its bottom. This line is drawn with two movements without raising the calamus.

curved, thick line .

Slightly curved line, descending slightly to the left, rounded at

its right end, where it joins line b.

Ettingen Haggadah Aleph

a b

Pc where line c joins line b. It is at the top of line b, in the upperleft quarter of the square. Sc is, in the upper-left quarter of the square.

short line, descending to the right.

line descending to the right. It is generally slightly bent,

sometimes with a high spike on the top left, upwards.

The alephâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s foot is an upright line with an thick part at its bottom. This

line is drawn with two movements without raising the calamus.

Gimel

a b

at the bottom-right quarter of the square.

short ceiling line, usually wiith a spike at its left.

This line descends slightly to the right, gradually thickening and then

narrowing.

The gimelâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s foot is a short line (shorter than a) descending to the left

that ends below line b.

He a c

at the upper-right quarter of the square.

Horizontal line with a serif in its upper-left corner.

straight vertical rhomboid line.

Short vertcial line, gradually thickening and then narrowing, very similar to

line a.

Lamed a b c

Pc at the very middle of the height of the letter at the right side. Sc

Sc at the very middle of the height of the letter at the left side.

Thin vertical line descending straight with a slightly thicker part at its top

Thick horizontal line.

Downstroke, descending to the left. Thin at its top and thick at its bottom.

Mem a d b

Pc at the upper-right corner of the square.

Sc1 at the bottom-right corner of the square. Sc

Sc2 at the upper-left quarter of the square.

Curved convex thick horizintal line, with a thin joint at its bottom left

that connects it to line d.

Vertical line, the connection between lines a and c. Narrowing, and then

thickening again

Thick horizontal line.

Vertical line descending slightly to the left, narrowing towards its bottom.

Its top is shaped like a comma turning leftward.

Ayin a

Pc at the bottom-left quarter, close to the center. Pc

Curved downstroke. Its top turns in a sharp angle to the left, its left

part forming a short horizontal ceiling, being the thinnest part below this horizontal line. It then thickens gradually, with the thickest part at the very bottom.

Thin line descending to the right with a short thick vertical ceiling line

at the top and a spike at its top-left corner.

a b d c Sc

Pc at the upper-right quarter of the square Sc1 at the upper-left quarter of the square.

Sc2 at the bottom-right quarter of the square.

Thick horizontal line.

Vertical line, the connection between lines a and c, thick in the middle, thin

at the top and at the bottom.

Thick horizontal line.

an upright line with an thick part at its bottom. This line is drawn with

two movements without raising the calamus.

Amsterdam Benedictions

Aleph

Pc where line c joins line b. It is at the top of line b, in the upper-left quarter of the square. Sc is in the upper-left quarter of the square.

short line, descending to the right, connected to the line at its very

bottom. The thick part sticks out only to the left from this joint.,

line descending to the right. Generally slightly bent.

The alephâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s foot is an upright line with an thick part at its bottom. This

line is drawn with two movements without raising the calamus.

Gimel a

at the bottom-right quarter of the square.

short ceiling line.

This line descends slightly to the right, gradually thickening and then

narrowing.

The gimelâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s foot is a short line (shorter than a) descending to the left

and ending below line b.

He a c

at the upper-right quarter of the square.

Thick horizontal line often slightly descending to the right.

straight vertical line, slightly desending to the right.

Short vertical line, gradually thickening and then narrowing.

Lamed a c d Pc at the middle of the height of the letter at the very right side. Sc Pc

Sc at the same height as Pc, at the left side.

Thin vertical line descending straight, its top part sticking out to the left,

and very slightly to the right. b

Thick horizontal line.

Downstroke, descending to the left. Thick at its top, slightly narrowing

towards its bottom. d

Almost vertical, descending to the left. Thin at its right side and thickening

towards its left side.

Mem

Pc at the upper-right corner of the square. Sc

Sc1 at the bottom-right corner of the square. Sc

Sc2 at the upper-left quarter of the square.

Thin vertical line slightly descending to the left, its top part is thick and

turning leftwards in a horn-shaped form. Its bottom ends deeper than line c.

Line b

is a thick curved line.

Thick straight line, rounded at the bottom at its right end where it

joins line b.

Ayin

Pc at the bottom-left quarter, close to the middle of the squareâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s width.

Curved downstroke. Its top turns in a sharp angle towards the left,

its left part forming a short horizontal ceiling, which is the thinnest part below this horizontal line. It thickens gradually, with its thickest part at the very bottom.

vertical line descending slightly to the right with a short thick vertical

ceiling line at the top.

Pe Sc Pc

a Sc

Pc at the upper-right quarter of the square. Sc1 at the upper-left quarter of the square.

Sc2 at the bottom-right quarter of the square.

line a descend towards the left, then turns toward the right with a thick

part at its bottom. This line is drawn with two movements without raising the calamus.

curved, thick line .

thick horizontal line, rounded at its right end where it joins line b.

Copenhagen Haggadah Aleph

a b

Pc is where line c joins line b. Sc is where line a joins line b. It is close to the center of the square at the bottom third of line b.

short line, descending to the right, connected to line b at its very bottom.

The thick part sticks out only mostly to the left and only slightly to the right from this joint.

line descending to the right. It is straight or in some cases nearly

so, with a high spike.

The alephâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s foot is a line descending to the left. This line is drawn with

two movements without raising the calamus.

Gimel a

Pc at the bottom-right quarter of the square.

b c

A short ceiling line, slightly descending to the right.

A straight vertical line, narrowing towards its end. The gimelâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s foot is a short horizontal line, ending about at the same level

as line b.

a c

Pc at the upper-right quarter of the square.

Thick horizontal line with a spike at its top-left corner.

Straight vertical line narrowing narrowing towards its end.

Short straight vertical line, narrow at its both ends.

Lamed a c d Pc at the upper-right corner, close to the middle of the height of the Pc

letter at the very right side.

Sc close to the middle of the height of the letter at the left side.

Straight vertical line with an thick part at the top, which joins the vertical

line with a neck-shaped join, extending slightly to the right and more to the left.

c d

Thick horizontal line.

Downstroke, thick at its top, slightly narrowing towards its bottom. Thin diagonal line descending to the left, its bottom a little bit thicker,

having a gentle flag shape.

Mem

Pc at the upper-right corner of the square.

Sc1 at the bottom-right corner of the square.

Sc2 at the upper-left quarter of the square.

Thin vertical line slightly descending to the left, its top part thick and

turning leftwards in a horn-shaped form.

curved line, straight and thick at the very top-left, horizontal part, and

thin and straight at its bottom-right, vertical part. The two parts consist of one curved line. c

Thick line descending to the left, rounded at the bottom at its right end.

Ayin b

Pc at the bottom-right quarter.

Line a

and c

together form an angular downstroke. Its top

turns angularly to the left. The downstroke is narrow at part a, then thickens gradually from the beginning of line b .

Thin, slightly curved line open to and descending to the right with a short

ceiling on the top. The ceiling joins the thin line with a nail-shaped joint. It sometimes extends the vertical line both to the left and to the right.

b a

Pc at the bottom-right quarter of the square.

Sc at the top of the square, at its middle. Pc

an onament connected with a thin line to line b, with a spike at its bottom.

This line is drawn with two movements without raising the calamus.

Curved and thick.

Thick horizontal line, rounded at its right end where it joins line b.

Amsterdam Haggadah Aleph a b c

Pc is where line c joins line b. Sc is where line a joins line b. It is close to the center of the square at the bottom third of line b.

Short line, descending to the right, connected to line b with a nail-shaped

join.

The line descends to the right. It is straight; its bottom is slightly

bent to the left and it has a high spike at its top.

The alephâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s foot is a line descending to the left. This line is drawn with

two movements without raising the calamus.

Gimel

Pc at the bottom-right quarter of the square.

Short ceiling line, slightly descending to the right.

Vertical line, descending slightly to its right, thickening towards the

middle then narrowing again, towards its end.

The gimelâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s foot is a short horizontal line, ending about at the same level

as line b.

He a c

Pc at the upper-right quarter of the square.

Thick horizontal line with a spike at its top left corner.

Straight vertical line narrowing towards its end.

Short straight vertical line, narrow at its both ends.

Lamed a

c d Pc at the upper-right corner, close to the middle of the height of the Sc

letter at the very right side. Sc close to the middle of the height of the letter at the left side.

Straight vertical line with an thick part at the top, which joins the vertical

line with a neck-shaped join, extendig slightly to the right and more to the left.

Thick horizontal line

Downstroke, thick at its top, slightly narrowing towards its bottom.

Thin diagonal line descending to the left. Is bottom is a little bit thicker,

and has a flag shape.

Mem

Pc at the upper-right corner of the square.

Sc1 at the bottom-right corner of the square. Sc

Sc2 at the upper-left quarter of the square.

Thin vertical line slightly descending to the left, its top part is thick and

turning leftwards in a horn-shaped form.

Curved line, straight and thick at the very top-left, horizontal part,

thinner and straight at its bottom-right, vertical part. The two parts consist of one curved line. c

Thick line descending to the left, rounded at the bottom at its right end.

Ayin b

Pc at the bottom-right quarter.

Lines a

and c

together form an angular downstroke. Its top turns

angularly to the left. The downstroke is narrow at part a, then thickens gradually from the beginning of line b.

Thin, slightly curved line open to the right and descending to the right

with a short ceiling on the top which descends slightly to the right. It joins the thin line with a nail-shaped joint. The ornament sometimes extends the vertical line both to the left and to the right.

a d

c Sc

Pc at the upper-right quarter of the square Sc1 at the upper-left quarter of the square.

b c

Sc2 at the bottom-right quarter of the square.

Thick horizontal line.

Vertical line, the connection between lines a and c. Thick horizontal line.

Vertical line descending to the left with a thick part at its bottom. This

line is drawn with two movements without raising the calamus.

Torah Scroll Gomperz Aleph

Pc where line c joins line b. It is close to the top of line b, in

Pc Sc

the upper-left quarter of the square. Sc is close to the middle of both line b and the square.

Curved convex line, thickening in the middle and narrow at the bottom,

where it joins the body. It has a line at its top.

Line descending to the right. It curves slightly downwards at the top

and upwards at the bottom, with two serifs at both ends on the upper side of the line.

The alephâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s foot is an upright line with a thick part at its bottom sticking out

the vertical line slightly to its left and mostly to the right. This line is drawn with two movements without raising the calamus. There is a neck-shaped joint between these two parts.

Gimel

a b c

Pc at the bottom-right quarter of the square. Pc

ceiling line with three stings (crown). It joins line b with a nail-shaped

joint.

This stroke descends slightly to the right, gradually thickening and then

narrowing. c

The gimelâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s foot is a short curved line that ends below line a.

at the upper-right quarter of the square.

Horizontal line with a serif in its upper-left corner.

This line is descending slightly to the right, gradually thickening and

then narrowing.

Upwards angular line, narrowing at the bottom.

Lamed

Pc at the very middle of the height of the letter at the right side. Sc1 at the very middle of the height of the letter at the left side. Sc2 at the bottom right square of the square.

Vertical line descending slightly to the right with an ornament at the top,

curved upwards and with a serif at its top.

Thick horizontal line.

Vertical line, the connection between lines b and d, narrowing in the middle.

Thick line slightly bent and descending to the left.

Mem

Pc at the upper-right corner of the square. Sc1at the bottom-right corner of the square. Sc2 at the upper-left quarter of the square.

Curved convex thick horizintal line, with a thin neck-shaped joint at

its bottom left that connects it to line d.

Vertical line, the connection between lines a and c, narrowing at the middle.

Thick horizontal line.

Vertical line descending slightly to the left, narrow at the middle, its top

shaped like a comma turning leftward.

Ayin

Pc at the bottom-right quarter, close to the center.

Curved downstroke, open to the left. Its top turns angularly to the left,

then narrows below the top, finally thickening gradually when the thickest part is at the very bottom.

Thin line descending to the right with a short ceiling line at the top with

a crown. The ceiling line on the upper-right side is joint-like and slightly rounded.

Pc at the upper-right quarter of the square. Sc1 at the upper-left quarter of the square, close to the very left side. Sc2 at the bottom-right quarter of the square.

Thick horizontal line.

Vertical line, the connection between lines A and C, intensely thickening in

the middle.

Thick line slightly bent and descending to the left.

An upright line with an thick horizontal part at its bottom. This line is

drawn with two movements without raising the calamus. There is a neck-shaped joint between these two parts.

Torah Scroll Deutsch Aleph

Pc where line c joins line b. It is close to the top of line b, in the upper-left quarter of the square. Sc is where line a joins line b, close to the middle of both line b and the square.

curved convex line, thickened in the middle and narrow at the bottom,

where it joins the body. It has a long serif at its top, pointing upwards.

Line descending to the right. It is slightly curved downwards at the

top and more curved upwards at the bottom, generally.

The alephâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s foot is an upright line with an thick part sticking out to the rght

at its bottom. This line is drawn with two movements without raising the calamus.

Gimel

Pc at the bottom-right quarter of the square.

Neck-shaped ceiling line with three stings (crown).

This line is descending slightly to the right, gradually thickening and

then narrowing.

The gimelâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s foot is a short angular line that ends below line a. This line

is drawn with two movements without raising the calamus.

Pc at the upper-right quarter of the square.

Thick horizontal line.

This line is descending slightly to the right, gradually thickening and then

narrowing. The left side is straight while the right side is curved.

short and angular, almost like a square with a serif at the top-left

corner.

Lamed

Pc close to the middle of the height of the letter on the right side. Sc1 at the very middle of the height of the letter on the left side. Sc2 at the bottom-right square of the square.

Vertical line descending slightly to the right with a thick part at the top,

curved upwards.

Thick horizontal line.

Vertical line, the connection between lines B and D, narrowing in the middle.

Short thick horizontal line.

Mem

Pc at the upper-right corner of the square.

Pc Sc

Sc1 at the upper-left quarter of the square.

Sc2 at the bottom-right corner of the square.

Thick horizontal line.

Straight thin vertical line, the connection between lines a and c.

Thick horizontal line.

Straight vertical line, its top shaped like a comma turning leftwards.

Ayin

Pc in the middle of the square.

Curved downstroke, its top turning angularly to the left, then

narrowing below the top, finally thickening gradually.

Thin line descending to the right with a short ceiling lineon the top

with a crown. The ceiling line joins the vertical line with a nail-shaped joint.

Pc at the upper-right quarter of the square. Sc1 at the upper-left quarter of the square. Sc2 at the bottom-right quarter of the square.

Thick horizontal line.

Vertical line, the connection between lines a and c thickening in the middle.

Thick horizontal line.

An upright line with an thicl horizontal part at its bottom. This line is

drawn with two movements without raising the calamus.

Torah Scroll “Ahavat Re’im” Aleph

Pc where sroke c joins stroke b. It is close to the center of the square. Sc is where line a joins line b. It is very close to the center of the square.

is curved, thickening in the middle and narrow at the bottom, where it

joins the body, line b. It has a serif at the top-left corner in most of the cases. It sticks out gently at its right side.

line descends to the right. The whole line is straight or slightly curved,

while its left end is curved upwards at the top.

The aleph’s foot is a line descending to the left. This line is drawn with

two movements without raising the calamus, forming an extra ornament on the foot’s right side.

Gimel

a b c

Pc at the bottom-right quarter of the square.

is a short horizontal line that joins line b with a neck-shaped joint,

extending slightly to the right and more to the left with three stings (crown) at the top.

Line b

descends slightly to the right, gradually thickening and then

narrowing.

the gimelâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s foot is a short angular line. Sometimes it ends higher than line

b, sometimes below it and sometimes at the same height. This line is drawn with two movements without raising the calamus.

a b c

Pc at the upper-right quarter of the square.

Thick horizontal line with a small serif at the upper-left corner and

a high spike on its top, close to the middle of the line, with a circle at the stingâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s top.

Vertical line slightly descending to the right, narrowing in the upper third,

then thickening again.

Short vertical stroke, slightly curved and open to the left, often ending

below stroke b.

Lamed a b c

Pc at the very middle of the height of the letter at the very right side. Sc

Sc at the very middle of the height of the letter at the left side.

Vertical line slightly curved to the right with an thick part at the

top. This thick part extends just slightly to the left and more to the right.

Thick horizontal line turning downwards at its right end where its joins

line c.

Curved thin line descending leftwards and narrowing towards its bottom.

Mem

Pc at the top-right corner of the square. Sc

Pc Sc

Sc1 at the bottom-right corner of the square. Sc2 at the upper-left quarter of the square.

Thin vertical line slightly descending to the left. Its top part is thick and

turns leftwards in a horn-shaped form.

lineb

is straight thick at the very top-left horizontal part, thinner at its

right part, the two parts drawn by one curved line.

Thick straight line, rounded at the bottom at its right end where it joins

line b.

Ayin

Pc at the bottom-right quarter.

Line a

and b together form an angular downstroke. The thick part on its top

turns angularly to the left and extends slightly to the right as well. The downstroke

is narrow at part a, then thickens gradually from the beginning of line b until it reaches the bottom.

Thin, slightly curved line open to the right and descending to the right

with a ceiling line on the top with a crown, which joins the thin line with a neckshaped joint. This ceiling line sometimes extends the line to its left only and sometimes extends it slightly to its right as well.

b a c

Sc Pc

Pc at the upper-right quarter of the square. Sc1 at the upper-left quarter of the square.

Sc2 at the bottom-right quarter of the square.

An upright line with a thick part at its bottom. This line is drawn with

two movements without raising the calamus.

Curved, thick line slightly descending at the very top-left part,

connected to a thin straight vertical bottom part by one curved line.

Thick curved line descending to the left, rounded at its right end

where it joins line b.

Torah Scroll Sofia Aleph

Pc is where line c joins line b. It is relatively close to the Pc

center of the square. Sc

Sc is where line a joins line b. It is close to the center of the square at the bottom third of line b.

curved thickened in the middle and narrow at the bottom, where it joins

the body. It generally has a serif at the top-left corner. It sticks out slightly on the right side as well.

Line descending to the right. It is straight or in some cases almost

straight.

The alephâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s foot is a line descending to the left. This line is drawn with

two movements without raising the calamus, forming a knob on the footâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s right side.

Gimel a b c

Pc at the bottom-right quarter of the square. Pc

Short ceiling line with three stings (crown) at the top of the letter.

This line is descending very slightly to the right. It is almost totally

straight.

The gimelâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s foot is a short angular line that ends higher than line a. This

line is drawn with two movements, without raising the calamus. It looks almost like a square with a thin line joining line a at its right.

Pc at the upper-right quarter of the square.

Thick horizontal line.

Straight line narrowing in the upper-third part, then thickening again.

Short straight vertical line, often ending below line b.

100

Lamed

Pc at the upper-right corner, close to the middle of the height of the letter at the very right side. Sc close to the middle of the height of the letter at the left side.

Straight vertical line with a thick part at the top, with a serif at its top-left

corner. The thick part joins the vertical line with a neck-shaped join, extending slightly to the right and more to the left.

Thick horizontal line.

Curved thin line descending leftwards.

101

Mem

Pc at the bottom-right corner of the square. Sc

Sc1 at the upper-right corner of the square. Sc

Sc2 at the upper-left quarter of the square.

Thin vertical lineslightly descending to the left. Its top part is thick and

turns leftwards in a horn-shaped form.

Curved line, straight and thick at the very top-left, horizontal part,

thin and straight at its bottom-right, vertical part. The two parts consist of one curved line.

Thick line slightly bent and descending to the left, rounded at the

bottom at its right end.

102

Ayin

Pc At the bottom-right quarter.

Line a and b together form an angular downstroke, open to the left. The

thick part on its top turns angularly to the left and extends slightly to the right as well. It has a serif at the top. The downstroke is narrow at part a, then thickens

gradually from the beginning of line b

until it reaches the bottom.

Thin curved line open to the right, descending to the right with a short

ceiling line ceiling line on the top with a crown. The ceiling line joins the thin stroke with a neck-shaped joint.

103

Pe b a c

Pc at the upper-right quarter of the square. Sc1 at the upper-left quarter of the square. Sc2 at the bottom-right quarter of the square.

An upright line with an thick part at its bottom. This line is drawn with

two movements without raising the calamus. An additional short spike is drawn to the left and appears at the bottom of line c, at its left corner.

curved line, thick and slightly descending at the very top left, thin and

straight at its bottom-right, vertical part. The two parts consist of one curved stroke.

104

2.2 Comparison tables In the following tables, on the right, following the names of the letters there are two pictures: these are the skeletons of the letter inside a square. The Ashkenazic letter appears first, and the Sepharadic one appears second.

15th-16th century manuscripts Ashkenazic

Sepharadic

Features

6:7

7:8-3:4

Square

Close to the top of line

Close to the top of line b

Aleph

b Pc

At the upper-third of

Close to the center of the square

1:2

4:9-2:3. Moves on a wide range

Square

At the bottom-right

At the bottom-right quarter of the

quarter of the square

square

3:4-9:10 Wider

6:7-3:4 Thinner

Square

At the upper-right

At the upper-right quarter of the

quarter of the square

square

line b Gimel

He Pc

105

3:7-1:2 Much wider

1:3 Very high and thin

Square

than the Sepharadic

Lame d

At or close to the

At or close to the middle of the

middle of the height of

height of the letter on the right side

the letter on the right side

At or close to the

At or close to the middle of the

middle of the height of

height of the letter on the left side

the letter on the left side

6:-7-7:6 square

3:4-1:1 less wide than the

Square

Ashkenazic At the upper-right

At the upper-right corner of the

corner of the square

square

Sc1 at the bottom-right

Sc1 at the bottom-right corner of the

corner of the square

square

Sc2 at the upper-left

Sc2 at the upper-left quarter of the

quarter of the square

square

Mem Sc

106

4:5-7:8

4:5

Square

At the bottom-left

At the lower half of the square,

corner, close to the very

close to middle of its width

Ayin

middle of the square -

3:4-5:6

3:5-5:6

Square

At the upper-right quarter of the

At the upper-right quarter of the square

square

Sc1 at the upper-left

Sc1 at the upper-left quarter of

Pe Pc

Sc Sc

quarter of the square

the square Sc

Sc2 at the bottom-right

(in NYH only Sc2 at the bottom-

quarter of the square

right quarter of the square. In O there is No Sc2)

18th century manuscripts

Ashkenazic

Sepharadic

Features

6:7-1:1

6:7-11:10

Square

Close or at the very the top

Close to the top of line b, but less

of line b

than the Ashkenazic

Close to the center of the

Close to the center of the square

Aleph

square

107

5:7-2:3

1:2

Square

At the bottom-right quarter

At the bottom-right quarter of the

of the square

square

Gimel

Sc Pc

1:1 square

3:5 thinner

Square

At the upper-right quarter

At the upper-right quarter of the

of the square

square

3:5

2: 7-3:5

Square

At or close to the middle of

At or close to the middle of the

the height of the letter on

height of the letter on the right

the right side

side

At or close to the middle

At or close to the middle of the

of the height of the letter

height of the letter on the left

on the left side

side

Sc2 (at AB only) at the

He Pc

Lamed

bottom-right quarter of the square

Sc2 (at AB only) at the bottom-right quarter of the square

108

9:.10-6:5

About 1:1

Square

At the upper-right corner

At the upper-right corner of

of the square

the square

Mem Sc

Sc1 at the bottom-right

corner of the square

Sc2 at the upper-left

quarter of the square

3:4-1:1 (AB)

3:4-4:5

Square

At the bottom half of the

square, at a point close to

half of its width

the half of its width

Ayin

2:3 (EH)

4:7 (AB )3:4-4:5 (EH) At the upper-right quarter

Sc 3:4-9:10

At the upper-left quarter of

Square

the square Sc

Sc1 at the upper-left

Sc1 at the upper-left quarter

quarter of the square, of

of the square

Sc Sc

the square, on the left side Sc

Sc2 at the bottom-right quarter of the square, close to the corner

109

19th-20th century scrolls Ashkenazic

Sepharadic

Features

4:5-1:1

1:1

Square

Close to the top of line B

Close to the center of the

Aleph

square Close to the center of the

Close to the center of the

square

1:3-1:2 thinner

2:5-3:5 wider

Square

At the bottom-right

At the bottom-right quarter of

quarter of the square

the square

Gimel

Sc Pc

3:4-1:1 wider

5:7-3:4 thinner

Square

At the upper-right quarter

At the upper-right quarter of

of the square

the square

110

Wider than the Sepharadic

3:5 or thinner (including the

Square

Lamed

neck) At or close to the middle of

At or close to the middle of

the height of the letter on

the left side

At or close to the middle of

the height of the letter on

the right side

Sc2 at the bottom-right square of the square 6:-7-7:6 square

Mostly less wide than high

Square

At the upper-right corner of

the square

Mem

Pc Sc

Sc1 at the bottom-right

corner of the square

Sc2 at the upper-left

Sc2 at the upper-left quarter

quarter of the square

of the square

3:4

Wider than the Ashkenazic:

Pc Sc

Square

Ayin

3:4-1:1 At the bottom-right quarter

At the bottom-right quarter

111

1:3-3:5 slim letter

1:2-2:3 wider letter

Square

At the upper-left quarter of

the square, close to the left

the square

Pe ScPc

side Sc1 at the upper-right

Sc1 at the upper-right

quarter of the square

Sc2 at the bottom-right

quarter of the square

2.3. Graphic Analysis A graphic analysis of the above-mentioned scrolls and manuscripts is offered below. Each page represents either one or two letters of a particular scroll. Generally several examples of the letter are provided, with each example on a separate line. On each line are seven pictures, which are (from left to right): (1) the letter as it can be found in the scroll, without analysis; (2) the letter in the square; (3) the letter with the skeleton inside; (4) the letter divided into its lines (please note: the black, grey or white colors have no meaning); (5) the skeleton with the primary and secondary conjunctions and arrows showing the lines’ directions; (6) the skeleton inside the same square shown in (2); and (7) the skeleton inside the square divided into four quarters. Note: pictures presented in (7) are different from pictures presented in the section “List of features for each of the chosen letters of each the four scrolls” at the beginning of the description of each manuscript. The square divided into four quarters doesn’t include the flesh of each letter, whereas here it does.

112

First Nuremberg Haggadah Aleph

(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)

(7)

(6)

(7)

Gimel a

(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

113

He Pc

a c

a c Pc

(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)

(7)

Lamed a Sc

(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)

(7)

114

Mem a

Pc Sc

b Sc

d1 d2

b Sc

d1 d2

b Sc

(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)

(7)

Ayin

a Pc

(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)

(7)

115

Pe a

b d

c a Pc

b Sc

b d

c a

b d

(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)

(7)

116

New York Siddur Aleph

a b

Pc Sc

(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)

(7)

Gimel

(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)

(7)

117

He He New York Siddur Pc

(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)

(7)

Lamed

a b Sc

a Sc

(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)

(7)

118

Mem Sc

Pc Sc

(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)

(7)

Ayin a

(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)

(7)

119

Pe Sc

a b d Sc

a d

b Sc

a d

b c

(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)

(7)

120

Oxford Manuscript Aleph a

c a

(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)

(7)

Gimel a

c a Pc

c a

(1)

(2)

(3)

(5)

(6)

(7)

121

He a

c a

(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)

(7)

Lamed

Sc Pc

(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)

(7)

122

Mem

c Pc

(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)

(7)

Ayin a

c a

c Pc

(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)

(7)

123

(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)

a Pc

c Sc

a c

Pc Sc

a Pc

c Sc

a c

(7)

124

New York Haggadah

a b

Aleph (1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)

(7)

Gimel a

(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)

(7)

125

He a

a Pc

(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)

(7)

Lamed

(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

(6) 126

(7)Mem

c Pc Sc

a c

(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)

(7)

Ayin

(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)

(7)

127

Sc Pc

b a

c Sc Pc

b a c

Sc Pc

(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)

(7)

128

Ettingen Haggadah Aleph

a b

(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)

(7)

Gimel a b

c a Pc

b c a b c

a b

(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)

(7)

129

He Pc

a c

a c Pc

a c

(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)

(7)

Lamed a Sc

c a Sc

a Pc

c a Sc

(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)

(7)

130

Mem Pc Sc

d b

Sc Pc Sc

(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)

(7)

Ayin a

(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)

(7)

131

Pe Sc

c Sc

a b

c Pc

a b

(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)

(7)

132

Amsterdam Benedictions Aleph

(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)

(7)

(6)

(7)

Gimel

a Pc

c a Pc

(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

133

He Pc

a c Pc

a c

c Pc

a c

(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)

(7)

Lamed a Sc

c Sc

a Sc Pc

c Sc

a Pc

c Sc

a Pc

c Sc

(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)

(7)

134

Mem Pc

a Sc

c Sc

a Sc

(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)

(7)

Ayin a

(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)

(7)

135

Pe Sc Pc

a Sc

Sc Pc

a Sc

Sc Pc

a c Sc

(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)

(7)

136

Copenhagen Haggadah Aleph

a b

(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)

(7)

Gimel

a b

c a

c (1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)

(7)

137

He Pc

a c Pc

a c

a c Pc

a c

(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)

(7)

Lamed

a c

Sc Sc

a c

Sc Sc

(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)

(7)

138

Mem a

Sc Pc

a c

Sc Pc

a c

(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)

(7)

Ayin b

c b

(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)

(7)

139

Pe Pc

b a Sc

c Sc

b a Pc

(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)

(7)

140

Amsterdam Haggadah Aleph a b

a b

(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)

(7)

Gimel a

c a

(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)

(7)

141

He Pc

a c

(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)

(7)

(6)

(7)

Lamed a Pc

c Sc

a Pc

c Sc

(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

142

Mem a

c a

(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)

(7)

(6)

(7)

Ayin b

(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

143

Pe Sc

d c

Sc Sc

d c

Sc Sc

a Pc

d c

Sc Sc

a Pc

b c

(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)

(7)

144

Gomperz Torah Scroll Aleph (1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)

(7)

a Pc

Gimel

a Pc

c b

a Pc

(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)

(7)

145

He Pc

(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)

(7)

Lamed

a Pc

c Sc

a Pc

c Sc

a Sc

c Sc

(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)

(7)

146

Mem Sc

d b Pc Sc

b Pc

d b

(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)

(7)

Ayin

b Pc

(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)

(7)

147

Pe a

(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)

(7)

148

Deutsch Torah Scroll Aleph

Pc Sc

(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)

(7)

Gimel a Pc

a Pc

(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)

(7)

149

He Pc

a Pc

(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)

(7)

Lamed

Sc Sc

c Sc

(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)

(7)

150

Mem

Sc Sc

b c

b Sc

(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)

(7)

Ayin

(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)

(7)

151

b Sc

(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)

(7)

152

Ahavat Reâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;im Torah Scroll Aleph c

c b

Pc Sc

c b

Pc Sc

(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)

(7)

Gimel

a b

a b b

a b C

a b

(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)

(7)

153

b c a

c a

(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)

(7)

Lamed a Sc

b Pc

a Sc

b Pc

a Sc

b Pc

a Sc

b c

(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)

(7)

154

Mem a

b c

c Sc

(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)

(7)

Ayin b

a c Pc

a cb

a c

(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)

(7)

155

Pe Sc

b a Sc

c Sc

a c

a Sc

a c

(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)

(7)

156

Sofia Scroll Aleph Pc

a b b c

a b

b Pc

a b Sc

(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)

(7)

Gimel

(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

(7)

157

He Pc

a c b

a b

a b c a

(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)

(7)

Lamed a Pc

b c

a Pc

b c

a Pc

b c

a Pc

b c

(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)

(7)

158

Mem c

Sc Sc

c b

(3)

(2)

(1)

Pc Sc

(4)

(5)

(6)

(7)

Ayin

c b

(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)

(7)

159

Pe Sc

b a

c Sc

b a

a bb

(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)

(7)

160

3.Summary and Conclusions 3.1.Graphic overview of the shape of the letters over the centuries In the following pages I will demonstrate the changes that the shape of certain letters underwent over the centuries, as well as some ways in which they did not evolve. I will detail in chapter 3.2 the aforementioned changes, whereas what remained basically unchanged I hope to show below, with the help of Shlomo Ganzfried’s monumental work on Jewish scribal laws, Keset Hasofer.27 Ganzfried was active in the latest time period discussed in this work, but, as we will see, he describes the letters as they are found in manuscripts from earlier periods as well. This is especially true with regard to Ashkenazic manuscripts, as he was from Hungary.

Aleph “The upper dot should be made to look like yud, ideally with a little prickle above. The prickle below on the right, touches the roof of the aleph, and if it does not it is invalid , as will be explained. Ideally the face of this yud with the prickle on top is turned to face slightly upwards. The Ḥasid 28 (...) teaches that this yud should meet

Ashkenazic 1NH NYS

Sepharadic O NYH

27. Ganzfried, 1835. I will use the English translation of Jen Taylor Friedman [online] [2016.06.20.] 〈http://www.hasoferet.com/halakha-for-scribes/keset-ha-sofer/chapter-5/ 〉 28. Rabbi Jehuda ben Samuel of Regensburg (1150, Speyer-1217, Regensburg).

161

the roof just in its middle, and not part of the way along. Ideally there is a prickle facing upwards on the right-hand end of the roof. It should not be overly curved. The lower dot is sometimes shaped like a little upside-down dalet, and one must do this in tefillin according to the Arizal. Sometimes the lower dot is shaped like another yud suspended from the roof, and so it ought to have a prickle on its lower right. (...)”

Gimel “ Its head should Ashkenazic Sepharadic be thick, and its 1NH NYS O NYH right leg is preferably thin, descending a little further than the left leg. The left leg should not be curved, but should be straight EH CH AH AB and lifted a little towards the dalet, ideally. It is received tradition that the body of gimel should resemble zayin in A S G D that the right leg comes out of the middle of the head, not from the side as with vav. This is the case with all the letters ‫שעטנז גץ‬: they resemble zayin, and the taggin on them are accordingly called zayins, but the Arizal’s tradition is different, as I shall explain. The left leg should be short, so that another letter may be placed close to its head.(...).”

162

He “ Lekhatḥilah 29 Ashkenazic Sepharadic one should make 1NH NYS O NYH a tag on the top of the left side, and a prickle at the back so that it will be squared like a dalet and not rounded like a EH AB CH AH reish. The dot inside it should not be further than a quill’s width from the roof, nor should it G D A S be too close to the roof, but the division should be plainly visible to an ordinary person when he is reading from the Torah at the bima30. If it actually touches the roof, even if the join is only of a hair’s thickness, it is pasul. The dot should not be under the middle of the roof, but under its end on the left side, and if one made it in the middle it is pasul and must be repaired, unless repair is impossible, in which case it may be permitted even lekhatḥilah (Magen Avraham 32:33, but it seems to me that in any case one should test it with a child). There is one whose tradition says that the dot should be thin at the top and a bit thicker at the bottom resembling an upside-down yud, as the hey is composed of dalet and yud (for all heys except those in the Tetragrammaton, which have a different tradition). The dot should be bent over a little to the right, and not to the left, so as not to resemble tav.”

29. Hebrew term meaning “preferred method”. 30. Raised table located at the center of the synagogue, where the Torah scroll is publicly read.

163

Lamed “Its neck should Ashkenazic Sepharadic be long like vav, 1NH NYS O NYH and its head rounded on the right side and squared on the left side, like the head of vav. The form of lamed is a bent khaf with a EH AB CH AH vav upon it, and therefore its tail should be thick and curved well round to the front, and rounded on the right side, at the back, like bent A S G D khaf. On the left, where the body joins to the neck, there should be a corner where the narrow end of the vav joins on, so as to be like khaf. All this is lekhatḥilah. The Zohar says that it should have two taggin on its head, the right one slightly enlarged and the left one smaller.”

164

Mem “Open mem and Ashkenazic Sepharadic closed mem are, 1NH NYS lekhatḥilah, O NYH precisely similar in all salient features except that one is open and one closed. Therefore, one does not make CH AH EH AB open mem rounded on its right side at top and bottom, since if one made closed mem like G D that, it would look A S like samekh to a child (and anyway, letters must be recognisable instantly, not only upon examination); rather, there must be a corner on the bottom right lekhatḥilah, provided one does not make a heel there as for beit. The upper right is made rounded lekhatḥilah, so that it will look like bent khaf plus vav. This is why we don’t make the roof rounded, but extend it level with the base below to make it like bent khaf. The snout must join on level with the base below, so that it could be closed. Lekhatḥilah its form is like vav which leans over a bit, but not too much, and therefore the break between the roof and the top of the snout should not be too big, so that one doesn’t have to curve the vav away from it.”

165

Ayin â&#x20AC;&#x153;Its first head should have the form of a yud tilted upwards, as we explained for tet. Its body should stand up straight so that another letter may be fitted in close to it, and its second head is like a zayin standing upon it, also as explained above. However, according to the Arizal one should make both lines of the ayins in tefillin like straight vavs.â&#x20AC;?

Ashkenazic 1NH NYS

Sepharadic O NYH

166

Pe “According to the Ashkenazic Sepharadic Ḥasid, its upper right corner 1NH NYS O NYH should be squared both inside and out, but below it should be rounded on the outside like all CH AH EH AB the bent letters, which lekhatḥilah are rounded below. However, inside it should be squared, so that the white space G D A S inside will have the form of a beit; this is the kabbalah of the Ḥasid. One should make a prickle on its face on the left-hand side; this prickle extends downwards to the dot inside, so that the dot and the extended prickle have the form of vav, and accordingly the dot should be rounded on its lower left side. One must take care that the dot does not touch, even by the smallest amount, anything except the prickle from which it hangs.”

167

3.2. Overview of the shape of the letters over the centuries Aleph The most distinguishable change in the Ashkenazic aleph occurred in line a. While in the medieval period this line turned towards the right, in the 18th century manuscripts this line first (EH) stook out slightly less than in the older manuscripts, than in manuscript AB, whose writing is resembles more modern manuscripts; it turns to the left, remaining there in the 19th-20th century scrolls. Line b, whose bottom was bent downwards until the 18th century, is bent upwards from then on. In the Sepharadic aleph it is harder to see a clear tendency for any change.

Gimel Regarding the Ashkenazic gimel we can see a tendency found with other letters of the “shaatnez getz” group (shin, ayin, tet, nun, zayin, gimel and tzaddi). Thus while in the first group of manuscripts (from the 15th and 16th centuries) line b joins line a at its right corner, in the 19th-20th manuscripts this joint is at the middle of line a. In the 18th century we can see the beginning of this tendency, where line a sticks out just a little bit to the right from this joint. Line c became somewhat shorter over the centuries, as did line a. The main change in the Sepharadic gimel is that the joint of line b and c is very smooth, giving the gimel a nun-like shape, looking at them with modern eyes. In the 18th century we already see the joints of b and c we are used to from more modern writings.

He The Askenazic he underwent only minor changes between the 16th and 18th centuries. In the 19th and 20th centuries we can see a change in line c: instead of the basic rhomboid line that we've seen before, the left "foot" of the he becomes much thicker, resembling a yod-like shape mentioned in halachic sources31. The beginning of the he’s roof behind its right foot to the right ina very pronounced way known from the 19th and 20th centuries we can see already i the 18th century, but at a less pronouced level we can see it in th beginning of the 16th century in the New York Siddur. Again, with the Sepharadic he it is harder to see a clear tendency for any change over the centuries.

31. “The dot should be thin at the top and a little bit thicker at the bottom like an upside-down yod” (Keset Hasofer, 5:2, The letter he).

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Lamed Concerning the Ashkenazic lamed, the main change occurred in its bottom diagonal line. In the 15th and 16th centuries this line gave the Ashkenazic lamed a look that in general is very similar to the Sepharadic one, and in the 18th century it starts thickening and bending leftwards, eventually resulting a thick base, a stroke by itself, called line d when we reach the 19th century. Another change that took place over the centuries is that joint between lines a and b went from being curved to being angular. The change we can talk about regarding the Sepharadic lamed is, that its “neck”, line a, became shorter after the 16th century.

Mem The change that occurred over the centuries to both the Ashkenazic and the Sepharadic mem is that their top line stopped being rounded and became a straight “roof”,that is, a stroke unto itself. Concerning the Ashkenazic mem we can talk about another change: the stroke at the top-left corner of the letter that was horizontal and relatively long in the 15th and the 16th centuries, became shorter, more rounded and absorbed into the longer left-vertical line before the 18th century.

Ayin Regarding the Ashkenazic ayin we can see a tendency found with other letters of the "shaatnez getz" group (shin, ayin, tet, nun, zayin, gimel and tzaddi), namely, that while in the first group of manuscripts (from the 15th and 16th centuries) the vertical stroke of line b joins the square ornament at its top at its right corner, in the 19th-20th manuscripts this joint is in the middle of the ornament. The 18th century group is closer to the older manuscripts regarding this change. Another change is that the top ornaments of both lines a and b form relatively wide vertical lines that became shorter in later periods. Again, concerning the Sepharadic ayin, it is harder to see a clear tendency for any change over the centuries.

Pe The “white beit” inside the Ashkenazic ayin in the manuscripts from the 18 century and on has a clearer beit-like shape, with a strong heel at its right bottom corner which is caused by the stronger rhomboid shape of the vertical line at the pe's right side. th

And yet again, with the Sepharadic pe it is harder to see a clear tendency for any change over the centuries.

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In conclusion, my hypothesis, namely, that the variations in script found today can be traced to the medieval period, is indeed confirmed by the findings of research done in this thesis. The differences that can be found between modern and medieval writings are not results of recent “inventions”, nor are they artificial attempts to revive ancient scripts. Rather, modern scripts are clearly offshoots of earlier ones. There were no “loopholes” in the Jewish traditions, as authentic early scripts were always available.”32 After visiting many synagogues (built in the 19th and 20th centuries) in Hungary I can attest that it is not a rarity to see Torah scrolls that are hundreds of years old next to those that were written in the last hundred years. Further support for this statement regarding the continous writing tradition may be adduced from the halachic ruling that in writing a Torah scroll, a scribe must copy the words from an other scroll, one which has been proofread.33 Either copying from proofread scrolls, or copying from printed versions (which were printed with fonts based of manuscripts, mostly from the 15th century) forced scribes to follow the generations that preceded them. Of course, modern scrolls and earlier writings differ with respect to style. Even the stringent frameworks characteristic of Jewish tradition afforded some room for individualism and a certain level of evolution. There are changes, but these changes occured very slowly due to the rigid clinging of Judaism to its ancient traditions and religious laws.34 Even the above-mentioned standardization concerning the rulings of Rabbi Kagan, which might be called revolutionary by some, was more of a favoring of certain writings over others, and not the invention of a totally new style. His “revolutionary” rulings were in most cases minor, but they were clearly not a result of “lack of early scripts”. In any case, a comparison of writings based on his rulings as with those modern scripts written before him are well beyond the scope of this thesis. 32 There are other opinions as well: ”The Ashkenazi and Sephardi scripts used today are relatively late script-styles based on the Ashkenazi and Sephardi script-styles in early literary sources. After weakening of the Jewish scribal tradition in the second millennium, the scribes attempted to revive the old tradition. However, because of the lack of authentic early scripts revealing of the early letter-signs used for sacred purposes, the scribes had to rely on the literary sources and to interpret them according to their understanding. (...) In the course of time, the verbal transcriptions of the letter-forms and their components ceased to be clearly understood, and artificialforms were created which differ completely from the letter-forms of early Jewish book-hand found in biblical scrolls of the late Second Temple period and in papyrus fragments of the post-Herodian period discovered i the Judean Desert. The letter-forms in these sources also differ from the script of the early biblical scroll fragments discovered in the Cairo Genizah, the earliest of which appears to date from the 8th century” (Yardeni 2002, pp 268). There is no doubt that modern script “differ” from earlier ones, but, as I mentioned. Nonetheless, I see these differences as a fruit continuous development and not of sudden inventions disconnected from the tradition. 33 “When one writes a Torah scroll, there must be another scroll in front of him, well proofread, which he should copy from, because it is forbidden to write even one letter not from another copy” Ganzfried, Shlomo: Keset Hasofer 5:4) 34 I wish to emphasize, once again, that changes resulting in the script of the 19th were markedly minor. This is true especially in the Sepharadic tradition, and even in the Ashkenazic one. For instance, we find 18th century manuscripts like the Amsterdam Benedictions, whose style is very close to that of the 19th and 20th centuries.

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I am aware of the fact that this work far from answers all questions that arise on the treated topic. As Dr. Tamás Biró has aptly put it, “If one could exhaust the topic in one thesis (..) other people would have done it long time before us and for us nothing would remain to deal with. But fortunately, it is not so. (...) Our research (...) is nothing more than the boring of a [single] well. Science is a collective activity: many such borings allow us to understand the topic better, and our research is a contribution. The deeper the digging goes, the more our contribution is worth. It is the depth and precision of the boring that matters, not its width”35 My tight thesis deadline did not allow my “boring” to be very wide. Nonetheless, I hope that it does manage to contribute at least in some small measure to the depth of the field of Hebrew paleography. I would like to conclude the thesis with a line from a manuscript’s 36 colophon written in the same era as some of the manuscripts I analyzed in my work. : “And may Hashem merit me to finish the rest as well.”

Biró Tamás: Tanácsok dolgozatok írásához (bölcsészeknek) [online] [2016.5.8.] <> http://birot.web.elte.hu/?a=dolg&l=hu 36 It is a work copied by the scribe Abraham ben Samuel Piabi in the Byzantium in semi-cursive script, in the year 1475. available online at sfardata.nli.org.il

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Bibliography English works

•

Beit-Arié, Malachi: “Palaeographical identification of Hebrew manuscripts: Methodology and practice”, in: Jewish Art, 1986, pp. 15-44.

•

Engel, Edna: “The Analysis of the Letter – a New Palaeographical Method”, in: Rück, Peter (ed.) Methoden der Schriftbeschreibung, Historische Hilfwissenschaften, Jan Thorbecke Verlag: Stuttgart. 1999, pp. 43-50

•

Beit-Arié Malachi and Engel, Edna: Specimens of Medieval Hebrew Scripts, Volume II: The Sefardic Script, The Israeli Academy of Sciences and Humanities: Jerusalem, 2002.

•

Engel, Edna and Beit-Arié Malachi: Specimens of Medieval Hebrew Scripts, Volume III: The Ashkenazic Script, The Israeli Academy of Sciences and Humanities: Jerusalem, 2016 (in print?).

•

Engel, Edna: “Script, History of Development”, in: Kahn, Geoffrey (ed.): Encyclopedia of Hebrew Language and Linguistics, Volume 3 P-Z, Brill: Leiden, Boston, 2013, pp. 485-502.

•

Engel, Edna: “Between France and Germany: Gothic Characteristic in Ashkenazi Script”, in: Nicholas de Lange, Nicholas and OlszowySchlanger, Judith (eds.): Manuscrits hébreux et arabes: Mélanges en l'honneur de Colettee Sirat, Brepols:Turnhout, 2014, p. 197-219.

•

Engel, Edna: “Calamus or Chisel: On the History of the Ashkenazic Script”, in: Lenhardt, A. (ed.): Genizat Germania, Hebrew and Aramaic Binding Fragments from Germany in Context, European Genizah Texts and Studies, Brill: Leiden and New York, 2010, pp. 183-198.

•

Pludwinski, Izzy: Mastering Hebrew Calligraphy, The Toby Press: New Milford, 2012.

•

Yardeni, Ada: The Book of Hebrew Script - History, Palaeography, Script Styles, Calligraphy and Design, Carta: Jerusalem, 2002.

172

Hebrew works:

‫אניברסיטת תל‬, ‫תדפיס מתוך תעודה טו‬, ‫חקר הגניזה לאחר מאה שנה‬: ‫עדנה‬, ‫אנגל‬ ‫תשנ"ט‬, ‫ תל אביב‬:‫אביב‬

•

‫טיפולוגיה של מלאכת הספר העברי ועיצובו בימי הביניים בהיבט היסטורי‬: ‫מלאכי‬, ‫אריה‬-‫בית‬ 1540 ‫היד בציוני תאריך עד שנת‬-‫והשוואתי מתוך גישה כמותית המיוסדת על תיעוד כתבי‬ <0.5, 2015> ‫פרסום גרסת אנטרנט‬-‫קדם‬ <http://web.nli.org.il/sites/NLI/Hebrew/collections/manuscripts/hebrewco dicology/Documents/Hebrew-Codicology-continuously-updated-onlineversion.pdf>

•

: Königliche Ungarische ,‫ ספר קסת הסופר‬:‫ שלמה בן יוסף‬,‫גאנצפריד‬ 1835 ,‫ אופן‬,Universitäts-Buchdruckerei

•

, ‫ירושלים‬:‫ כרטה‬,‫עיצוב‬, ‫סגנונות‬, ‫יסודות‬, ‫ תולדות‬: ‫ספר הכתב העברי‬: ‫עדה‬, ‫ירדני‬ .1991 ‫תשנ"א‬

•

Hungarian works: •

Jean, Georges: Az írás, az emberiség emlékezete, Park: Budapest, 1992.

•

Scheiber Sándor: Középkori héber kéziratok Magyarország könyv- és levéltárainak bekötési tábláiban, Akadémiai Nyomda, Budapest, 1957

•

Scheiber Sándor: Ismeretlen magyarországi zsidó kalligráfus; Publisher not identified: Budapest, 1963

•

Toronyi, Zsuzsanna and Dávid Gábor: Segédlet a héber iratok kezeléséhez, Magyar Zsidó Múzeum és Levéltár: Budapest, 2006.

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