Planting trees in the ‘Land of Thorns’ Military man soldiers on Managing the waters of the Mara River
Subscription only I s s u e N o.2 0Issue O c t ob r - April De c e -mJune b er 22014 013 No.e 22
Improving crop yields
A water-harvesting method that helps to bring food crops to maturity
Saving the Mau
One commercial woodlot at a time
The miracle tree of ASAL The shea butter tree is resistant to drought and fires
The promise of drylands Karamoja has trees that could generate wealth and uplift living standards
Better Globe Forestry Ltd
Making Africa greener
Making Africa greener Better Globe Forestry (BGF) is part of The Better Globe Group from Norway, which focuses on the need to fight poverty through promoting massive tree planting and sustainable agricultural programmes. BGF’s vision is to create secure commercial projects with vital humanitarian and environmental activities and as a result become the biggest tree planting company in the world within 20 years.
Land in Kiambere before planting. Note the omnipresent soil erosion
The mission of BGF is to make Africa a greener, healthier place in which to live and eradicate poverty by focusing on the development of profitable, commercial tree plantations that will deliver environmental as well as humanitarian benefits. Miti magazine is a publication of Better Globe. It is the policy of BGF to, among other things: • Create attractive financial opportunities for present and future investors, Continuously identify and address the needs of employees, suppliers, customers, shareholders, the community at large and any other stakeholders, • Focus on the need to help fight poverty, through promoting massive tree planting • Create and sustain motivation throughout the organisation for meeting its business objectives, • Continuously maintain and review an effective and efficient Quality System which as a minimum satisfies the requirements of the appropriate Quality System standard(s), • Continuously improve the performance of all aspects of the organisation.
Workers clearing a thicket in Nyangoro in preparation for tree planting
Our nursery at Kiambere
A two-year-old plantation of Melia volkensii in Kiambere
Workers in BGF’s plantation in Kiambere, after receiving a food donation
A Melia volkensii plus -tree part of our genetic improved programme
Preparing for planting in Kiambere
The committee of Witu Nyongoro ranch with Rino Solberg and Jean-Paul Deprins
www.betterglobeforestry.com
Miti April - June 2014
36
34
5
Issue No 22 April – June 2014
2
Editorial
26
The miracle tree of the drylands
Planning is key to efficient land use
The shea butter tree withstands harsh environmental conditions and is resistant to
4
News and Events
Fencing of Ngong Road Forest
drought and fires By Omujal Francis
5
A ray of hope for forest reserves
29
Military man soldiers on
Despite challenges, General Wamala is happy he went into tree-growing By Diana Ahebwe
30
A top-notch wood product
Henry West produces classy furniture for a discerning clientele By Wanjiru Ciira
32
The ‘cattle corridor’ is no wasteland Uganda’s drylands are of immense scientific, economic and social value By Edward Nector Mwavu
NFA intervenes to save woodlands in the Karamoja sub-region By Paul Buyerah Musamali
8
The promise of drylands
Some plant resources in Karamoja could generate wealth and uplift living standards
By Francis Gachathi
12
The wonderland that is Karamoja
Water restoration and soil conservation would make the sub-region productive and self-sustaining
By Sarah Akello Esimu
14
The forgotten mountains of Uganda
34
Making an impact in commercial forestry
The Moroto and Kadam mountains have the potential to realise economic benefits By Gerald Eilu
Fomawa helps farmers and schools establish woodlots By Jan Vandenabeele
17
Hard facts about water in Karamoja
Rainfall has been declining steadily in amount and reliability in the last 50 years By Jan Vandenabeele
18
Water for a thirsty land
The efficient use of the commodity is key to the future development of Karamoja By Albert Lokoru and Dirk Ullerich
20
Greening Karamoja
Government starts a multi-million-shilling afforestation drive in the sub-region By Moses Watasa
21
Planting trees in the ‘Land of Thorns’
NGO establishes tree plantations in central Karamoja By Albert Lokoru and Dirk Ullerich
24
Pictorial
Karamoja has tree resources that present commercial opportunities
36
Managing the waters of the Mara
The Mara Water Users Association empowers the
community to manage, protect and improve livelihoods
By Wanjiru Ciira
39
Improving crop yields in drylands
Trapezoidal bunds are used to harvest water that helps bring food crops to maturity
By Moshe Finkel
On the cover: The beautiful Mt Moroto in Karamoja, north eastern Uganda. The landscape and mountains of Karamoja provide beautiful scenery that appeals to nature lovers. (Photo: Gerald Eilu)
Editorial
Planning is key to efficient land use
L
and-use planning is the term used for a branch of public policy encompassing various disciplines which seek to order and regulate land use in an efficient and ethical way, thus preventing land-use conflicts. Governments use land-use planning to manage the development of land. In so doing, government units can plan for the needs of the community while safeguarding natural resources. This involves the systematic assessment of land and water potential, alternatives for land use, and economic and social conditions in order to select and adopt the best land-use options. Often one element of a comprehensive plan, a land-use plan provides a vision for the future possibilities of development in neighbourhoods, districts, cities, or any defined planning area.1 Professional planners work in the public sector for governmental and non-profit agencies, and in the private sector for businesses related to land, community and economic development. Through research, design and analysis of data, a planner’s work is to create a plan for some aspect of a community. This process typically involves gathering public input to develop the vision and goals for the community. Their work is performed according to proven methodologies like what follows: Key land use policy-makers and decision-makers are identified at the national level, and in the selected regions at regional, district and village levels. Then interviews are conducted in order to acquire first-hand information about what kind of policies and decisions are made, by whom, using what kind of information, and the place of natural resources information in the policy and decision-making process. The approach to interviews and document review follows a standard set of key questions and issues. These are developed to assist the conduct of the casestudy in a standardised manner and are contained in an internal project handbook. Afforestation and tree-planting are irremediably being confronted with the above and the efficient and correct outcome is of critical value for the viability of any long-term project. We at Miti are not pretending to be land-use planners. We, however, have an eye and feel for the potential for tree-planting in drylands and therefore we occasionally will highlight areas whose potential is today largely neglected and under-estimated for afforestation and other commercial purposes. In this issue we have done just that for the land of Karamoja, Uganda, a stretch that covers 27,000 square kilometres bordering Kenya, Sudan and close to Ethiopia. We thank Edward Mwavu, Gerard Eilu, Francis Gachathi, Paul Musamali, Sarah Esimu Akello, Moses Watasa, Albert Lokoru and Dirk Ullerich for the great information they have provided. Not many people know the shea butter tree as well as Francis Omujal to call it “the miracle tree of the drylands”. Diana Ahebwe covered the Ugandan celebrations of March 21 for the International Day of Forests under the theme, “Forest in the era of climate change, food security and sustainable livelihoods”. She also had an interesting interaction with a successful tree-grower. Wanjiru Ciira talked with Henry West whose Interior Designs Company Group is aiming at taking advantage of the huge potential for export sales both in the region and abroad for high quality furniture. Last but not least, Moshe Finkel writes on trapezoidal bunds, a particular method of harvesting water in ASAL. Enjoy the reading. Jean-Paul Deprins
1
Young, Anthony (1993). Guidelines for Land Use Planning, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy.
Published by:
Chairman of the Editorial Board:
Managing Editor - Kenya
Better Globe Forestry Ltd No. 4, Tabere Crescent, Kileleshwa P.O. Box 823 – 00606 Nairobi, Kenya Tel: + 254 20 434 3435 Mobile: + 254 722 758 745 Email: kenya@mitiafrica.com www.betterglobeforestry.com
Rino Solberg
Wanjiru Ciira
Uganda office: MITI MAGAZINE ® Plot 1908/9, Mitala Rd, Kasanga P.O. Box 22232 Kampala, Uganda Mobile: + 256 775 392 597 Email: uganda@mitiafrica.com www.betterglobeforestry.com
2
Editor-in-chief
Technical Editor
Jean-Paul Deprins
Jan Vandenabeele
Editorial Committee - Kenya
Country Director - Uganda Julie Solberg
Joshua Cheboiwo, Francis Gachathi, Keith Harley, Enock Kanyanya, James Kung’u, Rudolf Makhanu, Fridah Mugo, Jackson Mulatya, Mary Njenga, Alex Oduor, Leakey Sonkoyo, Jean-Paul Deprins, Jan Vandenabeele and Wanjiru Ciira
Country Representative - Uganda Diana Ahebwe
Editorial Committee - Uganda
Designer
Gerald Eilu, Hillary Agaba, Dickens Sande Bueno, Ponsiano Besesa, Paul Buyera, Sarah Akello Esimu, Dennis Kavuuma, Patrick Byakagaba and Diana Ahebwe
Daniel N. Kihara COPYRIGHT © BETTER GLOBE FORESTRY ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
Miti April - June 2014
Subscription rates Country / Region
Single subscription
5 subscriptions
10 subscriptions
Kenya
Ksh 2,000
Ksh 9,000
Ksh 17,000
Uganda
Ush 75,000
Ush 337,500
Ush 531,250
Tanzania
Tsh 48,000
Tsh 219,375
Tsh 414,375
Rest of Africa
US$ 29
US$ 132
US$ 250
Rest of the World
US$ 49
US$ 222
US$ 420
Physical Location
Complete this form in PRINT and send or E-Mail it to MITI Magazine P. O. Box 823-00606 Nairobi, Kenya E-mail: kenya@mitiafrica.com Tel: + 254 20 434 3435 Mobile: + 254 722 758 745 Payment Kenya: Cheque payable to: Better Globe Forestry Ltd Bank transfer: CFC Stanbic Bank, Chiromo Branch, Nairobi. Account Name: Better Globe Forestry Ltd - Miti Account No: 0100003279485 (Kenya shilling) 0100000056377 (Euro Account) Swift: SBICKENX Sort Code: 31007 MPESA: Pay Bill No. 888300 Account: Miti Miti April - June 2014
MITI Magazine P. O. Box 22232 Kampala, Uganda Email: uganda@mitiafrica.com Mobile: + 256 775 392 597 Payment - Uganda: Cheque payable to: Total Quality Management Ltd. or bank transfer to Crane Bank - Ac. No. 45 17 64 74 00 Kabale branch, Kabale Road, Uganda
NEWS
Fencing of Ngong Road Forest starts BY SIMON NG’ANG’A
F
encing of Ngong Road Forest has started. The ground-breaking ceremony for fencing of section 1 was held on April 24. Since the forest is now split into five sections, thanks to the southern bypass, fencing will be done in phases. The ground-breaking ceremony was attended by representatives of Kenya Forest Service (KFS), Miotoni Residents Association, Ngong Road Forest Sanctuary Trust, Ngong Road Forest Association, Chase Group Foundation (chief sponsor), Wildlife Clubs of Kenya, Kenya Scouts Association and local community members from Dagoretti and Kibera. The long-term goal of fencing is to secure the whole of Ngong Road Forest from possible excisions, destruction from illegal logging and dumping and also provide a secure facility to the public for educational and recreational activities such as picnics, jogging and bird-watching. Local communities will also benefit from income generating projects that the Ngong Road Forest Association plans to implement in the forest. The Ngong Road Forest was gazetted in 1932 when it covered 2,926 hectares. Today, the forest covers 1,225 hectares, out of which plantations occupy 325 hectares and natural forest 830 hectares. Glades and buildings make up the remaining 69.5 hectares. The forest is managed by the Kenya Forest Service (KFS) with support from Ngong Road Forest
The new fence under construction. (Photo: Ngong Road Forest Sanctuary Trust)
Association, a community forest association (CFA) established under the New Forest Act of 2005. Currently, the biggest challenge to the conservation of Ngong Road Forest is the newly constructed southern bypass, which has segmented the forest. This has brought ecological losses as well as challenges in the day-to-day management of the forest. The long-term solution is to fence each of the five sections, an expensive and challenging undertaking for which Ngong Road Forest Association and KFS are searching for funds. The fencing of section 1, which will be completed by mid-June, will provide important lessons that will help greatly in
the planning, development and management of the other four sections. The fencing of section 1 was supported by Chase Bank,Parbat Siyani Contractors,Belgravia Developers, Adder Company Developers, First Assurance, Samani Construction, Scope Developers, The Residents on Miotoni Road, SDV Transami and Pepco. The writer is the Vice Chairman, Ngong Road Forest Association and Project Manager, Ngong Road Forest Sanctuary Trust. Email: office@ngongforestsanctuary.com
Uganda marks World Forest Day BY DIANA AHEBWE
A
s a follow-up to the International Year of Forests in 2011, the United Nations General Assembly declared March 21 the International Day of Forests. The day provides a platform to raise awareness of the importance of all types of forests and of trees outside forests. Uganda celebrated the day under the theme, ”Forests in the era of climate change, food security and sustainable livelihoods”. The Ugandan celebrations took place in Mpigi District, one of the areas with the highest rates of deforestation where the Central Forest Reserves have been greatly depleted. The Resident District Commissioner (RDC) of Mpigi District, Apollo Bwebale, represented the chief guest, Ephraim Kamuntu, the Minister of Water and Environment. In his keynote address,
4
Mr Bwebale emphasised that deforestation is largely caused by weak governance, lack of coordination and weak law enforcement in the Ministry of Water and Environment. “It is a wakeup call to remind the communities, politicians and other opinion leaders in the district of the importance of forests and the need to re-plant the depleted areas once again,” he said. He also warned the public that climate change is real and it has resulted in food scarcity in the
country and prolonged droughts. The Commissioner of the Directorate of Water in the ministry added that forestry contributes 6 per cent to Uganda’s GDP and 95 per cent of the population depends on fuel wood as a source of energy. As such, there is an urgent need to conserve the environment and plant more trees. The event was attended by many local leaders and many supporters of the forestry sector. The National Forestry Authority (NFA) and Tree Talk Foundation Uganda gave out 1,000 seedlings to community tree-growing groups and individuals in Mpigi. NFA offered to replant five hectares of Namuvuma CFR, the most encroached forest reserve in Mpigi. The writer is the Country Representative, Miti Magazine-Uganda Email: diana@mitiafrica.com
Miti April - June 2014
LEAD THEME
Beautiful Karamojong huts and lush woodland vegetation at the foot of a hill near Moroto. (Photo: NFA)
A ray of hope for forest reserves NFA intervenes to save woodlands in the Karamoja sub-region BY PAUL BUYERAH MUSAMALI
K
aramoja sub-region is located in north eastern Uganda, comprising the seven districts of Abim, Kaabong, Kotido, Moroto, Napak, Nakapiripirit and Amudat. Kaabong, which lies to the north east and borders Sudan and Kenya, is home to the Kidepo Valley National Park. Nakapiripirit is the eastern most district, bordering Mount Elgon National Park. The sub-region covers over 27,900 sq km. There is considerable variation in the average rainfall encountered in the Karamoja sub-region. Except for the southern and northern mountainous areas (Kadam, Napak, Moroto and Kaabong) and the western parts, most of Karamoja has a semi-arid climate with rainfall between 400 and
Miti April - June 2014
600mm per year. Abim District, which lies in the western part of the region, enjoys a semi-humid climate with rainfall between 600 and 1,200mm per year, as do Namalu and Karenga areas. However, in some years there can be very low rainfall, while in others, rainfall can be well above average. Maximum temperatures in Moroto can go as high as 35.60C and the minimum as low as 5.50 C in the dry months. The lower western region has even higher maximum temperatures. Karamoja sub-region generally has strong winds. This, coupled with dry soils and poor vegetation cover, leads to wind erosion and at times, damage to roofs.
The Central Forest Reserves As the Karamoja sub-region emerges from the clutches of conflict, the Central Forest Reserves (CFRs) in the region are once again at the centre of discussions regarding the prospects for development in the region. Through the years, these CFRs have served the important function of connecting biodiversityrich zones, allowing for mobility among animals and plants in the biodiversity zones. This characteristic gave rise to the term “biodiversity corridors”. In addition, new opportunities are emerging for tourism in the CFRs, as the National Forest Authority’s eco-tourism development plans take shape. The forest reserves in Karamoja subregion were gazetted in the 1930s for:
55
Ecological and environmental functions of protecting fragile ecological landscapes which include steep hills, river banks and wetlands, and Conserving biological diversity necessary to sustain viable populations of the species (animals and plants) that are endangered or threatened. The forest reserves serve the important function of connecting biodiversity-rich zones so that the animals and plants can be mobile. The reserves are also known as “biodiversity corridors�. Currently, there are 19 CFRs in Karamoja under the jurisdiction of the National Forestry Authority (NFA). The CFRs cover 3,222 km2, which accounts for approximately 12 per cent of the land area in Karamoja (see map). The Karamoja sub-region is characterised by ten major vegetation types, namely Acacia-Setaria savannah, Acacia mellifera bushland, CombretumAcacia-Themeda savannah, Acacia tree and shrub steppe, Lannea-Acacia tree and shrub steppe, Juniperus-Podocarpus dry montane forest type, dry Hyparrhenia grass savannah, CombretumAcacia-Lasiurus savannah, Combretum-AcaciaHyperrhenia savannah, dry Hyparrhenia grass savannah and the Opeta Lake ecosystem. A number of tree species suitable for production of commercial commodities are found in Karamoja region. These include gum arabic and shea butter oil. In addition, the leaves and fruits of several species are eaten as vegetables and some as animal feeds. Further still, some species are used in the treatment of a range of diseases such as headaches, oral thrush, snake bite and diarrhoea, while others are used for crafts.
NFA interventions in the Karamoja sub-region As the pace of development picks up in the sub-region, NFA has developed a number of strategies and initiatives aimed at both the conservation of the CFRs as well as optimal utilisation of the CFRs for development. These initiatives include: Heightened livestock control to avoid overgrazing. The latter is contributing to intensified soil erosion and forest degradation. Conducting of forest inventories to establish the biomass available in the area
6
Miti April - June 2014
for policy and management guidance. Table 1: Forest cover change in Karamoja between 1990 and 2005 Initiating Collaborative Forest Management Average over around Timu and Morongole forest reserves District Area (ha) 1990 Area (ha) 2005 Difference 15 yrs for increased community participation in Kaabong 81,904.80 61,462.11 -20,442.68 -2% resource conservation and sustainable utilisation. Kotido 45,444.44 27,403.10 -18,041.34 -3% Given the importance of natural resources Nakapiripirit 45,855.15 85,480.25 39,625.10 6% in building resilience to climate change, NFA Moroto 68,366.68 138,109.90 69,743.22 7% continues to mobilise leaders and communities in Karamoja to stop wanton deforestation and embark on tree-growing to restore the forest cover. NFA is encouraging people in the subregion to protect the high biomass land cover types such as woodlands and riparian forests. Protection could be done through collaboration with the land-owners and responsible government agencies. Ecotourism development plans are also under way as this is an exciting model of resource conservation and sustainable utilisation. As the security situation in the north has improved, new opportunities are emerging for tourism in neighbouring CFRs in Kotido District. One such CFR is Lwala (5,884 hectares), which is located on the main tourist route to Kidepo. Its high altitude terrain affords good opportunities for hiking, with views onto Lake Kyoga and River Nile. above sea level. This CFR has good tourism allowing for potential hiking, bird-watching and On the other hand, Zulia is a large CFR potential, especially within the context of a mountaineering activities. (91,612 hectares) located on the border with likely eastern tourism circuit development. The South Sudan. It offers game viewing opportunities forest has apparently seen little degradation, Challenges as well as attractive mountain All the CFRs, are under a marked threat from landscapes that may be suitable human activities. Agricultural encroachment, for hiking. However, currently over-grazing (particularly by goats), hunting and access is difficult. burning are all widespread and unmanaged. For Other potentially interesting the relatively intact highland forest, the main CFRs in the area include threat is fire, used for clearing land for grazing. Morongole (15,063 hectares) For example, between 1990 and 2005, the and Nyangea-Napone (41,741 yearly forest cover change in Karamoja ranged hectares). NFA is carrying out an from 2 to 7 per cent, as shown on Table 1. analysis to determine which have the highest tourism potential. References This takes into consideration the Managing Central Forest Reserves for the People presence of wildlife populations, of Uganda: Volume 2: Functions of Central Forest the health of the forests, Reserves in Uganda, 2008. opportunities for nature walks/ Moroto, Kadam and Napak Forest Reserves hiking, existing infrastructure and Biodiversity Report. Government of Uganda - Forest accessibility. Department. 1996. Mt Moroto CFR (48,210 National Biomass Study - Technical Report, 2009. hectares), which borders Kenya, Map of Uganda (Karamoja in the north-east) showing altitudes. is part of the same Rift Valley The writer is Director, Corporate Affairs For Karamoja, some isohyets are shown. Traditionally, mountain range that includes Mt pastoralism is dominant in the dry areas bordering Kenya. The National Forestry Authority Elgon to the south. Mt Moroto area with rainfall up to 1.125 mm/ year ("green belt") is mostly Email: paulbuyera@yahoo.co.uk used for agriculture. Note the higher rainfall around Mt Moroto. reaches altitudes of 3,084 metres Source: Map: Internet, isohytes: National Forest Authority (modified)
Miti April - June 2014
7
LEAD THEME
The promise of drylands A number of plant resources in Karamoja have the potential to generate wealth and uplift the people’s living standards By FRANCIS GACHATHI
K
aramoja region is a vast expanse occupying the north–easterly part of Uganda, covering about 10 per cent of the country. It is classified as semi-arid, characterised by scant and erratic rainfall and with no permanent surface water. Nomadic pastoralism is the major economic activity in the region. The pastoralists also grow some crops, mainly sorghum, around their settlements particularly in the wetter mountain areas. Natural vegetation is thus an important component to Karamoja communities for grazing and browsing for their livestock. Vegetation is also a source of building and fencing material, fuel wood, food and medicine for both humans and livestock. Livestock production is, however, not the only economic activity that the Karamoja region can support. Various plant resources in the region hold known or potential promise as producers of economically viable products. The commodities have potential for generating wealth and uplifting the living standards of local communities. The commodities include gum arabic from Acacia senegal or A. seyal, bitter aloe from Aloe species, frankincense from Boswellia neglecta, jatropha oil from Jatropha curcas and shea butter from Vitellaria paradoxa. There are also fruits that include Tamarindus indica (tamarind), Balanites aegyptiaca (desert date) and Sclerocarya birrea (marula). Other products are the sandalwood (Osyris lanceolata) and honey mainly derived from Acacia mellifera. Apart from sandalwood, these resources fall into the category of non-wood forest products (NWFPs); renewable resources that could be exploited sustainably for household income and still conserve biological diversity and ecosystem functions. Some can serve as raw materials for enterprises, thus providing employment opportunities and uplifting the socio-economic status of the local communities. This is especially important in Karamoja where there are few options of alternative resources for supporting livelihoods.
8
Gum arabic Gum arabic is the dried exudation obtained from the stems and branches of the Acacia senegal or A. seyal tree. The best grades from A. senegal are in the form of whole, round
tears, orange-brown in colour and with a matt surface texture. Gum from A. seyal is more crumbly than that produced by A. senegal and is rarely found as whole lumps. Since Biblical times in the days of
Miti April - June 2014
mummification of the Egyptian Pharaohs, gum arabic has been a valuable article of commerce “… and looking up they saw a caravan of Ishmaelites coming from Gilead, with their camels bearing gum, balm, and myrrh, on their way to carry it down to Egypt” (Genesis 37:25, Revised Standard Version). Today, gum arabic falls into three main sub-sectors, namely: the food industry, the pharmaceutical industry, and technical areas such as printing, ceramics and textiles. Gum arabic is a natural emulsifier, keeping together substances which normally would not mix well. Pharmaceutical companies use it to keep medicines from separating into their different ingredients. In printing, gum arabic makes printing ink more cohesive and permanent. Production and trade in gum arabic has been dominated by Sudan. But Acacia senegal and A. seyal, the main sources of gum arabic, occur in abundant quantities in Karamoja region, which neighbours South Sudan. Acacia senegal, variety senegal Acacia senegal, variety senegal, known locally as ekodokodoi, is a shrub or tree that reaches a height of two to 12 metres. It is generally recognised by its three hooked prickles at the nodes. The two lateral nodes point upwards or forward in the direction of growth, with the central one pointing downwards or backwards. The central node is sometimes
Miti April - June 2014
solitary, the two laterals being absent. The tree is common almost throughout Karamoja, on well-drained, reddish, sandy, alluvial loamy soils in plains or at the foot of hills, sometimes forming almost pure stands. It is particularly dominant in Nakapelimoru and Panyangara sub-counties in Kotido and also in Kapedo, Kathile and Loletaa subcounties in Kaabong. Large quantities of gum arabic are reported to come from Kawalapol area. Acacia seyal, variety seyal Acacia seyal, variety seyal, locally known as ekaramoi, grows to a height of about 10 metres. It has an irregularly flattened, spreading crown. It is easily recognised by its smooth or sparsely flaking bark, which is covered with a whitish, greenish yellow or orange-red powdery layer. The tree is common throughout Karamoja, usually found in colonies in wooded grassland, especially on seasonally flooded or wet flats of black cotton soils, along watercourses, depressions and on stony ground at the base of hills. Very good, almost pure stands occur around Bokora, Iriri, Kapedo, Loroo and Lope along Lokichar river system and also the foothills of the Lokatapar hills.
Aloes Aloes are fleshy-leaved (succulent) perennial herbs or shrubs with leaves arranged in a rosette, usually triangular, with margins usually armed with sharp teeth. The leaves produce a
bitter-tasting yellowish or brownish juice when broken. The bitter juice and gel from various aloes enjoy an international market and have been used for thousands of years, even to preserve the body of Jesus. “Nicodemus also, who had at first come to him by night, came bringing a mixture of myrrh and aloes about a hundred pounds weight. They took the body of Jesus and bound it in linen cloths with the spices, as is the burial custom of the Jews.” (John 19:3940, RSV). Carter, 1994, in the Flora of Tropical East Africa, records 16 species of aloes in Uganda. Eight of these occur in Karamoja region. Of the eight, Aloe tweedieae is by far the most abundant, occurring almost throughout Karamoja. It is this species that holds high potential for exploitation. The species, locally known as echuchuka, is endemic to Karamoja and adjacent areas. It is common throughout Karamoja from Amudat, northwards to Moroto, Kongole, Kotido and Loyoro. It is also abundant south west of Kotido to the Labwor hills and from the Moroto turn-off to Napua Pass. Dense stands occur in Loroo, Amudat, Lorengedwat, Naduget, Nakicumet, Kautakuu, Katikakire and Rupa areas. It occurs on well-drained, dry sandy soils with grass in very open woodland.
Frankincense The bark of the species of the genus Boswellia, in the family Burseraceae, exudes a watery fragrant substance, which slowly hardens to
9
a resin on exposure to the air. This resin is the raw material for incense, which is used for religious and social ceremonies in the Coptic, Orthodox and Roman Catholic churches and also in temples. Locally, frankincense is used in chewing gum, burnt to repel mosquitoes and other insects, and as perfume and medicine. Commercially, it is distilled for essential oils for the pharmaceutical, perfumery, aromatherapy and cosmetic industries. The value of frankincense is well known. It was among the gifts offered to baby Jesus by the three wise men (Matthew 2:11). Boswellia neglecta, the species found in Karamoja, is a much branched shrub or tree that grows to up to six metres, branching from a short bole near the base. It is known as ekadeli in Karamoja, and is very common in Nakabaat and Nakilolo escarpments in Rupa, Moroto. Jatropha curcas Jatropha curcas, the medicinal or purging nut, is an introduced species widely grown in the Karamoja region as it is easily propagated by cuttings and not browsed by cattle. The seeds contain oil, mostly used for candle and soapmaking. The oil can be used as a substitute for diesel in engines and also has medicinal properties as a laxative.
10
In recent years, a number of countries have shown special interest in the cultivation of Jatropha curcas. The shrub grows to about two metres in height with smooth, greenish yellow-brown bark, peeling in papery scales. In various places in Karamoja, it is planted as a live fence, for boundary marking and as ornamental. It is very common in Abim and Nakapiripirit.
development of more extensive applications in the cosmetic and pharmaceutical industries. The shea butter tree is most common in Lira and Iriri. It is also found in Namalu, Lutuke, Abim, Moroleum and Alerer. It occurs in scattered-tree grassland, often protected and preserved in cultivated areas. It does best between altitudes 950 - 1500m, usually on dry laterite slopes.
Vitellaria paradoxa Vitellaria paradoxa (shea butter) locally known as yau (Awach) or ekunsuri (Nakapiripirit) is a tree that grows up to 20 metres high, with a stout bole and much-branched spreading crown. The lower branches droop almost to the ground. The tree has dark grey to almost black bark, deeply fissured and splitting into rectangular corky scales, exuding copious white latex when cut. The shea butter tree is of considerable importance in Karamoja as a source of edible fat or vegetable butter extracted from the mature nuts. The nuts contain oil used for soap and candle-making and as a butter-substitute. The oil is also burnt for lighting and used as a base for certain medicines. According to the local residents of Awach, one shea butter tree can produce one to two sacks of nuts per season. It is becoming commercially more valuable with the
Tamarindus indica Tamarindus indica, locally known as epedur, is an evergreen tree with an extensive dense crown. It grows to a height of 24 metres. It is among the most locally traded indigenous fruits. The pulp is dissolved in water and the resulting solution used to prepare porridge or added to stews as flavouring for various foods and as a cooling, mildly laxative drink. The seeds are also edible and the young leaves are chewed. The very hard durable wood is used in construction. It is also an excellent shade tree. Tamarind pulp is sold in all major towns of East Africa and is a source of income for local communities. Tamarind occurs throughout Karamoja in wooded grasslands and on welldrained sandy and alluvial soils as well as rocky areas at foothills. It is common around Loputuk in Moroto, Tokora in Nakapiripirit and Awach in Abim.
Miti April - June 2014
Balanites aegyptiaca Balanites aegyptiaca, the desert date, is a useful tree in Karamoja, occurring in wooded grassland with black cotton, sandy, alluvial and stony soils. It is locally known as thoo. It has various uses ranging from firewood, tool handles and construction to utensils. The fruits are edible while leaves and young shoots are used as a vegetable. Seeds produce edible oil. The stem and branches produce a reddish brown edible gum. This gum is deliberately mixed with gum arabic by ignorant or fraudulent collectors. Sclerocarya birrea Sclerocarya birrea (marula tree), locally known as thibo, is a deciduous medium-sized tree that grows to about 15 metres, usually with a rather dense rounded crown. The ripe fruits are edible, very rich in vitamin C. The pulp can be processed to produce a variety of commercial products like wine, jelly and jam. The kernel is edible and produces edible oil. The wood is used to make traditional stools and milking gourds. The tree occurs throughout Karamoja in wooded grasslands on sandy soils and rocky hillsides. It is particularly common around Loputuk, Abim and Tokora.
Miti April - June 2014
Osyris lanceolata Osyris lanceolata (East African sandalwood) is an evergreen shrub or small tree, 1 - 6 metres tall, with drooping branches. It is becoming an important species on account of its fragrant oil. Sandalwood oil is extracted from the heartwood of the stem, branches and roots of mature trees. The oil is used in various industries, mainly perfumery, pharmaceutical and cosmetic. It is also used in the manufacture of soaps, lotions and mosquito repellents. After extraction of the oil, the residue is used to make joss sticks (incense sticks). The oil has international market value. Sandalwood occurs on rocky hillsides in Karamoja. It is found on Karapata hills in Kaabong and Kadama hills in Nakapiripirit. Honey and beeswax Honey and beeswax are well-established products of commerce. In the Karamoja drylands, the industry could be profitable considering the expanse of the region and the diversity of the plant species that flower profusely at different times of the year. Honey from the drylands is generally free of chemicals and would fetch good prices in the world market. An excellent resource for bees in Karamoja is the shrub Acacia mellifera, locally known as
eregai. This is a multi-stemmed shrub easily distinguished by its larger leaflets (compared to other indigenous acacias). The shrub is characterised by leaflets that occur in two pairs only per pinna and its black hooked prickles arranged in pairs. Acacia mellifera flowers profusely, producing excellent quality honey (mellifera means ‘‘producing honey’’). The shrub is very common throughout Karamoja, forming almost pure stands in some areas such as Nakicumet. A lot of information in this article was provided by the local people of Karamoja and the officials of Uganda Gum Arabic Cooperative Society Ltd, including Abura Levi, Lokira Peter, Ekomera Patrick and Alinga Dominic during a field study project on gum arabic, aloe and allied dryland resources of Karamoja in 2006. The project taxonomist in Uganda was Rose Badaza – Nakileza. The Kenyan team comprised Eric Khamala who did the mapping, Mukonyi Kavaka Watai, an expert on aloes and the writer.
The writer is Principal Research Officer, Kenya Forestry Research Institute (KEFRI) Email: gachathif@yahoo.com
11
LEAD THEME
The wonderland that is Karamoja Water restoration and soil conservation would make the sub-region productive and self-sustaining BY SARAH AKELLO ESIMU
T
he land of the Karamoja stretches across an isolated corner of Uganda named after the people, the Karimojong. The land borders Kenya and the Sudan, with Ethiopia not far off. However, neighbouring countries and borders have meant nothing to the Karimojong. The Great Rift Valley on the Kenyan plains to the east, the Kidepo National Park with its mountainous vastness going up to Sudan to the north, the rugged peaks of Mt Elgon National Park to the south, and in the West the abundant swamps which enter Acholi land; all these form the natural borders that explain the remoteness of this part of north-eastern Uganda. The population of Karamoja is just about one million with only a third of these being Karamojong. The other major ethnic communities in the sub-region are Bokora, Matheniko, Jie, Dodoth, Pian, Pokot and Labwor. Topography and altitude Karamoja region is located in a high altitude of about 1,500 metres above sea level. It is generally flat with punctuations of deep gullies caused by continuous soil erosion and mud slides. Part of the area lies within the Mt Moroto, Napak, Kadam, Labwor Hills, Morungole, and Nyangea-Napore ranges, which are Central Forest Reserves of core conservation value. Soils, drainage and geology The soils are sandy loam, but the surface is covered by broken pieces of rock from the mountains. The watershed is drained by River Musupo and River Kadokocin in the case of Moroto Ruppa Sub County, which join midstream, forming a confluent. The area is fairly rocky with mainly Karasuk series rocks, and ditches left behind by limestone quarrying are a common sight especially in Moroto. Vegetation The vegetation pattern in the region is semiarid with savannah tree species. The main
12
vegetation types are savannah woodland, semi evergreen thickets, deciduous thickets, riparian communities and grass steppe communities. Forests are found only at localised patches on mountain ranges. The dominant grasses are Hyparrhenia rufa, Panicum maximum, Bracharia and Seteria. The major tree species are Acacia species, Ficus species, Balanites aegyptiaca (desert date), Kigelia africana (sausage tree), Viteleria paradoxa (shea butter tree) and Grewia mollis. Temperature, rainfall and humidity The climate is characterised by an intense hot season lasting from November to March. The rainy season is from April to October with peaks in May and July and a marked minimum in June. The rainfall is in the range of 300 – 1,200mm per annum. The temperature ranges from 20 to 320C. Karamoja’s climate is harsh. In recent times, drought has become more severe and frequent. Given these weather conditions, the
Karamojong practise subsistence agriculture and live a semi-nomadic pastoral life in search of pasture and water for cattle. The economic activities in the area involve exploitation of natural resources especially forests and land. Conflicts arise mainly due to shortages of water and pasture in times of drought. Without alternative sources of livelihoods, the Karamojong are stuck to the traditional methods of conducting raids on neighbouring communities. The crossborder conflicts in the Sudan and civil strife between the Karamojong and the Turkana in neighbouring Kenya further isolate this region from the rest of the world. Disruption of the water cycle by poor human activities in this region is common, given the fragile nature of the ecosystems in the highland areas of Karamoja, already tampered with by the current land use. There has been massive siltation downstream as evidenced by the rivers that are full of sand instead of water.
Miti April - June 2014
Challenges Deforestation Deforestation is common, especially near mountain ranges and near urban centres and settlements. This is due to high poverty levels that force the community to cut trees to make charcoal for sale. Deforestation is also attributed to demand for firewood for domestic use, as well as the need to construct shelter and hedges for manyatta (homesteads) by the community. Following the recent disarmament exercise in the region, most of the communities in Karamoja have reverted to cultivation agriculture, since they have no guns for cattle-raiding. This has in turn led to clearing of more forested areas for cultivation. Inadequate firewood Over 99 per cent of the population in Karamoja depends on firewood for energy. The natural woodlands provide the firewood. At the current consumption rate, there will be a serious shortage of fuel wood soon, if nothing is done to remedy the situation. Wetland and river bank degradation Many streams originating from mountain streams are seasonal and because of increasing siltation, some of them are almost disappearing. The major threat to these rivers however, is soil erosion from adjacent agricultural lands as a result of poor agricultural practices and mining of sand, stones and minerals. Soil erosion Much of the land adjacent to streams, and generally the watershed, is used for cultivation. The communities mainly practise clear, burn and cultivate type of agriculture. This brings about soil erosion and hence siltation, putting rivers and streams at risk. In addition, excessive overgrazing loosens and exposes the top soil, which is consequently washed away by rain-water. Pollution Pollution of the water bodies is common. Most of the water bodies, especially those near the concentrated settlements, are used as dumping sites for garbage and even human faecal matter. This is in addition to the pollution from animals which use these as watering points, and siltation from adjacent agricultural lands. Land tenure system Most land in Karamoja is communally-owned under customary tenure system. There is little privately-owned land under lease-hold. There is open access to the natural resources especially forests and minerals in the watershed.
Miti April - June 2014
Land use management Traditionally, the people of Karamoja use clear, pile-burn and hoeing. However, an increasing number of people have adopted the use of oxploughs. Tractor ploughing is also being promoted by the World Food Programme (WFP) and other NGOs that provide relief food in the “Food for work� programme. Livestock, on the other hand, are kept on free range. This farming system puts a lot of pressure on the soil and forest resources. Opportunities Karamoja is endowed with many acacia trees which people use for construction of fences around homesteads. The woodlands provide firewood and charcoal for cooking and brick burning, poles for construction, wild fruits and vegetables for food, craft and thatch materials and medicinal herbs. The woodlands are also often used as hunting grounds during the dry seasons and above all, are catchments for water. The land supports mining, crop cultivation, settlement and livestock rearing. Minerals like gold, limestone, and recently, oil (in exploration) are also found in the area. Other socio- economic activities include brick-making, sand harvesting, firewood, fruit, thatch grass and vegetable collection, growing of sisal for fibre, hunting and charcoal production. The people in the area have a very strong attachment to the watershed because of the various benefits they derive from it. Tree-planting by the Ministry of Water and Environment under the Farm Income Enhancement and Forest Conservation (FIEFOC) Project is a great opportunity. The tree-planting interventions may be short, medium and long-term. Following is a list of tree species useful for different situations. However, preference should
be given to indigenous species that are better adapted to the unpredictable rainfall, when no irrigation can take place: For rehabilitation of watersheds: Azadirachta indica (neem), Tectona grandis (teak), Grevillea robusta, Melia azedarach (giant lira), Senna siamea, Ziziphus mauritiana and indigenous acacias. For rehabilitation of natural forests (enrichment planting): Tamarindus indica, Balanites aegyptiaca (elephant booze), Vitellaria paradoxa and indigenous acacias. For agro-forestry and hedge row planting: Calliandra callothyrsus, Leucaena leucocephala, Sesbania sesban, Gliricidia sepium, Dovyalis caffra (kei apple), Acacia mellifera, Acacia senegal, Acacia seyal. Fruit trees: Citrus (Washington Navel, Hamlin, Valencia), mangoes (Zillate, Apple, Kent, Palvin, Bire, Boribo, Tommy Atkins) avocado, jack fruit. For food security: Cashew nut, Moringa oleifera. Recommendations If water restoration and soil conservation are not addressed urgently, the quality of life of the Karimojong will continue to deteriorate and peace will be the first casualty in this already striferidden sub-region. Unless the local governance in the region together with local institutions and agencies collectively lead the process of improving the livelihood and sustainable resource use in the region, the pain of the Karamojong will not be addressed. The writer is a PhD student of Agricultural and Rural Innovations - Makerere University Email: sarahakellok@yahoo.com
13
LEAD THEME
The forgotten mountains of Uganda The Moroto and Kadam mountains of Karamoja have the potential to realise economic benefits BY GERALD EILU
I
s it possible to forget something as big as a mountain? The answer is perhaps a resounding NO! Unfortunately, this seems to have happened to the Moroto and Kadam mountains in the Karamoja region of northeastern Uganda. In 2013, a few friends and I made a maiden visit to the Moroto and Kadam mountains to assess their suitability for a proposed project on the genetic diversity of beetles and potential impacts of climate change. After a night in Moroto town, which is nearest to Mt Moroto, we set off early to beat the intense heat later on in the day. We were welcomed by the beautiful scenery and curious villagers as we walked through the villages on the lower slopes of Mt Moroto. This was the start of our hike up the two Karamoja mountains. The global importance of mountains and the fragility of their resources are well recognised. There is increasing concern over the sustainability of mountain ecosystems by different stakeholders, most especially the local communities who are poor and
14
vulnerable. There is an urgent need for better management of our two target mountains in order to guarantee their functioning in view of various negative human induced and natural impacts. The situation is probably much worse in north eastern Uganda, for example, than other parts of Uganda that are less arid.
Karamoja region The Karamoja region is semi-arid, receiving an annual average rainfall of 500 to 700mm per year. The Karamojong, the inhabitants of the area, keep livestock as their main economic activity. They supplement this by subsistence farming, raising small home gardens of local crops.
Miti April - June 2014
Illegal cutting of Juniperus procera (pencil cedar) trees on the slopes of Mt Moroto. (Photo: Gerald Eilu)
For ages, the Karamojong have been primarily pastoralists. However, in recent times, efforts have been made to encourage them to settle and cultivate crops, which they do to a limited extent. Hence, the Karamoja region presents a unique development challenge to Uganda. The region is characterised by poverty, natural resource degradation, insecurity, vulnerability to drought and food insecurity, among other challenges. Crop cultivation is a secondary activity, undertaken only in areas where it is practicable. The people living on the slopes of Mt Moroto go through a daily struggle for survival, resulting in intense human pressure on biological resources. Thus, there is deforestation, land degradation, soil erosion, decreased soil fertility and poverty.
The state of natural resources in the region, especially on the fragile slopes of Mt Moroto, is worrying. In a recent survey, the community in one of the counties identified and ranked a number of activities that contribute to the decreasing vegetation cover in their locality. One of the major issues of concern was tree-cutting for charcoal and brick-making as well as for construction wood and firewood. The main livelihood activity of the Karamojong is herding livestock, which has social and cultural importance. Due to the arid climate of the region, the Karamojong have always practised a sort of pastoral transhumance, where for three to four months in a year, they move their livestock to neighbouring districts in search of water and pasture. The availability of food and water is always of concern and has an impact on the
Wild fires on the slopes of Mts Moroto and Kadam are a common feature causing the loss of plant and animal species. (Photo: Gerald Eilu)
Karamojong’s interaction with other ethnic groups. The mountains provide, directly and indirectly, for the livelihoods of several people in the Karamoja region. Hence, availability of water or presence of rainfall is crucial for survival. The mountains are important to the surrounding communities for the following: Refuge for plants and animals The mountains provide an important refuge for plants and animals such as pollinators. The survival of such species depends on the survival of the mountain. Aesthetic beauty The scenery of the Karamoja mountains is breath-taking. It is unfortunate that few tourists get to see and appreciate this beauty. Source of resources The communities living on the slopes of the Moroto and Kadam mountains, as well as the neighbouring towns of Moroto and Nakapiripirit, obtain resources such as firewood, construction poles, wild food plants, honey and bush meat, among others, from these mountains. The pressure of extraction results in vegetation loss and degradation, encroachment and overexploitation of resources, illegal cutting of timber and poles, poaching and wild fires. Depleted resources and drying rivers Important forest reserves such as Mt Moroto and Mt Kadam were established primarily to conserve the valuable hardwood Juniperus procera (pencil cedar) and Podocarpus (podo) forests on the slopes of these mountains. Other protected areas include the Matheniko Wildlife Reserve which adjoins the Mt Moroto Forest Reserve. This is especially important for conserving Vitellaria paradoxa (shea butter tree) and other species. Unfortunately, the forest
Miti April - June 2014
15
Grass thatch harvested by the local communities, seen against the background of encroached parts of the Mt Moroto Forest Reserve. (Photo: Gerald Eilu)
A debarked Podocarpus (podo) tree on Mt Moroto. (Photo: Gerald Eilu)
trees, actions that are detrimental to the population in the wild. Once harvested, the khat is tied up in bundles, packed and transported to Kenya for sale.
Neat bundles of khat (miraa) prepared and packed for export to Kenya. (Photo: Gerald Eilu)
reserves face enormous pressure of poaching, charcoal burning and overexploitation of other biological resources, especially those related to fuel wood, building materials, food and medicine. Some elderly local people claim that vegetation loss has probably caused the drying up of Lia River which used to flow all year round about a decade ago. Currently, the people depend on River Nakiloro for domestic water and for watering livestock. There is also considerable surface runoff down the slopes of mountains during the rainy season and the associated problems of flooding and outbreaks of water-borne diseases are often experienced in neighbouring towns such as Nakapiripirit.
16
Harvesting khat Two challenges are probably unique to the Moroto and Kadam mountains. One is the unregulated extraction of leaves of Catha edulis (khat, or miraa, as it is known in Kenya) and the second is the stripping of the bark of podo trees. Khat leaves are chewed for various reasons by many people in eastern Africa. While the plant is cultivated on large plantations in some eastern African countries, on Mt Kadam it is harvested from the wild and is totally unregulated. As such, the socio-economic and ecological impacts of harvesting khat on Mt Kadam is not known. The people harvesting khat from the wild put up temporary shelters, clearing non-target vegetation for construction and cooking. In addition, they cut or de-limb the harvested
Debarking of podo The unsustainable utilisation of Podocarpus (podo) trees on Mt Moroto poses another big challenge to its population structure and survival. This species is Red Listed by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), meaning that it requires targeted efforts to protect it. On Mt Moroto, podo is harvested for timber, cut down to clear land for cultivation and debarked for use in covering locally made beehives. Construction of beehives is a good thing, but debarking the trees will inevitably kill them off. This is not desirable and should be stopped. A number of strategies are needed to conserve the mountain ecosystems in Karamoja and elsewhere. Following are some of the studies required urgently: Assessment of the socio-economic impacts of harvesting of khat by local populations and its effect on biodiversity. Sustainable harvesting and propagation methods of khat (if permitted). Impacts of utilisation on the population structure of the Red Listed Podocarpus on Mt Moroto. In addition, management efforts need to be strengthened and tourism promoted. Some of the available facilities are under-utilised. The writer is associate Professor at the School of Forestry, Environment and Geographical Sciences, Department of Forestry, Biodiversity and Tourism, Makerere University. Email: gerald.eilu@gmail.com
Miti April - June 2014
Facts about water in Karamoja Rainfall has been declining steadily in amount and reliability in the last 50 years BY JAN VANDENABEELE
U
nlike the rest of Uganda, Karamoja has a single rainy season (see graph from Kotido as an example). This rainfall regime runs from April to November, with peak rainfall in April, May, July and August and less rain in June. Rainfall in the sub-region is characteristically irregular, alternating with prolonged severe dry periods. Total annual rainfall varies from year to year and is poorly distributed. Further analysis shows that average monthly rainfall has been increasing steadily in June, while decreasing in September and October. Quantitatively, the rains received annually have decreased by about 15-20 per cent since the 1960s. Another source puts this decline at 15 per cent. The decline is compounded by the nature of the rain – how it falls, and its intensity, as well as the duration between rainy periods. Previously, the area received reliable rainfall one year out of every three. This is no longer the case. Generally, with a range of 140 - 160 days, the sub-region has the shortest annual crop growing period in the whole of Uganda. The combination of a single rainfall regime with poor distribution and high variability makes the people vulnerable to food insecurity. It is now emerging that annual rainfall in the sub-region is decreasing and the potential crop growing period is getting shorter. From 2001, there has been an intensification of extreme weather patterns, resulting in extended dry spells every second or third year (2002, 2004, 2006 and 2009). Surface water availability The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), in collaboration with the World Wildlife Fund (WWF) and the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), has implemented a Pilot Initiatives for Sustainable Environment & Natural Resource Management, Climate Change Adaptation and Mitigation project in Karamoja. The initiative has studied rainwater harvesting (RWH) in selected areas of the Okok River catchment in Moroto and Abim districts. Average annual rainfall
Annual rainfall in Kotido (mm), 1947-2000 160 140 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 Jan
Feb Mar Apr May Jun
is established as 873mm, and annual runoff as high as 180 million cubic metres. Average monthly evaporation was 146mm. Demand for water In the sub-catchment area of Okok River, the statistics are as shown in the Table below, with data provided for domestic consumption by an IUCN/ACF study (2011), the 2010 supply and the projected population growth. Daily water consumption was 25 litres and 60 litres per person per day in rural areas and municipalities respectively. For livestock demand, the figures were based on the National Animal Census of 2008 by the Ministry of Agriculture, Animal Industries and Fisheries (MAAIF). Cattle, goats, sheep, pigs and poultry were considered. One Tropical Livestock Unit is equal to 1.25 indigenous cows = 10 sheep/ goats = 100 poultry and requires 35 litres per day. Irrigation demand estimate was based on statistical data given by MAAIF and a household assessment done by FAO in 2010, using the total area cultivated in the sub-catchment. Customary water management Ownership and user rights are clearly defined, where clans, ethnic groups and community elders have their say. The rules regulating water use and
Water demand per type, and predictions Type
Predicted demand (m3 per year)
Increase (%)
2010
2015
2017
2015
2017
Domestic consumption
4,825,784
5,871,304
6,350,403
22%
32%
Livestock demand
8,124,058
9,418,010
9,991,567
16%
23%
Irrigation demand
505,000,000
615,000,000
665,000,000
22%
32%
Miti April - June 2014
Jul
Aug Sep
Oct
Nov Dec
access vary with the season and across clans and ethnic communities. Gender dimensions are important, with women having less decisionmaking power than men. To be sustainable, it is clear that customary rules and indigenous knowledge have to be incorporated in water resource planning and management. Programming must be highly participatory and decentralised. In response to this reality, IUCN studied suitable sites and technologies for rainwater harvesting with the Okok River sub-catchment, and established a pilot project in Mogoth parish in Moroto district. Recommended technologies include sand dams, small and medium ponds, roof catchments, valley tanks and valley dams. Subsurface dams are also mentioned. It is important to note that both sand dams and sub-surface dams store water in the sand, below the surface, which curbs water loss through evaporation, as happens with ponds and earth dams. This article is a compilation of data from: “Climate change and adaptation strategies in the Karamoja Sub-Region”, Danish Church Aid, May 2010 International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), 2012, Policy briefs (“Water supply, demand, quality and data management in Okok Sub-catchment, Karamoja Region, Customary water use and management rights in Okok sub catchment, Karamoja”) “Rainwater harvesting as a nature-based solution to drought”, IUCN Uganda office, 2013.
The writer is the Executive Director, Better Globe Forestry Email: jan@betterglobeforestry.com
17
LEAD THEME
Water for a thirsty land The efficient use of the commodity is key to the future development of Karamoja BY ALBERT LOKORU AND DIRK ULLERICH
W
hen people think about Karamoja, they usually imagine a large, dry area, almost a desert. However, the reality is different, at least in recent years. Most of the year, Karamoja is green. In central and southern Karamoja, annual rainfall is between 600 and 900mm on average. The dry season, with hot winds and dust, and grass turning brown and yellow, is limited to just three or four months. Being a plain at an altitude of about 1,500m, with mountains up to more than 3,000m, the rainfall pattern is irregular. In mountain valleys and other favourable pockets of the region, the vegetation can be sub-tropical or even tropical, with bamboo and palm trees, whereas the typical trees of the savannah are thorny acacias. Rainfall in the area usually comes as thunderstorms, providing large quantities of water in a short time. Earth tracks and roads become impassable to trucks and buses, and it might happen that for weeks, the few major roads leading in and out of Karamoja become completely blocked.
18
Rains are unpredictable. In 2013, for example, rains started in March, but there was a dry spell between mid-May and the end of June, affecting most of the freshly germinated cereals. Between 2006 and 2009, there were periods of persistent drought, so that farmers had almost no harvest at all. As in these conditions agriculture proves unreliable, it is generally practised on a very small scale, is mainly manual and, to a small extent, animal powered. As such, food security is by far not achieved. The exception is the “green belt� in southern and parts of northern Karamoja, with more rain and two rainy seasons, where agriculture is practised on larger fields, using tractors. Most households keep livestock as a coping strategy when crops fail. The local breeds of cattle, goats and sheep can survive under harsh environmental and climatic conditions, and even tolerate periods of drought, but produce neither much meat nor milk. Years of insecurity due to armed conflicts, with cattle raids and ambushes, forced many households to give up their grazing grounds and cultivated fields, and to settle in larger,
protected villages. The abandoned areas were soon overgrown by secondary bush savannah. Meanwhile, due to lack of alternatives, firewood and charcoal became the main sources of income for the population, and the bush savannah disappeared at an alarming rate, reducing soil fertility and leaving bare soil and rock. For the mountainous areas, deforestation increases the risk of landslides. Rainwater in Karamoja flows down, via temporary rivers and streams, to the neighbouring region of Teso. Here it fills the lakes and swamps and frequently leads to disasters due to overflow and water logging of fields and gardens. To improve water supply in Karamoja, rainwater should be collected and preserved where the rain falls; not pumping Nile water upwards, as some politicians have proposed. Traditionally, the herds of cattle, goats and sheep were kept close to the homesteads during the rainy season, and migrated in the dry season to grazing grounds, often in neighbouring regions. The livestock moved from water-point to water-point in the river beds, guarded and protected by
Miti April - June 2014
the “karachunas”, young energetic men aged between 18 and 25 years. Due to the insecurity and increasing number of cattle raids in the 1980s and 1990s, the migration of the herds was prohibited.
Boreholes for water In colonial times, many large rainwater ponds were excavated for watering livestock. Boreholes were drilled and fitted with hand pumps. However, nothing is left of these colonial rainwater ponds; they are all full of silt and sand. Borehole water has become by far the most important source of water for humans and animals. During the last few decades, hundreds, if not thousands, of new boreholes were drilled and fitted with hand pumps. A survey by Welthungerhilfe (2011) showed total dependence of humans and livestock on borehole water in the dry season. During the rainy season, for human use, the population still depended fully on borehole water, while about 80 of the water for livestock came from boreholes, with the remaining 20 per cent coming from rivers. This dependence on boreholes and hand pumps presents problems. There is no continuous ground water level in Karamoja. The uncertainty of finding good quality water in sufficient quantities, plus the remoteness of the area, make drilling for boreholes a risky and expensive business. Hand pumps are often overused and get damaged easily. The number of dysfunctional boreholes could be even higher than that of operational ones. As the purchasing power of the population is very low, and water user committees fail to collect the necessary funds, maintenance and repair of hand pumps is mainly left to NGOs and international organisations. Often, the population uses borehole water for nurseries and vegetable gardens during the dry season. Solar pumps have been provided to several rural schools, combined with plastic 5,000 to 10,000-litre water tanks. The same plastic tanks are used in schools for rainwater harvesting from roofs. Maintenance and repair of the gutters that lead the rainwater to the tanks remains a problem, as funds are often not available. Recent developments focus on supplying small towns and trading centres with piped water systems. Submersible pumps in boreholes pump the water up to a water tank at the highest place of the settlement, from where it descends via gravity through pipes to the taps. Solar-powered pumps are used for smaller systems, and electrical or diesel for larger systems. Operation and maintenance of these systems, awarded to private operators or water user committees,
Miti April - June 2014
remains a challenge. Livestock for Karamoja has regained the importance it deserves in the national development agenda. At present, water for animals is, apart from the boreholes, provided at three levels: Big valley dams of hundred thousands or millions of cubic metres provide water for thousands of animals. Low land areas (basins) are identified and closed by an earth dam. Pipes transfer the water through the dam to decentralised cattle troughs. In central Karamoja, two such dams were constructed recently and are operational, and plans for more such dams have been prepared. The dams are big enough for part of the water to be used for agricultural production. Valley tanks of 4,000 to 10,000 cubic metres are excavated using earth-moving machines. The government plans to have at least one such basin per sub-county. The challenge is to keep the basins water-tight and to avoid siltation due to erosion. Technical solutions for keeping the basins in working condition exist but are generally too expensive to be applied. The “hafirs” in Ethiopia, where water is also treated and used for human consumption, are one example of a technical solution.
Animals may drink either directly from the valley tank, or water may be pumped from the tank to cattle troughs using solar pumps. In some cases, water from these valley tanks is used for small-scale irrigation using treadle pumps. Small rainwater ponds measuring some hundreds of cubic metres are dug manually during the dry season using a labour-intensive approach (cash-for-work). However, these can only provide water for animals during the rainy season. Rainwater, water from springs and temporary rivers still offer a large and widely untapped field for interventions in Karamoja. Solutions like gravity schemes, sand dams and rock catchments have so far been limited to a few pilot schemes. The efficient use of water is a key element for the future development of Karamoja. Albert Lokoru is Senior Agronomist and Dirk Ullerich, the Project Manager, Welthungerhilfe, Project Office, Moroto, Uganda E-mails: Kiyonga.albert@yahoo.com Dirk.Ullerich@welthungerhilfe.de
19
LEAD THEME
Greening Karamoja Government starts a multi-million-shilling afforestation drive in the sub-region BY MOSES WATASA
N
ext planting season, the Uganda government will start greening the bare expanses of land in Karamoja subregion. As part of the efforts to a multifaceted integrated development programme, the government has incorporated an initial Ush 576 million (equivalent to US$ 240,000) afforestation drive for the semi-arid region. The tree-planting initiative is a component under the Northern Uganda Social Action Fund (NUSAF II) project, under the Office of the Prime Minister (OPM). The tree-planting component under NUSAF II is intended to improve the environmental and ecological conditions that have a direct bearing on people’s livelihoods in the semi-arid region. “The afforestation initiative is designed to increase treecover in Karamoja. We realise that the bare nature of large expanses in Karamoja is partly responsible for extreme weather conditions experienced there,” says Dr Robert Lim Lim, the Director of NUSAF II. Dr Lim Lim argues that the tree-planting drive will feed into and complement other OPM transformational programmes in Karamoja. “Following the successful disarmament and the return of peace, we have been supporting people in Karamoja to settle down. As part of numerous infrastructural programmes, we have for instance built numerous valley dams to preserve water for animals. This has helped settle people who were in the past moving long distances in search of water,” he adds. “At the same time, under the Office of the Minister for Karamoja Affairs (also under OPM), communities in Karamoja have been sensitised and supported to embrace crop farming alongside animal rearing. With communities now growing crops like maize, millet, cassava, beans and groundnuts, the food security situation in Karamoja has tremendously improved,” he notes. The tree-planting initiative under NUSAF II is premised on the scientific reality that trees (especially indigenous ones) play a critical role of stabilising weather conditions, acting as water catchments, reducing soil erosion and absorbing greenhouse gases from the atmosphere. This means that boosting tree cover will go a long way to ensure favourable weather conditions in Karamoja - necessary for sustaining agricultural yields in the medium and long term. Tree-planting at ecologically fragile sites like
20
water catchments, bare grounds and hill tops is also in fulfilment of the Government Manifesto 2011 – 2016 which seeks to ensure that Uganda is ecologically stable and economically sustainable. It is endorsed by President Yoweri Museveni, who also launched a nation-wide re-afforestation campaign in 2009 with an initial target of 31 million trees. The President then planted a symbolic tree to flag off the campaign. In Karamoja, apart from conservation-oriented tree-planting in the communities, households will also be aided to grow woodlots, specifically to meet their wood fuel needs. Each beneficiary household shall plant at least 20 trees for fuel and for construction poles, live fences around households and as boundaries for gardens. “To augment nutrition, households in Karamoja will also be supported to plant a combination of fruit trees like mangoes, oranges, pawpaws, avocados, jack fruit and cashew nuts,” says Dr Lim Lim. “These will go alongside species with good soil holding properties and those that are good for improving the soil quality.” Under the programme, household members shall provide labour for preparation of sites for planting, digging pits, tree-planting, protection (fencing off) of the seedlings, watering and caring for the seedlings for at least six months after planting. For this, they will be paid the equivalent
of the daily wage rate for labour under the project. NUSAF II will engage the relevant sector experts at sub-county, district and national levels to provide technical support to the communities in line with tree-planting practices and standards. They will advise on the most suitable species for Karamoja, taking into account the peculiarities of the sub-region and the specific area under consideration including the weather, soil properties and the customs of the people. The guidance for the afforestation programme will also include planting methods, spacing, care for seedlings / plants and pesticides. Initially, the tree and fruit seedlings will be sourced from the nearest existing nurseries within and outside Karamoja. In the medium term, the communities will be encouraged and trained to establish tree nursery sub-projects – also to be funded by NUSAF II. The target is to establish at least one tree nursery per sub-county in Karamoja. It is envisaged that establishing the tree nursery sub-projects will not only improve community incomes but also provide a more sustainable source of seedlings at lower prices. The writer is Commissioner, Information, Office of the Prime Minister, Uganda Email: kooba577@yahoo.com
Miti April - June 2014
LEAD THEME
Planting trees in the ‘Land of Thorns’ NGO establishes tree plantations in central Karamoja BY ALBERT LOKORU AND DIRK ULLERICH
K
aramoja is about the size of Rwanda, but with about one million inhabitants, the region has the lowest population density in the country. The landscape is characterised by a wide plain of bush savannah and some mountainous regions with old volcanoes of the Great Rift Valley. About 15 per cent of the region is gazetted wildlife sanctuaries. The region has frequently been struck by drought and flooding. The rainfall pattern is irregular. There is more rain on the slopes of the mountains, while “spot rains” fall on small parts of the savannah. The population copes with these harsh climatic conditions through agro-pastoralism, that is, keeping animals and engaging in small-scale agriculture. The drier the climate, the more the keeping of cattle, goats and sheep becomes a priority. To restock animals lost to diseases or theft, the indigenous peoples in Karamoja traditionally raided animals from other communities within Karamoja and in neighbouring regions. However, starting in the 1980s, firearms were used in these raids and the number of ambushes on the roads increased. The insecurity forced the population to leave small villages and homesteads and to move to larger, protected settlements and camps, known locally as ‘‘ere’’ clusters. Due to these threats to life and property, the people gave up agropastoralism and much of the agricultural and grazing lands reverted to bush savannah. Major disarmament programmes by the Ugandan Government, supervised by the army, improved the security situation considerably from 2002. After nearly 30 years, the population started moving back to the abandoned homes, where they constructed new dwellings. The loss of grazing grounds due to insecurity resulted in a sharp drop in the number of animals. Reports estimate the reduction of cattle in the different districts of Karamoja at between 66 and 75 per cent in the last 10 years. As subsistence agriculture often provides only low yields, and since many households
Miti April - June 2014
lost most or all their animals, firewood and charcoal have become the major sources of income for the rural population. Government programmes and non-governmental organisation (NGO) initiatives focus on labourintensive infrastructure works, but can involve only a fraction of the population. Objectives of establishment of woodlots Welthungerhilfe, an international NGO funded by the German Ministry of Cooperation and Development, would like to initiate some major tree-planting activities in central Karamoja. This should contribute to the following objectives: Provide income for the population via cash-for-work. The first two years after establishment of a tree plantation are decisive for the success of the operation. All the work required during this time could be supported financially by the project; Improve the provision of firewood and/or timber for the region. The indigenous trees survive bush fire; therefore have very hard wood which delivers excellent quality charcoal. The trees are, however, slow-growing and not appropriate for timber production.
All timber used in Karamoja comes from the neighbouring regions, where the planting of trees for multiple products has been embraced. Welthungerhilfe discussed the treeplanting idea with the population and local authorities, who welcomed it, but were keen on planting rapidly-growing multipurpose tree species for timber, firewood and building poles. Discussion on whether or not woodlots should be established is, however, still continuing. The secondary bush savannah has led to an increase of wildlife, especially guinea fowls, partridges and small antelopes, and environmentalists would prefer to have this land gazetted as enlarged wildlife resorts. There is also unease over the introduction of “exotic” trees, which might invade and overgrow indigenous tree species. This mainly refers to eucalyptus, supposed to turn the soil acidic and thus barren, and to lower the ground water-level due to a high water intake. Land ownership In any case, before deciding to establish a woodlot, it has to be clarified that this land use is not in competition with land for crop
21
production or grazing. Being concerned for the environment, Welthungerhilfe decided that for the establishment of new woodlots, only the low shrubs, bushes and small trees should be cut; major trees should be protected. In addition, chemicals should just be used for controlling termites, and even this was only done once, in the year of the planting of the eucalyptus seedlings. Herbicides to remove all vegetation on the ground before tree-planting were avoided. SPGS provided Welthungerhilfe with a check-list for the selection of appropriate and suitable land. Land ownership is a major concern in Karamoja. Since colonial times, the authorities have considered the extensive areas of Karamoja with just a few settlements as “no man’s land”. This is not true. Land outside the trading centres is community land, and decisions on its use are taken by the Council of Elders. Conflicts may arise on issues of land ownership between private individuals and “investors” aiming to acquire large tracts of land at very low cost, local and even national governments, and the communities that want to retain the power to decide on the use of their land. In consultation with the local government and traditional leaders, Welthungerhilfe has so far identified, demarcated and planted four sites. The size varies between 25 and 110 acres (15 and 66 hectares); the total space covers 235 acres (141 hectares). In line with the traditional structures in Karamoja, each woodlot is managed by an
22
association, generally with about 40 members. Each association is led by a respected, well-known and strong personality, able to mobilise the members to work efficiently. Welthungerhilfe therefore does not object if the majority of members of an association belong to the same clan or the same extended family. Selection of appropriate tree species To our knowledge, these woodlots are the first major multipurpose tree plantations in central
Karamoja. They have therefore a pilot function. As we could not base our activities on reference plantations, we first looked around which tree species were growing wild in the savannah and as decorative, hedge, firewood or timber trees in the trading centres and along the roads. “Exotic” trees were mainly neem (Azadirachte indica), cassia species, eucalyptus species, some grevillea trees and euphorbia species as hedges. Tamarind trees serve as fruit trees and are often planted and protected at worship places (shrines) of the community elders. Faidherbia albida, Acacia senegal, known locally as ekodokodoi, and Kigelia africana (sausage tree) are major trees in the savannah. Several efforts have so far been undertaken to promote commercial gum arabic production from Acacia senegal, yet without convincing results. Due to the dominance of the thorny acacia trees and shrubs in the savannah, Karamoja is also called “the land of thorns”. Unfortunately, all these indigenous tree species are slow growing and their wood is not appropriate for timber. For the selection and the supply of quality forest planting material, Welthungerhilfe consulted the district forestry officers and the Sawlog Production Grant Scheme (SPGS) in Kampala. As it was not possible to examine the local conditions in detail and to perform soil
Miti April - June 2014
analyses, Welthungerhilfe decided to plant a number of tree species simultaneously, then evaluate which would develop best. Welthungerhilfe set off their tree-planting activities in 2011 and 2012 by planting special drought resistant clones of Eucalyptus grandis crossbreed camaldulensis acquired from the certified Gatsby Trust nursery in Mbale; Grevillea robusta and Tectona grandis (Indian teak) from cuttings, and some Markhamia lutea. Then in 2012/13, the NGO established two more plantations, replacing eucalyptus with Melia azedarach (the Persian lilac). This tree has become popular for timber within the last 10 years. The germination problems of melia seeds seem to have been overcome, as seedlings are available at competitive prices and in sufficient quantities. In addition, SPGS planted 20 acres of Pinus caribaea (Caribbean pine) in 2013. So far, the trees are doing well, with the exception of some of the eucalyptus. Challenges A major problem is termites, which attack the roots of the young eucalyptus. Growth rates of eucalyptus were below our expectations. These trees seem to suffer during certain periods of the year, especially the drier months. Another major danger for the tree plantations is rampant wild fires. The Karamojong are hunters, and to drive the
Miti April - June 2014
animals from their hiding places, hunters often burn the bush down. Teak seems to be the only timber tree that becomes fire resistant after some years. Although fire lines were created all around the woodlots, in 2012 Welthungerhilfe lost some 25 acres of a woodlot in an accidental fire. Experience As can be seen so far, grevillea and teak seem to be best adapted to the conditions in Karamoja. Melia and Caribbean pine are also doing well, but since they were only planted last year, it is still too early to judge their performance. Average rainfall in the project region should be around 500 to 800mm per year. However, due to significant variations between the years, months of high ambient temperature especially in combination with wind, a few strong rains and “spot rains”, such average values are not very significant in determining the selection of appropriate tree species and survival rates of the seedlings. There has been sufficient rain in Karamoja in the last three years, which was favourable for tree-planting. The future will tell how the trees survive major periods of drought. Each tree seedling was planted in the middle of a “micro-basin”, to preserve rainwater. Recently, Welthungerhilfe changed the system and cleared strips with “microdams” as these are easier to maintain. The community associations cut the grass
every two to three months as a maintenance measure. As Welthungerhilfe was not able to water the seedlings, they first stored them in their polyethylene bags not too far from the plantation sites, sometimes for months, waiting for sufficient rain to fall for several consecutive days, to make the soil moist. Then the planting was done quickly. The long storage resulted in considerable stress for the seedlings. So far, survival rates of all species planted are about 80 per cent. Demarcation, clearing, pitting, planting and repeated weeding is done by the associations via the cash-for-work approach. Even without these payments, the population is committed and even proud of the woodlots. The people see the woodlots as a means of keeping the unemployed male youth, called ‘‘karachunas’’ (warriors), busy and providing them with an income. “We know that it may take 15 or even 20 years to get some benefits from these woodlots, but we are not doing this for us. We are doing it for the next generation,” says Paul Keale, chairman of one of the associations. Albert Lokoru is a Senior Agronomist, and Dirk Ullerich a Project Manager, Welthungerhilfe, Project Office, Moroto, Uganda E-mails: Kiyonga.albert@yahoo.com Dirk.Ullerich@welthungerhilfe.de
23
LEAD THEME PICTORIAL
Karamoja has tree resources that present commercial opportunities
(All photos: Francis Gachathi)
Gum arabic and frankincense
An Acacia senegal, variety senegal, stand at Kapedo.
A sample of gum arabic (gomme dure) at Kotido.
An Acacia seyal, variety seyal, stand at Iriri.
A sample of gum (gomme friable) from A. seyal, variety seyal.
Boswellia neglecta at Rupa.
Frankincense from Boswellia neglecta.
24
Miti April - June 2014
(All photos Francis Gachathi)
Bitter gum from Aloe and gum from Balanites
Preparing bitter aloe gum “stone� at Amudat.
Aloe tweedieae at Lorengendwat.
Bitter aloe gum stone. A Balanites aegyptiaca tree.
Fruits of Balanites aegyptiaca.
Miti April - June 2014
Gum from Balanites aegyptiaca.
25
TREE SPECIES
The miracle tree of the drylands The shea butter tree survives harsh environmental conditions and is resistant to drought and fires BY OMUJAL FRANCIS
V
itellara paradoxa, or the shea butter tree, belongs to the Sapotaceae family. This dominant indigenous tree species in the savannah woodland grows across 19 Sahelian countries, from Senegal to Uganda and up to parts of the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC). The shea tree, which grows to a height of 10 – 15 metres and 1 metre of diameter at breast height, was first recorded by European explorer Mungo Park as early as 1728 as a very useful tree. Further research has established that there is variation in shea butter trees between West and East Africa. The Ugandan shea butter tree subspecies (E. Africa) is classified scientifically as Vitellaria nilotica and is found mainly in the northern, north-eastern and West Nile regions of the country among the Acholi, Alur, Langi, Lugbar, Iteso and Madi ethnic groups. Among these groups, the shea butter tree is called by different names like moo yaa in Acholi and Alur, moo yao in Langi, awa du in Madi and Lugbara and ekungur by the Teso. In West Africa it is called karité. Shea tree population The shea tree is adapted to harsh environmental conditions and is resistant to drought and fires. Across Sahelian Africa, there are over 500 million mature shea trees that grow widely and naturally. However, the shea butter tree population in Uganda is declining due to changing landuse practices and felling of trees for charcoal. Currently, it is estimated that Uganda’s shea tree population stands at an average of seven trees per hectare, which is much lower than that of West African countries, which is estimated at 50 trees per hectare. Traditional uses of the shea butter tree For centuries, the shea butter tree has been described as the most economically and socially important tree species in the Sahel
26
region. The flowers are used as traditional medicine to reduce chest pains and cure eye problems and it is also useful in honey production. The bark is used as medicine for diarrhoea while its latex is used to dress open wounds, as a glue to seal pots or calabashes and as an adhesive to trap animals or birds. The fruit is edible with a sweet, nutritious and spicy flavoured pulp popular with children. Sometimes, fruit is dried to be eaten later. The fruit is also eaten by elephants, sheep, pigs, bats and birds. The seeds are very important in the production of oil for frying and baking. The oil is applied on the skin of new-born babies and is also used in the preparation of body creams, lotions and soap. Shea oil is used in cultural ceremonies like traditional weddings, in child birth, naming of new babies, funerals, divining the future and ordination of chiefs or priests. During the armed rebellion in northern Uganda in the 1990s, rebel soldiers applied shea oil on
their bodies to repel bullets. At the household level, shea oil has been a source of income, sold in local markets. Its wood is popular for poles, construction, and for production of good quality charcoal and firewood. The trunk of the shea tree is used in the production of stools, pestles and mortars, beehives and canoes. Harvesting of shea fruits Among all the products of the shea tree, the fruits are the most significant. In Uganda, the shea tree produces fruits between April and August. When ripe, the greenish-yellowish fruits normally drop to the ground, from where they are collected. The fleshy sweet pulp is eaten, while the hard, oval or round, red brown or dark brown seeds are collected for extraction of oil. Shea butter has a golden yellow cream colour. Each tree produces between 15 and 50 kilograms of fruit per annum. The fruits in turn produce 3 to 20 kilograms of nuts to produce 1.5 – 6 kilograms of shea oil. According to available literature, shea trees only begin to
Miti April - June 2014
bear fruit after 15 years and continue to produce for up to 200 to 300 years. The long maturity period has discouraged farmers from planting the shea butter tree. However, there are attempts at the National Forestry Research Institute (NAFORRI) and the School of Forestry, Environmental and Geographical Sciences of Makerere University, to propagate shea butter trees. Like in other African countries, shea fruit production in Uganda fluctuates from season to season due to weather variability. As a result, it is estimated that total shea butter production in Uganda is about 400 tonnes per year, accounting for just about 35 per cent of the total shea nut production. Although the total African production of shea butter is estimated to be over 600,000 tonnes annually, most of the nuts remain uncollected. Processing of shea butter The shiny and smooth brown to dark-brown nuts are sun-dried for a week to allow separation of the shell from the kernel. Drying of these nuts requires great care, since poorly dried nuts tend to become black and affect the oil quality. Traditionally, the dry nuts are shelled by cracking to remove the kernel, which is further sun-dried for another week. Currently, two methods are used to extract shea butter oil, that is, the traditional boiling method and the improved mechanical cold press method. The traditional method is popular among women in shea producing areas and is a cultural heritage. The method involves sorting the good kernels, roasting with sand and ash, cleaning to remove sand and ash, pounding with mortar and pestle, milling with a stone and boiling with water while stirring. The oil that floats on top of the water is skimmed off or decanted and re-boiled using more water. The method, whose success depends on the experience of the processor, is tedious and oil yield is low compared to the mechanical pressing method. Although the shea kernels contain 50 - 60 per cent oil yield, the traditional boiling method generates only about 20 per cent. It can take a traditional processor four to five days to produce five litres of oil. Interestingly, the traditional method of shea butter extraction in Uganda differs from that of West Africa. In West Africa, the fresh shea nuts are parboiled before drying, while in Uganda, the nuts are dried directly without parboiling. During processing, the roasted shea kernel paste is kneaded with water to capture the fat into emulsion, which is later boiled with water. In Uganda, the paste is boiled with water instead of kneading.
Miti April - June 2014
Nutritional value of shea fruits Nutritional value (on dry basis)
Range
Protein (g/100g)
3.1 - 4.2a, 1.3b
Fibre (g/100g)
10.1 - 14.6a
Fat (g/100g)
1.5 - 3.5a
Carbohydrates (g/100g)
14.9 - 19.4a
Ash content (g/100g)
3.6 - 5.9a
Vitamin C (g/100g)
85.6 - 124.9a
Minerals Calcium (mg/100g)
37.2 - 95.4a 59b
Phosphorus (mg/100g)
69b
Iron (mg/100g)
3.6 - 3.8a, 7.8b
Magnesium (mg/100g)
18.1 - 24.2a, 26b
Sodium (mg/100g)
7.1 - 18.1a
Potassium (mg/100g)
42 - 63.2a , 426b
Zinc (mg/100g)
4.0b
Mechanical pressing method. Like the traditional method, mechanical processing involves sorting good kernels and crushing them into paste, mixing the paste with hot water and packing in cotton bags. The bags are pressed with the mechanical press to expel the oil, which is later boiled. The resins settle while the oil floats on top. The floating oil is skimmed off or decanted to another container. The oil yield from the mechanical cold pressing is about 35 to 40 per cent. Even then, rural communities are slow in adapting to these new technologies because of the high cost of equipment. In Uganda currently, only one company (Guru Nanak Oil Mills Ltd), uses electricitypowered machines for extraction of shea butter. Most pressing in Uganda among small-scale processors takes place in the open sun, because the sun increases the oil yield. Although this
may look tedious, the total production output can be between 20 to 40 litres per day for one mechanical press machine operated by four women. Even with this technology, there is still a big need for improvement. Nutritional composition of shea fruits Shea fruit pulp is rich in carbohydrates, fibre, vitamin C and minerals like sodium, potassium, calcium, iron, zinc, selenium and copper. Carbohydrates are good sources of energy; proteins catalyse, regulate, protect and provide energy, while vitamin C is essential for normal growth and development of the human body. Sodium and potassium play a role in the water balance, the functioning of the nervous system and of the muscles and in the absorption of glucose and glycogen. Calcium is important in bone formation, the nervous system, stimulates some hormonal
27
secretions, and activates some enzymes and blood coagulation. Magnesium assists enzymes involved in the synthesis and breakdown of carbohydrates, fats, proteins and synthesis of DNA and RNA, while iron is a constituent of haemoglobin, myoglobin and a number of enzymes.
Quality of shea butter oil Shea butter is also known to contain fatty acids that are useful in nutrition and health. Indeed, the chemical property of shea butter oil is similar to that of olive oil produced in the Mediterranean region. The Ugandan shea butter contains 55 to 60 per cent oleic acid content, compared to 39 to 47 per cent for shea butter from Nigeria and Burkina Faso. This makes Ugandan shea butter unique for production of confectioneries and high-value cosmetics.
Commercial potential of shea butter oil Nearly all the shea butter oil produced in Uganda is consumed locally as cooking oil, with very little being used in the cosmetics industry. Despite its high potential, the shea butter industry in Uganda has remained at the infant stage with very little export due to lack of information and also because there are substitutes like petroleum-based products for
international customers for processing into cosmetics and food products. This shea butter has found a market in Europe, America and Asia. Current estimates show that the value of shea butter in the international market ranges between US$ 50 and 60 per kilogram.
cosmetics and palm oil for cooking. A decade ago, the Northern Uganda Shea Processors Association (NUSPA) initiated largescale commercialisation of shea in Uganda. Although the association is still operating, private enterprises have entered into the business. Today, there are many mushrooming private companies involved in small-scale production and marketing of shea butter. These companies extract shea butter and sometimes make cosmetics. However, in most cases, they sell the shea butter to local and
The writer is Research Officer, Natural Chemotherapeutics Research Institute, Ministry of Health, and a PhD (Agroforestry) Student, Makerere University Email: omufran@yahoo.com
Mukau with : A Keny an a brig ht fu drylands Yatta ture tree fa farm rmer m ing bi ak g bu es tree Interv sines s Geor iew with Ugand ge M ayan an fa ja rmer ,
Mu wit kau: A ha brig Kenya Yatt n h farm a farm t futu dryla nds re ing er m tre Inte big a e busi kes tr Ge rview ness ee org e M with aya Uga nja nda n fa rm er,
Ug an Jatr da’s sh o rin kin Succ pha u g nd e
EU-fu nded SPGS Nyon go
we push er a ro Ra A helpin Inte ssful tla es Ugan tta nch g hand acr nd tre rvie ck dan s set fo tree plan e oss the sea Sa farm Adding valu ting Makin w wit grow r take s ndal ers di in h e to woo -off gd woo scov d ryla KFS D g in M d: A Harv Ensuring er gr usef estin nd ire our surviva een ul pa cto akuen sp g wat gold l rod Yatta farmer makes tree r rasit Do trees i er in uct e attract rain dr ive ylan farming big business ? NFA driv ds es tree-pla nting in Interview with Ugandan farmer, Uganda
Mukau: A Kenyan drylands tree with a bright future
George Mayanja
Issue No. 0001 January-March 2009 Issu e No. 000 2 Apr il - JunIsesu e 200No 9 . 00 03 Ju ly
A co
m royin plex is g th su
Dest
MITI is targeted at all who want to share information on how important afforestation is for present and future generations MITI gives information on controversial tree issues, the historical use of trees, water management, tissue culture and related issues MITI, the forum for sharing information on the business of growing trees
28
Hold
e Ma
Man
ing u
u wil
e
l cost
us de
arly
- Se pt em
Is su
be r
20 09
eN o .4
Oc
to b
er
-D ec
em
be
r2 0
09
pL a ma amu Thjor pillar Stee A doctor of th p N e The billionpassion fowrithMaaster boaet-dbuin torcaaudseefoucaly at economy it r la ptu ilders farming M tree race Benjamin Kyula’s mango still p ioan rm a s farm is the Ho u: We need to plant trees A hractise an, saany expdeba wma envy of did ny on millions of hectares cienet rt we an crsaft te end d F t h re up Sweet des at f You e w Eucalyptus tro Bees offe e jus a e r a sting of y ing d t ne te success A blessing or a curse for Africa? it? s u ed r is s to e Char APre sau id t collect avndesrywh Money grow From b s t c e on o It’s a goo ore oas lsidies g tree d investn it re meo nt grov es are
BUZZ
Dryland t a d isfor affor row Th indu irty est to stry a Climatee ch t Greenland Where anoffgers huge eword tion the ree How Better Globe is planting are awe new green future for Africa
heading?
s e in East A frica cono
mic o
pport
wa y fo
unitie
s
rwa
rd?
Miti April - June 2014
SUCCESSFUL TREE-GROWER
Military man soldiers on Despite the challenges, Gen Wamala is happy he went into tree-growing BY DIANA AHEBWE
G
eneral Katumba Wamala’s tree plantation was first featured in Miti issue 9 (January – March 2011). Since then, his plantation has improved greatly in acreage and management. Gen Wamala started tree-planting in 2003 when a friend, the late Major Jack Mishambi, introduced him to the business. Gen Wamala leased 500 hectares in the Kasana-Kasambya Forest Reserve in Mubende District from the National Forestry Authority (NFA). Before the Sawlog Production Grant Scheme (SPGS) came into play, Gen Wamala planted 10 hectares of Pinus patula (weeping pine) in 2003 and 23 hectares of Pinus oocarpa in 2004 using seedlings from NFA. The species did not do well because of poor site species matching and lack of improved seed. On recommendation from SPGS, Gen Wamala started planting Pinus caribaea (Caribbean pine) var Hondurensis (PCH) in 2005 and continues to plant the species to date. He has also planted a two-hectare demonstration plot of eucalyptus. Gen Wamala has so far planted 285 hectares, mostly PCH because it does well in the central region. He employs 20 people permanently on the site and more than 50 on contract for seasonal work. Currently, Gen Wamala is doing a second thinning in the PCH plantation. He has done this on 11 hectares of PCH on which he earned Ush 1,250,000 1 for the 156 tonnes of thinnings. Unfortunately, due to lack of knowledge and close supervision of the operations, the buyers cut down some good trees. Gen Wamala now knows he would have earned Ush 4,125,000 if he had converted his thinnings into timber. The calculation was made by the Uganda Timber Growers Association (TGA), based on the price of Ush 25,000 per piece of timber produced. However, Gen Wamala feels he has not benefited from pine thinnings, especially the first thinnings, because they are left on the ground to rot. This contrasts with eucalyptus thinnings which can be used as fuel wood, fencing or construction poles, among other uses. Challenges Since Mubende is fertile agriculturally, weeds
1
Equivalent to Ksh 45,000.
Miti April - June 2014
are a recurring problem. Gen Wamala has been facing a challenge of weeds on the land that he was allocated, so he had to spend a lot of money on bush clearing. Even after planting, weeds grow very fast after the rains and he has to incur high costs of weeding. He has resorted to slashing and chemical weeding which has proved effective. Finding committed workers has also been a challenge. Things changed, however, when Gen Wamala employed a committed manager who is a forester. Since then, the quality of the plantation has improved greatly. To deal with encroachers, Gen Wamala allowed them to graze their cattle in the old plantation that was over five years old. In addition, he employs them as casual workers in the plantation. Gen Wamala also gave out 50 hectares to the community to plant trees as required by NFA, although they have not started planting. Future plans Gen Wamala still has 165 hectares to plant but the species will depend on whether the eucalyptus clones that he has planted do well. If not, he will continue planting PCH. General Wamala has started clear felling the 33 hectares of P. patula and P. oocarpa planted in 2003 and 2004 respectively. The trees are being converted into timber by a contractor as
this is more profitable than selling the trees raw. He decided to cut down the trees after he was informed that the species would not do any better in that site. Advice to tree-growers “Planning in forestry is crucial, beginning from site-species matching, to harvesting,” says Gen Wamala. He has a work-plan running from April to April with all activities planned and budgeted for. Although Uganda has two planting seasons, he advises people not to plant twice a year as it is stressful both financially and for management. “Good record-keeping is essential in calculating returns which would in turn lead to better negotiations while paying taxes after harvesting,” he says. Gen Wamala encourages collaboration between tree-growers in the same area. This way, the growers can share the costs of forest protection. In addition, the greater tree volumes strengthen their bargaining position with buyers. Despite the challenges, Gen Wamala is happy he went into tree-growing. “This forest is a guarantee that I can retire,” he says. The writer is the Country Representative, Miti Magazine Uganda Email:diana@mitiafrica.com
29
SUCCESSFUL INDUSTRY
Henry West Furniture’s showroom on Mombasa Road, with beautiful products finished to international standards. (Photo: BGF)
A top-notch wood product Henry West produces classy furniture for a discerning clientele BY WANJIRU CIIRA
T
here is no doubt about it – Henry West Furniture Ltd produces a premium product for the discerning client. The company has gone through many ups and downs before finally becoming firmly established, recognised and successful. The company is part of the Interior Designs Company Group, which has been in existence for 40 years, having set up showrooms in Westlands, Nairobi, in 1974. At the time, Interior Designs Company took on interior design commissions, while acting as an outlet for existing furniture manufacturers. However, the company was soon struggling to find the required quality of furniture. “For this reason, we decided to establish our own manufacturing unit,” says furniture designer and joint owner, Henry West. They set up the manufacturing facility on Garage Road, off Enterprise Road in Nairobi’s Industrial Area. “Our ethos was to promote good cabinet-making skills,” says Mr West. Starting with a nucleus of six people, Interior Designs Company set up a training
30
programme in cabinet-making, upholstery, wood polishing and other furniture-making skills. The furniture produced at Garage Road would be sold through the Westlands outlet. The company was growing and attracting a progressively discerning clientele. That is how, in 1992, Interior Designs Company drew the attention of a major multinational conglomerate, with interests in, among other areas, hotels. “They wanted us to form a joint venture for building up business,” says Mr West. “They wanted to set up a new factory and expand our clientele to include hotels in East, Central and West Africa.” However, this grand scheme did not take off. It just so happened that at the time, the Kenya shilling suffered huge devaluation and the money the multinational offered for Interior Designs Company’s assets - that is, personnel and expertise – was too low to make business sense. Soldering on, in 1995, Interior Designs Company decided to discontinue the interior design function and concentrate on furniture making, mainly on order. They also gave up the
showroom in Westlands and consolidated all activities at the Garage Road factory. However, this arrangement did not last long because this particular area of Industrial Area was hard to get to, except for the most determined. At some point, the roads there were so bad as to be considered non-existent. The company, by then incorporating Henry West Furniture Ltd, had to re-locate the showroom to a more accessible site – the current location at Kellico Complex, Mombasa Road. Labour of love For Kenya-born founder Henry West, bringing the company to its current standing has been a labour of love. After attending school in Kenya, Mr West’s father sent him off to the London College of Furniture in London, United Kingdom, to train as a furniture designer. On graduation however, Mr West was shocked to realise there were no jobs in the industry. “Everywhere I went, furniture makers told me, ‘We’ve managed for 200 years without designers, why do we need them now,’” says
Miti April - June 2014
Mr West. In the end, an American design group in London employed Mr West as an errand-boy, sweeper and tea-maker. He stayed the course and after nine months, he was allowed into the interior design department. At the time, American banking was setting up in London and Mr West became involved in designing furniture and interiors of houses and offices for bank officials. In the process, he also participated in the restoration of a house for the chief executive of one of the banks. The wife of the chief executive was so impressed with Mr West’s work that she invited him to go into business with her - and Henry West & Partners was born. The firm attracted business from the American community in London. “We had several designers working with us and business was good,” says Mr West. This went on until 1973 when the oil crisis hit Europe. There was a significant downturn in the economies in Europe and as a result, American banks scaled back their European expansion. This economic downturn hit Henry West & Partners hard. The partners scattered and Mr West came back to Nairobi and established Interior Designs Company. Timber shortage The Kenya furniture production landscape has changed since. The major challenge facing the industry is the timber shortage emanating from the partial logging ban of 1999 and the disappearance of beautiful indigenous timbers. Coupled with this is the massive importation of cheaply-produced furniture from places like China and Malaysia. Henry West Furniture Ltd does not in any way target the mass market. “Ours is a top-end product at top-end prices,” says Mr West. The company designs and makes a whole range of furniture for the living room, dining room and bedroom as well as specialist office furniture. The company specialises in design from the English Georgian and Regency periods. “However, there is an increasing demand for more contemporary styles and we have introduced a new range of furniture to meet this,” says Mr West. Before the partial logging ban, Henry West used to obtain camphor (Ocotea usambarensis), mvule (Milicia excelsa) and Meru oak (Vitex keniensis) locally. Today, the company uses mahogany from the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), pine from Malawi and Zambia and cypress from Tanzania. “The supply from Eastern DRC is erratic and depends on the security
Miti April - June 2014
situation there,” says Mr West. The company uses about 3,000 board feet (equivalent to 1.5m3) of timber per month. The timber is currently air-dried, spending some two years on racks in a yard in Karen. For mvule the drying can take up to three years. Henry West Furniture Ltd employs some 70 skilled artisans and management staff at the factory in Industrial Area and two sales people at the showroom along Mombasa Road. The artisans are trained in-house, and include youngsters from the streets who would otherwise have no prospects. The company employs age-
old techniques in the production of the furniture with only basic mechanisation. Attention is given to detail and the work is finished to perfection. The future? Henry West sees huge potential for an increase in export sales both in the region and abroad, where the skills employed by the company are slowly dying out. “We have exported furniture all over the world to clients who appreciate the quality of our products,” he says. Henry West would like to guarantee a constant supply of timber in the future. The company also wants to comply with recently introduced EU regulations prohibiting the importation of any wooden products that are not made with timber from sustainable resources. To achieve these two objectives, the company plans to establish a plantation of mukau (Melia volkensii) on some 5,000 acres in the Loitoktok area of Kenya’s Rift Valley Province. With this, the discerning clientele is assured of a supply of quality furniture. The writer is the Managing Editor, Miti magazine. Email: wanjiru@mitiafrica.com
31
MANAGEMENT OF DRYLANDS
The ‘cattle corridor’ is no wasteland Uganda’s drylands are of immense scientific, economic and social value BY EDWARD NECTOR MWAVU
D
ryland ecosystems cover one third of the earth’s total land surface. These ecosystems comprise areas with a mean annual rainfall to mean annual evapotranspiration ratio of less than 0.65. They are fragile environments characterised by unreliable rainfall patterns and are at risk of desertification. For Uganda, drylands are a dry belt (popularly known as the “cattle corridor”) stretching between the country’s north eastern and south western borders. Uganda’s drylands cover 84,000 km2 (about 43 per cent of the country’s total land area of 241,550 km2) and more than 40 districts. Although Uganda receives 700 - 3,000mm of rainfall per year, the cattle corridor receives irregular rainfall that averages 1,350mm per year. In spite of their fragile nature, Uganda’s dryland ecosystems have an immense scientific, economic and social value; are rich in biodiversity and support livelihoods. The drylands constitute a great part of Uganda’s land resources that are critical to national development and human well-being, since they provide a unique set of ecosystem services that support the country’s economic development and the environment. The cattle corridor belt constitutes the catchment system for Lake Kyoga and River Nile. In addition, the Kidepo Valley and Lake Mburo National Park, areas that host a diverse group of wildlife, are found in the drylands. At the turn of the century, the cattle corridor was home to various wild animals, ranging from large hoofed mammals to butterflies. Hence, the drylands are of global environmental benefit as they contribute to biodiversity, carbon sequestration, and are catchments of the trans-boundary waters. In these drylands, livelihoods and options for economic development are based on natural resources utilisation and linked directly to the quality of the land and its resources. These ecosystems provide a wide array of goods and services for the local communities,
32
including food, fodder, fibre, medicine and clean water. The ecosystems also protect against erosion and support livelihoods that include livestock rearing, woody plants harvesting for charcoal and fuel, and subsistence crop cultivation. Indeed, Uganda’s cattle corridor supports about 90 per cent of the national cattle population, mainly kept by pastoral and agro-pastoral communities. Despite the large numbers of cattle, there is severe poverty in the drylands. Poverty rates are highest in eastern and north eastern Uganda, with up to 80 per cent of the population living below the poverty line in some areas. In the wooded drylands, charcoal production is a widespread and major economic activity for many households. The charcoal burners target woody plants even on the local and central government-
managed forest reserves. The unsustainable and lucrative commercial charcoal production has resulted in increased decline and loss of woody cover in the fragile but ecologically important landscape. The once common and abundant species such as Acacia senegal (Sudan gum arabic), Terminalia glaucescens (black korina) and Combretum molle (mukoola in Luganda) - and Piliostigma thonningii (Camel’s foot), that were the most favoured for charcoal production, fuel wood and timber, have greatly declined. This has led to the harvesting of non-traditional charcoal production woody species. In these areas, charcoal production generates income and supplies fuel, but also degrades the environment. Indeed, charcoal has become an increasingly traded commodity, leading to the harvesting of valuable dryland tree species such as Vitellaria paradoxa (shea
Miti April - June 2014
butter tree), Tamarindus indica, (tamarind) Acacia senegal (Sudan gum Arabic), Borassus aethiopum (African fan palm), Carissa edulis (Arabian numnum), and Balanites aegyptica (desert date), trees that have potential for adoption in food systems and the development of pharmaceutical products. These and many other wild plant species – like Senna bicaspularis (yellow candle wood) and Solanum anguivi (night shade) are a source of food to local communities, more so during drought and times of food scarcity. Some of these wild foods have the potential to interface positively with HIV/Aids nutrition feedback. In Adjumani District, Borassus aethiopum (African fan palm) is harvested for timber, yet its fruits would have great potential to contribute to food security if value was added to them. It is however, unfortunate that under the present circumstances, such socio-economically valuable trees are threatened with local extinction. The rising human population, as well as the increasing demand for firewood and charcoal and a greater quest for prosperity, are leading to unsustainable land use practices and land cover change in the fragile cattle corridor environments. In the drylands of Masindi and Nakasongola districts for instance, land-use/ cover change analyses within the previous decade indicate decreasing woodland cover as a result of charcoal production and a change in land use to ranches and crop agriculture. It is estimated that over 9 per cent of the land is lost annually to land clearing. On the other hand, stress associated with climate variability is a reality in dryland ecosystems; and climate change is a threat to the
delicate biophysical and socio-cultural systems characteristic of drylands. Since the provision of ecosystem services depends to varying degrees on particular components of biodiversity, household livelihoods in the cattle corridor are therefore vulnerable to biodiversity losses and habitat changes as a result of climate change and land degradation. Currently, the cattle corridor belt of Uganda faces the challenge of climate change and variability, land degradation, desertification and loss of biodiversity. The decreasing tree cover threatens the provision of goods and services to support the livelihoods of dryland peoples, who mainly depend on natural resources. Dryland degradation is a serious obstacle to eradicating
extreme poverty and hunger, and is jeopardising efforts to ensure environmental sustainability. Development prospects in drylands therefore call for Sustainable Land Management (SLM)1,2 . This involves avoiding ecosystem degradation and slowing or reversing degradation where it is occurring, to avoid desertification. Fighting poverty effectively in these communities is unavoidably linked to sustainable management of land resources. Therefore, there is need for increased focus on SLM and development, whereby incomes of the poor can be increased but not at the expense of natural resources and the environmental services they provide. However, this will require the integration of technologies, policies and activities in the rural sector, particularly natural resources use, in such a way as to enhance economic performance while maintaining the quality and environmental functions of the natural resource base. The writer is a Senior Lecturer at the School of Forestry, Environmental and Geographical Sciences, Makerere University, Kampala, Uganda, and the President of the Society for Conservation Biology - Africa Section. E-mail: Edward.Mwavu@gmail.com
1 Sustainable Land Management is an adoption of land use systems that through appropriate management practices, enables land users to maximize economic and social benefits from the land while maintaining or enhancing ecological support functions of land resources. 2 Sustainable Land Management is “a system of technologies and /or planning that aims to integrate ecological with socio-economic and political principles in the management of land for agricultural and other purposes to achieve intra and intergenerational equity� (Dumanski, 1994; Hurni, 1996)
Miti April - June 2014
33
FORESTRY UPDATES
Making an impact in commercial forestry
Fomawa helps farmers and schools establish woodlots to make money and eventually take pressure off the Mau BY JAN VANDENABEELE
F
riends of Mau Watershed (Fomawa) was founded in 1999 by those who had become alarmed at successive dry years that threatened the health of the Mau Forest, and the rivers that flowed from it. Fomawa realised that the government alone could not save the Mau, and therefore decided to concentrate on the establishment of commercial forestry on farms and in schools, where Fomawa would be in charge. The country was facing an increasing shortage of all tree-related products - poles for power, timber and firewood; caused by a lack of produce out of Kenya Forest Service (KFS) plantations, and a rising demand from an increasing population. Fomawa’s chairman, Richard Muir, had strong connections with Finlays, the tea company in Kericho, which had very good forestry practices, and it was therefore felt that Fomawa could help to establish first-class plantations using the husbandry methods borrowed from Finlays. The aim was that the farmers and schools would make money from their plantations. Achievements Fomawa has assisted in setting up nurseries that propagate eucalyptus, pine, cypress and grevillea seedlings out of good quality seed and through appropriate nursery practices. Farmers were not accustomed to growing exotics for profit and there had been several bad experiences arising from nurseries supplying poor seedlings, which resulted in plantations of little value. So farmers had to be convinced that the long-term investment in commercial forestry had the potential to pay good dividends. A slow start was made in 2002 with Fomawa insisting that farmers who wanted to establish a plantation follow the Guide to Best Planting Practice. The trees were to be looked at as any other crop, and given the best attention. Fomawa operates in areas all around the
34
Mau, roughly from Nakuru through Njoro, Elburgon, Molo and on to Kericho and Bomet. All are high-rainfall areas with average rain higher than 1200mm per year. Fomawa’s office is at Rongai so some planting has been done around there, even though soil and climatic conditions are not ideal.
There are some 1,400 government schools around the Mau, most of which have unused land. All are short of cash and welcomed Fomawa’s idea of growing trees from which they could make money for a new classroom, or a water collection system. So far, 220 schools have enrolled into the project and
Miti April - June 2014
many more have applied to participate. These projects are undertaken with the supervision of Fomawa’s field staff. The school signs an agreement, and Fomawa then takes charge of the project. The school participates in land preparation, holing (using a tractor-mounted hole-digger) and control of grass. Fomawa supplies the seedlings, or more recently clonal gums from Finlays, and the school participates in planting and fertilising. The most expensive item is stock-proof fencing without which the young trees would be destroyed by livestock. The clonal gums planted a year ago in ideal conditions have grown so well that it has been possible to remove the fencing and allocate it to another school. Schools are focal points in communities, and farmers, after seeing what has been achieved in “their” school, have come to Fomawa requesting help to enable them plant high standard woodlots. Fomawa has given guidance and help to about 500 farmers, who have planted over one million trees covering over 800 hectares. The farmers pay for seedlings at cost, in addition to a management fee. Fomawa believes it has overcome the earlier problems it faced in establishing high quality plantations. Farmers often complain that they do not get a good enough price for poles to Kenya Power, and for firewood, which is used in huge quantities by the smallholder tea factories. Firewood costs them about one seventh the cost of oil; but they acknowledge that it is becoming increasingly difficult to get. Fomawa tells them, “Pay a price that gives the farmer an incentive, and you will get what you need while still making a substantial saving.” The snag is that the farmers are so numerous and widespread that it has not been possible for them to obtain the collective bargaining power they need for better prices. Fomawa is working hard towards achieving a fair balance that is of benefit to the grower and to the end-user. With this in mind, the Gum Growers’ Group (G3) was set up, in an attempt to unite farmers that have been growing trees with Fomawa. In addition, Fomawa is a member of the Kenya Wood Preservers’ Association, which treats poles to supply Kenya Power and the Rural Electrification Authority. Progress is being made; but slowly. Visits Miti visited two schools to see their commercial planting. Leldet Primary School is just west of
Miti April - June 2014
Salgaa and can be considered to be on the plains where the climate and soils are not ideal, but representative of a larger area than the narrow zone with high rainfall around the Mau Complex. Clonal gums (Eucalyptus grandis) in root trainers, 128 to a tray, were obtained from Finlays and planted in October 2012, rather close to dry weather for comfort. After 18 months, the trees had obtained an average of 3.5 metres in height, with survival of over 90 per cent. The aim is to grow for poles for Kenya Power. Fomawa welcomes individuals and companies to sponsor the planting in a school and this one was financed by Off-Beat Safaris. Some seven kilometres up the hill in more favourable conditions lies Sachang’wan Primary School where 200 pines (Pinus patula) and 200 cypress (Cupressus lusitanica) seedlings were planted in 2009. They are flourishing as a result of the care they have received, including good pruning. This small plantation will soon be thinned under Fomawa’s supervision. They are being grown for timber, which will be in very short supply by the time they mature. This plantation was sponsored by the Rift Valley Tree Trust. Miti also visited a one-hectare eucalyptus plantation belonging to Samuel Barnot in Sachang’wan. These were planted in 2009 and are 16 metres tall. The achievements at the two schools and one farm are most impressive and set standards of planting, and rates of growth, for others to follow. Other concerns Fomawa’s other concern is the management of government commercial forests under KFS. Fomawa does not support the concept of community forest associations (CFAs) as enshrined in the Forest Bill. Under the canopies of trees at Sachang’wan Primary School, the Miti team engaged Jacob Mwanduka, Fomawa’s Chief Executive Officer
and James Langat, a Fomawa Field Officer, in a discussion on neighbouring CFAs and the future marketing of trees. Fomawa feels strongly that CFAs partnering with KFS need to be more disciplined in their workings, and that political interference makes matters worse. Mistakes occur on both sides. “KFS sometimes brings seedlings too late for planting, and logistical facilitation, like tractors should be available,” said Mr Langat. “Farmers sometimes uproot trees and bad planting practices are common because the farmers’ prime motivation is tilling the land and producing an edible crop, not growing trees,” said Mr Mwanduka. When areas are felled, “tenants” are given one tenth of a hectare on which to grow food crops, while being expected to plant and manage tree seedlings. As a result, there has been no tree planting in a number of areas, and when it has been done, it is often of a poor standard. Fomawa has been pressing for the removal of all licences relating to felling on private land (includes schools), and to transport the trees. Growers have to visit up to six offices to get the permits. This takes a lot of time, and does not exclude bribing the police on the road. Fomawa claims that commercial forestry is not sufficiently encouraged. Fomawa’s plantation projects stand out for their high standards. This success depends on the guidance growers receive from Fomawa field staff. The field work is backed with management and accountancy to ensure that the whole ship is well run; and that every shilling spent gives a return of a much higher value. Miti is impressed by Fomawa for its competence. The writer is the Executive Director, Better Globe Forestry Email: jan@betterglobeforestry.com
35
WATER MANAGEMENT
Managing the waters of the Mara The Mara Water Users Association empowers the community to manage, protect and improve livelihoods BY WANJIRU CIIRA
T
he Mara River Water Users Association (MRWUA) is a community-based water resources management organisation. The primary objective of MRWUA is to promote the protection and conservation of the Mara River catchment area, support the sustainable and efficient use of water, assist relevant authorities with water resources management and issuance of water use permits, and resolve water conflicts, should they arise. MRWUA is engaged in environmental education, has established tree nurseries at local schools, and gives particular attention to the socio-economic benefits of biodiversity conservation. The group offers demonstrations and training in water and soil conservation best practice. MRWUA is working to protect river banks from erosion using innovative high-value fruit trees
36
along “riparian buffer strips�. Apart from capacity building and empowering local communities to manage their natural resources, MRWUA has engaged in research to obtain a sound basis for decision making for water allocation plans for new urban centres and unplanned tourist facilities within the protected areas. MRWUA has been able to access funds from both public institutions and the private sector to do the above. A prime example of such a study is the assessment of how much water actually flows in the Mara River1. The study also spells out the basic reserve flows needed to guarantee sufficient water at all times to meet basic human needs and protect ecosystems for their critical goods and services. (See graphic 1: Average Monthly Flow on the Amala River.) 1 Lake Victoria Basin Commission and WWF-ESARPO, 2010. Assessing reserve flows for the Mara River. Nairobi and Kisumu, Kenya.
The Mara River Basin The Mara River originates from the Mau Escarpment of Kenya, among swamps and remnants of a once expansive forest. The river begins its 395-kilometre journey as the Nyangores and Amala rivers. These rivers exit the forest and descend over 1,000 metres on the southern slope of the escarpment, supporting farmers, pastoralists, and emerging urban centres in the region. The Mara River Basin covers 13,500 sq km, of which about 65 per cent is in Kenya and 35 per cent in Tanzania. The river runs through farmland, dry pastures, the Maasai Mara Game Reserve on the Kenyan side and the Serengeti National Park on the Tanzanian side, both of global conservation significance and of great economic importance. It pours its water into Lake Victoria, the source of the White Nile.
Miti April - June 2014
On the Kenyan side, the Mara River Basin is divided into four main zones: Upper zone: This receives the most rainfall (1,400mm). Activities here revolve around conservation of Mau Forest and sustainable utilisation by adjacent communities. Mid-upper zone: It receives more than 1,000mm of rain. The zone is inhabited mainly by small-scale farmers who practice rain-fed agriculture. Interventions in this zone mainly involve advocating for climate-smart agriculture and protection of riparian zones. Mid-lower zone (Talek and Sand rivers): This area is relatively dry and the main activity is irrigated agriculture and livestock rearing. Interventions here are geared towards sustainable use of water and promotion of water harvesting technologies that reduce pressure on water resources, and also riparian conservation. Lower zone: This is mostly the protected areas of the Maasai Mara Game Reserve. It is a rich biodiversity area and activities here are geared towards conservation. The human population in the Mara River Basin is estimated to be growing at an annual rate of more than 3 per cent. Conversion of the area’s forests and grasslands into agricultural land has increased by more than 50 per cent in the last two decades. This has led to deforestation. In addition, extraction of the waters of the river for livestock, irrigation and other industries is on the rise. As a result, the flows and quality of the Mara River have continued to deteriorate over the years, endangering the livelihoods of communities living in the basin and important biodiversity such as wildlife that it sustains. Water conflicts could arise from competition for the scarce water resources. Indeed, in the upper basin, the recommended
25
Flow (m3/sec)
20
reserve flow level accounts for 25 per cent on average of recorded flows, which is sufficient to cover the water needs. But this is during normal, “maintenance”, years. In dry years, the reserve flow is not met for a number of months. The quality of the water is influenced by land use in the catchment area. Through research, the MRWUA found out that terracing with napier grass (Pennisetum purpureum) on steep farmland resulted in a reduction of 60 per cent of siltation. The water quality is also under threat from raw sewage from urban centres that do not treat their waste water.
History and achievements MRWUA was formed in 2003, registered with Social Services that year and with the Registrar of Societies in 2005. There are three categories of members, namely, individuals, institutions like schools and community based organisations (CBOs) and commercial interest water-users such as large-scale farmers, game ranches and hoteliers. The Association implements a Mara River
Average Monthly Flow, on Amala River (1955-95)
15 10 5 0 Jan Feb
Mar Apr May Jun
Miti April - June 2014
Jul
Aug Sep
Oct
Nov Dec
Environmental Management Initiative, whose aim is to improve forest cover, provide easy access to water, create awareness on the importance of biodiversity and improve income from the various conservation oriented activities. The latter include bee-keeping, promotion of high value trees and dairy farming. The mix of activities is geared towards achieving the main goal of water resources management. So far, MRWUA has achieved the following: Some 900 farms within the Mara Basin have been terraced and the farmers and workers trained in water management. 10 catchment management groups have been provided with dairy cows and dairy goats for livelihood improvement. 40km stretch of riverbank has been protected and affected farmers provided with avocado and other high value trees to grow in these stretches. A 40 springs providing clean water have been protected, thus reducing water-borne diseases and also time spent in search of water. Homes have been provided with energysaving stoves, thus reducing the amount of wood fuel consumed and the pressure on forests and woodlots. 60 community and school seedling nurseries have been established as a source of income and also for reforestation of denuded lands. MRWUA has a memorandum of understanding (MoU) with the Water Resources Management Authority, by which MRWUA is responsible for collection of the levies for water extraction, part of which is transferred to the government and the rest used by the Association. However, the MOU is not being honoured as the Authority continues collecting levies2. Apart from this, like many CBOs, the Association suffers from constant lack of finances. 2 The levy for commercial water use, like for lodges and farmers, is Ksh 0.5 per m3
37
To sustain its activities, MRWUA plans to: Recruit more members to strengthen the Association and increase its income. Submit proposals for funding from donors. Engage with partners and government agencies. Engage in income generating activities which promote water resources management in the basin. Enter into strategic partnerships and agreements that are mutually beneficial to all parties. Central to these efforts is the formulation of a payment for ecosystem services (PES) model for the Mara Basin. This will involve bringing in hoteliers and large-scale irrigators who rely heavily on the continued flow of the Mara River for their businesses to flourish. The PES that is currently operating around Lake Naivasha is a good example (see Miti issue 15). MRWUA stands high internationally. The Association won the prestigious Equator Prize Award in 2010, which came with a cash grant of US$ 5,000. Awarded every two years, the Equator Prize recognises outstanding local sustainable development solutions for people, nature and resilient communities. “This was a real achievement since it gave us international recognition for our efforts in conservation within the Mara Basin,” says Kennedy Onyango, MRWUA’s Technical Manager. Again in 2013, MRWUA won the Thiess International Riverprize, awarded at the 16th International River Symposium in Australia. Other finalists that MRWUA beat were from the Philippines, Russia and Australia.
Challenges and lessons learnt The diversity and size of the Mara Basin (8,000 sq km on the Kenya side) present a challenge for implementing conservation plans. MRWUA lacks important information and data for decision making and policy formulation. Most notably, the Mau Forest, the most important water catchment area of the whole river system, continues to be destroyed and occupied illegally by squatters. This endangers any long-term sustainability of the present eco-system use, including the world-famous wildebeest migrations in the Maasai Mara Game Reserve and all the economic benefits this brings to Kenya. Despite the challenges, MRWUA soldiers on and is determined to achieve its aims. The writer is the Managing Editor, Miti magazine Email: wanjiru@mitiafrica.com
38
Farmers hope to cash in on avocados
T
he Mara River Water Users Association (MRWUA) is working in partnership with Songoroi Ltd to promote the growing of avocados for export. Songoroi encourages farmers in the Amala and Mara rivers catchment areas to grow avocados as a poverty reduction initiative. One of the driving forces behind the company is Hugo Wood, otherwise known for wheat-growing and large-scale commercial farming in Narok. Songoroi Ltd has secured a contract with the Dutch supermarket chain Albert Heijn, and hopes to start exports next year. Songoroi has established two core orchards of 40 hectares each in Tibu and Tarakwai farms, both in the Mara River catchment area, and develops and sells grafted avocado seedlings to area farmers at a subsidised price. The scheme targets 800 farmers to start with, out of whom some 500 have bought seedlings. To get into the scheme, farmers pay a Ksh 2,000 fee, for which they get 80 seedlings. This means that they buy a seedling at Ksh 25, which is far less than the market rate of Ksh 100 to 120.
In addition, farmers actually pay only Ksh 1,000 initially; while the balance will be deducted from the first delivery of avocados. Most of the farmers have planted 40 to 80 seedlings, although a few have planted as many as 200. The avocado-growing project, which encompasses farmers in Mulot and Longisa divisions of Narok and Bomet counties, is expected to eventually benefit more than 2,000 farmers. Currently, farmers sell avocados in the local market at Ksh 5 per piece, which works roughly to Ksh 30 per kilogram. The farmers will get a better price when they start exporting the fruit. Kennedy Onyango, the Technical Manager of MRWUA, floats a figure of Ksh 100 per kilogram although that will depend ultimately on the market, where prices fluctuate according to the season and other factors. As a way of adding value to the fruit, Songoroi plans to set up a factory at Tibu Farm in Mulot. The farmers find the avocado-growing attractive since a tree crop allows for agroforestry and intercropping with food crops. - Jan Vandenabeele
Miti April - June 2014
WATER MANAGEMENT
Improving crop yields in drylands Trapezoidal bunds are water-harvesting methods that help bring food crops to maturity BY MOSHE FINKEL
T
rapezoidal bunds are innovative and efficient water harvesting structures for crop production in arid lands. Such areas have an annual rainfall of 200 500mm; not enough to sustain a crop. Trapezoidal bunds are cultivated areas that harvest water from larger catchment areas for improving soil moisture conditions. Rainfall from a larger catchment area is concentrated into a smaller cultivated area. The volume of water harvested should be enough to sustain a crop. Farming under such conditions differs from both rain-fed and irrigated farming. Water is harvested from a large, sloping catchment area devoid of vegetation into an area enclosed by a trapezoidal shaped embankment where appropriate crops are cultivated. Runoff from the catchment area flows into a cultivated area enclosing three sides while the upslope side is open for entry of runoff. The structure has the form of a trapezoid, consisting of a base bund connected to two wing walls extending upslope. The water harvested is stored in the soil profile; crops are planted immediately after the first rain within the same area where the water is stored; thus, water is used directly by the plants. There is no interim storage; evaporation losses are minimal. Excess water is discharged around the tips of the wings, which act as overflow structures. Excess water flows down the slope to an additional row of trapezoidal bunds. Where more than a single trapezoidal bund is built, these are spaced in rows, which are staggered, so that the overflow from the first row flows directly to the centre of the bunds in the next row. Within the cultivated area, the soils are tilled deep and mixed with manure. Crops are planted in the enclosed area that becomes flooded. This way, the crops use the water stored in the soil profile directly. There is no need for a separate intermediary storage. The technology improves the soil moisture regime, enabling provision of the extra water
Miti April - June 2014
required during the growing season to sustain crops to maturity in areas where rainfall is usually not enough to bring a crop to maturity. Simplicity of design and construction and minimal maintenance are the main advantages. Trapezoidal bunds are simple to operate and maintain by communities, with minimal government intervention. Crops grown in trapezoidal bunds should have: Low crop water requirements – less than 600mm Short maturity period – less than three months Ability to sustain flooding for three to five days Ability to survive long periods between irrigations Ability to reach maturity with three to five irrigations Success has been recorded with the growing of sorghum, millet, cowpeas, chickpeas; green grams and pigeon peas. Trapezoidal bund technology enables the production of more
food in areas where rainfall in most years is not enough to support crops to maturity. The technology makes more water available for food production in areas where rain-fed farming fails three out of four years. Trapezoidal bunds boost food security, contribute to poverty alleviation and stimulate inclusive growth. Wide usage of the technology could reduce the massive food aid that is pumped into arid lands of Kenya. Trapezoidal bunds in Kenya Arid lands of Kenya cover over 85 per cent of the land mass and are home to over 10 million people. Drought is a recurring feature in arid lands with a fairly stable return period ranging from three to four years for a minor drought and seven to ten years for a major drought. Over the last 30 years, a number of droughts have led to famine, resulting in loss of life and the need to pump in massive levels of aid, especially food. Food aid has remained a main feature of
39
A trapezoidal bund constructed by ADCL in Wayu, Tana River District, Kenya, November, 2008. (Photo: Moshe Finkel)
the local economy with up to 65 per cent of the population of the arid lands of Kenya receiving continuous food aid in various forms. In 1984 at the height of the drought in East Africa, the Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) funded a six-week consultancy assignment to Turkana District in northern Kenya to assess the options for practical implementation of water harvesting techniques to curb the famine. The report, produced by this writer, recommended a series of simple practical measures to be taken to harvest water and to grow basic crops like sorghum and millet; and sustain appropriately selected arid land trees. Based on the recommendations of the FAO report, the Norwegian Agency for Development (NORAD) in 1985 funded a four-month practically oriented training course on water harvesting techniques for Turkana technicians. The course, presented by this writer, focused mainly on design and construction of trapezoidal bunds for crop production. In the course of four months, numerous trapezoidal bunds were constructed throughout Turkana District. Many of these, specifically the 23 trapezoidal bunds constructed in Loyaal, near Kakuma, continue producing sorghum and other crops to this day. These have become showcases for the technique. In 1990 the World Bank funded the preparation of an Environmental Action Plan for the Sustainable Development of Arid and SemiArid Lands (ASAL). The action plan, prepared by this writer, attempted to set guidelines for the preparation of an overall strategy for sustainable
40
Field layout of trapezoidal bunds. (Drawning: Moshe Finkel)
development of the arid lands. The action plan put emphasis on livestock as the mainstay of the arid lands. It pointed out that development, to be sustainable, could only be achieved through a continuous dialogue with the beneficiary pastoralist communities. Any development would have to take into consideration their social and cultural attitudes to be sustainable. Among the key recommendations were: Wide-scale implementation of water harvesting technology, improved pasture, fodder crops and trees. Provision of water points along dry season trekking routes and along routes to markets. Equipping drilled boreholes along trekking routes with hand-pumps or diesel pumps for use during the dry season. The pumps would be dismantled during the wet season to avoid unnecessary use of the water and grass resources during the wet season. In 2008 and 2009, officers from the Arid Lands Resource Management Project (ALRMP), FAO and the World Food Programme (WFP) visited Turkana separately and found that the water harvesting structures recommended in 1984 and constructed in 1985 were still operational 23 years later. These were being operated by technicians trained during construction. Furthermore, it was found that numerous additional structures had been constructed by the Turkana following the guidelines imparted during the training in 1985. All this happened without any additional external funding or technical support. The World Bank-funded ALRMP Phase II has
adopted some of these techniques and approved some small-scale funding for additional water harvesting structures similar to those constructed in 1985. These were constructed in Turkana and Garissa districts by participants of the initial training. Between 2008 and 2010, Appropriate Development Consultants Ltd, (ADCL) constructed numerous trapezoidal bunds at Wayu in the hinterland of Tana River district; and at Chumvi Yare in Isiolo District. The funding was mainly from the World Food Programme (WFP), topped up with funds from The World Bank-funded Arid Lands Resources Management Project (ALRMPII) and SIDA-funded National Agriculture and Livestock Extension Project (NALEP). Many of these continue to produce food crops to date. In 2010, ADCL introduced trapezoidal bunds to the Moroto region of north-eastern Uganda. Then between 2010 and 2012, additional trapezoidal bunds and triangular micro-catchments were implemented by ADCL with five communities in Isiolo, Samburu and Mwingi districts in Kenya. Most of these have been producing food crops since then. More recently, ADCL has designed trapezoidal bunds for a number of sites in Isiolo and Garissa counties under the Water for Livestock in Isiolo and Garissa Counties of Northern Kenya Project funded by the Swiss Development Corporation (SDC). The writer is Managing Director of Appropriate Development Consultants Ltd (ADCL) Email: moshe.finkel@gmail.com
Miti April - June 2014
FIGHTING CORRUPTION BY BUILDING INTEGRITY IN AFRICAN CHILDREN
CHILD AFRICA MAKES A DIFFERENCE
THE FIGHT AGAINST
CORRUPTION MUST BEGIN WITH THE CHILDREN
FOLLOW US BINGWA Magazine
Miti Advert.indd 1
@BingwaMagazine
BingwaMagazine
www.bingwa.org
Bingwa Child Africa
3/4/14 3:23 PM