The lungs of Nairobi Making money from tree thinnings Sustaining drylands Producing quality seedlings
Subscription only I s s u e N o.2 0 O c t ob e r - De c e m b er 2 0 1 3
An alternative to pastoralism Gum arabic offers viable avenues for creating wealth
Reaching back to ancient times
Using a water harvesting method developed 3,000 years ago
Urban Forestry
Kampala grapples to keep the city green, as Nairobi strives to reclaim its Green City in the Sun title
Better Globe Forestry Ltd
Making Africa greener
Making Africa greener Better Globe Forestry (BGF) is part of The Better Globe Group from Norway, which focuses on the need to fight poverty through promoting massive tree planting and sustainable agricultural programmes. BGF’s vision is to create secure commercial projects with vital humanitarian and environmental activities and as a result become the biggest tree planting company in the world within 20 years.
Land in Kiambere before planting. Note the omnipresent soil erosion
The mission of BGF is to make Africa a greener, healthier place in which to live and eradicate poverty by focusing on the development of profitable, commercial tree plantations that will deliver environmental as well as humanitarian benefits. Miti magazine is a publication of Better Globe. It is the policy of BGF to, among other things: • Create attractive financial opportunities for present and future investors, Continuously identify and address the needs of employees, suppliers, customers, shareholders, the community at large and any other stakeholders, • Focus on the need to help fight poverty, through promoting massive tree planting • Create and sustain motivation throughout the organisation for meeting its business objectives, • Continuously maintain and review an effective and efficient Quality System which as a minimum satisfies the requirements of the appropriate Quality System standard(s), • Continuously improve the performance of all aspects of the organisation.
Workers clearing a thicket in Nyangoro in preparation for tree planting
Our nursery at Kiambere
A two-year-old plantation of Melia volkensii in Kiambere
Workers in BGF’s plantation in Kiambere, after receiving a food donation
A Melia volkensii plus -tree part of our genetic improved programme
Preparing for planting in Kiambere
The committee of Witu Nyongoro ranch with Rino Solberg and Jean-Paul Deprins
www.betterglobeforestry.com
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Issue No. 20 October- December 2013
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Editorial
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Use of thinnings in Ugandan plantations
Wishing you a happy and green 2014
The case of Richard Bakojja’s plantation in Mubende By Thaddeus Businge
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Readers’ views
Miti 19 was interesting
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Cleaning up the timber trade
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Green city in the sun?
Amid challenges, Nairobi strives to reclaim its lost glory By Jan Vandenabeele and Wanjiru Ciira
Is FLEGT for Africa redrawing the sawmilling landscape? Compiled by Etienne Nagel
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Keeping a tradition alive
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Kampala grapples to keep the city green
Urban dwellers need to appreciate the benefits of recreational spaces By Diana Ahebwe
As supplies of mpingo and muhuhu wood dwindle, KEFRI explores alternative sources for woodcarving By Gitonga Steven
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A century of urban forestry
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An opportunity to create wealth
After serving the city for just over 100 years, the Nairobi Arboretum needs a for facelift By William Wambugu
Industrial plantations of gum arabic offer income- generating alternatives to pastoralism By Ben Chikamai and Jan Vandenabeele
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The lungs of Nairobi
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Towards sustainable development
Karura Forest helps stabilise temperatures in the capital city and keeps the air clean By Caroline Kahuria
Busoga Forestry Company plays its part to mitigate the effects of climate change By Isaac Kapalaga and Rogers Bwengye
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Providing a crucial service
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Appreciating drylands
Roadside plant nurseries bridge the tree seedlings gap in Uganda By Stephen Khaukha
Despite the harsh conditions, dry areas support a wide array of natural plant material By Francis Gachathi
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Urban nurseries in Nairobi and Kisumu
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Reaching back to ancient times
A comparative study By Evans Khaguli
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Producing quality seedlings
Triangular micro-catchments, a water harvesting method developed 3,000 years ago, is in use in drylands today By Moshe Finkel
Any nursery can produce good seedlings, provided best operating practices are followed By Walter Mapanda
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A tree rich in vitamins and minerals
Soursop (Annona muricata) has been used over the years to treat a host of ailments By Mulwana Kizito
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Making thinning profitable
Commercial tree growers can make money from thinnings By Walter Mapanda and Diana Ahebwe
On the cover: A weeping fig tree (Ficus benjamina) pruned into shape, on Jinja Road, Kampala. (Photo: Miti)
Editorial
Wishing you a happy and green 2014
W
e have come to the end of another year and are already making entries in our 2014 calendar. The past year has been an extraordinary one for Miti magazine. For one, the input of great content from Kenya and Uganda has increased and readership from both countries has multiplied. We sincerely wish to thank our two main stakeholders - contributors and readers - for their never-failing confidence in the ability of the magazine to be the number one informative publication for dryland afforestation in Africa. This last issue of 2013 is number 20; making Miti a five-year- old motivational and unique tool for individuals and institutions interested in planting trees in a sustainable way. The theme for this issue is “urban forestry” with special focus on Nairobi and Kampala. We highlight the collection of trees that grow within these cities and in a wider sense, any kind of woody plant vegetation, town forest parks and ecosystems rehabilitated from the wilderness. Urban forests have gained recognition due to a better understanding of their natural ecology. Numerous projects are under way, all aiming at the restoration and preservation of existing or fabricated ecosystems and ultimately, at improved health and wellbeing for urban dwellers. William Wambugu, Caroline Kahuria, Stephen Khaukha, Wanjiru Ciira, Jan Vandenabeele and Diana Ahebwe have written on urban forestry in this issue. As always in Miti, contributing experts share their knowledge on trees and techniques for dry areas. Francis Gachathi’s incisive article on drylands draws attention to the wide array of tree species found there. From Uganda, Walter Mapanda highlights the basics of good seedling production and how to make thinnings profitable. KEFRI’s Steven Gitonga explores alternative sources of wood for woodcarving while Mulwana Kizito writes on the properties and benefits of soursop (Annona muricata). Isaac Kapalaga and Rogers Bwengye show how the Busoga Forestry Company contributes to mitigating the effects of climate change. Etienne Nagel explains the 2003 EU Forest Law Enforcement, Governance and Trade Action Plan (FLEGT) that encourages EU members to address illegal logging via procurement policies. Last, but by no means least, Moshe Finkel invites us on a trip to 3,000 years ago when triangular micro-catchments were developed for water harvesting and their use in drylands today. On behalf of the Miti team, I wish you all a Happy New Year and a green 2014. Jean-Paul Deprins
Published by:
Chairman of the Editorial Board:
Technical Editor
Better Globe Forestry Ltd No. 4, Tabere Crescent, Kileleshwa P.O. Box 823 – 00606 Nairobi, Kenya Tel: + 254 20 434 3435 Mobile: + 254 722 758 745 Email: kenya@mitiafrica.com www.betterglobeforestry.com
Rino Solberg
Jan Vandenabeele
Editorial Committee
Country Director - Uganda Julie Solberg
Uganda office: MITI MAGAZINE ® Plot 1908/9, Mitala Rd, Kasanga P.O. Box 22232 Kampala, Uganda Mobile: + 256 775 392 597 Email: uganda@mitiafrica.com www.betterglobeforestry.com
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Joshua Cheboiwo, Francis Gachathi, Keith Harley, Enock Kanyanya, James Kung’u, Rudolf Makhanu, Fridah Mugo, Jackson Mulatya, Mary Njenga, Alex Oduor, Leakey Sonkoyo, Jean-Paul Deprins, Jan Vandenabeele and Wanjiru Ciira
Country Representative - Uganda Diana Ahebwe
Editor-in-chief
Designer
Jean-Paul Deprins
Daniel N. Kihara
Managing Editor - Kenya
COPYRIGHT © BETTER GLOBE FORESTRY ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
Wanjiru Ciira
Miti October - December 2013
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Readers’ views
Miti 19 was an interesting edition
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suitable for there, AND most other places in Kenya. We do not recommend them to farmers. Technical Editor’s comment: CG clones can grow well in quite a number of places in Kenya, and are good for producing sizable amounts of biomass fast.
ongratulations. Miti 19 was another interesting edition. We at Friends of the Mau Watershed (Fomawa) hope that the takeover of Miti by Better Globe Forestry (BGF) will be a success and enable you to move on to greater things. It is a pity that it is so difficult to generate any real interest in forestry matters in Kenya. However, we at Fomawa are always willing to give our views, which are based on our experience, so we hope that you welcome them. Here they are.
Concerns need addressing – page 39
An untapped opportunity – page 5 Twelve years ago, there was great enthusiasm for planting Prunus Africana. Trees were planted with our help. None of them did well and most have now been removed. We do not believe that Prunus Africana will be a commercial success.
Borderline trade in timber – page 8 If one country has more of a commodity than its neighbour, then there will be movement from the surplus area to the deficit. It would be preferable to encourage the free movement of tree-related products within East Africa than attempt to restrict it. If a farmer grows trees then his market should not be limited to within his own country.
TIST – page 11 and 12 Congratulations to TIST on their successes. It is said that there is a pre-payment on carbon of between Ksh1.50 and Ksh1.80 per tree. This must be very complicated to administer. We have 200 commercial tree projects in schools; and around 600 on farms. The smallest project is about one fifth of a hectare, and the largest is 26ha. Many of them have full canopy cover; have been planted where there were no trees previously and must be mopping up carbon. Yet we cannot find a way of receiving carbon funding/payments. Perhaps TIST could help us?
Striving to reduce costs – page 18 We understand why KTDA wants to use firewood rather than oil to dry their tea for they say that the latter is seven times the cost of the former. They admit that the “future sustainability of firewood cannot be guaranteed”. Of course it cannot be guaranteed if they are not prepared to pay the farmer a decent price.
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Some time ago, KTDA asked Fomawa if we would have a contract with “our” farmers to supply their factories with firewood. We said “no” because the price was too low to give a reasonable return. It is time that KTDA and other big users of firewood woke up to the fact that they are killing the goose that lays the golden egg. KTDA is paying about Ksh 2,500/m3 for good quality firewood delivered and stacked at their factories. That means about Ksh 1,800/m3 to the farmer. If the farmer got Ksh 4,000/ m3 then he would be happy and KTDA would still be making a huge saving. Bidco at Thika wants a large supply of firewood. Their contract to supply is so hostile to the farmer that it will be surprising if anyone supplies. When will the Big Boys learn that bullying the farmer is not healthy for the long-term supply of firewood?
This related to Fomawa’s view that CFAs are not appropriate for commercial plantations such as Koibatek. We have acknowledged that small forests such as Karura and Sokoke may be suitable candidates for CFAs. We assume that the main purpose of the government’s commercial forestland is to produce the timber, poles and other products that the country needs; if the people living near the forest can benefit that is a plus, but cannot be the main objective. We are quite certain that the Koibatek Forest will not be productive under the management of the CFA. The Management Plan, running to some 125 pages is a lot of jargon and dreams. It will not produce what is needed for the benefit of Kenya. With best wishes from all of us at Friends of Mau Watershed. Richard Muir Nakuru
The views expressed in Miti magazine are the writers’ and do not necessarily reflect the views of Better Globe or TQML. WRITE TO US We welcome feedback on any article you have read in Miti magazine, or on any issue on tree planting, afforestation and related matters. Please include your name, address and telephone number. Letters may be edited for clarity or space.
Responding to climate change – page 28 On page 29, there is a photo of a stand of CG gums at Kajiado with the comment that “the only mitigation to stave off die-back due to unexpected drought is efficient suppression of grass” But the photo shows clearly THAT THERE IS NO GRASS. Technical Editor’s comment: True, and that is why the trees are still alive. Around Kajiado, we saw many stands of CG crosses planted about five years ago. To start with, they appeared to do well, but most have disappeared. It is likely that Kajiado is not suitable for gums. It is VERY likely that the CG clones are not
We also invite you to send us any interesting photos you might have. Please send your contributions to: The Editor Miti magazine P.O. Box 823 – 00606 Nairobi, Kenya. Email: kenya@mitiafrica.com OR Miti magazine P.O. Box 22232 Kampala, Uganda. Email: uganda@mitiafrica.com
www.betterglobeforestry.com Miti Magazine-Africa’s Tree Business Magazine
Miti October - December 2013
A view of the Nairobi Central Business District skyline, seen from Uhuru Park. (Photo: BGF)
Green city in the sun? Amid challenges, Nairobi strives to reclaim its lost glory By JAN VANDENABEELE AND WANJIRU CIIRA
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airobi has a number of parks and green spaces. Prominent among these are the Jevanjee Gardens, Central Park, Uhuru Gardens, Uhuru Park, Nairobi City Park, the Nairobi Arboretum and Karura Forest. Other green spaces are road reserves and spaces like the Aga Khan Walk in the Central Business District (CBD). In some instances, the green spaces have reduced. For example, the original area occupied by City Park in 1933 was 90.30 hectares. Today, the park occupies 46 hectares, half of which is under natural forest. In addition, new developments in the city are supposed to set aside at least 10 per cent of the area to green spaces. Nairobians know that this is not happening in the city. In fact, some of the
Miti October - December 2013
high-rise developments coming up do not even have parking space, let alone green spaces. The Nairobi City County government manages most of the green spaces and parks in the city. However, the Kenya Forest Service (KFS) manages Karura Forest and Ngong Forest, while the Nairobi Arboretum is managed by KFS in conjunction with Friends of the Arboretum (see article on page 12. Public/strategic areas like State House, or areas occupied by airports (Jomo Kenyatta and Wilson) and the military (Langata Barracks, Karen Defence College, Department of Defence headquarters, Kahawa Barracks and Military Airbase Eastleigh) are not under the management of Nairobi City County. Neither, of course, is Nairobi National Park (110km2) which is under
Kenya Wildlife Service. Managing of recreation grounds and green spaces in the city, including tree planting and tree management, are the responsibility of the Parks and Open Spaces section of the Department of Environment. What is the history and state of the major recreation spaces in Nairobi?
Jeevanjee Gardens Donated to the residents of Nairobi in 1906 by Alibhai Mullah Jeevanjee, this 5-acre recreational park is in Nairobi’s Central Business District. The park has been threatened with extinction on a number of occasions. In 1991 and again in 2007, the Nairobi City Council in collaboration with development partners planned to construct in its
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Muindi Mbingu Street, deep inside Nairobi’s Central Business District (CBD), is lined with Aleurites aleucana (the candlenut tree). This is a recent undertaking of the then Nairobi City Council. (Photo: BGF)
place a multi-storey parking lot, bus terminus, markets, theatres and shopping malls. These plans were shelved each time following objections raised by Zarina Patel (Jeevanjee’s granddaughter), Wangari Maathai’s Green Belt Movement, and other activists. The park features beautiful gardens and trees providing a welcome shade from the tropical sun. It is dotted with artistic benches and sculptures that add to its appeal. It is very popular with lunchtime crowds and attracts preachers and other speakers.
Central Park Kenyatta Avenue separates Central Park from its better-known neighbour, Uhuru Park. The park is bordered by Kenyatta Avenue, Nyerere Avenue and Uhuru Highway, and sits next to Nairobi Serena Hotel. Like its neighbour, Central Park has expansive lawns and wellmaintained gardens, interspersed with shade trees. At one end of the park is a Children’s Park with a wide range of play facilities for children, as well as a Children’s Traffic Park. A huge monument built in 1988 to celebrate 10 years of former President Daniel arap Moi’s rule greets you as you enter the park from Uhuru Highway. Professional photographers like to linger around this monument and take pictures of visitors for a fee. The park draws many visitors especially on weekends and public holidays.
Uhuru Gardens The Uhuru Gardens are a memorial to Kenya’s independence celebrations that were held at the site. A 24-metre high monument commemorating Kenya’s struggle for independence is the centrepiece of attractions at the Uhuru Gardens. To one side of this monument is a statue of freedom fighters raising the Kenyan flag. About 100 metres away is another monument with a fountain. The expansive grounds are a favourite with picnic lovers who often drive up to secluded spots under some of the scattered trees in the area.
Uhuru Park Uhuru Park is the most popular recreational park in Nairobi. It is the main assembly point for celebrating national holidays, for political rallies during election periods, and for prayer
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meetings by various religious organisations. Opened to the public in May 1969, Uhuru Park retains the original 12.9 hectares, thanks to the late environmentalist and Nobel Laureate Wangari Maathai. In 1989, Ms Maathai and many of her followers held a protest at the park, to stop the construction of a 60-storey Kenya Times Media Trust business complex. Her protests led foreign investors to cancel the project and Uhuru Park remains intact. The expansive lawns, shade trees, and well-tended gardens in Uhuru Park make this one of the most attractive green spaces in the city, drawing throngs of city residents on weekends and public holidays. Boat-rides on an artificial lake are a major attraction for families. Several footbridges adorn the park, providing eye-catching links to an artificial island in the lake.
Nairobi City Park Older residents of Nairobi remember with nostalgia visits to the maze at the Nairobi City Park. Some even remember the days when brass bands used to entertain park visitors every Sunday afternoon. Those days may soon be back with the rehabilitation of Nairobi City Park. As parks go, Nairobi City Park stands above the others in its rich biodiversity. A recent biodiversity survey of the park identified some 988 species of flora and fauna - including some rare varieties - and no less than 58 species of indigenous trees. The park stands in an indigenous forest, with a number of tree
species that are endemic to Kenya. The Nairobi City County’s Environment Department is based at City Park, where it maintains a large tree and plant nursery, with a sale yard where members of the public can buy plants. City Park was established in 1921 as a zoological garden on a 90.3-hectare area, and formally declared a public park in 1925. The park is a testament to a time when trees covered much of Nairobi. The park was not spared encroachment by land grabbers who, despite all efforts by conservationists to protect it, progressively hived off over a third of the park’s area over the years. However, through a legal notice dated 4th September 2009, the government declared the remaining 46 hectares a protected area. The nature trails at Nairobi City Park are a favourite with nature lovers and joggers. The open spaces attract picnic lovers on weekends and public holidays. Another attraction is the magnificent sculpture garden whose pieces include the “Bird of Peace” by Elkana Ongesa at the Murumbi Memorial Park. The park is set to undergo major rehabilitation funded by the Aga Khan Foundation. The rehabilitation will include a new restaurant, educational facilities, a botanical garden, an exhibition ground, an open-air theatre and sports facilities. The works will also improve the park’s amenities and public safety, as well as provide the necessary infrastructure to maintain its natural
Miti October - December 2013
and cultural heritage. The management of open spaces in the capital city requires close cooperation between the Environment and Planning departments of Nairobi County. The latter has divided Nairobi into 20 planning zones in terms of development and density. In the past, development was often chaotic, but this is now set to change with the regulations of the Towns-Urban Areas Act of 2012. Planning is also controlled by the Physical Planning Act, part 5, with physical development plans of which the Karengata one (2005-15) is an example. There is now a master development plan in the making for the entire city, collaboratively with Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA), to be ready by March 2014.
Tree planting in an urban context Tree planting along roads is beset by many challenges such as pollution, disturbance by public works such as laying of underground Internet or electricity cables, and last but not least, the public itself. A number of city residents show little respect for planted seedlings, making it necessary to protect the seedlings, a costly activity. Samuel Mwangi Ndungu, Assistant Director, Parks and Open Spaces, Department of Environment in Nairobi City County, estimates that planting one seedling costs Ksh 4,000 6,000. This includes pitting a 1-metre deep hole
to remove debris and refill with a mixture of red soil and manure; and caging. The cost is higher along the dry Mombasa Road area, because of watering. The survival rate of seedlings in the CBD is over 80 per cent, but lower along Mombasa Road. To increase the survival rate of the seedlings, the County Council prefers to plant seedlings that are higher than 1 metre. The County Council has also to make sure the trees do not obstruct paid-for billboards. This requires management of tree canopies or pruning of branches. The Council plants many tree species. However, decisions on tree species are not always made by experts. As a result, an experienced observer might spot species planted in the “wrong” environment.
Seedling production Nairobi County’s main plant nursery is at City Park. The nursery has a yearly production capacity of 1.3 - 1.4 million seedlings, of which 50 – 60 per cent are flowers, for both planting and decoration during functions. Species include both indigenous and exotics, like the candlenut tree (Aleurites moluccana), Cape mahogany, muwamaji, mururi (Trichilia emetica), Meru oak (Vitex keniensis), various species of palm trees and oleanders (Nerium oleander, an exotic from the Mediterranean). Also found there are hibiscus (Hibiscus rosa-sinensis, an exotic from China), Thika palms (Filicium decipiens), Bauhinia
species, Tecoma stans (from Mexico) and Cape chestnut (Calodendrum capense), to name but a few. In 2005, a decentralisation programme to have satellite nurseries in each division started. This is useful since Nairobi County is home to various ecological zones, from semi-arid and warm adjacent to the Kajiado plains, to humid and cool in Karen/Dagoretti. As such, the city can take in a wide choice of tree species and plant varieties. The County wants to collaborate with the private sector to increase seedling production and planting activities.
Road reserves Road reserves are open spaces set aside for future expansion of roads, an activity that can take place any time. Still, City Hall plants trees on road reserves and between 2005 and 2009, the Council planted 600,000 trees along Thika Road, Waiyaki Way, Langata Road, Mombasa Road and the CBD. The other trees survived but those along Thika Road had to give way to the Thika Superhighway. There are more examples of this, on a smaller scale. Planting along Mombasa Road has its own challenges. It is a dry environment, with sporadic fires and livestock and wild animals, particularly giraffes, grazing and browsing. In addition, because of proximity to Jomo Kenyatta International Airport, the Council has to make sure that the species do not attract birds, which pose a hazard to flying aircraft. Nevertheless, Nairobi City County plans to plant 100,000 seedlings in April-May 2014, with gradual replacement of old trees that are now decaying. These remnants of planting in colonial times are sometimes very resistant and live for long. However, they can be destructive in a built environment. For example, the extensive root system of the weeping fig (Ficus benjamina) can clog sewage and drainage pipes, and crack pavements and building foundations. A final consideration is that trees along roads should be sparse and not form dense blocks that can obscure on-coming traffic and pose a security risk.
Other spaces of interest Most land in Nairobi is privately owned. According to the draft of the new National Forestry (Conservation and Management) Bill (2013), 10 per cent of all new urban development
Miti October - December 2013
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Legal framework for urban forestry in Kenya
Really the Green City in the Sun. A view of State House Road, close to the University roundabout. (Photo: BGF)
should be set aside for green spaces (see box). Developers however do not adhere to this. “We would like to see more green spaces – that is grass and trees – and not just on areas that are unsuitable for development,” says Mr Ndungu. However, enforcement of the rule is hard. Interesting is the status of riparian areas, which are quite extensive in Nairobi. They are adjacent to Nairobi River, the main river of Nairobi, fed by a complex of several parallel streams flowing eastwards. These streamlets are mostly narrow and heavily polluted. However, the legal definition of the riparian area depends on the Act. The Planning Act defines it as a width of 30 metres on both sides of a river. In agriculture, a riparian area is considered to be 6 metres on both sides of a river. A common definition needs to be arrived at, but whatever the definition, riparian areas cover a large part of Nairobi. These areas should be free of concrete and mortar and should be set aside for green spaces. Nevertheless, this is not the case. Many politically connected individuals have occupied riparian zones. However, on a positive note, quite a number of small private nurseries have found a place along these tributaries, and offer a large range of tree, shrub and flower species to the public. Some of these nurseries are licensed, others are not. Some feel harassed; others thrive. Clearly, the management of these areas is important. Each year during the rainy season, some flooding takes place on lowlying riverbanks. Well-chosen tree species can
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stabilise these riverbanks and would grow well in these fertile soils.
Challenges and the way forward Many challenges stand in the way of reclaiming Nairobi’s glory as the Green City in the Sun. Some of these are technical shortcomings, political interference, lack of coordination between departments in a new administration that is being transformed from City Hall to a County Government and struggles with vested interests in a city where land is worth gold. In this era of devolution, the County would like to share some of KFS’s assets, like the seedling nursery in Karura. The transition has two more years to go, so there is still hope. The City County wants to declare the fourth week of November Tree Planting Week, and involve the private sector and KFS in tree planting. Already, Nairobi City County has declared every fourth Saturday of the month Clean- up Day, in a campaign that incorporates the private sector and takes place in all 17 sub-counties. The slogan is “My waste my responsibility”, and it is mandatory for all County employees to participate. Jan Vandenabeele is the Executive Director of Better Globe Forestry. Email: jan@betterglobeforestry.com Wanjiru Ciira is the Managing Editor, Miti magazine. Email: wanjiru@betterglobeforestry.com
Both the Forest Act (2005), the Physical Planning Act (Cap 286) and the National Forestry (Conservation and Management) Bill (2012), provide guidelines on tree planting in an urban context. Section 29 of the Forest Act says: “(1) Every local authority shall, as far is reasonably practicable, establish and maintain arboreta, miniforests or recreational parks for the non-consumptive use of persons residing within its area of jurisdiction. (2) For the purposes of subsection (1), every local authority shall cause housing estate developers within its jurisdiction to make provision for the establishment of mini-forests at the rate of at least five per cent of the total land area of any housing estate intended to be developed.” The Physical Planning Act (Cap 286) says, in Part V-Control of Development, also in Section 29: “Subject to the provisions of this Act, each local authority shall have the power— (f) to reserve and maintain all the land planned for open spaces, parks, urban forests and green belts in accordance with the approved physical development plan.” The draft 1 of the National Forestry (Conservation and Management) Bill, 2012; has a clause (45), on “Establishment of Urban Parks, Arboreta, Amenity Belts and Green Belts”, with sub-clause 3 that says: “Every county shall cause residential and commercial estate development to include the provision of tree planting and other green zones to cover at least ten per cent of the land area to be developed.” This means very clearly that 10 per cent of urban development should be under trees or be green; this is 1000m2 for every hectare, or 400m2 for every acre (i.e. a square of 20x20m). This rule is often ignored by developers, and not enforced by the local authorities. New housing estates provide for parking and concrete, with at its best, some lonely palm trees and bushes. Some developers seem to consider trees “untidy,” perhaps because of litter. However, sometimes roads in big estates are lined with indigenous or other tree species, and some space is put aside for a lawn with an isolated tree in the middle. Mini-forests are rare. One non-written guideline seems to be the obligatory planting of eight trees on a quarteracre plot (1000m2) and 16 trees on a half-acre. An interesting suggestion by the Department of Environment of Nairobi County is that live perimeter hedges could be considered part of the 10 per cent, avoiding the construction of solid security walls. When this draft is finalised, it will replace the Forest Act (2005).
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Miti October - December 2013
Kampala grapples to keep the city green Urban dwellers need to appreciate the health and economic benefits of greenery and view trees as wealth An overview of urban forestry in Uganda According to the Uganda Forestry Policy (2001), an urban forest is a collection of trees that grows within a city, town or their suburbs. In a wider sense, it may include any kind of woody plant vegetation growing in and around human settlements. Peri-urban and urban forests are distinguished by differences in the land they use (private, government or municipal), in the revenues they generate (commercial or non-commercial), and in the parties they benefit (poor peri-urban farmers or the urban public). Trees in urban centres have several benefits, both tangible and intangible. Tangible benefits include firewood, food, fodder and poles and intangible ones include enhancement of the landscape and recreation. Trees reduce air pollution by actively removing pollutants. Trees also control runoff and soil erosion. Tree roots and leaf litter create soil conditions that promote the infiltration of rainwater into the soil. This helps to replenish the ground water supply and maintain stream flow during dry periods. Apart from reducing energy costs, increased shade over buildings and enhancement of property values, urban forests also act as windbreakers and beautify the environment. Trees in urban settings attract insects, especially when the plants are flowering. There are opportunities for tree farming on private land, for firewood, poles, non-wood products, fruit trees and even timber. This may be in the form of woodlots, agroforestry, silvipasture, management of natural trees on farm or small-scale commercial tree planting. With continued and accelerated urbanisation in the country, the demand for these products and attendant services will grow, and so too will the role of urban and peri-urban forestry. DIANA AHEBWE, the Miti magazine Country Representative for Uganda, spoke to staff of the Kampala Capital City Authority (KCCA) Landscape Department and following are excerpts from the interview:
Miti October - December 2013
Royal palms (Roystonea regia) in the garden of the Sheraton Hotel in Kampala, a green island in the city. (Photo: BGF). (Photo: Miti)
Does KCCA have a planned urban forestry system? Kampala Capital City Authority (KCCA) is a legal entity that replaced Kampala City Council (KCC) in running Uganda’s capital city, Kampala. The authority came into force with the enactment of the KCCA Act in 2010. KCCA is mandated to provide services that enable residents and businesses to operate in an environment that supports development. KCCA defines public green spaces as areas gazetted by law to serve as free leisure parks or national heritage sites. Such spaces are generally meant to improve the aesthetic beauty of urban areas. KCCA is in the process of putting a planned urban forestry system in place. Activities that will put the system in place are being designed such as inventories and mapping of green spaces. What is KCCA doing to support the process of greening the economy? KCCA is laying strategies to support the concept
through urban landscaping as many green areas were claimed by people in the name of development. KCCA is struggling to promote sustainable development, which does not destroy nature and this is being done through re-gazetting green areas such as parks, swamps, urban forests, etc. KCCA is laying strategies and setting policies that will protect the green spaces that still exist and re-gazette those that were encroached upon. Currently, KCCA is planting along highways and scattered green belts in the city. However, the process is slow because of lack of resources and planned systems to govern urban forestry. What governs formal urban forestry in Kampala, and who is responsible? KCCA is in the process of formulating relevant policy, which hitherto did not exist. The Authority has raised policy issues on greening the city, which will be debated upon by legislators. KCCA is collaborating with the National Forestry Authority (NFA), the body in charge of managing all central
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Sprucing up the city. A decent effort but perhaps there could be less cement and more greenery. (Photo: Miti)
forest reserves in Uganda, to re-green the city. Re-greening has started with highways, parks, schools and green belts. KCCA and NFA are sensitising schools and the public through tree planting activities while training people to protect trees. How many hectares have you gazetted for green belts and parks in Kampala? The specific acreage of land occupied by parks and green spaces is not known, and green spaces in Kampala are few and scattered. The plan for Kampala District was to have several green parks in the various divisions; with every 2,000 people meant to have an acre of land for recreation. Teams of KCCA officials are currently being dispatched to different parts of the city to stop development on the city’s parks. According to the Kampala Dispatch investigations, Centenary Park along Jinja Road, Nakasero Park opposite Rwenzori Courts and the Kamwokya Park near the British Council are the most recent parks to be converted into commercials projects. This was apparently due to misguided policy and private interests of individuals both within and outside KCC. The few remaining places are the Constitutional Square and the Kololo Airstrip, which restrict public access. What species have you planted and why the particular species? Currently, we are planting both native and non-native species. Roystonea regia (Cuban royal palm), Terminalia ivorensis (black afara), Araucaria columnaris (coral reef araucaria), Ficus benjamina (weeping fig), Thuja occidentalis (arborvitae), Canna indica (Indian shot, a flower), Paspalum notatum (bahia grass), Grevillea robusta (Australian silver oak) and Sansevieria trifasciata “laurentii” (motherin-law’s tongue). Others are Callistemon viminalis (red or weeping bottlebrush), Cuphea species (Mexican false heather), Duranta erecta (sky flower), Impatiens species (busy lizzies), Ixora coccinea (flame of the woods), Crossandra species (fire cracker flower), Arundo donax (giant reed), Cyperus papyrus (Nile grass) and many other non-native species. Species are selected depending on their habitant, ability to withstand stress, ecological importance, benefits to the people and being non-invasive. We want to mimic nature as much as possible in our landscape schemes hence the use of plants most suited to the climatic and soil conditions.
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Over a period of 60 years, the Royal Botanic Gardens Kew experts have researched Uganda’s native plants extensively and compiled The Flora of Tropical East Africa. This has helped KCCA with species selection. From where do you get seedlings? KCCA has a well-established nursery with a capacity of 10,000 seedlings of different species, and plans to increase diversity. We also get seedlings from urban nursery owners. In addition, NFA provides seedlings for planting along highways. Who is responsible for the maintenance and protection of green belts? KCCA has delegated the responsibility of
protecting the green belts to the local people. The Authority is also sensitising residents on the importance of having a green city and looking after the areas in which they work. For example, when people advertise on billboards, we allocate the maintenance of the green space in the area to them. In addition, we have tree baskets that support trees to grow straight and protect them from people and animals. For the green spaces where we have planted, we have done mulching with grass to prevent soil erosion. Who supervises roadside nurseries and from where do they get seeds? Who are their clients? There are many roadside nurseries in Kampala The independence monument in Kampala, on Speke Road, near the Sheraton (Photo: KCCA)
Miti October - December 2013
An interesting way of protecting tree seedlings on Jinja Road. (Photo: Miti)
that at the beginning operated illegally. However, KCCA advised them to form an association, which they did – the Uganda Nursery Operators Association. The body registers people who want to set up nurseries within the city. The nursery operators get seeds from the National Tree Seed Centre or collect seeds locally. Currently, we do not know the exact number of roadside nurseries because they are scattered all over the city and its suburbs including Mukwano, Ggaba, Nsambya and Nakawa, to mention but a few. What challenges have you encountered in greening the city and how have you overcome them? Uganda’s liberalised economy has attracted a large number of businesses to Kampala. Those businesses have attracted a large number of people into the city. Unofficial estimates put the daytime population of Kampala at 2.5 million to 3 million people. The economic boom has led to a mushrooming of both commercial and residential construction. However, due to total disregard of laws governing construction, many buildings are built on road reserves, in gazetted wetlands and often without following established construction guidelines. In addition, professionals do not appreciate the value of green spaces. Further, there are inadequate linkages between NFA, the urban authorities and non-governmental organisations concerning green spaces. Vandalism poses another challenge as people see green spaces as a waste of land. As such, if there is no intervention by stakeholders, there will be reduced public green spaces in Kampala.
implemented to govern the demarcation and use of green spaces. KCCA should use the law to reclaim and gazette the green spaces. Working with urban authorities, KCCA should promote the establishment and maintenance of green belts in urban areas as part of urban land-use planning. KCCA needs to cooperate with tree-planting authorities, for technical knowledge on tree nurseries, guidelines on urban tree planting and management, including site selection, appropriate tree species and sources of seeds. There is need to sensitise urban dwellers about the importance of trees so that they start looking at trees as wealth. We need to encourage non-governmental organisations (NGOs), community based organisations (CBOs) and the private sector, including women’s and youth groups, to plant trees in all urban areas in Uganda. We should do this through appropriate
Kampala has some hidden green treasures like Jubilee Park. (Photo: KCCA)
education, publicity, incentives, land leases and tree tenure arrangements. We need to develop institutional linkages between NFA, urban authorities, NGOs/CBOs and the private sector to plan and implement urban forestry developments. Any other ideas? Training institutions should change their curricula to suit the needs of society to promote sustainable development. The government should be encouraged to intervene in protecting green spaces. Green spaces or parks in cities or towns should be demarcated clearly and a city should have a physical plan that includes green or recreation spaces.
What do you need as KCCA to fulfil your agenda of greening Kampala? Laws and policies should be put in place and
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A century of urban forestry Having served Nairobi for just over 100 years, the Nairobi Arboretum, the Place of Trees, needs a facelift BY WILLIAM WAMBUGU
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rboreta and botanic gardens were started in Europe, at Padua in Italy, in the 15th century. In East Africa, the first one was set up in Tanzania in 1895, Entebbe Botanic Garden in Uganda followed in 1898 and the Nairobi Arboretum in 1907. Nairobi Arboretum was started as a tree species trial for timber and firewood for highland areas. Demand for timber and firewood had risen with the construction of the Kenya-Uganda Railway. Most of the initial species included eucalyptus, cypresses, pines and grevillea, among many others. Today, these species form the bulk of Kenya Forest Service (KFS) plantations. The central part of the Nairobi Arboretum is the mother to many ornamental trees in Nairobi and its environs. Dry leaves from the araucaria species provide a valuable ingredient for art and craft. The Nairobi Arboretum is 30 hectares and borders State House, Kirichwa Kubwa River and the Girl Guides headquarters. The approach is through Arboretum Road off State House Road from the Uhuru Highway. The area is served by matatu route 48 to Kileleshwa, found along Accra Road in the Nairobi Central Business District (CBD).
Change of focus In 1922, the focus on timber and firewood species changed when Mr H M Gardener took over from Edward Battiscombe as Chief Conservator of Forests. Mr Gardener, as his name suggests, introduced more trees that are ornamental and most people identified the Arboretum as a destination for leisure. He developed most of the walkways and jogging trails and even the pergolas, which today need renovation, if not total replacement. A 1958 guide that sold at 50
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cents is a living memory. The Nairobi Arboretum played a major role in the exchange of seeds within and outside Kenya. The Nairobi Arboretum suffered neglect in the 1970s and 1980s due to a low government budget. The situation was made worse by the fact that the small budget allocation went into mowing and sweeping of the walkways. There was little, if any, planting. Most trees were labelled and metal plates punched with botanical names and year of planting mounted on them with a double head. This is the main source of information on the age of trees in the Arboretum. The big jacaranda tree on the right of the Arboretum Walkway, just beyond the eucalyptus collection near the entrance, must have been planted in 1908.
Contrary to popular perception, jacaranda is not indigenous to Kenya but comes from South America. NIC Bank adopted the tall Cupressus torulosa along the Karura Walk in 2007 during the centennial celebrations as it had a label showing 1907 as the year of planting. Around the atrium circle, there is a good specimen of Encephalartos hildebrandtii (mkwanga, kitsapu) which is a rare coastal plant that requires conservation through cultivation. It is a good ornamental tree, well suited to urban areas. There is a good specimen of Eucalyptus deglupta from the Philippines along the Riverside Walk. The only other place I have seen it is around the University of Nairobi. This one again is more of an ornamental tree than timber or firewood.
Miti October - December 2013
A fine specimen of jackfruit (Artocarpus heterophyllus) with edible fruits. (Photo: BGF)
A 1997 survey revealed a list of 350 tree species - both exotic and indigenous. The area below the original residence of the Chief Conservator of Forests has a good remnant of a model of a Nairobi dry forest type. This is a good outdoor class for urban school students. It offers students a rare opportunity to see forests, something they normally do not see in their classroom teaching. In 1993, Friends of the Nairobi Arboretum (FONA), led by Ann Birnie under the umbrella of the East Africa Natural Society, trading as Nature Kenya, entered into a formal memorandum of understanding with the Forest Department to manage the Arboretum jointly. Since then, significant progress has been made to develop the Nairobi Arboretum into not only a recreation destination, but also a venue for environmental education and plant conservation. The Arboretum paths and walkways were named through a competition process in 1996 during one of the FONA-organised events. FONA conducts tree walks twice a month, on the second Saturday and last Monday of the month, to cater for both employed and selfemployed people. The walks run from 9.30 am to 12.30pm and visitors are encouraged to wear appropriate forest gear. The walks take different routes but there are two self-guided walks titled the “white” and the “yellow” tree trails. Visitors spend half an hour on the “white” trail and one and a half hours on the “yellow” trail. Most arboreta have trails crafted under different themes such as medicinal tree trail, timber tree trail, among others. In 2000, a master plan was launched to
provide the direction of themed management of the Nairobi Arboretum. Several development programmes were highlighted such as infrastructure, education, security, staffing and eco-tourism. The Ford Foundation, with a good neighbour committee, supported the paving of the Arboretum Walkway to allow the challenged members of the public to access the Atrium Circle. The Biodiversity Conservation Project (BCP) supported the renovation of the Chief Conservator’s house, which was converted into an office for FONA, with a boardroom that is available for hire and an education room where monthly lectures are held and films screened. The compound of this house has become a venue for corporate and private events like weddings; an opportunity that has opened revenue streams that were initially difficult to bring out. The Forest Act 2005 created KFS, which
replaced the Forest Department. The new Forest Act also provided clear guidelines on the community participation in sustainable forest management through the creation of the institution of community forest associations (CFAs). Unlike other forest estates that are adjacent to rural populations, the Arboretum is adjacent to State House and the Girl Guides headquarters. Thus, to conform to the Forest Act, FONA was registered as a community forest association in 2009 but retained Nature Kenya as a strategic partner. A participatory management plan, developed through a local planning team of KFS and FONA members, but allowing for wider stakeholder participation, will be launched soon. One major development will be on designation, which will show clearly what activity should be done, where to appreciate, and will provide for all the different user groups. Currently, worshippers form a large portion of users of the Nairobi Arboretum and surveys have shown that we need to maintain peace and tranquillity if the Arboretum is to retain her old place and be relevant in the 21st century. The visitor service facilities are currently inadequate and old-fashioned. The new plans propose additional and upgraded visitor facilities to move with the tide and time. To maintain the facilities calls for introduction of gate fees. FONA invites you to join as a corporate, family or individual member, to participate and enjoy in the transformation of the green space and open classroom, and advance urban forestry in Kenya and the region. More information is available at the FONA offices at the Tree Centre, to the left of the entrance to the Arboretum. The writer is the Chair of the Friends of Nairobi Arboretum, Manager, Nairobi Botanic Garden and Treasurer of the Kenya Rainwater Association. Email: william.wambugu@yahoo.com
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The lungs of Nairobi Karura Forest helps stabilise temperatures in the capital city, keeps the air cleaner, and acts as a natural carbon dioxide sink BY CAROLINE KAHURIA
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he Karura Forest Reserve is an urban upland forest that lies five kilometres outside the Nairobi Central Business District. It is bordered by the northern up-market suburbs of Muthaiga, Runda and Gigiri, with Kiambu Road on one side and Limuru Road on the other. Gazetted in 1932 as a government forest, Karura covers 1041.3 hectares and contains indigenous and exotic trees. The forest is divided into two blocks, namely, Karura and Sigiri. It is further divided into five beats for effective management, namely, Mazingira, Belgium, ICRAF, Huruma and Sigiri. A magnificent Environmental Education and Recreation Centre is located perfectly on the edge of the forest. The forest is a tourist attraction site under the management of the Kenya Tourism Board. The forest is now part natural and part plantation. The natural forest covers 759.6 hectares, with over 20 local tree species, which include Olea europaea (wild olive), Prunus africana (red stinkwood, mweri), Vitex keniensis (meru oak), Podocarpus falcatus (muthengera), Markhamia lutea (siala, muu, lusiola), Cordia africana (mukumari, muvutu), Croton megalocarpus (musine, muthulu, mukinduri) and Juniperus procera (cedar). The plantation forest covers the remaining 281.7 hectares, with some 15 species of trees including eucalyptus species, Grevillea robusta (Australian silky oak), Casuarina equisetifolia, Cupressus lusitanica (cypress), Pinus patula (weeping pine), Calliandra calothyrsus (calliandra), Cassia spectabilis (cassia), Pinus radiata and Jacaranda mimosifolia (jacaranda). The forest is also home to animals. Beyond its range of trees, Karura Forest is an amazing site of its kind. It offers eco-friendly opportunities for Kenyans and visitors to enjoy a leafy green respite from the hustle and bustle of the city to walk, jog or simply sit quietly and experience the beauty of nature in all its diversity. Ecologically, the forest helps stabilise temperatures in Nairobi, as well as attract rainfall. It also keeps the city air cleaner, as a natural carbon dioxide sink, with the trees absorbing some of the carbon dioxide in the
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Karura forest mostly hosts indigenous tree species, acting as a sponge for water. (Photo: KFS)
atmosphere. In addition, three rivers, namely, Ruaka, Karura and Gitathuru pass through the forest. A 50-ft waterfall creates an immediate sense of peace and refreshment. Within the forest are ancient caves where Mau Mau fighters used to hide during the colonial era. Near the caves stands a huge Craibia brownii (mukubu) tree, commonly known as the father of trees as it is the oldest in the forest. It is estimated to be two centuries old. Today, religious and other groups use the caves for fasting and praying. Besides these, the forest has a 50-km nature trail, a bamboo forest and a marshland filled with a wide range of birdlife. One controversy after another has bedevilled this forest over the years, with logging activities and grabbing reducing it to its current size.
Consequently, the Kenya Forest Service, the Friends of Karura Association and other conservationists have embarked on a programme for securing this key natural resource. In the not so distant past, the name Karura Forest was associated with crime and would strike fear in Kenyans. However, conservationists, in particular the late Nobel Laureate, Prof Wangari Maathai, the founder of the Green Belt Movement, fought to the bone to defend the forest from further excision. The fight to preserve this unique place begun in 1997, when the Green Belt Movement discovered that the publicly owned Karura Forest had been allotted to private companies that planned to develop a luxury housing estate in the heart of the forest. This would have led to deforestation. Â Despite protests, the land-grabbers were
Miti October - December 2013
A waterfall inside Karura forest. (Photo: KFS)
going on with their plans. To stop them, on January 8, 1999, Prof Maathai led a group of determined citizens in a confrontation with people hired by the developers. Bloodied but unbowed, Prof Maathai saved Karura Forest for all time. Another conservationist, Alice Macaire, the chair of Friends of Karura Forest (FKF) and wife of the then British High Commissioner,
A signpost with information on the walking trail in Karura forest. (Photo: KFS)
took the fight a step further and begun work to make the forest a place of tranquillity. She joined forces with the Kenya Forest Service, the local communities in Karura and Huruma environs as well as the families living near the forest to create a safe, secure and educational environment for all to enjoy. In doing this, Mrs Macaire provided sustainable livelihood for the local
communities through projects such as beekeeping, tree nurseries, deadwood collection and employment for scouts and tour guides. The Friends of Karura Association has helped bring in resources to construct an electric fence round the forest, thereby making it safe and secure. Today, Karura welcomes over 5,000 visitors a month and is a secure, pristine and favourite venue for nature lovers and hikers. It also hosts corporate events. The forest now boasts of accessible features such as a picturesque waterfall, a scenic small lake, a bamboo forest and marshland, not to mention the historical caves. The forest makes an ideal picnic and camping site and the protective electric fence makes it safe as a recreational site for families. Who knows, you may be lucky to see antelopes, some monkey species, bush baby, bushbuck, bush pig, porcupine, duiker, genet, dik dik, and African civet, among other small animals. The writer is a Communication Assistant at the Kenya Forest Service (KFS) Email: carolkahuria@gmail.com.
Providing a crucial service Roadside plant nurseries play a key role in bridging the deficit in tree seedlings in Uganda BY STEPHEN KHAUKHA
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lant nurseries are a common feature along many major roads in Kampala and the city suburbs, or along the highways joining Kampala to other urban centres. Plant nurseries are also found in other urban areas in Uganda. Mukwano Road, Jinja Highway, Old Port Bell Road and Lugogo Bypass in Kampala are some of the areas with concentrations of plant nurseries. Urban nurseries are not a new phenomenon in Uganda. Between the 1950s and 70s, the major towns maintained nurseries to raise ornamental seedlings and other planting materials. The urban authorities at the time were concerned with beautification of the major towns. Streets lined with purple-flowered jacaranda, various multicoloured trees, acacia trees, kabaka-anjagala (Aleurites moluccana), all aged over 40 years are a clear testimony of this. Also produced in these urban nurseries were eucalyptus seedlings for planting in urban areas to provide firewood for locomotives, or used to drain swampy areas close to urban areas in order to control malaria. Many parts of Kampala, namely, Kyambogo, Bugolobi, Mukwano-Railway station area, Bat Valley, and others, still have
isolated eucalyptus trees, the remnants of such urban plantations. In the 1950s and subsequent years, government agencies were directly involved in the production of planting material. Banda Nursery, under the Forestry Department, was at the time a major source of planting materials in Kampala. Today, however, the situation has changed and the private sector is more rigorous in production of planting material, compared to government institutions. The nurseries raise a variety of seedlings including ornamental plants (flowers, shrubs and trees) and fruit trees. The tree species raised include eucalyptus, pine, grevillea, kei apple (Dovyalis caffra), cypress and various Terminalia species. The fruit tree seedlings are mainly grafted mangoes, budded oranges and avocadoes. The ornamental plants include a wide range of potted herbs, shrubs and flowers for landscaping. Nursery management generally takes on a low-tech approach, utilising soil as the medium for growing the seedlings, and polythene bags for holding the soil. Some of the ornamental plants are potted in moulded containers. In most cases,
the nursery attendants just collect the seed and sow it crudely, based on hands-on experience.
How did the small urban nurseries develop? The participation of the private sector in raising seedlings picked up in the 1990s when the demand for seedlings increased, partly arising from the national rehabilitation efforts in urban centres and the forestry sector. The political upheavals of the 1970s and 80s saw the collapse of most government systems, including the traditional extension service delivery. The then Forestry Department hardly produced seedlings to meet the increasing demand. Similarly, the urban authority nurseries could hardly raise planting materials for urban beautification. As such, ingenious individuals started small private nurseries to fill a vacuum in the supply of seedlings and other planting materials. Why are these nurseries usually located along roads? This is strategic; these nurseries are located where there is demand, where access is assured, and where there is an opportunity for “free� land. Road reserves offer
A government supported tree nursery, with neatly organised seedling beds. (Photo: Stephen Khaukha)
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a good opportunity for this business. Indeed, roadside nurseries are the epitome of the true entrepreneurship spirit – identifying business opportunities intrinsic in road reserves and any available space. Some years back, some roads in Kampala were surrounded by thick bushes, which provided hiding places for criminal elements. Negotiating with city officials for authorisation to use these road reserves was not difficult, since it would clear the hideouts of criminals, as well as also cut down on the cost of maintaining the city. Since then, there has been an informal, cordial relationship between the city officials and plant nursery owners. In return for being allowed to utilise the road reserves, the nursery owners sometimes contribute ornamental planting material to support street and alleyway planting.
Ornamental palm seedlings ready for sale from a roadside nursery in Kampala. (Photo: Stephen Khaukha)
The growth of urban nurseries Since the 1990s, urban nurseries have expanded in number, size, geographical coverage and the number of people involved. This growth has been spurred by the increasing demand for seedlings and a realisation that tree nurseries are a viable investment. Kampala hosts both government and private nurseries. The National Forestry Authority (NFA), for instance, mainly produces tree seedlings, although there have been attempts to produce some ornamental planting materials as well. NFA produces the seedlings on a commercial basis, through its National Tree Seed Centre, operating at Namanve (about 12 kilometres from Kampala on the Kampala – Jinja Highway) and Banda. NFA also has nurseries in Mbarara, Mbale, Masindi, Gulu, and Arua, making it the largest producer of tree seedlings. However, the small private roadside nurseries, each raising 5,000 – 300,000 seedlings per season, are significant suppliers, competing strongly with NFA.
been in the system for 17 years. Like Brian, she started as a nursery worker, but later acquired the premises for herself. Today she raises a mix of pine, eucalyptus, fruit trees and ornamentals. Her nursery is larger than that of Brian and she is able to raise 500,000 seedlings annually. Sylvia is proud that she has been able to educate her children to university level from the proceeds of the nursery. She has imparted the same skills to her children, who work with her closely. From the above testimonies, it is evident that urban nurseries have created jobs for skilled and unskilled individuals, and are a source of household incomes. Thus, these nurseries contribute to reducing social stress associated with unemployment and poverty. With income generation and re-investment, the nurseries have been a hub of development for urban communities, a fact little recognised by traditional business gurus.
How important are the nurseries?
Demand for seedlings and planting materials
The nurseries are a source of livelihood for many people in Kampala. Brian Katumba has been managing a nursery for over three years, raising about 250,000 seedlings annually. He started as an employed nursery worker, but later paid Ush 500,000 (about US$ 200) as “goodwill” to acquire his current premises. He is happy that the nursery caters for all the needs of his family, including food, housing and education for his children. Following the example of his previous employer, Brian intends, within the next three years, to make savings from the sale of seedlings to build a house, buy a motor vehicle and diversify into other businesses. Sylvia Opio, a widow with children, has
According to NFA unpublished records, about 25 million tree seedlings are required yearly to meet the afforestation and reforestation activities in Uganda, but only about 14 million are produced. NFA produces about 50 per cent of the seedlings, while the rest come from private nurseries, most of which are urban. In addition, private nurseries are the major suppliers of ornamental trees and other planting materials. The market for tree seeds and seedlings arises out of a derived demand for forest products. For example: There is an increasing demand for timber. This has arisen from the high growth recorded in the construction and furniture
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industries. The demand-supply gap has stimulated the growing of commercial timber species such as pine and eucalyptus. There is increasing recognition of the contribution of fruit trees to diversifying household incomes, to the development of the fruit processing industry and for food security. Over 90 per cent of Ugandans use fuel wood for heating and cooking. This, and the need for trees on-farm and in homesteads to improve the quality of life, have contributed to increasing demand for agroforestry tree species. There is increasing appreciation of landscaping and the use of ornamental plants (grass, flowers, herbs, shrubs and trees) in individual holdings, institutions and urban planning. Eucalyptus seedlings sell fastest and widest, despite the negative publicity associated with the species. The multiplicity of uses for eucalyptus, which include poles, firewood, posts and timber, and the fast rate of growth, make it a favourite with growers. Pine species have also attracted many buyers, especially in the last 10 years. The species is promoted for its fast-growing and high-yielding characteristics for saw log timber production. Also important are fruit trees, which are promoted for their potential for value addition in the juice production industry. Given the above, some nurseries that used to raise only ornamentals have now diversified their products to include pine, eucalyptus and fruit trees. The main clients of these nurseries are within or near Kampala. These include individuals, NGOs and corporates. Many people buy seedlings from
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nurseries in Kampala as they go back to their villages on weekends or holidays. The number of seedlings an individual buys ranges from one to tens of thousands, depending on the objectives.
Policies, laws and institutional landscape related to urban nurseries The national policy and legal framework in Uganda indirectly supports the plants nursery industry. The Town and Country Planning Act (Cap 246) provides for planting or protecting of grass, trees and shrubs on or adjoining roads, and for the preservation or protection of soil, forests, woods, trees, shrubs, plants and flowers. The Uganda Forestry Policy (2001) and the National Forestry and Tree Planting Act (2003) specifically encourage the private sector and communities to grow trees through commercial forest plantations, agroforestry and other afforestation and reforestation initiatives. Through the National Development Plan (2010/11 – 2014/15), the government has identified forestry as one of the productive sectors that contributes to income generation, job creation and social-economic development. The National Forest Plan (2011/12 – 2021/22) recognises the importance of urban forests in controlling urban flooding by reducing storm water runoff, controlling urban soil erosion, and in the improvement on quality of domestic water supply. However, there are no regulations or guidelines to control trade in tree seed and seedlings and certification of nurseries in the country. Therefore, there has been a proliferation of urban nurseries with no measures to control the quality of materials produced and sold. Whereas this may not appear to be a serious concern for ornamental materials, seedlings for timber species (especially for saw logs and poles) and fruits must meet the genetic and physiological quality standards of best practice.
Challenges and constraints Limited land – which does not allow the nursery owners to raise large numbers of seedlings to meet demand. Poor appreciation of the use of good quality seed and other planting materials. Lack of knowledge and skills in good nursery management techniques. Uncertainty of land tenure for the nurseries. Limited advisory services and technical support from the relevant government institutions.
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Young pine seedlings. Commercial forestry in the heart of Kampala city. (Photo: Stephen Khaukha)
The regulatory framework for production and trade in seedlings and other planting materials is weak, giving a chance to unscrupulous dealers to sell planting materials of poor genetic and physiological quality. The importance of urban nurseries remains unknown in the public domain, and hence do not attract attention in the business world. There is scarcity of researched data on urban nurseries as a business, including their profitability, gross turnover and contribution to poverty alleviation and national development.
Opportunities The National Tree Seed Centre and the Sawlog Production Grant Scheme (SPGS) have programmes to train nursery managers and owners to improve their technical knowledge and practical skills in seed collection and management, tree nursery management and forest plantation. The expansion of the Forestry Inspection Division of the Ministry of Water and Environment to a full-fledged Forestry Sector Support Department will lead to more staff and possible resources to enhance delivery of technical support services to nursery owners and managers. Urban forestry is one of the programmes in the National Forest Plan (2011/12 -2021/22). A key strategy is that urban authorities and local governments will support urban tree nurseries to produce quality planting materials. Government programmes such as SPGS have continued to support the expansion of commercial forest plantations, which is a major market for seedlings. The continuing process of developing the
forestry regulations is an opportunity for formulating the relevant regulations to improve the quality of nursery materials and their movement in trade. There are many government and nongovernment institutions involved in social research that are capable of undertaking in-depth studies about urban nurseries. This information could be used to advocate for relevant policy reforms and for providing technical and financial support for the nursery industry.
Conclusion Small-scale tree nurseries can be commercially viable, providing income for the poor and a crucial service to subsistence and commercial tree producers. However, these nurseries can only be sustainable where tree growing is also promoted and thriving. There is widespread lack of technical skills and training for the private sector in seed collection and nursery management. However, the nursery owners and managers can use the existing institutions such as NFA to acquire these skills at costrecovery fees. With the National Forestry and Tree Planting regulations in the offing, and the expansion of the Forest Inspection Division to a full-fledged department, it will be possible to improve quality assurance and provide better technical support and proper guidance to private nursery owners and managers. Nonetheless, specific in-depth studies need to be undertaken to create better understanding of the urban nursery industry to guide further strategic and local level interventions. The writer is Director, Eden Forestry Company Email: Stephen.khaukha@gmail.com
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Urban nurseries in Nairobi and Kisumu A comparative study BY EVANS KHAGULI
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his article summarises the results of a study carried out by this writer in 2004, as a Bachelor of Science student at Egerton University, on urban nurseries in Nairobi and Kisumu. The study examined species diversity, market structure, product differentiation, barriers to entry into the market and the overall efficiency of the tree seedling market. In Nairobi and Kisumu (including parts of neighbouring Vihiga and Siaya), a random sample of 30 nurseries was investigated out of a list provided by the then Forest Department (now Kenya Forest Service) and (ICRAF, the World Agroforestry Centre). The nurseries investigated were both government-run as well as private, operated by groups or individuals. The majority of nurseries in both areas were operated or managed by men, aged between 30 and 50 years with primary or secondary education. This is because nursery establishment and tree planting in Kenya are traditionally associated with the male gender. The species diversity in the nurseries was comparable, with the majority offering 10 to 30 species. All species were highly valued, able to address farm requirements like food, fodder for livestock, apiculture, timber and fuel wood. Only private nurseries were selling fruit species. Available in high quantities were Mangifera indica (grafted mangoes), Passiflora edulis (passion fruits), Carica papaya (pawpaw), Persea americana (avocado), Eriobotrya japonica (loquat), Psidium guajava (guavas) and Citrus sinensis (oranges). These nurseries are not registered with the Horticultural Crops Development Authority (HCDA). Apart from different species, the nurseries had a production differentiation based on seedling size: small (15 - 45cm), medium (46 90cm) and big (over 90cm, for landscaping). Generally, seedlings were more expensive in private nurseries, with prices being higher in Nairobi. This was attributed to higher incomes in Nairobi, or higher production costs. On the other hand, nurseries run by government institutions in Nairobi could offer low prices due to economies of scale, and had uniform prices for all species.
Basic characteristics of nurseries were as follows: Area
Nairobi
Category
Private
Government
Private
Government
Annual production (seedlings)
370,000
2,332,000
1,335,500
660,000
Pricing (Ksh)
24
7
11
9
Size 15-45cm Size 46-90cm 96 Size >90cm
% of output delivered or sold
Kisumu
0
33
12
472
0
68
0
50
59
59
44
Production constraints included sourcing of soil, manure, seeds, polyethylene bags and other elements. Management constraints included pests, diseases and insufficient funds, while security constraints included vandalism and theft by rivals. However, nursery operators in Kisumu were more affected by production constraints, while their counterparts in Nairobi were more affected by management and security constraints, although more operators in Nairobi than in Kisumu had no constraints. Management constraints underlined the general lack of access to capital by the majority of operators. Although many seedlings were on offer, it was estimated that only half of the seedlings produced in a single season are actually planted. The presence of large nurseries in Nairobi distorted the market, but Kisumu enjoyed marketing that is more efficient. Email: khagulie@yahoo.com
Species diversity in nurseries in both areas: Approach
Nairobi
Kisumu
Government and related bodies
Leucaena diversifolia, Spathodea campanulata, Teclea nobilis and Croton megalocarpus
Dovyalis caffra and Acrocarpus fraxinifolious
Private
Prunus africana, Ficus benjamina, Filicium decipiens, Calistemon citrina, Spathodea campanulata, Cassia spectabilis, Terminalia mantaly and Cupressus lusitanica
Dovyalis caffra, Aleurites moluccana, Delonix regia, Moringa oleifera and Warburgia ugandensis
Combined
Podocarpus usambarensis, Schinus molle, and Vitex keniensis
Calliandra calothyrsus, Maesopsis eminii, Leucaena diversifolia and Bischofia javanica
All nurseries in the two zones
Grevillea robusta, Eucalyptus saligna, Casuarina equisetifolia, Markhamia lutea and Cupressus lusitanica
Miti October - December 2013
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Producing quality seedlings Good seedlings can be produced in any nursery type, provided best operating practices are followed BY WALTER MAPANDA
P
lant nursery practices in East and southern Africa have seen a number of changes in recent years. Most mature plantations in Africa were established by seedlings raised from polythene bags (sleeves or pots). Today, however, some of the planting stock used for commercial plantation development comes from specialised modern nurseries. These nurseries raise seedlings in plastic trays, which occupy less space while increasing the capacity of a nursery. Establishment phase is aimed at developing a rooting system for cuttings and achieving a high germination rate for seeds. The objective of the rapid growth phase is to promote fast growth in seedlings and cuttings to meet the size and colour specifications of the tree grower. Hardening is the third and final phase, whose objective is to condition the plants to stresses associated with handling, storage, transportation and Technologies for all nurseries have three phases in common, as shown in the figure below:
Types of nurseries Different nurseries use different cultural approaches to produce planting material. The morphological and physiological characteristics of plants produced by different nursery types are not the same. However, this does not mean that any is inferior to the other. Owning a nursery helps to match the production of seedlings to the area to be planted and to control the quality of planting material. Normally, large forest companies and government bodies managing forests tend to establish their own nurseries. However, it is cheaper for small-scale forestry operations to purchase planting material. Two main types of container nurseries are used in forestry, namely polythene bag nurseries and tray nurseries. Polythene bag nurseries are usually located in open compounds. Plants remain at ambient outdoor conditions from germination to maturity. In these nurseries, plants are grown in individual polythene bags (pots or sleeves) using soil as a medium. Polythene bags are manufactured in gauges and the normal gauge for seedling nurseries is 150/200. A nursery operator can use either black or transparent bags. However, black bags are preferred since they interfere less with root development and do not allow growth of algae or moss. Transparent bags reflect heat and keep the soil cool in hot regions, while black bags absorb heat in temperate regions. Soil-filled bags are left on the ground from sowing to crop hardening. Soil for filling the polythene bags is prepared by mixing local fertile soil, sand and top soil from mature forest (mycorrhizal soil) in various proportions depending on the type of local soil. Seeds of pines and eucalyptus are sown directly into polythene bags filled with the mixture of medium as shown in figure 2.
Figure 1: Phases of nursery practice Source: United States Department of Agriculture, (2013), Forest Nursery Notes
planting (stress conditioning). This phase slows down height growth while stem diameter continues to increase toward its target (dormancy induction) in plants. Seedlings and cuttings reach their target stem diameter and height growth and maximum root growth during the hardening phase. It is important to note that nurseries build their reputation on professional competence, reliability, and honesty and on the performance record of the planting material they supply and not on the nursery technology used. Some nursery operators and tree growers have failed to appreciate that quality seedlings can be produced in any nursery type, provided best operating practices are followed. It is essential for nursery operators to control costs so as not to transfer inefficiencies to tree growers. The seedlings and cuttings market is very competitive. As such, cost and quality have to be managed for a nursery to be successful. The scale of forestry operations and the demand for the supply of planting stock are interdependent.
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Figure 2: Direct sowing in soil-filled polythene bags (Photo: Walter Mapanda)
If the nursery is located in a forest, top forest soil may be used without mixing with anything else. Polythene bags are bulky and take much space in storage and transportation.
Miti October - December 2013
Figure 3 shows Pinus caribaea variety Hondurensis (PCH) seed germinating in polythene bags.
Figure 5: Nylon shade net over a polythene bag nursery (Photo: Walter Mapanda)
Grass and reed mats can also be used to provide shade for cuttings and seedlings. Besides providing shade, the mats also protect the crop from hailstorms. A reed mat cover is shown in figure 6.
Figure 3: Pine seed germination in polythene bags (Photo: Walter Mapanda)
Cans or perforated pipes are usually used for watering. Watering keeps the polythene bags moist but not wet, which enables seed to germinate within three to four weeks. Besides water being important for the growth of seedlings or cuttings, it is also useful for cooling the soil surface while the new germinants are still succulent. Figure 4 shows mature PCH seedlings. Figure 6: Reed mats protecting polythene bag seedlings (Photo: Walter Mapanda)
At planting, the plant is removed from the bag and planted with a soil ball surrounding the roots. Instead of using plastic bags, biodegradable containers can be used so they do not have to be removed before planting. Eucalyptus species and clones nursery stock growing in the open takes approximately three months to reach plantable stage, while pine species take four months. In tray nurseries, plants are grown in a tray filled with artificial growth medium. One can use polystyrene or rigid plastic trays. Both are available as 98 and 128 capacity trays. Figure 7 shows a 128 Unigrow tray.
Figure 4: Mature PCH seedlings in a polythene bag nursery (Photo: Walter Mapanda)
In cold countries, water also provides protection against frost. Nutrient deficiencies are addressed by manually watering with a mixture of soluble fertilisers and water. Foliar fertilisers can be a substitute for soluble granular fertiliser. Grading is carried out manually by shifting and regrouping polythene bags with equal-sized seedlings or cuttings. Root pruning is also carried out manually by secateurs or special root pruners. Root pruning cuts the dominant taproot and encourages a more fibrous root system. Root pruning also induces a temporary seedling moisture stress, which retards shoot growth and induces dormancy. In places where there is high evapotranspiration such as Mozambique, a black or white nylon net may be installed over and around the nursery as shown in figure 5.
Miti October - December 2013
Figure 7: A 128 Unigrow tray (Photo: Walter Mapanda)
The Unigrow trays are flexible for they have removable inserts, enabling easy sorting of seedlings according to height and vigour, and removal of empty containers. The growth medium commonly used in these nurseries includes a mixture of two or more of coco peat, peat moss, vermiculite, perlite and pine bark. Coco peat or peat moss retains water, so perlite is added to the mixture to improve drainage. Vermiculite is used as mulch to cover the seed after sowing.
21
These growing media are poor in nutrients, so fertiliser is added to the growing media at regular intervals during watering. The pH of 6.5 to 7.5 for the irrigation water is closely monitored. Before coco peat is used, it is advisable to send samples for salinity test. Trays can be used in the open, in a greenhouse or both. For some species, growing planting material in a greenhouse is necessary to avoid poor rooting of cutting or poor germination of seed and slow growth. Greenhouse technology is best for areas with extreme cold or hot climate and short growing seasons.
Greenhouse nurseries Species with small seeds, those that germinate weakly and grow slowly do better in greenhouse nurseries than in polythene bag nurseries. Many pine and eucalyptus species thrive in greenhouses. In greenhouses, all factors that normally limit growth such as water, nutrients and temperature are controlled. Greenhouses are usually equipped with automatic heating, venting, photoperiodic lights and supplemental carbon dioxide and fertiliser application systems to accelerate growth rates of plants. Automated stationary or mobile overhead misting or watering systems increase humidity and eliminate water stress. Stationary systems consist of sprinkler heads set in a regular pattern whereas mobile systems have a horizontally mounted boom fitted with sprinkler nozzles that move back and forth. These automated watering systems deliver a uniform amount of water to the crop. However, during the rooting stage, cuttings are usually sprayed with a mist just to keep the leaves moist and the relative humidity high. Excessive water in medium usually increases stem rot in cuttings. Supplying the macronutrients nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium and sulphur and micronutrients boron, copper, iron, chloride, manganese, molybdenum and zinc, is one of the most effective cultural techniques for controlling seedling growth in tray nurseries. Most tray nurseries fertilise through the irrigation system (fertigation). Liquid fertiliser solutions are injected into the irrigation lines to supply proper nutrient concentration at exactly the right time. With controlled environmental conditions, it is possible to accelerate growth of plants and, if required, have more than one crop rotation each year. Figure 8 shows Unigrow trays being used in greenhouse technology. The danger of losing a crop due to adverse climatic conditions, especially frost, can be eliminated when greenhouse technology is used. Since tray nurseries use artificial growing media rather than soil, the quality of the local soil is of little or no importance to the nursery operations. Protecting the crop against pests, diseases and weeds is easier in tray nurseries, especially in those using sterilised artificial growing media, than in polythene bag nurseries. In addition, tray nurseries make efficient use of growing space because of the high growing densities and relatively small losses to sorting. They use less water for crop irrigation than sleeve nurseries. Few employees are needed most of the time except during lifting and sorting of the plants. Tray seedlings can be handled easily and suffer less transplant shock than polythene sleeve seedlings. This is mainly because of the rigid tray and the root protection offered by the adhering growing medium. When trays are used in the open, they are usually under a nylon shade cloth to reduce evapo-transpiration.
22
Figure 8: Unigrow trays in use under a shade cloth (Photo Walter Mapanda)
In tray nurseries, seed germination or rooting of cuttings are maximised under a greenhouse environment. After that, the plants are transferred to an area under 60 per cent nylon shade net and finally to an open area commonly referred to as a rapid growth area. In the rapid growth area, the trays are normally placed on benches that allow air pruning of the roots. Before the crop is sold to tree growers, it has to be hardened. Hardening is a very important phase of nursery practice because plants that do not receive proper hardening are less likely to survive and grow after planting in the field. The crop is hardened by exposing it to ambient conditions and gradually reducing water and nutrients application. Figure 9 shows cuttings being hardened.
Figure 9: Hardening of cuttings in an open compound (Photo: Walter Mapanda)
With tray stock, roots must grow enough to bind the growing medium into a firm plug that will hold up during transporting and planting. At planting, plants are pulled out of the container whilst their roots are still covered in growing medium. It is generally accepted that local nurseries tend to produce plants better adapted to the local environment than distant nurseries. However, this does not affect nurseries using greenhouse technology. Pine seedling can be ready for planting in three months while eucalyptus cuttings can be ready in slightly less than three months. Similarities between traditional and modern nurseries Both tray and sleeve nurseries must be located on gently sloping land. Since the planting material market is competitive, it is important to ensure that the nursery site is priced reasonably. The supply of good quality water is a pre-requisite for any nursery operation. Nothing takes the place of trained labour in both tray and sleeve nurseries although more specialised skills are required in tray nurseries. Conclusion It is not necessary for every tree grower to set up a nursery. Further, any nursery type (tray or polythene bag) can be used to germinate seeds or root cuttings; then the plant can be manipulated so that it puts on enough height and stem diameter growth and finally hardened, to meet specifications of tree growers. The writer is a technical advisor at Sawlog Production Grant Scheme (SPGS) Email: walterm@sawlog.ug
Miti October - December 2013
A tree rich in vitamins and minerals Soursop (Annona muricata) has been used over the years to treat a host of ailments By MULWANA KIZITO
A
ll over the world through the ages, people have used herbs to treat medical conditions. Of the 250,000 species of flowering plants in the world, more than 20,000 - about 10 per cent of the world total are recorded and classified as herbs. Fungi and seaweeds, such as spirulina, too have medicinal properties. Many herbs were adopted for cultivation so long ago that they differ significantly from their wild ancestors, having been hybridised for thousands of years. Knowledge of where certain herbs grow, the best time to gather them and taboos about harvesting have formed an important oral tradition among healers in many different cultures. Annona muricata (soursop) belongs to the Annonaceae family, originally from South and Central America. It is known as ekitafeeri in Luganda, soursop in English, mustafeli in Swahili and corossol in French. It is a slender evergreen tree, 5-10 metres in height and 15 centimetres in diameter, a straight trunk and smooth bark, dull grey or grey brown and fissured with age. The fruit is dark green and heart-shaped, weighing up to 7 kilograms. It is pulp white on the inside, fibrous and juicy. The seeds are dark brown or black. Intensive chemical investigation of the leaves, the bark and seeds has resulted in the isolation of a great number of phyto-chemicals, called acetogenins, which display very interesting pharmacological activities. Tree management, propagation and harvesting Annona muricata is cultivated in well drained to dry soils in sunny conditions. The area around the base of the tree should be kept free from weeds or covered with mulch to avoid dehydration of the shallow roots during the dry season. The trees shed many leaves if they experience prolonged drought. It is necessary to limit the tree to a single trunk by cutting out competing twigs as early as possible. Although asexual propagation of this medicinal plant is possible by budding as well as grafting, it is mostly raised from seeds. The
Miti October - December 2013
A mature Annona muricata tree with fruit (Photo: Mulwana Kizito)
seeds are sown directly in the field or in a nursery bed. The germination starts in 20 - 30 days and success is 80 - 90 per cent. Seedlings are ready for planting after 6 - 8 months, in a spacing of 3x4 to 4x6 metres. The tree requires a lot of manure and fertilisers to enhance fruit production and increase growth. The fruits are harvested when ripe, and harvesting goes on throughout the year. Premature harvesting affects the quality adversely. The fruits, seeds, leaves, roots and root bark all have medicinal properties and can be turned into infusions, decoctions, tinctures and liquid extracts. The fruit is made up of about 67.5 per cent edible pulp, 20 per cent peel, 8.5 per cent seeds and 4 per cent core by weight. Sugars constitute about 68 per cent of the total solids. The most desirable characteristics of the fruit are its pleasing fragrance and flavour. Anthracnose is the principal disease that attacks soursop in humid environments. Phytochemical analysis Soursop contains several bioactive compounds, which occur in the leaves, fruit, bark and root bark. It contains alkaloids, tannins, phenolic compounds, volatile oils (these provide its aroma profile), steroids and cardiac glycosides. It also contains vitamins, notably C, B, B1, B3 (essential
for the smooth operation of the digestive and nervous system), B5 (responsible for energy release) and B6 (responsible for metabolism of fats and proteins). Soursop also contains minerals, mostly iron and phosphorus. However, the seeds contain a neurotoxin called annonacin, which has been associated with an atypical form of Parkinson’s disease. Nevertheless, soursop has many medicinal properties. It is used as a sedative and a diuretic, and to treat influenza and dysentery. It is also used as an anti-inflammatory, anti-parasitic, anti-bacterial, anti-helminthic, anti-convulsant, anti-depressant and an insect-repellent. Culinary uses With its 114 volatile oils, the soursop fruit has a distinct flavour of custard when it ripens. This pleasant aroma, plus the fibrous pulp that is juicy, creamy and sweet, make it possible to process the fruit into various other products such as juice blends, nectars, syrups, jams, jellies and ice cream. The flavour can be extracted by the use of a solvent or through steam distillation. Mature but firm fruits may be made into sweets of a delicate flavour and aroma. The writer is the Managing Director, SEFA Organic Email: sefaorganic@yahoo.com mulwanakizito@gmail.com
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Making thinning profitable Commercial tree growers can make money from thinnings BY WALTER MAPANDA AND DIANA AHEBWE
T
hinning is a means of managing competition for water, nutrients and light among trees. In most pure evenaged saw log plantations, trees are planted at a high stocking (density) to control branch size, provide mutual shelter for the young trees, encourage early height growth, good tree form, and quick canopy closure in order to suppress weeds. High stocking also allows for a degree of selection so that the final crop of trees is of high quality. Thinning is the removal of trees from the stand on one or several occasions during the rotation of a plantation forest with the purpose of availing resources for the remaining trees. Thinning in commercial forestry is an important silvicultural operation that maximises the production of large saw logs in the shortest time possible. In other words, some good quality trees are sacrificed in order to allocate resources to other trees, improving their growth and health, thus increasing log diameters. Thinning is also an opportunity for removing suppressed, poorly formed, diseased, dying and dead trees that usually do not make it to the final saw log crop. Thinning is done several times in the life of a crop and starts soon after canopy closure, which means competition has set in. The operation normally removes the weaker trees and gives the best trees the space to reach utilisable size. Importance of thinning in commercial forestry Where thinning is done on time, bigger trees are harvested at the end of the rotation than in plantations where thinning is not done.
Demonstration of a second thinning during an SPGS clients’ meeting. Note that the felled stems differ in quality and that some are only good for chipping or firewood. (Photo: Miti)
Thinning prevents the trees from competing for light, moisture and nutrients, which would slow growth and could eventually lead to the death of the trees. Thinning stimulates the growth of the remaining trees as well as improving the yield of the stand in terms of size and quality so they can be sold at a premium price. Bigger trees allow greater recovery of sawn timber and produce wider, more valuable sawn boards. Few growers know that the volume of wood produced by a timber stand of a certain age on a particular site, within the limit of full site occupation, is about the same, whatever the number of trees. This means that if the number of trees in a stand is reduced, the same volume of wood can be produced with fewer trees, while maintaining a good rate of growth. Since the remaining trees are provided with more space for crown and root development,
it encourages stem diameter growth and thus the trees reach the desired size earlier. Thinning can be destructive if not done correctly. It must be done according to the recommended thinning density and correct timing. Early thinning affects a plantation. The trees that are removed are small and would not fetch a good return on the market. In effect then, this is a thinning-to-waste operation. This leads to a waste of money and underutilisation of the site. Money would have been spent on seedlings, planting, blanking and weeding. It is thus uneconomic to thin early. Early thinning may also mean high weeding costs because the stand will take a long time before canopy closure. Delayed thinning is also expensive because there is little open space into which to direct large falling trees. Delayed thinning
Table 1: Thinning criteria for commercial plantations Level of thinning
Thinning objective
Comment
Space (%)
Quality (%)
1
80
20
Emphasis should be on creation of space for the crown to expand. A rough diagonal pattern after thinning normally achieves this.
2
50
50
Balance space and quality objectives.
3
20
80
Emphasis should be on appearance of the tree (form, taper, resin pockets and forks, crook, crown status and position), since this is the final thinning before clear felling for the sawmill.
(Table by Walter Mapanda)
24
Miti October - December 2013
may mean longer rotations for dominant trees to reach the desired harvesting diameter (usually between 39 and 45 cm). On the other hand, excessive thinning exposes the remaining trees to strong winds. This may cause stem deformations such as butt sweep, excess taper and crookedness. Besides, it is also possible to experience wind throw after excessive thinning. Heavy thinning leads to formation of deeper and larger crowns by the remaining trees, since formerly shaded branches are exposed to more light and thus live longer. Thinning must be accompanied by pruning, to control crown size. Thinning opens gaps in the stand cover, to allow light and improved air circulation, which increases weed growth and litter breakdown. The water table for some locations rises with each thinning activity. On some sites, if done intensively, reaction wood formation may be initiated, since trees adapt to the sudden increase in wind flow. If a market for thinning is not realised, thinning costs are not recovered quickly. Thinning reduces stand volume temporarily. This normally recovers three to five years after the operation. If thinning is done by inexperienced workers, falling trees can damage retained trees, exposing them to pathogens. Again, cut stumps for some species such as eucalypts coppice vigorously, so coppices must be managed. Thinning timing and intensity A thinning operation should aim at both creating space and improving quality. Creating space is important for early thinning, since trees grow fast when they are young, so crown expansion should be unrestricted. The final thinning should emphasise on quality of trees so that the best trees in terms of form make the final crop. Timing of thinning varies from place to place depending on fertility, age, weather and species type. Likewise, thinning intensity varies from place to place depending on the environment. Age should not be used as an indicator of when to thin a stand, but should be used only as a reminder to check for readiness to thin. Tree form and health surveys determine thinning time. For example, when eucalypts are under intense competition, crowns tend to be narrow and have small branches. When trees are growing at close spacing, the stand tends to be darker and air circulation in the stand is restricted. This provides an environment conducive for pests and diseases to attack trees. Thinning allows light to enter the stand and air to circulate freely, which reduces the occurrence of pests and diseases.
Table 2: Thinning regimes for pine saw logs and peeler logs Component
Saw log
Peeler log
Initial stocking
1,111
1,111
Thinning intensity
Thinning level
1st
2nd
3rd
1st
2nd
3rd
Thinning time (yrs)
5
8
12
5
8
12
Trees removed
411
200
125
411
200
200
Trees remaining
700
500
375
700
500
300
Final stocking
375
300
Rotation (yrs)
18
20 to 22
(Table by Walter Mapanda in consultation with some tree growers)
A mobile sawmill is a worthwhile investment for adding value to thinning products. (Photo: Miti)
Thinning intensity At higher stocking (1,111 stems per hectare), competition sets in at about six years, so a thinning to 700 stems per hectare (spha) needs to be conducted. After two to four years, the rate of diameter increment declines again and a thinning operation has to be conducted to 500 spha to release the competition. Another two to four years later, the rate of diameter increase declines again and the stand density must be reduced from 500 spha to 300 spha. The 300 stems will make the final crop, which is normally due for harvesting about six to eight years later.
Thinning regimes differ from site to site and from individual to individual depending on the overall goal. A thinning regime is linked to a thinning intensity, which is defined by the following three parameters: Thinning level. Is it the first, second or third thinning and when is the first thinning? Number of trees or basal area removed. Thinning time. For example, a pine saw log and a peeler logthinning regime could be as shown on Table 2. Example of thinning regime for eucalyptus used as light poles, transmission poles and peeler logs is shown on Table 3.
Table 3: Thinning regime for eucalyptus light poles, transmission poles and peeler logs Component
Light poles
Transmission poles
Peeler logs
Initial stocking
1,111
1,111
1,111
Thinning intensity
Thinning level
1st
1st
2nd
Thinning time (yrs)
2 to 3
2 to 3
6
Trees removed
511
450
311
Trees remaining
600
661
350
Final stocking
1,111
600
350
Rotation (yrs)
4
6
12
(Table by W Mapanda in consultation with some tree growers)
Miti October - December 2013
25
Figure 1: Profile of a pine stand before first thinning and after third thinning (Walter Mapanda) Thinning also improves stand uniformity. Figure 1 shows the profile of a pine stand before first thinning and after third thinning. While thinning is important as a silvicultural operation, the decision to carry it out depends on species, planting density, desired product, site index, rainfall, market availability, distance from the market, processing facilities, transport costs, availability of harvesting machinery, rotation and thinning regime. Higher stocking rates (1,600) are important for maximising volume of timber for pulpwood, light poles or fuel wood. If however, the objective is to maximise log diameter suited to milling for wide boards, then a low final stocking rate is ideal. Methods used in extraction of thinnings The commonly used method by tree growers in Uganda is manual, whereby people cut down the logs using an axe or a panga, and then carry the logs to the roadside for picking and processing. This method is slow and risky to human health where only 30 logs can be extracted a day by two people. Some growers use oxen, as this is faster than human labour although it is expensive to
Planks from young pine trees, products from a second thinning. (Photo: Miti)
26
train the oxen and maintain them in a healthy condition. The other method used by those with large plantations is the Bogie Sulkie, which is operated manually by one or two people depending on the terrain. This method does not require fuel to operate but few growers are using it currently. Most growers have not evolved from the slow, traditional way of extracting thinning products. Most plantation owners perceive thinning as a loss because the first thinning products do not usually have good wood properties, as the wood is still juvenile. In most cases, the wood is wasted, as there is no market for it in Uganda. Ideally, the first thinnings can be utilised as biomass, poles for fencing, pulp and paper, among many other uses. However, this is not happening in Uganda because there is no ready market for the thinnings compared to South Africa, where all the thinnings are utilised in the paper and pulp industries. Some growers have tried to process thinnings but they have ended up producing many off-cuts trying to achieve a desirable size that is needed by the market.
Inappropriate sawing systems have also led to low recovery as the workers are not well trained on how to use sawmills. Making money from thinnings The first thinning activity is considered a “thin -waste� operation, while the second and the third are considered commercial. For example, during the second thinning, a tree grower can earn Ush 8,000 - 10,000 for a good tree on average and if value is added using a sawmill, one can earn Ush 15,000 - 20,000 from one tree. The third thinning is considered completely commercial because one can earn Ush 60,000 - 80,000 per tree. Initiatives are being undertaken to utilise thinnings in the most profitable way, such as finger jointing, (which is still being experimented on), laminating surface finishes and surface stains. Standards for timber are being developed in conjunction with the Uganda Bureau of Standards. When this is done, the logs will be acceptable in the market. Trials are being carried out by the National Forestry Resources Research Institute (NAFFORI) in conjunction with the Sawlog Production Grant Scheme (SPGS) on the second thinnings of pine and eucalyptus to establish if these can be finger-jointed to make strong timber out of them. The market also needs to be informed to work hand in hand with the growers. This will save many investors from making losses out of thinnings. Walter Mapunda is the technical advisor at Sawlog Production Grant Scheme Email: walterm@sawlog.ug Diana Ahebwe is the Country Representative Miti magazine - Uganda Email: diana@mitiafrica.com
Miti October - December 2013
Use of thinnings in Ugandan plantations Richard Bakojja’s plantation in Mubende as a case study BY THADDEUS BUSINGE
R
ichard Bakojja’s plantation in Mubende covers 700 hectares. The trees on some 400 hectares are between six and 12 years old and a mix of first and second thinnings has been carried out. This is different from the recommended thinning regime for pine trees as shown below. For Mubende on average, the first thinning is done at five years and the second at eight years. It is unlikely that any planter would do a third thinning. Mean annual increment With reference to Richard Bakojja’s site, the mean annual increment (MAI) is on average 28m3/ha/yr. MAI in Uganda averages between 20 and 30m3/ha/yr, but cases of 32m3/ha/yr have been recorded. MAI depends on, among other things, the site, source of the seed, the way the seedlings were raised in the nursery and plantation management practices right from land
This pole is almost too good to be a product of a second thinning. (Photo: Miti)
Miti October - December 2013
Thinning stage
Plantation age (yrs)
Plantation volume (m3/ha)
Percentage reduction
1st
5
125
37 %
46.24
2nd
8
200
29 %
57.14
Volume removed (m3/ha)
Recommended thinning regime for Ugandan plantations Thinning stage
Plantation age (yrs)
Initial stocking per ha
Final stocking per ha
1
4 -6
1,111
700
2
7–9
700
500
3rd
10 - 12
500
350
st nd
preparation to planting, weeding and thinning. For this article however, let us take an average MAI of 25m3/ha/yr. Volumes thinned out From the above table on thinning regime, and based on MAI of 25m3/ha/yr, we can arrive at the thinning volumes as shown in the table below.
Market and price Currently, the main buyer of first thinnings is Nile Plywoods Uganda Limited (Nileply), who make chipboards, particleboards and related products from the thinnings. Nileply uses all the thinning products, including the branches. Before Nileply, first thinnings virtually had no market. The other emerging market is that of bioenergy, where thinnings can be further processed into wood chips for heating. The price paid for these thinnings depends mainly on the distance. Nileply has a plant in Jinja (240km away from Mubende) and a new one in Nakasongolo (160km away), and Mr Bakojja was able to get Ush 60,000 per m3 for his products, a mix of first and second thinnings. Second thinnings can be converted into small dimension saw timber, fetching, on average, Ush 70,000 per m3. A small mobile band saw like a “Wood Mizer” can be hired through a specialised contractor, and established in the plantation. The production capacity of this type of sawmill depends on the size, with the smallest (LT 10) giving an average of about 100m3 of sawn timber per month. Nileply also buys the second thinnings at the market rate. The writer is a forester and a private consultant Email: tbusinge@gmail.com
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The EU’s FLEGT Action Plan to curb illegal logging has seen nine African countries embark on full FLEGT compliance. (Photo: Will Parrinello - KQED Pressroom)
Cleaning up the timber trade Is FLEGT for Africa redrawing the sawmilling landscape? COMPILED BY ETIENNE NAGEL
I
llegal logging, which is defined as the harvesting of wood that breaches the laws or regulations of the country of origin, has a devastating effect on communities and biodiversity. It causes vast carbon emissions and can keep poor countries in a dangerous and damaging cycle of poverty and corruption. However, unaware of the legal status of such timber, consumers and companies buy it, thus making illegal logging financially rewarding. Interpol estimates that illegal logging contributes up to 30 per cent of timber in the global market, costing in excess of US$ 20 billion a year. In light of the serious environmental, economic and social consequences of illegal logging, the European Union published the EU FLEGT (Forest Law Enforcement, Governance and Trade) Action Plan in 2003. The action plan encourages EU members to address illegal logging via procurement policies to promote the use of legal and sustainably produced timber.
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EU FLEGT, which is negotiated on a voluntary partnership basis between assenting parties, is one of a number of landmark events that are shaping the emerging African sawmilling landscape. FLEGT is policed by the European Union Timber Regulation (EUTR), introduced in March 2013 to control illegal timber imports. The introduction of FLEGT and its legislation framework deserves a specific discussion to alert saw millers in Africa on how the action plan will affect their operations going forward. A brief introduction to FLEGT The FLEGT forms part of a range of regional and international agreements that address forest law enforcement, governance and associated trade in the forest sector. The ultimate aim of these agreements is to bring increased sustainability through, among others, a decrease of the trade in illegal timber. The EU FLEGT Action Plan sets out actions to prevent the importation of illegal wood into
the EU, to improve the supply of legal timber and to increase demand for wood coming from responsibly managed forests. The long-term aim of the Action Plan is sustainable forest management. Taken as a single market, the EU is one of the largest consumers of timber products in the world. The EU accounts for 35 per cent of the world’s primary timber consumption. The behaviour of European companies and governments purchasing wood and wood products from suppliers in Africa, Asia or South America has a significant impact on illegal logging. By unwittingly buying illegal wood, companies and consumers are creating profitable markets for illegal loggers, and undermining efforts to enforce forest law in many wood-exporting countries. If buyers actively purchase wood from producers that comply with local law, pay for the timber they fell and act responsibly towards local people and the environment, this
Miti October - December 2013
will help to tackle illegal logging. The FLEGT Action Plan focuses on demand and supply-side solutions while at the same time addressing forest management and governance. Legal, environmental, economic and human issues are part of the package of outcomes that are expected to flow from the Action Plan. The Action Plan also recognises that law enforcement on its own can make the situation worse for local communities, when unjust laws are not changed. Therefore, the central activity of the FLEGT Action Plan is to develop bilateral partnership agreements, with the aim of creating a caucus of the main wood-producing and importing countries and by doing so stemming the tide of illegal timber entering the EU. The measures of the Action Plan focus on seven broad areas: 1. Support to timber exporting countries, including action to promote equitable solutions to the illegal logging problem. 2. Activities to promote trade in legal timber, including action to develop and implement Voluntary Partnership Agreements (VPA) between the EU and timber exporting countries. 3. Promoting public procurement policies, including action to guide contracting authorities on how to deal with legality when specifying timber in procurement procedures. 4. Support for private sector initiatives, including action to encourage private sector initiatives for good practice in the forest sector, including the use of voluntary codes of conduct for private companies to source legal timber. 5. Safeguards for financing and investment, including action to encourage banks and financial institutions investing in the forest sector to develop due care procedures when granting credits. 6. Use of existing legislative instruments or adoption of new legislation to support the Plan, including the EU Timber Regulation. 7 Addressing the problem of conflict timber. Two of these core objectives give direction to the successful execution of FLEGT. The first are the voluntary partnership agreements (VPAs). These ensure that all forest operators of the signatory country meet the terms of the agreement. Since VPAs are voluntary and agreed at a national level, all forest operators of the signatory country are
Miti October - December 2013
Illegal felling and trading is not restricted to natural forests and big-sized logs. Plantations of exotic tree species are subject to the same treatment. (Photo: KFWG)
The FLEGT process A flow chart simplifying the FLEGT process consists of four distinct stages: Logging
Transport
Transformation
Export
Timber legality
Traceability
FLEGT licences
All legal requirements on economic, environmental, and social aspects of the producer country that must be met
The supply chain is monitored to exclude timber of illegal, unknown or untrustworthy origin and by doing so allowing the timber to be tracked from the point of harvest to export. It also deals with imported timber products and mixing of legally verified timber with other sources of timber. Existing private certification schemes such as CITES can be taken into account.
EU-bound shipments checked “as legal” receive FLEGT licences. If they are bound elsewhere, they are traded without a licence.
Checks Allow to verify that requirements for legality and for traceability are met. They can be undertaken by the administration of the producer country, by a market player, by a third party or by an association of those various players. Any private certification scheme used, for example, Origin and Legality of Wood (OLB), Timber Legality and Traceability Verification (TLTV), Forest Certification Scheme (FSC), Programme for the Endorsement of Forest Certification (PEFC), etc.) can, if it is recognised by the producer country’s government, provide for simplified checks of certified companies. Any operator of a VPA signatory producer country who would place timber shipments on the market found to be illegal would be sanctioned by the administration of that country regardless of the destination of those shipments (local, regional or international markets).
Independent audit The independent audit gives assurance to all involved parties that the Legality Assurance System (LAS) works. To that end, a complaint mechanism will be set up and missions to verify the four pillars of the LAS (legality, traceability, checks and FLEGT licences) carried out.
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FLEGT’s progress in Africa Currently, nine VPA partner countries in Africa are at various stages of the FLEGT development process. Cote D‘Ivoire and Sierra Leone are in the information/pre-negotiation phase with FLEGT information missions having gone to these countries to initiate the process. Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) and Gabon are in the negotiation phase of FLEGT, while Ghana, Cameroon, Liberia, Republic of the Congo (Brazzaville) and the Central African Republic are implementing their licensing systems in terms of FLEGT. Sawmillers in Africa are increasingly adding value to logs at source, using affordable sawmilling modalities, thus generating incomes that can pave the way to increased socio-economic development. (Photo: Etienne Nagel)
expected to comply with the terms of the VPA. The second is the EU Timber Regulation (EUTR), which lays down the obligations of operators who place timber and timber products on the market. Facing a prohibition to place illegal timber on the market, operators - importers and European loggers - must exercise due diligence, meaning they must make sure timber and timber products and their supply chain are legal. The voluntary partnership agreements VPAs result from multilateral discussions at a national level to guarantee commitment from all stakeholders in the timber supply chain. This ensures that the bulk of timber products listed in the agreement meet the bulk of the legal requirements. To meet this objective, the VPA implies setting up national measures for transparency, governance, timber sector reforms, etc. The VPA relies on its Legality Assurance System (LAS), which includes export authorisations or FLEGT licences. EUTR For the first time, the EU Timber Regulation (EUTR) prohibits the placing on the EU market of illegally harvested timber or products derived from such timber. The regulation requires EU traders who place timber products on the EU market for the first time to exercise “due diligence”1. This requires the operator to have access to information describing the timber and timber products, country of harvest, species, quantity, details of the supplier and information on compliance with national legislation. “Due diligence” is a term used for a number of concepts, involving either an investigation of a business or a person, prior to signing a contract, or to act with a certain standard of care. It applies commonly to voluntary investigation. (Wikipedia).
The operator should assess the risk of illegal timber in his supply chain, based on the information identified above and taking into account criteria set out in the EUTR. When the assessment shows that there is a risk of illegal timber in the supply chain, the timber supplier is requested to give additional information and verification regarding the timber. Once on the market, the timber and timber products may be sold on and/or transformed before they reach the final consumer. To facilitate the traceability of timber products, operators in this part of the supply chain (referred to as traders in the regulation) have an obligation to keep records of their suppliers and customers. The EUTR covers a wide range of timber products and includes solid wood products, flooring, plywood, pulp and paper. Recycled products, as well as printed papers such as books, magazines and newspapers are not included. The EUTR applies to both imported and domestically produced timber and timber products. Timber and timber products covered by valid FLEGT or CITES 2 licences are considered to comply with the requirements of the EUTR. The EUTR is legally binding on all 27 EU member states, which are responsible for laying down effective, proportionate and dissuasive penalties and for enforcing the EUTR. The EUTR provides for “Monitoring organisations” to be recognised by the European Commission. These organisations which will be private entities, will provide EU operators with operational due diligence systems.
Etienne Nagel is Media Liaison for Wood-Mizer Africa. Email: enagel@woodmizerafrica.com
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A changed processing landscape A number of African communities rely on forest resources to generate incomes. Some of the activities involve cutting logs for export. As no value-addition is done at source, income generated from log volumes exported remains low. The net effect is limited financial capacity in such communities to fund sustainable business units. As such, these communities are not able to rise beyond the export led model to a point where local value-addition can happen and greater attention ultimately given to re-afforestation. Wood-Mizer Africa, as a specialist supplier of portable and stationary thin-kerf narrow band sawmilling capacity, is extremely concerned about the rapid rate of deforestation in Africa specifically, but also globally. Wood-Mizer sees this sawmilling modality as a vital part of attempts to reverse this process. The log optimisation potential, precision, high output and affordability that thin kerf narrow band saw capacity provides, is part of the answer to unlocking socio-economic uplifting and sustainable resource management practices. Specifically, Wood-Mizer Africa is keen to position itself as a key custodian of Africa’s timber resources. A significant percentage of Wood-Mizer’s marketing activities is devoted to bringing home the message that sawmilling capacity, in conjunction with ecologically sound resource management, is the responsible and sustainable route to achieving balance between human activities and natural resources. This endeavour would ultimately see Wood-Mizer Africa providing sawmilling capacity together with business and resource management skills that would allow sawmilling companies in Africa to become viable enterprises. The companies would form the bedrock of sustainable business into the future with a vibrant resource base being the foundation of this.
CITES: the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (of wild fauna and flora).
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Miti October - December 2013
Keeping a tradition alive As supplies of mpingo and muhuhu wood dwindle, KEFRI explores alternative sources for woodcarving BY GITONGA STEVEN
T
he woodcarving industry supports many Kenyans economically. It is estimated that over 6,000 woodcarvers in Kenya are engaged in this business, with over 250,000 people economically dependent on this trade. And despite a stagnating market, more and more people are interested in learning woodcarving skills. Inside the tightly secured walls of Kitui GoK Prison in Kitui County, James Wambua imparts woodcarving skills to a group of inmates. “In addition to furniture-making, woodcarving is a skill preferred by male inmates. This initiative aims at equipping inmates with technical skills which they can depend on to earn an honest living once set free,” states Mr Wambua. Despite this promising situation, there is a clear indication that the woodcarving business is threatened by rapidly diminishing wood supplies. Bernard Nyaga, the Officerin-Charge of the Kitui GoK Prison Workshop, observes that the quantity and quality of wood for carving is slowly diminishing. “In the early days, hard wood was readily available from brokers, but with time, the supply dwindled. We resorted to salvaging jacaranda wood from fuel wood supplied to the prison kitchen,” says Mr Nyaga. “However, with time, even the jacaranda, which was readily available within Kitui, is also becoming scarce. I wonder what wood carvers will use next.” Woodcarving was introduced into Kenya by Mutisya Munge, a Kamba soldier who served in the British Army in Tanganyika (now Tanzania), during World War I. It is said that Munge learnt the skill from Makonde carvers who lived along the Mozambique-Tanzania border. Upon his return to Kenya in 1918, Munge imparted the skills to his kinsmen in Machakos. The first woodcarving workshop was established at Wamunyu town. Subsequently, the woodcarvers traded with white settlers and government officials in Nairobi and Mombasa. In those early days, wood artefacts were made solely from Dalbergia melanoxylon (mpingo1) Mpingo is a hard heavy black wood, which is exported to Europe for the manufacture of woodwind instruments like clarinets and oboes.
1
Miti October - December 2013
or Brachylaena huillensis (muhuhu) wood. These are rare tree species much sought-after even to date for their high commercial value. By the 1940s, as the carving business bloomed, mpingo, the wood of choice of woodcarvers in Africa, was exploited to exhaustion. Similarly, muhuhu, which was readily available in semi-deciduous tropical forests of Kenya’s Central highlands and the dry lowland coastal belts, dwindled in 1956 due to overharvesting for carving, fuel wood and export to India. Despite its scarcity, demand for muhuhu remained high and by 1974, collectors scavenged for its stumps and roots where the trees had been felled. Today, only a few trees of the two species remain in the national parks and forest reserves where control of illegal
logging remains a challenge. Given the level of exploitation of mpingo and muhuhu, it became clear in the 1980s that new stock of wood for carving was required. As the exploration for alternative stock continues, globally scientists have classified over 140 tree species as viable alternatives for woodcarving. The Kenya Forestry Research Institute (KEFRI) initiated a research project in the 1990s to address these gaps. According to Simon Choge, a senior research scientist at KEFRI, there is an urgent need to conserve the germplasm of the two threatened species. Thus, mpingo trial plots were established at Kitui, Kibwezi and Kiboko while muhuhu trials were established at Gede, Muguga and Nyeri. Further exploration for substitute stock earmarked the neem tree - mwarubaini (Azadirachta indica), the mango tree (Mangifera indica) and jacaranda (Jacaranda mimosifolia) as suitable species. Currently, only Jacaranda mimosifolia is used widely in the woodcarving industry. Indeed, this is one of the most viable tree species for planting, not only because of its soft wood for carving but also due to its fast growing attributes, beauty and medicinal properties. The writer is Information and Communication Officer, KEFRI Email:sgitonga@kefri.org
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An opportunity to create wealth Industrial plantations of gum arabic offer income-generating alternatives to pastoralism in far-flung dry areas of East Africa BY BEN CHIKAMAI AND JAN VANDENABEELE
G
32
40,000 35,000 30,000
Export(MT)
Sudan
25,000
Chad 20,000
Nigeria
15,000
Asia
Other African countries
10,000 5,000 0 19 92 19 93 19 94 19 95 19 96 19 97 19 98 19 99 20 00 20 01 20 02 20 03 20 04 20 05 20 06
um arabic is a natural product obtained from Acacia senegal and Acacia seyal. The two species are mostly found growing in the wild, in dry environments on large expanses of semiarid lands in sub-Saharan Africa. The species are known to fix atmospheric nitrogen in the soil. This means these trees have potential for soil improvement and can develop a deep and far-reaching rooting system to tap into moisture-holding subsoil. In Kenya, there are three varieties of Acacia senegal, namely senegal, kerensis and leiorachis. Kerensis is the main variety in Kenya and a major source of commercial gum arabic. There are also two varieties of Acacia seyal, namely seyal and fistula. A. seyal prefers more clayey soils, while A. senegal thrives on lighter, sandier ones. Both species produce gum arabic. However, gum arabic from A. senegal (hard gum or “gomme dure”) enjoys a bigger market share than the soft gum or “gomme friable” from A. seyal. In turn, the variety kerensis produces a more viscous product than the Sudanese gum, which is the industry standard. Typical production areas of gum arabic are remote regions like Kordofan in western Sudan that are sparsely populated and far from urban areas and related pollution problems. Gum arabic is hence a product that by its very nature is uncontaminated and organic, ideal and safe for human consumption. Apart from livestock production, gum arabic is one of the few income generating products that the inhabitants of dry areas have at their disposal. In East Africa, drylands are mostly inhabited by pastoralists living in harsh conditions, with few sources of income. The collection and trade in gum arabic in fact contributes to poverty alleviation in those areas. The gum is a natural exudate of the tree, through sap-flow out of cracked branches or stems, solidifying on contact with the air. It is most likely a normal metabolic activity of
Year
Figure 1: Export of raw acacia gum (in tonnes) 1992 - 2000 (Source: International Trade Centre, Geneva)
the tree and is stimulated by drought-stress. This makes the tree species ideally suited for afforestation and management of natural stands in these times of climate change. Changes in rainfall patterns and rising temperatures, as expected in most of Africa, will have minimal effect on the potential of the trees where plantations are planned or existing. Gum collection is done sustainably, year after year, through picking the exudate or stimulating its flow through tapping. These production methods are well understood and developed. Characteristics of the product Why is gum arabic so important for the food and pharmaceutical industries? Physically, it has no colour (though it can become yellowish when exposed to air) or taste, and is highly soluble. High concentrations of up to 50 per cent dissolve easily in water. Chemically, it is composed of Carbohydrates (polysaccharides); broken into constituent sugars (four neutral and an acidic sugar);
Proteins, broken into amino acids 1; Fourteen different minerals. However, the molecular nature of how the polysaccharides (or carbohydrates) and the proteins interrelate make the gum unique. The proteins are hydrophobic (repulse water) while the chains of carbohydrates are hydrophilic (absorb water). This makes the gum a natural emulsifier and stabiliser. Almost equally important, enzymes are unable to break down its molecular chains, making it a great dietary fibre (functional food). This gives gum arabic enormous possibilities in the health industry. In summary, these physical, chemical and molecular properties make gum arabic ideal for various applications such as: Emulsifier for oil in water emulsions (soft drinks); Carrier for encapsulation (pharmaceutical industry, carbonless photocopying paper, laundry detergents, baking mixes); Hydroxyproline, serine, threonine, proline, leucine, histidine, aspartic acid, glutamic acid, valine, phenylalanine, hysine, alanine, isoleucine, tyrosine, arginine, methionine, cysteine, tryptophan.
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Miti October - December 2013
Stabiliser for colloidal systems (e.g. stabilising foam for beer, protection of wines against destabilisation); Texturiser/thickener in sugar and polyols2 media (confectionary); Health foods for combating obesity; Clinical applications (main component in artificial blood serum, treatment in case of kidney failure, cardiovascular and gastrointestinal ailments). The “kerensis” variety, with its high viscosity, is particularly valued for food applications where high viscosity is desirable, like in yoghurt. Production and sources of gum arabic Annual export figures of gum arabic (1996-2006) are shown in Figure 1, excluding production for local consumption. As can be seen, Sudan is the world leader with 50 per cent (down from the 80 per cent of previous years), followed by Chad at 25 per cent (and increasing) and Nigeria with 20 per cent. Other African countries are minor producers accounting for 5 per cent, while Asian countries contribute 1 per cent. Production statistics of West African countries vary, because there is non-registered cross-border trade, for example from Mali to Senegal or from Chad to the Central African Republic and Cameroon. The current world demand of gum arabic is about 100,000 tonnes against a current supply of about 70,000 tonnes, with a mean supply over 15 years (1992-2006) of about 46,085 tonnes. The demand is projected to reach 150,000 tonnes by 2020 (Chikamai and Casadei, 2005). The major dip in exports in Sudan in 2003 was attributed to low prices, which discouraged producer farmers from collecting gum, invasion of locusts and conflict in the Darfur region. Production from Chad increased from 10 to 25 per cent of the global market over the ten-year period to become the second largest producer in the world. In Kenya, the potential for gum arabic production is 3,000 tonnes against an average production of 400 - 500 tonnes. This is mainly the “kerensis” variety, which commands a growing niche market due to its high viscosity. Exports of gum arabic from Kenya are still very low compared to the resource potential. Annual exports have been only a few hundred tonnes, which reached a peak of 460 tonnes in 1995 (Chikamai et al, 2010). In 2011, the Export Promotion Council trade statistics showed that Kenya exported 96 tonnes of gum arabic valued The name polyols refers to chemical compounds containing multiple hydroxyl groups. Polyols are important in the food industry and in polymer chemistry. Sugar alcohols are a class of polyols. They have a lower calorific content than sugar, and are often added to chewing gum.
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Miti October - December 2013
at US$ 167,442 (Ksh 14.4 million) mainly to China, Pakistan, Vietnam and France. Value addition The first stage of value addition is cleaning, sorting and grading. This can be done by spreading gum arabic on drying beds, cleaning and grading it. The gum can then be sold in 25 or 50-kg jute bags. Further value addition could be kibbling (to break into smaller, uniform particles) or milling to a fine powder, processes meant to enhance solubility. Quality control at this stage looks at optical rotation of the gum (typical for the species and variety), acid-insoluble matter, moisture content (12 – 14 per cent), foreign matter content (3 – 5 per cent), colour, viscosity, and presence of bacteria. However, the next step is making powdered gum. This can be done through spray drying (Figure 2), which furnishes a high quality, free-flowing powder with better solubility characteristics than kibbled gum. The chain of operations is as follows: cleaning à crushing à screening à dissolving in water à filtration à centrifugation à pasteurisation à spray drying à packaging. Packaging can be done in 1kg sachets, 25kg sacks, 100kg drums and 1000kg containers. By altering atomising conditions, powder with varying particle sizes and bulk densities can be produced, according to the end users’ requirements. It is obvious that the real value adding (up to 1000 per cent) takes place through processing, while the initial crushing and grinding adds less. Trade Most of the gum arabic is exported to Europe. France is the European Union’s largest importer of gum arabic and in 2010 accounted for 30 per cent of total EU imports. The United Kingdom and Germany are the second and third largest importers, accounting for 14 per cent and 11 per cent respectively. Colloides Naturels International (CNI) in
France is the world’s largest processor of gum arabic followed by Alfred Wolff in Germany. Some five companies (one each in France, Germany, UK, USA and Japan) dominate the market. There are only three spray-drying plants in Africa two in Sudan and one in Nigeria. However, new players like Brazil, India and China have started throwing their weight around. Between 2006 and 2010, the gum arabic market was affected heavily by the global economic crisis and prices dropped. However, at US$3.5/kg free on board (FOB) Mombasa for Sudanese gum and US$2.5/kg for Kenyan gum, prices are now improving. These prices are for “naturally selected” gum arabic, which has only been cleaned. Local production It is clear from the above that with its”kerensis” variety of gum arabic, Kenya has a unique opportunity to enter an expanding world market. Research spearheaded by the Kenya Forestry Research Institute (KEFRI) has shown the ideal provenances, with known characteristics regarding viscosity and protein content. Additional work involving Egerton University, KEFRI, Kenya Gums and Resins Ltd and Phillips Hydrocolloids Ltd has shown the superior usages of the gum in selected food applications. A clear and structured breeding programme can focus on yield improvement, coupled with appropriate management practices to establish industrial plantations. These can create wealth in far-flung rural areas that currently offer no other vocation apart from extensive pastoralism. It is an excellent prospect, almost within reach. Ben Chikamai is the Director, Kenya Forestry Research Institute (KEFRI) Email: benchikamai@ngara.org; director@kefri.org Jan Vandenabeele is the Executive Director, Better Globe Forestry Ltd Email: jan@betterglobeforestry.com
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Towards sustainable development Busoga Forestry Company plays its part to mitigate the effects of climate change BY ISAAC KAPALAGA AND ROGERS BWENGYE
B
usoga Forestry Company (BFC), a subsidiary of Green Resources AS of Norway, is licensed to establish forests in Uganda. The company has two 50year renewable licences on 9,165 and 2,669 hectares in Bukaleba and Kachung Central Forest Reserves (CFR) in Mayuge and Dokolo districts, respectively, to establish forest plantations. Founded in 1996, BFC’s mission is to establish Africa’s leading plantation forests with the triple benefits of carbon offsetting, environmental protection and sustainable production of wood products. This in turn generates good returns for shareholders and contributes to economic transformation of the areas of operation. On May 9th 2013, the mean concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere surpassed the record level of 400 parts per million (ppm), leading the globe towards a 4oC scenario pathway 1 by 2050.This calls for action by three central pillars, namely, the international community, governments at all levels and thirdly, private entrepreneurs and financial sectors. As a private company, BFC plays a role in sequestering carbon dioxide, coupled with low carbon business strategies through various business units. FOREST PLANTATIONS BFC’s main business pillar Forest plantation development is the founding pillar of BFC and explains the company’s sole role in the green economy. BFC has established modern plantation forests on 2,016 and 4,310 hectares to date, with 500 and 546 hectares set aside as conservation zones in Kachung and Bukaleba Central Forest Reserves respectively. The main species planted are pines (Pinus caribaea and Pinus oocarpa) Eucalyptus grandis, hybrid eucalyptus clones, musisi (Maesopsis eminii) and Terminalia species. Best silvicultural practices such as optimal spacing, pruning and thinning, among others, are planned, budgeted and implemented on a rotational basis. Meaning that the average temperature of the globe could go up by 4oC. A disaster scenario.
1
34
Modern retort kilns in Busoga Forestry Company’s pole treatment plant in Jinja. (Photo: Green Resources)
BFC raises more than 1,500,000 high quality pine seedlings annually from Bukaleba and Kachung commercial nurseries, using imported seed from Brazil and Costa Rica, to meet the company’s and other stakeholder’s demand for seedlings. Besides, Bukaleba nursery raises fast growing and pest-resistant hybrid eucalyptus clones such as GC796, GC578 and GC550, among others, for the company’s planting programme, which is aimed at meeting the ever increasing demand for poles and other wood products. Both nurseries are Sawlog Production Grant Scheme (SPGS) certified. Developing large-scale forest plantations requires adherence to national and international standards. Both plantations are Forest Stewardship Council (FSCTM) certified with Kachung also being validated for the Climate, Community and Biodiversity Alliance (CCBA) standard. BFC complies with provisions of the National Tree and Planting Act (2003) as well as with other national policies and regulations. BFC’s INDUSTRIAL OPERATIONS Embracing new technologies Utility pole production using copper chromium arsenate (CCA), an environmentally friendly preservative, started in 2010 with an annual average production of 30,000 poles. During
the treatment process, poles are evacuated of air and the vacuum is held. The chamber is then pressurised, forcing the CCA preservative solution into the wood, giving the treated poles its greenish tinge. A vacuum is used to extract any excess solution. The poles are then removed from the chamber and left to dry naturally, during which time the preservative binds to the wood. Applying the CCA preservative extends the productive lifespan of the poles to 25 years, and helps reduce demand for forest resources. This lowers carbon emissions while playing a role in the Great Lakes Region’s electrification programmes. In October 2012, BFC started a mobile sawmill operation with a monthly production rate of 80m3. The company is in the final stages of increasing its timber production threefold by commissioning two additional sawmills to utilise thinnings as well as the mature pine crop. CLEAN SUSTAINABLE CHARCOAL The new face of Uganda’s black gold More than 90 per cent of Ugandans depend on charcoal and firewood as their primary cooking fuel. This means an estimated 80,000 hectares of private and protected forests are cleared annually for the production of charcoal and timber, equivalent to an annual loss of 1.24
Miti October - December 2013
Lump charcoal in a trolley. (Photo: Green Resources)
per cent of forestland. This business-as-usual scenario in charcoal production is anticipated to contribute 15 billion tCO2e2 by 2050. As such, adoption of innovative technologies to meet high charcoal demand by small and medium enterprises (SMEs) and households is part of the solution. BFC has embarked on sustainable charcoal production and briquetting by utilising wood material generated from its silvicultural processes such as thinnings and waste generated in the process of sizing transmission poles. The company acquired retort kilns from the Ukraine. Each set of kilns has a production capacity of 500 tonnes per year, with a conversion of 30 – 40 per cent. This is coupled with low power consumption, and a zero methane (CH4) emission. The retorts operate on the principle that the heat from the fire chamber required for “pyrolysis” mode is supplied to one chamber. The residual heat from the chamber in “pyrolysis” mode is supplied to the other chamber, which provides operation of the “drying” mode. Charcoal is cooled in trolleys beyond the chamber; the raw materials are loaded in the same way. When the active operation mode is over, the chamber operation mode is switched to “drying” or “pyrolysis” mode with the help of dampers. The process lasts 24-35 hours for a complete set of kilns, compared to traditional kilns with conversion efficiencies of 10 to 22 per cent, in a 7 to 12-day process. BFC industrial operations at Masese (Jinja) are ISO 9001:2008 certified. Further, the pole treatment is certified by Uganda National Bureau of Standards (UNBS).
2
Tonnes of CO2 equivalent
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Stacked timber, seasoned and ready for sale. (Photo: Green Resources)
CARBON SEQUESTRATION Addressing a global problem through forest plantation development Climate change is one of the most pressing threats to development today and the greatest challenge humanity has ever faced and is likely to face for many years to come. The annual global greenhouse gas emissions equal roughly 50 gigatons of CO2e, explaining the grave consequences associated with the impact of greenhouse gases. Climate change will exacerbate existing economic, political, and humanitarian stress; hence, combined efforts to reduce emission levels are greatly needed. BFC mitigates the impacts of global warming by establishing plantation forests that sequester carbon from the atmosphere. This complies with the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) of the Kyoto Protocol and Verified Carbon Standard (VCS). In 2011, Kachung Forest Project became the company’s, as well as Uganda’s, first, and Africa’s fifth large-scale afforestation/reforestation CDM project to be registered by the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). The project generated 30,492 tCO2e in its first verification (2006-2012) carried out by DNV, a Norwegian consulting firm specialised as a carbon verifier. UNFCCC has issued Certified Emission Reductions (CERs) and the carbon credits have been sold to the Swedish Energy Agency (SEA). Under VCS, the Bukaleba plantation was validated and verified at the start of 2012, delivering 25,350 tCO2e of Net Verified Carbon Units (VCUs). Green Resources is now marketing the credits and expects to have a sales agreement by December 2013. The project is expected to deliver 100,000 tCO2e during 2012-
15. Green Resources is in the preparatory stages of implementing programmes of activity to generate CERs from charcoal production. CORPORATE SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY Giving back to the community The livelihoods of communities surrounding BFC forest plantations are pivotal in creating harmony between the communities and the company. BFC has developed a collaborative forest management (CFM) programme through training of community-based organisations (CBOs) in organisational development. This strengthens knowledge and skills of CBOs for livelihood improvements and sustainable resource management. BFC encourages community woodlots through provision of free seedlings and so far, over 200,000 seedlings have been supplied to communities around the two plantations. The company contributes to community access to improved health services through expansion of health facilities, provision of medical equipment, as well as quarterly supply of medicines to one health centre each near Bukaleba and Kachung forest plantations. BCF helps with spring protection and borehole drilling. The company also implements a girl child education sponsorship programme in Bukaleba as well as a training programme for construction of efficient cook stoves for communities around Kachung forest plantation. Isaac Kapalaga is the Managing Director, Busoga Forest Company Email: isaac.kapalaga@greenresources.no Rogers Bwengye is the Carbon Officer, Busoga Forest Company mail: rogers.bwengye@greenresources.no
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Kiang’ombe hilltop forest in Mbeere, Embu County. The hillsides are dominated by Combretum molle, Faurea saligna, Parinari curatellifolia, Senna singueana and Piliostigma thonningii.
Acacia tortilis riverine forest in Turkana.
Sustaining drylands Despite the harsh conditions, dry areas support a wide array of natural plant material BY FRANCIS GACHATHI
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out of the vegetation type along a gradient, more or less independently of each other and with no clear-cut boundaries for vegetation types. In the very arid areas, species are xerophilous, in other words, they are adapted to living in dry conditions. They include such genera as euphorbia, commiphora and acacia. They are able to survive erratic rainfall, high solar radiation and recurrent long droughts. The natural vegetation in the drylands varies from open savannah, through scrubland in the more arid environments, various types of bushlands and thickets, to different categories of woodlands. In addition, the drylands have small patches of forest type vegetation at higher elevations on top of isolated hills and low mountains and along watercourses. Hilltop and low mountain forests On the isolated hills and mountains, precipitation increases with elevation,
All photos: Francis Gachathi
he key factors that determine natural vegetation types (patterns) in the drylands are climate, altitude, topography and soils. Droughts are characteristic in drylands, sometimes with disastrous results for land productivity and vegetation loss. Generally, these areas receive mean annual rainfall of less than 800mm with potential evapotranspiration by far exceeding precipitation. The soils are characterised by high sand content, poor surface structure because of erosion by wind and rain, low natural fertility and are mostly saline. Whatever their type, soils are however the basic resource of drylands as they provide the medium in which vegetation grows, and their properties, such as texture and water-holding capacity, determine the proportion of soil water available for plant growth. A sudden change in soil type results in an abrupt and clear-cut natural vegetation pattern. More commonly however, plant species enter or drop
Acacia elatior riverine forest in Ngara Ndare, Isiolo.
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Acacia seyal, variety fistula, woodland.
Miti October - December 2013
Commiphora africana woodland. This is a typical species of acacia-commiphora deciduous bushland.
but temperature and evaporation decrease. This results in a relatively cooler and more suitable climate with better-developed trees and shrubs. These restricted hilltops, although geographically within the drylands, are climatically not dry. They benefit from the moderating influence of the higher elevation, leading to relatively higher rainfall supplemented by mist. The hilltops hold unique “islands” of forests with typical tree species that include Juniperus procera (pencil cedar), Olea capensis (Elgon olive), Olea europaea subspecies cuspidata (wild olive), Podocarpus falcatus (podo, yellowwood), Nuxia congesta (muchorowe, selta, ol-burin), Cassipourea malosana (pillar wood, martit, ol-lorget) and Acokanthera schimperi (muvai, keliot). Other species are Apodytes dimidiata (white pear, luochuoga, oldiasimbul), Ekebergia capensis (ol-subukiai, aradwi, teldet), Olinia rochetiana (lgering, museset, ol-kirenyi), Pistacia aethiopica (musaa, kibirirgorokiet, ol-daangudwa), Schrebera alata (mutoma, ochol, kakaawet), Teclea nobilis (munderendu, kuriot, mutaro), T. simplicifolia (munderendu, kuriot, olgelai), Croton megalocarpus (musine, mukinduri, masineitet, ortuet) and Calodendrum capense (cape chestnut, yangu, ol-larashi). These species are characteristic of the drier, cold (leeward) slopes of high mountains. Examples of hilltop and low mountain forests in the drylands are found on Mt Marsabit and Mt Kulal in Marsabit County, Mathews Range, Mt Ndoto, Nyiru and Kirisia hills in Samburu and Namanga/Ol Doinyo Orok and Emali in Kajiado. Others are Chyulu Hills in Makueni, Endau, Mutitu and Mumoni
Vitellaria paradoxa (Butyrospermum paradoxa) wooded grassland, Karamoja, Uganda. This species is the source of shea butter.
Miti October - December 2013
Combretum –Terminalia woodland in Mbeere.
Hills in Kitui, Tugen hills in Baringo, Karasuk in Turkana, Kasigau and Maungu hills in Taita Taveta and Kiang’ombe hill in Mbeere, Embu. Lowland riverine and ground water forests Forests growing along river valleys in the drylands are highly conspicuous against the dry bushland and thickets on either side of the watercourse, especially below 1000m elevation. Large forest patches are found along rivers Tana, Athi, Turkwel and Ewaso Nyiro. These areas receive additional water as seasonal floods and subsurface flows and have sufficient soil water to support forests. Typical species of the riverine forests include Acacia elatior (sesiai, esanyanait, ollerai), A. tortilis (munga, oltepesi, mwaa, itepes), A. robusta (mgunga, kithi), A. rovumae (gaajir), Populus ilicifolia (Tana river popular, lalafto, makini), Ficus species, Albizia glaberrima (gongo, isavi), Barringtonia racemosa (mtomondo, mworogondo), Combretum padoides and Cynometra suaheliensis (mfunda). Others are Faidherbia albida (apple ring acacia, ol-asiti, sangak, ekurichanait), Hyphaene compressa (doum palm, mkoma, eeng’ol), Kigelia africana (sausage tree), Mimusops riparia (moruba), Newtonia species, Raphia farinifera (raffia palm, mwaale), Sapium ellipticum (muhathi, amoyo, mugoso), Spirostachys africana (tambootie, msarakana), Syzygium cordatum (sumoiyot, mukutan-achak) and Trichilia emetic (mnwamaji, musambo, ilberi).
Acacia seyal, variety fistula, wooded grassland, Karamoja, Uganda.
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Acacia-Commiphora deciduous bushland. The species in the foreground is Commiphora holtziana. The emerging tree at the right is Acacia tortilis. The dominant bush is Cordia sinensis.
Woodlands and wooded grasslands There are different categories of woodlands in the drylands, their names largely derived from “typical” species e.g. Combretum-Terminalia woodland, acacia woodland, commiphora woodland, etc. They are generally open stands of trees, at least 8 metres tall with a canopy cover of 40 per cent or more but never with interlocking crowns like forests and usually with a field layer of tall grasses. Grasses and other herbs inhabit the wooded grasslands, with scattered trees covering between 10 and 40 per cent of the ground. In drylands, woodlands are found in areas that experience higher moisture levels due to elevation or additional surface or groundwater. Typical species of woodlands include Acacia tortilis (munga, oltepesi, mwaa, ltepes), A. elatior (sesiai, esanyanait, ollerai), A. polyacantha (falcon’s claw acacia, mkengewa), A. seyal (white galled acacia, mgunga), A. gerrardii (kithi,
chepitet, olngongwenyi), Combretum adenogonium (keyo), C. apiculatum (mutithi) and C. collinum (keyo, mutithi, sheraha). Other species are C. molle (kiama, kemeliet, ol-mororoi), C. zeyheri (mutithi), Terminalia brownii (muuuku, koloswo), T. mollis (olokhongwe, opok), Lannea species, Ozoroa insignis (mugadi, nyandumira, olokunonoi), Piliostigma thonningii (camel’s foot, mchekeche), Parinari curatellifolia (mura), Balanites aegyptiaca (desert date, mulului, eroronyit), Annona senegalensis (wild custard apple, mtokomo-mwitu), Pappea capensis (okuoro, oltimigomi), Bridelia scleroneura (kapturesut) and Faurea saligna (kikaati, mugonju, ol-gerian). Deciduous bushland and thicket Bushlands and thickets are shorter than woodlands. They are open stands of bushes, usually between 3 and 7 metres tall, with a canopy cover of 40
A typical shrubland vegetation type in Turkana, during the wet season. The scattered trees are Acacia tortilis. The ground cover is dominated by Indigofera spinosa, a very useful fodder species.
All photos: Francis Gachathi
Acacia reficiens, subspecies misera, is a typical stunted tree species of intermediate vegetation between bushland and shrubland. It can form almost uniform, very extensive stands, as shown in this photo taken in Samburu, northern Kenya. It does not allow undergrowth.
Acacia senegal, variety kerensis, is a typical constituent of Acacia-Commiphora deciduous bushland and thicket, as in Isiolo. This species produces gum arabic in Kenya.
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Miti October - December 2013
A typical shrubland vegetation type in Marsabit. The stunted scattered shrubs are Acacia senegal variety kerensis.
per cent or more. Thickets are closed stands of bushes where the bushes, which include thorny trees and shrubs, are so densely interlaced that they are impenetrable, except along animal tracks. This vegetation type covers extensive areas of the drylands. The vegetation is generally in drought-deciduous dormant condition much of the year. Typical tree species include acacias, commiphora species, Euphorbia species, Combretum species, Terminalia species, Boswellia neglecta (kinondo, dakar), Delonix elata (muangi, ekurinchanait, sukele), Dobera glabra (mkupa, mkulukulu, edapal), Erythrina burtii (kikunguu, engaroji), Balanites aegyptiaca (desert date) and B. glabra (ol-gnaswa). Characteristic shrubs are Euphorbia, Grewia and Maerua species, Duosperma eremophilum (sarim, emerkwi), Cordia sinensis (madehr, oldorko, marer), Lannea alata (mukolya, kumuhde), Sesamothamnus rivae (lafatu, salalma, loborea), Boscia coriacea (mnafisi, kalkach, khalanghal), Cadaba farinosa (arerenyon, tukh, olamalogi) and Cassia abbreviata (mbaraka, malandesi, muhumba mkulu). Combretum species, Harrisonia abyssinica (msamburini, mkindhunga, pedo), Ipomoea donaldsonii (birribote) and Jatropha dichtar (dighdarr, laparana) are also found here.
Miti October - December 2013
Shrubland Shrubland vegetation type is found in the very arid, almost desert parts of the drylands. The areas are characterised by widely spaced stunted dwarf shrubs and a few scattered trees. Typical species include Acacia horrida (abak, gomor, chachanneh), A. paolii (chachane, gammur, eyelel), A. nubica (pilil, ol-depe), A. senegal variety kerensis (gum arabic, mgunga), Indigofera spinosa, Balanites rotundifolia (kullan, ebei, sarei) and Boscia angustifolia (mulule, oloireroi, likwon). Others are Cadaba farinosa (arerenyon, tukh, olamalogi), C. mirabilis (qatu, emakak), C. ruspolii (ilkabath), Barleria, Duosperma eremophilum (sarim, emerkwi), Euphorbia cuneata (mchongoma, d’rander, kilewa), Grewia tenax (deka, eng’omo), Jatropha spp. and the salt resistant shrubs Salsola dendroides (durte, echemle) and Suaeda monoica (mwinyonye, echamuyee). Widely scattered trees to be found in this vegetation type include Acacia tortilis (munga, oltepesi, mwaa, ltepes), Balanites rotundifolia (kullan, ebei, sarei) and Commiphora spp. The writer is Principal Research Officer, Kenya Forestry Research Institute (KEFRI) Email: gachathif@yahoo.com
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Reaching back to ancient times Triangular micro-catchments, a water harvesting method developed 3,000 years ago, is in use in drylands today BY MOSHE FINKEL
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eople living in arid and semi-arid areas throughout sub-Saharan Africa and elsewhere continue to be frustrated when it rains. The number of rain days is usually small, at times fewer than 20 per year. Then the rainwater turns into surface runoff and soon drains away, leaving the surface as dry as it was before the rains. Thus, in a matter of hours, the water that everyone prays for is gone. All nomadic pastoralists worldwide share these frustrations. In the Negev desert in the southern arid parts of Israel, simple technologies were developed some 3,000 years ago to slow down the velocity of surface runoff and to harvest water for the benefit of the people and their animals. Over the last 60 years, the remains of these early water-harvesting structures have been studied and some sites have been reconstructed, demonstrating their relevance and universality today. In modern times, a number of engineers, having learned the basic principles used in the old days, have adapted some of the early water harvesting technologies to suit specific needs of the arid lands of subSaharan Africa. One of the techniques that developed through an extensive process of trial and error is the Triangular Micro-Catchments. Triangular micro-catchments are small micro-sized bunds, triangular in shape, that keep water trapped inside to enhance soil moisture for trees. The sizes of the triangles vary with the rainfall conditions, soils and water requirements of the trees to be grown. In Kenya, triangular micro-catchments designed and built by the writer vary from 10m x 10m for Turkana; 6m x 6m for Garissa and parts of Tana River; to 3.75m x 3.75m for areas between Tsavo East National Park and Malindi.
Figure 1: Field layout of triangular micro-catchments
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Triangular micro-catchments at a school in Ledero, Samburu (2012). (Photo: Moshe Finkel) Trees to be planted in the triangular micro-catchments range from fodder trees such as Acacia saligna, to fruit trees such as mango, tree tomato and pawpaw. In the Middle East, there has been outstanding success with almond trees (Prunus amygdalus) that enjoy the brief periods of flooding of the root zone, pomegranates (Punica granatum) and fig (Ficus carica). There is some experience in Nigeria with citrus. Use of mulch is recommended. During planting, 1.5 litre plastic bottles with a small hole in the cap could be used to provide a rough-and-easy “drip” irrigation for supplementing the runoff until the tree is well established. The writer has had good results with growing of fruit trees in triangular micro-catchments in the semi-arid regions of Mwingi and Samburu; and with fodder trees in Garbatulla, Modogashe, Galole and Turkana. Acacia saligna is a small tree. It grows as a small, dense, spreading tree with a short trunk and a weeping habit. It grows up to eight metres tall. Like many acacia species, it has phyllodes rather than true leaves; these can be up to 25 centimetres long. The fruit is a legume, while the seed is oblong and dark to black in colour. Seeds germinate readily, and hundreds of seedlings can sometimes be found beneath a single parent tree. It is also extremely vigorous when young, often growing over a metre per year. The plant is good for fodder in dry areas. Atriplex nummularia is commonly called old man saltbush. The bushes can grow up to 3 metres high with leaves 1 - 3cm long. The whole branch is edible by goats. The tree can be propagated by cuttings or seed. Propagation by seed is usually done by sowing the fruiting bracteoles. Germination rates are
Miti October - December 2013
Triangular micro-catchments with healthy seedlings, having received some rain. (Photo: Moshe Finkel)
Pupils of Dabasiti Primary School, Kulamawe, Garbatulla, sit on a boundary of a triangular micro-catchments. (Photo: Moshe Finkel) increased by rubbing the fruits with the hands under running water for several minutes or soaking them in water for at least an hour. The fruits can then be sown directly into the soil or first placed into a viro-cell for sowing. It is best to germinate the seeds in a nursery and transplant the seedlings into holes when about 20cm long. Transplanting during the rains guarantees better success. Seeds of Acacia saligna and Atriplex nummularia are available from Kiboko Range Research Station in Makueni County. Design example for triangular micro-catchments for fodder producing trees, near Modogashe, in northern Garissa County: Assumptions: The annual water requirement of an indigenous fodder-producing tree ranges from 450mm – 600mm; for purposes of a conservative calculation, we shall adopt the higher demand figure of 600mm. The minimal assured annual rainfall in Modogashe, equal to the 90 per cent probability rainfall, has been calculated to be 80mm per year.
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The runoff factor of a fully cleared triangular micro-catchment is 90 per cent; the factor for an overgrown catchment area is 60 per cent. For purposes of conservative calculation, we assume that over the long-term, the catchment areas will not be cleared by the community and therefore assume a runoff factor of 60 per cent. The catchment area of the triangular micro-catchment would have to supply the water demand of the tree through the basic equation: Supply = Demand. The water supply is expressed by the amount of minimal rainfall turning into runoff as follows: Runoff = Runoff Factor x 90% Probability Annual Rainfall Or Runoff = 0.6 x 80mm = 48mm Assuming the area absorbing water for the young seedling is roughly 0.5m by 0.5m or an area of 0.25 square metres, we may calculate the size of the catchment area needed to supply one tree. Catchment area per tree = 600mm /48mm /0.25sq m = 50sq m The size of the triangular micro-catchments for Modogashe would therefore be 7m x 7m, with a total catchment area of 50 square metres. Such a triangular micro-catchment, over one year, should satisfy the seedling’s demand for water. Survival rates differ and depend on management by the community/ school/clinic. This management includes mainly; (i) clearing of the catchment area to enable run-off to reach the seedling, (ii) protection of the seedlings against goats, (iii) other silvicultural practices such as pruning, mulching, adding manure and some additional watering during extreme droughts. Taking this into account, survival rates have varied between 0 and almost 100 per cent. Moshe Finkel is the Managing Director, Appropriate Development Consultants Ltd (ADCL). Email: moshe.finkel@gmail.com
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