Fraser island overview

Fraser Island Overview

Table of Contents

Fraser Island – General Overview

1

National Parks Information

5

4WD Impacts on Fraser Island

13

Sand Driving

15

Snatch Strap Recovery

21

4WD – The Complete Checklist

24

History of Aborigines of Fraser Island

26

Bush Foods of the Indigenous People

30

Plants

33

Andrew Petrie

40

James Davis

43

John Graham

46

Light Rail on Fraser Island

47

Maheno

49

Fauna

51

Dingoes

61

Ferals on Fraser Island

78

Sand Dunes

81

Mangroves

87

Forest Types

92

Australian Rainforests

106

Dune Lakes

115

Lake Types

116

Beach Basics

130

Natural environment Building the sandmass — wind, waves and changing sea levels Over the past two million years, ocean currents and waves have swept sand north from the continental shelf of New South Wales and southern Queensland. Sand accumulates and covers the bedrock to form dunes parallel to the coast, leaving only peaks uncovered — today's headlands.

Onshore winds blow some loose sand inland into high parabolic (hairpin-shaped) dunes, which march inland over parts of older dunes, forming a sequence of overlapping dunes.

Fraser Island and Cooloola are remnants of sandmasses once stretching 30km east.

Major dune-building has continued in episodes as sea levels rise and fall, forming a sequence of at least eight overlapping dune systems of different ages, some more than 700,000 years old — the world's oldest recorded sequence. These processes continue shaping the sandmasses.

Sandblows Sandblows form when strong onshore winds break through the vegetation cover, driving sand from the eroding dunes. They engulf forests in their path, at rates of up to 1m each year. New sandblows can also form when the stabilising plant cover is damaged by fire and wind, walkers and vehicles.

Coffee rock Scattered along the beaches are outcrops of soft, dark-brown "coffee rock", made up of sand grains weakly cemented by organic matter (plant remains). This is a reminder of a time when the sandmass stretched further to sea — and the currently exposed coffee rock was inland, formed as part of the sandmass's soil layers.

Coloured sands Underlying parts of the windblown sandmasses of Fraser Island and Cooloola are coloured sands — the visible parts of older sand that have bound with clay into a weakly consolidated mass. The yellows, browns and reds are colours created by ironrich minerals in the dune sands which, over thousands of years, stain the sand a complex array of tones and hues. Spectacular sculptures emerge where wind and rain erode the sandmass, exposing this soft older core. These can be seen at Rainbow Gorge and Cathedrals, where the Pinnacles and Red Canyon are striking examples.

Lakes in porous sands Amazingly, each of Great Sandy's freshwater dune lakes is unique in shape and colour. More than 40 dune lakes occur here — over half the world's known total. Lake Boomanjin, the world's largest perched lake (200ha) and Boomerang Lakes, some of the world's highest (120m above sea level), are on Fraser Island.

Perched lakes such as Birrabeen and Lake McKenzie on Fraser Island and Lake Poona in Cooloola are Great Sandy National Parks's most common type of lake. They develop when a saucer-shaped "hard pan" of organic debris, sand and peat forms in a depression between dunes. Water collects, slowly filtering to the watertable below.

Barrage lakes form when a mobile sand dune dams a watercourse, usually in younger dunes close to the coast.

Interested visitors can walk to Lake Wabby on Fraser Island, from the eastern beach.

Window lakes, generally at low elevations, form where the ground surface drops below the watertable level and fills with groundwater. Some window lakes have been barraged by sand dunes.

All the freshwater lakes are low in nutrients and support few plants and animals. Most lakes have only two or three fish species.

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Eli and Wanggoolba Creeks are noted for their flow of crystal clear water — mainly localised outflows of groundwater from the sandmass. They contrast with the golden-brown, tannin stained creeks and seepages such as those into Lake Booomanjin.

How are forests created on bare sand?

Most plants growing on sand draw mineral nourishment from two unlikely sources. They strip the fine mineral coating from grains of beach sand (turning yellowish grains white) and also absorb small amounts of atmospheric trace minerals, washed into the sand by rain.

Decaying plants return these minerals to the sand. Over time, minerals are concentrated in the sandmass, providing nutrients that support a succession of forest types, form coastal pioneers and shrubby woodlands to tall rainforests.

As each successive dune forms, a thicker, deeper nutrient layer develops, able to support taller, more complex forest.

But, on Great Sandy's older dunes, the nutrient layer has been leached by water beyond the reach of even deep tree roots. The tall forests are replaced by stunted woodlands, shrubs and low heaths. This phenomenon "retrogressive succession" - is of international scientific interest.

On Fraser Island, older dunes generally lie to the west, overlaid partly by progressively younger dunes to the east.

Beaches — home in shifting sand Life is abundant — pipis (shellfish) and moon snails live in the shifting intertidal sand; sand-bubbler crab colonies leave patterns of tiny sand balls; ghost crabs scuttle on the sand at night.

Watch out for bluebottles with long blue stingers, sometimes washed ashore following strong winds. Flotsam, such as jellyfish is food for scavenging crabs and birds, adding nutrients to the sand.

Pioneers and coastal forest — holding dunes together Holding the coastal foredunes together are salt-tolerant pioneer plants: pigface, with its fleshy angular leaves and purple flowers, goatsfoot vine, with its purple trumpet flowers, and beach spinifex, creeping over the dunes and trapping sand swept from the beach by the wind.

Pioneer plant species begin nutrient and soil development. Their roots host bacteria that convert airborne nitrogen into nitrates that enrich the soil. Small, hardy trees such as beach she-oak, coastal banksia and pandanus are a more permanent stabilising force on the foredunes. They protect wattles, hopbush, tuckeroo and stunted eucalyptus trees from harsh salt-laden winds.

Abundant banksia flowers in these coastal forests provide plentiful food for insects and nectar-feeding birds.

Mixed forest Protected from the harshest salt-laden winds, and growing where richer sand is starting to develop, trees in the mixed forests and woodlands are larger than those of the coastal forests, though more stunted than the same species in the tall eucalypt forests.

Fires clear the understorey of foxtail sedge, bracken, blady grass, and fallen leaves and twigs, providing an ashbed for new seedling growth. With age, trees develop hollows that shelter nesting birds and nocturnal gliding possums.

Ant nests are conspicuous on the forest floor, and more than 300 species of ants have been recorded in Great Sandy.

Tall eucalypts Protecting the forest core; here you will find tall eucalypt trees, including smooth-barked forest red gums and scribbly gums. These tall trees contrast with tessellated barked bloodwoods, string-barked satinays, and blackbutts, with their rough-barked bases and smooth, light upper limbs.

Tall eucalypt forest grows on the ridges on the high middle dunes in the centre of the sandmass. It surrounds the central forest core, protecting rainforests from drying winds and salt.

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After fire, eucalypts of the tall forest regenerate from seeds released into the ash bed. They also sprout new leaves from special buds protected under thick bark, and from lignotubers (woody tissue attached to the root system) below the ground.

Blackbutt trees were the mainstay of the timber industry. Visitors can see remnant stumps of former giants. You may notice occasional large, shieldshaped scars near the base of some trees, where Aboriginal people removed bark for gunyahs (shelters).

Rainforests The slopes and valleys of the middle, high dunes have the best protection from winds, receive the highest rainfall and have the deepest accessible soils. They are dominated by huge brush box, with bark "stockings" on their lower trunks and smooth red limbs, and the tall, straight-trunked, stringy-barked satinay. Their long roots reach rich nutrients buried deep in the dunes.

In other areas, lichen-covered trunks of giants such as kauri and hoop pine emerge above lilly-pilly, quandong, brush box, and strangler figs, draped in vines, orchids, ferns and mosses. Walk slowly to see colourful fungi sprouting on rotting trees, their fine threads slowly decomposing the wood.

These rainforests are known as vine forests. Along their drier margins are low vine forests of small-leafed grey myrtle ("carrol" scrubs), seen on walks from Central Station.

Hollows in older trees are nesting sites for mammals and for birds including king parrots, yellow-tailed black cockatoos and sulphur-crested cockatoos, often heard screeching from treetops. The brushtail possum is active at night, as are sugar gliders and flying-foxes.

Woodlands Wallum communities dominate the older western dune systems, where the main nutrient layer has leached down beyond the reach of tree roots. Only shrubs and smaller trees can grow on the infertile upper sand layer. In seasonally waterlogged areas, paperbark and wet heathlands grow in dense stands.

Scribbly gum, pink bloodwood, wallum banksia (with serrated leaves) and black casuarinas (with needle-like leaf stems) grow as low trees above a heathy understorey.

Look closely at the hard wallum banksia seed cases — they open only with the heat and smoke of fire, releasing seeds that take advantage of the lack of competition after a fire. Most of Great Sandy's plant communities respond to the frequency, season and intensity of fires.

Heaths and swamps Swampy, treeless, grassy plains, fringed by paperbarks, colourful heath and swamp banksias, feed tea-coloured water to creeks and lakes. These are wallum heathlands.

Frequent fire maintains grassy heathlands by inhibiting tree growth. This preserves habitat and food for fairy wrens and ground-dwelling birds such as quails and ground parrots. Heaths and swamps are home to "acid" frogs (which can tolerate mildly acidic waters), the harmless freshwater snake, and several crustaceans.

Mangroves — forests on intertidal mudflats Swarms of biting insects and an occasional smell of decomposition mean mangroves are not always pleasant for visitors. But the shelter of their roots and the deep layers of decomposing leaf litter make mangroves the nurseries and feeding grounds for much marine life in Great Sandy.

Mangroves are also important in the food webs of nearby heathlands.

Great Sandy's mudflats and sandflats are major feeding grounds for migratory shorebirds such as bar-tailed godwits on their flights from the northern to southern hemispheres.

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Culture and history People of Great Sandy: First inhabitants Archaeological evidence suggests Aboriginal people have lived in the Great Sandy area for at least 5000 years, but they may have been here far longer. Butchulla people inhabited Fraser Island and the adjacent mainland. They lived a complex, self-sufficient way of life, intimately connected with the season, the land, and life on it. Abundant marine life along the coast provided many foods, including fish and shellfish. Food also came from the forests, along with bark for canoes and shelters, vines for nets, and grasses and piccabeen palm fronds for baskets.

Today, Fraser Island contains heritage sites of spiritual, social and archaeological significance. Middens, artefact scatters, scarred trees and campsites bear witness to the lifestyle of the Butchulla people.

Aboriginal life was disrupted soon after European settlement in the 1840s. Dispossession of land and reduced access to native plants and animals caused disruption to beliefs and practices, and disease, alcohol and opium destroyed the traditional way of life. Clearing of land for pasture and the advent of timber harvesting in the 1860s hastened the demise of local lifestyles. By the late 1800s, most remaining Aborigines from the region were relocated to a mission settlement on Fraser Island. A succession of missions followed until the final Fraser Island mission was disbanded in 1904, when most Aboriginal inhabitants were sent to various Queensland missions, including Yarrabah near Cairns. Many local place names are Aboriginal. Today, descendants live in the area and are striving to share their knowledge of a once widespread way of life.

Changing European uses The first written record of the region is from Cook's discovery voyage of Australia's east coast in 1770. However, references to the area in old Portuguese navigation charts, and lead weights mined in France between 1410 and 1627AD, found on one of Fraser's beaches, suggest Europeans may have visited the region well before Cook.

Early impressions of the region were not positive. Matthew Flinders, the first English explorer to set foot on Fraser Island in 1802, noted: "Nothing can be imagined more barren than this peninsula". That perception changed in 1842, when pioneer Andrew Petrie reported good pastoral lands and excellent forests in the area. This attracted settlers, who grazed horses, sheep and cattle at Cooloola and Fraser Island.

Logging of valuable kauri pines began on Fraser Island in 1863 and Cooloola in 1866. After the Gympie gold rush of 1867, demand for timber boomed and logging expanded to become the region's major industry for more than a century.

Small-scale mining for heavy minerals, mainly rutile and zircon, began with mining leases granted on Fraser Island in 1949.

Sandmining exploration increased in the 1960s, attracting opposition from conservation-minded individuals and community groups. Their efforts eventually ended sandmining in Great Sandy in 1976, while logging stopped in late 1991. National parks were declared in the northern part of Fraser Island in 1971 with more additions in later years and 1992 saw the significant listing of Fraser Island as a World Heritage Area.

Residents have used the area for recreation since the 1870s. Tourism grew slowly. The first commercial tours and accommodation on Fraser Island did not start until the 1930s. This changed with the controversies surrounding sandmining in the 1970s and cessation of logging in the early 1990s, which dramatically increased visitor interest.

The subsequent World Heritage listing of Fraser Island increased international visitation.

The challenge for management today is to balance conservation of the region's natural and cultural assets with opportunities for people to enjoy the magnificent values of Fraser Island, World Heritage Area.

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National Parks Fraser Island Information Fraser Island is about 300km north of Brisbane and 15km off the coast of Hervey Bay and Maryborough.

Vehicle access (4WD only) is via barge from: • • •

Inskip Point, 15 minutes drive from Rainbow Beach (east of Gympie) to Hook Point; these barges generally run from 6am to 5.30pm (trip time about 10 minutes, no bookings required); River Heads (east of Maryborough) to Kingfisher Bay and Wanggoolba Creek (trip time 30 - 50 minutes, bookings required); Hervey Bay (Urangan boat harbour) to Moon Point (trip time 30 - 50 minutes, bookings required).

Vehicle barges also take walk-on passengers. Passenger launch services run daily from Urangan boat harbour.

A vehicle access permit must be purchased and displayed on your vehicle windscreen before driving on Fraser Island. Buy all permits before you go.

Passenger flights operate daily from Hervey Bay to Fraser Island. Flights are also available from Maroochydore.

Commercial tours of the island operate from Rainbow Beach, the Sunshine Coast, Hervey Bay and Brisbane.

Wheelchair accessibility Wheelchair toilet facilities are available at Central Station, Wanggoolba Creek barge landing, Waddy Point, Lake Garawongera, Ungowa and Dundubara campgrounds and day-use areas.

Park features The world's largest sand island, Fraser Island is an area of remarkable natural beauty. It was listed as a World Heritage Area in 1992. The listing recognizes the island's internationally significant natural features: • •

evolving dune, lake, soil and forest systems, the extent and age of which are outstanding examples of ongoing geological and biological processes; unique landscapes, which are examples of superlative natural occurrences.

Growing on seemingly infertile sands is a great variety of plant communities ranging from coastal heath, mangrove forests and swamps to subtropical rainforest.

The many archaeological remains on Fraser Island record thousands of years of culture and tradition, providing important links for the Butchulla people of today to their past.

The island is 123km long and covers an area of 166,038ha, so you will need to allow plenty of time to explore and appreciate it.

•

Read more about the natural environment, culture and history of Fraser Island World Heritage Area, Great Sandy National Park at http://www.derm.qld.gov.au/parks/fraser/culture.html.

Camping and accommodation Camping The Department manages a number of formal campgrounds, informal beach camping zones and walkers' camps.

Camping permits are required and fees apply.

Formal campgrounds Formal campgrounds include Central Station, Dundubara, Waddy Point top and Waddy Point beachfront. Smaller campgrounds are at Lake Boomanjin, Ungowa and Wathumba.

Campgrounds have formalised campsites, water taps or tap stations, and toilets. Most have gas barbecues, deep sinks for washing dishes and information displays. All campgrounds have a 9pm noise curfew and generators are not permitted.

Beach camping zones These are informal camping areas with no facilities, behind the foredunes on the eastern beach. Camp only where permitted (within signposted zones) and always at least 50m from watercourses. Vehicle access is by formed entrance tracks only.

Western beach camping areas are marked on the map and offer quiet, wilderness experiences. Many are accessible by boat, but permits are still required. Generators are permitted in these areas, but please consider others and only use them between 9am and 9pm.

Generators are not permitted in the Garulim, Dulara and Midyim camping areas and people camping in these areas must also provide their own portable toilet.

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Walkers' camps These are small, walk-in camping areas along the Fraser Island Great Walk. Book your Great Walk campsite online.

Camping with children Visitors camping with children up to the age of 14 should camp in fenced campgrounds. These are available at Lake Boomanjin, Central Station, Dundubara, Waddy Point (top campground) and Dilli Village (privately operated).

Open campfires Open campfires are prohibited on Fraser Island except in the communal fire rings provided by the Department at Dundubara and Waddy Point campgrounds. Bring your own firewood. Only bring milled timber off-cuts, not bush timber. It helps to reduce risk of introducing pests and plant diseases to the island. Collecting bush wood (even twigs) from the national park is illegal. Never leave a fire unattended, stay with your children and extinguish the fire before leaving the area, using water not sand.

Other accommodation There is a range of holiday accommodation in and around townships of Kingfisher Bay, Eurong, Orchid Beach, Happy Valley, Cathedral Beach, Dilli Village and Eastern Beach.

Things to do Sightseeing Take some time to visit some of the major sights on Fraser Island. Stay clear of areas without formal walking tracks or designated roads. Here are some of the more popular sights to see, but there are many more for you to discover.

Lake Boomanjin This is the largest perched lake in the world, covering almost 200ha. Its waters are stained brown by tannins leached from the vegetation.

Central Station Many walks leave from Central Station. Stroll through the rainforest along Wanggoolba Creek boardwalk, visit the peaceful Basin Lake, or stand among some impressive satinay trees in Pile Valley.

Lake McKenzie This inland, perched lake is a popular site. White sand and sparkling blue waters attract many visitors. Parking is limited - best to visit before 10.30am or after 2.30pm.

Lake Wabby This is the deepest lake on Fraser Island. Its shore lies at the advancing edge of the Hammerstone Sandblow.

Drive around (Cornwell's Break Road) and up to the ridge above the lake, where a short walk takes you to a splendid lookout offering a view of this barrage lake and the sandblow that is slowly engulfing it.

Eli Creek Cool off next to this crystal clear freshwater creek, that flows through vegetated banks and right out to the beach.

Watch for eels and frogs from the boardwalk, and see small fish (empire gudgeon and jungle perch) swimming against the current.

Kingfisher Bay Sheltered coastline, impressive views across the Great Sandy Strait and historical sites are all within easy walking distance of Kingfisher Bay.

Lake Allom Tucked into a rainforest hollow, this lake offers a cool respite from the beach environment. A circuit track around the lake meanders through a variety of plant communities. Wait on the viewing platform and watch for freshwater turtles, but please do not feed them.

Wungul Sandblow Enjoy expansive coastline views from the first dune crest of this sandblow.

Waddy Point headland Take in a vista of beach and ocean. Watch for sea turtles, sharks and stingrays coasting along.

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Binngih Sandblow (Waddy Point) Catch sweeping views across Waddy Point headland and north over Marloo Bay to Sandy Cape, the site of the only lighthouse on Fraser Island.

Ocean Lake Ocean Lake is home to a variety of water birds taking advantage of the reeds and undisturbed sections of the lake.

Nearby, an easy walk through cypress, banksia and melaleuca woodland offers a good lookout with panoramic views.

Walking The best way to explore and enjoy Fraser Island is at close quarters on its walking tracks. Choose from short boardwalks through rainforests, to strolls around a lake or longer walks across a sandblow. Long distance walkers will enjoy the 90km Fraser Island Great Walk with walkers' camps along the way for that special wilderness camping experience.

A summary of the walking tracks on Fraser Island can be found at http://www.derm.qld.gov.au/parks/fraser/walking-tracks.html.

Driving Fraser Island's beaches and sandy inland roads are suitable only for four-wheel-drive vehicles. Engage 4WD (and lock hubs if necessary on your vehicle) as soon as you start driving on sand. Read and heed all signage. All road rules apply.

Many of Fraser Island's features and walking tracks are accessed by a few scenic drives. Inland roads are only suitable for 4WD vehicles with high clearance. Trailers and caravans are not recommended. Be aware that road conditions can vary. During times of extended dry or wet weather, drivers can expect difficulties in traversing island roads. After severe natural events such as storms and fires, roads may become impassable. Check road and beach conditions prior to travel.

A summary of scenic drives on Fraser Island can be found at http://www.derm.qld.gov.au/parks/fraser/scenic-drives.html.

Guided tours and talks Commercially operated guided tours are available.

Picnic and day-use areas Most day-use areas on Fraser Island offer toilets, water (but not always suitable for drinking), and picnic tables.

Some have shelter sheds, gas barbecues, and washing-up sinks.

Boating and fishing Power boats and vehicles are not permitted in lakes or streams.

Things to know before you go Essentials to bring

First-aid kit and prescription medicines There is no pharmacy or resident doctor on the island. Bring adequate supplies of any prescription drugs you need and a well-equipped first-aid kit. It's always wise to have at least one person with a current first-aid certificate in your group.

Drinking water Bring your own drinking water and containers. Drinking water can be collected from taps in Central Station, Dundubara, and Waddy Point campgrounds and day-use areas, and at a tap on the beach in front of Eurong information centre. All other taps, lake or stream water is not suitable for drinking unless treated. However, it is advisable to treat all water before drinking. Pack water treatment tablets or boil water for at least 5-10 minutes.

Fuel stoves Bring fuel stoves for cooking. Campfires are not permitted anywhere on Fraser Island except in communal fire rings provided at Dundubara and Waddy Point campgrounds. Test your fuel stoves before leaving on your trip and never use them in confined spaces such as tents.

Firewood Firewood is not provided. Collecting bush wood (even twigs) from the national park is illegal. Campfires are only permitted in the communal fire rings provided at Dundubara and Waddy Point campgrounds, and you must bring your own firewood. Only bring milled timber off-cuts, not bush timber. It helps to reduce risk of introducing pests and plant diseases to the island.

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Extra hints • • • • • •

Sand pegs, tarpaulins, extra poles, ropes and torches come in handy.

Bring coins: Hot showers ($1) Public telephones (50c, 20c) Mobile phones have limited range. Consult your service provider.

Bring small sealable canisters for cigarette butts. Don't discard butts on the island, unless in a bin.

Don't bring firearms, fireworks.

Chainsaws cannot be used.

Generators are not permitted in formal campgrounds, but can be used in beach camping areas unless signposted otherwise.

See also frequently asked questions for Fraser Island at http://www.derm.qld.gov.au/parks/fraser/faq.html.

Opening hours The park is open 24 hours a day. The opening hours of the offices on the island are variable and dependent upon conditions in the park: Eurong Information Centre – phone: (07) 4127 9128 Dundubara – phone: (07) 4127 9138 Waddy Point – phone: (07) 4127 9190

Permits and fees Buy all vehicle and camping permits before you go. Some camping sites requiring bookings as well. Plan ahead.

Camping fees and vehicle access permit fees apply.

Vehicle permits All vehicles must have a current Fraser Island RAM vehicle access permit, purchased before entering the island and fixed to the lower left side of the windscreen. Unregistered vehicles are not permitted on Fraser Island.

Camping permits Camping permits are required for all camping (except in privately run campgrounds) and must be prominently displayed at your camp. School and public holidays are very busy. Purchase permits well in advance and be aware that some campgrounds require bookings.

Permit refunds For information on permit refunds please read Camping and vehicle access permit fee and pre-paid booking refunds. To apply for a refund please email camping.refundenquiries@derm.qld.gov.au.

Pets Domestic animals are not permitted in Fraser Island section, Great Sandy National Park.

Climate and weather Fraser Island has a subtropical climate with temperatures moderated by proximity to the sea. Average coastal temperatures range from 22 to 28 degrees Celsius in December and 14 to 21 degrees Celsius in July, although it can be more extreme inland.

Annual rainfall varies across the island, from 1200mm on the coast to 1800mm inland. Wettest months are January to March (about 160mm rainfall per month) with drier months in winter/spring (54mm rainfall in September).

Moderate winds predominate from the southeast; storms are not uncommon with occasional severe storms.

Fuel and supplies Mishaps on Fraser Island can be costly. Rescues are difficult and may impact on the island's fragile ecosystems.

Good preparation is essential.

Fraser's sandy tracks or beaches are 4WD only. Vehicles with low clearance may find some inland tracks impassable. Ensure the vehicle is mechanically sound. Pack spares, water, tyre gauge, air pump, tow rope, snatch strap, and a shovel. Load the vehicle evenly.

Fuel (not autogas), restaurants or takeaway food outlets, shops with gas and ice are generally open 8am-5pm at all the towns. EFTPOS is available in some places.

Public telephones are located at Eurong, Happy Valley, Cathedral Beach, Kingfisher Bay, Orchid Beach, Dundubara, Waddy Point, Central Station, Yidney Rocks cabins and Indian Head. CDMA mobile phone coverage is available along most of the eastern beach.

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Staying safe Read all information Many safety and regulatory signs warn visitors of dangers, rules and regulations, and ways to help conserve Fraser's special features. Walking track entrances, campgrounds and day-use areas have information and orientation signage, including site-specific interpretive materials. For your safety, please read and heed signs.

Driving safely

Beaches Beaches have particular driving hazards.

• • •

Deep washouts can happen at any time, particularly after heavy rain and rough seas.

Wave action can expose dangerous rocks overnight.

Big high tides can cover the entire beach, with waves washing up to the foredunes and leaving no option but to drive through salt water. This is dangerous. Your vehicle may sink, overturn or be quickly inundated by the rising tide.

Driving on the western beach is not recommended.

•

The ever-changing weed banks that lie buried under the sand along the western beach (and occasionally on the eastern beach) deceive even experienced drivers. Your vehicle may sink. Tow trucks are many hours away. Drive with another 4WD or enjoy a walk instead.

Do not enter areas along the western beach, which are closed to vehicle access. Check the Fraser Island map for details.

Normal road rules apply All inland roads, vehicle tracks and beaches are designated roads and normal road rules apply. Police patrol all areas of Fraser Island. Speed checks and breath testing can happen at any time of day.

Maximum allowable blood alcohol level for drivers in Australia is .05.

Speed limits on the island: • • • •

30km/hr 80km/hr 50km/hr 30km/hr

and 40km/hr shared zones on the eastern beach on the eastern beach on Hook Point inland road on all other inland roads.

But always drive to suit conditions.

Only use indicators when overtaking or turning. Keep to the left of oncoming vehicles at all times.

Right of way All standard give-way rules apply. However, most of the roads are narrow and carry two-way traffic. When safe, give right of way to buses, trucks and to vehicles travelling downhill or towing trailers. Passing bays are frequent.

If possible, drive forwards into them.

Give way and drive slowly around dingoes, birds and other wildlife on the beach.

Aircraft Aircraft landing zones are signposted and marked with orange cone markers along the beach. Planes need to land on the harder sand close to the water's edge. Vehicles should move to the upper beach, but not onto vegetation drivers should heed aircraft traffic controller directions.

Tyre pressure If you choose to reduce tyre pressure to help with traction in soft sand, particularly at Indian Head bypass and further north, select low gears and avoid sharp turns and sudden braking, as tyres can roll off their rims. When deflating, keep within manufacturer's recommendations. Re-inflate to resume speed on harder sand and for mainland driving.

Best travelling times Avoid driving during the two hours either side of high tide - and often for longer, as some areas are more affected than others by tidal activity and onshore winds. For safety, avoid travelling at night.

Stay on formed tracks across dunes It is illegal to drive on dunes. Look for formed entrance tracks into beach camping areas.

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Don't let your trip turn to tragedy Slow down and give way when passing pedestrians, especially around the Maheno wreck. Pedestrians often cannot hear approaching vehicles above the sound of the surf. Never sleep, sit or picnic in vehicle traffic zones such as the beach, roads or campground access tracks. Remember that Fraser Island's eastern beach is considered a highway.

Stay alert when driving on Fraser Island. Accidents have happened due to reckless driving or silly pranks.

Passengers have suffered serious spinal injuries in vehicles travelling too fast for the road or beach conditions. If your driver makes you feel unsafe in a vehicle - say something. Slow is safe!

Be very careful when crossing Eli, Wyuna and Coongul Creeks. Large volumes of water create steep creek banks.

Never attempt to cross Wathumba Creek or Moon Point estuaries.

Before crossing any creek, walk through it, if safe, to check the depth of water and softness of sand. Never stop your vehicle midstream; your vehicle may sink or stall.

Dingo safety Fraser Island's dingoes are wild and unpredictable. They are among the purest strain of dingo in Australia and are protected by law. You cannot feed dingoes or any wildlife on Fraser Island. Rangers do check and you will be fined. Plan carefully to be dingo-safe. Follow the guidelines given in brochures and signs.

Bring strong lockable containers to lock up food and rubbish from animals. Do not hang rubbish, food, fish, bait or burley from cars, trees or tents.

Be Dingo-safe at the rubbish bins • • •

Never go alone or at night.

Leave no rubbish lying around - bin everything!

If a bin is full, please use another.

Important: Please report any negative or close encounter with dingoes as soon as you can to the nearest ranger or phone (07) 4121 1800 or email: dingo.ranger@epa.qld.gov.au.

Walking safely • • • • • • • •

Stay with your children at all times.

Stay on formed walking tracks and do not shortcut.

Wear sturdy footwear, not thongs.

Walk in groups.

Avoid walking in the hottest part of the day.

Carry sufficient drinking water.

Protect yourself from the sun.

Look for and observe all signs.

Walking over sandblows or up steep sections of tracks can be very tiring. On hot days, some people have suffered fatigue and heat exhaustion.

Long distance walking Long distance walkers should take a map, compass, personal locator beacon (EPIRB), food, drinking water, appropriate clothing and first-aid kit.

Plan for your own safety. Advise a reliable friend or family member of the itinerary. Be aware that, this person (not rangers) is responsible for alerting police if things go wrong. Work out a contingency plan. Always check track conditions just before you start and observe any closures or track signage.

Water safety People have suffered serious injuries in water-related accidents. There are no patrolled swimming areas on Fraser Island. Avoid tragedy.

• • • •

Always stay with children when near water.

Do not swim in the ocean. It is not patrolled and there may be rips and sharks.

Do not dive into water. Serious injuries have occurred.

Stay away from rocks. Surf and swell can wash you away.

Bushfire safety During high fire danger periods, total fire prohibitions will be declared. This means no campfires at all. Be vigilant with fuel stoves, gas lights and lanterns.

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Bushfires can pose a threat to walkers and campers. They can occur without warning, so be aware of, and be prepared for, the dangers.

If there is a bushfire, follow the track to the nearest road, beach, lake or creek for refuge. Large logs, a ditch or burnt ground can also provide protection. Avoid areas of heavy fuel, such as deep leaf litter, and stay low to the ground where the air is coolest and contains the least smoke.

In extreme conditions, walking tracks and camping areas may be closed at short notice for your safety. Rangers also carry out planned fuel reduction burning. If you see a fire, please alert a ranger office or phone 000 as soon as possible. Report arson immediately to police.

For more information, please view the safety video clips at http://www.derm.qld.gov.au/parks_and_forests/safety_video_clips.html and read the guidelines on safety in parks and forests at http://www.derm.qld.gov.au/parks_and_forests/safety_in_parks_and_forests.html.

Looking after the park Rubbish Waste transfer stations are provided at the following locations: • • • • •

600m south of Cornwells Break Road 1km south of Maheno 1km north of Dundubara 400m north of Waddy Point beachfront campground (at Connors Corner) Central Station campground

Please help to reduce litter and look after this World Heritage Area.

• • • • • •

Reduce your packaging before you go to the island.

Bring products with lightweight, crushable packaging (eg. aluminium cans).

Avoid bringing glass.

Take your rubbish home with you.

When on a long stay, place your rubbish in the bins, not the bush.

Reduce the bulk - flatten what you can.

Leave no hazardous waste. Chemicals, batteries, used oil, paints, tyres and materials containing asbestos are not accepted at the bins. Take these materials off the island and dispose of them properly. Penalties apply for illegal dumping.

Bush toileting Use toilet facilities whenever possible. Pack a shovel, for when bush toileting is necessary. Bury waste and the toilet paper 50cm deep and at least 50m from creeks or as signposted. Dingoes dig up shallow bush toilet sites.

Bag and bin used tampons, sanitary pads or disposable nappies.

Keep it clean • • • •

Keep soaps, toothpastes, creams and detergents out of the lakes and streams.

Use toilets. Urine and faeces in lakes and streams is unhealthy and promotes unnatural levels of algal growth.

Avoid spreading pests and diseases. Don't bring any animals, plants, plant materials or soil to the island.

Be sure to bin your cigarette butts and all little bits of litter.

Beach camping - leave no trace • • • • • •

Camp behind the foredunes where permitted.

Camp at least 50m from streams and lakes.

Use existing campsites.

Avoid digging trenches, or damaging vegetation.

Take your rubbish home or deposit it in bins provided.

Never bury or burn rubbish.

Fish right • • • • • •

Keep fish, bait and burley in sealed containers away from dingoes.

Bury fish remains and unused bait just below high tide mark. Dig a deep hole and cover scraps with at least 50cm of sand.

Dispose of used bait bags and unwanted fishing line in bins.

Fish cleaning is prohibited in all campgrounds and camping areas.

All freshwater fish are protected on Fraser Island.

Fishing or collecting bait in lakes and streams is not permitted.

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Keep wildlife wild • • •

Do not feed or leave food available for animals. It can make them sick, and encourages them to scrounge.

Plastic bags kill animals. Bin your bags or don't bring them.

No animals, plants, bush timber or soil may be brought to Fraser Island without permission of the Environmental Protection Agency.

See the guidelines on caring for parks for more information about protecting our environment and heritage in parks go to http://www.derm.qld.gov.au/parks_and_forests/caring_for_parks_and_forests.html.

Park management The department manages Fraser Island as a world heritage listed protected area to conserve its natural and cultural resources. The whole of the island is national park (other than freehold areas such as townships) and is protected under the Nature Conservation Act 1992 and the Recreation Areas Management Act 2006 to the low water mark.

New Laws for Fraser Island Posted: 2010-03-10 09:41(4WD Action News)

Making your visit to Fraser Island safe Driving on Fraser Island can challenge even experienced drivers. Research has shown that tourists, especially young tourists driving four-wheel drive hire vehicles, have a high crash risk.

Beach driving is more dangerous than driving a vehicle on a road and requires high levels of concentration and skill.

Among the most dangerous aspects of beach driving are dealing with the washouts caused by tides, which can result in deep ridges in the sand, as well as the need to avoid incoming waves.

Driving a rented and unfamiliar four-wheel drive on a beach makes it easy to get into trouble. Speeding or driving with a vehicle full of passengers and with a heavy load on the roof can cause a rollover, resulting in serious injury or death.

New laws A number of new road safety measures are being introduced on Fraser Island to make your visit safer. You need to know and follow these laws to avoid a fine. Ignorance of the law is no excuse.

• Speed limit signs have been erected on the beach (80km per hour) and in townships and on inland tracks (30km per hour).

• Signs listing new hire vehicle requirements will be in place at all barge drop-off and pick-up points from April 2010.

• Police patrols will increase to enforce the new speed limits.

• Random inspections of four-wheel drive vehicles are being carried out by government officials on Fraser Island and on the mainland near the entry points to the island. These are to check that vehicles comply with the new laws and are not overloaded.

From 1 April 2010, all hire four-wheel drive vehicles must: • not carry more than eight occupants (including the driver) • safely secure luggage inside the vehicle (no loads are allowed on the roof).

Heavy loads on the roof can affect vehicle stability and increase the chance of rolling the vehicle, particularly when driving on sand.

Although these laws do not apply to private (non-hired) vehicles, it is recommended that all drivers consider passenger numbers and the weight of loads on the vehicle roof while driving on Fraser Island.

Fines A driver breaking these laws risks a $300 fine and (for Australians) 3 demerit points. These laws apply only to hire vehicles. Private vehicles are exempt.

From 31 December 2010, all hire four-wheel drive vehicles used on Fraser Island must: • have no side-facing seats • have a maximum of eight seats • be fitted with seatbelts which meet Australian Design Rules.

This means that four-wheel drive hire operators will need to modify or replace troop carriers that do not comply with these laws. Enforcement activities will be increased to ensure that all four-wheel drive hire vehicles meet these new laws.

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4WD Impacts on Fraser Island

During the first term of Queensland's Beattie Government (1998-2001) a million people visited Fraser Island. During that period a conservative estimate of over 1 million tonnes of sand was sluiced along the roads of Fraser Island. That amounts to an average of one tonne of sand relocated for every visitor. The biggest impact of 4WDs on Fraser Island is not on the beach or the foredunes but along its network of tracks where every heavy downpour relocates thousands of tonnes of sand thus degrading Fraser Island's World Heritage values. Other 4WD impacts include bird kills, disturbance of bird breeding, social impacts (including shrinking of wilderness, noise and safety to humans), damage to the foredunes, increased erosion on tracks and roads and the spread of litter, weeds, pathogens and other injurious agencies. This Education Supplement prepared by the Fraser Island Defenders Organization attempts to summarise the impacts of 4WDs and suggest ways to reduce the impacts.

Physical Impacts On the beach below the high water mark the physical impacts of 4WDs are obliterated at each change of the tide and they have a significant impact on the bird population. There has not yet been lasting evidence of any enduring impact on beach worms and molluscs as a result of 4WDs although there has certainly been a very significant decline in the ghost crab populations.

On the foredunes, just above the high water mark, 4WDs destroy vegetation and increase vulnerability to wind erosion as well as disturbing the nesting sites.

However the greatest impact of 4WDs on Fraser Island is out of sight and not readily observed. It occurs along the roads and interior of Fraser Island. Here every heavy downpour moves thousands of tonnes of sand along the roads to fill hollows, fill lake basins and smother old soil surfaces. To understand the process which is where the greatest 4WD impact on Fraser Island is one needs to understand water repellence in sand.

Water repellence: CSIRO Soil Studies in Cooloola noted the nexus between vehicle disturbance water repellence qualities of sand. Any disturbance of surface sand increases its water repellence. (Although water is expected to pass as easily through sand as through a sieve, water splashed onto dry disturbed road surface will roll up into balls with grains of sand on the outside). Once the surface it wet, the capacity of the sand to absorb the water will slowly increase. This repellence means that heavy downpours can’t be absorbed before the water starts rushing down slopes carrying surface sediments.

Downcutting of road (and even walking track) surfaces is cumulative so that many roads on Fraser Island are now meters below their original elevation. The relocated sand settles at the bottom of the slope as the water velocity decreases. Too frequently this happens to be in Lake basins. There is evidence of sand being move from roads and tracks into McKenzie, Boomanjin, Allom, Garawongera, Boomerang, Birrabeen and Jennings Lakes.

Elsewhere the sand moves off the road to smother old soil profiles.

The amount of downcutting is a direct function of the degree of disturbance to the road surface. The major causes of disturbance to the road surface are wheel slip, the volume of traffic, road widening and consequent desiccation and, (ironically) road maintenance.

Deposition: Sand sluiced from roads have resulted in Yidney Lake converted from a shallow but water filled lagoon to a dry surface with hundreds of tall blackbutts growing in it in less than 30 years. In places above the lake, the road has down-cut more than two meters, exposing the B horizon. There is prima facie evidence that this road sand has filled in the lake. Alluvial plumes are spreading into other lakes as a result of adjacent roads. At Lake McKenzie where the sediment contains tonnes of woodchips washed off the adjacent road. Other lakes affected include Allom, Birabeen, Boomanjin Garawongera and Jennings.

Most of the sand washed off the Central Station Eurong Road into Wanggoolba Creek is carried downstream by the fast-flowing creek, but many formerly waterlogged areas are now filled with silt.

The biggest impact from the sand movement has not been fully evaluated. Downpours regularly result in the deposition of more than 30 centimeters of sand. This is smothering the old soil surface and changing the soil profile. The impact on the flora and fauna has not been evaluated. The impact is ongoing and cumulative.

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Desiccation results from the opening up of the canopy to create the roads. This in a change in the microclimate which is part of the forest ecosystem. Drying out of road surfaces reduces 4WD traction and accelerates disturbance which in turn increases water repellence and then water run-off and sediment flow. Thus desiccation causes roads to have a major physical impact on the landforms.

Desiccation results in a considerable change to some epiphytic flora near roads. Recent studies of epiphytic fern along roads near Central Station showed there was a significant variation in the distribution of ferns as a result of the opening up of the forest. During the past two decades there has been a loss of epiphytic orchids and ferns along Fraser Island's roads.

Wheel slip is influenced by the moisture on the road surface, driver competence and the power:weight:tyre-surface ratio of the vehicle (including trailers). Drier roads have much greater wheel slip. Tyre pressure also significantly influences the impact of vehicles. Vehicles towing trailers have much more wheel.

The competency of drivers is yet another variable which continues to be overlooked. The same vehicle driven by a more competent driver may have a significantly lower environmental impact because of better adjustment of load, tyre pressure and better control of power. Currently many drivers who visit Fraser Island have had no previous experience with four wheel driving let alone driving off road and in sand. These are mainly overseas backpackers who constitute over 40% of the island traffic.

Size of Vehicles: Not all vehicles have the same impact on roads. Larger vehicles erode roads more than smaller vehicles.

40-50 seat buses have more impact than smaller vehicles. It is well established that axle loading impacts heavily on conventional main roads. Despite this common knowledge, the impact of axle loading restrictions haven’t yet been considered for Fraser Island. This is despite the obvious conclusion that the roads with the greatest amount of erosion/sedimentation are those used by heavy vehicles.

Seismic Impact: Vibrations from large vehicles travel considerable distance through the sand. Just as the impact of heavy vehicles can destabilise and cause cracking in large urban buildings, so the shock waves transmitted through the sand can affect vegetation some distance away.

Wanggoolba Creek bank vegetation is showing already shows evidence of a slow but on-going landslip. This is exacerbated by heavy vehicles using the road parallel to it.

Road maintenance: There is increasing evidence that grading the road surfaces is exacerbating the amount of sediment run-off. More comfortable ride are achieved at an enormous environmental cost to a World Heritage site.

Vegetation: Roads can become wind tunnels especially the cross island roads which mainly follow the valleys shaped by prevailing winds. This wind tunnel exacerbates desiccation.

Changes to the substrate can leave surface and subsurface roots are exposed thus weakening or killing plants, even relatively large plants. At the mouth of Bogimbah Creek substrate rapid accretions changes resulting from road sediments caused mangroves to die. The smothering of original soil profiles is burying seeds and spores vital for the forest regeneration. The nutrient status of soils will inevitably change as a result of sediment movement. The precise impact is unknown but of concern.

Significant secondary impacts of 4WDs on Fraser Island include removing fuel woods from the forests, the increase in litter, the cause of removal of protected plants. 4WDs have been used to illegally remove ferns from Fraser Island.

Impacts on Fauna: There is an established impact on some of the very specialised fauna of the Great Sandy Region.

CSIRO studies in Cooloola showed the distribution of ants was affected by tracks. Some ant species will not exist within a certain distance of roads or other significant disturbance. Others are opportunistic.

Thus roads will change very markedly the species composition. Other researchers have identified the impact of roads on acid frogs. The more disturbance there is the more likely it is that non-acid frogs will invade the territory of acid frogs.

Roads also affect the distribution of small birds and mammals which are vulnerable to predation in crossing open spaces. The wider the road clearing the fewer species which will cross it.

There has been a very heavy impact on beach and foredune fauna both through "road kills" and through the impact of constant disturbance. Fraser Island populations of Pied Oyster catchers, red-capped dotterels and Beach Thickknees have been decimated since the beach had become a highways for 4WDs. Terns are weakened by having to continually move to allow 4WDs passage. Dingoes have also been affected by 4WDs and have now hunt less and scavenge more.

Roads as Vectors for Injurious Agencies: Off-road vehicles are a potential vectors for spreading injurious agencies around Fraser island. Fraser Island has been remarkably free of feral animals most notably Rattus rattus and brown mice. These plus weeds, soil pathogens, weed seeds and a whole range of injurious agencies can accidentally be spread through vehicle movements. Vehicles also allow access which can be used to spread fire and litter. The impact of these should not be understated.

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Shrinking of wilderness: The impact of vehicles on the wilderness values is a difficult concept for many utilitarians to accept. People who only see value in something which is being physically used or which has investment /speculative potential (such as a rare painting) cannot accept the concept of wilderness. The concept is that people can get value from wilderness without actually physically visiting it and exploring it is an incomprehensible anathema. Utilitarians can only see value in natural areas as long as it is generating perceived economic activity. Such soul-less people don't appear to understand that religion has no perceived economic value, that many of the memorabilia which people most enthusiastically cherish and which mean so much to them have no perceived economic value.

Wilderness nourishes the soul and inspires people at least as much as parochialism, patriotism, religion or the arts. People don't have to go to wilderness to be inspired by it. Most Australians will not visit Antarctica yet 93% of Australians want that remote wild continent free from mining and commercial exploitation. Since wilderness is a function of being remote from roads,

roads erode wilderness.

Noise: The aesthetic impact of noise is well known and understood. While we are not talking of the volume of noise to cause pain or nervous disorders, we are talking about the intrusiveness of noise in a natural area. For example anyone walking along Wanggoolba Creek would have found the sound of vehicles roaring and clanking out of sight along the road above them will understand the intrusiveness of noise.

Some remedies: There are many potential remedies to ameliorate the very serious degradation of Fraser Island‘s World Heritage values resulting from the present widespread use of 4WDs. The main principle to reduce the impact is to reduce the amount of surface disturbance by 4WDs. Just as the impact of pedestrians can be minimised by using boardwalks, so lifting vehicles travelling on the interior of Fraser Island onto rails would minimise impacts.

• • • • •

Buses should be scaled down in size. Commercial tour operators should be encouraged to use much smaller vehicles.

Current visitor numbers could be carried in more environmentally friendly sized vehicles.

Instead of making the roads to fit the vehicles of tour operators, tour operators should be required to get vehicles to fit a better road standard.

Axle loading limits must be enforced on Fraser Island sooner rather than later.

High priority should be given to exploring the feasibility of introducing a light rail people mover to reduce the surface disturbance resulting from using so many and such large 4WDs. There should be a restriction on trailers; they’re travelling on many Fraser Island tracks, particularly inland tracks.

Sand Driving

Sand Driving Techniques Getting Started, Speed, Braking & Stopping Drive according to the conditions at the time, always obeying speed limits. Stay continually alert, take extreme care when approaching blind corners on the inland tracks and be aware of the ever-changing conditions on the beach. Slow down when approaching creeks, people and parked cars and aim to avoid any sudden changes to your vehicle’s direction.

Take-off should be performed as smoothly as possible with gear changes done at fairly high revs. Sand driving requires plenty of engine power to get your vehicle to "plane" on the sand. It is advisable to use low range as this multiplies the amount of engine torque available and will provide that extra gear if you encounter a particularly soft patch of sand. Check that your tyres are pointing straight ahead when taking off to reduce the takeoff effort required.

When travelling on sand, you should endeavour to follow in the tyre tracks of the vehicle in front as they have already compressed the sand to form a firmer surface than un-traversed ground. Never drive on vegetation as this will destroy it and lead to erosion and environmental damage.

You should avoid rapid changes in speed when accelerating or braking. Braking on sand will cause a mound to build up in front of all wheels and possibly prevent your vehicle from taking off. Rapid acceleration simply digs the wheels in and can actually lead to slower take-off speeds.

When stopping on sand, depress the clutch and allow the vehicle to coast to a stop. This will minimise any sand build-up in front of the wheels. If the terrain permits, coast to a stop, rather than braking, with the vehicle pointing downhill as this will aid take-off.

Avoid the soft sand at the base of most dunes and gullies when stopping.

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When turning, make the turn as wide as possible to reduce the chance of bogging. Your front wheels act more like a rudder in sand and turning too sharp has a similar effect to applying the brakes.

When driving on beaches never park on the wet section of sand. Vehicles have been known to sink into the sand and slip into the sea. Always park your vehicle with the nose pointing to the sea and if doing a u-turn always drive towards the waterline so that the turning tyres are in firmer sand than if you turned with the vehicle positioned nose uphill where the weight of the vehicle would weigh down the driving wheels in the soft sand. If you're having troubles driving along the beach (parallel to the water line) and find the vehicle is wanting to slip sideways (usually rear to the water), point your wheels to the sea slightly instead of away its the rear of these heavy vehicles that wants to slip down the slope and doing so will give the vehicle a chance to get enough momentum up to get out of trouble.

Use Low Gear Low gears are more suitable for low-traction environments.

Unless you are driving on a hard-packed beach, avoid high gears. Keeping your vehicle in low gear will increase the tyre's traction and help you avoid becoming mired down in soft sand.

On a particularly dry beach, it may be impossible to drive in any other gear due to the shifting of the sands under your tyres. Higher gears change the torque of the wheels, making them spin more in the sand. Driving in higher gear also increases the risk of you losing control of your 4WD.

4WD Tyres In regard to safety, tyres play a more important part on a vehicle and trailer than any other single component.

If the tyres are not inflated correctly, or are the wrong type, the stability and ride of the car and trailer combination can be severely effected. Tyre pressures are best checked when cool, hot tyres give an incorrect reading. And don't forget that tyres on an off-road trailer can be inflated and deflated to suit conditions as you would your 4WD, especially in very soft, hot sand.

Tyre Pressures The first thing to do before driving on sand is to lower your tyre pressures. This is done to provide better flotation by increasing the size of your "footprint" and thus dramatically improving your traction. It also reduces the amount of strain on your vehicle and minimises wear and tear on the tracks.

The optimum tyre pressure depends on your vehicle, the type of tyres fitted and the terrain. The following technique provides a good starting point to find the optimum pressure and is best performed before leaving the bitumen.

Park your laden vehicle on a level surface and place a brick 1 cm away from the sidewall of your rear tyre. Deflate that tyre until the sidewall just touches the brick and then measure the tyre pressure. Use this pressure as your starting point when initially lowering your tyre pressure for sand driving. As you become more familiar with sand driving, you con alter this pressure as the terrain dictates.

If you haven't performed the above technique before you reach the sand, don't fret. A good rule of thumb is to use a pressure of 100 kpa (15psi).

Remember though, if you are going to lower your tyre pressures, ensure you have a pressure gauge and some means of pumping your tyres back up.

As you lower tyre pressure, the tyre becomes more vulnerable to damage by stoking the sidewall or rolling the tyre off the rim.

The lower the pressure, the higher the risk. However the gain in traction can be remarkable and may make the difference between becoming hopelessly bogged or simply driving away. The "correct" tyre pressure becomes a decision between better traction versus increased risk of tyre damage.

In severe cases of bogging, tyre pressure can be lowered to a minimum of 40 kPa (6psi), as most tyres require at least 6psi to remain seated on the rim while stationary. In almost all situations 10psi should be used as the minimum pressure as 6psi is likely to result in tyre damage ie. tyres rolled off rims or punctured sidewalls. Speeds should be severely restricted at these low pressures. To minimise tyre damage, it is important that these low pressures are only used on sand and tyre pressures should be increased if limestone or rocky outcrops are encountered, or when the terrain becomes more firm. Failure to do so will almost certainly result in tyre or rim damage.

Transmission Wind-up?

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Caused by driving in 4WD on bitumen or non-slip surfaces, the transmission locks and the vehicle will not move forward. It can also be caused by uneven rolling diameters of tyres. If you suspect transmission wind-up is starting, reverse and shift to high 4.

You can also jack one wheel off the ground then shift to high 2. Always check that all four tyres either have the same pressures or at least even diameter (heavy loads in rear often bulge tyres) before engaging 4WD.

Observe Posted Regulations Always follow posted driving rules.

Even beaches where driving is allowed have regulations concerning when and how you may drive on them. Just as you would on a public roadway, follow all posted signs, including those indicating speed limits, one-way traffic, do-not-enter zones and pedestrian crossings. Some beaches even contain restricted areas, such as bird sanctuaries, where the use of any motorized vehicle could be extremely damaging to the ecosystem.

Tides Know your tide times before driving on the beach. Driving at or near to low tide makes good sense and minimises your chances of having to drive through salt water or getting stuck somewhere because of a rising tide.

ALWAYS carry a tide chart for the beach that you are travelling along and try to travel at low tide.

Avoid Washouts Beach erosion is a common hazard along coastal zones.

Not only is it important to drive carefully to avoid washouts, it is equally important to park carefully. Ocean waves may appear gentle at the upper fringe of the wave line, but the sand beneath them can be eroded in a matter of seconds, and it only takes a few minutes for even a 4WD to become hopelessly mired in the ocean equivalent of quicksand. If you must drive into the water, be careful to keep the vehicle in continuous motion to avoid erosion.

Water Crossings Check the crossing including the exit before you plunge in.

Water depths of up to 30cm can be handled fairly easily, but will depend on the type of bottom and the current flow. Soft sand and/or a strong current can make even a shallow crossing a problem. A snorkel for deeper water may be required.

Spray electrical components with WD40 before entering the water.

Loosen the fan belt unless it has an auto clutch (auto clutch will still spin at higher RPM). A spinning fan can spray water onto the electrics.

In deeper water (over 30cm) remove fan belt and fit blind to help create a bow wave.

Keep speed down, but fast enough to create a bow wave - low second gear is best.

Do not disengage clutch or change gears.

Keep the engine running, even if you stop. If the engine does stop, DO NOT restart it. Winch or snatch out.

After crossing, dry your brakes out. Check all oils for contamination if you've been driving regular, deep crossings, or you've become stuck.

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Ruts Try to keep the vehicle as level as possible for better traction and comfort. If possible, straddle ruts in the road with a wheel each side. In wet conditions it may be safer to drive into the ruts to prevent skidding.

Mud Try low range 2nd or 3rd gear to prevent excessive wheel spin. Attempt with normal tyre pressures first to bite into the mud to hopefully find the hard surface below.

Speed and power are essential. Good tyres help. Low second or third are probably the best gears. Move the steering wheel from side to side rapidly to improve traction. Keep a steady pace. Stay out of ruts if possible.

If you do become stuck, rock the vehicle backwards or forwards by alternating between first and reverse. You'll be surprised at what perseverance can do.

Climbing & Descending Hills Choose a gear that will allow you to get to the top without having to change gear.

Low second or third gear is generally best for going uphill. Choose a gear that will allow you to descend at a reasonable pace without excessive use of brakes.

Low first gear is best for steep downhill.

Don't touch the clutch.

Use the footbrake sparingly and with caution.

Avoid turning the vehicle sideways on a hill.

Allow any vehicle in front plenty of room.

If the vehicle begins to slide sideways, very slight acceleration and steering into the slide will normally straighten your descent.

If you stall going uphill, don't touch the clutch or accelerator. See the stall start technique for what to do.

Steep sand dunes can be traversed only straight up or down. If you drive even on a slight angle, the weight transfer is to the downhill side wheels. If the vehicle starts to slip, the downhill wheels tend to dig in and make the angle of the dune even worse, leading to a potential rollover.

If you are travelling straight down a steep dune and the back end starts to slip sideways, it is best to accelerate slightly to try and straighten the vehicle. Never use the brake, as this will cause weight transfer to the front wheels and can increase the back end movement.

If travelling up a dune and you do not get to the top, reverse down the dune in gear, NEVER coast down the dune and NEVER attempt a U turn.

Winching is the safest way to tackle steep slopes, when all else fails.

The Stall Start or Key Start When a vehicle stops on a steep hill, don't panic. Think and stay calm.

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

Brakes on - both foot and handbrake.

Switch engine off if not already stalled.

Ease clutch in.

Select low range, reverse gear. Clutch out.

Check to see if track is clear to reverse and that the wheels are pointing straight ahead, not on an angle.

Handbrake off.

Footbrake off - but keep it ready for action.

Keeping your foot away from the clutch, start the engine and proceed backwards slowly down the hill. Don't touch the clutch or the accelerator.

Slight 'feathering' of the brake is possible, but take care.

NB:

• •

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With autos, if the engine has stopped, you'll need to start the vehicle in neutral, or park, before reverse gear is engaged (step 4).

If at all in doubt, chock your vehicle and use a winch to aid the descent or ascent!

Vehicle Recovery –Sand As soon as you become bogged, avoid the temptation to simply floor the accelerator as this will just make vehicle recovery more difficult. Put the vehicle in reverse and gently try to back along your tracks as they provide a compacted path. When you have reversed a sufficient distance, try going forward again while being careful not dig yourself in. Hopefully you will travel further each time you repeat this technique and eventually be able to slowly pass through a particularly soft section.

If you cannot reverse out of trouble, get out of the vehicle and let your tyres down further. A rule of thumb is to drop them by a further 15kPa (2psi). Before trying to reverse out, remove the build-up of sand from behind the tyres. See if any part of the underside is touching. If it is, clear the sand away to allow the vehicle to reverse out.

You may need to try this several times.

If necessary, continue to drop the tyre pressures to 7OkPa (10psi). Also, never underestimate the assistance of your passengers giving a push. As mentioned earlier, tyres can be lowered to 6psi in extreme cases, but this should be avoided if other means of vehicle recovery are available.

If you are still stuck and your tyres ore down to the minimum pressure, you will have to resort to a snatch strap, winching or jacking to extricate yourself. The easiest method is usually by snatch strap, but this relies on another vehicle being present. If you are by yourself you will have to resort to winching (if you have one!) or jacking.

If you get stuck in sand, firstly check that you have engaged your hubs and are in 4WD. Once stopped, first try reversing over your tracks. If you cannot get out of the bog in reverse in one try, get out and deflate tyres more. Check that the diff is clear - usually by now it is deep in the sand and you'll need to dig it out with a long-handled spade. If the sand is particularly soft it sometimes helps to clear 4 tracks - one for each tyre. This is also a good method for reversing out of a bog.

Select a gear that will get you out of the bog without digging yourself in further. Try H2.

Give it some revs to get out of the bog and onto a firmer patch.

Recovery gear It is advisable to always carry a snatch-strap and rated shackles and make yourself familiar with their correct use. Also make sure you have a shovel or spade handy for digging yourself out of a bog.

See the separate handout regarding snatch strap procedures.

Wash the Vehicle Saltwater can cause the floor boards of your 4WD to rust.

The underside of your 4WD is generally its least protected side, lacking the baked-on finish that seals the upper surfaces. If you drive in salt water, it is important to rinse the underside of the vehicle thoroughly as soon as possible. Allowing damp sand that is saturated with sea salt to accumulate on the metal surfaces beneath your car can cause them to rust or corrode, resulting in your 4WD deteriorating much faster than it would normally.

When you return home after a beach trip, it is important to hose down your vehicle to remove all traces of sand and salt. Pay special attention to areas like the mudguards where sand is sprayed around and tends to get trapped. Thoroughly hose underneath your vehicle as well, as there are many nooks and crannies where sand con also get trapped.

Keep thumbs outside the steering wheel

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Something to think about

Not just the cars were damaged.

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Snatch strap recovery

What is a Snatch Recovery?

A Snatch recovery is where a bogged vehicle is recovered by using a mobile vehicle to pull the stuck vehicle free.

A Snatch recovery differs from a normal tow recovery because the line connecting the two vehicles is not tensioned prior to the recovery as in a tow recovery.

A Snatch recovery relies on the elastic properties of the strap to work properly. During a normal snatch recovery, the strap will elongate by around one meter.

A Snatch Strap is a nylon-webbing strap approximately 9m in length and 75mm wide with eyelets at both ends. It has a typical breaking strain in the order of 9,000kg for a standard snatch strap.

It pays to look after your snatch strap as a nick of only 1cm can reduce its breaking strain by over 50%.

The snatch recovery technique requires a second mobile vehicle and a snatch strap to perform the "snatch".

The mobile vehicle is positioned to allow around 2m of slack in the snatch strap, while avoiding getting bogged as well. The direction of both vehicles should be lined up as straight as possible and the strap should not be twisted.

Hook the strap to a suitable vehicle tow point using shackles rated to at least 3.25 tonnes.

This picture shows a tree trunk protector (white strap) being used to spread the load evenly on both front recovery points.

CAUTION - Never place a Snatch strap over a towball.

NEVER put the strap over a towball as it is not rated high enough and can break with fatal results (people have actually died this way).

If a towbar is the only rear point available, then remove the towball and use a rated shackle (minimum 3.25 tonne).

Some light duty towbars are unsuitable for snatch recoveries as they are not designed for the high shock loadings that a snatch recovery places on them.

For safety, you should never walk over a snatch strap once it is connected at both ends.

It is advisable to place a blanket, or similar, over the middle of the snatch strap. This will act as a 'parachute' if the strap or mounting points were to break.

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Once the vehicles are connected and all bystanders are well out of the way (a minimum of the strap length in ALL directions), the bogged driver should signal (by hand, flashing his lights, CB etc) when he is ready.

The mobile vehicle should drive off at a steady pace (lst or 2nd low range recommended). The driver of the bogged vehicle should have the engine idling in either reverse or 1st low range (depending on the direction of tow) and as soon as the jerk from the snatch is felt, release the clutch and, hopefully, drive out.

Be careful not to run over the snatch strap as you drive off. Stop as soon as you are clear of the boggy area and remove the strap.

If this fails to extricate the bogged vehicle, repeat the process but use more speed when taking off in the mobile vehicle. Alternatively, increase the amount of slack in the snatch strap to 3m.

The Cruiser pictured here is bogged and is about to be snatched by the Hilux.

The Cruiser is in the process of being recovered successfully.

If the mobile vehicle cannot be placed close enough without risking bogging it as well, two snatch straps con be joined together. Place the eye of one strap through the eye of the other. Then pull the rest of the strap through its own eye. It is advisable to place a rolled up newspaper (or similar) in the loop before it is pulled too tight as this will aid undoing the two straps later.

In summary How to use a snatch strap

• • • • • •

Line the towing vehicle up as straight as possible with the bogged vehicle Uncoil the strap completely (remove twists or knots in strap) and connect the ends securely to each vehicle Use the 'D' shackles only if necessary. Screw them up properly by doing them up finger tight and then backing them off slightly Avoid any sharp objects that may damage the strap Don't join straps with a 'D' shackle. It's liable to become a dangerous missile! Loop the straps together and place a piece of wood, or rolled up newspaper in the knot so it can be unfastened later.

Keep around two to three metres of strap looped slackly between the vehicles

When all spectators are out of the way, on a given signal

• •

The towing vehicle gently accelerates to take up the slack to 'snatch' the bogged vehicle out The bogged vehicle assists using its own power in an effort to drive out If the first attempt is not successful, try again with a little more acceleration and a little more slack.

Finding the right attachments on the bogged and recovery vehicle Most snatch straps have a loop at each end, which you use to connect to your vehicle. Ideally you’ll use a recovery hook or alternatively you can use the pin of a Hayman and Reece style tow bar. Don’t under any circumstances attach the strap via a shackle to the bull bar or tow ball. In both instances you run the risk of a heavy steel projectile flying through the air at a considerable pace. It’s either going to take out the recovery vehicle or at worst innocent bystanders.

As a general rule, you want to ensure that the strap is attached directly to the chassis of the vehicle. Before you go off-road take the time to locate the recovery points on your vehicle. There are plenty of aftermarket add-ons if your current setup is inadequate.

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Position the recovery vehicle Try to position the recovery vehicle about 1-2 meters closer to the bogged vehicle than the length of the strap.

You’ll need to make sure that the recovery vehicle has somewhere to go once the extraction commences.

Connect the strap to both vehicles and position the strap in an ‘S’ pattern. This ensures that there are no kinks when the slack in the strap is taken up by the recovery vehicle.

Get bystanders out of harms way Ensure all bystanders are either in vehicles or at a distance that is greater than the over length of the strap. If something does break, with the forces being applied, will be like a steel missile that could inflict serious damage.

Nothing will sour your 4×4 trip more than a visit to the hospital.

Smooth take off Okay your ready to start the recover. Ensure both vehicles are running and if possible select 2nd gear in low range. For manual cars, the bogged vehicle will need to have the clutch in. If your in the recovery vehicle smoothly accelerate, don’t overdo it, a nice moderate pace is all you need. You’re going to feel two things. The point where the slack is taken up and the strap begins to stretch then point with the strap begins to contract.

At this point, you should see the bogged vehicle start to move. If momentum is gained, continue to move forward at a constant pace.If you’re in the bogged vehicle, when you feel your car moving, start to slowly apply acceleration to assist in the extraction. Don’t accelerate to hard or you’ll wheel spin or run up the back of the recovery vehicle. Let them, and the strap, do all the work.

If at first you don’t succeed, try again You might find that starting at a conservative speed isn’t enough. That’s fine, just get the recovery vehicle to slowly increase the pace, until you reach the point where enough force is applied. You’ll find that once you get more failure with using the strap, you’ll know just how much speed you’ll need. If you still have trouble, try laying some sticks in front of the bogged vehicle to aid in extra traction, or take another look at your extraction angle.

Connecting two straps together There is a right way and a REALLY wrong way to do this.

Simply follow the pictures right.

Don’t ever use a shackle to connect them.

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Four Wheel Driving – The Complete Checklist

PREPARING FOR A TRIP, ALWAYS CARRY: • • • • • • • •

Basic recovery gear (see check list) Basic first aid kit (see check list) Fire extinguisher CB Radio Tool kit, spare parts, a can of WD40 (see check list) 10 litres of water or more depending on number of people and location Map of area and surrounds Matches, compass, torch, knife and a space blanket

RECOVERY EQUIPMENT - THE BASIC KIT: • • • • •

Snatch strap Two rated and stamped 'D' shackles Shovel Axe Jack and jacking plate

Depending on the nature of the trip and the problems likely to be encountered, to the above you can add:

• • • • • • •

Manual and/or Electric Winch Tree protector strap, winch extension straps Snatch-Block, extra 'D' shackles High lift jack and accessories Air bag jack Chainsaw, snow chains - if applicable to location and state. Chain saws are illegal in some areas (such as National Parks). Make sure you check before you leave home.

Recovery points securely mounted to front and rear of vehicle.

THE FIRST AID KIT: • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Basic first aid manual (from Red Cross or St John Ambulance) Antiseptic fluid (Betadine, Dettol or similar) Antiseptic cream (Betadine or similar) Panadol Eye drops Assorted bandaids, strips/spots, wound closures Elastic or crepe bandages (for sprains and snake bite) Sterile gauze bandages (50 mm & 75 mm) Triangular bandages (to support limbs and hold dressings in place) Adhesive tape, cotton wool, tissues Scissors, safety pins Thermometer Calamine lotion, Stingose or similar Pencil and note pad.

To that you can add many items: • Antihistamine tablets • Itch/skin relief cream (for itch, bites, minor burns) • Anti-diarrhoea tablets (or mixture) • Gastrolyte - for treatment of diarrhoea • Travel sickness tablets • Andrews tablets, or similar, for indigestion • Ear drops • Temporary tooth filling mix to replace fillings, loose caps • Nyal toothache drops • Burn cream

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• • • • • • •

Cream/ointment for bruises and swelling due to injury Strepsils or similar Tweezers, splinter remover Rubber pointed eye probe, eye wash Methylated spirits "Airsplint" (for any broken limbs) Plus any personal medication or tablets you or your family are on.

TOOLS TO CARRY: • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Set of ring and open end spanners (to suit your vehicle) Adjustable spanner, plug spanner Wheelbrace, jack and jacking plate (30 cm square x 2.5cm thick board) Screwdrivers - Phillips head screwdriver Hammer, chisel Hacksaw and spare blades File, including a points file Pliers and wire cutters Feeler gauges Tyre levers Pumps and pressure gauge for tyres Tube/tyre repair kit Battery jumper leads Repair manual WD40, or similar

SPARES TO CARRY • • • •

Radiator hoses, heater hoses, fan belts

By Pass Hose for cooling system.

Fuses, globes, electric wire, spark plugs, plug leads, points, coil and condenser Tyre tube

For longer trips you could include a more comprehensive range of tools and spares, but DON'T go overboard.

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A History of Aborigines of Fraser Island

Aborigines have occupied all of Australia, including what is now Fraser Island, for more than 50,000 years. Since Fraser Island became an island with rising sea levels over 6,000 years ago, it has been a very productive territory and home to thousands at a time. Since the 1850s, following European settlement of the adjacent mainland, the history has been tragically affected by massacres, introduced diseases and drugs and loss of culture. Everyone needs to appreciate the impact on the world’s oldest continuous culture.

Scientists have established that Aborigines occupied Australia at least 50,000 years ago. Occupation of Fraser Island would have occurred from the very earliest times because the Great Sandy Region has always been adjacent to the coast.

Sea Levels Affected Aboriginal Territories

Until 10,000 years before present (BP) Fraser Island was a part of the mainland. The coastline was then at the very edge of the continental shelf some 25 kilometers east of the present eastern beach. All of Hervey Bay was dry land. The Woody Island syncline deflected the Mary River, forcing it to flow south east down what is now the Great Sandy Strait. The Mary River and its tributaries carved deep valleys into the landscape.

About 10,000 BP the last Ice Age began to wane, causing the sea levels, estimated to have been about 120 meters lower than present, to start to slowly rise. The sea drowned much of the territory of coastal Aboriginal people just as it drowned Atlantis.

Sea levels rose at a rate less than that which it is anticipated will be induced by the current climate change. As the coastline retreated, so the Aborigines followed it back. Groups such as the Ngulungbara, who were forced back to Sandy Cape, would have seen about ninety percent of their territory (including Breaksea Spit) submerged. As the sea levels rose, the velocity of the Mary River and its tributaries slowed down causing rapid sedimentation build up in their valleys, thus creating wide flood plains.

At the time of first contact with Europeans three Aboriginal groups occupied different parts of Fraser Island. The Ngulungbara occupied the northern end of Fraser Island, the Badjala (or Butchalla, Batjala, Badtala) occupied the central part of Fraser Island and the adjacent mainland on the opposite side of Great Sandy Strait, and the Dulingbara spread across southern Fraser Island and on to Northern Cooloola. Watson said they all spoke the same language which was a variant of Kabi-Kabi.

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There were great seasonal migrations by the Aborigines between the island and the mainland. Fraser Island was more densely populated during the winter months when fish, particularly the sea mullet, were most plentiful. With the change of seasons, the summer territories on the mainland were reoccupied. An estimated Aboriginal population of 2,000-3,000 used Fraser Island during the mullet season. Bark canoes were used to cross Great Sandy Strait. Most canoes were made of a single sheet of bark which was sealed at each end with wax and resin.

The rising sea levels submerged many former occupation sites and stream side sites were silted over.

More than 200 shell middens have been recorded on the east coast of Fraser Island. All are less than 5,000 years old. They are composed almost exclusively of eugaries (Plebidonax deltoides). Many archaeological sites along the west coast of Fraser Island have also been recorded. Middens along the sheltered shores include mainly oyster shells (Ostreidae sp.), whelks (Pyrazus ebeninus) and a variety of crustacea. Such marine food sources would not have previously existed in these vicinities.

First European Contacts There is evidence that Europeans may have made contact with Fraser Island Aborigines more than 500 years ago. Lead, identified as having come from the Iberian Peninsula (Spain), was found in an old buried shore line near Hook Point on Fraser Island, amongst pumice released in about 1500. It may have come from the Christado de Mendonca 1521-22 expedition. His three Portuguese caravelles set off from Malacca (Sumatra), which was then Portuguese territory, to explore what was then nominally Spanish territory in what is now Eastern Australia. Records of Portuguese exploration were lost in the great Lisbon fires of 1755, but maps of Portuguese origin showing Fraser Island as an island survived in Britain and France.

Two clay pipes discovered in middens near Indian Head were of the type used by 17th century Dutch navigators for trading. These suggest some contact between Dutch sailors and Aborigines in this period, although there is no direct evidence that the contact occurred on Fraser Island as the pipes could have been traded.

In 1770 Captain Cook was the first recorded European to sight Fraser Island. Passing northward at a distance of five miles offshore through his telescope Cook “saw several people upon the shore” on a headland (Indian Head). A number of Aborigines had assembled on what they knew as Takky wooroo for a better view of the “Endeavour”. Since at that stage Europeans regarded all “savages” as “Indians”, Cook forthwith named the locality Indian Head.

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In 1799 Matthew Flinders noted of his journey up the east coast of Fraser Island: “... Nothing can be imagined more barren than this peninsula, but the smoke which arose in many parts corroborated (estimates of a ‘more numerous population of Indians than is usual to the Southward’) and bespoke that fresh water was not scarce in this Sandy Country: Our course at night was directed by the fires on shore...”

During his second visit in 1802 Flinders landed near Sandy Cape with Port Jackson Aboriginal, Bongoree. This is the first recorded interaction between Aborigines and Europeans. Flinders recorded of his meeting: “These people go entirely naked, and otherwise much resemble the inhabitants of Port Jackson in personal appearance, but they were much more fleshy, perhaps from being able to obtain a better supply of food with scoop nets which are now known on the southern parts of the coast.”

Following the establishment of the Moreton Bay Penal Settlement in 1824, many convicts escaped and lived with Aborigines in the Great Sandy Region. David Bracefell escaped three times and each time on returning he was so brutally punished that he absconded again. He also became a “bunda” named “Wandi”, meaning “The Great Talker”. He spent a year living on Fraser Island and later reported that 2,000 to 3,000 had assembled on the Ocean Beach near Indian Head during the mullet season.

Impact following the Settlement of the Wide Bay District Fraser Island Aborigines gained international notoriety through the stories of Eliza Fraser who survived the ship wreck “Stirling Castle” in 1836 with some others. Survivors were fed by the Aborigines and assisted back towards Brisbane and civilization. Eliza told stories of Aboriginal cruelty, savagery and brutality. She made much money by such tales but, although the truth of her stories has been refuted by many, they had the effect of creating a paranoia of Aborigines amongst the white settlers. One of Eliza Fraser’s legacies was that there would be many massacres of the very people who had helped her.

In 1842 Colonial authorities decided to close the convict settlement in Brisbane and open up what is now Queensland for free settlement. This led Andrew Petrie and others to undertake an exploration of the Wide Bay area. They travelled through Great Sandy Strait, discovered the enormous stands of timber on Fraser Island (Kgari) and travelled up the Mary River (Moonaboola). This expedition was followed almost immediately by selection of grazing holdings at Tiaro and soon afterwards the establishment of Maryborough, which rapidly grew to become a port, administrative centre, a base for Queensland’s infamous Native Police and major centre in Queensland settlement.

Soon after the establishment of Maryborough, Great Sandy Strait became an international shipping lane.

Sailing vessels crossed the Wide Bay Bar and hauled into the lee of Fraser Island to take on water at Waterspout Creek (South White Cliffs) rather than sail around Breaksea Spit (Thorvour). During this period sailors caused many Aborigines to become addicted to opium and also introduced many pernicious diseases, including venereal diseases. Maritime traffic increased dramatically following the discovery of gold in Gympie in 1867. So many people rushed to the goldfield that a Customs House was established in Maryborough and a Quarantine Station at North White Cliffs (Ballargan).

Massacres of Aborigines were occurring quite openly and regularly in and around Fraser Island and Maryborough. In most cases “white volunteers” were assisted or led by the murderous Maryborough based Native Police in these sorties. Many massacres of Aborigines which resulted from a number of confrontations have been documented in a paper by Raymond Evans and Jan Walker (Occasional Papers in Anthropology No 8 University of Queensland, 1977). They noted: “Following these engagements, the Aborigines withdrew to Fraser Island which, according to the whites, they seemed to be using as a convenient natural fortress, for the avoidance of European reprisal raids.” This led to considerable planning by white settlers to invade Fraser Island and remove “35 named Aborigines accused by European settlers of ‘murder and felony’ ”.

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On Christmas Eve 1851 Commandant Walker, his officers and 24 of his infamous Native Police, supported by some local mounted squatters and sailors sworn in as “special constables”, set out to arrest some Aborigines for which there were warrants. They spent eight days on Fraser Island carrying out what was euphemistically described as “examinations” of Aborigines. Subsequent reports indicate that this was a pretence for a series of massacres which occurred between Christmas Eve and 3 January. Aboriginal oral history reports the biggest massacre was at Indian Head. It may have been seen as a little “silly season” sport for the squatters or a little hunting expedition over the Christmas holiday season. Evans and Walker note that the official sketchy report strains credulity because the commandant let the Native Police out alone “to pursue hostile blacks” simply because he was too footsore to accompany them. The “Moreton Bay Courier” subsequently described this as a “jaunt” covered with “extraordinary secrecy” and that “rumours are afloat that natives were driven in to the sea, and there kept as long as daylight or life lasted…”

There were further tragic incursions into the depleted and demoralized Fraser Island Aboriginal population. In 1857 Europeans grabbed two young albino Aboriginal girls whom they claimed were white girls who had survived the wreck of the “Seabelle”. However, they could not speak English and they had no experience of European culture. They were sent to Sydney and confined to institutions where they died within a short time.

In 1860 the whole of Fraser Island was gazetted as an Aboriginal Reserve but this was soon rescinded in 1863 and shrunk to include only the central section of the island after commercial timber-getting began. When timber getters wanted to log this Reserve in 1905, almost all of the remaining Aborigines were removed from the island.

In 1870 the Sandy Cape light station was erected. There was a significant resident population living near the station when Miss Serena Lovell was teaching there in 1891. In 1872 Rev Fuller established a mission at Ballargan but this was closed down within two years so the government could convert the Mission site to a Quarantine station for ships bringing miners to the goldfield. With the gold rush ended by 1897 the Government briefly revived Ballargan.

On Good Friday 1897 Aborigines drove off a party of Maryborough excursionists who claimed that the beach had been “a favourite resort for pleasure parties for over twenty years” and a popular “watering place since before Queensland got separation”. A public protest meeting in Maryborough drew 300 to 400 people. Within months, parochial pressure caused the mission to be shifted to a less desirable site at Bogimbah Creek.

At Bogimbah Creek Settlement Aborigines lived in conditions comparable with the Jewish concentration camps of World War II. Over a hundred died of malnutrition, dysentery, syphilis, influenza and tuberculosis. Anglican missionaries took over the Mestons’ State control in February 1900 but in 1904 they abandoned the Bogimbah Creek mission. Rather than release remaining inmates, 117 were tricked and taken to Yarrabah near Cairns. Others were sent to Woodford and then to Cherbourg. Out of more than 2,000 Fraser Island Aborigines fifty years earlier, only a handful escaped. This tragedy prompted one Maryborough resident of the time to write an “enraged memorial”. “Isn't this one of the blackest pages in the history of the British Empire?”

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Bush foods of the indigenous people Grass-tree (Xanthorrhoea resinifera) Gul-gad-ya The Cadigal made use of every part of the grass-tree. The stem of the flower spike was used for spear shafts and for making fire, and the plant’s resin was used as a powerful glue. Nectar from grass-tree flowers was a high-energy food.

Spiny-headed Mat-rush (Lomandra longifolia) Local Aboriginal name unknown Lomandra’s tough leaves were dried, split and braided to make bags and baskets. The plant also provided the Cadigal with seeds which were ground into a flour to make cakes. The tender leaf bases were eaten and have a pea-like flavour.

Blue Flax Lily (Dianella caerulea) Local Aboriginal name unknown The blue fruits of the Dianella were eaten raw by the Cadigal.

They have a sweet flavour, which becomes nutty once the seeds are chewed. Its leaves were used to make a strong fibre.

Heath Banksia (Banksia ericifolia) Wad-ang-gari At certain times of the year the flowers of wad-ang-gari, or heath banksia, are literally dripping with nectar. The Cadigal knew exactly when to collect the flowers and soaked them in water to produce a sweet, high-energy drink.

Macrozamia communis Burrawang Burrawang seeds are extremely poisonous but, because they contain starch, are also highly nutritious. The trick is knowing how to remove the seeds’ poison. The pounded seeds were soaked in water for a week, changing the water daily. The pulp was then made into cakes and roasted over hot embers.

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Lilly Pilly (Syzigium paniculatum) Daguba The sweet fleshy fruit of many different types of lilly pilly were eaten raw by the Cadigal and the early colonists. In fact, the lilly pilly was one of the first edible plants to be noted during Captain Cook’s visit to Australia in 1770. The colonists also made the fruit into jams and summer drinks. This Lilly Pilly is endangered because of clearing of its habitat for agriculture and for housing along the east coast of Australia.

Bracken Fern (Pteridium esculentum) Gur-gi During winter particularly, the Cadigal chewed or beat out a sticky, nutritious starch from the rhizomes (swollen roots) of this fern.

Roots were an important food source because they could be dug up all year round. The earth acts as a natural storage cupboard.

Warrigal Greens (Tetragonia tetragonoides) Local Aboriginal name unknown In the early days of the colony, Saturdays were officially set aside for collecting native plants to try to prevent scurvy. Many convicts owed their lives to eating the leaves of Warrigal Greens. In England, it became a popular summer vegetable.

Paperbark tree (Melaleuca quinquenervia) Bujor Touch the soft papery bark of a Melaleuca tree and you’ll understand why it was so important to the Cadigal. The Cadigal used the bark as sleeping mats, for lean-to shelters, for dressing wounds and for wrapping delicate objects - like newborn babies. The bark was also used for wrapping food for cooking and for making bandages and disposable raincoats. Hold up one of its leaves to the light to see its shiny oil glands, then crush it to smell its aromatic oils.

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Flowers such as wattles and banksias were shaken with water in a coolomon - a hollowed out wooden vessel made from a section of knotted tree trunk - to make a sweet drink.

Wild honey nests and other treats, like juicy grubs, were also collected from trees. Women’s digging sticks and men’s wooden clubs were useful to dig for yams and tubers. Grinding stones were used to make flour from seeds and for removing plant poisons.

Before the seeds of the burrawang (Macrozamia) could be eaten, they were pounded and placed in running water for up to two weeks to remove the toxin. After this they could be dried and ground again to make flour then formed into flat rounds of bread or ‘johnny cakes’, that were cooked over hot coals.

Captain Dawes, one of the officers of the First Fleet and a keen linguist, described food plants belonging to three categories: ‘Wigi are berry-like fruits including the tyibung (geebung or Persoonia), burrawang tukuba (probably the native cherry), marrinmara, magar, bomula, mirriburu and twiwaragang.

‘Another ground of food plants are those recorded by Dawes as ‘flowers bearing honey in sufficient quantity to render them notorious’ - such as watangal (a banksia), ngurumaradyi, wiyigalung, koamea, warata (waratah), kamarang, burudun and mirrigaylang.

‘Other edible fruits included three kinds of lillipilli, native raspberry, native passionfruit, bolwarra, ground berries (five corners), native cherries, native grapes, native currants, native orange, native mulberry, figs, kangaroo apples and geebungs.’

Fire was used to control the undergrowth in forest areas, creating beautiful vistas through the tall trees. When the Darug lit fires for hunting, they were not only able to catch kangaroos, but smaller animals sometimes fell into the ground traps that had been set by digging pits and covering them with branches. Long woven traps made from reeds and grasses were also used for catching birds and smaller animals.

The fire-managed parklands were the animal fields that supported emu, kangaroos, wallabies and many other animals. The tall trees provided another important food source - possums and other tree animals. The men would cut toe-holds in the trees and scale to the top branches in seconds.

The indigenous people enjoyed a diverse diet and had an intimate knowledge of edible plants and when and where they could be found.

Some of these plants were potentially poisonous, but they knew how to treat them in order to make them edible.

The most important of these was the ‘burrawang’ (Macrozamia), a palm-like plant producing clusters of seeds with a tough leathery red covering. Macrozamia seeds are highly toxic and to render them edible they would pound them, place them in running water for up to two weeks to wash away the toxin and then pound them again. The resulting flour was baked into flat cakes that were soft to eat and formed a staple of their diet.

Banksias, grevilleas and melaleucas all provided nectar that was either sucked directly from the flower or soaked in water to make a sweet drink called ‘bool’. Their main source of protein appears to have been small marsupials, such as wallabies and possums, and occasionally freshwater mullet from the rivers and creeks.

Orchids and lilies with edible tubers were also plentiful as was the native ‘yam’, another dietary staple. A number of other edible roots were also consumed, as well as leaves and berries. Plants were an important medicinal source and also provided material for making string and rope, such as ‘kurrajong’. Both grass-tree resin and beeswax were used to attach hatchet heads to handles and barbs to fishing and hunting spears.

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Plants Angophora costata (Smooth-barked Apple, Sydney Red Gum, Kajimbourra) Family

Myrtaceae

Species

Angophora costata

Common name

Sydney Red Gum

Flower colour; life form

Cream flowers with prominent stamens form terminal clusters. The capsules are 13-15mm long with 5 prominent ribs

Description Angophora costata is a hardy medium-sized tree commonly found on sandstone hillsides, often growing out of rock crevices. It can grow anywhere from wet alluvial valleys to exposed ridgetops.

The tree is distinguished by its contorted branches and sandstone-hugging roots, and its smooth mottled bark - orange after Summer shedding, gradually darkening to pinkish grey over Winter.

The leaves of Angophora costata are similar to Eucalyptus, but are opposite each other on the branches, rather than alternate. .

Angophora costata flowers in November and December.

Lophostemon confertus (Pink box, scrub box, brush box) Family

Myrtaceae

Species

Lophostemon confertus

Common name(s)

Pink box, scrub box, brush box

Colour; life form

The heartwood ranges from pink-brown to red-brown but is often very variable between trees. The sapwood is usually slightly paler in colour. Close and even textured.

Often with curly interlocking grain.

Description A medium sized tree attaining a height of 35 to 40 m and a stem diameter of 1 to 2 m. The trunk is usually straight and of good form. The bark is about 10 mm thick, light grey to brown, rough and semi-fibrous on the lower trunk and smooth, coppery brown to pink on the upper trunk and main branches.

Occurs as mature, residual trees in rainforest and commonly extends to wet sclerophyll and moist open forests, from Newcastle, New South Wales to Maryborough in Queensland. Further north, isolated stands occur on Blackdown Tableland (Rockhampton), Mt Dryanden (Proserpine), Paluma Range (Townsville), Mission Beach (Tully), Mt Garnet, Herbert Range (Atherton) and Windsor Tableland (Mossman).

Amyema bifurcata (Mistletoe) Family

Loranthaceae

Species

Amyema bifurcata

Common name

Mistletoe

Flower colour; life form

Rusty to white; epiphyte, mistletoe

Description This mistletoe is commonly found on eucalypts. Epicortical runners are absent; the flowers are straight, petals 5-6 free from one another, usually rusty-coloured, tomentose. Host plants are eucalypts.

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Callistemon (Bottlebrush) Family

Myrtaceae

Species

Callistemon / Melaleuca spp.

Common name

Bottlebrush

Flower colour; life form

Red, pink; shrub, small tree

Description This genus, which has recently been combined with the genus Melaleuca, is endemic to Australia, where many species can be observed growing along watercourses. All species have the flowers crowded together in a spike of variable length, usually red or pink with numerous stamens, the fruits are woody capsules crowded together. The leaves are usually narrow and when held to the light oil dots can often be seen as clear areas. When crushed this oil produces a characteristic smell, strength depends on the number and size of the oil glands in the leaf. Birds and other animals are attracted to the nectar in the flowers. The most common species on campus is Melaleuca (Callistemon) viminalis, the weeping bottlebrush, also common along northern streams. There are many cultivars available.

Corymbia clarksoniana (Clarkson’s bloodwood, Grey bloodwood) Family

Myrtaceae

Species

Corymbia clarksoniana

Common name(s)

Clarkson’s bloodwood, Grey bloodwood

Flower colour; life form

White; tree

Description This tree has brownish-grey tessellated or scaly bark on the trunk, branches and branchlets. The lateral veins in the leaves are more or less parallel to one another as in most other bloodwoods. The woody urn-shaped capsule is at least 1.5 times as long as wide, usually about 2 cm long and the valves are deeply enclosed; flowers white in large clusters on the outer edge of the tree.

Avicennia marina (Grey mangrove) Family

Avicenniaceae

Species

Avicennia marina

Common name(s)

Grey mangrove

Flower colour; life form

Flowering occurs mid to late summer. Pale green flattened fruits (3cm long and 2cm wide) consist of a thin, hairy seed coat and enclose two closely folded seed leaves. The seeds germinate while attached to the tree (vivipary), which allows for quick establishment once the seed settles.

Description Grey mangrove grows to 25 metres high, however trees of 10 to 15 metres are common in Queensland under favourable conditions. Trees have a large trunk which is covered by light-grey, finely fissured bark supporting a spreading leafy crown.

Leaves measure up to 8cm long and 5cm wide, are oval, pointed and arranged opposite one another on the stems. The leaves are glossy green above with a distinctive pale and slightly hairy, grey underside. Stomata (pores) and salt glands are scattered over the entire leaf surface but are more abundant on the underside. Flowers are small, yellow and appear in clusters.

A distinguishing feature of this species is the numerous spongy pencil-like pneumatophores (peg-like roots) which spread out from the base of the trunk. Pneumatophores originate from horizontal underground lateral roots and grow vertically through the soil surface to allow the mangrove roots to breathe.

As a pioneer species, grey mangrove is very tolerant of extreme saline conditions by actively resisting the uptake of salt at the roots. Grey mangroves can also withstand short periods of inundation by freshwater or hypersaline water (salinity exceeding that of seawater). However, all mangroves are susceptible to extended periods of water logging, with death occurring within 14 days.

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Eucalyptus haemastoma (Scribbly gum) Family

Myrtaceae

Species

Eucalyptus haemastoma

Common name(s)

Scribbly gum

Flower colour; life form

White flowers appear in late spring to early summer. Capsules are pear-shaped, to about 8 mm diameter, with usually 4 enclosed valves.

Description An Australian eucalypt that is named after the 'scribbles' on its bark. These zigzag tracks are tunnels made by the larvae of the Scribbly Gum Moth (Ogmograptis scribula) and follow the insect's life cycle. Eggs are laid between layers of old and new bark.

The larvae burrow into the new bark and, as the old bark falls away, the trails are revealed. The diameters of the tunnels increase as the larvae grow, and the ends of the tracks are where the larvae stopped to pupate.

Eucalyptus haemastoma is a small to medium sized tree (or occasionally a mallee). The bark is smooth, white/grey. Juvenile leaves are stalked, ovate or broadly curved and oblique to 22 x 8 cm, pendulous and blue-green. The adult leaves are stalked, broad lanceolate or curved to 15 x 3 cm, concolourous, glossy green. Distribution is restricted to the coastal plains and hills in the Sydney Region.

Casuarina equisetifolia (Coastal she-oak, Beach she-oak) Family

Casuarinaceae

Species

Casuarina equisetifolia

Common name(s)

Coastal she-oak, Beach she-oak

Flower colour; life form

Brownish; tree

Description Although this species is typically found along foreshores, it is often planted elsewhere. An attractive tree with pendulous drooping branchlets, leaves are greatly modified so that only the leaf-teeth are visible at the nodes or joints. The number of leaf-teeth varies between 6 and 8 per node. Cones are 2-3 cm long.

Bruguiera gymnorhiza (Orange mangrove) Family

Rhizophoraceae

Species

Avicennia marina

Common name

orange mangrove

Flower colour; life form

Flowering occurs throughout the year, with single-seeded fleshy fruits appearing from August to February. Seeds suspend vertically beneath a red, cup-shaped flower.

After germinating and falling from the tree, the seed floats to be dispersed by the movement of the tides.

Description The orange mangrove reaches up to 20 metres. Its key feature is its knobbly, bent-knee-shaped pneumatophores which are involved in gaseous exchange. These roots develop from the underground root system and protrude through the soil surface at intervals.

The bark is fissured, rough in texture and grey-brown. Buttressing is sometimes present at the base of the trunk.

Large leaves grow to 20cm long and 7cm wide. They are smooth, thick, elliptical in shape and arranged in opposite pairs on the ends of branches. The upper leaf surface is glossy and dark green while the underside is paler green.

The leaf stalk is tinged with red and flowers appear at the base of the leaves.

This species excludes sea salt from its roots as seawater is taken up. Although some salt is taken up, it is removed by being accumulated in the leaves which grow old and fall from the plant.

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Rhizophora stylosa (Red mangrove) Family

Rhizophoraceae

Species

Avicennia marina

Common name

red mangrove

Flower colour; life form

Flowering occurs in winter with the production of a single-seeded, brown, oval-shaped fleshy fruit during summer.

Seeds germinate on the tree (vivipary) which results in the appearance of a long, green, rounded propagule (seedling) about 30cms in length. The propagule protrudes through the wall of the fruit to hang vertically beneath it. This buoyant germinated seed is the first stage of the root system.

Description Red mangroves in North Queensland may grow to 20 metres high but elsewhere trees of four to five metres are more common.

The main trunk is erect and covered by rough, reddish-brown bark.

Stout, large arching prop roots are characteristic of the species which support the main trunk and contain numerous lenticels (air pores) on their surfaces. The lenticels are air-filled spaces which connect with underground root structures. Aerial roots growing from the tree’s limbs also help the plant breathe. These do not take root even after reaching the soil and are produced by lower branches.

Leaves are oval-shaped, thick, leathery and may reach 15cm in length and 6cm in width. They are dark green with numerous, small, reddish-brown dots on the lower surface and a small deciduous pointed tip. While the leaves are arranged in opposite pairs on the stem, small, creamy white flowers occur in branching pairs.

Rhizophora mangroves eliminate salt at their roots as water is taken up. Excess salt which finds its way into the plant is stored in the leaves and removed from the plant when the leaves die and fall from the tree.

Lantana camara and Lantana montevidensis (Lantana) Family

Verbenaceae

Species

Lantana camara, Lantana montevidensis

Common name

Lantana

Flower colour; life form Description

Orange, Red, Pink, Purple; shrubs, scramblers

Although Lantana camara can be found along University Creek and associated areas the various cultivars of L. montevidensis, both purple and yellow will be found on campus. All species of Lantana are considered as class 3 weeds. Plants can form tall scrambling bushes or be low-growing to creeping. Stems are square with small prickles, the opposite leaves to 12 x 7 cm have serrated to crenate margins and are covered with stiff hairs. The tubular flowers are borne in clusters to 3 cm diameter, colours vary and the different colour forms and species vary in toxicity. The small black fruits should not be eaten, contact dermatitis may occur in those who are susceptible. Flowering occurs throughout the year.

Hibiscus tiliaceus (Beach hibiscus, Coast cottonwood) Family

Malvaceae

Species

Hibiscus tiliaceus

Common name(s)

Beach hibiscus, Coast cottonwood

Flower colour; life form

Yellow with maroon centre; tree

Description This bushy tree, usually branching from just above the ground has large heart-shaped leaves with a covering of stellate or starshaped hairs giving it a greyish appearance. The flowers are about 12 cm diameter, petals to 7 cm long, yellow with maroon at the base. Fruit is a woody capsule, 5-valved to 2.5 cm long. Young shoots and flowers may be eaten, and twigs may be used in wet weather as firewood.

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Excoecaria agallocha (Milky mangrove) Family

Euphorbiaceae

Species

Avicennia marina

Common name

milky or blind-your-eye mangrove

Flower colour; life form

Minute flowers 2mm in diameter appear from October to April.

Male and female flowers are located on separate trees and occur on spikes 2.5 to 3.5cm long, growing from stems among foliage.

Description The milky mangrove grows up to 10 m in height with grey to fawn-brown bark marked with longitudinal rows of corky brown air pores. It has surface roots that uptake oxygen when exposed to air at low tide.

Leaves are attached alternately on the stems and are pale green to yellow. They measure up to 11 long and 4 cm wide, are oval with a pointed tip, rounded at the base and often finely toothed at the edges. Milky mangrove timber is light, soft and pale.

The major feature of this mangrove is the milky sap which exudes from the plant when branches or leaves are broken. The sap is poisonous and can cause severe skin irritation and temporary blindness if it comes into contact with the eyes.

The milky mangrove is so named because of the white sap that exudes when stems or leaves are broken.

Pandanus spp.

(Pandanus, Screw pine) Family

Pandanaceae

Species

Pandanus spp.

Common name(s)

Pandanus, Screw pine

Flower colour; life form

Cream, shrub

Description These species are commonly found in swamps, and along watercourses. The leaves are arranged spirally and appear twisted, the fruiting body resembles a large pineapple, the individual nuts separate from the core when ripe. Pandanus cookii ( syn. P. whitei) occurs on Townsville campus; Pandanus gemmifer can be found planted just outside the Crowther theatre in Cairns.

Aegiceras corniculatum (River mangrove) Family

Myrsinaceae

Species

Avicennia marina

Common name

river mangrove

Flower colour; life form

Most flowering occurs in late spring and early summer with minor flowering all year. The single-seeded fruit is small, curved, elongated and fleshy and appears between summer and autumn. Seeds germinate on the tree (vivipary).

Description River mangrove occurs as a bushy shrub two to three metres in height but may occasionally grow to a small tree with several slender trunks up to six metres in height. The bark is rough and dark grey or black. Leaves are spoon-shaped with a rounded tip and are glossy green above and paler green below. They occur alternately along the stem and the surface is covered with minute salt glands which excrete salt from the plant. Clusters of white flowers may appear with a smell similar to rotten bananas.

Roots along the soil surface are exposed to air at low tide and help the uptake of oxygen. Prominent lenticels (air pores) at the base of each trunk also help with atmospheric gas exchange.

Healthy plants can tolerate fresh and salty water. Salt is extruded by glands on the leaves which accumulates over time resulting in a fine film of white salt crystals on leaf surfaces. These crystals are most often seen during prolonged dry weather and are the primary characteristic by which the river mangrove can be identified.

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Platycerium bifurcatum (Elkhorn fern) Family

Polypodiaceae

Species

Platycerium bifurcatum

Common name

Elkhorn fern

Life form

Epiphytic fern

Description This fern has two types of fronds, the ‘nest’ or basket ones that are clinging onto the tree or supporting structure; these are rounded to reniform, with lobing on the upper margin particularly. The pendulous fronds are forked, greyish green on the lower surface, which is densely covered with stellate hairs.

Syncarpia hillii (Satinay or Fraser Island Turpentine) Family

Myrtaceae

Species

Syncarpia hillii

Common name

Satinay and Fraser Island Turpentine

Flower colour; life form

Tree

Description Grows on Fraser Island, Queensland, and the surrounding Cooloola area. Large examples of this tree may be seen growing at the 'Central Station' picnic area on Fraser Island. The tree can grow to 40 meters tall, and the trunk may reach one meter in diameter.

A valuable timber tree, particularly for marine pylons. It is fire and termite resistant. However, supply is limited. Satinay timber was used in the construction of the Suez Canal. Resin from the sap has proven useful in treating chronic ulcers.

Ceriops tagal var. australis (Yellow mangrove) Family

Rhizophoraceae

Species

Avicennia marina

Common name

yellow mangrove

Flower colour; life form

Flowers are white, about 6mm long and appear in pairs at the base of the leaves.

Description It is found throughout the Indo-Pacific region and is distributed across northern Australia extending south to the Tweed River on the east coast and to Broome in Western Australia.

This species is commonly found on firm, peaty, well-drained clays, clayey mud or sand clays at the upper tidal limit of the mangrove shore. Here, infrequent tidal inundation aids in accumulating leaves and twigs which decompose to form peat.

Yellow mangroves also grow in soils that are poorly drained and frequently inundated by the tides, where it forms low, open shrub lands.

This species can grow from a shrub of half to one meter to a small slender tree of two to seven meters high.

The bark is yellowish or light brown to grey and is roughened by corky lenticels (air pores) along the trunk.

The base of the tree is buttressed (a distinguishing feature) and leaves are yellow-green with dark green in shaded areas.

Leaves grow to 7 cm long and 4 cm wide, are oval-shaped with a notched tip and are slightly curled under at the edges. They are arranged opposite one another in groups at the ends of branchlets.

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Corymbia erythrophloia (Variable-barked bloodwood) Family

Myrtaceae

Species

Corymbia erythrophloia

Common name

Variable-barked bloodwood

Flower colour; life form

White; tree

Description This species is not very common on campus, but it can be distinguished by the bark which is tessellated or scaly and when the scales fall off irregularly the bark below is a different shade and hence results in a mottled appearance. This new bark is a rusty-red to brown in colour. The fruit is urn-shaped about 1.5 cm long; flowers white in large clusters on the outside.

Dianella caerulea (Blue flax lily, Blueberry lily, Paroo lily) Family

Hemerocallidaceae/Phormiaceae/Liliaceae

Species

Dianella caerulea

Common name(s)

Blue flax lily, Blueberry lily, Paroo lily

Flower colour; life form

Flowers blue; herb

Description Plants tufted, may be up to 1 m tall. Leaves alternate, folded (conduplicate) 10-75 cm long. Inflorescence a panicle which exceeds the leaves, flowers have 6 perianth segments, spreading star-like, these are usually blue. Staminal filaments yellow with darker anthers. Fruit is a depressed-globular berry, bright blue to purple when ripe.

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Andrew Petrie - Early Brisbane Builder and Explorer One of the busiest thoroughfares in the city of Brisbane was that part of Queen Street which ran from Wharf Street to the intersection of Boundary Street. The immediately adjacent area, known as Petrie's Bight, was named after Andrew Petrie who came from Sydney in 1837 to Brisbane Town, which in those days was merely an outlying penal settlement of New South Wales.

Andrew Petrie (Bio) was born in Fifeshire Scotland, in June 1798, but early in life went to Edinburgh where he held a position with a leading building construction firm and for a period of four years was engaged in Architectural duties. He entered into business on his own account but on the suggestion of Dr. John Lang who was revisiting Scotland at that time, Andrew Petrie came to New South Wales in 1831 by the Stirling Castle. His first job was to supervise the erection of a building for Dr. John Lang in Jamieson Street, Sydney, but later commenced business for himself. Commissary Laidley became aware of Petrie's ability and offered him a position in the Royal Engineers at Sydney as Clerk of Works.

In August 1837 Petrie and his family came to Brisbane in the James Watt the first steamer to plough the waters of Moreton Bay. The underlying reason of Petrie's transfer to this town was that as a practical Superintendent of Works he was to supersede the junior military officers who, with only limited architectural and constructional experience, had erected buildings of inferior design and without substantially skilled workmanship (e.g. the walls of the old Police Court in Queen Street midway between George and Albert Streets were unbuttressed).

On Petrie's arrival, the only available accommodation was in the official quarters of the Female Prisoners Barracks, then only recently vacated when the inmates were moved to the new Eagle Farm Prison. The original Female Prisoners Barracks were situated in the area of the present General Post Office. Petrie commenced his duties and he was given control and supervision of the better class of prisoners and mechanics and others. The workshop was on the site of the present Prudential Assurance Co. Ltd. building at the top of Queen Street. Andrew Petrie instigated expeditions around the Moreton Bay Settlement taking on the role of the previous explorer Captain Logan. Along with the discovery of the bunya pine and the discovery of coal at Tivoli while on a visit to Redbank station.

Petrie Bight Petrie soon afterwards removed to a house provided for him at the corner of what is now Queen and Wharf Streets. At that time, 1839, Queen Street was occupied by Government and Military buildings on the western side from North Quay to the corner of Albert Street and then continued as a winding bush track from where Edward Street now stands, in a semicircular track to avoid the knoll there to where it crossed the creek at the present day intersection of Queen and Creek Streets. It continued towards the river and on to Petrie's Bight and became the Eagle Farm Road (now termed Ann Street). There was no development past Albert Street.

This road avoided the tapering cliff which runs from Adelaide Street towards the river by running much closer to the waters edge than the present alignment of Queen Street at the Petries Bight end. In Petrie's day the road ran about 110 feet from the river whereas nowadays it is situated about 430 feet distant. The area on the opposite of the Customs House towards Adelaide Street was largely stone and was patiently quarried, removed, levelled and carted by horse and dray.

Petrie's Bight on the river side from the Customs House was the site of the Government Reserve where the Government Wharves for commercial purposes were first built. The dividing fence had encroached 16 feet upon the road and when the wharves were being constructed in 1877, the Government in consideration of the requirements of traffic consented to give 10 feet from the wharf reserve. This is the explanation why Queen Street at the Petries Bight portion is 26 feet wider than in its other parts. The substantial stone wall opposite the wharves was constructed in 1882 and prevented the numerous land slides which had occurred and this wall, together with that built on the land on which the Customs House stands, enabled the present day level thoroughfare to be there.

Andrew Petrie was along with Captain Logan, one of the settlement's early explorers.

One evidence of his early and remarkable forethought was that when his official house (as Superintendent of Works) was being planned, he stipulated that it be lined up on a frontage with the then existing Government buildings in the area in Queen Street from George to Albert Streets, the then termination of the settled area. His house was on the comer of what is now Queen and Wharf Streets. True to his prophecy, Queen Street was eventually continued past his house and it was on that comer (later the site of Empire Chambers) that Andrew Petrie's children waved their flags of welcome to Queensland's first Governor Sir George Bowen.

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Andrew Petrie's Exploration of Fraser Island and Mary River The Courier Monday 14 March 1892

The Runaway Convict Bracefield Mr. Petrie of course knew that during the early days many convicts had escaped to the bush, and had apparently become possessed of the knowledge that somewhere in the vicinity one of these unfortunates named Bracefield had taken up his abode. At any rate, on the next day he was led to make inquiries, and as the result of these he discovered that a white man known to the blacks by the name of Wandie was with a tribe a few miles off. This personage -an acquaintance with whom Mr. Petrie was anxious to obtain, since it was generally admitted that from their connection with the blacks such men were most valuable guides did not, however, turn up during that day, and Mr. Petrie conceived the idea of writing a note to him in English. This he gave to the blacks to hand to Wandie, which they did.

On receiving this message Wandie, though unable to read it, understood sufficiently that a white man was about, and accordingly set out with the blacks who had borne to him the message. On meeting with Mr. Petrie he was greatly pleased, while Mr. Petrie was as much surprised to find in Wandie the convict Bracefield he had heard of.

It will be necessary at this point to state that Bracefield, like Baker and many others, had absconded from the oppressive rule of Captain Logan shortly after that Commandant's arrival at the Settlement, and at the time of his escape he was a member of the chain gang.

When he had to some extent regained his mother tongue he was profuse in his thanks for his deliverance, but at intervals he would become despondent and terrified. These fits were noticeable only when the Settlement was mentioned and the memory of his treatment there evidently dawned upon him ; indeed some difficulty was at the last moment experienced in persuading him to leave the blacks. Even when assured that to return would be to his advantage he treated the advice with some degree of hesitancy, but when he did yield he according to Mr. Russell said 'he would work his very best" if the Commandant would not flog him.

Wandie, or Bracefield we will now call him, received kindly attention at the hands of the party, and having been washed, fed, and decked out in odd raiment he became more reconciled.

The next day he embarked with his deliverers.

The first place touched at after this incident was a prominent headland where it was supposed Brown, a mate of the ill-fated ship Stirling Castle, had been butchered by the blacks, and in view of this supposition Mr. Petrie called the place Brown's Cape. This spot is now marked on the map " Double Island Point." Here the same difficulty experienced in landing at Bracefield Cape presented itself, though after they had by strenuous efforts reached the beach they discovered an excellent boat harbour. This was their camping ground for the night.

The following morning they came across a blackfellow who, through Bracefield, informed the party that he could direct them to a large river. He was persuaded to accompany them, and by nightfall they had made Fraser Island, where they lay to all night. Under the pilotage of the native they next day cruised about in the hope of finding the river hinted at by their dusky guide and Bracefield. Weary with their fruitless search, on darkness coming on they had to again rest off Fraser's Island. With the break of day they undauntedly resumed their search and cruised about only to once more find themselves some hours later at the place from which they had started.

Observing fires on the island Mr. Petrie determined to set out for them in the hope of getting information. Mr. Petrie was accompanied by Mr. Jolliffe, while the others, with the exception of Mr. Russell, went in search of water.

The Amateur Master Mariner To Mr. Russell fell the unenviable lot of watching the boat. How he enjoyed the position of temporary master mariner can best be described in his own words. "Behind me," he says, " was an old camp ; before me the opposite shore-about a mile. A long wash up the deep shelf kept me on the alert to keep the boat off. I suddenly saw a canoe shoot away from the point over the way full of men. While intent upon their movements a heave brought the boat broadside on almost to my very feet, leaving her to turn herself over upon her keel. I had the satisfaction of seeing all effects not made fast-guns, my own carbine, and some bedding-quickly subside. What could did float about in a most irritating manner. The powder was in water-tight cases. The next wash helped her off again, and having kedged her out by the stern, I had the pleasant work of picking up the bits. By this time the canoe, paddled by two men standing, was half way across.

41

Feeling bound to salute I seized the only unloaded weapon I could find, an old Government flint musket, a veritable 'Brown Bess.' Wishing to make a noise I dosed the old thing with unreasonable charge (the other firearms wore loaded, but had been some while under water, and that was inconvenient), rammed home an oldfashioned ball, and having filled a ' pan' big enough to hold a ' peck' of priming, let fly in the direction of the attacking force, while I, to my consternation, flew in the other, and had to pick myself out of a comfortable sand fauteuil into which 'Bess' had blown me.

The ball played ducks and drakes over the water, and my friends sheered off to the left until I lost sight of them behind a sandy point beyond which they were intending to land. Unable to see any of my party returning it was, it seemed, time to take care of myself. Having given ' Bess' a second, but less unreasonable, charge, all that remained was to sit quiet, watch, and wait.

In about a quarter of an hour the first of about a dozen blacks, walking in single file, appeared round the point.

They appeared to be unarmed, but on looking through my glass I detected their spears, which they were dragging on the sand by the end jammed in between two toes. When I rose and took 'Bess' in my hand they suddenly and simultaneously picked up the spears, and having stuck them upright into the sand advanced, holding up the right hand. Of course I had to follow suit, and went to meet them in the same confidence. I didn't like it, though.

When within a dozen yards I ' squatted' again, and having some cigars, fortunately, lit one and smoked, made signs to the leader to do the same, which he and the rest at once did; and having stuck a weed into his mouth told him by signs to suck, which he did with such energy that, with one choking gasp, cigar, smoke, and never mind, was propelled nearly into my own face. However, he seemed to like it, for he tried a second time, and took to it like a baby.

No one coming back yet? What on earth shall I do to keep them distrait ? Happy thought ! When I was leaving England the streets of London resounded with the popular song fathered upon ' Jack Shepherd' of highway repute. Dinned into one's ears at every corner and at every turning it was not surprising that the jerky air to which the words had been set should have taken hold of one's retentive faculty. So at the top of my voice, which I hoped might reach the ears of some of my returning companions, I gave them in all solemnity-unfeigned assuredly-the first part of ' In a box of the stone jug I was born-take away !' and, on arriving at that impressive chorus, 'Nix, my Dolly, palls!' it struck me that it might be suitable to imitate their corroboree-action, and set to work to slap my own thighs with undesirable vigour.

At once they did the same. The ‘flat' sound almost made me deaf to further theatricals on the part of some fifty more vagabonds, who had been at hand all the while in the scrub behind me. But for my ' funk' I could have roared at the sight of some sixty native humanites so gravely and earnestly occupied on their own-counters. We kept it up, both sides, I have little doubt, thinking ' "What shall be done next ?' when to my gladdened sight hove the rest of my associates -whom, it had suddenly struck me, these rascals might have knocked on the head, and I only remained to be disposed of."

Discovery of the River Mary But to follow Mr. Petrie and his companion. After traversing some distance they found the blacks' camp, but could gain no intelligible information, while the efforts of Mr. Wrietesley's party to persuade a black to accompany them proved equally unsuccessful-a failure Mr. Petrie facetiously attributed to Mr. Wrietesley's red shirt ! However, they again got afloat, and at sundown had the satisfaction of reaching the mouth of the river they had been looking for, and which some years later was named the Mary in honour of Lady Fitzroy.

The party, as may be expected, were glad to camp here for the night. Before leaving the next day Mr. Petrie had obtained several new specimens of timber, Kauri among the number. On the 11th, 12th, and 13th of May the party traversed the waters of the river until they were brought to a standstill by rocks and shingly beds. Having discovered so important a stream Mr. Petrie was naturally desirous of leaning something of the land on its banks and in the interior.

In the hope of gaining information on this point Bracefield, stripped and looking every inch an aboriginal, was twice sent out to find natives to assist them, but was unsuccessful. On a third occasion he came across a large camp, but owing to the numbers of the inhabitants he did not deem it advisable to make his presence known without first informing Mr. Petrie. Accordingly he returned to the boat, and reported what he had seen. The whole party became anxious to accompany Bracefield on the next trip, but this he declined to allow or at any rate he explained that to pursue such a course meant to run unnecessary risk-and in deference to his wish two of the boat's crew who offered their services were armed and alone allowed to follow Bracefield.

On nearing the camp Bracefield placed his two companions in ambush, and, this accomplished, he, armed with a spear, stealthily drew near to the assembled blacks. On a favourable opportunity presenting itself he bounced in among them waving his arms, and, gesticulating wildly, cried, " Wandie, Wandie." Great was the consternation of the natives, some of whom rushed wildly for their weapons while others, almost too frightened for anything, plunged into the scrub. This exodus had the effect of bringing Bracefield's two friends from their hiding not a little astonished at the nature of their disturbance.

42

The Finding of James Davis or Duramboi From the attitude of the blacks it is difficult to say what would have happened had not a man, apparently an aboriginal (who at the time of the disturbance was standing some distance away), rushed frantically at Bracefield, and then to the two white men. Bracefield, too, by this time had become as greatly astonished as everyone also, for he recognised in the tall man a convict who had worked with him in the chain gang during Logan's time.

It afterwards transpired that during his visit to Fraser's Island Bracefield had, while in conversation with the natives, heard that a white man was with the blacks in the interior; but he had thought no more of it, and had not considered it necessary to inform Mr. Petrie. Having by signs and gestures learned something of the object of the white men's visit he turned to Bracefield. The pair were soon engrossed in conversation carried on in the native tongue, for the strange man of the woods had forgotten his own.

The blacks in the meantime became disquieted, and their attitude towards the two knee-trembling companions of Bracefield was anything but comforting. The dusky warriors were, however, soon brought under control, and after a good deal of trouble, owing chiefly to the difficulty experienced in persuading the newly found convict that the Settlement was not still the place of torment he had known it to be, he was prevailed upon to accompany Bracefield to Mr. Petrie. As may be expected, Mr. Petrie was somewhat astonished on seeing the latest addition to the camp, who had been known by the blacks as Duramboi, but whoso real name was James Davis.

His body, by the number of bruises on it, bore evidence of rough life, and on the whole, we are assured, his appearance was by no means pleasing to the eye, and even after he had been arrayed in a few spare clothes it was not materially improved. Mr. Petrie, of course, counselled Duramboi to return to the Settlement, but he, as Wandie had done, seemed to have doubts as to the advisableness of pursuing such a course, and even accused Bracefield of having led an expedition formed to capture him and others.

At length, however, he gave in, but asked to be allowed to return to his black friends to say goodbye and to prevent their attacking the white camp, which he feared they would do. Permission was accorded him, and after his departure Mr. Petrie, considering an attack quite within the bounds of possibility, decided that they would sleep in the boat. The precautionary measures were quite unnecessary, for not a native was either seen or heard during the night.

-

J. J. Knight

Davis, James (1808 - 1889) Alternative Names: Birth: Death: 7 May Cultural Heritage: Occupation:

Duramboi 1808, Broomielaw, Lanark, Scotland 1889, Queensland, Australia Scottish benefactor convict convict escapee Indigenous culture recorder interpreter thief wild white man

DAVIS, JAMES 'Duramboi' (1808-1889), absconder and shopkeeper, was born in Broomielaw, Scotland, and at 14 was apprenticed to his father as a blacksmith at Old Wynd, Glasgow. Convicted two years later for stealing 2s. 6d. from a church box in Surrey, he was sentenced to be transported for seven years, and in August 1825 arrived in New South Wales in the Norfolk. His next appearance in court was at Patrick's Plains, where in 1828 he was charged with robbery and sentenced to three years at Moreton Bay as a doubly convicted felon. He arrived there on 18 February 1829 and absconded six weeks later with a companion. Their reasons remain unknown, although the commandant, Captain Patrick Logan, was notorious among convicts as a strict disciplinarian, excessive in use of the lash. The escapers soon met a party of Aboriginals whose chief, Pamby-Pamby, claimed Davis as his dead son returned to life as a white man. The mate was also protected but later killed for a breach of tribal law by destroying an Aboriginal grave in the branches of a tree.

As Duramboi, Davis took easily to tribal life. An honoured guest, he was allowed to move freely from one tribe to another, his travels taking him hundreds of miles from Brisbane. He had learnt the languages and customs of many tribes before he was found at Wide Bay in 1842 by Andrew Petrie and with difficulty assured that he could return safely to Brisbane as the convict settlement had ended. He had to relearn the English language and accustom himself again to work and clothes. He was employed at first by Dr Stephen Simpson, the land commissioner in Moreton Bay; later he set up as a blacksmith at Kangaroo Point. In 1864 he opened a crockery shop in George Street, Brisbane, where he made money, although literate enough only to sign his name. He had married Annie Shea on 3 November 1846. After her death in 1882, he married on 28 July 1883 Bridget Hayes, a widow of 49, born in Sligo, Ireland. He died on 7 May 1889.

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His rehabilitation into acquisitive society included reform; from his accumulated estate the Brisbane General Hospital received £750 in 1889 and another £1100 in 1911. He guided settlers to good land in the Wide Bay area, and some public benefit came from his thirteen years with the Aboriginals. He was occasionally employed as a court interpreter, and in 1866 petitioned the governor to raise his salary to the £20 paid to Chinese and German interpreters, but his request was refused. He gave descriptions of some Aboriginal rites, but remained stubbornly reticent about one supposedly obscene ceremony.

Select Bibliography H. S. Russell, The Genesis of Queensland (Syd, 1888); J. J. Knight, In the Early Days (Brisb, 1895); C. C. Petrie (ed), Tom Petrie's Reminiscences of Early Queensland (Brisb, 1904); Week, supplement to Telegraph (Brisbane), 11 May 1889; convict records (Queensland State Archives); Brisbane General Hospital records. More on the resources

Author: Arthur Laurie Transcribed from the newspaper Brisbane Courier, 9 May 1889, p.6

Death of an old identity A few days ago there passed away one whose name is associated with the earliest history of Queensland – namely, Mr. James Davis, generally known as “Durramboi.” His career included some of the strangest experiences that have ever fallen, perhaps, to any man in this colony, and are on a par with those of the once famous “Crusoe” of Victoria. Davis was born, as he told Mr. Stuart Russell, the author of the “Genesis of Queensland,” in 1824, his father being a blacksmith in the old Wynd, Glasgow, and was convicted and transported to Sydney and then sent on to the settlement of Moreton Bay. At this time the treatment of the unfortunate convicts was such that it induced Davis to abscond, preferring the privations and terrors of the bush to the hardships which were imposed by convict discipline. His absconding took place during the rule of Governor Logan, but the exact year is not ascertainable. Davis absconded in company with another convict, and together they reached Wide Bay, then a terra incognita; they soon fell in with a large tribe, by whom they were entertained hospitably. His companion, however, unfortunately profaned some of the rites shown to the dead by the tribe, and he was speared on the spot. The offence consisted in using one of the baskets in which the blacks placed the bones of their deceased relatives to carry oysters in, and Davis seems to have owed his life to a most curious chance. The blacks had observed that the few white men they fell in with from time to time invariably came from the sea, on the horizon of which the sun rose, and this, coupled by the effects produced by firearms, gave them the impression that the strangers were not ordinary beings, but the souls of deceased blackfellows returned from the sun. When a distinguished warrior died, honour was shown to his memory by eating the body, which was first scorched and then the outer was scrapped off with shells; when the process was complete the inner skin remained quite white.

A certain resemblance to a deceased warrior named “Durramboi” led the blacks to believe that Davis was the scraped body of the departed one reanimated, and Davis was adopted by Durramboi’s parents, and called by his name. He was momentarily in danger, when his ignorance of local customs betrayed him, and he was more than suspected of being an evil spirit. In the native superstitions, the spiritualistic and materialistic beliefs are so curiously combined that there seemed nothing strange to them in killing an evil spirit, and eating him afterwards.

Davis passed from tribe to tribe, and was recognized as the ghost of numberless dead blacks; but he always succeeded in explaining that it was so long since he died that he had forgotten his name and habitation. His frequent journeys enabled him to gain valuable information respecting the then unexplored territory north of Moreton Bay. Davis was found in 1842 by Mr. Andrew Petrie, the father of Mr. John Petrie, while on an exploring expedition up to Wide Bay and the Mary River. It had been discovered that Davis was with the blacks at this place, and he was induced to return by a man named Bracefield, who had also absconded and lived with the blacks, and who was found near the same place during the expedition. He was with a tribe numbering several hundreds; but when he was satisfied that he should not be illtreated on his return to Brisbane he consented to go. When he arrived in the camp of the whites he was naked, and to all appearances a wild man of the woods, having all the appearance and gestures of a wild black. He had forgotten his mother tongue, and for some time could use only a few incoherent words, garnished with the dialect of his tribe, which he spoke very fluently. For many years after his return he was employed as native interpreter to the Crown, so thoroughly was he versed in the language of the blacks. Lately, however, he kept a small crockery shop in George-street, but for some months before his death, which occurred on Tuesday last, he had relinquished business. His age was 65 years.

Disclaimer: This has been transcribed directly from the original document. Any mistakes are from the original document.

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The Life of James Davis alias Duramboi James Davis, it would appear, commenced work as an assistant to his father, a blacksmith in the Old Wynd, Glasgow, Scotland, and subsequently worked at his trade at the Broomielaw. "Like father like son" does not apply in the case in point, for while the father was a respectable tradesman his offspring was fond of getting into little scrapes. True in themselves these were small, but in time they multiplied and increased in magnitude, and eventually James's waywardness secured for him, at the age of 15 years, transportation to New South Wales. The particular offence in this case was the purloining of half-a-crown from a church in Surrey.

The Minstrel conveyed him to Botany Bay, where, probably owing in a great measure to the nature of his surroundings, he did not give much promise of reformation. He had not been long at Botany before he got into further trouble, and as a result was sent on to Moreton Bay, where he was taken in hand by Commandant Logan— truly a hard task-master. Whether or not Davis found him so is a point on which opinions differ, for while on one hand it is alleged that he was badly used, it is also stated that he was not whipped.

Davis was at all times very reticent, but it may fairly be assumed that something out of the ordinary must have occurred to cause him to face the blacks rather than be fettered by convict discipline. He was employed at the forge, and it was after he had worked here some months that he and his mate decided to abscond. And abscond they did, making their way to the northward. They had not been out long before the couple fell in with the blacks; but much to the astonishment of Davis, instead of their having to fight for their lives, the chief of the tribe fell on his neck and otherwise made a great fuss over him. In fact this was another case of tribal superstition—Davis was taken to be Duramboi, the long lost son of Pamby-Pamby. They believed he was Duramboi returned to life, having been "scraped," and thus become white.

Accordingly he was treated with marked respect, being supplied with an abundance of food. Davis's mate, however, was less fortunate, though he was not for some time killed. But he made a fatal mistake of emptying the mortal remains of a deceased blackfellow from a native basket which he found in a tree, and which he appropriated to carry oysters in, and he perished in expiation of this accidental act of sacrilege.

As must be supposed amid such strange surroundings it was some time before Davis could accustom himself to his new position, but he gradually picked up the languages of the several tribes and became very comfortable. Among other things he is said to have been an expert climber and a capital huntsman. Good as his position was in the tribe, however, he got into trouble, and trouble which might have ended very seriously for him. His offence was the accidental killing of his "mother's" dog—a crime almost as serious in the eyes of the blacks as that for which his companion had died. Davis could see his life was no longer in safety, and the question arose in his mind whether he should quit the camp or take such measures as would secure for him more authority.

To quit was not convenient; to fight not unattended by danger. After due consideration, however, he adopted the latter course, and on the first opportunity that presented itself set to and gave his "father," Pamby-Pamby, what a schoolboy would call "a jolly good hammering." His plan was highly successful, for he managed to put Pamby in bodily fear. At the same time he decided not to make friendly relationship impossible, and after the incident just recorded, exerted himself in procuring a plentiful supply of food. Thus he gradually wormed himself into the confidence and good graces of his "parents."

In his wanderings he was often mixed up in native feuds, and, as previously stated, when found by Mr. Petrie's party his body bore evidence of rough usage. When it is remembered that Davis pursued this wild life for fourteen years his condition may well be imagined. His frequent journeyings with his tribe however, enabled him, when he had regained sufficient of his mother-tongue to make himself understood, to impart valuable information respecting the unexplored territory north of Moreton Bay - information which was afterwards turned to useful account; while his knowledge of aboriginal dialects and customs was hardly less valuable.

On returning to the Settlement he and Bracefield received a well-deserved manumission and entered the service of Dr. Simpson, land commissioner, then residing at Woogaroo. The career of Bracefield was cut short by a falling tree while working for the doctor. Davis was set up by the Government as a blacksmith on Kangaroo Point, and afterwards assisted in opening up several roads (chief among which was the one to Gympie), and on several occasions distinguished himself in the search for lost white men.

Some years later he married, and in addition to his business on the Point he acted as Government interpreter. A veritable rolling stone he did not long remain here, for having built a small shop in George Street (the bricks for which, by the way, are alleged to have come from the old windmill) he settled down there as a crockeryware dealer, in which capacity most of our Brisbane readers will have known him. He resided there until his death, which occurred but a short time ago.

At one time, at the instigation of Mr. S. G. Mee of this town, overtures were made by Baron Mueller to Duramboi to join in a proposed expedition to search for remains of the explorer Leichhardt. He readily consented to act, and there is no doubt that had the trip been made his acquaintance with the country and with the manners of the blacks would have been of immense value. But Fate ruled otherwise. The funds available were not sufficiently large to warrant the expedition.

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John Graham (1800? - 1837?)

GRAHAM, JOHN (b.1800?), convict and 'wild white man', was convicted at the Dundalk Assizes, Ireland, on 4 March 1824 of having stolen six pounds and a quarter of hemp and sentenced to transportation for seven years.

He arrived in Sydney in the Hoogly in April 1825 and was assigned to John Raine, mill-owner of Parramatta, where he made friends with the Aboriginals and learned their ways of fishing and food-gathering. In October 1826 he was sentenced to seven years at Moreton Bay for petty theft and he was landed there in January 1827. In July he escaped into the bush, hoping to find a boat and go to China. For months he lived on game and fish and managed to avoid the Aboriginals but at length walked into one their camps. There he had the good fortune to be recognized by a widow as the ghost of her dead husband. She died within a year but Graham was accepted by the tribe, lived with them for six years and learned their language and ritual. In November 1833, however, he returned to Moreton Bay and gave himself up.

On 21 May 1836 the Stirling Castle, Captain James Fraser, bound from Sydney to Singapore was wrecked on Swain Reefs off the Queensland coast. In August news reached Moreton Bay that the captain's wife, Eliza Ann, and others of the ship's company were being held captive by Aboriginals. Graham volunteered to join a search party under Lieutenant Otter of the 4th Regiment. North of Wide Bay Graham went forward unarmed among the Aboriginals and on 13-15 August brought in three members of the crew and finally, on 17 August, Mrs Fraser, who had been stripped and enslaved by her captors. Otter praised the 'indefatigable exertions' of Graham who 'shunned neither danger nor fatigue'. It seems unlikely that the captives would have been recovered alive had it not been for Graham's knowledge of the Aboriginals and his coolness and guile.

In 1837 he was given a ticket-of-leave and ÂŁ10. Nothing is known of his later life.

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Light Rail on Fraser Island

A History of Fraser Island Tramways

As the Fraser Island Transport and Access study proceeded during 2001-02 interest in light rail on Fraser Island increased.

Many people would be unaware that light rail was used on Fraser Island by the timber industry from 1905 until about 1935 when it was displaced by motor transport. The Queensland Government (Environment Protection Agency) engaged consultant historian John Kerr, who has extensively researched Queensland's rail history, to prepare a "Forest Industry Heritage Places Study: Sawmills and Tramways South Eastern Queensland". This is an extract of a report he presented in January 1998.

There has only been one sawmill on Fraser Island, not particularly successful, but tramlines played an important part in logging the island prior to the adoption of motor trucks, as the sandy environment was a difficult one for bullock and horse teams, particularly the lack of feed.

There were three main tramlines built on the island, all running to the west coast which not only suited the Maryborough sawmills, it was a practical necessity as the sharp descent from the high dunes to the eastern coastline made the west coast the only practical destination for logging operations. The northern tramline ran to a log dump near Bogimbah Creek and was eight miles long with two branch lines each about three miles long. The central tramline ran to McKenzie's sawmill and wharf at White Cliffs, and was about six miles long with a terminus near Lake McKenzie and had two short branches. The third line roughly followed Woongoolver Creek, also ending at a log dump. There is some doubt whether an early horse-hauled wooden-railed tramline to a loading ramp near Deep Creek was actually built. The main three tramlines were steel-railed and operated by locomotives of three foot six inch gauge.

Timber getting on Fraser Island lasted for more than a century from the late 1860s. Three parties of timber getters were at work in the Aboriginal Protection Areas of the island in 1869 "with the full approval of the Lands Department".

Wilson Hart and Co. had timber getters on Fraser Island by 1877.

After the success of the Cooloola tramway, the Maryborough Chronicle reported in 1876 that Pettigrew and Company intended to lay a tramway across Fraser Island to the rafting ground in Hervey Bay to tap the stands of Kauri pine near the eastern side of the island.30 Apparently the idea was dropped, possibly because Pettigrew could not secure tenure over sufficient resources to justify construction.

Considerable effort was put into establishing pine plantations on the island for regeneration but without much success.

Wilson Hart and Hyne had seven miles of steel tramway and steam locomotive by mid 1906 and were proposing another mile and a half extension.

The first tramway was built about 1906 from the beach at Yerang Creek using grade of 1 in 16 and a 28 tonne ex-Queensland Railways tank engine. It tapped the Poyungan and Bogimbah Creek area. By 1909 the tramway was reported as 10 miles long.

The rails were moved to Woongoolba Creek about 1915 and closed around 1928.

The new line had been laid by 1921 when visitors were reported as being taken on the company's "engine and tender" four miles to the forest station [Central Station]. A survey had been made in 1920 of both road and tramway five miles to Ungowa but the road option was built in 1922 despite the lack of herbage for teams.

In time motor lorries overcame the feed problem. Postan's logging camp, which operated from 1935 to the close of logging in 1991, was the base for logging contractors. Initially Neville Smith and A.R. Postan used a variety of equipment. Postan, the former employee, bought out Smith in 1940. Much of the equipment remained on the island until it was superseded.

Improvisation and adaptation were key elements.

After the original railway was put out of use, 8 1/2 miles of tramway was sold by Hyne and Sons to Moreton Mill in 1922.

Note, however, that if the second line operated until 1928, the 1922 sale of rails means that Wilson Hart and Hyne laid the second line before the first was lifted.

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Forestry purchased McKenzie's tramline and wharf in 1925/26 for £5,000. The Department sold the rails from McKenzie's tramway in 1935 and the locomotive in 1941.

In 1918 Hepburn McKenzie, a large New South Wales timber merchant, contracted to buy the timber off 10,000 acres of Fraser Island harvesting 100,000 super feet per month from 1 April 1919 for ten years, building a sawmill at the Quarantine Reserve, White Cliffs and a tramline system.

The venture was not particularly successful and in 1921 H. McKenzie (Queensland) Limited was registered to acquire the rights under the 28 March 1918 agreement with the State Director of Forests. It was registered in Brisbane on 24 June 1921. Most of the shares were held by H. McKenzie Limited, the parent company, and the company's unprofitability presumably made sale to the public impracticable. In 1925 the shares were written down to one third of their face value. In 1926, after auction of the mill and sale of the tramway and wharf to the Forestry Board, it was resolved to wind up the company voluntarily.

The company found it difficult to sell the timber in Queensland, with local prejudice against using turpentine and brush box as commercial timbers and had to sell its output in Sydney, necessitating expensive added transport costs. With the cost of using watersiders from Maryborough for loading, it lost around £100,000 on the whole venture.

Philadelphia Hanley applied to the Under Secretary for Lands in June 1906 to lease timber land so he could enter a contract to export 250,000 sleepers from Fraser Island. Essentially he wanted a concession which he could then offer to an investor.

McMahon, Director of Forests, wanted proof that Hanley held a contract already. An area of 14 square miles was put aside, to the west and south west of the area already set aside to the Wilson Hart-Hyne joint venture. Wilson Hart and Company wrote on 12 July to the Minister pointing out that the timber on the island was nearly all suitable for milling, needed to supply the Maryborough mills, and should not be sacrificed for railway sleepers. They pointed out that species such as turpentine, box and others should not be so used until proved unsuitable for milling.

Gilbert Burnett, the Forest Ranger, accompanied Hanley to the area near the heads of Urang, Boyungan, Bun Bun and Doondonga Creeks, an area with large amounts of Blackbutt and Turpentine and some tallowwood, and added that most of the old trees were "piped" and only suitable for sleepers.

Hanley planned to load into punts at the mouth of Boyungan Creek.

Hyne and Son wrote on 16 July 1906 to state that the tramway was now in operation and would, when complete, be eight miles long, longer and more expensive that they and Wilson Hart had expected. They applied for another block to help them recover the cost.

McMahon went to Fraser before agreeing to auction the timber Hanley wanted. The conditions required the removal of half a million super feet in the first year and a million feet per year subsequently, conditions that Hyne and Son, writing on 29 August, considered too severe for them to meet, although they wanted to bid, having had to build 8 1/2 rather than the five miles of tramline they had expected.

Hanley offered one shilling per hundred super feet, double the upset price, he and Thomas Griffiths being the only bidders.

Hanley took four months to put up the required £250 bond, and failed to start work. Because of the way the terms were written, the Department could not even recover the bond and the surety admitted he had no assets. Hanley was not to be found.

From Railways Historical Society Queensland Division’s newsletter, "Sunshine Express".

NOTE: Some other tramlines, including a line through Pile Valley, do not appear on this map.

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T.S.S. “Maheno”

The Maheno has breasted the swell of the South Pacific for the last time; on the sands of Fraser Island, off the Australian Coast, the remains of her once familiar hulk are being slowly pounded by the waves she so often conquered. But in the hearts of many people the world over, she still holds a warm spot; as a participant in the Dominion's economic development her name holds a proud place in New Zealand history.

Built at the Clyde yards of Wm. Denny & Bros., Dumbarton, a firm which has constructed so many well-known ships of the Union Company's fleet, the Maheno was launched in September, 1905. A steel ship of 5,323 gross tons and 6,000 Indicated H.P. developed by direct turbines and three propellers, she had a length of 400 feet, beam 50 feet, and depth 33 feet 6 inches. On the trial trip she ran 17.5 knots. The Maheno had the distinction of being the first turbine steamer to cross the Pacific, and she was only the second to arrive in Australia, the first being the Loongana, built by Dennys in 1904 for the Melbourne-Launceston service.

The Maheno’s arrival in Australia caused somewhat of a sensation. After a fast run across the Australian Bight, her engineers prepared her at Melbourne for a speed test to Sydney. On the 14th November, 1905, she swung into Port Jackson, having completed the 570-mile run from Melbourne in the record time of 29 hours 54 minutes. Not content with this performance, she immediately left Sydney and crossed to Wellington (1,189 miles) in the phenomenal time of two days 23 hours. It is only in recent years that the Maheno’s figures have been lowered, and that was by the Monowai, and within the last month by the new liner, Awatea. The Tahiti, which was one of the Union Co.'s fastest turbines, never came within less than an hour of the Maheno’s time.

Up till the Maheno's arrival, the record for the run across Cook Strait from Wellington to Lyttelton was held by the Union Co.'s ocean greyhound of former days, the Rotomahana, with 10 hours 35 minutes for the 173 miles. On the 15th December, 1905, the Maheno slipped across in 9 hours 11 minutes, a record which stood for many years, but which has now been lowered by both the Wahine and the Rangatira, and also by H.M.S. Dunedin and H.M.S. Diomede.

With performances such as these to her credit, the Maheno's entry, in 1906, into the Vancouver-Auckland-Sydney service was naturally a notable one. For years she ran with the greatest regularity, at times on the All-Red route to Vancouver, and at other times on the San Francisco run.

The Maheno is probably best remembered for her War-time service as one of His Majesty's New Zealand Hospital Ships. In 1915 the people of New Zealand subscribed a fund for the purpose of fitting out a hospital ship for use in the Gallipoli Campaign, and for bringing back badly wounded soldiers to New Zealand. For this purpose was required a ship which was fast enough to avoid possible merchant-ship enemy craft, was a comfortable seaboat, and on which the wards would be airy and well-ventilated.

The Maheno was selected as being the most suitable vessel available, and the task of re-fitting her was commenced. The then Governor-General, Lord Liverpool, was personally interested in this work, and no effort or expense was spared in ensuring that her equipment was complete, and that the wounded soldiers she was to carry would have the very best of comfort and attention.

The Maheno received five different charters during her War service. On the 11th July, 1915, commenced the first charter, when she steamed slowly out of Wellington Harbour on her way to Anzac. After 10 weeks' work at Anzac and in the Mediterranean, the ship proceeded to England, returning again after having been placed in dry dock. At Mudros it was necessary to repair the X-ray equipment, which had been damaged during a severe storm in the Bay of Biscay.

Leaving there the Maheno picked up and took in tow a disabled hospital barge, arriving at Anzac once more on the 11th November. Here the ship filled up with patients and left for Alexandria, where orders were received to proceed to New Zealand. At Port Said a full complement of New Zealand patients was embarked. After an uneventful voyage, the Maheno arrived at Auckland on New Year's Day, 1916, and proceeded to disembark patients there, and at Wellington, Lyttelton and Dunedin.

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On the 26th January, 1916, the ship left Wellington on her second charter, arriving back again about the middle of April with 326 invalids. On the 28th April she left Port Chalmers and proceeded to Southampton. For about four months, the Maheno was employed between French and English ports transporting British wounded who were arriving in train loads from the big Somme offensive. On these trips the ship was filled from stem to stern, the decks having been converted into wards by the hanging of canvas screens all round the ship. The usual complement was over 1,000 patients. After embarking 380 New Zealand sick and wounded, the ship left Southampton on the 28th October, and had an uneventful voyage home, arriving in Auckland just before Christmas. On the ship's return to England, the great offensive in the West had just begun. The Maheno had a busy time, crossing the channel 40 times. The constant danger from enemy mines and the frequent altering of the course through the presence of the British minefields, made navigation of the 120 miles from port to port a strenuous and trying task, which placed a heavy strain on the sailing staff of the ship. The Marama, which had by this time been commissioned as a hospital ship, was also engaged on this work; and during this period the Maheno was occasionally in port alongside the famous Cunard Transatlantic liner, Aquitania, which was the largest hospital ship afloat.

On the 18th January, 1917, the Maheno was re-commissioned at Lyttelton on her third charter. After some work in Mesopotamia, she arrived at Liverpool in March. The weather was intensely cold, icicles hanging everywhere. After embarking 379 sick and wounded the ship sailed for Auckland. Through the carelessness of the pilot, the ship ran aground in the Suez Canal, and was stuck fast in the mud for about 17 hours. After three weeks at Port Chalmers overhauling and refitting, the Maheno left on the 30th May for England via South Africa. The day before sailing, orders were received that, in accordance with War Office instructions, no nurses were to be carried on Hospital Ships, and the nursing staff, very reluctantly, had to leave the ship. At Sierra Leone a raider was encountered, but was easily shaken off. Throughout her commission, the Maheno received a number of messages regarding enemy raiders, but the crew were happy in the knowledge that no merchant ship raider could catch the Maheno. On the 8th August, 378 patients were embarked and the ship sailed for New Zealand via Panama, arriving at Auckland on the 16th September, having established a world's record of actual steaming time from New Zealand to New Zealand round the world in 76 days 12 hours.

The fourth charter commenced on the 20th October, 1917, when the ship left Port Chalmers for England via South Africa, arriving back in Auckland on January 18th, 1918.

Leaving again on the 1st March, she arrived back at the end of May. On the 7th July, the ship left Port Chalmers, on the fifth charter, for England via Suez, arriving back in New Zealand on the 20th October. Leaving again on the 15th December for Southampton, the ship returned via Panama to New Zealand, arriving on the 22nd April, 1919. Port Chalmers was reached on the 26th April, and here the vessel's last commission in His Majesty's service ended when she was placed in dry dock for re-fitting prior to being handed back to the Union Steamship Company.

Since the War, the Maheno was engaged mainly on the inter-colonial service. In 1929, when a weekly Dunedin-BluffMelbourne service was recommenced, she was placed on this run in conjunction with the Manuka. This ill-fated service was short-lived, and ceased when the Manuka was unfortunately wrecked at Long Point in December, 1929. In January, 1931, the Maheno was laid up at Port Chalmers, where, on account of the prevailing depressed shipping conditions, she remained for nearly four years. The Melbourne Centenary celebrations gave an incentive to the re-establishment of the Dunedin-Bluff-Melbourne service, and the Maheno was re-commissioned for this purpose. After an extensive overhaul and re-fit, she presented a bright and gleaming spectacle as she left Port Chalmers on October 30th, 1934, on her first voyage in the revived service—but it was to be a term of short duration.

Good ships, like all good servants, must one day retire, and in June, 1935, after nearly 30 years' valuable service, an announcement was made that the Maheno had been sold to shipbreakers in Japan. Thus, on the 3rd July the vessel, stripped of most fittings, left Sydney on her last voyage. It was also her last battle with the elements, for in a hurricane off the Queensland Coast, she broke her moorings and piled-up on Fraser Island.

In the Carillon at Wellington the ship's bell and nameplate may be viewed, two appreciated souvenirs of one of the pioneer greyhounds of the Pacific.

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Fraser Island Fauna

Brahminy Kite (Haliastur Indus) The Brahminy Kite (Haliastur indus), also known as the Red-backed Seaeagle, is a medium-sized bird of prey in the family Accipitridae, which also includes many other diurnal raptors such as eagles, buzzards and harriers. They are found primarily in the Indian subcontinent, Southeast Asia and Australia.

Description The Brahminy Kite is distinctive and contrastingly coloured, with chestnut plumage except for the white head and breast and black wing tips. The juveniles are browner, but can be distinguished from both the resident and migratory races of Black Kite in Asia by the paler appearance, shorter wings and rounded tail. The pale patch on the underwing carpal region is of a squarish shape and separated from Buteo buzzards.

The Brahminy Kite is about the same size as the Black Kite and has a typical kite flight, with wings angled, but its tail is rounded unlike the Milvus species, Red Kite and Black Kite, which have forked tails. The two genera are however very close. The call is a mewing keeyew.

Distribution and status This kite is a familiar sight in the skies of Sri Lanka, India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and southeast Asia and as far south as New South Wales, Australia, through which region it is widespread and resident.

They perform seasonal movements associated with rainfall in some parts of their range.

They are mainly seen in the plains but can sometimes occur above 5000 feet in the Himalayas.

It is evaluated as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.

However the species is on the decline in some parts such as Java.

Behaviour The breeding season in South Asia is from December to April. In southern and eastern Australia, it is August to October, and April to June in the north and wet.

The nests are constructed of small branches and sticks with a bowl inside and lines with leaves, and are sited in various trees, often mangroves. They show considerable site fidelity nesting in the same area year after year. In some rare instances they have been seen to nest on the ground under trees A clutch of two dull white or bluish-white oval eggs measuring 52 x 41 mm is laid.The nests are constructed of small branches and sticks with a bowl inside and lines with leaves, and are sited in various trees, often mangroves. It is mainly a scavenger, feeding mainly on dead fish and crabs, especially in wetlands and marshland but occasionally hunts live prey such as hares and bats.

Young birds may indulge in play behaviour, dropping leaves and attempting to catch them in the air. When fishing over water, they may sometimes land in the water but manage to swim and take off without much trouble.

They roost communally on large and isolated trees and as many as 600 have been seen at just one location.

They may mob larger raptors such as the Aquila eagles. In some incidents where Brahminy Kites mobbed Steppe Eagles (Aquila rapax), they were attacked and injured or killed.

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White bellied Sea Eagle (Haliaeetus leucogaster) The White-bellied Sea-eagle (Haliaeetus leucogaster), also known as the White-bellied Fish-eagle or White-breasted Sea Eagle, is a large diurnal bird of prey in the family Accipitridae. It is closely related to other eagles, kites, hawks, harriers and Old World vultures.

It is resident from India through southeast Asia to Australia on coasts and major waterways. It is a distinctive bird. The adult has white head, breast, under-wing coverts and tail. The upper parts are grey and the black under-wing flight feathers contrast with the white coverts.

The tail is short and wedge-shaped as in all Haliaeetus species.

Description The White-bellied Sea-eagle is one of the largest raptors in Southeast Asia, and the second largest bird of prey in Australia after the Wedge-tailed Eagle (Aquila audax) which stands up to 1 m.

The sea eagle is white on the head, rump and underparts and dark grey on the back and wings. In flight the black flight feathers on the wings are easily seen when the bird is viewed from below. The large, hooked bill is a lead bluegrey with a darker tip, and the eye is dark brown. The cere is also lead grey. The legs and feet are yellow or grey, with long black talons (claws). The sexes are similar. Males are 70–80 cm (28–32 in) and weigh 1.8–3 kg (4–6.6 lb).

Females are slightly larger, at 80–90 cm (32–36 in) and 2.5–4.5 kg (5.5–10 lb). The wingspan ranges from 1.8 to 2.2 m (6–7 ft). They soar on thermals holding their wings in a 'V' shape, unlike other raptors who hold them horizontally.

Young Sea-eagles in their first year are predominantly brown. Their plumage becomes more infiltrated with white until they acquire the complete adult plumage by their fourth or fifth year. The loud "goose-like" honking call is a familiar sound, particularly during the breeding season; pairs often honk in unison.

Adult birds are unmistakable and unlikely to be confused with any other bird. Immature White-bellied Sea Eagles could be confused with Wedge-tailed Eagles. However the plumage of the latter is darker, the tail longer and the legs feathered.

Distribution and habitat The White-bellied Sea-eagles are found from Bangladesh, India and Sri Lanka, through all of coastal Southeast Asia including Burma, Thailand, Malaysia Indonesia, Indochina, the Philippines and southern China including Hong Kong, and into New Guinea and northeast to the Bismarck Archipelago, and Australia. In the north Solomons, it is restricted to Nissan Island, and replaced elsewhere by Sanford's Sea-eagle. They are a common sight in coastal areas, but may also be seen well inland. Birds are often seen perched high in a tree, or soaring over waterways and adjacent land.

Behaviour Birds form permanent pairs that inhabit territories throughout the year.

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Osprey (Pandion haliaetus) The Osprey (Pandion haliaetus), sometimes known as the sea hawk, is a diurnal, fish-eating bird of prey. It is a large raptor, reaching 60 centimetres (24 in) in length with a 2m wingspan. It is brown on the upperparts and predominantly greyish on the head and underparts, with a black eye patch and wings.

The Osprey tolerates a wide variety of habitats, nesting in any location near a body of water providing an adequate food supply. It is found on all continents except Antarctica although in South America it occurs only as a non-breeding migrant.

As its other common name suggests, the Osprey's diet consists almost exclusively of fish. It has evolved specialised physical characteristics and exhibits unique behaviour to assist in hunting and catching prey. As a result of these unique characteristics, it has been given its own taxonomic genus, Pandion and family, Pandionidae. Four subspecies are usually recognised. Despite its propensity to nest near water, the Osprey is not a sea-eagle.

Description The Osprey is 0.9–2.1 kilograms (2.0–4.6 lb) in weight and 50– 66 centimetres (20–26 in) long with a 127–180 centimetres (4.2–6 ft) wingspan. The upperparts are a deep, glossy brown, while the breast is white and sometimes streaked with brown, and the underparts are pure white. The head is white with a dark mask across the eyes, reaching to the sides of the neck. The irises of the eyes are golden to brown, and the transparent nictitating membrane is pale blue. The bill is black, with a blue cere, and the feet are white with black talons. A short tail and long, narrow wings with four long, finger-like feathers, and a shorter fifth, give it a very distinctive appearance.

The sexes appear fairly similar, but the adult male can be distinguished from the female by its slimmer body and narrower wings. The breast band of the male is also weaker than that of the female, or is non-existent, and the underwing coverts of the male are more uniformly pale. It is straightforward to determine the sex in a breeding pair, but harder with individual birds.

The juvenile Osprey may be identified by buff fringes to the plumage of the upperparts, a buff tone to the underparts, and streaked feathers on the head. During spring, barring on the underwings and flight feathers is a better indicator of a young bird, due to wear on the upperparts. In flight, the Osprey has arched wings and drooping "hands", giving it a gull-like appearance. The call is a series of sharp whistles, described as cheep, cheep or yewk, yewk. If disturbed by activity near the nest, the call is a frenzied cheereek!

Distribution and habitat The Osprey has a worldwide distribution and is found in temperate and tropical regions of all continents except Antarctica. In North America it breeds from Alaska and Newfoundland south to the Gulf Coast and Florida, wintering further south from the southern United States through to Argentina. It is found in summer throughout Europe north into Scandinavia and Scotland, though not Iceland, and winters in North Africa. In Australia it is mainly sedentary and found patchily around the coastline, though it is a non-breeding visitor to eastern Victoria and Tasmania. There is a 1000 km gap, corresponding with the coast of the Nullarbor Plain, between its westernmost breeding site in South Australia and the nearest breeding sites to the west in Western Australia.

In the islands of the Pacific it is found in the Bismarck Islands, Solomon Islands and New Caledonia, and fossil remains of adults and juveniles have been found in Tonga, where it probably was wiped out by arriving humans. It is possible it may once have ranged across Vanuatu and Fiji as well. It is an uncommon to fairly common winter visitor to all parts of South Asia, and Southeast Asia from Myanmar through to Indochina and southern China, Indonesia, Malaysia and the Philippines.

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Pied Oystercatcher (Haematopus longirostris) This species is not to be confused with the Eurasian oystercatcher (a.k.a. ‘common pied oystercatcher’).

The Pied Oystercatcher, Haematopus longirostris, is a species of oystercatcher. It is a wading bird native to Australia and commonly found on its coastline. The similar South Island Pied Oystercatcher (H. finschi) occurs in New Zealand.

Description The name "oystercatcher" is something of a misnomer for this species, because they seldom eat oysters, which are found mainly on rocky coastlines. Pied Oystercatchers frequent sandy coastines, where they feed mainly on bivalve molluscs, which are prised apart with their specially adapted bill.

This Australian species is easily recognized by the characteristic 5–8 cm long orange-red beak, slender pink legs and black and white plumage. With the wings extended, a white wing-stripe is also visible. The male and female show little differentiation, except that the males generally sport a shorter, wider beak.

Lesser Crested Tern (Thalasseus bengalensis) The Lesser Crested Tern (Thalasseus bengalensis, syn. Sterna bengalensis - see Bridge et al., 2005) is a seabird of the tern family Sternidae. It breeds in subtropical coastal parts of the world mainly from the Red Sea across the Indian Ocean to the western Pacific, and Australia, with a significant population on the southern coast of the Mediterranean on two islands off the Libyan coast. Accidental breeding has also been reported in Italy and France. The Australian birds are probably sedentary, but other populations are migratory, wintering south to South Africa.

Like all Thalasseus terns, Lesser Crested Tern feeds by plunge-diving for fish, usually from saline environments. It usually dives directly, and not from the "stepped-hover" favoured by Arctic Tern. The offering of fish by the male to the female is part of the courtship display.

Description This is a medium-large tern, very similar in size and general appearance to its three very close relatives Sandwich Tern, Elegant Tern and Chinese Crested Tern. The summer adult has a black cap, black legs and a long sharp orange bill. The upperwings, rump and central tail feathers are grey and the underparts white. The primary flight feathers darken during the summer. In winter, the forehead becomes white. The call is a loud grating noise.

The grey rump is a useful flight identification feature distinguishing it from the related species.

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The Fraser Island Short-necked Turtle (undescribed chelid turtle) The Fraser Island Short-necked Turtle is an undescribed chelid turtle in the genus Emydura, with close affinities to Krefft's river Turtle, Emydura krefftii. Whether it should be accorded specific or subspecific status is difficult to determine, as with most insular forms.

The Fraser Island turtles differ from those of the mainland in colouration (they are melanistic), in body size (they are dwarfed) and in several key ecological attributes (size at maturity, dimorphism, reproductive parameters). Whether these differences are phenotypic responses to differing environmental conditions or proximally determined by genetic factors is not known.

Even if they are principally genetic, the differences between the island and mainland forms may be no greater than would be expected of allopatric populations of a polytypic species. A decision on the status of the Fraser Island Short-necked Turtle awaits detailed morphological and possibly molecular comparisons with its mainland relatives.

Description The Fraser Island Short-necked Turtle has only a moderately long neck in comparison with some other Australian chelids -- the head and neck combined is much shorter than the shell. The head lacks the horny casque typical of Elseya and the temporal region is smooth. There are five claws on each of the webbed forelimbs and four claws on each of the webbed hindlimbs. The gular shields of the plastron are entirely separated by the intergular, and the latter does not come into contact with the pectorals. A cervical shield is typically present. The above suite of characters places the form firmly within the genus Emydura.

The carapace, limbs and other extremities are typically very dark, almost black.

The plastron is white, cream or grey. Most specimens lack the cream or yellow stripe behind the eye present in many mainland Emydura, though there is usually a creamy yellow stripe extending from along the lower jaw to the side of the neck to just below the tympanum. In some populations on Fraser island, a proportion of turtles have mottled carapaces with dark blotches on a deep brown background (e.g. Lake Garrawongera, Lake Birrabeen). In Lake McKenzie, some have the light brown carapaces and juveniles often have a distinct yellow stripe behind the eye, both features more typical of the mainland Emydura krefftii.

Males and females are sexually dimorphic with the most obvious differences in the tail. .. The tails of mature males are longer much more muscular, necessary for successful copulation. .There are differences in the shell also.

Females become much deeper in the shell and broader in the head as they grow, than do males.

Distribution The Fraser Island short-necked turtle is restricted in range to Fraser Island.

Fraser Island is the largest sand dune island in the world with a length of 124 km and a maximum width of 24 km. At its highest point, it is 240 m above sea level (Whitehouse, 1968). It lies off the Queensland coast between latitudes 24|o|40' and 25|o|50' South and longitudes 152|o|55' and 153|o|20' East. Fraser Island is well endowed with freshwater lakes, and is one of the few areas in Australia, outside the central plateau of Tasmania and the western district of Victoria, that might be considered a lakes district.

The turtles have been found in Lakes Allom, Benaroon, Birrabeen, Boemingen, Boomerang, Bowarrady, Coomboo, Freshwater, Garawongera, Hidden, Jennings, MacKenzie, Ocean and Wabby on Fraser Island. They probably inhabit all of the permanent dune lakes of the island. A single shell closely matching those from Fraser Island in shape and colour was found in Cooloola National Park on the adjacent mainland. The species does not occur in Freshwater Lake at Cooloola.

Population Status Lake Coomboo, where the turtles have been intensively studied (Georges, 1982b) had an estimated population size of 718 +/- 14 turtles of which 668 were captured and marked. This indicates that the Fraser Island short-neck is not currently endangered by low population sizes. However, it should be considered rare in the sense of an extremely limited distribution and narrow habitat requirements.

Habitat The Fraser Island short-necked turtle inhabits only permanent dune lakes and is not found in the numerous permanent streams or ephemeral ponds and swamps of the island. .

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Diet The Fraser Island short-neck is omnivorous. Plant food consists principally of the freshly sprouted shoots of sedges exposed when the turtles dig in the sand at the base of these plants. Filamentous algae and the bladderwort. were found in substantial quantities in a few individuals inhabiting tea coloured lakes. In clear lakes, filamentous algae was much more abundant, and formed a major component of the diets of turtles there. Animal foods included caddisfly larvae, midge larvae and pupae, dragonfly nymphs, decapod crustaceans. Mayfly nymphs, damselfly nymphs, alderfly larvae and beetle larvae were also present in the stomachs of a few individuals. Terrestrial foods, insects that fell upon the water, were important components in the diet, especially for smaller turtles. There is a distinct shift in diet with age, with small juveniles feeding almost exclusively on small insect larvae and crustaceans while larger turtles turn to vegetation and larger varieties of insect larvae and crustacean. The diets of mature males and females of the same size do not differ appreciably.

Reproduction Males mature at an age of about seven to ten years. Females mature at a carapace length of about 150 to 155 mm long, at an age of seven or eight years.

Ovulations occur from late winter to mid-summer and any developed follicles remaining in late summer are resorbed. Up to three clutches of hard-shelled ellipsoid eggs are laid per season. There are few data on the nesting. The distribution of nests disturbed by predators indicates that the turtles nest fairly close to water (typically less than 40 m) in open sandy patches. Nesting activity is greatest following rain.

Activity and Growth The turtles are diurnally active, with peaks of activity in morning and afternoon, especially in the warmer months.

Although active throughout the year, the turtles have a seasonal cycle of activity, most pronounced in small turtles, that bears a direct relationship to environmental temperature. Growth also correlates well with the annual cycles of day length and ambient temperatures. Growth ceases in winter, even though the turtles remain active and feed in all months. Growth rates are poorly correlated with size, so it is impossible to calculate a satisfactory relationship between size and age. In general juveniles grow much faster than adults, and females grow faster than males.

Population Dynamics A marked population of 668 turtles in Lake Coomboo (153 mature females, 142 mature males) has the potential to produce 3532 offspring in a single year. This potential is not realized because some mature females fail to produce the maximum number of eggs within their capability, and because of devastatingly high mortality on eggs and hatchlings. Desiccation and predation (goannas, dingoes, water rats) were likely causes of this mortality. Once in the water, mortality of turtles of all sizes appears to be very low. Populations are probably sustained by a tricklefeed recruitment, possible only because of the longevity of adult turtles.

Threats to Survival The Fraser Island Short-necked turtle is not directly threatened by activities such as harvesting or trade, but should be considered vulnerable because of the fragility of its habitat. Dune lakes, as closed oligotrophic systems, are considered to be particularly sensitive to disturbance in their catchments. Natural events such as rainfall and fire influence the flow of nutrients and other materials into the lakes where it accumulates and presumably influences production.

Turtle or Tortoise... what's the difference?

The turtle family is called Testudinae and is part of the reptiles group. All of them have a beak called a tomia instead of teeth. They all have a shell. The top part of the shell is called a carapace. The underneath part of the shell covers the belly and is called a plastron. The shell is part of the animal's body and does not come off. Some turtles have a soft leathery shell, but most have hard shells.

There are 3 groups of turtles: Turtles generally spend most of their time in the water. Sea turtles have flipper-like legs.

Tortoises spend most of their time on the land. Their legs and feet are very club-like, with claws.

There are also terrapins, which spend equal amount of time on land and in the water.

In Australia, there are native turtles but no tortoises.

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Lace monitor (Varanus varius) The Lace Monitor, or Lace Goanna, Varanus varius, is a member of the monitor lizard family, Australian members of which are commonly known as goannas.

Lace Monitors, are also known as Lace Goannas in Australia and are the secondlargest monitor in Australia after the Perentie. They can be as long as 2.1 metres (over 6ft 10ins) with a head and body length of up to 76.5 cm (2½ ft). The tail is long and slender and about 1.5 times the length of the head and body. Maximum weight of lace monitor can be 20 kg.(44lb), but most adults are much smaller.

These common terrestrial and often arboreal monitors are found in eastern Australia and range from Cape Bedford on Cape York Peninsula to south-eastern South Australia. They frequent both open and closed forests and forage over long distances (up to 3 km a day).

They are mainly active from September to May, but are inactive in cooler weather and shelter in a tree hollow or under a fallen tree or large rock.

The females lay from 4 to 14 eggs in spring or summer in termite nests. They frequently attack the large composting nests of Scrub Turkeys to steal their eggs, and often show injuries on their tails inflicted by male Scrub Turkeys pecking at them to drive them away.

Their diet typically consists of insects, reptiles, small mammals, birds and birds' eggs. They are also carrion eaters, feeding on already dead carcasses of other wildlife. Lace monitors will also forage in areas inhabited by people, raiding chicken coops for poultry and eggs, rummaging through unprotected domestic garbage bags, and trash cans in picnic and recreational areas.

Like all Australian goannas, they were a favourite traditional food of Australian Aboriginal peoples and their fat was particularly valued as a medicine and for use in ceremonies.

Patterning Lace monitors are found in two broad forms. The main form is dark grey to dull blueish black with numerous scattered cream spots. The snout is marked with prominent black and yellow bands extending under the chin and neck. The tail has narrow black and cream bands which are narrow and get wider towards the end of the tail.

The other type, known as "Bells Form", is found in dryer parts of NSW and Queensland. It has simple broad black and yellow bands across the whole body and tail.

Venom In late 2005, University of Melbourne researchers discovered that Perenties (Varanus giganteus) and other lizards, may be somewhat venomous. Previously, it had been thought that bites inflicted by these lizards were simply prone to infection because of bacteria in the lizards' mouths, but these researchers have shown that the immediate effects may be caused by mild envenomation. Bites on human digits by a Lace Monitor, a Komodo Dragon and a Spotted Tree Monitor have been observed and all produced similar results in humans: rapid swelling within minutes, localised disruption of blood clotting, shooting pain up to the elbow, with some symptoms lasting for several hours.

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Striped Rocketfrog or Rocket Frog (Litoria nasuta) Description This frog can be red-brown or yellow-brown on its back, usually with two longitudinal lines of darker warts, ridges and skin folds. This frog has extremely long legs and is very streamlined.

A wide dark stripe runs from the snout, through the eye and tympanum (tight membrane covering the entrance to the ear), and breaks up into a series of blotches along the side. This dark stripe is broken by a pale bar in front of the eye and another in front of the arm. A pale stripe also runs from underneath the eye to the base of the arm. The tympanum has a pale rim. The backs of the thighs are yellow with dark brown lines. The belly is whitish and granular. The finger and toe pads are small and the toes are half webbed. Grows to 50 mm.

This frog lives in open forests and Melaleuca swamps. It is often found near streams, ponds, waterholes and flooded grassy areas.

Breeding Males call from spring to early autumn and breeding increases after heavy rain. Call is a fast ‘wik wik wik’. Eggs are laid in clusters in shallow water, either attached to vegetation or free floating. They usually sink after a disturbance. Tadpoles are medium sized and dark olive-brown, with a pale stripe running down the base of the spine and onto the tail.

Cane Toad (Bufo marinus) Description This very large amphibian has a grey, olive, brown or red-brown body. Juveniles of this species also have darker patches and markings. The belly is whitish with a yellow tinge and brown flecks. The skin on the back is very warty and there are large parotoid glands behind the eyes. The belly is granular. The toes are fully webbed. Will grow to 150 mm.

The Cane Toad is found in many habitats including forests, woodlands, grasslands, beach dunes, suburban gardens and other cleared areas. It is a very adaptable species that quickly out numbers other native animals when it colonises new areas.

Cane Toads are poisonous at all stages of their life cycle - egg, tadpole and adult.

Breeding Males call from spring to autumn and breeding increases after rain. Call is a "purring" sound. Eggs are black and laid in long strings of jelly, which are often caught in vegetation. A female can lay between 8000 and 25 000 eggs at one time. Tadpoles are small and black. They are known for their schooling behaviour as huge numbers of them move together, like a black carpet, in water bodies. Cane Toad tadpoles eat other tadpoles dead or alive.

Clicking Froglet (Crinia signifera) Description Also known as the Common Eastern Froglet, Common Froglet or Signifera Froglet.

The colour patterns of this frog vary a lot between individuals. They can range from black through shades of brown to grey. The patterning on the back can be light coloured with black sides; grey to brown with dark patches; a dark band down the spine with bordering brown and grey stripes and light coloured with an incomplete band down the spine between longitudinal skinfolds and black sides The throat and chest of males is dark grey to brown. The belly is granular and blotched black and white. The skin on the back varies in texture from smooth to warty and may even have raised folds like ridges. The fingers and toes have no webbing. Will grow to 30 mm.

This frog is found in almost all habitats including wet schlerophyll forests, grasslands, disturbed areas and sometimes surburban ponds. It is always associated with water.

Breeding Males call nearly all year round but choruses of males are usually heard during and after rain. Call is a rapid repeated ‘crick…crick...crick…crick’. Females lay up to 150 eggs in shallow water. Eggs are laid singly and are either attached to vegetation or roll around on the substrate. Eggs may cluster together when several are laid at one time. Tadpoles are small and vary in colouration. Some individuals have lots of gold clusters over a dark background while others are entirely sandy gold in colour.

These tadpoles can also be dark in colour or grey with dark mottling.

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Greenstripe Frog or Striped Burrowing Frog (Cyclorana alboguttata)

Description This frog is brown, olive-brown or green on its back with darker flecks and blotches. Most individuals have a yellowish or light green stripe down the spine. A dark streak runs from the snout, through the eye and the tympanum (tight membrane covering the entrance to the ear), breaking into spots and blotches down the side of the body. A skin fold runs above this dark streak. The backs of the thighs are dark with white spots. The belly is granular and white. The skin on the back has scattered warts and ridges. The chest and the throat are smooth and flecked with brown spots. The toes are half webbed. Grows to 65mm.

This burrowing frog lives in woodland and cleared areas. It is usually associated with temporary pools and flooded claypans.

Breeding Males call during spring and summer from beside temporary pools of water. Call is a rapid ‘quarking’ sound. Eggs are laid in clumps near the edge of the water.

Tadpole are large and honey brown or dull white-brown in colour. The tail is translucent yellow-brown.

Wallum sedgefrog (Litoria olongburensis) Description The wallum sedgefrog is a small, slender tree-frog with a prominent pointed snout that protrudes over the lower jaw. Females (to 34mm) tend to be slightly larger than males (to 26mm). The skin on the top side is smooth and coloured grey-brown, beige or bright green, with occasional dark flecking.

The granular underside is white except for the throat which is peppered brown. Distinguishing features include a dark brown stripe that runs from the snout through the eye and ear and an obvious white streak that starts below the eye and runs back to the flanks (side of animal between thigh and ribs).

There may also be some blue colouration in the groin area. The toes are partly webbed and the finger discs and toe pads are prominent.

Habitat and distribution Restricted to densely vegetated areas (wallum) in the coastal lowlands of south-east Queensland, the wallum sedgefrog is most common in swamps but is also known from creeks and reed beds around freshwater lakes. In all seasons the species can be found seeking refuge in swamps amongst sedges, reeds and ferns.

The species geographic distribution encompasses coastal lowland areas of south-east Queensland and north-east NSW, from Fraser Island, south to Woolgoolga. It is also known from several islands of the Queensland coast including Fraser, Bribie, Moreton and North Stradbroke.

Behaviour and life history The wallum sedgefrog is a nocturnal species that breeds after rain in spring, summer and autumn. Males call from sedges above water and calling may be heard from September through to April. The wallum sedgefrog usually breeds in ephemeral (short lived) and semi-permanent swamps with thick emergent vegetation where eggs are laid singly in water at the base of sedges. Water at breeding sites is usually clear, heavily tannin-stained and acidic. The diet of this species consists of arthropods.

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Yellow-footed Antechinus (Antechinus flavipes) Description The Yellow-footed Antechinus (Antechinus flavipes), also known as the Yellow-footed Marsupial Mouse and the Mardo, is a shrew-like carnivorous marsupial found in Australia.

It has a specific change in fur colour from the slate-grey head to the warm rufous rump, belly, feet and sides. It has two pale crescent-shaped markings above and below the eyes although these can be difficult to see. Its change in fur colour from the slate-grey head to its orange-brown sides distinguishes it from other antechinuses. Fur colour varies throughout Australia, with the largest, most superbly coloured red individuals occurring in northern Queensland, and more drably coloured white-bellied ones occurring in Western Australia. The tail is tipped black.

Habitat and Distribution It can be found in both upland and lowland areas, eucalypt woodland and rainforest. This nocturnal marsupial forages on the forest floor. It Is however possible to view the male during the day in the mating season which is late July to August. It is the most widespread of antechinuses and occurs from North-eastern Queensland to South-western Western Australia in habitats ranging from tropical forests to swamps and dry mulga country. It is one of the few small nocturnal marsupials that can sometimes be seen around houses and gardens in suburban areas. It can be both a welcome visitor and a nuisance. Its amusing hopping style produces a strobe-like effect – the observer will generally only be able to see it in certain positions, not how it actually gets there (due to its high speed).

Diet Consists mostly of insects, but can include anything from flowers, nectar and small birds. It also likes to eat mice and is known to enter into their holes to eat the babies inside. Prey is devoured. Victims such as birds and mice are efficiently turned inside out and their skin is left for proof of a divine meal. Being cheeky, it also steals from the kitchen and has tendencies to build nests in television sets and lounge chairs.

Reproduction Mating takes place once a year. The short mating season is apparently stimulated by a certain increase in daylight during the second half of winter (July, in northern Australia). During this time males travel extensively between communal nests in a hectic mating frenzy. Mating can take up to twelve hours, with the death of the males shortly after copulation. With all his attention and energy taken up with sex rather than feeding, stress hormones (Corticosteroids) strip his body of protein and fat. The result is a breakdown in the animal's immune system, and death within two weeks.

About a month or so after mating the females give birth. Dasyurids (of which the antechinuses belong) sometimes give birth to more young than they have teats. Many female dasyurids only reproduce once or twice, so they must maximise their chance of success. By giving birth to extra young they can be sure that each nipple is occupied. As the males die shortly after copulation, the females are left to raise their young alone. After about one month’s gestation, the female gives birth to up to 12 young which are carried in the pouch for up to 5 week and weaned after about 3 months.

The young share a leafy nest until the following winter when they become territorial and more intolerant of each other’s company and the mother sometimes eats her young. Studies have shown that the female antechinuses sometimes eat their own young. This is not because they are hungry but more a case of sexual discrimination. First time mothers tend to eat most of their daughters but second time round kill the boys. There may be good reason for this which include: sons grow faster and larger than daughters requiring more maternal energy, which may be easier for a young mother to cope with; after sons are weaned they leave the area whereas daughters remain in the area-causing sexual competition the following year. If she survives to the following breeding season it requires her less energy to raise daughters. She also doesn't have to worry about competition the following year, as she will not reproduce again. Although the removal of most males from the population leaves more resources for the mother and her daughters, this can be a risky strategy. If weather or predation is particularly bad, an entire local population can be wiped out if no young males survive.

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Dingo (Canis lupus dingo) The Dingo (Canis lupus dingo) is a domestic dog which has reverted to a wild state for thousands of years and today lives largely independent from humans in the majority of its distribution.

The name "dingo" mostly refers to populations occurring in Australia, though dingoes have been proven to exist in Thailand through genetic analyses, where they mostly live close to humans. Also, there are dogpopulations (e.g. the New Guinea Singing Dog), which bear similarities to the dingo, but have yet to be proven if they are indeed the same animal.

The dingo is considered as an apex predator in Australia and is, together with other domestic dogs, the biggest terrestrial predator there. As such they are considered to play an important role in the various ecosystems of the continent.

Due to its habit of attacking livestock and the vulnerability of sheep, dingoes and other wild dogs are seen as a pest by the sheep industry and the resulting control methods normally run counter with efforts of conserving the dingo.

It was estimated that the majority of the modern dingoes are also descended from other domestic dogs. The number of these so-called dingo-hybrids had increased significantly over the last decades and the dingo was therefore classified as vulnerable.

Nomenclature Canis lupus dingo has several names in both scientific and non-scientific literature, of which the word dingo is the most common term. Furthermore, on the Australian continent, the term wild dog is now used very often in both areas. This term includes dingoes, dingo-hybrids, and mostly all other feral dogs.

Scientific name Since its first official nomenclature in 1792 (Canis antarcticus) the scientific name of the dingo has changed several times.

The name Canis familiaris dingo, which treats the dingo as a subspecies of domestic dog (and the domestic dog as a species separate from wolves), has been the most frequently used term over the last 50 years. In taxonomy the most accepted name today is the term Canis lupus dingo, however this name is not very common in literature. Furthermore the terms Canis dingo, which classes the dingo as a separate species from both dogs and wolves, and Canis lupus familiaris dingo are used.

Colloquial name The most common name for this dog in the colloquial language is the term "dingo". This term originated in the early times of European colonization in New South Wales and most likely derived from the word "tingo", a term used by the aboriginal people of Port Jackson to describe their camp dogs.

The dingo has many names in the different Indigenous Australian languages. Those names include the terms Joogong, Mirigung, Noggum, Boolomo, Papa-Inura, Wantibirri, Maliki, Kal, Dwer-da, Kurpany, Aringka, Palangamwari, and Warrigal.

At the same time there are different names for the dogs depending on where they live. The Yarralin for instance call the dogs who live with them Walaku and the ones living in the wilderness Ngurakin.

Depending on the area where they live, the dingoes in Australia are occasionally called alpine dingoes, desert dingoes, northern dingoes, Cape York dingoes, or tropical dingoes. In recent times people have begun to call them "Australian native dog" or an "Australian wolf".

Description As is typical in domestic dogs, the dingo's relative brain size is smaller than that of all non-domesticated subspecies of wolves, being almost identical in size to that of European dog breeds.

The dingo shares many characteristics with South-East Asian domestic dogs and Indian pariah dogs. Eye colour varies from yellow over orange to brown.

Build Dingoes have a relatively broad head, a pointed muzzle, and erect ears. Compared to other similarly sized domestic dogs, dingoes have longer muzzles, larger carnassials, longer canine teeth, and a flatter skull with larger nuchal lines.

The average dingo is 52–60 cm tall at the shoulders and measures 117 to 124 cm from nose to tail tip. The average weight is 13 to 20 kg, however there was a report of a wild dingo weighing 27 kg. Males are typically larger and heavier than females of the same age. Dingoes from the North and the North-West of Australia are larger than Central and South-Australian populations. Australian dingoes are invariably heavier than Asian ones.

The legs are about half the length of the body and the head put together. The hind feet make up a third of the hind legs and have no dewclaws. Dingoes can have saber-formed tails (typically carried erect with a curve towards the back) or tails which are carried directly on the back.

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Fur The fur of adult dingoes is short, bushy on the tail, and varies in thickness and length, depending on the climate. The fur color is mostly sandy to reddish brown, but can include tan patterns and be occasionally black, light brown, or white.

Completely black dingoes probably were prevalent in Australia in the past, but have been sighted only rarely in recent times and are now more common in Asia than in Australia.

Most dingoes are at least bicolored, with small white markings on the chest, muzzle, tag, legs, and paws being the most common feature. In the case of reddish individuals, there can be small, distinctive, and dark stripes on the shoulders. All other color and color-patterns on adult dingoes are regarded as evidence for interbreeding with other domestic dogs.

A rare white fur dingo

Communication Like all domestic dogs, dingoes tend towards a phonetic communication, the difference being that they mostly use howling and whimpering and bark less frequently than other domestic dogs. During research, eight sound classes with 19 sound types could be concretized.

Barking It is often wrongly asserted that dingoes do not bark. Compared to most other domestic dogs, the bark of a dingo is short and monosyllabic. During observations, the barking of Australian dingoes revealed itself to have a relatively small variability and sub-groups of barking, like among other domestic dogs, could not be found. Furthermore, only 5% of the observed vocalisations were made up of barking. Australian dingoes bark only in swooshing noises or in a mixture atonal/tonal. Also, barking is almost exclusively used for giving warnings. Warn-barking in a homotypical sequence and a kind of "warn-howling" in a heterotypical sequence has also been observed. The bark-howling starts with several barks and then fades into a rising and ebbing howl and is probably, similarly to coughing, used to warn the puppies and members of the pack. Additionally, dingoes emit a sort of "wailing" sound, which they mostly use when approaching a water hole, probably to warn already present dingoes.

According to the present state of knowledge, it is not possible to get Australian dingoes to bark more frequently by having them in contact with other domestic dogs. However Alfred Brehm reported a dingo that completely learned the more "typical" form of barking and knew how to use it, while its brother did not. Whether dingoes bark or bark-howl less frequently in general is not sure.

Howling Australian dingoes have three basic forms of howling (moans, bark-howl, snuffs) with at least 10 variations. Usually there are three kinds of howls distinguished: long and persistent, rising and ebbing, and short and abrupt.

Observations have shown that every kind of howling has several variations, though their meanings are unknown. The frequency of howling varies depending on season and time of day, and is also influenced by breeding, migration, lactation, social stability, and dispersal behaviour. Also, howling can be more frequent in times of food shortage, because the dogs become more widely distributed within their home range.

Additionally howling seems to have a group-function and is sometimes an expression of elatedness (e.g. greeting-howls).

Overall howling was observed less frequently than among grey wolves. It can happen, that one dog starts to howl and several or all other dogs howl back and bark from time to time. In the wilderness, dingoes howl over long distances to attract other members of the pack, to find other dogs, and to keep intruders at bay. Dingoes howl in chorus with significant pitches and with increasing number of pack-members the variability of pitches also increases. Therefore it is suspected that dingoes can measure the size of a pack without visual contact.

Other forms of communication During observations, growling made up 65% of the observed vocalizations. It was always used in an agonistic context, as well as for dominance and reactively as a defence sound. Similar to many other domestic dogs, a reactive usage of defensive growling could only be observed rarely or not at all. Growling very often occurs in combination with other sounds, and was observed almost exclusively in swooshing noises (similar to barking). Mix-sounds, mostly growl-mixes, are mostly emitted in an agonistic context.

During observations in Germany, there was a sound found among Australian dingoes which the observers called "Schrappen". It was only observed in an agonistic context, mostly as a defence against obtrusive pups or for defending resources. It was described as a bite intention, where the receiver is never touched or hurt. Only a silent, but significant, clashing of the teeth could be heard.

Aside from vocal communication, dingoes communicate like all domestic dogs via scent marking specific objects (e.g. spinifex) or places (waters, trails, hunting grounds, etc.) using chemical signals from their urine, feces, and scent glands. Males scentmark more frequently than females, especially during the mating season. They also scent-rub whereby a dog rolls on its neck, shoulders, or back on something that is usually associated with food or the scent markings of other dogs.

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Behaviour Dingoes are very often nocturnal in warmer regions, but more active during the day in cooler areas. Their main time of activity is around dusk and dawn. The periods of activity are short (often less than one hour) with short times of resting. They have two kinds of movement: a searching movement, apparently associated with hunting, and an exploratory movement, probably for contact and communication with other dogs.

In general, dingoes are shy towards humans. However, there are reports on dingoes that were not impressed by the presence of humans, for instance around camps in national parks, near streets or suburbs. According to studies in Queensland, the wild dogs there move freely at night through urban areas and cross streets and seem to get along quite well.

Dietary habits 170 species (from insects to buffaloes) have been identified as being part of the dingo diet. In general, livestock seems to make up only a small proportion of its diet. In continent-wide examinations, 80% of the diet of wild dogs consisted of 10 species: Red Kangaroo, Swamp Wallaby, cattle, Dusky Rat, Magpie Goose, Common Brushtail Possum, Long-haired Rat, Agile Wallaby, European rabbit and the Common Wombat. This narrow range of major prey indicates that wild dogs are rather specialised, but in the tropical rainforests of North-Eastern Australia dingoes are supposed to be opportunistic hunters of a wide range of mammals. In certain areas, they tend to specialize on the most common prey, with a preference for medium to large sized mammals. The consumption of domestic cats has also been proven. Non mammalian prey is irregularly eaten and makes up only 10% of the dingo's diet. Big reptiles are only rarely captured, at least in Eastern Australia, although they are widespread. It is possible that especially big monitor lizards are too defensive and well armed or simply able to flee fast enough into dens or climb trees.

Dietary composition varies from region to region. In the gulf region of Queensland, feral pigs and agile wallabies are the dingo's main prey. In the rainforests of the North the main prey consists of magpie-geese, rodents and agile wallabies. In the southern regions of the Northern-Territory, the dogs mainly eat European rabbits, rodents, lizards, and red kangaroos; in arid central Australia rabbits, rodents, lizards, red kangaroos, and cattle carcass; and in the dry North-West Eastern Wallaroos and red kangaroos. In the deserts of the South-West they primarily eat rabbits and in the eastern and south-eastern highlands wallabies, possums, and wombats. To what extent the availability of rabbits influences the composition of the diet could not be clarified. However because rabbit haemorrhagic disease killed a large part of the Australian rabbit population at the end of the 20th century, it is suspected that the primary prey of the dogs has changed in the affected areas. Also, on Fraser Island, fish were proven to be a part of the dingo diet. However the main prey species were bandicoots and several rodents. They also ate a lot of echidnas, crabs, small skinks, fruits, and other plants, as well as insects (mostly beetles). During these observations only 10% of the examined feces-samples contained human garbage (in earlier studies 50% were reported).

In scavenging, wild dogs primarily eat cattle and kangaroo carcasses. Dingoes in coastal regions regularly patrol the coast for dead fish, seals, penguins, and other washed up birds.

In Asia, only a few dingoes live completely independent from humans, and their main food consists of carbohydrates (rice, fruits, and other leftovers) provided by humans. In the rural areas of Thailand and Sulawesi, dingoes were observed to hunt insects, rats, lizards, and other living prey along streets, rice fields, and forests.

Wild dogs in general drink one litre of water a day in the summer and about half a litre a day in winter. During the winter in arid regions, dingoes could potentially live from the liquid in the bodies of their prey, as long as the number of prey is sufficient.

Similarly, weaned pups in central Australia are able to draw their necessary amount of liquid from their food. There, regurgitation of water by the bitches for the pups was observed. During lactation, females have no higher need of water than usual, since they consume the urine and feces of the pups and therefore recycle the water and keep the den clean.

Hunting behaviour Dingoes often kill by biting the throat and adjust their hunting strategies to suit circumstances. For bigger prey, due to their strength and potential danger, two or more individuals are needed. Such group formations are unnecessary when hunting rabbits or other small prey.

Kangaroo hunts are probably more successful in open areas than in places with high densities of vegetation, and immature dingoes possibly get killed more often than adults. Dingoes typically hunt large kangaroos by having lead dingoes chase the quarry toward their waiting pack mates, which are skilled at cutting corners in chases. In one area of Central Australia, dingoes hunted kangaroos by chasing them toward a wire fence which would hinder their escape.

Birds can be captured when they do not fly or fail to take off fast enough. Dingoes also steal the prey of eagles and the coordinated attack of three dingoes for killing a large monitor lizard was observed. On Fraser Island, dingoes supposedly hunted and killed horses in coordinated attacks. Additionally, active fishing has been proven on the island. There are also reports which state that some dingoes virtually live entirely on human food through stealing, scavenging, or begging. In fact dingoes are wellknown for such a behavior in some parts of Australia. It is suspected that this might cause the loss of hunting strategies or a change in the social structures.

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During studies at the Fortescue River in the mid 1970s, it was observed how most of the studied dingoes learned to hunt and kill sheep very quickly, even when they never had prior contact with sheep. Although the dingoes killed many sheep at that time, they still killed and ate kangaroos. During the early 1990s, wild dogs were observed to have an extraordinarily high success rate when killing sheep and did not have to hunt in a coordinated manner to achieve this. Often a dog only chases and outruns a single sheep, just to turn away suddenly and chase another. Therefore, only a small proportion of the hurt or killed sheep and goats are also eaten which seems to be the rule and not the exception. The dog probably falls into some kind of "killing spree", due to the rather panicked and uncontrolled flight behavior of the sheep, who run in front of the dingoes time and again and therefore cause one attack after another. Dingoes often attack sheep from behind during the sheep's flight, which causes injuries on the sheep's hind legs. Rams are normally attacked from the side – probably to avoid the horns – or sometimes on the testicles. Inexperienced dingoes or those who kill "for fun", sometimes cause significant damage on the sheep's hind legs, which often causes death.

Nearly all wild dog attacks on cattle and buffalos are directed against calves. The hunting success depends on the health and condition of the adult cattle and on their ability to defend their calves. The defense behavior of the mother can be sufficient to fend off an attack. Therefore the basic tactics of attacks are: distracting the mother, rousing the herd/group and waiting (sometimes for hours), and testing of the herd to find the weakest members. During the locating of a cattle herd, it could be observed how the dingoes made several feint attacks, at which they concentrated on the calves at first and, later on, attacked the mothers to distract them. Thereupon, the dingoes retreated and waited at a distance from the herd, until the rest of the cows had gathered their calves and moved on. During another occasion of an attack, "sub-groups" of a dingo-pack were observed to take turns in attacking and resting, until the mother was too tired to effectively defend her calf any longer. It was also observed how dingoes hunting a supposedly 200 kg water buffalo took turns in biting the buffalo's legs during the chase.

Social behaviour Although dingoes are usually seen alone (especially in areas where they are persecuted), most belong to a social group whose members meet from time to time and are permanently together during the mating season in order to breed and raise pups. Dingoes are generally highly social animals and form, where possible, stable packs with clearly defined territories, which only rarely overlap with the territories of neighbouring packs. Intruders are mostly killed. These packs as a rule consist of 3–12 individuals (mostly the alpha-pair, as well as the current litter and the previous year's litter), who occupy a territory throughout the whole year. However, there are regional variants which show the flexible social structure of the dingo. Apparently, specialization on bigger prey boosts social behaviour and the formation of bigger groups. During times of drought, packs in Australia fragment and the mortality rate of all the members, regardless of social status, is very high.

Packs have different (but not completely separate) hierarchies for males and females, and the ranking order is mostly established through ritualized aggression, especially among males. Overawing and agonistic behaviour occurs only in a reduced state among Australian dingoes. Serious fights could only be observed rarely and under extreme circumstances. Dogs of higher rank show this behaviour from time to time, to confirm their status, while those of lower rank are more prone to show conflict-preventive behaviour.

Bigger packs are often splintered into sub-groups of flexible size.

Additionally, lone individuals can occur in already occupied areas and can have loose contact with the groups, including participation in foraging for food. Desert areas have smaller groups of dingoes with a more loose territorial behaviour and sharing of the water sites. On Fraser Island, dingoes had pack sizes of two to nine dogs with overlapping territories. However, they had a very high rate of infanticide, probably due to the high density of the island's dingopopulation when compared to the size of the island and prey population.

Territory size and individual areas change over time depending on the availability of prey, but are not connected to pack size.

Wild dogs only rarely move outside of their territories. The areas of individuals can overlap. When territories of neighbouring packs overlap, the packs tend to avoid contact. How big the territory and home range of dogs are depends for the most part on the availability of prey. Home ranges are generally stable, but can change over time due to outside circumstances or changes in social organization. Individuals who start to detach themselves from the pack have bigger home ranges at first before they finally disperse.

Territories around human dominated areas tend to be smaller and contain a relatively higher number of dingoes due to the better availability of food. According to studies in Queensland, the local wild dogs in urban areas have smaller territories of occasionally only two to three square-kilometers in diameter. There, the existence of a territory of a single dingo could be proven, which only consisted of a small patch of bush near the fringe of a primary school in the heart of a small town.

Most dingoes stay near their area of birth and do not travel more than 20 km per day, but some, especially young males, disperse. The size of the individual home range increases with age. The biggest recorded home ranges (90–300 km2) came from the deserts of Southwest-Australia. In the centre of the Northern Territory home ranges of up to 270 km2 were observed.

Home ranges in other parts of the continent can be 45–113 km2 in the Northwest, 25–67 km2 in Central Australia, on average 39 km2 in the tropic North and 10–27 km2 in the forests of the Eastern mountains.

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Reproduction Dingoes breed once annually, depending on the estrus-cycle of the females who, according to most sources, only come in heat once per year. Dingo bitches can come in heat twice per year, but can only be pregnant once a year, with the second time only seeming to be pregnant (at most).

Males are virile throughout the year in most regions, but have a lower sperm production during the summer in most cases.

During studies on dingoes from the Eastern Highlands and Central Australia in captivity, no breeding cycle could be observed.

All were potent throughout the year. The breeding was only regulated by the heat of the females. There was a rise in testosterone in the males during the breeding season, however this was attributed to the heat of the females and copulation. In contrast to the captive dingoes, captured dingo males from Central Australia did show evidence of a male breeding cycle. Those dingoes showed no interest in females in heat (this time other domestic dogs) outside of the mating season (January to July) and did not breed with them.

The mating season usually occurs in Australia between March and May (according to other sources between April and June). In Southeast Asia, mating occurs between August and September. During this time dingoes, may actively defend their territory using vocalizations, dominance behaviour, growling, and barking.

Most females in the wild start breeding at the age of two years, and within packs the alpha-bitch tends to go into heat before the subordinates and will actively suppress the mating attempts of the other females. Males become sexually mature between the age of 1–3 years. The precise start of breeding varies depending on age, social status, geographic range, and seasonal conditions. Among dingoes in captivity, the pre-estrus was observed to last 10–12 days.

However, it is suspected, that the pre-estrus may last as long as 60 days in the wild.

In general, the only dingoes in a pack that successfully breed are the alpha-pair and the other pack-members help with raising the pups. Subordinates are actively prevented from breeding by the alpha-pair and some subordinate females have a false pregnancy. Low ranking or solitary dingoes can successfully breed if the pack structure breaks up.

The gestation period lasts for 61–69 days and the size of the litter can range from one to ten pups (usually five pups), with the number of the males tending to be higher than that of the females. Pups of subordinate females usually get killed by the alphabitch, which causes the population increase to be low even in good times. It is possible that this behaviour developed as an adaptation to the fluctuating environmental conditions in Australia. Pups are usually born between May and August (the winter period) but in tropical regions, breeding can occur at any time of the year.

At the age of three weeks, the pups leave the den for the first time and will leave it completely upon reaching the age of eight weeks. In Australia, dens are mostly underground. There are reports of dens in abandoned rabbit burrows, rockformations, under boulders in dry creeks, under large spinifex, in hollow logs, in augmented burrows of monitor lizards, and wombat burrows. The pups usually stray around the den within a radius of 3 km and are accompanied by older dogs during longer travels. The transition to consuming solid food is normally accompanied by all members of the pack during the age of nine to twelve weeks.

Apart from their own experiences, pups also learn through observation. Young dingoes usually become independent at the age of three to six months or they voluntarily disperse at the age of twelve months when the next mating season starts.

Migration Dingoes usually remain in one area and do not undergo seasonal migrations. However, during times of famine, even in normally "safe" areas, dingoes travel into pastoral areas, where intensive human-induced control measures are undertaken. It was already noted in Western Australia in the 1970s that young dogs can travel for long distances when necessary. About 10% of the dogs who were captured back then - all younger than twelve months - were later recaptured far away from their first position. Among these, 10% of the travelled distance for males was 21.7 km and for females 11 km. Therefore, travelling dingoes had lower chances of survival in foreign territories and it was assumed to be unlikely that they would survive long migrations through occupied territories. The rarity of long migration routes seemed to confirm this assumption. During investigations in the Nullarbor Plain, even longer migration routes were recorded. The longest recorded migration route of a radio collared dingo was about 250 km.

Mortality and health Dingoes are susceptible to the same diseases as all domestic dogs. Up to now, 38 species of parasites and pathogens have been detected in Australian dingoes. The bulk of these diseases have a low influence on the survival of adult wild dogs. The exceptions include canine distemper, hookworms, and heart worms in North-Australia and southeastern Queensland.

Pups can also be killed by lungworms, whipworms, hepatitis, coccidiosis, lice, and ticks. Sarcoptic mange is a widespread parasitic disease among the dingoes of Australia, but seldom debilitating. Wild dogs are the primary host of Echinococcosis-tapeworms and have an infection rate of 70 to 90%, but do not die from it.

Statistics on the average age of dingoes living in the wild range between five to ten years. In captivity, dingoes have a lifespan of 13 to 15 years, and in exceptional cases even up to 24 years have been recorded. The main mortality factors for dingoes are killings by humans, crocodiles, and other domestic dogs (including other dingoes). Other causes for dingo-mortality are starvation and/or dehydration during times of drought or after strong bush fires, infanticide, snake bites, killing of pups by Wedge-tailed Eagles, as well as injuries caused by cattle and buffalos.

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Distribution It is only possible to give a crude description of the dingo's distribution area and the accordant population density. It is difficult to give an exact assessment of the distribution of dingoes and other domestic dogs, since the exact extent of interbreeding between the two is not known. Therefore the following information on the distribution of the dingo applies to dogs which were classified as dingoes based on fur-color, body-form, and breeding-cycle, therefore the maps on their distribution might be conflicting.

Distribution in the past Based on fossil, molecular, and anthropogenic evidence, it is assumed that dingoes once might have had a widespread distribution. These ancient dingoes would have associated to nomadic hunter-gatherer-societies and later with the rising agricultural centers. It is further assumed that they would have been tamed there and were then transported to various places in the world. Dingo-findings from Thailand and Vietnam are regarded as the oldest findings, which have been estimated to be respectively as old as 5,000–5,500 years. The age of findings from the highlands of Indonesia vary between a maximum of 5,000 to (in most cases) 2,500 to 3,000 years.

The first ever European illustration of a dingo, from Arthur Phillip's

Voyage to Botany Bay in 1789. The pictured specimen was a female taken alive by Governor Phillip and given to the Marquess of Salisbury, at Hatfield House.

Originally, it was suspected that the dingo was introduced to Australia in the Pleistocene by Aborigines, which led to confusion concerning the dingo's nomenclature. Today, the most common theory is that the dingo arrived in Australia about 4,000 years ago, because the oldest known fossils of dingoes were estimated to be about 3,500 years old and were found in various places in Australia, which indicates a rapid colonization. Findings are absent from Tasmania, which was separated from the main Australian landmass around 12,000 years ago due to a rise in sea level. Therefore, archeological data indicates an arrival between 3,500 to a maximum of 12,000 years ago.

To reach Australia from Asia, there would have been at least 50 km of open sea to be crossed, even at the lowest sea level.

Since there is no known case of a big land animal who made such a journey by itself, it is most likely that the ancestors of modern dingoes were brought to Australia on boats by Asian seafarers. A dance of the Aborigines on the coastal regions of Kimberley, during which they depict dogs running excitedly up and down a boat and finally jumping into the water, is seen as further evidence for the introduction of dingoes by seafarers. It is possible that these dogs were used as food or eventually guard dogs.

Potentially, the dingo came to Australia and the islands of Southeast Asia and the Pacific in the course of expansion of the Austronesian culture.

There are two main theories concerning the geographical origin and travel routes of the modern dingo's ancestors and their arrival in Australia:

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An East-Asian origin and a travel route over the SoutheastAsian islands due to their close proximity to Australia, and the relatively easy accessibility over the islands of the SoutheastAsian archipelago. This theory is supported by examination of the mtDNA of Australian dingoes.

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An introduction of sheepdogs from the Indus valley in Asia, over Timor by Indian seafarers, based on similarities in skeletal anatomy of Indian pariah dogs and Iranian wolves. Moreover, this theory implies that the oldest known fossils are 4,000 years old and were found on Timor, where the dogs coexisted for a while with pigs and sheep. This theory would be supported by the assumption that the simultaneous appearance of certain stone tools was caused

by Indian influence. However this is disputed by other authorities.

Whether there were several introductions of dingoes to Australia or just one is not known yet.

The first official report of a "wild dog" in Australia comes from the year 1699 from Captain William Dampier. At the time, dingoes were probably widespread over the main part of the continent and lived in the wild as well as alongside the Aboriginals.

They were mostly tolerated by the European settlers and sometimes kept as pets. The number of dingoes was probably low in those times and increased since then in some parts of Australia. Their number probably increased strongly around the 1880s due to the establishment of the pastoral economy and artesian water places and probably had its peak in the 1930s and 1950s. Afterwards the numbers have remained high, but the percentage of dingo-hybrids has significantly increased since then.

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Present-day distribution Today dingoes live in all kinds of habitats, including the snowcovered mountain forests of Eastern Australia, dry hot deserts of Central Australia, and Northern Australia's tropical forest wetlands. The absence of dingoes in many parts of the Australian grasslands is probably caused by human persecution. Based on skull characteristics, size, fur color, and breeding cycles there could be distinct regional populations between Australia and Asia, but not in Australia.

Possible distribution of the dingo (red). The red area in Papua New Guinea shows the possible distribution of the Hallstrom dogs.

Today the whole population of wild dogs on the Australian continent consists, besides dingoes, of a wide panoply of feral domestic dogs (mostly mixed-breeds and dingo-hybrids) with an enormous variety of colors. Due to the increased availability of water, native and introduced prey, as well as livestock and human provided food, the number of wild dogs is regarded as increasing. There are reports from some parts of Australia stating that wild dogs now hunt in packs there, although they had hunted on a solitary basis before. The density of the wild dog population varies between 0.003 and 0.3% per square kilometer, depending on habitat and availability of prey.

"Pure" dingoes are regarded as widespread in Northern, Northwest, and Central Australia; rare in Southern and Northeast Australia; and possibly extinct in the South-Eastern and South-Western areas. The establishment of agriculture caused a significant decrease in dingo numbers and they were practically expelled from the territories occupied by the sheep industry. This primarily affects big parts of Southern Queensland, New South Wales, Victoria, and South Australia.

Distribution map of Australian dingoes. The black line represents the Dingofence (after Fleming et al 2001).

This situation was maintained by the construction of the Dingo Fence. Although dingoes were eradicated from most areas south of the Dingo Fence, they still exist in an area of about 58,000 km2 in the dry Northern areas north of the Dingo Fence and therefore on about 60% of the whole area. In Victoria, wild dog populations are currently concentrated on the densely forested areas of the Eastern Highlands, from the border to New South Wales southern to Healesville and Gembrook. They also exist in the large desert in the Northwest of the state. Wild dog populations in New South Wales primarily exist along the Great Dividing Range and the Hinterlands on the coast, as well as in the Sturt National Park in the Northwest of the state. In the rest of the continent dingoes are regarded as widespread, with the exception of the arid eastern half of Western Australia. In the bordering areas of South Australia and the Northern Territory they are regarded as naturally scarce. Wild dogs are widespread in the Northern Territory, with the exception of the Tanami and Simpson Desert, where they are rare due to the lack of watering holes. However, local concentrations exist there near artificial water sources. According to DNA-examinations from the year 2004, the dingoes of Fraser Island are "pure". however, skull measurements from the mid 1990s had a different result. Outside of Australia, dingoes were proven to exist in Thailand, based on comparisons between the skulls of Thai dogs and those of fossil and present-day dingoes. The population there probably has the biggest proportion of "pure" dingoes. They are widespread in Northern and Central Thailand and rare in the southern regions. They may also exist in Burma, China, India, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Papua New Guinea, on the Philippines, and in Vietnam, but if they exist there, their distribution is unknown. Dingoes are regarded as widespread in Sulawesi, but their distribution in the rest of Indonesia is unknown. They are regarded as rare on the Philippines and are probably extinct on many islands. In Korea, Japan, and Oceania there exist a few local dog breeds with dingo-like features, but dingoes are considered extinct there.

Ecological impact of the dingo after its arrival in Mainland Australia It is suspected that the dingo caused the extinction of the thylacine, the Tasmanian Devil, and the Tasmanian Nativehen from the mainland Australia, since there is a correlation in space and time between the arrival of the dingo and the extinctions of these species. Also, dingoes do not seem to have had the same ecological impact the Red Fox had in later times.

This might be connected to the dingo's way of hunting and the size of their favored prey, as well as the low number of dingoes in the time before European colonization.

The assumption that dingoes and thylacines may have been competitors for the same prey stems from the external similarities of the two species: the thylacine had a stronger and more efficient bite, but was probably dependent on relatively small prey, while the dingo's stronger skull and neck would have allowed it to bring down bigger prey. The dingo was probably a superior hunter, as it hunted cooperatively in packs and could better defend resources, while the thylacine was probably more solitary.

Also, wild dingo populations might have had demographic support from conspecifics living with humans and may have introduced new diseases which affected the thylacine more severely. The extinction of the thylacine on the continent around 2000 years ago has also been linked with change in climate and land use of the Aborigines.

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It is plausible to name the dingo as the cause of the extinction, but there are significantly morphological differences between the two, which suggested that the ecological overlapping of both species might be exaggerated: the dingo has the dentition of a generalist, while the thylacine had the dentition of a specialist carnivore, without any signs for the consumption of carrion or bones. It is also argued that the thylacine was a flexible predator that should have withstood the competition by the dingo and was instead wiped out due to human persecution.

This theory also has problems with explaining how the Tasmanian Devil and the dingo coexisted on the same continent until about 430 years ago, when the dingo supposedly caused the Tasmanian Devil's demise. The group dynamics of dingoes should have successfully kept devils away from carrion, and since dingoes are able to break bones, there would have been little left for the devils to scavenge upon. Additionally, devils are successful hunters of small to medium sized prey, so there should have been an overlapping of the species in this area too.

Furthermore, the arguments that the dingo caused the extinction of the thylacine, the devil, and the hen are in direct conflict with each other. If the dingo was so similar to the thylacine and the devil in its ecological role, and that it suppressed both, it is strange that the hen coexisted with both for such a long time. Although this is possible, critics regard the evidence for this as weak.

Impact Reliable information about the exact ecological, cultural, and economical impact of wild dogs does not exist yet. Furthermore, their impact of wild dogs depends on several factors and a distinction between dingoes and other domestic dogs is not necessarily made.

The appearance of a wild dog is probably insignificant for its ecological impact. Here it is important what a dog does, and therefore what its place in the ecosystem is. In contrast to this the appearance of a wild dog is sometimes very important when it comes to their cultural and economical impact. Here it is often desired that the wild dog's appearance complies to what is demanded, that it is a "pure" dingo or at least looks like one. In case of their economic impact their appearance only seem to be important when "pure" dingoes are used as a tourist attraction. Where wild dogs are regarded as pests their appearance is only of minor importance, if it is of any importance at all.

The impact wild dogs have in urban areas and whether they are a danger to humans (direct attacks, diseases, and more) is unknown yet.

Ecological impact Today the dingo is regarded as part of the native Australian fauna by environmentalists as well as biologists, especially since these dogs existed on the continent before the arrival of the Europeans and a mutual adaption of the dingoes and their surrounding ecosystems had occurred. However there is also the contrary view that dingoes are just another introduced predator respectively and that they are only native to Thailand.

Much of the present day place of wild dogs in the Australian ecosystem and especially in the urban areas remains unknown.

Although the ecological role of dingoes in Northern and Central Australia is well understood, the same does not apply to the role of wild dogs in the East of the continent. In contrast to some claims it was undoubtedly disproven that dingoes are damaging to the Australian ecosystem in general. In most cases it is assumed that they have a positive impact.

Dingoes are regarded as apex predators and possibly perform an ecological key function. Therefore it is likely (with increasing evidence from scientific research) that they control the diversity of the ecosystem by limiting the number of prey and keeping the competition in check. Wild dogs hunt feral livestock like goats and pigs, as well as native prey and introduced animals. It is possible that the low number of feral goats in Northern Australia is caused by the presence of the dingoes, however whether they control the goats' numbers or not is still disputable. Studies from the year 1995 in the northern wet forests of Australia came to the conclusion that the dingoes there did not reduce the number of feral pigs but that their predation only has an impact on the pig population together with the presence of water buffalos (which hinder the pigs' access to food).

There were observations concerning the mutual impact of dingoes and fox and cat populations and evidence that dingoes limit the access of foxes and cats to certain resources. Therefore it is assumed, that a disappearance of the dingoes may cause an increase of Red Fox and feral cat numbers and therefore a higher pressure on native animals. During studies it was found out that the presence of dingoes is one of the factors that keep the fox numbers in an area low and therefore reduces the pressure on native animals which then do not have to disappear from the area. It could be proven that the countrywide numbers of Red Foxes are especially high where dingo numbers are low, however it was considered that there might be other factors responsible for this, depending on the area. There was evidence found for a competition between wild dogs and Red Foxes in the Great Blue Mountains of New South Wales, since there were many overlaps in spectrum of preferred prey. However, there was only evidence for a local competition not on a grand scale. It is also possible that dingoes can live side to side with Red Foxes and feral cats without reducing their numbers in areas with sufficient food resources (e.g. high rabbit numbers) and hiding places. Nearly nothing is known about the relationship of wild dogs and feral cats, except that both mostly live in the same areas. Although wild dogs also eat cats, it is not known whether this has an impact on the cat populations. In many areas wild dogs live together with the most species of quolls, except for the Eastern Quoll who is probably extinct on the continent, and therefore wild dogs are not regarded as a threat for them.

Additionally, the disappearance of the dingoes might cause prevalence of kangaroo and rabbit numbers. In the areas outside of the Dingo Fence the number of dingoes and emus is lower than in the areas inside, however the number changed depending on the habitat. Since the environment is the same on both sides of the fence, it was assumed that the dingo is a strong factor for the regulation of these species. Therefore some people demand that dingo numbers should be allowed to increase or dingoes should reintroduced in areas with low dingo populations to lower the pressure on endangered populations of native species and to reintroduce them in certain areas.

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Cultural impact Opinions about the dingo are often based on its perceived "cunning" and that it is an intermediate to civilization and wilderness.

Some of the early European settlers compared dingoes to domestic dogs and perceived them as such, while others compared them to wolves. Over the years, dingoes started to attack sheep and so their relationship to the Europeans changed very quickly: they were regarded as devious and cowardly since they did not fight bravely in the eyes of the Europeans and just vanished in the bush. Dingoes were seen as predators which killed wantonly, rather than out of hunger (similar claims are made today concerning dingo-hybrids). Additionally they were seen as promiscuous or as devils with a venomous bite or saliva, and thus, no reservations were required to kill one. Over the years, dingo trappers gained a kind of prestige for their work, primarily when they managed to kill dingoes which were especially hard to catch. Therefore, dingoes were associated with thieves, vagabonds, bushrangers, and parliamentary opponents. The oldest evidence of politicians calling their opponents "dingo" (therefore cowardly and treacherous) is from the 1960s and became very popular afterwards. Today the word "dingo" still stands for coward and cheat and the verb and adjective forms have the appropriate meanings.

Today, the image of the dingo ranges from romantic transfiguration of being completely harmless to the point of demonising them as a general danger for humans and nature. For some the dingo is a beautiful, unique animal[ and others do not regard it as a domestic dog but as a wolf. Dingoes are called an icon of Australia, which should be preserved (at least in its "pure" form), and its possible "extinction" is also compared to that of the thylacine. Where dingoes are regarded as pests regardless of their "rehabilitation", this attitude can degenerate into full hatred. In the process, it is sometimes said that dingoes are detrimental for the society and the environment (e.g. that they are in general the cause for the extinction of native animals). Dingoes (no matter whether "pure" or not) are than treated as a scourge, that has to be eradicated. In such cases it is also deemed acceptable to kill all wild dogs if it would save one human life. Besides this, there is also among bureaucrats the opinion that wild dogs are cruel towards sheep and cattle and therefore every cruelty against them is justified.

Traditionally dogs have a privileged position in the aboriginal cultures of Australia (which the dingo may have adopted from the thylacine) and the dingo is a well known part of rock carvings and cave paintings. There are ceremonies (like a keen at the Cape York Peninsula in the form of howling) and dreamtime stories connected to the dingo, which were passed down through the generations. There are strong feelings that dingoes shall not be killed and in some areas women are breast feeding young pups. In most cases they are treated with extraordinary indulgence, although the reasons for this might not be any kindness, since dogs are sometimes treated quite brutally. Nonetheless there seems to be a big feeling of community although the reasons for this do not seem to always be clear. Similar to how Europeans acquired dingoes, the Aboriginal people of Australia acquired dogs from the immigrants very quickly. This process was so fast that Francis Barralier (the first European to explore the Outback) discovered in the year 1802 that five dogs of European origin were there before him. There is the theory that other domestic dogs will adopt the role of the "pure" dingo. In fact the majority of the myths about dingoes just call them dogs (whether that role was adopted or there was no difference for the storyteller is unknown) and other introduced animals like the water buffalo and the domestic cat have been adopted into the indigenous aboriginal culture in the forms of rituals, traditional paintings, and dreamtime stories.

The dingo is connected to holy places, totems, rituals, and dreamtime characters. There are stories that dogs can see the supernatural, are guard dogs, and warn against evil powers. There is evidence that dogs have been buried together with their owners to protect them against evil even after death. Most of the published myths hail from the Western Desert and show a remarkable complexity. In some stories dingoes are the central characters, in others only minor ones. One-time it is an ancestor from the dreamtime, who created humans and dingoes or gave them their current shape. Then there are stories about creation, socially acceptable behaviour, and explanations why some things are the way they are. There are myths about shapeshifters (human to dingo or vice versa), "dingo-people", and the creation of certain landscapes or elements of those landscapes, like waterholes or mountains. The dingo is also responsible for death. In other myths there are advice and warnings to those who do not want to follow the social rules. Stories can show the borders of one's territory or the dingo in it might stand for certain members of the community, e.g. rebellious dingoes stand for "wild" members of the tribe. The dingo also has a wild and uncontrollable face in other stories and there are many stories about dingoes that kill and eat humans (e.g. the Mamu, who catches and devours the spirit of every child who roams too far from the campfire). Other stories tell of a giant devil dingo, from which the real dingoes originate. The dog is thereby depicted as a homicidal, malicious creature that—apart from the lack of a subtle mind—is similar to a trickster, since it plays the role of a mischievous adversary for other mythological beings.

Many of them fall victim to blood-thirsty dogs or escape them. Here individual beings have a significant meaning too or sometimes become part of the landscape. Even the actions of these dogs result for instance in the creations of stones and trees from flying around bones and meat or ochre from the spilled blood.

Economic impact Wild dogs are responsible for a wide range of negative and undesired impacts on the livestock industry of Australia and are regarded as pests since the start of the European livestock industry. Thereby sheep are the most frequent prey, followed by cattle and goats. However research on the real extent of the damage and reason for this problem only started a very short time ago. There are many reasons for the death of livestock and when the body is found it is often too late to tell for sure what the cause of death was. Since the outcome of an attack on livestock depends to a high degree from the behaviour and experience of the predator and the prey there is no certain way (except for direct observation) to determine whether an attack was done by dingoes or some other sort of domestic dogs. Even the leftovers from the prey in the scat of wild dogs do not prove that they are pests, since wild dogs also eat carrion. Exact numbers or reliable estimates of the damage caused by wild dogs are therefore hard to get and seldom reliable. Even if livestock is not a big part of the dingo's diet, this says nothing about the extent of damage dingoes could cause to the livestock industry.

The significance of dingoes as a pest is mainly based on the predation of sheep and to a lower degree on cattle and is not only connected to the direct loss of livestock. Sheep of every age are susceptible to dingo attacks, in the case of cattle only the calves are susceptible. Harassment of sheep can cause a less optimal use of grassland and miscarriages.

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Distribution of wild dogs and livestock (after Breckwoldt 1988, Corbett 1995a, Fleming 1996a)

The cattle industry can tolerate low to moderate and sometimes high grades of wild dogs (therefore dingoes are not so fast regarded as pests in these areas), in the case of sheep and goats a zero-tolerance attitude is common. The biggest threats are dogs that live inside or near the paddock areas. The extent of sheep loss is hard to determine due to the wide pasture lands in some parts of Australia. The numbers of cattle losses is much more variable and less well documented. Although the loss of cattle can rise up to 30%, the normal loss rate is about 0–10%. Thereby factors like availability of native prey, as well as the defending behavior and health of the cattle play an important role for the number of losses.

A study in Central Australia in the year 2003 confirmed, that dingoes only have a low impact on cattle numbers, when enough other prey like kangaroos and rabbits are available. In some parts of Australia it is assumed that the loss of calves can be minimized if horned cattle are used instead of hornless. The exact economical impact is not known in this case and it is regarded as unlikely that the rescue of some calves will compensate for the necessary costs of control measures. Calves usually suffer less lethal wounds than sheep due to their size and the protection by the adult cattle and have a higher chance of surviving an attack. Therefore it can happen that the evidence for a dog attack is only found after the cattle have been herded back in the enclosure and signs like bitten ears, tails, and other wounds are discovered. The opinions of cattleowners about dingoes are more variable than the ones of sheepowners and some cattle-owners believe that it is better that the weakened mother loses her calf in times of drought so she does not have to care for her calf too and therefore these owners hesitate more on killing dingoes.

Laurie Corbett also stated this theory. Also the cattle industry may benefit from the predation of dingoes on rabbits, kangaroos, and rats. Furthermore the mortality rate of calves has many possible causes and it is hard to discriminate between them. The only reliable method to document the damage would be to document all pregnant cows and observe their development and that of their calves. The loss of calves in observed areas where dingoes were controlled was higher than in other ones. Loss of livestock is therefore not necessarily caused by the occurrence of dingoes and is independent from wild dogs.

Domestic dogs are the only terrestrial predators in Australia that are big enough to kill fully grown sheep and only a few sheep manage to recover from the severe injuries. In the case of lambs, death can have many causes apart from attacks by predators. Often the predators are blamed for the deaths, because they eat from the carcasses. Although attacks by Red Foxes appear, it happens more rarely than previously thought. The fact that the sheep and goat industry is much more susceptible for damage caused by wild dogs than the cattle industry is mostly due to two factors:

• •

The flight behaviour of the sheep and their quirk to flock together in the face of danger The hunting methods of wild dogs and the efficiency of their way of handling goat and sheep

Therefore the damage for the livestock industry is not in relation to the numbers of wild dogs in an area (except that there is no damage where no wild dogs occur). Even if there are only a few wild dogs in an area, the damage for the sheep industry can be very high, since surplus killing can occur. Sometimes extreme losses of livestock are reported (once supposedly 2000 sheep in one night) and are supposed to be increasing.

According to a report from the Government of Queensland, wild dogs cost the state yearly about 30 million dollars due to livestock-losses, spreading of diseases and control measures. Losses for the livestock-industry alone were estimated to be as high as 18 million dollars. According to a survey among cattle owners in 1995, performed by the Park and Wildlife Service, owners estimated their annual losses due to wild dogs (depending on the district) from 1.6% to 7.1%. Despite the variety of estimations, there is little doubt that predation by dingoes can cause enormous economical damage, especially in times of drought when natural prey is sparse and the dingo numbers are still relatively high. Furthermore wild dogs are involved in the spreading of Echinococcosis among cattle and sheep, as well as heartworms and parvoviruses among dogs under human care. An infection with Echinococcosis can leads to confiscation of 90% of the intestines, which further leads to a value decrease of the meat and high economical damage. Furthermore, bitten livestock can only be sold for a lower price.

Dogs are regarded as a delicacy in East-Asia and Oceania and are regularly killed for eating. In the northeast of Thailand about 200 dingoes are killed per week to be sold on the meat market. Before the start of the 20th century dingoes were also eaten by Indigenous Australians, but there are now reports about this practice in recent times. Among them dingoes were also used as hunting aids, living hot-water bottles, and camp-dogs. Their scalps were used as a kind of currency, teeth were traditionally used for decorative purposes, and their fur for traditional costumes. In some parts of Australia premiums are paid for dingo fur and scalps. Fur of dingoes mostly has only a low value and an export of this fur is forbidden in states where they are protected.

There is also no widespread commercial catching and killing of dingoes for obtaining their fur. Sometimes "pure" dingoes have an importance for tourism, when they are used to attract more visitors. However this seems only to have been done on Fraser Island, where the dingoes are extensively used as a symbol to make the island more attractive. The experience of personally interacting with dingoes seems to be especially important for the tourists. Pictures of dingoes appear on the majority of brochures, many web sites, and post cards which advertise for the island. The usage of dingo-urine as a repellent against dingoes and wallabies was taken into consideration, but has not been economically implemented yet.

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Legal status The dingo was classified as vulnerable on the Red List of Threatened Species in the year 2004. This classification was done because the number of "pure" dingoes had decreased to about 30% due to interbreeding with other domestic dogs. The dingo is regarded as a regulated, native species (but not threatened) under the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act (1999) in the Commonwealth of Nations and is therefore protected in the national parks of the Commonwealth, as well as in World Heritage Sites and other conservation areas. However, this law also allows that dingoes can be controlled in areas where they have a proven impact on the environment. The law forbids the export of dingoes or their body parts from Australia, except for cases where it is regulated by the law. The legal status of the dingo and other wild dogs varies across the Australian federal states and territories: Northern Territory: the dingo is regarded as protected, not threatened and native (due to its ecological impact) under the

Territory Parks and Wildlife Conservation Act (2000). Dingoes in the Northern Territory are regarded as having an important conservational value since interbreeding of dingoes and other domestic dogs is low in the area. However dingoes can be legally killed when they are a danger for the livestock industry.

Western Australia: Dingoes and their hybrids are regarded as declared animals under the Agriculture and Related Resources Protection Act (1976). Populations have to be controlled and can be kept as pets under certain conditions. Control measures are strictly confined to livestock areas and other domestic dogs are controlled in general. Dingoes are also regarded as unprotected native fauna under the Western Australian Wildlife Conservation Act (1950). Although not protected, dingoes are normally not hunted without permission in conservation areas.

South Australia: Dingoes and their hybrids are appointed pests in the sheep areas south of the Dingo Fence under the Animal and Plant Control Board (Agricultural Protection and Other Purposes) Act (1986). There they have to be controlled and can only be kept in captivity of authorized zoos and wildlife parks. North of the Dingo Fence dingoes are regarded as legitimate wildlife and although they are not protected, they are given a certain protection in a puffer zone of 35 km northern of the Dingo Fence.

Queensland: Dingoes and their hybrids are regarded as pests under the Land Protection (Pest and Stock Route Management) Act 2002. All landowners are legally committed to reduce the number of all wild dogs on their lands. The dingo is regarded as wildlife and native wildlife under the Nature Conservation Act (1992) and is a natural resource (therefore protected) in conservation areas. Outside of these areas dingoes are not regarded as native Australian and are not protected. Dingoes and their hybrids can only be kept in wildlife parks and zoos with ministerial agreement.

New South Wales: The Rural Lands Protection Act (1998) allocates wild dogs the status of pests and demands from landowners, that they shall be decimated or eradicated. Although dingoes are not regarded as protected under the National Parks and Wildlife Act (1974), they are granted full protection in national parks. The dingo is regarded as an native species under the Threatened Species Conservation Act (1995), since these dogs had established populations before the European colonization.

The Wild Dog Destruction Act (1921) includes dingoes in its definition of wild dogs. This law only affects the western part of the state, where landowners are committed to control wild dogs. The law forbids the ownership of dingoes in that region, except when you have a legal permission. In other parts of the federal state dingoes can be kept as pets due to the Companion Animals Act (1998).

Australian Capital Territory: Dingoes are regarded as protected under the Nature Conservation Act (1980). On private land killing of wild dogs is allowed when you have permission from the state.

Victoria: Wild dogs are regarded as established pests under the Catchment and Land Protection Act (1994) and landowners (except from the Commonwealth) have the legal duty to hinder the spreading of wild dogs on their lands and to eradicate them as much as possible. The term wild dogs includes here all dingoes, feral domestic dogs, dogs who became wild and crossbreeds (except for recognized breeds like the Australian Cattle Dog). The Domestic (Feral and Nuisance) Animal Act (1994) commits every dog owner to have their dogs under control on all times. The dingoes are granted a certain protection in areas that are managed by the National Parks Act (1975). Since 1998 it is possible to own dingoes as pets. At the time there is the possibility that "pure" dingoes will become officially classified as a protected species, according to official statements, that would not stand in conflict with control measures against wild dogs.

Tasmania: The import of dingoes to Tasmania is forbidden under the National Parks and Wildlife Act (1970). The control of dogs that attack livestock is managed under the Dog Control Act (1987).

Control measures Dingo attacks on livestock lead to widescale efforts to repel them from areas with intensive agricultural usage, and all states and territories have enacted laws for the control of dingoes.[8] In the early 20th century, fences were erected to keep dingoes away from areas frequented by sheep, and a tendency to routinely eradicate dingoes developed among some livestock owners.

Established methods for the control of dingoes in sheep areas consisted in the employment of certain workers on every property. The job of these people (who were nicknamed "doggers") was to reduce the number of dingoes using steel traps, baits, firearms and other methods. The responsibility for the control of wild dogs lay solely in the hands of the land owners. At the same time, the government was forced to decimate the number of dingoes that came from unoccupied areas or reserves that might have travelled to industrial areas. As a result, a number of measures for the control of dingoes developed over time.

It was also considered that dingoes travel over long distances to reach areas with richer prey populations and the control was often concentrated along "paths" or "trails" and in areas that were far away from sheep areas. Every dingo was regarded as a potential danger and had to be hunted.

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In the 1920s the Dingo Fence was erected on the basis of the Wild dog act (1921) and, until 1931, thousands of miles of dogfences had been erected in several areas of South Australia. In the year 1946, these efforts were directed to a single goal and the Dingofence was finally completed.

The fence connected with other fences in New South Wales and Queensland. The main responsibilities in maintaining the dogfence still lies with the landowners, whose properties border on the fence and get financial support from the government.

A reward system (local, as well from the government) was active from 1846 to the end of the 20th century, but there is no evidence that – despite the billions of dollars used – it was ever an efficient control method.

Therefore, its importance declined over time.

The eradication of dingoes due to livestock damage decreased along with the importance of the sheep industry and the usage of strychnine (which beforehand had been used for 100 years) in the 1970s. The number of doggers also decreased and the frequency of government approved aerial baiting increased. During this period, many farmers in Western Australia switched to the cattle industry, and findings in the area of biology lead to a significant change in control measures and techniques in association with reduced costs and increased efficiency. At the same time, the importance of 1080 increased and the first anxieties arose that the number of dingoes might have decreased so much that they may become locally extinct.

Increasing pressure from environmentalists, against the random killing of dingoes as well as due to the impact on other animals, demanded that more information needed to be gathered to prove the necessity of control measures and to disprove the claim of unnecessary killings. Observations on the ecology of dingoes led to the practice to place baits near water holes, hiding places and prey sites.

Today, permanent population control is regarded as necessary to reduce the impact of all wild dogs and to ensure the survival of the "pure" dingo in the wild.

Owners of dingoes and other domestic dogs are sometimes asked to spay or neuter their pets and to keep them under observation in order to reduce the number of stray/feral dogs and prevent interbreeding with dingoes (for instance under the Territory Parks and Wildlife Conservation Act (2000)). The principle of caution is used at least in some control areas today, since dingoes are fully protected there, have cultural importance to the indigenous people and much data concerning the importance of dingoes and the impact of control measures on other species is missing. Historically, the attitudes and needs of indigenous people were not taken into account when dingoes were controlled. So called dingo conservation zones are regarded as a possible solution for this problem, and these zones would mainly be based on holy dingo sites and dreamtime-paths. Other factors that might be taken into account are the genetic status (degree of interbreeding) of dingoes in these areas, ownership and land usage, as well as a reduction of killing measures to areas outside of the zones. Land owners are increasingly committed to regularly record where individual dingoes and their tracks are most frequent and cause the most damage. Also, birth, damage and mortality rates of livestock should be recorded. However most control measures and the appropriate studies are there to minimize the loss of livestock and not to protect dingoes. In areas of cattle industries, there are few or no control measures, and efforts are mostly limited to occasional shootings and poisonings. Government controlled use of 1080 is performed only every third year, when field observations prove the claims of high livestock losses and dingo numbers.

Baits with 1080 are regarded as the fastest as safest method for dog control, since they are extremely susceptible: even small amounts of poison per dog are sufficient (0.3 mg per kg).

The application of aerial baiting is regulated in the Commonwealth by the Civil Aviation Regulations (1988). The assumption that the Tiger Quoll might be damaged by the poison led to the dwindling of areas where aerial baiting could be performed. In areas where aerial baiting is no longer possible, it is necessary to put down baits. Where steel traps and baits cannot or are not allowed to be used (e.g. residential zones), cage traps are used.

Apart from the introduction of 1080 (extensively used for 40 years and nicknamed "doggone"), the methods and strategies for decimating wild dogs have changed little over time. Strychnine is still used in all parts of Australia. Trapping and removal is an essential part of the control measures in the highlands of Southeastern New South Wales and Northern Victoria. It does occur that dingoes are hunted and shot by people on horseback or that a premium is sold for shot dingoes. One method, that does not have any proven effect, is to hang dead dogs along the borders of the property in the belief that this would repel wild dogs. To protect livestock, livestock guardian dogs (e.g. Maremmas), donkeys, alpacas, and llamas are used. Over the last years cyanide-ejectors and protection collars (filled with 1080 on certain spots) have been tested. To keep wild dogs away from certain areas, efforts are taken to make these areas unattractive for them (e.g. by getting rid of food waste) and therefore forcing them to move elsewhere. Control through deliberately spreading disease is normally not considered. Such attempts probably would not be successful, because typical dog diseases are already present in the population. Additionally, dogs under human care would also be susceptible. Other biological control methods are not regarded as achievable, since there would be a high risk of decimating dogs under human care.

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The efficiency of control measures was questioned in the past and is still often questioned today. It is also questioned whether they stand in a good cost-benefit ratio. The premium system proved to be susceptible to deception and to be useless on a large scale and can therefore only be used for getting rid of "problem-dogs". Animal traps are considered as inhumane and inefficient on a large scale, e.g. due to the limited efficacy of baits. Based on studies, it is assumed that only young dogs which would have died anyway can be captured. Furthermore, wild dogs are capable of learning and sometimes are able to detect and avoid traps quite efficiently. There is a known case in which a dingo bitch followed a dogger and triggered its traps one after another by carefully pushing her paw through the sand that covered the trap. Poisonous baits can be very effective when they are of good meat quality; however, they do not last long and are proven to be taken by Red Foxes, quolls, ants, and birds.

Aerial baiting can nearly eliminate whole dingo populations. Livestock guardian dogs can effectively minimize livestock losses, but are less effective on wide open areas with widely distributed livestock. Furthermore they can be a danger to the livestock or be killed by control measures themselves when they are not sufficiently supervised by their owners. Fences are reliable in keeping wild dogs from entering certain areas, but they are expensive to built and need permanent maintenance. Further more they only cause the problem to be relocated.

According to studies, control measures can eliminate 66 to 84% of a wild living dog population, but the population can reach their old numbers very quickly over the course of a year and depending on the season, for instance by immigration of young dogs from other areas. If at all, only a cohesive coordinated control in all areas could be efficient in the long run. Control measures mostly result in smaller packs respectively in a disruption of the pack structure. Also the measures seem to be rather detrimental to the livestock industry because the empty territories are taken over by young dogs and the predation then increases. Nonetheless it is regarded as unlikely that the control measures could completely eradicate the dingo in Central Australia, and the elimination of all wild dogs is not considered as a realistic option.

Conservation Dingoes are only officially protected in Australia and conservation areas for "pure" dingoes exist only there. All other wild dogs are considered pests. However, in reality all wild dogs are granted full protection in conservation zones, because a separate management is not possible. In Australia dingoes are only regarded as "legally protected" in national parks, natural reserves, in the Arnhem Land Aborigine Reserve and natural parks in the Northern Territory, national parks and reserves in New South Wales, national parks in Victoria and in the whole area of the Australian Capital Territory. Although dingoes are protected there, as well as in areas belonging to the World Heritage and Aboriginal-reserves, they are regarded as "declared" pests in the bulk of their remaining distribution area and landowners are committed to control the local populations.

The dingoes of Fraser Island are considered to be of significant conservational value, since they are often seen as the "most pure" population and to be most similar to the original dingoes, due to their geographical and genetically isolation.

Supposedly the dingoes there are not "threatened" by interbreeding with other domestic dogs.

Groups that have devoted themselves to the conservation of the "pure" dingo by using breeding programs are for instance the Australian Native Dog Conservation Society and the Australian Dingo Conservation Association. The efforts of the dingoconservation-groups are considered to be ineffective at the moment since most of their dogs are either untested or known to be hybrids.

The focus of attention in association with the conservation of dingoes is the stop of interbreeding between dingoes and other domestic dogs. Protection from interbreeding is extremely difficult, costly and conservation efforts are hampered by the facts that it is not known how many "pure" dingoes still exist in Australia and that conservation efforts are in conflict with control measures. Steps to conserve the "pure" dingo can only be effective when the identification of dingoes and other domestic dogs is absolutely reliable (especially in the case of living specimen). Conservation of "pure" and survivable dingo populations is regarded as promising in remote areas, where the contact with humans and especially other domestic dogs is rare. In parks, reserves and other areas not used by agriculture these populations shall only be controlled when they pose a threat to the survival of other native species. The introduction of "dog-free" buffer zones around areas with "pure" dingoes is regarded as a realistic method to stop interbreeding. At the moment this is enforced in the way that all wild dogs can be killed outside of the conservation areas. However studies from the year 2007 indicate that even an intensive control of core areas is probably not able to stop the process of interbreeding.

At the present there is no information on what kind of opinion the broad public has towards the conservation of dingoes.

Additionally there is no unity on the definition of "pure" dingoes and how far they should be controlled.

As a pet and working dog There is divided opinion on the topic of keeping dingoes as pets and working dogs. For some people, the dingo is by no means suitable for this while for others it is no different to other domestic dogs, and that to say otherwise would be far fetched. In this vein, dingoes would have the right to be recognized as a dog breed and that domestication would be the only reliable way to ensure the survival of the "pure" dingo.

Dingoes can be very tame when they come in frequent contact with humans. Furthermore there were and are dingoes that live with humans (due to practical, as well as emotional reasons). It is known that many indigenous Australians and early European settlers already lived alongside dingoes. Alfred Brehm reported of dingoes that were completely tame and, in some cases, behaved exactly like other domestic dogs (one was used for shepherding heavy livestock), as well as of specimens that remained wild and shy. He also reported of dingoes that were aggressive and completely uncontrollable, but was of the opinion that these reports should not get more attention than they deserve, since the behaviour depends on how the dingo was raised since early puppyhood. He also believed that these dogs could become very decent pets.

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According to Eberhard Trumler dingoes are very smart and affectionate. These characteristics were the reason why he never recommended anyone to own dingoes if they could not provide the dog an enclosure (not a kennel) that was big enough and escape-proof and a partner of the opposite sex.

During heat, dingoes are even harder to manage than other domestic dogs, which combined with their attachment to their owners leads to problems, since they want to follow their owners all the time and never miss the opportunity to feed. They are supposed to find every weak spot of an enclosure or residence, escape for a while and stray through towns and villages. Their intellectual ability is supposedly connected to an enormous ability to learn and a lightning perception, but stops at the slightest hint of pressure. They would be suitable as shepherd dogs, as they see a purpose in it (keeping together a familiar group would be in their nature) and even today, some dingoes are used as shepherd dogs. Similar to other domestic dogs they can be housebroken.

In 1976, the Australian Native Dog Training Society of N.S.W. Ltd was founded, which was originally illegal because ownership of dingoes was forbidden. The dingo was officially recognized as Australia's national dog breed in mid-1994 by the Australian National Kennel Council, and a breed standard was published years later. However this does not legalize ownership in states where it is forbidden to own, breed or sell dingoes.

Today dingoes are bred by certain clubs and private individuals in Australia and the USA. Whether or not dingoes are allowed to be kept as pets differs from country to country, as well as between the states of Australia. For example: in South Australia dingoes can only be kept in specially authorized zoos, circuses and research institutions. Ownership, planned domestication or commercial usage of dingoes is considered unacceptable, since this would lead to the reintroduction of dingoes in sheep areas.

The dingo is not regarded as a dog breed by the FĂŠdĂŠration Cynologique Internationale. However the American Rare Breed Association (ARBA) regards the dingo as a breed belonging to the Spitz and Primitive Group. Since 1988 the dingo is also recognized as a dog breed by the Australian National Kennel Council (ANKC) where it is listed in Group 4.

Goals Breeding programs are considered to be the best option to ensure the long-term existence of the dingo in its "pure" form (the reclassification of the dingo as a pet in New South Wales of the year 1998 was originally done to save the dingo from extinction), sometimes with the goal to later return them to the wild.

Apart from that, the breeding of dingoes is also there to produce dingoes that can be sold or used as working dogs. The first efforts to use dingoes at customs were done in 1976 in Victoria. However, some people speculated that these dogs were crossbreeds of dingoes and shepherd dogs.

Criticism The ownership of dingoes as pets and their resulting breeding are criticised from many directions.

One point of criticism is that the activities and the resulting consequences of the dingoconservation-groups, "dingo farms" and legislation for legal ownership of dingoes for people in public is supposed to be an additional threat to the survival of the "pure" dingoes. This fear exists because the majority of these breeding activities effectively expedite the interbreeding of dingoes and other domestic dogs, when the identification of a "pure" dingo is not absolutely correct respectively when hybrids are sold as "pure" dingoes.

Even supporters of breeding programs are sometimes only vaguely optimistic about the success of this step to preserve the "pure" dingo. Success in the form of a population viable for future re-wilding is only to be accomplished with difficulty from the start. According to David Jenkins, the breeding and reintroduction of "pure" dingoes is no easy option and at the time there have been no studies that seriously dealt with this topic, especially in areas where dingo populations are already present. An additional threat is that breeders may unconsciously select for tamer dingoes by breeding individuals who are more easily to manage. Therefore it may happen that, over the years, the tame populations become less suitable for living in the wild than their ancestors. Also, a loss of genetic diversity (thus resulting in a higher susceptibility to diseases) might occur due to a small founding population and negative changes could occur simply because the dogs were captive-bred. Furthermore, some features that are necessary for survival in the wild might "fade" under the conditions of domestication (e.g. hunting techniques) because they are no longer practised.

Another point of criticism is that adult dingoes are not suitable as pets in the same way as other domestic dogs in the eyes of many people. Dingoes are hereby regarded as more independent minded than other domestic dogs, and domestication is supposedly difficult. Furthermore, it is stated that dingoes, as they age, succumb to their aggressive instincts and attacks on people become more likely and that dingoes often run away. Furthermore, most people could not give a dingo what it needs and dingoes would not react positively to domestication and training. Supposedly, only few dingoes and dingo-hybrids would reach an old age, since the owners would not know how to handle them. When a dingo is not socialized, it would be hard to control and develop behavioural problems from aspects of domestic life which are more easily tolerated by other dog breeds. To make dingoes more suitable as lapdogs, breeders would need to cross them with other domestic dogs.

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Origin and genetic status Since dingoes were the only big placental mammals in Australia, apart from humans, and looked similar to dogs under human care but lived in the wild, their origin was a subject of much speculation and debate since the 18th century and especially in the first half of the 20th century. Later archaeological and morphological studies indicated a relatively late introduction and a close relationship to other domestic dogs. The exact descent, place of origin and time of their arrival in Australia were not identified, nor whether they were domesticated or half-domesticated at the time of their arrival and therefore are feral or completely wild dogs respectively.

A widely distributed theory says that dingoes have evolved or were bred from the Canis lupus pallipes or Canis lupus arabs around 6.000–10.000 years ago (this was also assumed for all domestic dogs). This theory was based on the morphological similarities of dingo skulls and the skulls of these wolves. However genetic analyses indicated a much earlier domestication.

Analyses of amino sequences of the hemoglobin of a "pure" dingo in the 70s supported the theory that dingoes are more closely related to other domestic dogs than to grey wolves or coyotes. Additionally it was assumed that dingoes and other Asian domestic dogs are members of a group of domestic dogs that went feral very early. At the same time, DNA-studies on Australian dingoes and other domestic dogs were performed to differentiate between both populations in a reliable way and determine the extent of the interbreeding. At the first two examinations, during which at first 14 loci and later 5 of these loci were examined, no genetic difference could be found. Later on the analyses were expanded to 16 loci. This time dingoes from Central Australia, the Eastern Highlands, dingo-hybrids and domestic dogs of other origin were examined. The researchers were surprised that they could not find any differences no matter what kind of examination they used. It was reasoned that dingoes and other domestic dogs have a very similar gene pool. However, since also only few differences in the enzymes of different species of the genus canis could be found, it was assumed that a lack of differences might not indicate a close taxonomical relationship. It was also reasoned that the degree of interbreeding in the wild is only hard to determine.

During analyses in the end of the 1990s researchers also analysed 14 loci and detected a significantly lower genetic variability among Australian dingoes than among other domestic dogs and a small founding population was considered. There was one loci found that might have been suitable for differentiation, but not in the case of interbreeding of a dingo-hybrid with other "pure" dingoes. Additionally it was suspected that findings of other suitable loci might be used to determine whether there are clearly separate sub-populations of the "pure" dingoes.

To determine the origin and time of arrival of Australian dingoes, mtDNA-sequences of 211 dingoes and 19 archaeological samples from pre-European Polynesia have been compared in 2004 with DNA-samples of 676 other domestic dogs and 38 grey wolves. The domestic dog samples came from China, Africa, Southwest-Asia, India, Siberia, the arctic America, Europe, Mongolia, Korea, Japan, Vietnam, Cambodia, Thailand, Indonesia, the Philippines, Malaysia, New Zealand, Hawaii and the highlands of New Guinea. The dingo-samples came from zoos, wildlife parks, dingo-conservation-groups, dingo-lovers and 192 wild living specimen from 27 areas scattered over the Australian continent, mainly from the Pilbara-region, New South Wales and the Northeast of Victoria. The wild specimen had been selected based on similarities of external appearance, to exclude the influence of dingo-hybrids and other domestic dogs as far as possible.

Compared to wolves and other domestic dogs the variation of mtDNA-sequences was very limited too. Among dingoes only 20 mtDNA-sequences differing in 2 point mutations at most could be found. In comparison: 114 mtDNA-sequences with a maximal difference of 16 point mutations between the DNA-types could be found among other domestic dogs. Two of the dingo mtDNA-types were similar to that of other domestic dogs (A9, A29), while the other 18 types were unique to dingoes. In a phylogenetic tree of wolves and domestic dogs, dingoes fell right into the main clade (A), which contained 70% of all domestic dog types. Within this clade the dingo-types formed a group around the type A29, which was surrounded by twelve less frequent dingo-types, as well as a set of other domestic dog types. This mtDNA-type was found in 53% of the dingoes and was also found among some domestic dogs from East-Asia, New-Guinea and the American Arctic. Based on these findings it was reasoned that all dingo-mtDNA-types originated in A29. A9 was only found in one individual and it was regarded as possible that this type is the result of a parallel mutation. Based on a mutation-rate of mtDNA and that A29 is the only founder–type it was regarded as most likely that dingoes arrived in Australia about 4,600 to 5,400 years ago, which was consistent with archaeological findings. However, it was also considered that dingoes might have arrived within 4,600 to 10,800 years ago, in case that the mtDNA-mutation rate was slower than assumed. Furthermore it was reasoned that these findings strongly indicate a descent of dingoes from East-Asian domestic dogs and not from Indian domestic dogs or wolves. In addition these findings indicated two possibilities of descent:

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All Australian dingoes are descended from a few domestic dogs, theoretically one pregnant female All Australian dingoes are descended from a group of domestic dogs, who radically lost their genetic diversity through one or several severe genetic bottlenecks on their way from the Asian continent over Southeast-Asia

Nonetheless, the existence of other mtDNA-types on the islands surrounding Australia indicate there have been other types apart from A29 and only one single founding event. These results also indicated that there hasn't been any significant introduction of other domestic dog on the Australian continent prior to the arrival of the Europeans. Also, a shared origin and some sort of genetic exchange between Australian dingoes and the New Guinea singing dogs was regarded as possible. The current state of the Australian dingoes was ascribed to the long wild existence of these dogs and assumed that they are an isolated example of early domestic dogs.

Despite accordant claims, these findings did not show that only dingo females mate with non-dingo males and not vice versa.

The findings would not allow such a conclusion, since the mating of a dingo female with a non-dingo male could not be detected via analyses of mtDNA. Furthermore the researchers made sure from the start that dingo-hybrids were excluded as far as possible.

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Interbreeding with other domestic dogs European domestic dogs first arrived in Australia during the European colonization. These dogs reverted to the wild (both unintentionally and intentionally), produced feral populations and interbred with the dingoes. Hybrids of dingoes and other domestic dogs exist today in all populations of Australia, with their population being regarded as increasing to the point that completely "pure" populations may no longer exist. The degree of interbreeding is locally so high by now, for instance in urban and rural areas, that there are big populations consisting purely of hybrids. Estimates from the 90s already assumed a proportion of dingo-hybrids of about 78% in the wild. It is not clear how big the current population of Hybrids is today.

Dingo-like domestic dogs and dingo-hybrids can be generally distinguished from "pure" dingoes by their fur-color, since there is a wider range of colors and patterns among them than among dingoes. Furthermore, the more dog-typical kind of barking exists among the hybrids. Furthermore, differences in the breeding-cycle, certain skull-characteristics and genetic analyses can be used for differentiation. Despite all the characteristics that can be used for distinguishing between dingoes and other domestic dogs, there are two problems that should not be underestimated. At first there is no real clarity from what point a dog is regarded as a "pure" dingo, second no distinguishing feature is one-hundred per cent reliable and it is not sure which characteristics permanently remain under the conditions of natural selection.

In the scientific area, there are two main opinions regarding this process of interbreeding. The first, and likely most common position, states that the "pure" dingo should be preserved via strong controls of the wild dog populations, and only "pure" respectively nearly "pure" dingoes should be protected. The second position is relatively new and is of the opinion that people must accept that the dingo has changed and that it is not possible to bring the "pure" dingo back.

Conservation of these dogs should therefore be based on where and how they live, as well as their cultural and ecological role, instead of concentrating on precise definitions or concerns about "genetic purity". Both positions are controversially discussed.

It is verifiable that there is a wider range of fur-colors, skull-shapes and body size in the modern day wild dog population than in the time before the arrival of the Europeans. Over the course of the last 40 years there has been an increase of the average wild dog body size of about 20%. Currently it is unknown whether, in the case of the disappearance of "pure" dingoes, the then existing hybrids will alter the predation pressure on other animals. It is also unclear what kind of role these hybrids would play in the Australian ecosystems. However, it is regarded as likely that the dynamics of the various ecosystems will not be disturbed by this process.

Attacks on humans As wild dogs are large predators, they can be potentially dangerous to humans.

Fraser Island is a special centre of attention regarding such, since interaction between dingoes and humans there is very high due to tourism, therefore the majority of reported incidents originate there.

The likelihood of wild dogs being a danger to humans depends to a large degree on how humans behave toward them. The more frequently these dogs are fed or scavenge human leftovers, the more likely it is that they lose all caution and sometimes react aggressively towards humans when they no longer receive or find food.

Even when habituation to humans seems to be the cause for attacks, it is not clear what the ultimate cause for attacks and overall threat towards humans is. It is possible that some attacks result from the "play" of young pups, especially with children. Attacks can also be caused by false reactions of humans to aggressive and dominance behavior of dingoes. It is assumed that dingoes might have started to regard "human" food sources (garbage cans, leftovers, handouts, etc.) as part of their territory and that attacks on humans can therefore occur because the dingoes see humans as competition and want to protect their food sources. That some dingoes might regard humans as prey was also deemed possible because humans, especially children, could be theoretically overpowered.

Two reports of dingo attacks on humans caused special attention:

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On 19 August 1980 a nine-week-old girl named Azaria Chamberlain was captured by a dingo near the Uluru and killed. Her mother was suspected and convicted of murder. Four years later she was released from prison when the jacket of the baby was found in a dingo den and the mother was therefore found innocent. This incident caused much outcry for and against the dingoes.

On 30 April 2001 nine-year-old Clinton Cage was attacked and killed by two dingoes near Waddy Point on Fraser Island. The incident and the following culling of 31 dingoes caused much outcry among the residents. There were many protests and the suggestion was made to erect fences.

The behaviour of humans might undermine efforts to prepare against dingo-attacks; therefore the change of human behaviour is in the centre of attention. Warning signs like "Beware Dingoes" seem to have lost their effect on Fraser Island, despite their high numbers.

Furthermore, some humans do not realize how adaptive and quick dingoes are. Therefore they do not stay attentive enough and for instance do not consider that dingoes even steal food like fruits and vegetables. In addition some tourists seemed to be confused by the high numbers of rules in some parks and have been prompted in some cases to actively feed the wild animals.

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Problems in classification There is no general agreement, scientifically or otherwise, on what the dingo is in a biological sense, since it has been called "wolf", "dingo", "dog" and "wild dog".

Even within the scientific community is the dingo given several names. In addition, there is no consensus on whether it is a feral or native animal or what kinds of dogs should be classed as dingoes. Thus some people consider the New Guinea Singing Dog, the Basenji, the Carolina Dog and other dogpopulations to be dingoes, something which has yet to be proven. Evidence indicates a discord concerning the status of these dogs also. Dingoes have been variously considered to be wild dogs, the progenitor of domestic dogs, the ancestor of modern dog breeds, a separate species, a link between wolf and domestic dog, a primitive canine-species or primitive domestic dog, a "dog-like" relative of wolves. or a subspecies of the domestic dog. Others consider them to be native dogs of Asia, a relatively unchanged form of early domestic dog., part wolf and part dog or to have been selectively bred from wolves Then again, others do not consider them feral anymore but completely wild, since they have been living under natural selection for a very long time.

According to present scientific consensus and knowledge, they are domestic dogs that arrived at their present distribution with humans, adapted to the respective conditions and are no more "primitive" or "primordial" than other domestic dogs.

Some people suppose that the dingo has never been a subject to the artificial selection that produced modern dog breeds and that the dingo is an undomesticated descendent of an extinct Asian wolf. However, compared to the European grey wolf, dingoes have an approximately 30% lower relative brain size, reduced facial expressions reduced imposing behaviour, curled tails which can be carried over the back and generally a permanent fertility in males; features that all known domestic dogs share and that are considered to be caused by domestication. It might happen that one and the same source names the dingo as a subspecies of the grey wolf but lists all other domestic dogs as a separate species. Likewise, the scientific name of the dingo might be stated to be Canis lupus dingo, but the dingo regarded as a separate species nonetheless. Alfred Brehm originally considered the dingo to be a separate species, but after examining several different specimens came to the conclusion that they could only be domestic dogs. In contrast, William Jardine considered the dingo to be an entirely separate species, while contemporary French naturalists regarded them as feral dogs. Even among modern day scientists dingoes and other domestic dogs are sometimes considered two separate species, despite proven small genetic, morphological and behavioural differences. The phenomenon of interbreeding between both is then attributed to the statement that all wolf-like species can interbreed and produce fertile offspring. However, breeding experiments in Germany could only prove an unrestricted fertility in the offspring of domestic dogs and grey wolves. Hybrids between domestic dogs and coyotes, respectively domestic dogs and Golden Jackals, had communication problems among each other, as well to the parent species. From the third hybridgeneration on, a decrease in fertility and an increase in genetic damage was observed among the coyote-hybrids and jackalhybrids. Observations of these kind have never been made for hybrids of dingoes and other domestic dogs, only that dingoes and other domestic dogs can freely interbreed with each other.

The choice of classification can have a direct impact on the dingo. Dingoes officially cease to exist outside of national parks and become unprotected wild dogs. This term itself sometimes only includes dingoes and their hybrids respectively excludes dingoes. Another change of name is that dingoes are "only" feral outside of national parks, with this term having a more negative meaning than the term "wild".

On the other hand, dingoes have been "rehabilitated" in some way, by changing their status from pests to "Australia's native dog" or more subtly, from a subspecies of the domestic dog to that of the grey wolf. The undertone in the Australian press seemed to be that being a grey wolf or an Asian wolf means that the dingo is more "wild" and therefore more desirable than a companion animal (domestic dog). It is possible that the habit of calling the dingo only dog (not wild dog) in colloquial language indicates a kind of familiarity or debasing. In the last case it might be morally easier to kill a dingo when it causes problems because it would not have the "high status" of a wolf or dingo. Sometimes, it is considered to be bad that dingoes are domestic dogs, as well as being descended from them and not "directly" from the grey wolf. If the dingo regarded as native, than it is worthy of protection. But is if considered to be "just" a variant of the domestic dog, it is regarded as a pest and should be eradicated.

You clients interaction with dingoes is your responsibility.

Don’t kill the dogs.

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Fighting Ferals on Fraser Island Because it has been isolated from the mainland for the whole modern era (since European settlement) and because it was not subject to agricultural exploitation, Fraser Island escaped many invaders which have taken a heavy toll on the biodiversity of the mainland. There are relatively few weeds, no feral pigs, foxes and rabbits, but there are a number of self introductions which are now posing a serious threat to the natural integrity of this World Heritage island, which still has the capacity to be a Noah’s Ark. The list of potential feral threats on Fraser Island is almost endless. This backgrounder attempts to make more people aware of the range of feral plants and animals, and the threats they pose to the integrity of this unique natural wonder of the world, because avoiding introductions is easier than eradicating ferals once they are released and are spreading through the natural environment.

Only eternal vigilance can prevent introductions and stop them escaping.

A number of feral plants and animals are already established on Fraser Island. Many, such as the cane toad, are selfintroduced. While the impact of cane toads on Kakadu is now receiving national attention, these environmental disasters have been having a devastating impact on Fraser Island for decades.

Humans have unthinkingly helped to introduce many other pest organisms to arrive on this formerly pristine environment.

However, the mistakes of the past keep being repeated, even when people should know better. FIDO has observed landholders travelling across Fraser Island with new pots containing exotic plants they propose to grow. These plants may eventually become weeds like lantana, and the pots may contain a whole range of invertebrates which could also have devastating impact, from insects to weed seeds, exotic earthworms, bacteria and soil borne viruses. (Fire ants were spread around southern Queensland in nursery pots). Fraser Island needs to be isolated from further introductions.

Existing Ferals Feral Animals Alien fish, fowl, mammals and more have arrived on Fraser Island during the last century and all have had some impact in altering the natural biodiversity.

Rodents: The most numerous animals to be found on Fraser Island are rodents. Most of these are Bush rats (Rattus fuscipides) or Melomys (fawn footed and grassland). Some, though, such as the Delicate mouse and Eastern Chestnut mouse are uncommon. There are already feral Black rats (Rattus rattus) on Fraser Island. However these are mainly found around the human settlements. What is most disturbing is that many Fraser Island visitors are not used to encountering native rodents and marsupial mice and are killing native species like vermin. FIDO has already observed hundreds of native rodents dumped on the beach at Sandy Cape waiting to be taken by the tide. Island visitors need to be more aware of the native rodents and their role in the Island’s ecology and to be able to accurately identify what is natural (and therefore protected) and what is alien.

Cane toads: The cane toads apparently arrived on Fraser Island on flood debris washed down the Mary River some decades ago. Their appearance coincided with a dramatic reduction in snake numbers, particularly Death Adders. Not much more is known of their impact, particularly on the invertebrates. Data coming from the Northern Territory suggests that it was probably much worse than anyone had previously suspected.

Horses: In early 2003 there were just 22 feral horses (brumbies) remaining on Fraser Island, down from about 200. Their impact has been heaviest on the foredune vegetation.

Since brumbies were removed from the southern part of Fraser Island, Pandanus have proliferated and other species have benefited. Their biggest impact was to cause grassy areas to become woodlands as the selective grazing weakened the grass.

Cats: There are still reports of feral cats on Fraser Island although they do not appear to be numerous. FIDO is always searching for cat tracks with little to report.

Dogs: Hybridization of dingoes could occur if domestic dogs escape on Fraser Island. Apart from putting at risk the genetic purity of Fraser Island’s dingoes, domestic dogs may introduce disease to the wild animals which can’t be rushed off to a vet to help them survive. Parvo virus spread from domestic dogs to the dingo population in the late 70s, with devastating impact.

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Fish: The potential impact of exotic fish such as Gambusia on the indigenous freshwater fauna of Fraser Island is well recognized. Management has to be vigilant to prevent the spread of this pernicious predator on our native species.

Earth Worms: Sand swimmers, with earthworms being amongst the most obvious, are fauna special to Fraser Island. The risk of introduction of South American earthworms, which have already displaced most native worms in home gardens, is very real. Potted plants can carry and spread earthworms.

Birds: Fraser Island has so far escaped the invasion of birds such as Indian Mynas, which are the rabbits of the avian world, but some sparrows and other exotic birds have made small appearances. There is a big risk of spreading disease from caged birds to the wild population.

Feral Plants (Weeds) The number of weeds which exist on Fraser Island is already large and it is growing. Once established, airborne seed help these to spread. Birds have been responsible for spreading many more, such as lantana and Easter cassia and even umbrella trees, pepperina trees and asparagus ferns. The only way to limit the further proliferation of weeds, which can irreversibly alter the ecology, is by eternal vigilance.

Groundsel is mainly confined to the coastal areas. It is out of control along the west coast, forming almost impenetrable thickets in places.

Lantana has been slowly receding, due to many biological controls, but it is not a weed that can be ignored.

Bitou Bush exists only in one small area. It is being annually weeded but the seeds remain viable for up to ten years. In view of the threat it poses, it is vital that it be completely eliminated.

Many succulents, from cactus to mother in law’s tongue, are well established and hard to eliminate.

Sisal was introduced to help “civilize” Aborigines. It escaped from the Bogimbah and Sandy Cape “missions”. Some sisal has been found in Eurong. Even the Australian Army haven’t been able to overcome this resistant fighter after more than a decade of battling.

Asparagus ferns are already on Fraser Island but in many other World Heritage areas these have escaped and are uncontrollable. We can’t be complacent about these ferns.

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Potential Ferals Many flora and fauna could irrevocably change Fraser Island’s ecology. Many of the potential plant invaders may already be on Fraser Island, where they may be “sleepers” and go unrecognized. Sleepers “break out” after years to become pests of alarming proportions. Many species once assumed to be benign have subsequently suddenly changed, to become aggressive invaders, overwhelming and displacing native species. This has happened in the case of cane toads. It has happened to many plant invaders, from mimosa to cactus. Unless all ferals can be controlled, the natural integrity of Fraser Island is at serious risk.

Potential Animal Pests Foxes occur on the mainland adjacent to Fraser Island but so far the island has escaped their devastating impact. While the full impact of cats is still unclear, there is irrefutable evidence that foxes are responsible for the extinction of more Australian species than any other animal (except for humans). Their impact on a wide range of ground and soil dwelling fauna on Fraser Island would be tragic. Curlews and other ground dwelling birds, rats, bettongs and lizards would all be at great risk.

Farm Animals: Although there are now no cattle, sheep or goats on Fraser Island, all have been there at times in the past. It is only good fortune that there are none still feral on the island. In the late 1970s many feral cattle were eradicated as part of Australia’s TB-Brucellosis eradication campaign. Fraser Island is one of the few places in Australia to escape the devastating impact of feral pigs. Pigs destroy both plants and other animals and they would plough up large areas of ground on Fraser Island. They spread disease and are extremely difficult to eliminate once they are established. On the Great Barrier Reef’s North West Island, a colony of feral domestic fowls became established and had a severe impact on the ground fauna.

Domestic Pets: It is not beyond the realms of possibility that domestic dogs could go feral on Fraser Island and start hybridizing with the dingoes. It is for this reason that domestic dogs are banned from Fraser Island. In other places in Australia, escapees from aviaries have established colonies of displaced bird species. Feral fish are usually released from domestic aquariums.

Deliberate releases: Hunters have been responsible for the deliberate release and propagation of many feral animals in Queensland, to provide them with “game” to hunt. Such hunters have released pigs on Hinchinbrook Island and rabbits in a number of hinterland areas of Queensland. This is a kind of ecoterrorism which has the propensity for enormous environmental damage, merely to gratify the illegal activities of a few.

Alien Insects: Already European bees have escaped apiaries and have taken up residence on Fraser Island. In America’s Great Smoky National Park, 90% of the Fraser fir have been killed by a feral insect, Balsam Woolly Aphid, which has gone on to attack other great spruce fir forests across the country.

Feral Plants The list of potential plant invaders is only speculative. Few people would have anticipated the threat which pepperina trees and umbrella trees have posed at Happy Valley. Yet they are on the way to establishing forests and even displacing the ubiquitous Easter cassia.

Most of the potential weeds of the future are now regarded as benign garden plants on Fraser Island.

Other Potential Pests While it is possible to identify larger vascular plants and most mammals, amphibians and reptiles, the greatest threat to the integrity of Fraser Island may come from invisible ferals. Great Smoky Mountains National Park in the American Appalachians is one of the world’s most visited natural World Heritage site. Attacks by devastating diseases killing its forests’ largest trees is inexorably altering the habitat. Dutch Elm disease, spread by a small borer introduced from Europe, long ago wiped out the elm trees. Then the other dominant broadleafed tree, the chestnut, was hit by an introduced Asian fungus Endothia parasitica.

Whereas one in every four trees was once a chestnut, they now barely exist. Four billion Appalacian chestnuts died in 35 years — a quarter of all its trees.

Phytophthera: The Root rot disease which causes dieback amongst hundreds of Australian native plants is caused by a soil borne fungi known as Phytophthera cinnamomi. It has already had a devastating impact on many native forests, from the south west of Western Australia to Eungella National Park near Mackay. It could so easily be inadvertently introduced to Fraser Island in gravel or soil carted to the island for construction purposes or in pot plants. The latter is the most likely because all soil and gravel taken to the island is supposed to be inspected and cleared. However, FIDO has seen pot plants and nursery trees being taken to Fraser Island by landholders, which seem unlikely to have been scrutinized.

Addressing the Problems The Management Plan addresses the potential risk from feral introductions. The Queensland Parks and Wildlife Service has been vigilant, but there are many breaches of the Management Plan despite their efforts and it needs all Fraser Island users to be more conscious of the threat which ferals pose. Quarantine is difficult to enforce but it is still much easier and cheaper than any alternative management options. Fraser Island is isolated from the mainland and it should be easier to quarantine.

All Fraser Island landholders and visitors need to be alert to the risks of ferals and how they may be introduced, albeit very innocently. All need to be vigilant to notice any plant or animal which has not been previously observed or which is behaving unnaturally.

Vigilance is essential to maintain ecological integrity.

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Sand Dunes Humble beginnings - the infant dune and its journey Whether they are of the stable uniform stretch of low dune characteristics of our northern NSW coastline or the gargantuan sand cliffs of Cooloola and the huge packed parabolic dunes of Stradbroke, Moreton and Fraser Island's transgressing inland as wind blown deltas of fine white sand called blowouts they all started in the same humble way. A stray piece of flotsam blown high above the tide line onto a berm or sand ridge by a winter storm, a straggle of seaweed or parts of a mangrove plant, small potential nuclei for the seeding of a dune. Trapped by drying sand around them they in turn become catchments for further wind blown sand that eventually creates a tiny hillock around it: a mini dune.

The sea weed brings with it passengers that feed on the tiny diatoms attached to its surface. Sea birds aggregate on bare areas like beaches on which they find refuge from the ravages of the oceans changing moods. These are spots, especially if there are raised areas where they can detect predators easily. They also like to eat amphipods (small crustaceans).

The little Hillock now receives bird droppings rich in nitrates and phosphates, good plant food. Inevitably some of these beach "pimples" will stop the wind blown march of a strange spider like tumble weed, the seed capsule of that hardiest of all grasses called spinifex. Soon after, it germinates to establish a root hold and spreads web like rhizomes (creeping stems) to capture the hillock and other rolling tumble weeds in it's first act of sand stabilisation and dune formation. These are the pioneer colonisers of sand dunes.

Spinifex on Primary Dune

Consolidation of adjacent mini dunes by the hopping action of wind blown beach sand (called saltation) Birds, flotsam and those amazing sand holding perennial grasses called Spinifex improves local conditions for other binders such as pig face and the goastfoot vine to join the battle for stabilisation. Together with time, isolation and minimal interference they help create the first thin skin of coastal protection called a primary dune.

Over further time and the prevailing south easterly wind the build up of original berm and the merging of mini dunes a green fuzzy ridge of Spinifex and sand, forms a low natural wall of defense against intense invasion from the sea. Behind this wall a snug valley called a swale nurtures conditions for nutrients to accumulate and other specialised plants to further diversify. The salt and wind loving pioneers of the fore dune that helped establish this swale now gives way to new varieties of plants. Low sand holding shrubs like coastal wattle (acacias), banksias with their remarkable predilection for poor soils, and accumulating phosphates and adaptations against salt wind and severe dehydration.

Morning glory, another dune colonising plant

Coastal Wattle

Mean while in front of the primary dune new mini dunes continue to form. Over time compounded by the dropping of sea levels they become new primary dunes relegating the original dune to a highly vegetated sand hill called a secondary dune. As sea levels continue to drop over the last glacial period, tertiary dunes form. The original dune has become a coastal forest heathland and its extended swale a luxurious insect and bird rich heath land.

We must ask ourselves what would happen to the great spread of coastal urban development that have displaced so many sand dunes of their natural barrier systems if a reversal was to occur and sea levels started to rise? From the air a series of parallel beach ridges fringing the seaward edge of many coastal plains indicate a history of coastal advance and sea retreat. The highest sand hill in the world is Mt Tempest of Moreton Island it is 280 meters tall and is in fact a huge transgressive dune.

This whole evolutionary give and take process of dune formation and its protective establishment and sustenance of developing coastal forest is called succession, the journey of the dune. Like the adding and shedding of our skin over time the dunes and sea cliffs form a dynamic living security system that surround our continent. It nurtures the essential feedback processes of homeostasis that keeps coastal terrestrial eco systems in balance enabling them to operate autonomously with relative impunity. Our dune system also alike to the skin is a fragile sensitive organ that functions most effectively within the natural parameters set by it's own evolving tolerance to interference and change.

Heathland plants

The coastal forests, heathlands, wetlands and mangroves, sea grasses and salt marshes that this dune succession spawns promotes outgoing sediments of sand and detritus (waste organic matter) which unless contaminated by alien infusions of questionable origin and intent feed the capillaries of it's creek and river systems to fuel the oceans and ultimately refurbish the very basis for it's own continuously recycled and sustained existence.

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Sand is made from 2 sources 1) Quartz particles from eroded bedrock and discharged from rivers or eroded Rocky Shores where there is great river out puts such as in SE Australia quartz particles tend to pre dominate.

2) Calcium carbonate derived from shells of molluscs, Forameniferans and Bryozoans which form them at sea

Sand magnified clearly showing quartz grains

Shells which eventually will be broken down

Calcareous sediments predominate along south western and south Australian coasts where there are less river outputs.

Our north coast beaches are gently sloping cause of low wave energy. The tiny sand grains they comprise retain water and maintain oxygenation through circulating a slow capillary action between them. These conditions make our beaches ideal for occupation of a diversity of animals.

Bacteria, which thrive between these grains of sand, use up oxygen quickly so that only the surface regions of beach sand is sufficiently aerated to support life and it is here that animals congregate ie Polychaete worms, Swimming crabs, Moon snails, Pipis, and Sand bubbler crabs.

Deep layers lack oxygen and are dark due to the predominance of sulfur producing bacteria that release hydrogen sulfide ("rotten egg gas"). Because of it's oxygen availability and abundance of surface organisms Ghost crabs search for food on the surface at night but remain deep in burrows during the day to avoid dehydration. Bivalves such as pipi live permanently in the diatom (their food) surface rich layers and avoid dehydration by moving with their wedge shaped muscular foot up and down the beach with the tide.

Key members of nature's green dune squad and their significance Higher up on the dunes it is salt winds that is the invasive force. Aerial parts of vegetation block the wind energy and cause sand to deposit around the vegetation. A characteristic of dune vegetation particularly grasses like spinnifex, pineapple sedge and dune carex is their ability to produce up right stems and sand trapping rhizomes that can grow firm roots in response to sand coverage. This sand deposition around plants results in increase height and width of the dune, a process known as plant induced dune expansion.

Pig face

Tuckeroo seeds

The ability of pioneer plants such as Spinifex and Pigface to hold wind blown sand on the frontal dunes helps create conditions which encourage the establishment of other communities such as Woodland Scrub (Acacias, Tuckeroos) Heathland (Banksias, Xerophytes such as Pea plants, Heath and Boronias and Melaleucas and Coastal Forest (Eucalypts and Angophora). All plants (Herbs, shrubs ,reeds, grasses, trees) are of equal importance in developing vegetation. Like the interplay between diverse cell types within the connective tissue meshwork of our skin underlay (dermis) that stops the outer skin from splitting and falling apart these plants enable dune stabilisation to continue indefinitely.

The whole process of dune formation and succession depends primarily on the pioneer plants and of all of these Spinifex is the chief. Spinifex hirsutus (The Captain Cook of the dunes). This is the most successful sand trapping dune coloniser and pioneer along our northern beaches. It provides the basis for a dune and establishes the first of a new set of environmental conditions conducive to the radiation of a more diverse vegetative cover.

These conditions include increased shade, reduced sand temperature, reduced wind movement, and lowered evaporation rates from the sand surface and a catchment for wind blown seeds. This inturn further lowers rates of water loss from leaves. The increase plant diversity it promotes enriches leaf litter and the accumulation of humus. This is the key to a better water holding capacity of dune soils, thus paving the way towards the expansion of bio diversity (Plant and Animal) and stabilisation of successive communities.

Insectivorous plant from Wallum heathland

This succession conforms to the following set pattern as long as intervening factors don't interrupt the process.

What might some of these intervening factors be?

The set pattern 1.

2.

3.

4.

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Pioneer Zone Primary stabilising plants eg grasses and herbaceous plants establishes the basis for A Woodland or Scrub Zone with secondary stabilising plants consisting of Acacias, vines stunted trees, banksias and a few stunted herbs. These establish conditions conducive to the development of Tertiary Stabilising Plant Zone of a) Heathland (low shrubs) where soil drainage is poor or relatively unprotected from sea wind); b) Forests (trees, high drainage and a history of protection from the sea) Wetlands Mangroves, Melaleuca t tree swamps, Marsh plants such as sedges, succulent salt plants and salt couch occur where estuaries interrupt a dry succession.

Spinifex trailers showing sand-binding capacity

Sand dune formation

In physical geography, a dune is a hill of sand built by aeolian processes.

Dunes occur in different forms and sizes, formed by interaction with the wind.

Most kinds of dunes are longer on the windward side where the sand is pushed up the dune and have a shorter "slip face" in the lee of the wind. The valley or trough between dunes is called a slack. A "dune field" is an area covered by extensive sand dunes. Large dune fields are known as ergs.

Some coastal areas have one or more sets of dunes running parallel to the shoreline directly inland from the beach. In most cases the dunes are important in protecting the land against potential ravages by storm waves from the sea.

Although the most widely distributed dunes are those associated with coastal regions, the largest complexes of dunes are found inland in dry regions and associated with ancient lake or sea beds.

Dunes also form under the action of water flow (alluvial processes), on sand or gravel beds of rivers, estuaries and the sea-bed.

The modern word "dune" came into English from French circa 1790, but the root word of "dune" is an ancient Indo-European word whose descendants are found in most Slavic, Germanic, and Latinate languages. In ancient times, words cognate to "dune" probably had the meaning of a built-up hill or citadel fortification.

Dune shapes Crescentic Crescent-shaped mounds are generally wider than they are long. The slipfaces are on the concave sides of the dunes.

These dunes form under winds that blow consistently from one direction, and they also are known as barchans, or transverse dunes. Some types of crescentic dunes move more quickly over desert surfaces than any other type of dune.

A group of dunes moved more than 100 meters per year between 1954 and 1959 in the China's Ningxia Province, and similar speeds have been recorded in the Western Desert of Egypt. The largest crescentic dunes on Earth, with mean crest-to-crest widths of more than 3 kilometers, are in China's Taklamakan Desert.

Linear Straight or slightly sinuous sand ridges typically much longer than they are wide are known as linear dunes. They may be more than 160 kilometers (99 mi) long. Some linear dunes merge to form Y-shaped compound dunes. Many form in bidirectional wind regimes. The long axes of these dunes extend in the resultant direction of sand movement.

Linear loess hills known as pahas appear to be superficially similar. These hills appear to have been formed during the last ice age under permafrost conditions dominated by sparse tundra vegetation.

Star Radically symmetrical, star dunes are pyramidal sand mounds with slipfaces on three or more arms that radiate from the high center of the mound. They tend to accumulate in areas with multidirectional wind regimes. Star dunes grow upward rather than laterally. They dominate the Grand Erg Oriental of the Sahara. In other deserts, they occur around the margins of the sand seas, particularly near topographic barriers. In the southeast Badain Jaran Desert of China, the star dunes are up to 500 meters tall and may be the tallest dunes on Earth.

Dome Oval or circular mounds that generally lack a slipface, dome dunes are rare, and these occur at the far upwind margins of sand seas.

Parabolic U-shaped mounds of sand with convex noses trailed by elongated arms are parabolic dunes. Sometimes these dunes are called U-shaped, blowout, or hairpin dunes, and they are well known in coastal deserts. Unlike crescent shaped dunes, their crests point upwind. The elongated arms of parabolic dunes follow rather than lead because they have been fixed by vegetation, while the bulk of the sand in the dune migrates forward.

Longitudinal (Seif) and transverse dunes Longitudinal dunes (also called Seif dunes, after the Arabic word for "sword"), elongate parallel to the prevailing wind, possibly caused by a larger dune having its smaller sides blown away. Seif dunes are sharp-crested and are common in the Sahara. They range up to 300 m (980 ft) in height and 300 km (190 mi) in length. In the southern third of the Arabian Peninsula, a region called the Empty Quarter because of its total lack of population, a vast erg called Rub al Khali contains seif dunes that stretch for almost 200 km and reach heights of over 300 m.

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Seif dunes are thought to develop from barchans if a change of the usual wind direction occurs. The new wind direction will lead to the development of a new wing and the over development of one of the original wings. If the prevailing wind then becomes dominant for a lengthy period of time the dune will revert to its barchan form, with one exaggerated wing.

Should the strong wind then return the exaggerated wing will further extend so that eventually it will be supplied with sand when the prevailing wind returns. The wing will continue to grow under both wind conditions, thus producing a seif dune.

On a seif dune the slip face develops on the side facing away from the strong wind, while the slip face of a barchan faces the direction of movement. In the sheltered troughs between highly developed seif dunes barchans may be formed because the wind is unidirectional.

A transverse dune is perpendicular to the prevailing wind, probably caused by a steady build-up of sand on an already existing minuscule mound.

Reversing dunes Occurring wherever winds periodically reverse direction, reversing dunes are varieties of any of the above shapes. These dunes typically have major and minor slipfaces oriented in opposite directions.

All these dune shapes may occur in three forms: simple, compound, and complex. Simple dunes are basic forms with a minimum number of slipfaces that define the geometric type. Compound dunes are large dunes on which smaller dunes of similar type and slipface orientation are superimposed, and complex dunes are combinations of two or more dune types. A crescentic dune with a star dune superimposed on its crest is the most common complex dune. Simple dunes represent a wind regime that has not changed in intensity or direction since the formation of the dune, while compound and complex dunes suggest that the intensity and direction of the wind has changed.

Dune types

Sub-aqueous dunes Sub-aqueous (underwater) dunes (also known in geology as megaripples) form on a bed of sand or gravel under the actions of water flow. They are ubiquitous in natural channels such as rivers and estuaries, and also form in engineered canals and pipelines. Dunes move downstream as the upstream slope is eroded and the sediment deposited on the downstream or lee slope in typical bedform construction.

These dunes most often form as a continuous 'train' of dunes, showing remarkable similarity in wavelength and height.

Dunes on the bed of a channel significantly increase flow resistance, their presence and growth playing a major part in river flooding.

Lithified dunes A lithified (consolidated) sand dune is a type of sandstone that is formed when a marine or aeolian sand dune becomes compacted and hardened. Once in this form, water passing through the rock can carry and deposit minerals, which can alter the color of the rock. Cross-bedded layers of stacks of lithified dunes can produce the cross-hatching patterns, such as those seen in the Zion National Park in the western United States.

A slang term that is used in the Southwestern States (of the U.S.A.) for those consolidated and hardened sand dunes is "slickrock", a name that was introduced by pioneers of the Old West because their steel-rimmed wagon wheels could not gain traction on the rock.

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Coastal dunes Dunes form where constructive waves encourage the accumulation of sand, and where prevailing onshore winds blow this sand inland. There need to be obstacles e.g. vegetation, pebbles etc. to trap the moving sand grains. As the sand grains get trapped they start to accumulate, starting dune formation. The wind then starts to affect the mound of sand by eroding sand particles from the windward side and depositing them on the leeward side. Gradually this action causes the dune to “migrate� inland, as it does so it accumulates more and more sand. Dunes provide privacy and shelter from the wind.

Ecological succession on coastal dunes As a dune forms, plant succession occurs. The conditions on an embryo dune are harsh, with salt spray from the sea carried on strong winds. The dune is well drained and often dry, and composed of calcium carbonate from seashells.

Rotting seaweed, brought in by storm waves adds nutrients to allow pioneer species to colonize the dune. These pioneer species are marram grass, sea wort grass and other sea grasses in the United Kingdom. These plants are well adapted to the harsh conditions of the fore-dune typically having deep roots which reach the water table, root nodules that produce nitrogen compounds, and protected stoma, reducing transpiration. Also, the deep roots bind the sand together, and the dune grows into a fore dune as more sand is blown over the grasses. The grasses add nitrogen to the soil, meaning other, less hardy plants can then colonize the dunes. Typically these are heather, heaths and gorses. These too are adapted to the low soil water content and have small, prickly leaves which reduce transpiration. Heather adds humus to the soil and is usually replaced by coniferous trees, which can tolerate low soil pH, caused by the accumulation and decomposition of organic matter with nitrate leaching.[3] Coniferous forests and heathland are common climax communities for sand dune systems.

Young dunes are called yellow dunes and dunes which have high humus content are called grey dunes. Leaching occurs on the dunes, washing humus into the slacks, and the slacks may be much more developed than the exposed tops of the dunes. It is usually in the slacks that more rare species are developed and there is a tendency for the dune slacks soil to be waterlogged and where only marsh plants can survive. These plants would include: creeping willow, cotton grass, yellow ins, reeds, and rushes. As for the species, there is a tendency for natterjack toads to breed here.

Extraterrestrial dunes Dunes can likely be found in any environment where there is a substantial atmosphere, winds, and dust to be blown. Dunes are common on Mars, and they have also been observed in the equatorial regions of Titan using the radar system of the Cassini space probe.

Titan's dunes include large expanses with modal lengths of about 20– 30 km. The regions are not topographically confined, resembling sand seas. These dunes are interpreted to be longitudinal dunes whose crests are oriented parallel to the dominant wind direction, which generally indicates west-to-east wind flow. The sand is likely composed of hydrocarbon particles, possibly with some water ice mixed in.

Dune management If we look upon the Environmental barriers of beach and dunes as a skin structure that protects the vitality and vulnerability of inner eco systems or "tissues" it becomes easy to appreciate acts of ignorant misuse or deliberate abuse.

Beach litter Rubbish that gets flushed down storm water drains might be temporarily out of sight but after being gushed into our rivers or straight out to sea will if it has a floating component invariably end up on our beaches as ugly litter or Jetsam. The look of our skin often reflects the state of our inner health, what we allow into our blood stream and what chemical abuse we expose our outer bodies too.

Sea mammals (seals) sea birds, fish etc are part of a web indispensable to the wellbeing of coastal inter dependant ecosystems which comprise many links or bridges between these environments eg flathead, mullet, black bream, pelicans, cormorants, terns and fish can be often seen with masses of entangled fishing line hooked into their mouths.

The 20% of Tasmanian breeding seals with circulation impairing and ulcer forming neck collars made from fishing ropes, nets or bait box straps ebbing in and out on beach tides and the number of terminally ill turtles which mistakenly ingest the plastic bags for sea jelly are all legacies of our indifference to the tolerance of oceans faced with our growing epidemic of refuse.

Beach litter

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Protection of our dunes

Whilst the beach like out tough outer layers of skin can be tolerant to intensive recreational use, careless pollution by leaching chemicals and oils can critically impair this first line of defence. Rubbish left on beaches especially of the non biodegradable variety can get back out to sea and there reach their damaging effects on wildlife eg plastic bags. Unlike the beach the frontal dune is extremely fragile.

Destruction of its vegetation established by even moderate pedestrian use or grazing by domestic animals can quickly undo the evolutionary process of succession. Even tiny patches of frontal dune loss can leave much bigger areas open to destruction as strong on shore winds target the small discrepancy, like water finding the plug hole in the sink or bacteria pouring through a microscopic puncture wound in the skin.

Dunes are subjected to many pressures by people

These winds can result in Blow out, then transgressive mobile dunes, resulting in a completely unstable dune system rapidly moving inland. Ecosystems adjacent inland establish by dune formation and stabilisation are extremely vulnerable to dune breakdown, sand swamping by the inland march of a transgressive dune kills established Woodland, Heathland and Forests. The whole process of succession has to be repeated all over again before their ecology can hope to reestablish it's original biodiversity unless these destroyed regions are nurtured, fertilised, re planted and stabilised artificially by us.

Blowout

We need to look after and attend to our dunes, as we should do our skin.

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Mangroves Mangroves are important and widespread coastal ecosystems in the intertidal zone of tropical, subtropical and protected temperate coastal rivers, estuaries and bays. Individual species have characteristic tidal-zone or preferred upriver estuarine locations. Australia has around 980 000 hectares of mangrove forests, which is less than 1% of Australia’s total forest cover.

Australian mangrove forests comprise 41 species from 19 families of plants, which vary with degree of tidal inundation and latitude. More than half the world’s mangrove species occur naturally in Australia.

Mangroves live in a constantly changing environment. Typically they are inundated by seawater at high tide, exposed at low tide, and might receive flushes of fresh water, especially during periods of high rainfall. Apart from rapidly altering salinity levels, such influxes of fresh water are often accompanied by significant changes in water temperature.

Mangrove species have specialised dispersal mechanisms. The seeds of many germinate on the tree and remain attached through early development, before falling into the ocean to be washed to distant shorelines, where they may lodge and grow.

White mangrove (Avicennia marina) is Australia’s most widespread and common mangrove tree species. Several other salt-tolerant species grow in mangrove forests, such as the mangrove palm (Nypa fruticans), which occurs in tropical mangrove forests, and the mangrove fern (Acrostichum speciosum), which inhabits the mangrove forest floor. In tropical areas, ferns and orchids often grow on the trunks and branches of mangrove trees.

Source: National Forest Inventory, 2008 Note: The resolution of forests shown on this map has been enhanced to ensure their distribution is visible at the national scale.

The structure and height of mangrove forests vary with the environment. Mangrove trees are usually between two and 10 meters in height, but in high rainfall areas of far north Queensland they can grow to 30 meters. Mangroves can form dense, almost impenetrable stands of closed forests, often dominated by only one or two species, as well as less dense stands characterised as open forests and, to a lesser extent, woodlands. Closed mangrove forests, which comprise about 56% of the total mangrove forest estate, provide coastal protection from storm and wave action. Mangrove trees can live for up to 100 years.

A forest assessment revised the area of mangroves upwards from 749 000 hectares in 2003 to 980 000 in 2008). This is largely explained by an improvement in forest measurement technology, particularly the increasing availability of high resolution remotely sensed data.

Dealing with salt Mangrove species are adapted to tidal inundation and high salinity in coastal estuaries, inlets and bays. They deal with salinity in three ways: by excluding the dissolved salt as their roots absorb water; by absorbing the salt and then exuding it through special glands in their leaves; and by concentrating the salt in bark or older leaves, which carry it with them when they are shed. Some mangroves use only one of these methods, others two or more. A number of features serve to prevent water loss from mangrove plants. These include a thick waxy surface layer, and dense hairs on the leaf to reduce the loss of water through transpiration.

Source: Environmental Protection Agency, Queensland.

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Where are Australia’s mangrove forests?

Mangrove forests are widespread in tropical, subtropical and some temperate regions of the world. In Australia, most mangrove forests are located across the tropical north. But there are also isolated stands of one species, the white mangrove, in Victoria, South Australia and temperate Western Australia. The southernmost occurrence of mangroves in Australia is at Wilson’s Promontory, Victoria.

In tropical regions, mangrove forests are more diverse and widespread than those in the temperate zone, with the greatest concentration of species along the northeastern coast of Queensland. The number of species decreases further south as a result of lower winter temperatures, and from east to west across the tropics with decreasing rainfall. Some experts consider mangroves to be a special form of tropical rainforest because the two forest types have many families of plants in common. In Australia, however, mangroves are usually considered to be a separate forest type.

Mangrove roots All plant roots need oxygen to survive. The soft sediments in which mangroves grow, however, are frequently low in oxygen. To cope with this, most mangroves have developed aerial roots (pneumatophores) that rise above the surface of the mud. These take in oxygen, which is then transported to the deeper roots, where water and nutrients are absorbed. The shapes of the aerial roots vary enormously, but the three most conspicuous types are pencil roots (found in Avicennia species), knee roots (found in Bruguiera species) and stilt roots (found in Rhizophora species).

The true root systems of mangrove trees are shallow, extending less than two meters below the mud surface, but they spread horizontally in a dense mass over large distances. Many mangrove species have a greater proportion of plant material below the surface than above, a feature that helps them to remain anchored in the soft mud and sand.

Ownership and management Queensland has the largest area of mangrove forest (44%), while the Northern Territory (37%) and Western Australia (17%) have most of the remainder. More than 34% of the total area is on private land, including Indigenous land (Table 2).

Mangrove management today falls under a wide range of legal jurisdictions. It has been estimated that approximately 18% of Australia’s mangrove forest communities are protected in national parks and other forms of reserves (MIG 2008). In Queensland, all mangroves are completely protected under the Fisheries Act 1994.

Values and uses Wood Historically, many mangrove forests have provided useful products such as tannin, poles, firewood, charcoal and, occasionally, milled timber. Australian mangrove forests, however, are no longer harvested commercially for timber.

Environmental Mangroves play important roles in the ecology of wetlands and estuaries. By reducing the speed of currents and trapping sediments, mangroves protect the shoreline from erosion and help to reduce silt accumulation in adjacent marine habitats. In addition, river-borne nutrients and chemicals are trapped and recycled within these communities. Mangroves are highly valued for their unique biodiversity. They provide habitat and breeding sites for a wide variety of birds, fish, amphibians, insects, small mammals and other aquatic fauna. Several rare species are found in mangrove ecosystems, such as the rusty monitor (Varanus semiremex), which utilises the hollows of mature or dead mangrove trees in northeastern Queensland.

The lesser noddy (Anous tenuirostris melanops), a sea bird that builds a platform nest out of leaves in mangrove trees, is listed as vulnerable under Australia’s Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999.

Indigenous uses Mangroves are an important resource for Indigenous people, particularly in the Northern Territory, providing honey, fruit and medicines. Mangrove worms, found within decaying mangrove wood, are collected for food. The timber is used for implements, firewood and construction. Indigenous Australians harvest many edible fish and shellfish from mangrove ecosystems.

Shell middens Shell middens are places hundreds to thousands of years old where the debris from shellfish and other food has been discarded

by Indigenous people over very long periods. Middens in mangroves contain shellfish remains, the bones of fish, birds and land and sea mammals, charcoal from campfires, and tools made from stone, shell and bone.

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Other uses One of the key beneficiaries of mangroves is the fishing industry. Mangrove forests constitute breeding nurseries for a high proportion of Australia’s commercial and recreational fish catch, including barramundi (Lates calcarifer) and banana prawn (Penaeus merguinensis). An estimated 75% of the fish and prawns caught for commercial and recreational purposes in Queensland spend at least part of their lifecycles in mangroves.

Mangroves also provide protection for both the natural and built environments from waves and storm surges.

Some species have leaves that are palatable for livestock when other food is unavailable.

Mangrove forests provide a focus for tourism in some coastal communities. Boardwalks in particular are popular with tourists and provide an opportunity for educating people about the ecological and economic importance of mangroves.

Mangrove forests in a changing environment Mangrove forests are naturally dynamic environments, subject to periodic fluctuations in climate and ever responsive to changes in sea level. Because of the longevity of individual mangrove trees they can provide a record of the effects of past changes in environmental conditions and of human influence in their structure and composition.

Mangrove communities interact closely with other tidal vegetation, such as saltmarsh. There is evidence that these two ecosystem types cycle from one to the other depending on the amount of freshwater flushing that occurs, which in turn depends on changes in rainfall over nearby land.

The future of mangrove forests in Australia is uncertain. While they demonstrate extraordinary adaptations to the estuarine environment, it is expected that changes such as sea level rise and increased storm severity as a result of climate change will challenge their existence in some areas. They also face increasing pressure from coastal urbanisation.

Definition Australia’s definition of forest is ‘an area dominated by trees having usually a single stem and a mature or potentially mature height exceeding 2 m and with an existing or potential crown cover of overstorey strata about equal to or greater than 20%.’

Mangrove Trees Mangrove trees grow where no tree has grown before. They are able to survive inundation by salt water twice a day, and in "soil" which is unstable and poor in oxygen (anaerobic). They also have to deal with swollen rivers carrying silt during the wet season, as well as violent storms that hit the coasts.

Salt solution: To deal with salt, all mangrove trees exclude some salt at the root level, and all can tolerate more salt in their tissues than "normal" plants, often in quantities that would kill other plants.

But some have more effective ultrafiltration at the root level to exclude more salt. Any salt that gets through are believed to be stored in old leaves which are later shed. These include Bruguiera, Sonneratia and Rhizophora.

A few can tolerate high levels of salt in their tissues and their sap can be up to one-tenth as salty as sea water. They then secrete the excess salt through special cells on their leaves.

Why don't mangroves grow in freshwater swamps?

One reason could be that they are unable to grow as fast as other freshwater plants and are soon overwhelmed. They may also be unable to cope with the bacteria and fungi found in freshwater.

Avicennia does this best and is often the only tree to survive is hot salty regions. Some other mangrove associates also do this: Sea Holly (Acanthus spp.).

Although mangrove trees are adapted to grow in salt water, they require regular flushing with freshwater. They will die if immersed in saltwater all the time.

Root of the matter: Mangrove roots not only provide support in unstable soils and to withstand currents and storms, but also breathe air. To avoid suffocation in the oxygen poor mud, mangrove trees snorkel for air. They develop aerial or air-breathing roots. These take in aboveground air. All aerial tree roots have on their surface, special tiny pores to take in air (lenticels). Only air can get through the lenticels, not water or salts. All aerial roots also contain large air spaces (aerenchyma). These not only transport air, but also provide a reservoir of air during high tide when all the aerial roots may be underwater. The function of aerial roots are to absorb air or/and to provide structural support in the soft mud. Roots for absorbing nutrients are tiny and emerge near the muddy surface.

Aerial roots can take on different forms. Avicennia develop shallow cable roots which spread out from the trunk. Along these cable roots emerge short pencil-like roots (left) called pneumatophores (meaning "air carrier" in Greek). A 3-metre tall Avicennia can have 10,000 pneumatophores. Sonneratia also produce pneumatophores, but these are cone-shaped instead.

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Bruguiera sends out knee roots, that emerge from the ground then loop back in.

Rhizophora send out roots from their trunk and branches which arch down to the ground (right) for extra support and air absorption.

Most mangrove trees lack a heartwood and instead have narrow vessels that are densely and evenly distributed throughout the wood. Thus, they are able to withstand damage to the bark and outer trunk.

Tough toddlers: If it's hard for adult trees to cope with their environment, it's even harder for tender seedlings which are usually dispersed by seawater. Thus many mangrove trees have special adaptations to give their offspring the best chance in their harsh habitat.

Many provide their seedlings with a good store of food and floatation devices.

In some, the fruit does not fall away when it ripens. Instead, the seed within the fruit starts to germinate while it is still on the mother tree, and the mother tree channels nutrients t o the growing seedling (vivipary).

In some plants, the growing seed does not break through the fruit wall while the seed is on the mother plant but only after the fruit falls off (cryptovivipary). This is the case with Avicennia (right) and the seed coat of its fruits drops away more quickly in water of the right warmth and salinity, usually in a spot best suited for an Avicennia seedling.

In others, the growing seedling breaks through the fruit wall to form a stem (called a hypocotyl), sometimes even roots (Rhizophora, Bruguiera). The whole seedling is then called a propagule (potential plant). In some trees, the seedlings only fall at high tide! (Aegiceras).

When the propagule finally falls, at first it floats horizontally, and drifts with the tide. It can survive for long periods at sea. The tip is water absorbent while the top end is water repellent. After some weeks, the tip gradually absorbs water and the seedling floats vertically and starts to sprout its first leaf from the top, and roots from the bottom. When it hits land, it hauls itself upright by growing more roots, then sprouts more leaves. The long stem is a short-cut to sunlight, and oxygen as seedlings are often completely submerged at high tide. Amazingly, young seedlings can survive being completely underwater until they are big enough to grow aerial roots, at about 1-2 years. Meanwhile, they depend on stores of air in air spaces (aerenchyma) in their stems.

Water water everywhere, not a drop to drink: Freshwater is as precious to a mangrove tree as to a desert plant. They have to expend energy to get rid of the salt in every drop of water they use. Thus mangroves have many water conserving features of desert plants. To minimise water loss through evaporation they may have thick waxy leaves, hairy leaves (to trap an insulating layer of air near the leaf). They may also store water in succulent leaves. Mangroves also protect their hard won parts with spiny leaves (e.g., Sea Holly) or waxy leaves; and high levels of tannins and other toxins (e.g., Blind Your Eye). Mangrove plants are thus a precious resource of chemicals that have myriad potential uses for humans.

Role in the habitat Refuge: Tree climbing crabs and sea snails climb up their aerial roots at high tide to avoid aquatic predators. The roots provide a surface for all kinds of creatures from algae to shellfish. And the tangle of roots provide hiding places for young fishes and shrimps from larger predators. Their branches provide shelter for creatures from Proboscis Monkeys and nesting sites for large herons, to crevices for insects and other tiny creatures.

How did the term "mangrove" arise?

We don't really know. It might be derived from some of the ancient names given to some mangrove trees: the Portuguese called them mangue, the Spanish mangle, the Malays manggi-manggi or mangin.

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Food: While on the tree, leaves are eaten by all kinds of creatures. Monkey snack on the shoots and leaves, small insects nibble on them. Fallen leaves are an important source of nutrients both within the mangrove habitat and when it is flushed out to the coral reefs. The leaves are rapidly broken up by crabs and other small creatures, and further broken down by microorganisms into useful minerals. There are even tiny moth larvae that feed on pneumatophores.

Natural water filter: Underwater, a huge number of filter-feeders are fastened on the tangle of roots: barnacles, sponges, shellfish. These filter feeders clean the water of nutrients and silt. As a result, clear water washes out into the sea, allowing the coral reef ecosystem to flourish.

Stabilise the coast and river banks: Their roots prevents mud and sand from being washed away with the tide and river currents. Mangrove trees also slowly regenerate the soil by penetrating and aerating it (other creatures such as crabs and mud lobsters also help in . As the mud builds up and soil conditions improve, other plants can take root. Mangrove trees also reduce the damage from violent storms.

Protection and management All marine plants are protected under Queensland law through provisions of the

Fisheries Act 1994. The destruction, damage or disturbance of marine plants without prior approval from Fisheries Queensland is prohibited.

Heavy penalties apply to any unauthorised disturbances that impact on marine plants. Protection also applies to all marine plants, no matter where they grow (i.e. on all private and public lands).

Marine plants grow on or adjacent to tidal lands. They include mangroves, seagrass, saltcouch, algae, samphire (succulent) vegetation and adjacent plants such as melaleuca (paper barks) and casuarina (coastal she-oaks).

Marine plants are important for sustaining fish stocks Marine plants are a vital natural resource providing shelter, food and nursery areas for about 75% of fish species caught in Queensland.

Marine plants are a community asset which depend on ongoing community support. Please play your role in protecting these important fish habitats for the future Marine plants - along with rocky foreshores, mud flats, reefs and sand bars - are a fundamental part of fish habitats in Queensland which help to sustain fish for the future for commercial, traditional and recreational fishing.

Living with marine plants Marine plant protection applies to private, leasehold or public lands, and whether the marine plants are alive or dead.

Coastal residents and landholders can apply for an approval to undertake certain activities (such as building a jetty) that require them to cut, trim or remove mangroves or other marine plants.

Some low-impact activities, such as maintenance of an existing jetty or boat ramp, may even be covered by a self-assessable code which allows for certain works to be undertaken without applying for an approval. In these cases, the user of the selfassessable code must comply with all restrictions within the code for carrying out the works, including prior notification to the department and placing signs during the works.

Developer and local government information All developers must ensure they have the right approvals prior to undertaking works near tidal areas, including all earth-moving contractors, geotechnical and biological consulting companies, energy suppliers, road contractors and local government. Coastal local governments and port managers are entering into partnerships with Fisheries Queensland to manage protected marine plants in their areas. Marine plant management strategies are developed jointly and enable long-term management under a self-assesable code.

All development activities that are not self-assessable require approval before works start.

For works in a declared fish habitat area, a resource allocation authority (RAA) is required under the Fisheries Act 1994, as well as a fisheries development approval under the Sustainable Planning Act 2009.

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Forest Types

COASTAL AND SUB-COASTAL FLOODPLAIN WET HEATH SWAMPS

HYDROLOGY Coastal floodplain heath swamps typically occur where there is enough rainfall, local watershed run-off, overbank flow and/or groundwater discharge to maintain a seasonally high water table.

Water tables in heath swamps dry out seasonally, creating hydrological conditions that are favourable for the growth of heath vegetation. Areas that have a more constant water table tend to have more grass, herb and sedge growth.

The hydrology of coastal floodplain heath swamp habitats is related to a site’s topography, substrate type and position within the catchment. Climatic factors (especially those related to rainfall) also play a significant role in the regularity, seasonality, duration and amount of water entering and leaving the wetland.

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Water Inputs Floodplain wetlands can be flushed with water from overbank flow, streams leading directly to the site, sheet flow across the floodplain, rainfall, run-off from the local watershed, hyporheic flow and from other types of groundwater, or a combination of these sources.

If groundwater table levels and substrate permeability permit, this can lead to more constant systems. This wetland habitat type can play a role in groundwater recharge/discharge. An important point to note is that hyporheic flow and other groundwater flow tend to be clear (not turbid), compared to surface water flow.

Water Outputs Evaporation, transpiration and groundwater recharge can lead these systems to dry out, often completely (see dry model).

Overbank floods move out onto the floodplain or back to the channel, connecting the wetland habitat to other wetland habitats in the floodplain. Water may also flow out to the ocean via distributary channels, depending on topography.

GEOMORPHOLOGY Floodplain shrub swamp habitats occur on seasonally waterlogged Quaternary alluvial plains along coastal lowlands. These are related to coffee rock in the dune systems, hard pan, and areas of water table discharge.

Wet heath, in general, are non-floodplain systems. Floodplain heath swamp habitats do exist and are found within a floodplain context, with alluvial soils, and receive water from overbank flow and are therefore an exception to the general rule.

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FAUNA Fish may be found in these areas, depending on water depth (Oxleyan pygmy perch Nannoperca oxleyana, honey blue eye Pseudomugil mellis).

Invertebrates such as yabbies and freshwater crayfish can be found in the wetter areas of this wetland habitat type.

Amphibian species include the wallum froglet (Crinia tinnula), wallum rocket frog (Litoria freycineti), wallum sedge frog (Litoria olongburensis) and the Cooloola sedgefrog (Litoria cooloolensis).

Reptiles such as sand monitors (Veranus gouldii) can be seen in these heath swamps, depending on the abundance of their prey.

Zooplankton and microcrustaceans—microscopic aquatic fauna that graze on phytoplankton and detritus—can also be found here.

Animals may tolerate fire due to the patchy nature of destruction, and their ability to avoid the effects of fire. The intensity, extent and periodicity of fire are important factors for animals attempting to avoid the harmful effects of fire and/or in influencing recolonisation patterns. Different species favour different burning patterns and different stages of vegetation recovery from a fire. Heath rodents are a good example, with vegetation at different ages post-fire being dominated by different species. Habitat studies suggest that the eastern chestnut mouse (Pseudomys gracilicaudatus) is a fire opportunist and can colonise heath regenerating from a recent fire and reach a peak density 3-4 years after fire, while the swamp rat (Rattus lutreolus) favours the high density vegetation found in climax heathlands, which have had a longer time to recover from fire disturbance.

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A range of insects can be found in this wetland habitat type, including dragonflies, damselflies, mosquitoes and sandflies.

FLORA Coastal floodplain heath swamps are closed or wet heathland. Characteristic species include Melaleuca thymifolia, Banksia robur, Xanthorrhoea fulva, Hakea actites, Leptospermum spp. and Baeckea frutescens.

Wet heath are dominated by essentially treeless plant communities of low shrubs and various other ground flora.

There are floristic similarities shared by both dry and wet heaths.

Plant communities are typically rich in species with the major plant families represented including myrtles (Myrtaceae), proteas (Proteaceae), ericas (Ericaceae), boronias (Rutaceae), wattles (Mimosaceae), peas (Fabaceae), lilies (Liliaceae), and grass-trees and mat-rushes (Xanthorrhoeaceae).

In some situations wet heaths may grade into true sedgelands dominated by rushes (Juncaceae), sedges (Cyperaceae) and nodesedges (Restionaceae).

Typically heath plants have small, evergreen leaves with a waxy cuticle that display adaptations to combat moisture stress and/or low oxygen soil conditions, as well as extensive root systems, often arising from lignotubers.

Heath species often have high oil and carbon content of their leaves, increasing their flammability.

COASTAL AND SUB-COASTAL NON-FLOODPLAIN TREE SWAMPS

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HYDROLOGY Non-floodplain swamp habitat hydrology is related to a site’s topography, substrate type and position within the catchment. Climatic factors (especially those related to rainfall) also play a significant role in the regularity, seasonality, duration and amount of water entering and leaving the wetland.

Water Inputs Non-floodplain wetlands can be flushed with rain, run-off from the local watershed and groundwater discharge, or a combination of these sources.

If groundwater table levels and substrate permeability permit, this can lead to more constant systems. This wetland habitat type can play a role in groundwater recharge/discharge.

An important point to note is that groundwater flow tends to be clear (not turbid), compared to surface water flow.

Water Outputs Evaporation, transpiration and groundwater recharge can lead these systems to dry out, often completely. Water may also flow away from the wetland via distributary channels, depending on topography.

Water Quality Water quality in these wetland habitat types is related to awealth of factors including, but not limited to, the vegetation around and in the wetland habitat, water regime and catchment attributes. More research is needed to demonstrate the effects these wetland habitats have on the hydrology and water quality of the broader system. It is suspected that the water leaving Melaleuca wetlands would have differences in turbidity, Coloured Dissolved Organic Matter (CDOM), acidity, Dissolved Oxygen (DO), conductivity and organic matter.

These effects are complicated and site dependent, and could have an appreciable effect on water quality in downstream waterways.

Hydrology and Vegetation Hydrology can play an important role in influencing the growth and distribution of vegetation communities. Melaleuca trees can be temporarily inundated with water for three to six months of the year.

Areas that are inundated for longer periods tend to shift towards grass, sedge, herb- dominated wetlands. In the Wet Tropics coastal lowlands, annual rainfall is high enough (greater than 3000 mm annually) for palm swamps to grow on very wet, poorly drained soils.

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GEOMORPHOLOGY Coastal non-floodplain tree swamps occupy the depressions, drainage lines, dune swales and other low lying areas outside of floodplain systems. They can be found on a complex of remnant Tertiary surfaces and Tertiary sedimentary rocks and Quaternary coastal dunes and seasonally waterlogged sand plains usually fringing drainage system behind beach ridge plains or on old dunes and swales.

FAUNA Bats are an important pollinator for Melaleuca spp. and hard wood trees.

Relatively few fish species (approximately 3-4 species including tarpon) utilise these areas extensively, this is due to the typically low pH of the water and the ephemeral nature of these systems. The longer the wetland remains inundated the better habitat it provides for fish.

It is thought that this wetland habitat type might be used for gudgeon spawning before they move back up the floodplain during floods.

Other animal species can also be found in floodplain tree swamps, including a range of bird species like spoonbills, ibis, kingfishers and herons, as well as a variety of insects and frogs. Reptiles that inhabit freshwater wetland habitats include the Red-bellied Black Snake (Pseudchis porphyriacus), Arafura File Snake (Acrochordus arafurae, which is largely aquatic) and the Freshwater Snake (Keelback Tropidonophis mairii).

Zooplankton and microcrustaceans are microscopic aquatic fauna that graze on phytoplankton and detritus.

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FLORA Melaleuca spp. can form almost pure stands and therefore floristic diversity is not necessarily a function of health in these systems.

On flat land with good subsoil moisture Melaleuca spp. can occur alongside eucalypts in mixed tall openforests. Other flora types (depending on the swamp’s positions within the landscape and its water regimes) include: • cabbage tree palms • swamp box • bloodwoods • sedges • rushes • reeds • grasses • ferns Different Melaleuca species are associated with slightly different soil types and water regimes conditions - flora diversity with climate pop out.

COASTAL AND SUB-COASTAL FLOODPLAIN TREE SWAMPS – MELALEUCA AND EUCALYPTUS

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HYDROLOGY The hydrology of floodplain tree swamps is related to a site’s topography, substrate type and position within the catchment (see Hydrology—landscape Position). Climatic factors (especially those related to rainfall) also play a significant role in the regularity, seasonality, duration and amount of water entering and leaving the wetland.

Water Inputs Floodplain wetlands can be flushed with water from overbank flow, streams leading directly to the site, sheet flow across the floodplain, rainfall, run-off from the local watershed, hyporheic flow and other groundwater discharge, or a combination of these sources.

If groundwater table levels and substrate permeability permit, this can lead to more constant systems. This wetland habitat type can play a role in groundwater recharge/discharge.

An important point to note is that hyporheic flow and groundwater flow tend be clear (not turbid), compared to surface water flow.

Water Outputs Evaporation, transpiration and groundwater recharge can lead these systems to dry out, often completely (see dry model).

Overbank floods move out onto the floodplain or back to the channel, connecting the wetland habitat to other wetland habitats in the floodplain. Water may also flow out to the ocean via distributary channels, depending on topography.

Water Quality More research is needed to demonstrate the effects these wetland habitats have on the hydrology and water quality of the broader system. It is suspected that the water leaving these wetlands, entering other wetlands or returning to streams would have differences in turbidity, Coloured Dissolved Organic Matter (CDOM), acidity, Dissolved Oxygen (DO), conductivity and organic matter.

These effects are complicated and site dependent, and could have an appreciable effect on water quality in downstream waterways.

Connectivity The inlet and outlet of water flow for these wetland habitats can be different. Drainage points can go back into a creek and/or go in another direction, connecting the wetland to other swamps, lakes, streams, estuaries or the sea, and may even break catchments.

Under low or no flow conditions, local factors determine water quality and can act like non-floodplain systems when not hydrologically connected to stream systems.

Hydrology and Vegetation Hydrology can play an important role in influencing the growth and distribution of vegetation communities.

Melaleuca trees can be temporarily inundated with water for three to six months of the year. Areas that are inundated for longer periods tend to shift towards grass, sedge, herb-dominated wetlands. In the Wet Tropics coastal lowlands, annual rainfall is high enough (greater than 3000 mm annually) for palm swamps to grow on very wet, poorly drained soils.

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GEOMORPHOLOGY Floodplain tree (Melaleuca spp. and Eucalypt spp.) swamps typically occur in unconsolidated landscapes formed by wind and water action on level or gently undulating topography.

In tropical regions this wetland habitat type occurs in drainage swamps, which can remain flooded during heavy rainfall periods for many months.

In sub-tropical regions this wetland habitat type occurs on billabongs no longer connected to channel flow, and on poorly drained, alluvial floodplains and fringing drainage lines and lacustrine wetlands in coastal areas.

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FAUNA Melaleuca spp. trees can flower all year round, providing an almost constant source of nectar and pollen, which is particularly important in winter for insects, birds and bats. Bats are an important pollinator for Melaleuca spp. and hard wood trees.

Relatively few fish species (approximately 3-4 species including tarpon) utilise these areas extensively. This is due to the typically low pH of the water and the ephemeral nature of these systems. The longer the wetland remains inundated, the better habitat it provides for fish. It is thought that this wetland habitat type might be used for gudgeon spawning before they move back up the floodplain during floods.

Other animal species can also be found in floodplain tree swamps, including a range of bird species like spoonbills, ibis, kingfishers and herons, as well as a variety of insects and frogs. Reptiles that inhabit freshwater wetland habitats include the Red-bellied Black Snake (Pseudchis porphyriacus), Arafura File Snake (Acrochordus arafurae, which is largely aquatic) and the Freshwater Snake (Keelback—Tropidonophis mairii).

Zooplankton and microcrustaceans—microscopic aquatic fauna that graze on phytoplankton and detritus—can also be present.

FLORA The dominant coastal floodplain tree swamp regional ecosystems contain Melaleuca saligna ± M. viridiflora, Lophostemon suaveolens woodland, Melaleuca quinquenervia open forest on coastal alluvial plains and Melaleuca quinquenervia, Eucalyptus tereticornis, Lophostemon suaveolens woodland. Coastal floodplain tree swamps can also be a fringing woodland community, commonly containing Eucalyptus camaldulensis or E. coolabah but also a wide range of other species including Eucalyptus platyphylla, E. tereticornis, Melaleuca spp., Acacia holosericea or other Acacia spp.

These can be associated with open water aquatics and emergents such as Potamogeton crispus, Myriophyllum

verrucosum, Chara spp., Nitella spp., Nymphaea violacea, Ottelia ovalifolia, Nymphoides indica, N. crenata, Potamogeton tricarinatus, Cyperus difformis, Vallisneria caulescens and Hydrilla verticillata (see Aquatic Habitat).

The dominant coastal floodplain tree swamp regional ecosystems contain Melaleuca saligna ± M. viridiflora, Lophostemon suaveolens woodland, Melaleuca quinquenervia open forest on coastal alluvial plains and

Melaleuca quinquenervia, Eucalyptus tereticornis, Lophostemon suaveolens woodland. Coastal floodplain tree swamps can also be a fringing woodland community, commonly containing Eucalyptus camaldulensis or E. coolabah but also a wide range of other species including

Eucalyptus platyphylla, E. tereticornis, Melaleuca spp., Acacia holosericea or other Acacia spp.

These can be associated with open water aquatics and emergents such as Potamogeton crispus, Myriophyllum

verrucosum, Chara spp., Nitella spp., Nymphaea violacea, Ottelia ovalifolia, Nymphoides indica, N. crenata, Potamogeton tricarinatus, Cyperus difformis, Vallisneria caulescens and Hydrilla verticillata (see Aquatic Habitat).

Melaleuca spp. can form almost pure stands and therefore floristic diversity is not necessarily a function of health in these systems.

On flat land with good subsoil moisture, Melaleuca spp. can occur alongside eucalypts in mixed tall open-forests.

Other flora types (depending on the swamp’s positions within the landscape and its water regimes) include cabbage tree palms, swamp box, bloodwoods, sedges, rushes, reeds, grasses and ferns.

Different Melaleuca species are associated with slightly different soil types and water regimes conditions —flora diversity with climate pop out.

Research suggests that the growth of Melaleuca quinquenervia can have a significant effect on the local soil chemistry and groundwater, increasing acidity (decreasing pH), changing redox potential and dissolved organic carbon levels.

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Though Melaleuca spp. trees cannot survive permanent inundation, they do have adaptations such as fibrous or adventitious roots around their lower trunk that are thought to function as breathing roots, helping the tree to survive during long periods of submersion. The trees also have spreading root systems, providing stability during floods and prolonged water logging, and most species are tolerant to a limited extent of both saline and brackish water.

COASTAL AND SUB-COASTAL NON-FLOODPLAIN GRASS, SEDGE AND HERB SWAMP

HYDROLOGY Non-floodplain swamp habitat hydrology is related to a site’s topography, substrate type and position within the catchment. Climatic factors (especially those related to rainfall) also play a significant role in the regularity, seasonality, duration and amount of water entering and leaving the wetland.

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Water Inputs Non-floodplain wetlands can be flushed with rain, run-off from the local watershed and groundwater discharge, or a combination of these sources.

If groundwater table levels and substrate permeability permit, this can lead to more constant systems. This wetland habitat type can play a role in groundwater recharge/discharge.

An important point to note is that groundwater flow tends to be clear (not turbid), compared to surface water flow.

Water Outputs Evaporation, transpiration and groundwater recharge can lead these systems to dry out, often completely. Water may also flow out to the ocean via distributary channels, depending on topography.

GEOMORPHOLOGY This wetland habitat type can occur in: • • •

• • • •

•

Narrow swales associated with Quaternary coastal dunes and beaches Fringing lakes and lagoons in coastal dune swales The low part of coastal landscape where water collects from both overland flow and infiltration from adjoining sand dunes Depressions between old sand dunes and in dune swales Drainage swamps in dunefields Fringing crater lakes Closed systems on sand sheets, flat landscapes because they are old sandy outwash with shallow, turbid water, on the Gulf plains Fringing perched and windowlakes.

Soils As coastal non-floodplain grass, sedge and herb swamps are most commonly found on sand dune systems and some clay systems, associated soils are often pale to dark humic sands or grey clay loams underlying dune systems—see soil sand, clay and organic matter for information on soil diversity and Wetland Soil Factsheets for local examples.

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FAUNA Birds Carnivorous birds feeding on insects and some fish are found in these areas, including ibis, herons and egrets.

Spoonbills are commonly seen eating algae and vegetable matter.

Fish Due to the shallow and often ephemeral nature of this wetland habitat type, there are very few fish species typically found in it.

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Reptiles and Amphibians Reptiles that inhabit freshwater wetland habitats include the Red-bellied Black Snake (Pseudchis porphyriacus), Arafura File Snake (Acrochordus arafurae, which is largely aquatic) and the Freshwater Snake (Keelback— Tropidonophis mairii). Turtles are usually found in small numbers. A range of frog species can also be found in this wetland habitat type.

Insects A range of insects can be found in this wetland habitat type, including dragonflies, damselflies, mosquitoes and sandflies.

• • • •

Order Order Order Order

Hemiptera Odonata Coleoptera Chironomidae

Zooplankton and Microcrustaceans Zooplankton and microcrustaceans—microscopic aquatic fauna that graze on phytoplankton and detritus—can also be present.

FLORA

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Australian Rainforests A very different past Many Australians take it for granted that gum trees, waratahs and wattles have always been part of the Australian environment.

Although hard-leaved, or sclerophyllous, vegetation dominates the continent today, the ‘bush’ is not Australia’s original vegetation. In fact, 60 million years ago, eucalypts and acacias as we know them probably did not exist.

Millions of years before the familiar Australian vegetation evolved, much of the continent was covered with moist forests similar to the rainforests of today. Because of its dense canopy of foliage, such vegetation is termed a ‘closed forest’.

The origins of Australia’s unique rainforests have been a matter of dispute in botanical circles for over a century.

Until the 1980s, many botanists believed that our rainforests had migrated to Australia in the recent geological past from South-East Asia.

They presumed that the ‘alien’ rainforests invaded the typical Australian vegetation and colonised the few areas that offered suitable living conditions.

This certainly is true for a small percentage of Australian rainforest species that have relatives in Asia.

Recent research has shown, however, that this is only part of the story. It is now known that the majority of plant species in Australian rainforests descended from the ancient closed forests that covered much of the Australian continent millions of years ago.

Not only did Australia’s rainforest plants originate largely in the southern hemisphere but some of the groups that evolved in the southern hemisphere have now spread northwards to other lands.

Gondwana before the break-up. Illustration: David Mackay.

Damper climate Why were rainforests apparently so widespread in what is now the world’s second most arid continent, after Antarctica?

Evidence from many sources clearly indicates that Australia’s climate was once a lot wetter and cooler than it is today.

Over millions of years, a combination of complex climatic and global geomorphological events led to Australia’s transformation into a ‘sun burnt’ country. It was this drying out of the continent that led to the retreat of the ancient moisture-requiring rainforests.

Cracking up The drying out of Australia was largely the result of a global process known as continental drift. One hundred and thirty five million years ago, today’s maps of the world would have been of little use to extraterrestrial beings intent on continent hopping.

The future continents of the southern hemisphere were all joined together in a massive supercontinent known as Gondwana.

But, after millions of years of unity, deep-seated tensions below the earth’s crust began to split the giant land mass into separate pieces.

These pieces were slowly moved apart by convection currents under the earth’s crust at the rate of 5 to 10 cm a year. Over millions of years, this rate of drift caused a substantial separation of the once adjacent ‘continents’. As the continental ‘rafts’ or plates drifted through varying latitudes they encountered different climatic conditions, induced by changes in global ocean and wind circulations.

The new conditions placed stresses on the plant and animal species, including the rainforests.

The end result was the evolution of those species that were better able to survive in the changing environment.

135 million years ago When flowering plants first appeared about 135 million years ago, the earth’s vegetation was dominated by cycads and conifers.

The first flowering plants may have been shrubs of dry or fluctuating environments but, before long, flowering plants were mixing with the conifers to form rainforests adapted to the cool, moist climates that then prevailed.

45 million years ago Around 45 million years ago, Australia finally broke away from Antarctica and began its separate drift northwards. At the time, rainforests covered large areas of the continent, since substantial rainfall penetrated well into inland areas.

During the course of Australia’s drift, the temperature of surrounding ocean currents changed, resulting in altered climatic patterns and lower rainfall over the land.

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Although there are no fossil records of eucalypts older than 38 million years, it is probable that the first hard-leaved plants made an appearance not long after Australia’s separation from Antarctica.

15 million years ago Australia’s northward journey through 27 degrees of latitude slowed down when its leading edge rammed into the Asian continental plate. The once widespread rainforests had begun their long retreat, unable to survive the increasingly arid conditions.

The drying out resulted from a combination of factors. These included the rain-shadow effect of the Great Dividing Range which caught the moisture-bearing winds travelling inland, Australia’s movement towards the equator, and a worldwide change in atmospheric and oceanic circulation patterns.

Legacy of ancient links Around the turn of the century, various theories were suggested to explain how continents separated by thousands of kilometers of oceans could each have closely allied plants and animals.

For example, the now widely separated continents of Antarctica, Africa, South America and Australia all had in common a 280million-year-old fossil known as Glossopteris.

After the theory of continental drift, or plate tectonics, was finally accepted in the 1960s on the basis of palaeomagnetic evidence and the matching of once adjacent continents, the puzzling patterns started to make sense.

Living reminders of ancient continental links can be found in the rainforests of the world since rainforests were dominant over much of the super continent while the break-up of Gondwana was in progress.

Thus, the Southern Beech genus (Nothofagus) occurs in Australia, New Guinea, New Zealand, New Caledonia, South America and, in fossil form, in Antarctica.

Similarly, close relatives of Australia’ Macadamia nut occur in South America and Southern Africa.

Fossil Glossopteris leaf. Illustration: Nicola Oram.

Stylised reconstruction of a Glossopteris tree. Illustration: Nicola Oram.

Under pressure If rainforests were widespread in Australia 50 million years ago, where and when did the typically Australian vegetation come from?

To the layperson, it may seem unlikely that moisture loving, fire-sensitive rainforest species could be the ‘parents’ of fireresistant and drought-proof plants such as eucalypts and banksias.

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In appearance, habits and habitat preferences, the two types of vegetation are very different. Research, however, shows that hard-leaved plants did evolve from ancient rainforest ancestors.

The key to this apparent puzzle lies in soil fertility. Australia’s hard leaved plants have evolved in response to a combination of factors including increasing aridity and low soil fertility.

Evidence for this can be seen where one species of a genus, largely confined to rainforest, shows adaptations to dry conditions.

Leopardwood (Flindersia maculosa) grows in a drier inland environment than its relative, the rainforest-dwelling Australian Teak (Flindersia australis).

Adaptation to lower soil fertility and to lower and less reliable rainfall has influenced, in different regions, the evolution of the different types of plants that make up most of Australia’s native vegetation.

Retreat and advance We have looked at the retreat of the rainforest as though it was a one-way process. However, there is plenty of evidence from the past two million years to suggest that the rainforests can reverse the trend and actually advance into neighbouring eucalypt woodlands if the conditions are suitable.

In the recent past, large-scale fluctuations in Australia’s rainforest distribution have been triggered by the onset and cessation of periods of glaciation.

Though Australian rainforests may seem to be diminishing today, the situation was even more critical 26,000 to 13,000 years ago on Queensland’s Atherton Tableland. In this region, a picture of the past distribution of rainforests has been worked out from the proportion of fossil pollen grains of various plant species in soil profiles stretching back 120,000 years. The pollen record indicates that 26,000 to 13,000 years ago local rainforests all but disappeared because of periods of extreme aridity associated with ice ages. Once the aridity eased, the rainforest remnants were able to expand, perhaps with the assistance of seed-dispersing animals and birds that migrated between patches of local rainforest.

Rainforest Recipe Long before humans arrived in Australia, climatic pressures allowed the remnant rainforests to survive only in those places providing suitable habitats. As a result, rainforests today are scattered along the northern and eastern coastlines of the continent in a discontinuous string. They cover areas ranging in size from tiny gullies to extensive valleys, ranges and tablelands. Because of their distinctive colour and canopy, it is relatively easy to pick out from the air the mosaic of rainforest pockets in the midst of eucalypt woodlands.

Their distribution can invariably be related to a number of vital environmental factors which determine the presence or absence of a rainforest. The essential ‘ingredients’ include adequate moisture, shelter, soils, absence from fire and a suitable source of rainforest seeds. There is no rigid formula for the exact quantities required of each. In some cases, more than adequate quantities of one factor, such as fertile soils or shelter, can compensate for other deficiencies, such as moisture.

Adequate moisture Rainforests naturally occur in locations receiving ample rainfall relatively evenly distributed throughout the year. In eastern Australia, the Great Dividing Range provides suitable habitats for rainforests as the mountains force moisture-bearing onshore winds to rise and condense, guaranteeing reliable rain or mists along its length.

The amount of rainfall necessary to support a rainforest depends on several factors, including latitude and altitude. For example, northern Queensland rainforests may receive 2400 mm annual rainfall, while 1600 mm is adequate in cooler climates further south because of lower evapotranspiration rates. Simpler types of rainforests, consisting of hardier species, can survive on a yearly average of 900 mm. Mists and fogs also provide moisture to high-altitude rainforests.

Shelter and fire Rainforests are particularly sensitive to the drying winds that blow from the inland. The Great Dividing Range provides plenty of shelter from these winds in leeward-facing gullies and slopes. So important is shelter to a rainforest’s survival that it is quite usual to see an open eucalypt woodland growing on the windward side of a mountain while less than 200 meters away on the sheltered leeward side there is a luxuriant rainforest community. A variation on the theme of shelter occurs along the east coast of the continent. Behind fore dunes of sand or tough thickets of sclerophyllous vegetation is an unusual type of rainforest which varies between a stunted community of shrubs and a tall rainforest stand. For this Littoral Rainforest to occur, the basic element of shelter is essential to intercept sea spray and coastal breezes. The salt kills shoots on the seaward side and so prunes the canopy of plants exposed to the full brunt of the spray, causing a lopsided wind-shear pattern to develop.

Although bushfires rarely burn through a rainforest because of high humidity and moist leaf litter, scorching usually kills off trees on the edge, pushing back the boundaries of the forest. Unlike hard-leaved vegetation, rainforest species generally lack adaptations to fire that would allow them to produce new shoots from the base or trunk. Adapted to fire, the dormant seeds of hard-leaved plants rapidly respond to the increased light reaching the floor and soon take the place of dead rainforest plants.

By contrast, in the absence of fire, rainforest species are able to advance into neighbouring eucalypt forests. Seeds of rainforest pioneers carried by wind, gravity, birds or other animals are able to germinate and grow beneath sclerophyllous plants such as Brush Box (Lophostemon confertus) or Turpentine (Syncarpia glomulifera). These seedlings usually grow into dense stands that inhibit the germination of plants whose seeds cannot tolerate shady conditions. Eventually the rainforest trees grow up around ‘captive’ sclerophyllous trees which sometimes stand out above the canopy as emergent trees.

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Distribution of rainforests in Australia. The total area of rainforest (about 2 million hectares) would fit into one third of Tasmania.

Arrows show southern limit of Tropical Rainforest (top arrow) and southern limit of Subtropical Rainforest (bottom arrow). Dotted line indicates the limit of rainforest pockets. Illustration: Nicola Oram.

Fertile soils?

Though rainforests may be the world’s richest expression of plant life, they are not always supported by the richest soils. The more fertile the soil, the more complex the type of rainforest it is likely to support. Soils that are derived from alluvium or phosphorus-rich, volcanic parent material are more likely to support rainforest than sandy acidic soils, if other conditions are suitable.

Because most of the nutrients in a rainforest are contained in the plants, the underlying soil may be relatively nutrient-poor.

While most rainforest needs an initially nutrient-rich soil to become established, once the recycling of nutrients stored in the leaves is established the fertility of the soil becomes less important.

Perfect conditions The ‘right’ combination of moisture, shelter, freedom from fire and suitable soils does not always guarantee a rainforest.

Seemingly suitable sites in the south of Western Australia lack rainforest even though fossil evidence shows that they were present in the past. Unable to contend with extreme climatic fluctuations, these ancient rainforests were pushed into extinction.

Although environmental conditions are now suitable for rainforest growth in a number of places, there is no source of rainforest seed in the vicinity to allow natural re-establishment to take place. Even if a source of rainforest seeds became available, other species already established would provide strong competition.

Between these suitable sites in Western Australia and the remnant rainforests of the east coast are thousands of kilometers of arid interior.

Different types Not all Australian rainforests occur in hot and humid regions. Queensland’s Tropical Rainforests are just one end of the spectrum. The Cool-temperate Rainforests of New South Wales, Victoria and Tasmania, which receive some of their precipitation as snow, are at the other.

Rainforests have often been branded as a ‘conservative’ form of vegetation, particularly when compared with the droughtresistant, hard-leaved plant communities of the bush, scrub and heathlands. But, contrary to opinion, a wide variety of local types has evolved to survive in a diverse range of climatic and geographic habitats from the tip of Cape York to Tasmania.

Despite quite obvious differences in their overall appearance and constituent species, most rainforests have certain features in common. Of these features, the complex layers of tree canopies and diversity of species and growth forms are best expressed in the Tropical and Subtropical Rainforests and may be absent or rare in the simpler rainforests of cooler regions.

Categorising rainforests Because different types of rainforests grade into each other, it can be difficult to determine with confidence which type of rainforest is which.

Australian botanists use several different approaches to categorise rainforests. A recent approach by Dr Len Webb, while working in CSIRO, divides rainforests into more than 20 different groups on the basis of structural components. These include the number of tree layers, leaf size, the height of the canopy, proportion of deciduous trees, and the presence or absence of particular species. Another way to classify the forests is into broad climatic categories: Tropical, Subtropical, Warm-temperate, Cool-temperate and Dry. There is no simple correlation between latitude and rainforest type. Cool-temperate Rainforests are not confined to Tasmania and Victoria. Nor are Sub-tropical Rainforests restricted to the New South Wales-Queensland border area. Altitude and soil fertility can also affect the type of forest. As altitude increases and climates become cooler, rainforests adopt a simpler form.

For this reason it is possible to find Subtropical, Warm-temperate and Cool-temperate Rainforests within a relatively small area such as Dorrigo in New South Wales As you climb higher, the rainforests become structurally and floristically less complex in response to cooler temperatures, changing nutrient levels and precipitation.

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Littoral rainforests Sun, surf and sand are not commonly associated with rainforests. However, scattered patches of distinctive Littoral Rainforests, relatives of Subtropical Rainforests, grow in coastal locations.

Because of their closeness to the sea, Littoral Rainforests are constantly exposed to varying degrees of salt-laden sea spray and winds. To combat the salt, most Littoral Rainforests are found behind sheltering headlands or coastal dunes which block most of the spray. In less sheltered locations, the salt spray kills of exposed leaves and branches, creating a dense thicket sheared by salt and wind.

Features of Littoral Rainforests

Littoral Rainforests can grow on a range of parent materials including slate, basalt and, in some cases, deep beds of sand.

While too much salt spray would kill the rainforest, a small amount of spray supplies enough dissolved nutrients to sustain it.

Common plants include Tuckeroo (Cupaniopsis anacardioides), Broad-leaved Lilly Pilly (Acmena hemilampra), Riberry (Syzygium luehmannii) and Cryptocarya triplinervis.

Characteristic features of cool-temperate rainforests include: • • • • •

simple structure, often with only one species in the upper canopy and few species in the lower layer small average leaf size of trees. Leaves are simple and feature toothed margins palms and stranglers absent buttresses are absent, but the bases of trees are sometimes massive tree ferns, ground ferns and ‘mossy’ epiphytes common and obvious

Cool temperate rainforests One quarter of Australia’s rainforests, stretching from the McPherson Range on the New South WalesQueensland border to Tasmania, are classed as Cooltemperate. Structurally simpler than Warm-temperate Rainforests, these silent, usually damp forests favour high altitudes, cooler climates and very high rainfall.

Often cloaked in mist for days on end, the dominant trees usually have a thick coat of mosses, liverworts, ferns and lichens.

The Southern Beech (Nothofagus species) is the most widespread, dominant tree of Cool-temperate Rainforests. Small leaved beech forests featuring the Antarctic Beech (Nothafagus moorei) are dominant at high altitudes from the McPherson Range to Barrington Tops.

Features of Cool-Temperate Rainforests

Pinkwood, Eucryphia moorei, dominates Cool-temperate Rainforests between the Illawarra and the Victorian border. Further south, Myrtle Beech (Nothafagus cunninghamii) extends into Tasmania. The Deciduous Beech (Nothafagus gunnii) also occurs in Tasmania.

Other common trees include Coachwood (Ceratopetalum apetalum), Sassafras (Doryphora sassafras), tree ferns and, in Tasmania, Leatherwood (Eucryphia lucida).

Warm temperate rainforests Compared with Tropical and Subtropical Rainforests, Warm-temperate Rainforests grow at higher altitudes, in cooler climates and on less fertile soils. They occur from northern Queensland’s Atherton Tableland to eastern Victoria’s Gippsland. The key features of Warm-temperate Rainforests are order and uniformity. The most characteristic species of these rainforests are Coachwood (Ceratopetalum apetalum) a relative of the NSW Christmas Bush, Sassafras (Doryphora sassafras) and various members of the family Lauraceae. On slightly more fertile soils, or in southern, cooler locations, the Southern Sassafras (Atherosperma moschatum) may be more common. At the southern end of the range, Lilly Pilly (Acmena smithii) replaces Coachwood.

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Characteristic features of warm-temperate rainforests include: • • • • • • • • •

two tree layers usually present vegetation less diverse than in Subtropical Rainforests with three to 15 species making up the canopy layer leaf size on average smaller than in Subtropical Rainforests. Leaves are usually simple and with toothed margin absence of buttresses thick woody vines replaced by thin wiry vines palms and stranglers rare or absent large epiphytes and vines present but usually neither abundant or diverse trees of medium size mostly with slender trunks and a smooth grey bark mottled with lichens ferns common

Features of Warm-Temperate Rainforests

Subtropical rainforests Tall stands of Subtropical Rainforest occur from the cooler uplands of northern Queensland to the lowlands of the New South Wales coast. They are best developed in environments with both fertile soils and high rainfall.

Because they share many species and characteristics in common, there is no clear-cut boundary between Tropical and Subtropical Rainforests. In general, the latter community has less of everything that is typically found in Tropical Rainforests. One major difference is that a smaller number of tree species form the canopy of Subtropical Rainforests, contrasting with the great range of species in Tropical Rainforests.

Characteristic features rainforests include: • • •

of

subtropical

mixed composition of many tree species with no obvious domination by any one species trees of large to medium size with a range of leaf forms palms, strangler figs, buttressed trunks, large vines and large epiphytes common and diverse

Features of Subtropical Rainforests

Dry rainforests Not all rainforests grow in areas receiving evenly distributed, abundant supplies of rainfall. Lesser known are the tiny remnants of Dry Rainforests scattered across the Kimberley, Top End, Cape York and down the east coast of Australia. Since they occur in regions with a distinct wet and dry season, the more northerly monsoonal forests survive in sheltered gullies and along the banks of rivers. Under moister, past climatic conditions, their ancestors were widespread across the continent. As the climate became less suitable for rainforests, those species best fitted for the arid conditions survived. They replaced species less able to survive in the new conditions and evolved to deal with the changing environment.

Along the east coast, marginal rainfalls or poorer soils support Dry Rainforests in sheltered locations. They often grow on rocky sites that are rarely subject to fire. Because some Dry Rainforest trees have a greater tolerance of arid conditions, communities can be found up to 300 km inland where suitable shelter exists.

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The ability of some species to shed leaves in dry conditions is an advantage for Dry Rainforest trees, enabling them to survive temporary water shortage.

Common species include Lacebark (Brachychiton discolour), Australian Teak (Flindersia australis), Hoop Pine (Araucaria cunninghamii), and figs (Ficus species).

Characteristic features of dry rainforests: • • • • • • •

small to large number of tree species forming the low to medium canopy layer scattered larger trees or emergents rising above the canopy including semi-deciduous species or conifers small average leaf size of canopy trees. Leaves are often hard and blunt-tipped palms absent large vines common and diverse vascular epiphytes rare or common, but with few species mosses and ferns scarce

Features of Dry Rainforests

Tropical rainforests Australia’s most luxuriant rainforests are between Cooktown and Mackay in Queensland. These Tropical Rainforests support the greatest density of plants and animals of all Australian rainforests. In the northern Queensland are members of at least a quarter of all Australian plant genera! That includes over 90 per cent of all our epiphytic orchid species and over half the ferns.

Vast numbers of all shapes and sizes are in turn dependent on this botanical diversity.

Characteristic features rainforests include: • • •

• • •

•

Features of Tropical Rainforests

•

of

tropical

at least three storeys of trees forming an uneven, non-uniform canopy many different tree species contributing to the canopy predominance of large, often compound leaves with drip tips that drain water off the leaf so preventing lichens and liverworts growing on them thick woody vines which interlace the overlapping crowns of rainforest trees plank buttresses which provide support for the trees in shallow soils high density and diversity of large vascular epiphytes, such as orchids, aroids and ferns.

Epiphytes depend on other plants for physical support, but collect their moisture and nutrients from the surrounding air and litter that they collect massed flowers and fruits produced directly on the trunk of many trees, an arrangement known as cauliflory or stem flowering plants such as palms, strangler figs, lawyer vines, large-leaved epiphytic climbers and largeleaved ground herbs

Humans and rainforests The arrival of humans For at least 40,000 years, Aboriginal people regularly set fire to Australia’s vegetation cover. The burning produced a greater local diversity of plant and animal foods. This ‘firestick farming’ maintained a mosaic of vegetation in different stages of development including lush young regrowth. Fires in sclerophyll forests killed or damaged the trees along the edges of adjoining rainforests. Aborigines of northern New South Wales and Queensland, whose territories included large tracts of rainforest, used fire to make clearings in the rainforest for ceremonial purposes, to improve access and to increase the numbers of grazing wildlife.

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By the time the first Europeans arrived in Australia, the rainforests had already survived a range of climatic stresses which led to numerous retreats and advances of their boundaries. The new settlers were more concerned with their own survival than protecting the natural vegetation. Their attitude was understandable. The forests seemed unending and stood in the way of establishing crops and pastures.

In the first two hundred years of settlement, three-quarters of the surviving rainforests were cleared. The remaining rainforests occupy an area only one third the size of Tasmania. Only half of these are free from significant human impact.

A wide variety of land management practices has taken its toll on the rainforests. This includes: logging; land clearance for crops including sugar cane, pumpkins, potatoes and corn; dairy farming; gold, tin and sand mining; beachfront and resort development; and access roads and airstrips.

‘Red gold' rush Just two years after settlement, a hundred year rush on the rainforests was triggered by the discovery of one of the finest sources of cabinet timber in the world. The tall-shafted trunk of the softwood Red Cedar (Toona ciliata - formerly T. australis) was easy to work and could be floated down creeks and rivers to sawmills or waiting ships. Disregarding the limited nature of cedar supplies, timber getters in New South Wales cut out most of the cedar by the 1860s. Ironically, at least half the timber they felled never made it to the mills because of wasteful practices, and later attempts to grow cedar in plantations failed.

Obstacle to progress To the pioneering settlers who followed the transient cedar getters, the daunting ‘brush’ or ‘jungle scrub’ was an obstacle to progress. The Robertson Land Act of 1862 obliged settlers to clear the rainforest covering their small settlement blocks. Despite their size, the softwood rainforest giants were easier to fell than anticipated and burning the stumps stopped regrowth. The rich red soils beneath the rainforests failed in the long term to support successful crops or dairy ventures. Much of the soil fertility was initially lost when the rainforest was cleared and burnt. Soil erosion completed the task over the years, causing downstream siltation and flooding.

As far back as 1870, the loudest voices raised in protest against large scale clearing of rainforests for agriculture were those of the foresters. Ironically, some of the New South Wales rainforests they saved as sources of timber were later to be permanently reserved within national parks.

Black Bean (Dastanospermum australe) was one of many rainforest plants eaten by Aborigines. The seeds required careful preparation to remove toxins. Today Black Bean seeds are being investigated as a source of pharmaceutical drugs. Illustration: Nicola Oram.

Rainforest timbers such as Red Cedar, Rose Mahogany and Coachwood have made an outstanding contribution to the Australian furniture industry since settlement.

Over the years they have been used in the construction of coaches, aircraft, rifles, school desks, marine-ply for boats and decorative paneling in buildings such as Old Government House at Parramatta, the Opera House, the High Court and the new Parliament House in Canberra.

Because of heavy demands, plantations of Hoop Pine, Coachwood and other rainforest trees have been grown with mixed success. Attempts to establish plantings of the valuable Red Cedar have been thwarted by the predation of larvae of the cedar tip moth.

Front page news When the battle for the Terania Creek rainforests burst so graphically into the media in 1979, it was the first time that many Australians had heard of the rainforest issue. But the conflict of interests between logging and conservation had been building for almost a century. With only 11 per cent of the State’s rainforests under protection, local residents and voluntary conservation groups were concerned that 60 to 90 per cent of all rainforest timbers logged were used to make disposable plywood for the construction industry.

Scientists questioned the long term viability of rainforests under the policy of selective logging.

Rainforest rescue In 1982, pubic opinion polls showed that 87 per cent of the community favoured saving the rainforests if alternative employment could be found for the out-of-work loggers. Sixty nine per cent were unequivocally in favour of rainforest preservation. In early 1983, the New South Wales Government announced that 90,000 hectares of northern New South Wales rainforests were to be preserved as parks and reserves.

This increased the percentage of rainforests under protection in NSW from 11 per cent to 41 per cent.

At the same time, the Government stressed its commitment to find substitute woods and alternative employment. There were sound economic reasons for ceasing all rainforest loggings in 1983. Because rainforest timber stands were close to exhaustion, the associated timber industries already had to face the reality of finding other sources of timber and work in the not-toodistant future. Stopping the logging brought this change forward and, in doing so, saved the last stands of the rainforest.

In 1986, sixteen New South Wales rainforest areas were included on the World Heritage list.

In other states the position has also been much improved in the past decade. Most of Tasmania’s Cool-temperate Rainforest and Queensland’s Tropical rainforest is now conserved in World Heritage areas. However, in all states (apart from South Australia which doesn’t have any) substantial areas of rainforest remain under threat from logging, mining and grazing pressures.

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Rainforest rebirth A project that could take up to 500 years to show results does not usually attract enthusiastic support. Despite the need for such a long-term viewpoint, volunteer groups throughout New South Wales are helping to undo some of the damage of past clearing practices.

At Wingham Brush near Taree, a team of local regenerators under the guidance of Royal Botanic Gardens botanists was funded by the local council to rescue a local remnant rainforest from weeds.

Rainforests support many native animal and bird species. Illustration: Nicola Oram.

The Lismore-based Richmond Valley Naturalist Club, with the help of the NSW National Parks and Wildlife Service, aims to double the area of existing rainforest in the 17-hectare Victoria Park Nature Reserve, a small remnant of the original Big Scrub.

Rainforest replanting does not just involve scattering the appropriate seeds and adding water. Regenerators have to provide conditions under which natural regeneration can occur, using surviving plants as local sources of seeds. The main objective of regeneration is to establish a canopy of fast-growing pioneer trees and vines that may live for 5 to 20 years. These shade out weeds that might otherwise smother the slower growing trees that can live for well over 300 years and dominate the rainforest.

Looking to the future In the past, rainforests were chiefly valued for what could be obtained from them. Today they are valued for what they are.

Rainforests protect unique plants and animals, fragile rainforest soils and the equality of water draining from the catchment.

They also attract large numbers of Australian and overseas visitors who want to explore a complex and unusual vegetation community.

To increase greater public awareness and interest in the rainforests of New South Wales, Rainforest Information Centres have been established in Dorrigo National Park, Port Macquarie’s Sea Acres Nature Reserve, Minamurra Falls in Budderoo National Park, and in Gosford’s Rumbalarah Reserve.

To botanists, intact rainforests provide important clues to the evolution of the Australian flora. Rainforests largely escaped the fluctuating conditions that changed the face of the rest of Australia’s vegetation by surviving in moister sheltered locations along the Great Dividing Range.

As a result, the remnant rainforests provided long term stability. Some of the surviving rainforest plant species date back to Gondwana. Such survivors contain clues for botanists unraveling the origin and spread of flowering plants and the evolution of the characteristic ‘Australian’ vegetation.

The remnant rainforests in turn provide refuge for other forms of life. Because they are so complex, rainforests support a large proportion of Australia’s animal species.

Not all rainforest animals are permanent dwellers. Some are part-time and others migratory. For the endemic rainforest species, rainforests offer their only hope of survival.

Because some rainforests have existed unchanged for million so years, they support many unusual animals, including the gastric-brooding frog, tree kangaroos, the primitive musky rat-kangaroo and the chameleon gecko.

Nature's supermarket Australia’s rainforests supplied the daily food and hardware needs of Aborigines living in and around rainforests for thousands of years before European contact. Today, Australia’s most successful rainforest food is the Macadamia or Queensland nut, which is grown commercially in Australia and Hawaii.

Other rainforest food plants are presently being studied to assess their suitability for cultivation.

Other products of our rainforests are the elegant Elkhorn, Staghorn and Bird’s Nest ferns which are grown commercially to meet the needs of gardeners.

User-friendly drugs Rainforests of the world have traditionally produced a large proportion of the natural active ingredients used to make the drugs on chemist shop shelves. Desperate for relief, Australia’s European pioneers devised bush remedies to cure their aches and pains. Today, drugs derived from rainforest plants are used to combat lymphoid cancer, to improve eye complaints and to quell motion sickness.

With so little research completed in this field, the potential for discovering valuable new rainforest drugs is promising.

Rainforest's last stand To the first European settlers, rainforests were an acquired taste. While occasional travellers were sufficiently moved to write eloquently of their grandeur, their voice was but a faint cry in the wilderness.

The men who cleared the forests for agriculture or timber were more sparing in their praises. Their eyes and ears were closed to the enduring beauty of the rainforest. All they were aware of was the humidity, stinging trees, wait-a-while vines, leeches and loneliness of the ‘jungle scrub’.

Until the 1980s it was believed that our rainforests originated overseas and invaded the Australian continent across ancient land bridges. Contrary to earlier beliefs, we now know that rainforests once covered large areas of Australia and actually ‘parented’ the gum trees, wattles, waratahs and all the other plants which have long been regarded as the typical Australian vegetation.

Australia’s unique rainforests have at least come of age.

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Fraser Island’s Unique Dune Lakes Australia, the world’s driest and flattest inhabited continent has a dearth of freshwater lakes. There are relatively few lakes regions outside Tasmania. Yet FraserIsland has an abundance of lakes. Each lake has individual character and charm. Some are surrounded byheathlands, others by open forest, some surrounded byrainforests; some have startling white beaches; some have water the colour of tea, others have crystal clearwater to depths of 10 metres.

Ages of lakes: The lakes have been around for eons. Sediments found in one Fraser Island lake was aged to 300,000 years.

That makes it the oldest lake sediment discovered in coastal Australia. Other research shows that some of the lakes have catchments which extend little further than the lake surface. Almost as fascinating is the fact that many of the lakes retain almost every contaminant ever to enter the water. This has been established at Hidden Lake by measuring the retention of radio-active fallout from the 1950s.

Window lakes are formed where the land surface dips below the actual water table, leaving a window into the water table.

All lakes north of Orchid Beach on Fraser Island are classic examples of window lakes but there are others.

Perched lakes occur where the water is held at an elevation in the dune well above the general water table by an impervious organic layer. Perched lakes can be likened to like perching a saucer above a much larger body of water. While perched dune lakes exist outside the Great Sandy Region, there are very few anywhere else in the world. Most lakes on Fraser Island south of Lake Bowarrady and Poona Lake in Cooloola are examples of perched lakes.

The perched lakes form when the normally permeable sand has the grains cemented by organic material. Initially this depression develop a crude forest litter seal. Holding “Black” water. This is followed by the organic colloids in the water being precipitated to form into humate rock. This humate rock gradually gets thicker as more and more organic very fine colloids are turned to sediment which in turn becomes a cementing agent. Thus depressions, sometimes more than 100 metres above the underlying regional water table begin to permanently hold water and become perched lakes.

Barrage lakes are formed by a sandblow forming a barrier to back up water higher than it otherwise would be. They are really a variation of a window lake where the water-table is forced higher as a result of the However, these lakes contain white water from the regional water table. Wabby Lakes are barrage lakes. Both are in an active state of change. In the case of Wabby Lakes the barrage, a sandblow, is invading the lakes. In the case of Deepwater, as the stream drains the dunes it is carrying away some of the barrage which is holding back the lake. Eventually the barrage will disappear.

Splash Effect: Eventually all lakes in dune systems will fill in as a result of millions of raindrop splashes. Every time a raindrop impacts on the surface, it causes grains of sand to bounce (a process known as saltation). Evidence of this can be found on the legs of every table and chair left on the sand, even if the sand is covered with litter or vegetation. While most grains of sand don’t bounce very high, some reach up to 50 centimetres above the surface. More grains will fall back to earth on the down hill side of the pint of impact. The effect of this is to result in closed depressions and lakes at the bottom of slopes progressively accumulate grains of sand which have bounced down the slope over eons. Thus in time lakes die.

Dune Lake Features: Some features of the dune lakes result from the internal currents which result from the wind. This is because sand is more easily relocated by wind and current than hard rocks and clay, more common mediums holding lakes.

Beaches in the down-wind end of lakes are just one formation more common in dune lakes. Behind each beach is usually a lunette (a crescent shaped foredune). Waves not only help form beaches but they result in currents as the lake tries to maintain levels. These littoral current transport sand around the edge of the lake. Further from the beach centre these internal currents lose energy and velocity and thus their capacity to move sand. The sand which had been carried then settles out and establishes sand spits. Lakes McKenzie and Benaroon have well developed spits resulting from this process.

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Lake Types

Coastal and Sub-Coastal Non-Floodplain Sand Lake - Perched

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HYDROLOGY Although there is a great deal of variability between lake types, the water of dune lakes are generally characterised by being acidic (pH of less than 6) and have extremely low levels of dissolved solids, suspended solids and nutrients. They can be crystal clear, clear and tea-coloured, or opaque because of the presence of dissolved organic matter. Water that is tea-coloured or brown is also known as ‘black water’ and this is more typically found in perched lakes. ‘White water’ that is clear and colourless arises from regional groundwater aquifers and this is more commonly associated with window lakes. Factors that contribute to the physical variation between lakes include lake age and size, how it was formed, proximity to the sea, surrounding vegetation, and the extent to which leaf litter accumulates and decays within it.

Rainfall quickly infiltrates sand, leaching nutrients from the soil profile, and leaving very little surface water available for run-off. The lack of streams or geomorphological features associated with overland flows is evidence of the rapid infiltration rates and low overland flows in these environments.

Rapid infiltration indicates that the groundwater system is likely to be a critical component in the environmental processes of perched wetlands in sandmass environments.

Perched lakes are hydrologically complex systems that can fill rapidly in response to local rainfall and associated infiltration through the sand mass. They are bounded by an organic layer that is semipermeable to water, thus creating their own local groundwater systems where free water can accumulate in the soil profile. The topography, stratigraphy (layering), permeability and other properties of the local semi-permeable layer can be very complex and heterogeneous, making these systems highly diverse, complex and difficult to predict. They are generally more acidic (they have a lower pH) than window lakes as they tend to have a higher organic matter content.

Stratification Stratification is driven by density differences within the one waterbody.

Temperature has a significant effect on water density warmer water is less dense and therefore will float on top of colder water (of the same salinity).

1. Sunlight warms the upper surface of the lake (the epilimnion) makingit less dense than the water below, allowing it to float and discouraging mixing (hence inducing stratification).

Only a small temperature difference is required to prevent mixing between layers, depending on the lake’s surface area, shape and wind fetch.

2. The stratification can break down through a decrease in surface temperature from cooler air temperatures that occur either at night time or seasonally, depending on the lake’s climate and other characteristics.

The decreasing density of the cooling surface water, along with wind action cause this surface water to sink and mix with the deeper water. During this time period, most of the lake water is at the same temperature, and surface and bottom waters can mix freely.

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Mixing Stratified lakes allow very little mixing between the lake surface and the lake depths, virtually cutting off the oxygen supply to the unmixed bottom layer (the hypolimnion).

When there is little oxygen input from submerged plants (due to low light levels, for example) or when a large amount of organic matter has stimulated the growth of oxygen-consuming bacteria, the water in the unmixed bottom layer (hypolimnion) can become extremely low in oxygen (anoxic) over time.

Anoxia has a range of impacts. Not only does it make conditions harder for organisms that require oxygen for respiration to survive, it impacts on a range of chemical processes.

Anoxia and Nutrients In anoxic conditions, the nutrients phosphorus and nitrogen (in the form of ammonia) become more soluble (dissolvable) and are released from the bottom sediments into the water column. Ammonia cannot be converted to nitrate without oxygen and will therefore accumulate in anoxic water, especially under high pH (basic/alkaline) conditions. During the summer, stratified lakes can sometimes partially mix (such as with the passing of a cold front accompanied by strong winds and cold rains), allowing some of these nutrients to ‘escape’ up into the wellmixed surface waters and stimulate an algal bloom if light and temperature conditions permit. Ammonia can also directly affect animals, such as fish, that are sensitive to ammonia and are repelled by high levels in the water.

Hyporheic Flow Water flowing through a river can move through the sediments beneath and adjacent to the channel. This is termed the hyporheic zone, where surface water and groundwater mix. The water that flows through this zone is termed hyporheic flow, subsurface flow or base flow, and can be an important source of water for floodplain lakes and swamps.

Due to filtering by alluvial sediments (e.g. sand) hyporheic flow tends to be less turbid (clearer) than surface water flow.

Stratification Zones Under certain conditions related to temperature, wind mixing, salinity, waterbody depth and vegetation cover, Queensland lakes can stratify into different layers.

The upper layer of a waterbody is a warmer (and therefore lighter), well-mixed zone called the epilimnion.

Below this is a transitional zone called the metalimnion, where temperatures rapidly change with depth. The thermocline is a horizontal plane within the metalimnion at the zone of greatest water temperature change. The metalimnion is very resistant to wind mixing.

Beneath the metalimnion, and extending to the lake bottom, is the colder, heavier, darker and relatively undisturbed hypolimnion.

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GEOMORPHOLOGY Perched lakes are formed when sand is cemented together with decomposed organic matter (such as leaves, bark and dead plants) and aluminium and iron, creating a relatively impermeable layer well above sea level.

This cemented (or indurated) layer, known as ‘coffee rock’, tends to slow water from percolating down to the regional aquifer, holding rainwater in a depression, forming a lake (and associated swamp habitat). The geomorphology of perched lakes can be quite diverse and complex. The wetland environment that develops can depend on the topography, depth of the coffee rock, degree of cementation (induration), as well as its organic matter and metal content. The perched lake’s position in the landscape (e.g. in a deflation dune or a backswamp) also plays an important role in the formation and functioning of the perched lake. Commonly they are formed in saucer-shaped depressions in the dune surface with their own local water table that sits well above the large lens-shaped aquifer that may be associated with the greater sandmass system. However, further research is required to better understand these wetlands.

FAUNA These wetland habitat types typically have low densities of aquatic animal populations due to the very low nutrients available. Some of the fauna associated with this habitat include the following: Birds Low bird population density, because of the typically low nutrient, low flora density and low fish numbers.

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Fish • • • • • •

Oxleyan pygmy perch Nannoperca

oxleyana honey blue eye Pseudomugil mellis ornate rainbowfish Rhadinocentrus

ornatus poreless gudgeon Oxyeleotris nullipora onegill eel Ophisternon bengalense northern purplespotted gudgeon

Mogurnda mogurnda Amphibians • • • • • • •

wallum froglet Crinia tinnula Cooloola sedgefrog Litoria cooloolensis wallum rocketfrog Litoria freycineti wallum sedgefrog Litoria olongburensis northern sedgefrog Litoria bicolor shrill whistlefrog Austrochaperina

gracilipes tawny rocketfrog Litoria nigrofrenata

Reptiles • •

Fraser Island short-neck turtle Emydura macquarii nigra estuarine crocodile Crocodylus porosus

Microcrustaceans • •

Calamoecia tasmanica Calamoecia ultima

Insects • • • •

Order Order Order Order

Hemiptera Odonata Coleoptera Chironomidae

FLORA Oligotrophic (low nutrient) lakes are often surrounded and, if shallow, invaded by dense strands of sedges and rushes such as Lepironia articulata, Eleocharis spp., Baumea spp., Schoenus spp., Juncus spp. and Gahnia spp.

The deeper areas of lakes are generally vegetation-free.

Throughout Queensland, L. articulata is commonly associated with coastal dune lakes. However, species such as Baumea teretifolia, Eleocharis sphacelata, Leptocarpus tenax, common in south-east Queensland, are usually replaced with the species B. rubiginosa, E. brassi and Dapsilanthus ramosus in Cape York coastal dune lake areas.

Coastal dune lakes can occur alongside a diverse range of wetland habitats and vegetation types including beaches, mangroves, salt flats, swamps, sedgelands, heathland and rainforest, depending on their exact location. Where lake levels fluctuate, vegetation surrounding the lake is highly water tolerant and may include species such as sundews (genus Drosera) and bladderworts (genus Utricularia).

Some of the flora species associated with coastal dune lakes and their surrounding area include: Herbs • sundews, for example Drosera auriculata, forked sundew D. binata, D. spatulata • bladderworts, for example moth bladderwort Utricularia biloba, floating bladderwort U. gibba, asian bladderwort U. uliginosa Sedges/Rushes • Lepironia articulata • Baumea spp. (B. rubiginosa, B. teretifolia) • Juncus spp., Gahnia spp. (including G. sieberiana) • Eleocharis spp. (including E. brassii, E. sphacelata) • Schoenus spp. (including S. scabripes, S. calostachyus, S. sparteus) • Dapsilanthus elatior • Dapsilanthus ramosus • Leptocarpus spp. (including L. tenax) 120

Trees/Shrubs • Asteromyrtus lysicephala • Melaleuca arcana • broad-leaved tea-tree Melaleuca leucadendra • swamp paperbark Melaleuca quinquenervia • swamp tea-tree Melaleuca dealbata • Melaleuca sp. aff. viridiflora • Thryptomene oligandra • broad-leaved banksia Banksia robur • red bottlebrush Callistemon polandii • tantoon Leptospermum polygalifolium

LAKE LIFE CYCLE - WETTING AND DRYING Stage 1: First Big Flush

During periods of high surface flow into lakes, either through rainfall in the catchment and/or river flooding (if it is a floodplain lake), surface storm water flow is usually turbid compared to clearer groundwater base flows.

This entering water is usually cooler than the well-mixed surface layer (the epilimnion) and warmer than the colder, deeper layer (the hypolimnion), and so settles between these two zones, blocking light to the water below and the bottom sediments.

The turbid surface water entering carries nutrients and organic matter. These stimulate zooplankton growth and suppress phytoplankton growth by blocking light. The water column is typically heterotrophic at this stage.

Following the turbid water inflow, particles settle over time according to size.

As the particle size distribution changes over time, so do the zooplankton and microcrustacean species that graze on it (e.g. there is a shift in Daphnia species (small planktonic crustaceans) as particle size fractions change).

Clear water also enters the lake through hyporheic flow if the lake is part of a floodplain system, is proximate enough to the flowing channel system and if the substrate is conducive to such flow.

Stage 2 Over time, particles continue to settle out of the water column.

Light could still be blocked by suspended particles and Coloured Dissolved Organic Matter (CDOM).

However, unless there is a significant amount of resuspension (which can be caused by wave action), the water tends to become clearer to some extent.

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Emergent vegetation flourishes, providing a substrate for microbes and epiphytes to grow on and a source of detritus for other organisms.

The depth is continually getting shallower due to evaporation, unless groundwater (including hyporheic flow) can supplement the water lost through evaporation.

Lakes that receive groundwater can typically become clearer than those that don’t, as they are provided with a source of clear water that dilutes the sediment and organic matter particles over time.

Stage 3

As the turbidity clears, light can penetrate deeper into the water column, allowing phytoplankton to grow. The water column becomes autotrophic and plants grow in the water column.

Reeds and other vegetation continue to grow in the shallower areas while emergent and submergent plants flourish in the deeper areas.

Less available nutrients in the water column reduce the growth of microbes and epiphytes.

Lakes may stratify if climatic and other conditions are suitable.

As the water level drops, plants can continue to colonise the area. The shape, bathymetry and substrate of the waterbody play a significant role in determining the rate and type of plant colonisation.

Stage 4

As water continues to evaporate and the depth gets shallower and shallower, solutes (such as salts) are continually concentrated.

The depth of wind mixing increases proportionally, until it can reach the bottom of the lake and stir up the bottom sediment, bringing nutrients stored in the sediments into the water column, potentially stimulating zooplankton and microcrustacean growth and reducing water clarity for plants. This can lead to a similar ecological situation as Stage 2.

Stage 5

Some waterbodies dry out completely as a natural part of their life cycle. These are referred to as ephemeral waterbodies. Typically the plants and animals associated with these areas are adapted to survive the wet and dry cycles and in some cases, require them in order to complete their life cycles.

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The presence of vegetation is influenced by the surface they are growing on and therefore gives some indication of the level and type of hydrological activity of the site. Dense long-lived perennial vegetation suggests a low energy (slow flowing) environment with little deposition, probably occurring over a long period of time. Annual vegetation may also indicate a low energy environment but with a shorter duration of stability.

Lack of vegetation or burying of vegetation distinguishes a more active environment. Vegetation cover, type and density also influence the surface resistance to erosion.

Coastal and Sub-Coastal Non-Floodplain Sand Lake - Window

HYDROLOGY Water Quality Some non-floodplain soil lakes are clear water systems, while others are stained by tea-tree tannins, depending on the presence and type of the fringing vegetation.

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Stratification Stratification is driven by density differences within the one waterbody. Temperature has a significant effect on water density—warmer water is less dense and therefore will float on top of colder water (of the same salinity).

1. Sunlight warms the upper surface of the lake (the epilimnion), making it less dense than the water below, allowing it to float and discouraging mixing (hence inducing stratification). Only a small temperature difference is required to prevent mixing between layers, depending on the lake’s surface area, shape and wind fetch.

2. The stratification can break down through a decrease in surface temperature from cooler air temperatures that occur either at night time or seasonally, depending on the lake’s climate and other characteristics. The decreasing density of the cooling surface water, along with wind action, causes this surface water to sink and mix with the deeper water. During this time period, most of the lake water is at the same temperature, and surface and bottom waters can mix freely.

Mixing Stratified lakes allow very little mixing between the lake surface and the lake depths, virtually cutting off the oxygen supply to the unmixed bottom layer (the hypolimnion).

When there is little oxygen input from submerged plants (due to low light levels, for example) or when a large amount of organic matter has stimulated the growth of oxygen-consuming bacteria, the water in the unmixed bottom layer (hypolimnion) can become extremely low in oxygen (anoxic) over time. Anoxia has a range of impacts. Not only does it make conditions harder for organisms that require oxygen for respiration to survive, it impacts on a range of chemical processes.

Anoxia and Nutrients In anoxic conditions, the nutrients phosphorus and nitrogen (in the form of ammonia) become more soluble (dissolvable) and are released from the bottom sediments into the water column. Ammonia cannot be converted to nitrate without oxygen and will therefore accumulate in anoxic water, especially under high pH (basic/alkaline) conditions. During the summer, stratified lakes can sometimes partially mix (such as with the passing of a cold front accompanied by strong winds and cold rains), allowing some of these nutrients to ‘escape’ up into the well-mixed surface waters and stimulate an algal bloom if light and temperature conditions permit. Ammonia can also directly affect animals, such as fish, that are sensitive to ammonia and are repelled by high levels in the water.

Anoxia and Other Trace Elements Some metals and other elements—notably iron, manganese and sulfur (as hydrogen sulfide)—also become increasingly soluble under anoxic conditions and are released from the bottom sediments, especially under acidic conditions.

These compounds cause taste and odour problems—a potentially serious concern in drinking water supply reservoirs. Additionally, high hydrogen sulfide concentrations can be lethal to many game fish as well as some zooplankton (microscopic animals that are an important fish food).

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GEOMORPHOLOGY The origin, evolution and processes involved in the formation of coastal dune lakes are diverse. Lakes may form in sand hollows created by wind (known as deflation hollows); when dunes advance and form a barrier across hollows and valleys; or between parallel dunes (that is, in dune swales). These lakes are dependent on local catchment run-off (rainwater) and/or groundwater. They are generally permanent in nature but may be semipermanent or temporary, depending on their location and climatic conditions. The water level of coastal dune lakes may change quite markedly between seasons.

Water table window lakes occur between dunes and intercept the regional groundwater table. They effectively form a window to the aquifer below.

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FAUNA These wetland habitat types typically have low densities of aquatic animal populations due to the very low nutrients available.

Some of the fauna associated with this habitat include the following: Birds Low bird population density, because of the typically low nutrient, low flora density and low fish numbers.

Fish • • • • • •

Oxleyan pygmy perch Nannoperca

oxleyana honey blue eye Pseudomugil mellis ornate rainbowfish Rhadinocentrus

ornatus poreless gudgeon Oxyeleotris

nullipora onegill eel Ophisternon bengalense northern purplespotted gudgeon

Mogurnda mogurnda Amphibians • wallum froglet Crinia tinnula • Cooloola sedgefrog Litoria cooloolensis • wallum rocketfrog Litoria freycineti • wallum sedgefrog Litoria olongburensis • northern sedgefrog Litoria bicolor • shrill whistlefrog Austrochaperina gracilipes • tawny rocketfrog Litoria nigrofrenata Reptiles • Fraser Island short-neck turtle Emydura macquarii nigra • estuarine crocodile Crocodylus porosus Microcrustaceans • Calamoecia tasmanica • Calamoecia ultima Insects • Order Hemiptera • Order Odonata • Order Coleoptera • Order Chironomidae

FLORA Oligotrophic (low nutrient) lakes are often surrounded and, if shallow, invaded by dense strands of sedges and rushes such as Lepironia articulata, Eleocharis spp., Baumea spp., Schoenus spp., Juncus spp. and Gahnia spp. The deeper areas of lakes are generally vegetation-free.

Throughout Queensland, L. articulata is commonly associated with coastal dune lakes. However, species such as Baumea teretifolia, Eleocharis sphacelata, Leptocarpus tenax, common in south-east Queensland, are usually replaced with the species B. rubiginosa, E. brassi and Dapsilanthus ramosus in Cape York coastal dune lake areas.

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Coastal dune lakes can occur alongside a diverse range of wetland habitats and vegetation types including beaches, mangroves, salt flats, swamps, sedgelands, heathland and rainforest, depending on their exact location. Where lake levels fluctuate, vegetation surrounding the lake is highly water tolerant and may include species such as sundews (genus Drosera) and bladderworts (genus Utricularia).

Some of the flora species associated with coastal dune lakes and their surrounding area include:

Herbs • •

sundews, for example Drosera auriculata, forked sundew D. binata, D. spatulata bladderworts, for example moth bladderwort Utricularia biloba, floating bladderwort U. gibba, asian bladderwort U. uliginosa

Sedges/Rushes • • • • • • • •

Lepironia articulata Baumea spp. (B. rubiginosa, B. teretifolia) Juncus spp., Gahnia spp. (including G. sieberiana) Eleocharis spp. (including E. brassii, E. sphacelata) Schoenus spp. (including S. scabripes, S. calostachyus, S. sparteus) Dapsilanthus elatior Dapsilanthus ramosus Leptocarpus spp. (including L. tenax)

Trees/Shrubs • • • • • • • • • •

Asteromyrtus lysicephala Melaleuca arcana broad-leaved tea-tree Melaleuca leucadendra swamp paperbark Melaleuca quinquenervia swamp tea-tree Melaleuca dealbata Melaleuca sp. aff. viridiflora Thryptomene oligandra broad-leaved banksia Banksia robur red bottlebrush Callistemon polandii tantoon Leptospermum polygalifolium

LAKE LIFE CYCLE - WETTING AND DRYING Stage 1: First Big Flush

During periods of high surface flow into lakes, either through rainfall in the catchment and/or river flooding (if it is a floodplain lake), surface storm water flow is usually turbid compared to clearer groundwater base flows.

This entering water is usually cooler than the well-mixed surface layer (the epilimnion) and warmer than the colder, deeper layer (the hypolimnion), and so settles between these two zones, blocking light to the water below and the bottom sediments.

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The turbid surface water entering carries nutrients and organic matter. These stimulate zooplankton growth and suppress phytoplankton growth by blocking light. The water column is typically heterotrophic at this stage.

Following the turbid water inflow, particles settle over time according to size.

As the particle size distribution changes over time, so do the zooplankton and microcrustacean species that graze on it (e.g. there is a shift in Daphnia species (small planktonic crustaceans) as particle size fractions change).

Clear water also enters the lake through hyporheic flow if the lake is part of a floodplain system, is proximate enough to the flowing channel system and if the substrate is conducive to such flow.

Stage 2 Over time, particles continue to settle out of the water column.

Light could still be blocked by suspended particles and Coloured Dissolved Organic Matter (CDOM).

However, unless there is a significant amount of resuspension (which can be caused by wave action), the water tends to become clearer to some extent.

Emergent vegetation flourishes, providing a substrate for microbes and epiphytes to grow on and a source of detritus for other organisms.

The depth is continually getting shallower due to evaporation, unless groundwater (including hyporheic flow) can supplement the water lost through evaporation.

Lakes that receive groundwater can typically become clearer than those that don’t, as they are provided with a source of clear water that dilutes the sediment and organic matter particles over time.

Stage 3

As the turbidity clears, light can penetrate deeper into the water column, allowing phytoplankton to grow. The water column becomes autotrophic and plants grow in the water column.

Reeds and other vegetation continue to grow in the shallower areas while emergent and submergent plants flourish in the deeper areas.

Less available nutrients in the water column reduce the growth of microbes and epiphytes.

Lakes may stratify if climatic and other conditions are suitable.

As the water level drops, plants can continue to colonise the area. The shape, bathymetry and substrate of the waterbody play a significant role in determining the rate and type of plant colonisation.

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Stage 4

As water continues to evaporate and the depth gets shallower and shallower, solutes (such as salts) are continually concentrated.

The depth of wind mixing increases proportionally, until it can reach the bottom of the lake and stir up the bottom sediment, bringing nutrients stored in the sediments into the water column, potentially stimulating zooplankton and microcrustacean growth and reducing water clarity for plants. This can lead to a similar ecological situation as Stage 2.

Stage 5

Some waterbodies dry out completely as a natural part of their life cycle. These are referred to as ephemeral waterbodies. Typically the plants and animals associated with these areas are adapted to survive the wet and dry cycles and in some cases, require them in order to complete their life cycles.

The presence of vegetation is influenced by the surface they are growing on and therefore gives some indication of the level and type of hydrological activity of the site. Dense long-lived perennial vegetation suggests a low energy (slow flowing) environment with little deposition, probably occurring over a long period of time. Annual vegetation may also indicate a low energy environment but with a shorter duration of stability.

Lack of vegetation or burying of vegetation distinguishes a more active environment. Vegetation cover, type and density also influence the surface resistance to erosion.

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Beach Basics

Intertidal Zonation If you visit an ocean shore in each of the five Biogeographic Zones around Australia, not only has each organism and algae a preferred distribution range, but each type of organism also has a preferred habitat range up and down each shore, with its upper and lower limit determined by different environmental and biological factors. This often creates a shore pattern of distinct parallel bands of species across a shore level with the water surface. This pattern has been called intertidal zonation.

Although Intertidal Zonation as a concept is usually only applied to rocky shore animals and algae, it also occurs on sandy and muddy shores.

Rocky Shore Zonation: On rocky shores, the horizontal banding of creatures is generally obvious and has been called by marine researchers intertidal zonation.

The researchers have used the varying lunar-month tide levels and/or indicator species to define these levels.

Some of the researcher's terminology is complex and uses descriptions like infralittoral, high midlittoral, high-water spring and high-water neap tides, upper and lower barnacle zone and cunjevoi zone.

Vertical Distribution Pattern for Animals and Algae in the Eastern Warm Temperate Zone of Australia

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Sandy Shore Zonation: In southern Australia, on high-energy sandy beaches, the sand is coarse and generally slopes away into the water.

This is a constantly shifting environment, with sand grains buoyed up in the water when the tide is high. Animals have to be very specialised to live here. These beaches have the lowest number of animals.

Protected beaches have fine sand, which if supported by water, is easy to bury down into, and always remains moist.

Here a very large range of microscopic animals move among the sand particles in suspension. In Australia we know very little about these minute animals.

Larger animals that live on sandy beaches are the surf crabs, Pipi, Donax deltoides, cockles and moon shells, several species of beach worm, as well as numerous isopods and amphipods (sand-hoppers) scrambling around under torn-off kelp fronds. No large algae can survive here, only microscopic algae.

Higher up on the sand shore are the the eastern and western ocypode (ghost) crabs, the related northern Sand Bubbler Crab, Scopimera inflata, and the southern Burrowing Shore Crab, Leptograpsus octodentatus.

Estuarine Shore Zonation: There is a wide range of habitats in an estuary, a number often occurring across a short distance. Close to the estuary or river mouth, the shore is usually sand. Because wave energy is not as strong as found on the open coast, the sand is usually packed down, so is unsuitable for intertidal animals, algae or sea grasses.

Moving away from the estuary entrance, wave energy decreases and the percentage of mud in the substrate increases. Here extensive sea grass beds occur. Many intertidal and estuarine-preferring animals live in the sea grass flats.

Further into the embayment, muddy shores become more common, fringed by mangrove forest and backed by extensive salt-marsh flats. These are only covered by the highest tides.

Where a river enters the estuary, the water becomes brackish, so oysters, mud whelks and polychaete worms become common.

All of these habitats have their own specialised creatures and plant forms which, when occurring on a shore, often lie in parallel bands. The more gentle the slope, the broader the habitat band. But here on an estuarine shore, many of the species are not attached to the substrate, so it is more like a zonation of habitats and their associated organisms.

References Bennett, I. (1987) W. J. Dakin's classic study: Australian Seashores. p. 3-12, Angus & Robertson, Sydney.

Davey, K. (1998) A Photographic Guide to Seashore Life of Australia. p.8, New Holland, Sydney.

Beach Life Zones The Beach Link Biologists often divide sandy beaches in to 3 biological zones. Stretching our analogy of skin and dunes a bit further let's look a bit closer at the very outer layer, a vast flexible sheet of dead cells, a layer on which bacteria flourishes, mites munch and warm springs poor out their evaporative fluids to keep internal engines cool. Here there is a balanced ecology continuous interplay between the living and the dead, a margin from which the life beneath can breath and itself experience a dynamic and sustainable sanctuary. The beach is a margin of sand in a dynamic ebb and flow in resonance with tides winds currents waves and time and merging with the integrity of the dune ecology it both forms feeds and protects.

from "The Blue Layer"

Our northern NSW Beaches are chiefly by definition dissipative. Off shore shallow sandbanks release the initial energy from ocean swells as they break and send secondary waves with low residual energy gently up and down the beach. The dissipative beaches are wide, gently sloping, slow draining and quite firm underfoot because the fine sand particles fit close together. These beaches support a relatively high variety of burrowing organisms. Because of it's shallow gradient these beaches also act as traps for another group of organisms, The Blue and White Armada that drifts across our ocean in huge surface floating clouds, feeding on each other and the vast array of oceanic plankton they pass across on their journey. There is a remarkable story related to this strange community.

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Food Webs on Coastal Beaches The Producers which fuel Beach food weds include Phytoplankton, microscopic benthic algae and large detached plants such as Kelp, Sargassum seaweed, Sea grasses and Mangrove seeds. Rip currents provide cells of recirculating seawater therefore nutrients. These favour proliferation of diatoms amongst the sand grains. A phytoplankton Chaetoceros armatum that blooms in the ocean under certain conditions becomes deposited on the beach as a familiar green scum.

Diatom

Diatoms betweens sand grains provide the chief food for bi valves and other filter feeders. Surf and off shore Phytoplankton produce organic matter by photosynthesis.

When they wash ashore and are buries in the surface layers of sand these cells are consumes by copepods, nematodes, flatworms and other sand grain fauna. The cells are also broken down by bacteria and Protozoans, which in turn are eaten by sand microbes including water bears and small nematodes.

Amphipod

The fine organic particles released by dead plant and animal cells called detritus are retained near the surface on our wide dissipative beaches. This serves to enrich and widen the food web. The most important of food on many beaches are the stranded clumps of seaweed and sea grasses that get washed ashore. They are rapidly attacked by amphipods after nightfall and are the major food source for the larvae of kelp flies. Amphipods can be seen jumping around clumps of seaweed at night.

Scavengers such as Isopods and Ghost Crabs quickly zone in on animals such as dead fish. Sea Jellies, Blue bottles, Blue suns, By the wind sailors, Sea lizards and Purple bubble snails.

Ghost Crab

Fine organic matter released and trapped by surface sand grains are sieved and filter by the sand bubbler crab whose bubble like castings can be seen characteristically on the low tide strand particularly in the early morning. Both amphipods and isopods become in turn food for beach foraging shore birds such as sandpipers and oyster catchers.

Pipis however can be negatively effected by accumulation of stranded Sea Weed. It prevents their food hopping tide chasing migration as well as their burrowing and feeding patterns. Seaweed that accumulates in the surf zone can be a rich source for amphipods, which in turn attract small predatory fish, which feed on them and inturn shelter amongst the seaweed to escape predatory sea birds.

Sandpiper searching for food

The beach food web establishes a regime of circulating organic matter, nitrates, phosphates, minerals and through continuous decomposition by bacteria the generation of carbon dioxide. This provides a ready made source of plant food to help jump start the plant pioneers (Spinifex) into initiating the establishment of dunes, the outer skin that protects the inner integrity of all our coastal environments.

Saltmarsh, Seagrass and Algae Marine grasses, succulents and algae have a vital role in providing shelter and food for foraging aquatic species such as fish and crabs. They also help hold the soil together, reduce the impact of wind and waves and act as a buffer to nutrients coming from the land.

Saltmarsh Saltmarshes are intertidal plant communities dominated by herbs and low shrubs that can tolerate high soil salinity, high temperatures and occasional inundation from salt water.

Saltmarshes play a very important role in providing food for aquatic species and for recycling nutrients. They are home to a diverse range of resident and visiting animals, including fish such as mullet that come in with the tide to eat crab larvae and other prey.

Saltmarsh communities are classified by the type of plants that are dominant and include saltpans, saline grasslands and samphire (succulent) dominated saltmarsh.

Saltmarsh is protected from any unauthorised disturbance. Much of Queensland’s important saltmarshes however have already been destroyed, especially near towns and cities where it was seen as ‘rubbish’ land and filled for industrial and residential development.

To help you identify the most common species of saltmarsh plants in Queensland see the DPI&F 'Field guide to common saltmarsh plants of Queensland'

Seagrass Seagrass meadows are found in the shallow coastal waters of every sea in the world and consist of flowering plants that have adapted to grow in the sea but are not actually grasses. Some species have long strap-like leaves typical of grasses, while others have oval or fern-like leaves.

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Seagrass habitats vary from a few plants or clumps of a single seagrass species to extensive single or multispecies meadows covering large areas of the seabed. Seagrasses help to stabilise fine sediments with their leaf and root systems and maintain water quality.

Seagrass meadows are highly productive and support many important fisheries by protecting juvenile fish from strong tidal currents and predators.

Decaying seagrass leaves break down to provide food for tiny organisms such as flagellates and plankton, which in turn provide food for the juveniles of marine animals such as fish, crabs, prawns and shellfish. Seagrass leaves and roots also provide food for grazing fish, dugong and turtles.

The juveniles of many species of Queensland fish depend on seagrass beds for all or part of their lifecycle, including many popular eating species of fish, prawns and shellfish. Larger predatory animals such as herons, cormorants, sharks, barramundi and salmon are attracted to the seagrass meadows by the schools of bait fish which seek shelter there.

Seagrass meadows are fragile habitats, and activities which damage them may also affect associated fish populations.

Excessive pollution from sewage discharge, oil, runoff from the land and physical destruction from dredging, uncontrolled bait digging, boat propellers and anchors can damage or destroy seagrasses.

Microalgae Marine microalgae are microscopic marine plants (algae) that live in the sea. These tiny plants are extremely important and are the basis of the marine food web on which all species of fish, prawns and shellfish ultimately depend.

Microalgae grow in diverse marine habitats ranging from wave-swept beaches to debris-laden backwater lagoons, estuaries, sand flats, muddy shores, saltmarshes and soft seabeds.

While mudflats and sand flats are often considered to be relatively unproductive compared to fish habitats with seagrass meadows or mangroves, these 'bare' fish habitats support countless millions of tiny microalgae on and below the surface.

Together, the mosaic of vegetated and 'bare' fish habitats provides the complete habitat and food requirements for fish and other aquatic animals.

Microalgae directly support diverse communities of small bottom-dwelling animals such as polychaetes, nematode worms, cumaceans, copepods and soldier crabs. Microalgae live within the sediment and form part of the local and regional fish production cycle.

Activities such as dredging, extractive industries, coastal development and tidal fluctuations may impact on microalgae populations which may lead to reduced local and regional fisheries production.

Browsers and grazers A major source of food on shores is algae. Some molluscs graze on the fronds of the larger green, brown and red algae. One of these is the Common Warrener, Turbo undulata. It grazes on algae at low shore levels.

Here are some Common Variegated Limpets, Cellana tramoserica, with a covering of algae on their shells, but no algae on the rock surface. Why is this so?

It is estimated that for every square centimeter of limpet, about 75 square centimeters of encrusting algae is necessary to maintain its life during its first year of growth.

On many rock surfaces you can see the small round home scars of these limpets, and if you look carefully you can pick out the area which is grazed by them. If you remove the limpets from an area, you will notice that in a short time tiny alga clumps begin to sprout and grow. In areas where the limpets remain, the rock remains bare.

As these molluscs move across the rock they rasp their tongue, called a radula, across its surface. The radula is a file-like ribbon of small horny teeth that all gastropods and some other molluscs possess. It can rasp either vegetable matter, or flesh in some carnivorous species, and convey the particles of food into the mouth.

However, most browsers and grazers do not fed on large macroalgae fronds.

They feed on microalgae, algae spores and small plants trying to gain a foothold on the rock surface in moist depressions and pools.

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High Shore Browsers and Grazers Some browsers at the Splash Fringe Level and High Tide Levels are:

Petterd's Limpet, Notoacmea petterdi Tubercled Noddiwink, Nodilittorina pyramidalis feeds on lichens at high shore levels

Blue Australwink, Nodilittorina unifasciata feeds on lichens at high shore levels

Mid Shore Browsers and Grazers Some grazers and browsers of the mid-tide levels are: Black Nerite, Nerita atramentosa

Striped-mouth Conniwink, Bembicium nanum

Ribbed Top Shell, Austrocochlea constricta

Variegated Limpet, Cellana tramoserica

Wavy Top Shell, Austrocochlea concamerata

Zebra Top Shell, Austrocochlea porcata

Low Shore Browsers and Grazers Other grazers at the low-tide level and Low Fringe level are: Common Warrener, Turbo undulata

Elephant Snail, Scutus antipodes

Black Keyhole Limpet, Amblychilepas nigrita

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Nutrient absorbers Algae absorb sunlight by photosynthesis and convert solar energy into chemical energy which they use in growth or to store within the cell. Algae are the primary producers within this marine ecosystem.

Algae are grouped into three major groups. These are the Phylum Chlorophyta or Green Algae, the Phylum Phaeophyta the Brown Algae and Phylum Rhodophyta, the Red Algae.

Unlike land plants which obtain their nutrients from the soil by absorption through roots, algae absorb the nutrients they require directly from the seawater that surrounds and supports their fronds. Algae do not have absorption roots, their holdfast only holds them down onto a firm surface.

The large algae that we see on a shore are called macroalgae, and unusually there are surprisingly few shore animals that live entirely by eating algae fronds.

The other algae group is the microalgae, consisting of single-celled plants, spores, and minute juvenile plants which occur in their millions suspended in the water as plankton or coating the rocks as part of the deposited slime, or gaining a foothold to grow into a larger plant.

Large algae plants produce thousands of cells in each frond and on the frond surface. Under the constant swashing of the waves, these cells erode away from the plant. These cells become suspended in the water and are subjected to bacterial action. Others are filtered and consumed by other animals.

Some examples of green algae are: Sea lettuce, Ulva lactuca Green Sea Velvet, Codium fragile

Caulerpa, Caulerpa filiformis

Some examples of brown algae are: Neptune's Necklace, Hormosira banksii

Leather Kelp, Eklonia radiate

Strap Weed, Phyllospora comosa

Some examples of red algae are: Coralline Seaweed, Corallina officinalis

Encrusting Corallines, Corallinaceae species

The information on this handout was sourced from the following web-site: http://www.mesa.edu.au/friends/seashores/nutrient_absorbers.html

This web-site is an amazing source of information and worth exploring further.

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