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Poste Italiane SPA - Spedizione in abbonamento € 16,00 - copia singola € 7,00 Autorizzazione del Tribunale di Padova numero 4093 del 21 novembre 2013 ISSN 2284-0761 - ISBN 9788867874910 - Quadrimestrale - Numero 07 - Gennaio 2016
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! C I ATOM Ten special pages inside! A JOURNEY TO THE CENTER OF THE ATOM from page 10
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THE ADVENTURES OF MARIE AND MAX p. 5 THE PERIODIC TABLE OF THE ELEMENTS p. 14 AS SMALL AS AN ANT: IS IT POSSIBLE? p. 19
What’s inside In this issue... 10 Once upon a time... “the indivisible” 12 Here is the atom! Tutto quello che ci serve per parlare dell’atomo!
14 The... element is on the table! The secrets of the Periodic table of the elements
16 An imaginary congress 18 Let’s take a picture with X-rays! 20 DOSSIER - A journey to the center of the atom 22 Who is afraid of Nuclear Medicine? Let’s visit the Nuclear Medicine division in Vicenza
24 The fusion... “that moves the Sun and other stars” 26 A laboratory sun Let’s discover the RFX experiment
28 An illuminating walk The discovery of nuclear fission
30 The atomic boom
EDITORIAL Dear readers... Happy new year 2016! With the first issue of the new year we begin an extraordinary journey that will take us to to the borders of our galaxy! But where does our journey start from? Obviously, from the building blocks that make up everything that exists in the Universe! In fact, we are going to start with the atom, the topic of this issue of PLaNCK!. Then we are going to explore our world at a bigger and bigger scale: in the next issues we will talk about molecules, nanotechnology, micro-organisms, the Earth, and - finally - galaxies. Our journey begins in this issue and it will last until the last issue of 2017. What do you think? Does this roadmap sound interesting to you? We hope so: enjoy the journey!
The weapon that revolutionized History
32 Can we touch an atom? A special microscope
Features
In the English version of issue no. 6, on p. 4, we mistakenly referred to Sergio Canazza as the director of CSC. In fact, the director is Prof. Giovanni de Poli. We apologize to the readers.
5 Planck on the run! Episode 1: Atomic Adventure
19 Curious facts As small as an ant: science or science fiction?
34 Let’s play! 21 Read Science! 39 Glossary
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PLaNCK! is a project by Accatagliato association via S. Sofia 5 - 35121 Padova accatagliatoassociazione.wordpress.com accatagliato.info@gmail.com Printing press and editor CLEUP sc “Coop. Libraria Editrice Università di Padova” via Belzoni 118/3 - 35121 Padova tel. 049 8753496 www.cleup.it - www.facebook.com/cleup ISSN 2284-0761 ISBN 978 88 6787 491 0
www.planck-magazine.it redazione@planck-magazine.it © 2016 by Accatagliato All Rights Reserved
Scientific Committee
Department of Physics and Astronomy Prof. Alberto Carnera Dott. Stefano Ciroi Prof.ssa Ornella Pantano Prof. Giulio Peruzzi Dott.ssa Cinzia Sada Department of Chemical Sciences Dott. Massimo Bellanda Dott.ssa Laura Orian Dott. Giacomo Saielli Dott.ssa Elisabetta Schievano
Editorial Board Project coordinators: Agnese Sonato and Marta Carli Editor-in-chief: Andrea Frison Managing editor: Marta Carli Writers: Marta Carli, Marco Maggioni, Agnese Sonato, Gianluca Pozza e Andrea Frison English Version: Nadia Andrea Andreani, Marta Carli, Agnese Sonato, Veronica Giannini e Bianca Maria Scotton Proofreaders: Petra Spataro, Francesco Coghi, Marco Barbujani e Annalisa Lorenzo Comic strip: Bianca Maria Scotton (graphics), e Gianluca Pozza (writers) Graphics: Bianca Maria Scotton Graphic project: Stefano Pozza Photography: Agnese Sonato, photographic archive 123RF
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N W O D E L A C S , P U E SCAL e of.. everything, fro Here you can find the typical sizrld. to the smallest things in the wo ue? On which step are we in this iss
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. . . e im t a n o p u Once “the indivisible”! Atoms are the building blocks of everything we find around us and they are really small, so small that neither a microscope is able to see them! But… what does an atom look like? It is difficult to describe something we cannot see! Nowadays, we know something more about the atom thanks to new technologies and innovative physic theories. But throughout history, several hypotheses have been proposed about the structure of the atom. The first one to speak of “atoms” was not a scientist, but… a philosopher! His name was Democritus and he lived in Greece around the fourth century B.C. At that time there was no difference between philosophers and scientists. Democritus suggested that everything that exists is made of tiny particles which cannot by further divided: the atoms. Several years later, in 1808, the English scientist John Dalton, an English scientist, retrieved Democritus’s idea, reporting that all substances are made of different combinations of atoms.
In 1897, the English physicist Joseph John Thomson suggested that the atom contained some particles with a negative charge (nowadays known as electrons) immersed in a positive charge that filled the atomic volume.
Some years later, the physicist Ernest Rutherford discovered that the positive charge was concentrated in the centre of the atom, forming the nucleus. He proposed that the atom was formed by this central nucleus and by electrons spinning all around. The trajectories of the electrons around the nucleus were called orbits.
In 1913, the English physicist Niels Bohr proposed that the electrons are forced to stay in well-defined orbits: in these orbits, not only the distance from the nucleus is defined, but also the energy of the electrons going through them.
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! M O T A E H T IS HERE Thanks to advanced scientific instruments, today we know a lot about the atom... and we are going to learn more in the future! The core of the atom is the nucleus, where protons and neutrons can be found. All around the nucleus we find the electrons, moving in specific regions called “atomic orbitals”. These orbitals can have different shapes and dimensions.
ELECTRONS: negative charges
f Electrons: they have a negative charge, namely an electric charge with a “minus sign”. f Protons: they have a positive charge, namely an electric charge with a “plus sign”. f Neutrons: they have a no charge: they are “neutral”.
THE FINGERPRINT OF AN ATOM
Each atom is characterized by two numbers, which identify it like a fingerprint. The atomic number is the number of protons found in the nucleus of an atom. Atoms with the same atomic number are atoms of the same chemical element. For example, an oxygen atom has 8 protons: the atomic number of oxygen is 8. The mass number is the total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus. For example, the most common oxygen isotope has 8 protons and 8 neutrons, so its mass number is 16 because 8+8=16. The most common hydrogen isotope has 1 proton and no neutrons, so its mass number is 1.
CURIOUS FACTS
How “big” is an atom? The atom is one of the smallest things we know. If you take a paper sheet and you divide it in a billion parts… you will not reach the dimensions of an atom yet! To reach them, you should divide one of these parts further. And think that in a flower there are about 100.000.000.000.000.000.000.000, that is a number with 23 zeros!
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PROTONS: positive charges
NEUTRONS: no charges
ELECTRONS WITH... BONDS When atoms bind to each other they form molecules. The bonds are formed thanks to the most external electrons in the atoms. These electrons are called valence electrons and can be no more than 8. For example, oxygen has 6 valence electrons.
The... element is on the TABLE! Oxygen, carbon, gold, helium… they are all names of chemical elements. Each chemical element corresponds to an atom with a precise number of protons, that is, with a precise atomic number. For example, an atom with two protons (atomic number 2) is a helium atom, and an atom with 8 protons (atomic number 8) is an oxygen atom. The chemical elements in nature are 96. Then there are 22 artificial elements, prepared by scientists in the laboratory. In total, we have 118 chemical elements: so many! That’s why scientists have decided to organize them in a special table: the periodic table of elements. In the periodic table, we can find each element in a precise position. It is represented with a symbol. From the position of the element we can learn something about its chemical and physical properties and compare it with other atoms.
WHO INVENTED THE PERIODIC TABLE? The modern periodic table was proposed in the 19th century by the Russian scientist Dmitrij Mendeleev. In the table, Dmitrij left some blank spaces, because he thought that some elements were missing. He was right: some elements were discovered later!
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Why are the elements organized like that? Let’s understand it with an example. Suppose you have to organize the students of a school in a table. Start from the first grade. Write the children’s names on the same line, placing them in order from the smallest to the tallest. Then, do the same with the second grade, writing the names on the line below, and so on. Now, look at the table you obtained: each row corresponds to a different grade. Going down from top to bottom we find an higher grade. Now look at the columns: in the first column you find the smallest children in each class, and so on; in the last column you find the tallest ones. The periodic table works in a similar way. These are the rules: - The rows are called periods. In each row, we start with the atom with the lower atomic number. Moving right, in each box the atomic number increases by one. - The columns are called groups. In each column, the atoms have the same number of valence electrons: they have the same chemical and physical properties.
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Niels Bohr (18851962), was a Danish physicist. He would talk about electrons and their position in the atom. 1922
Let’s together ic some... atom scientists! s who The scientist nt dimade importa ut the scoveries abo diffeatom lived in wever, rent years. Ho ination with our imag nize a we can orga ringing conference b r! Who them togethe uests? are our g they What would talk about?
The German physicist Wilhelm Röntgen (18451923) would talk about his discovery of X-rays. 1901 Marie Curie (1867-1934) would talk about her experiments on radioactivity. She did those experiments together with her husband, Pierre (1859-1906). She would also describe the new chemical elements they discovered: Radium and Polonium.
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Some of these scientist actually met at a congress: this is a picture taken in 1933 at the Solvay Conference. Do you recognize anyone? (The solution is here below!)
As small as an ant
CURIOS
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Science or science fiction?
Did you see the movie “Ant-Man” at the cinema? The main character of the story - wearing a special suit designed by a scientist – can get smaller until he reaches the size of an ant. It is not the first time that people are miniaturized in a movie. In the movie “Honey, I Shrunk the Kids”, a scientist accidentally makes his kids and his neighbors’ kids smaller. In an old science-fiction movie titled “Fantastic Voyage” (taken from a novel by Isaac Asimov), a group of doctors were miniaturized so they could travel into the human body and nurse a sick friend. But, is it really possible to make things smaller? How? Let’s consider these two hypotheses…
Shrinking atoms We could try to reduce the distance between the atomic nucleus and electrons. But this distance depends on some fundamental constants of Nature, such as the electron mass and its electric charge. These constants cannot be modified, otherwise… Well, the Universe would be completely different from what we know.
Reducing the distance between atoms The energy cloud created by electrons makes the atoms very hard objects, which cannot be pressed against each other. Imagine a container full of marbles: there are some empty spaces left in it, for sure, but they cannot be filled with other marbles. So, if you want to ride an ant, you should be able to modify the fundamental laws of Nature… which is physically impossible!
To write t sulted J his article we conames Ka kalios’s “The Ph book ys es”, edit ics of Superh e ed in Ita ly by Ei ronaudi.
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A special DOSSIER begins here!
A journey to the center
of the ATOM
The atomic nucleus is not always a quiet place! Here, different transformations can occur, and even some reactions that release a lot of energy: nuclear fission and nuclear fusion. This is where isotopes come into play!
What is an isotope? Look at the atoms in the figure: they both have two protons. It means they are both helium atoms, since helium has the atomic number 2. However, these two atoms are not identical: the first one has only one neutron, while the second one has two of them. When two atoms of a chemical element have the same number of protons, but a different number of neutrons, we say they are isotopes of that element. The two atoms in the figure are helium isotopes. They are called helium-3 and helium-4, respectively, because their nucleus contains 3 and 4 particles on the whole, respectively. Another example is hydrogen. It has three isotopes : protium, deuterium and tritium. We are going to talk about these isotopes in the dossier!
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Goofy atoms and radioactivity If an isotope has too many or too few neutrons, its nucleus becomes unstable. It cannot exist as it is and it undergoes a transformation: we say it decays. This phenomenon is called radioactivity and the isotopes that behave like that are radioactive. There are three kinds of decays:
Alfa decay The nucleus loses two protons and two neutrons (i.e. a nucleus of helium-4).
Beta decay A proton turns into a neutron or vice versa. The atom then loses an electron or a positron (i.e. a positively charged electron) and a particle called the neutrino (or an anti-neutrino).
Gamma the nucleus emits a gamma ray, i.e. a very energetic electromagnetic wave.
To clarify: “nuclear” things The word “nuclear” means “of the nucleus”. With this word we term anything related to the reactions that take place in the atomic nucleus. Some examples are: NUCLEAR WEAPONS: are weapons that use nuclear fission or nuclear fusion. These weapons are terrible: they produce a lot of damage to people and things. NUCLEAR ENERGY : is the energy produced by nuclear fusion or nuclear fission. NUCLEAR MEDICINE: is a branch of medicine that uses radioactive isotopes to detect or treat diseases.
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d i a r f a s i Who R A E L C U of N ? E N I C I D E M If we hear the word “nuclear”, we will usually think about the atomic bomb and its dramatic effects. Maybe we do not know that the atomic nucleus can also have a very useful application: medicine. In Nuclear Medicine, radioactivity is used to detect and even treat some diseases. To find out more, we visited the Nuclear Medicine Division of the “San Bortolo” hospital in Vicenza with its head physician, dr. Pierluigi Zanco. In this picture, you can compare a radiography and a nuclear medicine test. The radiography shows the shape of a part of the body. Nuclear Medicine tests, instead, show how it works: they can say whether an organ is active or not.
To do this, radioactive emissions are measured, after giving some radioactive isotopes to patients in controlled amounts. Doctors usually employ isotopes of Iodine or Technetium. Gamma rays emitted by these isotopes can pass through tissues and can be measured. Thanks to radioactivity, it is also possible to treat lots of pathologies: for example, some tumors. In this case, doctors use radiations that cannot pass through the body, but that can settle in organs. Doctors can make sure that radioactive atoms are settling only in the tumour, fighting against it, without damaging the rest of the body. Dr. Pierluigi Zanco
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. . . N O I S The FU tars s r e th o e th d n a n u s ... that moves the
Life on Earth could not exist without the Sun! Without its light and its heat, we would not have water, the different climates, and everything that allows people, animals and plants to live. However, how does the Sun work? Where do its light and heat come from?
A MULTILAYER STAR The sun is 1 million years older than the earth. It is composed by the plasma and mainly by two chemical elements, hydrogen and helium. The core is the internal part of the sun: the energy that creates the heat and light of the sun is produced there, thanks to nuclear fusion. The energy produced in the nucleus passes through the radiative zone, until it reaches the convective zone and then the photosphere, where the light is released in space. The chromosphere is the external layer of the sun, it is really thin and we can see it pretty well during eclipses. On the surface, special phenomena occur, such as plasma emission, called prominences, and matter eruptions, called solar flares.
24
IEW
THE INTERV
A LABORATORY SUN In the CNR research area in Padua scientists are working at an important project called RFX: it consists in building a machine to reproduce the nuclear fission reactions of the stars. What is the aim of the RFX experiment? Chiara Piron told us that «the aim of the project is to build a small artificial Sun that could produce heat (and energy) all year long, with both nice and bad weather, respecting the Earth and its inhabitants. We need a lot of energy, even to travel by car or by public transport… and the energy ‘provisions’ of the Earth are not going to last forever.» How do you do that? «To produce energy», Chiara says, «we combine two atomic nuclei, Deuterium and Tritium, to produce Helium. It may sound easy… but it is not! The two nuclei tend to repel each other, so the reaction only occurs at extremely high temperatures: more than 10 million degrees!» Why such high temperatures? «At these temperatures, the atoms are in a state of matter called plasma: a gas which glows, just like a lightning during a storm. The more the temperature rises, the more the atoms move fast inside the plasma, so the colliding atoms are more likely to combine with each other, producing the energy we need. No box could withstand this high temperature: to contain the atoms, we have to use magnetic fields to keep them suspended in the vacuum.»
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How do you feel working at such a huge project? «Working on this project gives great satisfaction, but also a big responsibility: creating an artificial Sun to produce clean energy is not simple and it requires a big effort. Fortunately, RFX is only one of the many projects in the world which study nuclear fission. This is actually one of the best aspects of my job! I was born in a little village of 4000 inhabitants, but now I work with people from all over Europe, from Japan, China, USA, and also from India, Russia, Korea... When I attended school lessons, these countries were only shapes in my geography book, but now they are people, faces I know. I think this is a big step forward!»
g n i t a n i An illum walkvery of The disco
N O I S S I F R A E L C NU
At the end of 1938, the Austrian scientist Lise Meitner, was in Stockholm, Sweden. She was not on holiday there. She used to work in Germany, but the Nazi party came to power and created some laws against Jews, as Lise was. For this reason, Lise ran away from Germany. An unexpected letter Lise was a little bored in Stockholm, because she missed the laboratory, but one day, she received a letter from her German colleague Otto Hahn. The letter described the results of an experiment that they had planned together when Lise was still in Germany. Otto had finished the experiment… and the results were really surprising! The experiment Otto had bombarded some uranium atoms with neutrons. Uranium is a very heavy chemical element. This “bombing” caused a radioactive process. But there was something strange: after the experiment, Otto found some barium atoms, a much lighter element (its mass is roughly half the mass of uranium). According to the knowledge of that age, barium was not expected to be there. Otto hoped Lise could give him some ideas.
Lise Me
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Hahn
c i m o t a e h T BOOM
ed history is n o ti lu o v re t a th n o The weap The atomic bomb is a nuclear weapon that works because of uncontrolled nuclear fission reactions starting from uranium and plutonium. These reactions cause the release of huge quantities of energy in a very short amount of time. These large quantities of energy trigger devastating explosions.
The bomb in history: from research to explosions During the World War II (which lasted from 1939 to 1945), the United States established the Manhattan Project, a research project aimed at the construction of two atomic bombs. In this project, many scientists were involved from all over the world!
Some of the protagonists
Enrico Fermi
Chien-Shiu Wu
ng
Richard Philips Feynman
Robert er Oppenheim
Bruno Rossi
R TO ENERGY
EINSTEIN: FROM MATTE
Albert Einstein
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ial rt Einstein’s theory of spec be Al m fro ed pir ins re we that These scientists his theory, Einstein proposed In . 05 19 in ed os op pr he ct relativity, which scientist involved in the Proje the : gy er en o int d ne tur be matter could idea to build the bombs. d his exploited this revolutionary liefs; in fact, he never imagine be ist cif pa his r fo n ow kn s Einstein wa s! theory being applied to bomb his theory, stein saw the application of Ein r, wa the of d en the at When, gy for military purposes. er en ar cle nu of e us the st he took a stand again
CAN WE... TOUCH AN ATOM? It it impossible to see an atom, but scientists use some special techniques that allow to… touch atoms. This is the case of the Scanning Tunneling Microscopy, well known with its abbreviation: STM.
STM allows you to image the atoms on a surface.
1
A metal tip (usually made of tungsten) approaches the surface containing the atoms of interest.
2
If we apply a voltage between the tip and the surface, an electron transfer between the surface and the tip can occur and a current is generated. This electron transfer takes place thanks to a special phenomenon called Tunnel Effect. The name ”STM” originates from this effect.
3
The instrument can collect and measure the current deriving from the electron flow. The current depends on many things, including the position of the atoms on the surface.
4
The instrument elaborates the data about the current and produces an image of the surface... or better, an image of the atoms!
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32
LET’S PLAY
A memory game to learn something new! 'R \RX ZDQW WR WHVW \RXU NQRZOHGJH RI WKH SHULRGLF WDEOH RI WKH HOHPHQWV DQG SURYH \RXU PHPRU\ WR \RXU IULHQGV LQ D VLQJOH JDPH" 7KLV LV WKH JDPH IRU \RX 5HDG WKH UXOHV FDUHIXOO\ WKHQ FXW RXW WKH FDUGV WKDW \RX ILQG LQ WKH SRVWHU DWWDFKHG WR WKH PDJD]LQH DQGw \RX UH UHDG\
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34
EGGERE L A D A Z N IE SC
Who discovered the atom? JOHN DALTON FOR KIDS by Ruth Richards KINDLE EDITION Who discovered the atom? The first idea of the atom came from the Greek philosopher Democritus but the pioneer of modern atomic theory is considered to be John Dalton (1766 – 1844). He was a British chemist and physicist born in Cumberland, in the North West of England. In 1803 he came up with the idea that all matter was formed of atoms and that atoms could not be divided or destroyed. But the atom has changed over time. Later Thomson and Rutherford discovered that the atom was composed of a nucleus and electrons and that it was almost empty (its mass was concentrated in the nucleus). John Dalton was famous also for his research into “color blindness”, known as “Daltonism”. But this is another story! “John Dalton for Kids”, an e-book of 9 pages only, is published by Kindle Edition.
A review by Pamela Pergolini
PLaNCK! is among the winning project in the FUNDER35 prize
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The new year has started with very good news for PLaNCK!. In fact, our project - a nonprofit project created by a group of young researchers - is one of the 50 selected projects in the Funder35 prize. This call was promoted by different foundations to strengthen the best cultural undertakings started by young people and help them to grow. On January 26 at the Ministry of Cultural Heritage and Activities in Rome, the presentation event of the 50 selected cultural undertakings will take place, in the presence of the Minister Mr. Dario Franceschini. We will be there, and we will bring with us all the people who have supported us so far!
EVENTS
s t r o p s d n a Science O D N A T N E M I at SPER Does Science have something to do with sports? If you are curious to know, do not miss “Sperimentando 2016”, the interactive exhibition organized in Padua from April 9th to May 8th, now in its 15th edition. This year the topic of the exhibition will be “Science and Sport” and there will be some important news. It will no longer be organized in scientific disciplines, but in four thematic areas. In the section dedicated to water we will talk about swimming, sailing, diving, and water skiing; the earth section will host athletics, climbing, gymnastics, skating, skiing, soccer, rugby and cycling; visiting the air section you will find out more about skydiving,
hang gliding, and all sports where you have to throw something; in the fire section, finally, we will find motor racing, motorcycle racing, and more. There will two contests for students of secondary schools (Sperimenta anche tu e L’Arte sperimenta con la Scienza) and workshops will be organized for students of primary and secondary schools. In addition, there will be a course for teachers on how to make scientific experiments at school. From April 14th to 17th, the “Agorà di Sperimentando” will take place. It will host meetings with authors, workshops, lectures, performances and a foot race.
To learn more visi t http://sperimenta ndo.lnl.infn.it/!
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SCIENCE ! H S I L G N E IN AMOUNT ANT BLINDNESS BONE BRICK BUILDING BLOCK CATALYST CHAIN CLOUD COIL CONTEST CORE
= QUANTITÀ = FORMICA = CECITÀ = OSSO = MATTONE = MATTONCINO (DELLE COSTRUZIONI) = CATALIZZATORE = CATENA = NUVOLA = ELICA, ROCCHETTO = GARA, CONCORSO = PARTE CENTRALE (PER ESEMPIO SI USA PER INDICARE IL NUCLEO DEL SOLE E DELLA TERRA) DAMAGE = DANNO DECK = MAZZO (DI CARTE) DISEASE = MALATTIA DRUG = FARMACO EARTH = TERRA E.G. = AD ESEMPIO (VIENE DAL LATINO “EXEMPLI GRATIA”) EMPTY = VUOTO EXHIBITION = MOSTRA FEAR = TERRORE FIRST GRADE, SECOND GRADE = PRIMA ELEMENTARE, SECONDA ELEMENTARE FLOW = FLUSSO GUY = RAGAZZO, TIPO HUSBAND = MARITO I.E. = CIOÈ (VIENE DAL LATINO “ID EST”) INDUCTION = INDUZIONE JEWS = EBREI NEPHEW = NIPOTE MASCHIO (DI ZIO/ZIA; “NIPOTE” DEI NONNI SI DICE “GRANDSON”) PHYSICIAN = MEDICO (“HEAD PHYSICIAN” = PRIMARIO) PHYSICIST = FISICO PLUM-PUDDING = DOLCE SIMILE AL PANETTONE PREGNANT = INCINTA RAY = RAGGIO TO DECAY = DECADERE REACTION = REAZIONE TO DETECT = CAPTARE, RIVELARE RHYME = POESIA TO PLAN = PROGRAMMARE ROW = RIGA TO SHRINK = RESTRINGERE SCROOGE = ZIO PAPERONE TO SPIN = GIRARE, RUOTARE SHAPE = FORMA TO TREAT = CURARE SKIN = PELLE TEST = ESAME SURFACE = SUPERFICIE TRANSFER = TRASFERIMENTO THUS = PERCIÒ, QUINDI UNSTABLE = INSTABILE TIP = PUNTA VACUUM = VUOTO TO BE MISSING = MANCARE WALK = PASSEGGIATA TO BE RIGHT = AVERE RAGIONE (“TO GO FOR A WALK” = FARE UNA PASSEGGIATA) TO BREASTFEED = ALLATTARE WEAPON = ARMA (“BREASTFEEDING” = CHE ALLATTANO) WIFE = MOGLIE
MAY 2016
MOLECULES To subscrive, read the blog and more contents visit our website: www.planck-magazine.it