MITI 26 by Miti Magazine

Drying eucalyptus wood Greening the Ugandan Economy Cooking with a gasifier An oasis in the drylands of Tsavo Subscription only

THE TREE FARMERS MAGAZINE FOR AFRICA

A Publication of Better Globe Forestry

Bridging Kenyaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s wood deficit Hope lies in farm and dryland forestry

Sell, buy and use legal timber Procedures that support the use of lawful wood in Uganda

Touching tomorrow

Creating a forest in a harsh environment

Reaching out to the wild

Untamed trees present many commercial possibilities

I s s ue N o . 26 April - June 2 0 1 5

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LOCATION: Tabere Crescent no.4, Kileleshwa

Issue No 26 April - June 2015

Editorial

Wild trees offer business opportunities

News

WWF Uganda, NFA and the community work jointly to re-establish Navugulu CFR By Eddie Oketcho

KEFRI Open Day Uganda marks World Forestry Day

Reaching out to the wild

Untamed plants present many commercial possibilities By Gerald Eilu

Coming together to restore a forest

Greening the Ugandan Economy

Initiative seeks to restore degraded forests By Bob Kazungu

Bridging Kenya’s wood deficit

Hope lies in farm and dryland forestry By Rudolf Makhanu

Shared duties and benefits

Communities and forestry authorities manage forests jointly By Dezi Irumba and Robert Esimu

Not a walk in the park

Drying eucalyptus wood is a tough job By Nelly Oduor

Wood properties and their significance

The promise in wild fruits

Uncultivated fruit trees offer scope for domestication By Francis Gachathi

Commercial potential of oil seed trees

Nurtured, wild oil seed trees can change the economic status of communities By Francis Gachathi

Changing lives through nutrition

Botanic Treasures encourages the growing, processing and use of Moringa oleifera By Wanjiru Ciira

Untapped potential of baobab

Indigenous, wild fruit trees could improve nutrition and livelihoods By Stepha Mcmullin and Katja Kehlenbeck

Sell, buy and use legal timber

Procedures to enable the use of lawful wood Compiled by NFA

A palm of strength and beauty

Keeping healthy and saving trees

Save fuel and time by cooking with a gasifier By Mary Njenga , Miyuki Iiyama , Jan de Leeuw, Kristina Röing de Nowina , Thomas Kätterer , Geoffrey Kimutai and C. Sundberg

Empowering people for conservation

IUCN Uganda is promoting a community fund for water management By Sophie Kutegeka and Moses Egaru

The African fan palm provides nourishment in the grasslands By Gerald Eilu

Changing the lives of mango farmers

Juice processor adds value where it matters By Jan Vandenabeele

Touching tomorrow

Creating a forest in a harsh environment By Wanjiru Ciira

An oasis in the drylands of Tsavo

Sagalla Hill is a diversity hotspot that needs preserving By Jan Vandenabeele

Physical and mechanical features determine use and serviceability By Harold Turinawe

Drying eucalyptu s wood

On the cover: Flowering branch of Acacia senegal. The tree has great commercial potential as a producer of gum arabic, making it one of the most important dryland species for Africa. (Photo: Francis Gachathi)

Greening the Ugandan Economy Cooking with a gasifier An oasis in the drylands of Tsavo Subscription only A Publicat ion

of Better Globe Forestry

THE TREE FARMERS

MAGAZINE

FOR AFRIC A

Issue No.26 April - June 2015

Bridging Ken wood deficit ya’s Hope

lies in farm and dryland forest

Sell, buy and

use legal Procedures that support the use of lawful wood in Uganda

timber

Touching tom orrow

Creating a forest

in a harsh enviro

Reaching to the wildout

Untamed trees prese commercial possi nt many bilities

nment

Editorial

Wild trees offer business opportunities

here is a wealth of wild trees in Africa that can be exploited for commercial advantage. Whether this is a benefit is an open question that needs to be assessed on a case by case basis. If indeed forest resources are not managed properly, it is likely that unbridled exploitation could lead to depletion. The subject is serious and international institutions like the Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO), the World Bank and the World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF) have invested time and resources into a deeper understanding of its socio economic and other results. For our readers who want to dive more deeply into the matter, we recommend an excellent paper written by Olivier Dubois and Janet Lowore titled “The journey towards collaborative forest management in Africa: Lessons learned and some navigational aids.” It is at the same time an overview and a summary. As usual however, we in Miti magazine want to emphasise the positive money-making side. There are many examples of successful collaborative forest management involving different stakeholders and we want to highlight them without being blinded by the dangers. As such, in this issue Gerald Eilu exhorts us to be cautious when tapping into the possibilities of domesticating untamed plants for commercial purposes. Francis Gachathi underlines the possibilities, especially the commercial potential of fruit, oil seed and gum-producing trees. Eddie Oketcho explains how in Uganda, WWF, NFA and the community can work together and Bob Kazungu explains the roadmap for greening Uganda’s economy over the next 10 years. Dezi Irumba and Robert Esimu share the duties and benefits of collaborative forest management. Sophie Kutegeka and Moses Egaru explain how IUCN Uganda is promoting a community fund for water management. On a more technical side, Nelly Oduor’s article is an eye-opener for those who believe drying eucalyptus properly is an easy task while Harold Turinawe points out the physical and mechanical properties of wood and their significance. Interesting reading is the contribution of Mary Njenga and her colleagues on cooking with a gasifier for health benefits and to save trees. Last but not least, Wanjiru Ciira reminds us that the moringa tree can change lives by providing proper nutrition. On his part, Jan Vandenabeele reports on his visit to Malindi Natural Juice Processors and how the industry has changed the lives of mango farmers in the region. Happy reading. Jean-Paul Deprins

Published by:

Chairman of the Editorial Board:

Managing Editor

Better Globe Forestry Ltd No. 4, Tabere Crescent, Kileleshwa P.O. Box 823 – 00606 Nairobi, Kenya Tel: + 254 20 434 3435 Mobile: + 254 722 758 745 Email: kenya@mitiafrica.com www.betterglobeforestry.com

Rino Solberg

Wanjiru Ciira

Uganda office: MITI MAGAZINE ® Plot 92, Luthuli Avenue, Bugolobi P.O. Box 22232 Kampala, Uganda Mobile: + 256 775 392 597 Email: uganda@mitiafrica.com www.betterglobeforestry.com

Editor-in-chief

Technical Editor

Jean-Paul Deprins

Jan Vandenabeele

Editorial Committee - Kenya

Country Director - Uganda Julie Solberg

Joshua Cheboiwo, Francis Gachathi, Keith Harley, Enock Kanyanya, James Kung’u, Rudolf Makhanu, Fridah Mugo, Jackson Mulatya, Mary Njenga, Alex Oduor, Leakey Sonkoyo, Jean-Paul Deprins, Jan Vandenabeele and Wanjiru Ciira

Country Representative - Uganda Diana Ahebwe

Editorial Committee - Uganda

Designer

Hillary Agaba, Robert Bariiho, Patrick Byakagaba, Gerald Eilu, Sarah Akello Esimu, Gilbert Kadilo, Dennis Kavuuma, Buyinza Mukadasi, Alice Okecha and Diana Ahebwe

Miti April - June 2015

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NEWS

Uganda marks International Day of Forests BY DIANA AHEBWE

ganda joined the rest of the world in commemorating the International Day of Forests on March 21, 2015. The celebrations started on March 19 with the launching of the National Forestry Consultative Forum, organised by the Forestry Sector Support Department. The activities at the forum included the launch of the Greening Economy Programme, update on the on-going nationwide forest landscape restoration assessment (The Bonn Challenge), and Uganda Forestry Working Group engagements on forest governance. There was also an exhibition of a range of forestry products, service providers and product processing equipment, among others. Celebrations for the International Day of Forests proper were held at St Paul’s Vocational School, Katojo in Rukungiri District under the theme “Forests for climate justice”. The celebrations aimed to raise awareness for sustainable management of forests, conservation and sustainable development of all forests for the benefit of current and future

generations as well as establish linkages between forests and climate change. The event was attended by the Minister of Water and Environment, Ephraim Kamuntu, who represented President Yoweri Museveni, and the State Minister of Water and Environment, Flavia Munaaba. Other dignitaries who attended included the District

Forest Officer, the District Education Officer, the Chief Administrative Officer NGOs, students and members of the community. The writer is the Country Representative, Miti magazine, Uganda Email:diana@mitiafrica.com

KEFRI’s CHERP hosts an Open Day BY SAMUEL WAKORI

he Kenya Forestry Research Institute (KEFRI) is mandated to develop technologies that tackle and improve forestry and environmental matters. The organisation is also mandated to disseminate the research findings to the endusers as well as stakeholders, collaborators and other clientele through different strategies, including Open Days. According to the performance contract of the Central Highlands Eco-Region Programme (CHERP) of KEFRI, research findings are released every year. It is with this in mind that CHERP organised an Open Day on March 19, 2015 at the KEFRI headquarters grounds. Displays at the Open Day covered the following sub-themes: • High quality tree seeds • Propagation of sandalwood (Osyris), bamboo, mukau (Melia volkensii) and camphor • Grafting of indigenous trees (Meru oak) • Forest health (pathology and entomology) • Soil analysis and improvement practices

• Best farm forestry practices • Rehabilitation of forests and water towers • Climate change issues • Forest products and harvesting • Non wood products e.g. aloe and indigenous fruits • Briquette-making and the stages of carbonising; simple drum kilns

• Bamboo processing, timber products and preservation • Fancy items made from waste wood Some 900 farmers attended the event. There were also 1,430 students from four universities, 18 secondary schools and 24 primary schools.

Miti April - June 2015

LEAD THEME

Many indigenous tree and shrub species have potential for commercialisation, and are often used by traditional healers. One example is Synadenium compactum, the African milk bush. (Photo: Jan Vandenabeele)

Reaching out to the wild There is commercial potential in domestication of untamed plants, but we need to exercise caution BY GERALD EILU

he cultivation of plants has been carried out by all human cultures including some nomadic societies such as the Karamojong of north eastern Uganda as well as the Maasai of Kenya and Tanzania. Cultivation has shaped patterns of settlement for decades. Wild plants are used by many people because of their relatively or seemingly low costs in the context of poor infrastructure, social services, food, cultural and religious preferences. The commercial cultivation of native plants for horticulture and land rehabilitation is a huge industry. Hence, the plants, particularly the domesticated ones, play a very important role in trade and wealth creation. The markets are teaming with fruits, vegetables, cereals, and various root crops like cassava and sweet potatoes that are sold

Miti April - June 2015

to provide for livelihoods. The markets are also awash with various plant product - roots, bark, leaves and seeds - in the form of herbal medicines or products. There are numerous cultural and religious uses of plants. During Palm Sunday, for instance, Christians carry palm leaves as part of the celebrations. On Valentine’s Day, lovers exchange roses. Of late in Uganda, the landscape has been transformed and is now covered with plantations of exotic plants – pines and eucalyptus – established for provision of timber and other wood products. Eucalyptus and pine plantations are thus an important part of the East African wood industry. The direct sale of live plants is much less prominent. However, in Uganda we see several plant nurseries by the roadsides – all of them

selling ornamentals. Some of these are examples of the commercialisation of plants. Native plant species are being investigated for their potential for pasture, food, and for use in the pharmaceutical industry. The sale of native or indigenous wild plants does not feature prominently in Uganda. People prefer exotic plants. This article explores opportunities for commercialisation of native wild plant species, starting with domestication.

Challenges in the commercialisation of wild plants The use and trade of plants for medicinal and cultural use has recently come under the scrutiny of economists, environmentalists, social scientists, policy-makers and trade organisations because of the untapped potential. Medicinal

plants are recognised, for example, as the basis for a number of critical human health, social and economic support systems. However, there are many challenges to be addressed before the commercialisation of wild plants is realised. The most important of these include: • Unsustainable harvesting of wild plant stocks which threatens species and habitats; • Poor regulation of product standards which threatens human lives; • An influx of new commercial interests that threatens cultural identity, knowledge systems and economic opportunities; and • Limited regulatory capacity that limits enforcement of sustainability and quality standards. Limited knowledge about the use and trade of medicinal plants constrains interventions to support and develop the industry for the benefit of stakeholders. The trade in wild plants and products in Uganda and eastern Africa is largely informal and underdeveloped, with limited value-addition. However, the current players in the wild plants industry have an opportunity to catch the rising tide of international interest in the commercial development of wild plant resources. The successful commercialisation of plants, however, requires a clear understanding of the demand and supply of the plants and of their products. Beyond East Africa, commercialisation requires this information on local, regional, national and possibly international contexts. Marketing and promotion of wild plants and their products may require capital investments that may be realised through partnerships. Domestication is certainly one of the routes towards the commercialisation of wild plants. Domestication may, however, subject wild varieties of plants to direct and indirect changes that may adversely affect their ability to survive. It is necessary that these changes are considered when native flora cultivation is proposed.

Domestication of wild plants Plants like the Aframomum species, Cyphomandra betacea (tree tomato), Mondia whitei (African ginger), Vitellaria paradoxa (shea tree) and aloes have been over-exploited in the recent past for food, medicine or oil. The domestication of these plants would provide a good opportunity for protecting the wild populations and ensuring a reliable supply of products from these species. This would involve teaching farmers cultivation techniques such as grafting of wild plants for

commercialisation. The advantage of commercialising wild flora is that enterprises would earn more money through value addition. Still, the possibility of losing genetic diversity remains high because once a plant has been domesticated, it becomes different from its wild counterpart. As such, more research needs to be done to find the best way to domesticate wild plants without eroding the genetic diversity.

crops or for subsequent replenishment and cross breeding of cultivated native flora The potential for genetic transfer between cultivated flora and local populations of native flora The potential for escape of cultivated flora into the wild in regions where these species or varieties are not indigenous. Specific regulations are thus needed to guide the commercialisation process.

Potential for commercialisation

Tree species for commercialisation

Eastern Africa is home to a significant plant diversity, substantial indigenous knowledge of plant uses, and a large number of active players in harvesting, use and trade of plants. These can be tapped for the development and commercialisation of wild plants. Gatherers who collect wild plants represent the poorest economic link in the trade chain. Tracing the commercial path of wild plants from the field to the market shows that only a small fraction of the consumer price goes back to the collectors. Conservation programmes for wild flora have to be applied within an organisational framework of the gatherers and peasants.

A word of caution The commercialisation of wild plants must be approached with caution. The cultivation of native plants for commercialisation is definitely preferable to commercial harvesting from the wild. However, it is essential to ensure that the cultivation of native plants is done in such a way as to ensure that there will be no adverse impacts on biodiversity. The adverse impacts could result from: Collecting of genetic material from the wild for the initial establishment of commercial

The selection of plant species for commercialisation should be done with utmost care. Multiple purpose species are recommended. These provide multiple uses such as food, medicine, essential oils, timber or shade, among others. The list is endless and selection can be made based on various sources of literature like Useful trees and shrubs for Uganda; Useful trees and shrubs for Tanzania and Useful trees and shrubs for Kenya. Experts, herbaria, tree nurseries and botanical gardens are other potential sources of advice. An increase in the demand for wild plants will increase pressure on natural resources. This would in turn create challenges in sustainability, conservation of plant resources and welfare of communities. The strategy should be to form strong partnerships with local, national and international institutions to enable natural resources to be developed into financial assets. The writer is an Associate Professor at the Department of Forestry, Biodiversity and Tourism, Makerere University, Kampala, Uganda Email: gerald.eilu@gmail.com

Miti April - June 2015

LEAD THEME

The promise in wild fruits Uncultivated fruit trees offer potential for domestication and commercialisation BY FRANCIS GACHATHI

Vitex payos leaves and flowers.

Miti April - June 2015

is among such institutions. Under the Forest Products Development Programme, headed by Dr Joseph Githiomi, scientists have developed various products from the fruits of Vitex payos (black plum), Adansonia digitata (baobab) and Tamarindus indica (tamarind). Work is going on to determine the nutritional composition of these fruits and details could be obtained from the lead scientists - Rose Chiteva and Oscar Mayunzu. This article highlights six indigenous fruits with potential for domestication and subsequent commercialisation. Vitex payos Vitex payos, commonly known as black plum, is a deciduous, medium-sized tree about 8m high with rounded low crown and square branchlets. It has grey-brown, deeply fissured bark. The leaves are compound, each with five leaflets which are roughly hairy on the upper side and softly hairy beneath. It has small pale blue flowers borne in dense heads. The fruits are oblong, about 2.5cm, smooth and shiny, with

a persistent calyx cup, green with white dots, turning black and soft-skinned on ripening. It is closely related to Meru oak (Vitex keniensis), the timber tree, both being in the same family, Verbenaceae. The ripe fruits have black and mealy pulp which is sweet and edible, surrounding a large nut. There are about 200 fruits per kg. They are commonly sold in local markets during the fruit ripening season, usually between April and July. They are usually eaten directly but also used to make juice and jam. Black plum occurs in hot, low semi-arid areas, in wooded grasslands at elevations of 0 - 1,600m. It prefers sandy soils in steep rocky sites with average annual rainfall between 650 850mm. It is common in Kitui, Embu, Machakos, Kilifi and Kwale counties, frequently maintained around homesteads and farms in an agroforestry situation. Propagation of Vitex payos is through seed. Vitex payos is well known wherever it grows and has a local name. These names include

(Photos: Francis Gachathi)

ild fruits are important nonwood forest products (NWFPs) that can be exploited sustainably without felling trees. Wild fruits make supplemental, seasonal and emergency contributions to household food supplies. Communities exploit these resources for subsistence and also for commercial gain. Subsistence exploitation, which involves collection of fruits for use as food, is common in times of food scarcity. Commercial exploitation involves collection for sale in local markets, helping to generate additional household income. This is particularly important for small-scale, resource-poor farmers. In recent years, a number of institutions have endeavoured to add value to the commercial exploitation of wild fruits by making jam, juice and wine. This improves the shelf life of the fruits and ensures their continued availability to consumers even during off-season periods. The Kenya Forestry Research Institute (KEFRI) Forest Products Research Centre at Karura

Vitex payos juice

Baobab fruit. (Photo: Francis Gachathi)

Baobab seeds. (Photo: Jan Vandenabeele)

Baobab tree. (Photo: Francis Gachathi)

mfudu (Digo, Rabai, Giriama and Swahili); mburu (Embu); kimuu (Kamba): muburu (Mbeere); and muuru (Meru). Adansonia digitata Adansonia digitata, commonly known as baobab, is an impressive deciduous tree that grows to about 20m high. It has a massive swollen trunk, often branching from near the ground. Leaves are compound, borne on a long petiole, divided into 5 - 7 leaflets, but seedlings have simple leaves. The tree bears white flowers on long hanging stalks that are unpleasantly scented, opening at night to attract pollinating bats. The

fruit is large, up to 35 by 13cm, egg-shaped and covered with yellowish-brown hairs. It is filled with many seeds embedded in a creamcoloured, dry, edible pulp. The pulp from the fruit is eaten raw or added to sour porridge. Lumps of dry pulp with the seeds embedded within are dyed in bright colours and sold as sweets. A refreshing drink and jam is made from the fruit pulp. Seeds are fried and eaten. The seed kernel contains cooking oil. Leaves are used as fodder for animals, while the fibre from the bark is used to make string for weaving baskets and ropes. The baobab is well adapted to the high humidity coastal climate but extends inland in

the hot and dry Acacia-Commiphora bushland up to 1,200m elevation. It is often left standing when land is cleared. It thrives in well-drained red sandy loam soils with 300 - 900mm annual rainfall. Inland, it is particularly common in Kibwezi, Taveta, Kitui, Mwingi and Meru National Park. Baobab is propagated by seedlings through direct sowing. Germination normally takes about three months but can take 30 - 50 days if seeds are treated. Treatment is by nicking or briefly immersing them in hot water. There are between 1,500 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 2,500 seeds per kg, depending on the provenance and the climatic conditions during the ripening year.

Tamarind fruits.

(Photos: Francis Gachathi)

Tamarind jam, a product of the Forest Produce Research Centre, KEFRI - Karura.

Tamarind Juice

Miti April - June 2015

Marula tree (Photo: Francis Gachathi)

Local names for the baobab include muyu (Bajun); muuyu (Digo and Giriama); musemba (Embu); muamba (Kamba); olmesera (Maasai); mubuyu (Malakote); muramba (Mbeere); muiramba (Meru); yak (Orma); yaaq (Somali); mbuyu (Swahili); mlamba (Taita); and muramba (Tharaka). Tamarindus indica Tamarindus indica, commonly known as tamarind, is an evergreen tree about 20m high with widespread dense crown and drooping branches. It has a short thick bole with rough, grey-brown, flaking bark. The leaves are compound with 10 - 18 pairs of leaflets. It has yellow flowers with scarlet veins. The pods are sausage-shaped, about 10cm long, rusty brown, cylindrical but often irregularly constricted, cracking when mature to reveal a sticky brown fibrous edible pulp surrounding dark brown angular seeds. Tamarind is valued mostly for its fruit, especially the sweet and sour pulp, which is used for a wide variety of domestic and industrial purposes such as making tamarind juices, beverages and medicines. Pulp from overripe fruits is used to clean brass and copper. Locally, most common uses include souring porridge, flavouring or even sweetening various meals and drinks such as tea, curries, rice, bread, salads and sauces. It has medicinal uses as well. Tamarind is one of the most commonly traded indigenous fruits in the country, and can be home-processed and preserved for a time. A mature tree can produce up to 175kg of fruit per year. These fruits are sold in shops in major towns – for example on Biashara Street, Nairobi. Tonnes

Miti April - June 2015

Marula fruits (Photo: Jan Vandenabeele)

of ripe fruits are transported from upcountry to coastal towns for sale. The fruit ripening season is July – August. Tamarind is widely distributed in the country, occurring in most low drier areas below 1,300m, with annual rainfall between 250 – 1,200mm. It is common in the semi-arid areas, along rivers, preferring sandy and alluvial soils as well as rocky sites. It is easily propagated through seed. Tamarind is known by a wide variety of local names that include ukwaju (Bajun); roqa (Boran); mkwadzu (Digo); muthithi (Embu); mkwaju (Giriama); kithumula (Kamba); lemecwet (Kipsigis); kumukhuwa (Luhya); ochwaa (Luo); oloisijoi (Maasai); aron (Marakwet); muthithi (Mbeere); lamayuet (Nandi); rogei (Samburu); roqhe (Somali); mkwaju (Swahili); arwe (Tugen); epeduru (Turkana). Sclerocarya birrea Sclerocarya birrea, commonly known as marula, is a deciduous tree, about 10m high, with a rounded crown. It has a stout bole with blackish, mottled bark. Leaves are crowded at tips of branches, compound, with 3 - 18 pairs of leaflets. Male and female flowers are borne on the same or separate trees, the male flowers producing pollen and the female flowers producing the fruit. The fruits are round and fleshy with light yellow skin and white flesh, about 3.5cm across, containing a hard stone with two to three oily seeds. Marula is related to the mango, both belonging to the family Anacardiaceae. In Kenya, the marula fruits and seeds are mostly eaten fresh as collected. The ripe fruit is known to be rich in vitamin C. The wood is used to make various items such

as beehives, grain mortars, bowls, spoons and carvings. Elsewhere, Sclerocarya birrea is used commercially. In South Africa, for instance, the fruit pulp is used to make the Amarula liqueur, while marula oil is extracted from the seed kernel. The oil is used in food and as an ingredient for cosmetics. In Kenya, Sclerocarya birrea is widely distributed in wooded grasslands and on rocky hillsides between elevations of 500 - 1,600m. It is fairly common in Baringo, West Pokot, Lambwe Valley and Moyale, doing best on sandy loam soils and dry rocky riverbeds. The tree is propagated through seed or cuttings. Fruit ripening season is usually between April and July. Local names for the marula tree include: didisa (Boran); mng’ongo (Digo and Swahili); mfula (Giriama); lmangwa (Ilchamus); muuw’a (Kamba); ong’ong’o (Luo); olmang’uai (Maasai); arol (Marakwet); mura (Meru); orolwo (Pokot); kotelalam (Sabaot); tololokwo (Tugen); and ekajiket (Turkana). Grewia tenax Grewia tenax is a multi-stemmed, deciduous shrub about 4m high. It has very fibrous, whitish grey stems with longitudinal streaks. Leaves are slightly sandpapery, round to ovate and usually toothed along the margin. The flowers are white or pink, often opposite the leaves. The small fruits are divided into 3 - 4 lobes attached to each other, and turn orange to red when ripe. Grewia tenax is highly valued in the drylands as essential food for pastoralists and fodder for their animals. Both ripe and unripe fruits are

(Photos: Francis Gachathi)

eaten raw. The fruit may be pounded, dried and preserved for a time. A very refreshing juice is made by extracting the fresh pulp in water. The fibre from the bark is used in hut construction, for making bows and arrow shafts and as medicine. Grewia tenax is highly drought resistant and occurs even in semi-desert conditions. It is widely distributed in the drylands from the coast to 1,250m elevation, preferring rocky, red, sandy soils along dry water courses.

(Photos: Francis Gachathi)

Grewia tenax, a small bush from dry areas, produces fruits that are highly appreciated by pastoralists, eaten both ripe and unripe.

Juice from Grewia tenax.

Local names for Grewia tenax include deeka (Boran); dâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;eeka (Gabra); mkone kilaa (Giriama); ilkogomi (Ilchamus); oirri (Maasai); toronwo (Pokot); mulahanyo (Rendille); ikarayoi (Samburu); amasha, deka (Somali); taran (Tugen); and engomo (Turkana). Ximenia americana Ximenia americana commonly known as spiny plum, wild plum or tallow nut, is a shrub or small tree about 4m high with sharp

straight spines. The leaves are yellowish-green, oblong or elliptic, often folded along the midrib, rounded or notched at the apex, clustered on short shoots. The flowers are small, greenish white, very fragrant, in small clusters, on shoots or on spines. The fruit is oval or round, about 3cm in diameter, greenish when young, orange-red or yellow when ripe, containing juicy edible pulp and one seed. The fruits have a pleasant, plum-like flavour. As well as being pleasant to eat raw, wild plum fruit can be used to make juice, wine as well as jams and jellies. The oil of the seed is also edible and used for cooking. The bark, fruit, and leaves have several medicinal uses. Ximenia americana is drought resistant, found on many kinds of soils, often poor and dry, including clays, clay loams, loamy sands, sandy clay loams and sands. It is a useful tree in arid and semi-arid areas with a wide distribution from coast to 2,000m elevation. Local names for the wild plum include: uda (Boran); mtundukula (Digo and Giriama); lam (Ilchamus); mutula (Kamba); muruli (Luhya); olemo (Luo); olamai (Maasai); kunyat (Marakwet); mutuura (Mbeere); hudahudo (Orma); kinyotwo (Pokot); lamai (Samburu); and elamai Turkana). The writer is Principal Research Officer, Kenya Forestry Research Institute (KEFRI) Email: gachathif@yahoo.com

Ximenia americana, fruiting branch

Ximenia americana, orange-red fruits

Miti April - June 2015

LEAD THEME

Commercial potential of oil seed and gum trees If nurtured, wild trees can change the economic status of communities BY FRANCIS GACHATHI

eed oils, gums and gum resins represent a group of non-wood tree products (NWTPs) with potential for alleviating rural poverty while increasing the sustainability of our forests. These are tree-derived products but for which it is not necessary to fell the tree. By complementing wood-based management, NWTPs offer a basis for managing forests in a more sustainable way and therefore support biodiversity conservation. This article highlights seed oils from Croton megalocarpus and Calodendrum capense, plant gums from Acacia senegal and gum resins from Commiphora holtziana. Croton megalocarpus, popularly known as croton, is a deciduous spreading tree, growing to 35m in height, with layered branches. It has grey, rough and cracking bark. Leaves are dull green on the upper surface and silvery green on the underside. Flowers are pale yellow, in hanging spikes, opening after heavy rains but very short-lived. Fruits are 3-valved grey woody capsules containing three flattened brownish seeds. Croton is related to the castor oil plant (Ricinus communis), the candlenut (Aleurites moluccana) and physic nut (Jatropha curcas). The seeds of croton contain oil that can be processed to produce high-quality biodiesel, usable in a standard diesel engine. The hard, yellow wood produces very good charcoal. When in flower, croton attracts a lot of bees foraging for nectar, resulting in excellent white honey. Croton oil is a strong laxative and the tree has other medicinal uses. Croton occurs in dry forests and scattered tree grassland between 900 – 2,100m. It is common around Nairobi and on hilltop forests in the drylands. It is propagated by seeds through direct sowing. Fresh seeds germinate within 7 40 days. There are about 1,600 – 1,800 seeds per kg. Seeds are available between October and February in most areas. The oily seeds cannot be stored for long; they are better sown fresh. They are relished by various rodents particularly rats and squirrels. Local names for Croton megalocarpus include

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nyapo (Boran); nyaeppo (Duruma); nyaap’po (Gabra); muyama (Giriama); muthulu (Kamba); mukinduri (Kikuyu and Meru); masineitet (Kipsigis); musine (Luhya); ol-mergueit (Maasai); masineitet (Nandi); lameruguet (Samburu); mukigara (Taita) and ortuet (Tugen). Calodendrum capense Calodendrum capense, commonly known as

Cape chestnut, is a deciduous tree that grows to about 15m, with a spreading crown, almost bare for several months. It has grey smooth bark. The leaves are opposite, with prominent parallel veins below. Flowers are very showy, pinkish white with pale pink dots, in erect terminal heads, covering the tree canopy. Fruit is a round, 5-lobed capsule, covered in warty prickles, cracking open into a

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Mature fruits of Cape chestnut, with the black seeds inside. (Photo: Francis Gachathi)

star-like structure when mature and dry. The seeds are shiny black and angled. Cape chestnut seeds contain valuable oil used for beauty care and soaps. The oil has a reputation for ultra-violet protection. It is largely traded under the name yangu or Cape chestnut oil. The timber is durable and suitable for furniture/ joinery, general construction and surgical splints. Flowers attract many honey bees.

Cape chestnut is very wide-spread. It is common in all highland evergreen dry forests such as Karura and Ngong. It is adapted to a wide range of soil types, including black cotton. The tree is widely planted as ornamental because of its beautiful showy flowers. It is propagated through seed where one kilogram may contain between 600 and 1,000 seeds. Local names for the Cape chestnut include:

A three-year- old trial plantation of Acacia senegal at BGFâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s plantation at Lake Kiambere (ex-Mwingi district). (Photo: BGF)

yangu (Kamba); muraracii (Kikuyu); kipkaria or sasuriet (Kipsigis); ol-larashi or enkarash (Maasai); mujai or mujura (Meru); kipkarkuriat (Nandi); ocharasliit (Pokot); larachi (Samburu); mogorusi (Taita) and murei (Taveta).

Gums and gum resins Plant gums and gum resins are important forest products from the drylands. The products have the potential for driving economic development of drylands communities. One advantage of these resources is their ability to produce marketable products in the dry season when forage is scarce, thereby allowing the communities to be occupied in a meaningful economic activity. Acacia senegal Acacia senegal, currently known as Senegalia senegal, after changing the genus name, is commonly known as the gum arabic tree. It is a very variable tree or shrub generally recognised by its three curved thorns at the nodes, the lateral ones more or less directed forward in the direction of growth and the median one hooked backwards. The tree has grey yellow bark, rough or smooth, papery and peeling. It has white flowers in a spike. Pods are flat, papery, yellowish brown when dry, splitting to release 2 - 5 subcircular greenish brown seeds. In Kenya, Acacia senegal exhibits three growth habits called varieties - senegal, leiorhachis and kerensis. The kerensis variety, which is shrubby with yellowish-brown peeling bark and rarely exceeding 4m in height, is the

Miti April - June 2015

Gum arabic from Acacia senegal (Photo: Francis Gachathi)

Gum resin, hagar, from Commiphora holtziana. (Photo: Francis Gachathi)

main gum arabic producing variety in Kenya, while in other countries like Sudan, Chad and Nigeria, it is the senegal variety. Acacia senegal is the source of gum arabic of international commerce. The gum exudes from the stem and main branches but the flow is generally stimulated by tearing off a thin strip of the bark (tapping). After about two weeks, it hardens on exposure to air, usually forming round or oval “tears” which are pale yellow to orange in colour. Commercial gum arabic production is confined to northern Kenya drylands and particularly in Turkana, Samburu, Isiolo, Marsabit and Mandera counties. Hundreds of tonnes are collected from these areas every year for export and for local industries. Collection of gum arabic is highly dependent on weather. A good rain season followed by dry hot weather ensures a good harvest. The main production season is usually from July to October. Gum arabic is used in three main subsectors – the food industry, the pharmaceutical industry and technical areas such as printing, ceramics and textiles. It is a natural emulsifier, binding substances that would not normally mix well. Pharmaceutical companies use it to keep medicines from separating into their different ingredients and it makes printing ink more cohesive and permanent. The gum is eaten as food, while leaves and pods are good fodder, particularly for camels and goats. The tree is a good source of bee forage as

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Commiphora holtziana tree, Garba Tula, Isiolo County, Kenya. (Photo: Francis Gachathi)

it flowers profusely. Acacia senegal is a common acacia in drylands. It is found on rocky limestone hills and ridges and on sandy plains, most common between 400 – 1,100 metres above sea level with 300 - 550mm mean annual rainfall. It is propagated through direct sowing of fresh seed. For better germination results, soak seeds in hot water and leave to cool overnight or nick the seed coat. The seeds germinate within 10 - 20 days. There are about 8,000 - 12,000 seeds per kg. Local names for the gum arabic tree include: idado or baabido (Boran); idaado (Gabra); king’ole, king’olola (Kamba); enderkesi (Maasai); mung’ora (Mbeere); chemanga (Pokot); hadhaadh or mirgi (Rendille); lderkesi for the tree and manok for the gum (Samburu); edad (Somali); kikwata (Swahili); mung’oora (Tharaka);and ekunoit (Turkana). Commiphora holtziana (C. erythraea) Commiphora holtziana, commonly known as haggersu is a tree that grows to 3 -7m high. It has smooth, whitish to yellowish or bluish grey bark, often with pink spots, peeling in large irregular papery flakes. Leaves are 3-foliolate or a few 5-foliolate on long shoots. The fruit is oval, about 10 x 8mm. When injured, the bark of haggersu exudes a pale yellow liquid that hardens to a yellowish brown semi-transparent aromatic oily mass known as sweet myrrh, opoponax or hagar in Boran. This oleo-gum resin is of considerable

economic importance to the people in drylands of north-eastern Kenya. It has an established market since ancient times and has been a key component of perfumes, incense and ritual purification since biblical times. Essential oil from the sweet myrrh is used in various therapeutic preparations and in cosmetics. Tonnes of sweet myrrh are collected yearly for export and for local industries. Locally, sweet myrrh is mixed with cow’s milk and used to kill ticks, mites and fleas. It is also used to treat mange, scabies, foot rot, wounds, snake and scorpion bites. The wood is used to make household containers, headrests and writing boards. Trunks of old trees are used to make beehives. Commiphora holtziana is found in AcaciaCommiphora woodland on well-drained red sandy soil overlying limestone, between altitudes 100 – 1,100m with annual rainfall of 250 - 600mm. It is particularly common in Garbatula, Wajir, Moyale and Mandera. It is easily propagated by large cuttings, often planted as a live fence. Local names of Commiphora holtziana include haggersu ferda for the tree, and hagar for the resin (Boran); sweet myrrh (English); agarsu (Gabra); hagar-ad or hagar jerer (Somali) and mwagari (Taita). The writer is Principal Research Officer, Kenya Forestry Research Institute (KEFRI) Email: gachathif@yahoo.com

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Changing lives through nutrition Botanic Treasures encourages the growing, processing and use of Moringa oleifera BY WANJIRU CIIRA

lizabeth Mbogo-Mwenda, the Managing Director of Botanic Treasures, stumbled into the Moringa oleifera business by chance. In 2007, Ms Mbogo-Mwenda, who had just had her second child, was working in the film industry. “We were producing a commercial and I was greatly stressed,” she says. Probably because of the pressure at work, she did not have enough milk to breastfeed her new-born. Ms Mbogo-Mwenda decided to look for traditional remedies. At the time, her husband, Collins Mwenda, an agronomist, was working in Ukambani “I requested him to ask the community what they give to nursing mothers to increase their milk,” explains Ms Mbogo-Mwenda. Her husband brought back some moringa powder. Ms Mbogo-Mwenda took the powder and her milk increased. That’s when she decided to research on the tree and its properties on the Internet. “I was pleasantly surprised to find a lot of information on moringa on the Internet,” she says. “The tree is thoroughly researched and all the information is on the Net.” Armed with this information, Ms MbogoMwenda decided to introduce the powder to her mother and her mother-in-law who had health challenges. “After taking moringa for a while, my mother’s blood sugar became normal,” says Ms Mbogo-Mwenda. “My mother-in-law’s hot flushes stopped and the swelling on her feet went down.” The following year, 2008, Ms MbogoMwenda resigned from her job and she and her husband founded Botanic Treasures, a social enterprise, to encourage the growing of Moringa oleifera, its processing and ultimately, its use in the population. The mission of the organisation is “Transforming livelihoods through nutrition.” The enterprise has an overall aim of creating natural health products for combating malnutrition, degenerative diseases, food security and uplifting the economic standards of small-holder farmers, mostly in arid and semi-arid areas. The Mwendas started growing Moringa

oleifera in Kibwezi, as well as encouraging and training farmers in Malindi, Yatta, Emali, Wote, Mbeere, Meru and Tharaka to grow the trees. In addition, Botanic Treasures has partnered with the Green Belt Movement to train farmers on growing and using moringa. The enterprise trains farmers to grow moringa, organises collection of the leaves and seeds of the tree, transports, processes, brands, markets and distributes the processed products. The products are available at a number of outlets, mainly in Nairobi. Botanic Treasures offers marginalised farmers in arid and semi-

arid regions of Kenya a plant that can survive relatively harsh climatic conditions. This will aid in sustaining a healthy working nation, spur economic growth and food security. In addition, the social enterprise has created 11 direct fulltime employment opportunities. “We also undertake research and development of moringa products and other nutritious and medicinal crops in partnership with organisations like KEMRI - the Kenya Medical Research Institute, KEFRI- the Kenya Forestry Research Institute and KARI – the Kenya

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Agricultural Research Institute1,” says Ms MbogoMwenda. “Moringa has multiple uses,” says Ms MbogoMwenda. “It is a cash crop, a vegetable, fodder for animals, a water purifier, is used in cosmetics and has numerous health benefits.” Moringa is used in different parts of the world for managing a host of disorders. These include arthritis and other joint pain, for asthma, constipation, diabetes, epilepsy, stomach pain and intestinal ulcers, high blood pressure, kidney stones, and bacterial, fungal, viral, and parasitic infections. Moringa is also used to reduce swelling, boost the immune system, and increase breast milk production. Some people use it as a nutritional supplement or tonic. Moringa is sometimes applied directly to the skin as a germ-killer or drying agent (astringent). It is also used topically for treating pockets of infection such as athlete’s foot, dandruff, gum disease, snakebite, warts and wounds. Oil from moringa seeds is used in foods, perfumes, and hair care products, and as a machine lubricant. Ms Mbogo-Mwenda would like people to embrace moringa as part of their lifestyle. For this reason, she has enrolled for a degree in nutrition and is working on a recipe book. “One of the reasons why people get discouraged from taking moringa is that they do not like the taste,” she says. As such, if she could show people ways of making the herb more palatable, she would be on the way to achieving Botanic Treasure’s mission of transforming lives through nutrition. With the growing awareness of the health benefits of moringa, the international market has taken note. Last year, Botanic Treasures received an order for the supply of 15 tonnes of moringa nuts. “We were however unable to service the order because of lack of organic certification,” explains Ms Mbogo-Mwenda. “We have now started the organic certification process.” Another challenge the social enterprise faces is the poor road network in some parts where their out-growers are located. “When it rains the farmers are unable to take the produce to the collection centres,” says Ms MbogoMwenda. Challenges aside, taking into account the increasing swing to natural products for health, Botanic Treasures can look forward to better times ahead. The social enterprise is on the way to fulfilling its mission of “Transforming livelihoods through nutrition.” The writer is the Managing Editor, Miti magazine Email: wanjiru@mitiafrica.com

1 Now Kenya Agriculture and Livestock Research Organisation (KALRO)

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Some facts on Moringa oleifera Growing conditions Moringa oleifera grows well in warm to hot environments. In cooler regions the tender leaves of this tree have been found to be susceptible to chilling injury and fungal diseases. Planting and management The tree is commonly grown singly or in widely-spaced stands in many homesteads. Plant spacing ranges from 2 to several metres between trees in most farms. However, sole stands of 1m x 1m are found in a few farms incorporating several hundred plants per acre. The Kenya Agriculture and Livestock Research Organisation (KALRO) is carrying out trials to optimise plant spacing for different environments. Growing period to maturity The tree takes about one year to flowering and pod production. Farmers who sell leaves cut the trees back at 1 metre above the ground to encourage lateral branching. Those who sell seeds do not cut back the trees; which eventually grow quite tall over the years. Leaves from such trees will still be harvested for leaf powder production. Benefits of moringa production Moringa is grown mainly for seed and leaves in the Meru area of Kenya. Farmers sell fresh leaves for Ksh 100 per kilogram or Ksh 300 per kilogram for dried leaves. The seed retails for Ksh 2,000 – 4,000 per kilogram. A kilogram of seed contains several thousand seeds. Some enterprising farmers also produce seedlings which they price at Ksh 100 plus. This price is deemed rather high considering that the seedling is ready for field establishment in about a month after seeding. The Catholic Diocese of Meru is the main outlet for moringa leaves in the Meru region. KALRO’S experience KARI/KALRO - Embu has over the years promoted the growing of Moringa oleifera among farmers. As a result, farmers in the region have accessed several thousand seedlings from the KALRO centre. KALRO has recently embarked on the mapping of the moringa value chain to determine potential points of research intervention in view of the potential contribution of this plant to food and nutrition security, poverty reduction, employment creation and sustainable agricultural productivity.

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Untapped potential of baobab Indigenous fruit trees could improve nutrition and livelihoods, especially in rural areas BY STEPHA MCMULLIN AND KATJA KEHLENBECK

ates of hunger, that is, insufficient access to calories, have been falling in many parts of the world. However, there has been little change in the high rates of micronutrient deficiencies, which currently affect about two billion people worldwide. Under-nutrition and stunting which occur early in life, and the resulting deficiencies in iron, vitamin A, iodine and zinc lead to poor mental and physical development in children, and high mortality and illness. Vitamin and mineral deficiencies are often referred to as “hidden hunger”, as they can occur even when there is adequate calorie intake, and could be overlooked under traditional measures of food security. While much of the attention on food security has focused on increasing production of staple foods, little attention has been given to the need for the production of nutrient-rich foods that can improve the quality of diets for achieving better food and nutrition. Trees are important for environmental benefits and for providing more resilient landscapes and also as a source of nutrientrich foods. Agroforestry systems provide a wide variety of foods and can contribute substantially to food and nutrition security. Tree foods are traditionally used to complement and diversify the typical staple diets, thus preventing nutrient deficiencies and contributing to human health. Edible tree crops provide fruits, leafy vegetables, nuts, seeds and edible oils. They increase the nutritional quality of local diets, mostly due to their micronutrients (mineral and vitamins), but also macronutrients (protein, carbohydrates) and phytochemicals (e.g. antioxidants). (Leakey 1999; Stadlmayr et al., 2013). If a variety of tree crops with different harvest seasons are cultivated on a farm, it is possible to have nutrient-rich foods all year. In addition, since trees are hardier than annual crops, they provide food in times of drought, or when staple crops fail or before crops are ready for harvest.

The African baobab tree The potential of indigenous fruit trees remains largely untapped as little attention has been given to their nutritional or economic value. Yet, many underutilised wild fruits can contribute to food security, health and to livelihood diversification. One such example is the iconic African baobab (Adansonia digitata L.), a wild fruit tree of the savannahs, scrublands and semi-deserts of subSaharan Africa. Baobab products have great potential to support local communities in vulnerable dryland ecosystems and in the face of climate change. The baobab is a majestic tree that produces highly nutritious fruits. The most important food from baobab is the fruit pulp, which is rich in vitamins and minerals. It can provide far higher amounts of vitamin C, calcium and iron than more common tropical fruits such as mango and orange (Kehlenbeck et al., 2013b).

However, there is a large variability in levels of vitamin C in fruits of individual baobab trees – from 126 – 509mg per 100g edible portion (Stadlmayr et al., 2013). Still, even the lowest figure identified is far higher than that for many other fruits. In addition to the fruit pulp, baobab also produces leaves that are eaten as vegetables in western Africa. The tree also produces edible seeds from which oil is extracted for cooking and cosmetics. Baobab products offer a great opportunity for income generation, particularly for women, the main group involved in collection, processing and marketing of these products. In Kenya, the most important marketed baobab product is mabuyu, a sweet made from the pulp-covered seeds. Producing and selling mabuyu is a profitable business whose main actors are women. In addition to domestic markets, baobab products as a type of new, healthy “super food”

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Grafting experiment of baobab at ICRAFâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s research nursery. From left to right: ICRAF nursery expert Valentine Gitonga grafting baobab; cleft grafting ready for wrapping; grafted baobab trees; successfully grafted baobab trees (five months after grafting).

are in high demand in Europe and the USA after baobab was officially accepted as a novel food by the European Union (EU) in 2008. Due to its high nutrition potential and increasing demand, research is going on in East Africa to identify populations of baobab, its distribution across landscapes and variation in genetic characteristics as well as nutritional content. First results from studies by the World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF) in Kenya showed a high variation of fruit shapes and sizes between the surveyed individual trees, with fruit lengths ranging from 9 to 30cm and fruit weights ranging from 60 to 630g. Fruits collected from the coast - Malindi, Kilifi and Diani - were significantly larger than those from the inland collection locations of Voi, Mtito Andei and Kibwezi. Nutritional characterisation of baobab fruit pulp is going on and grafting experiments of baobab has just started at ICRAF, showing positive first results. Information on the mentioned characteristics

may facilitate the selection of superior mother trees for baobab domestication programmes. This would provide farmers with improved, grafted baobab planting material for increasing food and nutrition security and income generation.

The way forward While baobab is only one example, there are hundreds of other wild fruit trees in Africa with similar potential for food and nutrition security. However, the number of indigenous fruit trees is said to be decreasing in many parts of sub-Saharan Africa due to changes in environmental factors and land use, intensified agriculture, unsustainable harvest and increasing urbanisation, among others. This may result in shifts of species distribution, altered pest and disease occurrences, lack of rejuvenation of fruit tree populations and finally, loss of valuable tree species. To enhance the place of indigenous fruits in the improvement of nutrition and livelihoods in the region, there is

need to focus on the following: Occurrence of priority indigenous fruit tree species should be established to identify the most valuable populations for conservation and future use as seed sources. More rigorous nutrient content analysis should be undertaken for indigenous fruits, and databases of information developed and disseminated. Nutrient-sensitive fruit processing techniques need to be developed and disseminated to maintain valuable nutrients and to extend the shelf-life and availability of nutrient-rich fruit products for consumption during off-seasons. Markets need to be developed for new fruit products and processors linked to domestic and international markets to further improve livelihoods by farmer engagement in value chains and for meeting consumer needs. Domestication and increased cultivation of the most important indigenous fruit tree species should be promoted. This will contribute to diversification of farming systems and may help to both conserve natural tree stands and to provide rural communities with better livelihood options. Farmers and consumers should be sensitised and made aware of the important nutritional contribution indigenous fruits can make to sustainable and healthier diets. (References for this article can be obtained from the Miti Editor.)

Stepha McMullin is a Social Scientist with the Tree Diversity, Domestication and Delivery Unit of the World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF) in Nairobi Email: s.mcmullin@cgiar.com Katja Kehlenbeck is a Food Tree Scientist with the Tree Diversity, Domestication and Delivery Unit of the World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF), Nairobi. Email: k.kehlenbeck @cgiar.com

Miti April - June 2015

TREE SPECIES

A palm of strength and beauty The African fan palm provides nourishment in the grasslands BY GERALD EILU

he African fan palm, referred to as the Palmyra palm, Borassus palm or (Borassus aethiopum), probably has something for everyone. Some communities have described it as â&#x20AC;&#x153;a palm of strength, beauty, and source of nourishment for its citizenry!â&#x20AC;? It is considered to be the signature palm of the African savannah, and soothes the eyes against the monotonous bareness of the torrid grasslands. The Borassus palm belongs to the family Palmae whose name is now Arecaceae. It is a straight, tall palm without branches, growing to a height of approximately 20m. The older trees have a characteristic swollen bole with a trunk that is thickened or swollen above the middle (about two-thirds of the height). The trunk is up to 80cm across with a crown up to 8m wide, providing intermediate shade and is a good agroforestry tree. The bark is pale grey in older palms and is more or less smooth. It has 15 - 30 leaves with dead leaves remaining on the young trunk. The leaves are large and fan-shaped, measuring up to 4m in length and 3.5m across. The tall slender trunk and dense crown of attractive leaves make the tree an ideal ornamental. The male and female flowers are on different trees. The fruits are large, round and in bunches, up to 15cm in diameter. They are orange brown, fibrous oily pulp growing around three brown, woody seeds that are 8cm each.

Ecology and distribution The African fan palm is widespread and distributed in the Guineo-Congolian and Sudanian savannahs. It is found in all types of savannah of the region, occurring at low altitudes along rivers and in coastal woodlands. It usually grows in sandy, well-drained soils, but prefers sandy or alluvial soils near watercourses. The palm can tolerate high temperatures and will grow in areas with less than 500mm of

A young Borassus palm growing on the roadside in Amuria district, eastern Uganda. (Photo: Gerald Eilu)

rainfall a year, if the ground water-table is high. Elephants eat the fruits, helping to disperse the seeds. Borassus aethiopum is well adapted to fire and browsing by animals. The palm can thus serve as an excellent firebreak, especially in arid regions that are prone to wild fires. Borassus aethiopum can form dense almost mono-specific forest stands or be part of more diverse riverine forest. Here, the palm attains growth densities of 60 to 120 trees, and the fruit production is about 15 to 40 tonnes per hectare. However, Borassus aethiopum is best known as the main component of palm savannahs.

Uses The palm has several uses. The leaves provide fibre, while the wood, which is strong and resistant to termites and fungi, can be used in construction - for roofing and door frames. The palm also provides firewood, charcoal, poles, tool handles, bee hives, medicine (from roots, flowers and oil), fodder (from fruits and young leaves) and thatch. Baskets and mats are woven from the leaf stalks and leaves, while oil is extracted from the fruit or pulp. The leaves are used as brooms, and the trunks as drums and for food storage. In terms of provision of food, humans eat the fruits, seeds and young seedlings. The fruit

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Fruit of the Borassus palm, . (Photo: Gerald Eilu)

pulp and the sweet endosperm of immature seed may be eaten raw. The germinating radical of buried nut is cooked and eaten as famine food. The emerging hypocotyl of a buried nut may be cooked and eaten as a snack. The leaf terminal bud may be eaten raw, sometimes referred to as “cabbage”. The fermented or raw sap of flower shoots is used to make palm wine, which may be evaporated to produce palm sugar (jiggery) or distilled to form a base for liquor or alcoholic spirits. Oil from the fruit or pulp is used in cooking.

Propagation The African fan palm is relatively easy to propagate. The seed may be sown direct on a site, without necessarily removing the pulp surrounding it. Seeds should be dried in shade to avoid excessive sunshine on one side of the seed that would damage it. Seeds that have been properly dried in the sun may remain viable up to six months.

A mature Borassus palm growing in Lamu County at the Kenyan coastal region. (Photo: BGF)

Seed germination occurs within two to four weeks. The seeds first emit a long tap root - often over 2 feet (60 cm) long - requiring a deep pot. No further treatment is required. The tree is generally slow-growing with a rotation of 60 - 140 years. The tree requires regular watering and light shade when young.

Threats Borassus aethiopum is widespread and common in a number of African countries. It is categorised by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) as Least Concern. While several populations are in decline, the palm remains common. The main threats to the palm, however, are due to habitat loss/degradation and suppression of regeneration by fire. Hence, the general threats faced by trees such as habitat loss and fragmentation, bush fires, and uncontrolled cutting do affect the Borassus palm. If unregulated, tapping the tree for sap to

make palm wine may threaten its population. Hence, the African fan palm requires urgent strategies to protect the wild populations as well as to propagate the plant away from its natural habitat. In some parts of Africa, Borassus populations are “managed” by local people, while in other areas the palm is of minimal significance. In many areas, Borassus aethiopum is restricted to game reserves and national parks where it is outside the reach of local people.

Prospects and potential This palm is a priority socio-economic tree species. Its fruits are, as indicated earlier, consumed as food and or food supplements especially during famine. Unfortunately, over 60 per cent of the annual fruit yield is often lost within ten days after harvesting, due to rot in storage. Hence there is need for fruit preservation technologies. The output in pulp as well as the biochemical features of this palm make it suitable for potential technological transformations in the domain of food science. These include moderate drying to produce enriched flours, the extraction of pulp to produce mash or refreshing drinks, the fermentation of the juice to produce wine or vinegar, and the treatment of pulp to produce jam and other products. At the same time, a rational treatment of the production should reduce the post- harvest losses and increase producer incomes. Thus, the fruit of the Palmyra palm can be classified among semiarid zone resources with important water content and with the likelihood of being a good source of sugars, vitamin C, provitamin A, minerals and fibres. These would enhance the nutrition and incomes of rural communities and others. The writer is an Associate Professor at the Department of Forestry, Biodiversity and Tourism, Makerere University, Kampala, Uganda Email: gerald.eilu@gmail.com

Miti April - June 2015

SUCCESSFUL INDUSTRY

A consignment of mango fruits waiting to be processed. Note the green drums in which the pulp will be stored for transportation. (Photo: BGF)

Changing the lives of mango farmers Malindi Natural Juice Processors adds value where it matters By JAN VANDENABEELE

he Malindi Natural Juice Processors company is a small outfit, situated between the airport and town, and working with mango farmers of the area. Its business (for now) is buying mangoes and processing them to make mango pulp. This, in turn, is sold to fruit juice-making companies. As such, Malindi Natural Juice Processor operates in a competitive market, where it has to take on bigger and longer established companies. The company is in fact a relative newcomer, starting its operations in 2009 when, with the help of the Danish International Development Agency (DANIDA)-funded Micro Enterprise Support Programme Trust (MESPT),

the Malindi Farmers Cooperative Society bought the required processing equipment. The Cooperative Society itself is of venerable age, having been established in 1959 and now has 142 members. The members have been in the mango growing business for a long time, exporting their product to Dubai and other countries. While the Cooperative Society owns the pulping plant, the latter is a limited company, and is run independently of the Cooperative Society. The General Manager, Peter Yegon, oversees some 10 staff members, and up to 70 casual workers, depending on the season. Harvesting is the high season, and at the coast there can even be two harvesting

seasons. The principal one is December – January - February, and the second one occurs in May – June, up to the first half of July. That’s the time the plant can live up to expectations, crushing mango fruits, pasteurising and sterilising the pulp, and packing it for sale. The installed capacity of the plant is 50 tonnes of fresh mango fruits per 24 hours. Currently, the plant handles 20 – 25 tonnes per day. The equipment cost some Ksh 120 million, including installation, with most of the machinery imported from Italy. This was done through an interest-free loan, which the company plans to pay back within three years. The equipment comprises a crushing machine, a pulper finisher, a pre-heating

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machine, a decanting machine (for extracting impurities and fibre), a sterilising machine (pasteurising at 90oC and sterilising at 104-110 o C) with a vacuum tank to remove any gas like oxygen, which might be used by bacteria, and a filling/packaging machine. This is state of the art equipment, fully computerised, and has a backup generator at its disposal in case of power failure. Next on the companyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s wish list is a chilling machine to cool down the pulp to allow a higher speed in filling/packaging. This would cut down on the time for filling a 215kg drum from 20 to 8-10 minutes. Currently, a cooling tower is used to achieve the required product cooling temperatures before packaging All this provides for a good quality product, with a shelf life of 18 months without the use of preservatives. By-products like fruit peels and seeds go back to the farmers for use as cattle fodder and manure. The economics of production look deceivingly simple. The plant bought 800 tonnes of mangoes last season, and can count on 50 per cent recovery, meaning 1kg of fresh fruits makes 0.5kg of pulp. This is sold at Ksh 89 per kilogramme, which makes a gross income of Ksh 35.6 million. Expenditure takes about half of this amount, and the rest is profit on which taxes have to be paid to the Kenya Revenue Authority (KRA). Looking at the figures in more detail, the situation gets slightly more complicated. Mangoes are bought at Ksh 12 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 13 per kilogramme around Malindi. However, a flexible pricing policy is required to counter competing processing plants that come from as far as Thika and Tanzania and that might pay the farmer at Ksh 15 -17 per kilogramme. There is no customer

loyalty, and even cooperative members will go for the higher prices if the opportunity presents itself. The vagaries of climate play their part, with heavy rains around Malindi destroying most flowers last season, forcing Mr Yegon to buy mangoes from as far as Hola and Makueni. It is interesting to note that a market for mangoes exists; when it is known that farmers in the field, like in Eastern Province, complain of low prices and lack of a market. It means there is a disconnect between the market and the farmers. In fact, Mr Yegon sees the actual plant capacity as a bottle neck, and would like to expand it. Strict quality control is maintained upon buying mango fruits, with checks on sugar content and acidity, besides checking on maturity

and general quality. Also, maintenance is important, as is hygiene. The plant is really clean. MESPT did a good thing. It was estimated that post-harvest losses of mangoes used to reach the frightening level of 40 per cent, with ripe mangoes simply falling off the trees and rotting on the ground, because there was no market. Farmers had started to cut down their trees, as they could not see the benefit of growing mangoes. This has now changed, and farmers are planting new mango seedlings. They can receive training for mango orchard establishment and have access to a soft loan programme to cover initial investment, covering the 3-4 years period it takes to get a decent harvest. There are mango collection centres in the mango growing area, where the fruits are bulked before being transported to the plant. The farmers bring their produce to the sheds and are paid in cash. According to a 2009 survey, there were some 12,000 mango growers around Malindi, with a combined 120,000 trees, occupying 1,700 hectares. What next? First, Mr Yegon wants to upgrade the production to full capacity, and then install a juicing plant, meaning adding water to the pulp, packaging it and selling fruit juice. Lofty intentions indeed, but all for the good of the cooperative society and the mango farmers. The writer is the Executive Director, Better Globe Forestry Email: jan@betterglobeforestry.com

The processing equipment in the plant. (Photo: BGF)

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AFFORESTATION

Touching tomorrow A self-taught botanist and a conservationist wrestle to create a forest in a harsh environment BY WANJIRU CIIRA

n about 50 years’ time, a 10-acre part of Silole Sanctuary – the “rehabilitated area” will be a small forest, carrying some six species of acacia. Silole, a 400acre sanctuary, lies between the Empakasi and Kiserian gorges on the edge of Nairobi National Park. The sanctuary is home to 60 species of mammals, many species of birds and a rich diversity of flora reflecting the riverine forest, grassland plain and valley thicket habitats found in the area. The sanctuary is under a Conservation Easement agreement between the owner Mzee John Keen and African Wildlife Foundation, who pay rent on it as an area of outstanding natural biodiversity. Most of Silole Sanctuary lies on land that is pure rock - lava associated with the formation of the Ngong Hills about 25 million years ago, with patches of lateritic soil. There is some black cotton soil associated with water catchment sections, but most of the area lies on semi-arid land that receives 625 - 750mm (25 – 30 inches) of rain per year. For some time, Mr Keen has worked to enhance the biodiversity of the area by increasing the tree cover of the sanctuary with the characteristic acacia species already found there. Acacias that grow here naturally are Acacia brevispica (mukwisi, olgirigiri), which rhinos feed on, even as they break

down the hard pans; Acacia gerrardii (muthii, olngongwenyi); and Acacia drepanolobium (whistling thorn), which giraffes and buffalos like. Mr Keen has planted trees in selected sections of the sanctuary and enclosed these to keep away wildlife browsers. He has achieved varying degrees of success. Then, in 2013 when Langata Road was expanded, a mixture of black cotton soil, asphalt and even some concrete excavated specifically from the area between Wilson Airport and Galleria Mall was dumped in Silole Sanctuary. “At the time it happened, most residents complained about the dumping,” says Will Knocker. “But Mzee Keen knew what he was doing.” Mr Knocker, a self-taught botanist and specialist on Nairobi National Park, saw the dumping of the soil as an opportunity to demonstrate that acacias are the natural habitats of Africa’s drylands. So, he planted Acacia kirkii (ol-lerai), A. xanthophloea (fever tree, Naivasha thorn), A. seyal (white thorn), A. senegal (mgunga), A. tortilis (munga) and Balanites aegytiaca (desert date) randomly in rehabilitation plots to mimic a natural effect. Mr Knocker planted a few hundred seedlings obtained from the Nairobi GreenLine nursery at the Nairobi National Park to add to what he had acquired from Mzee Keen’s

private nursery. He had also, over time, collected seeds in Maasailand and other drylands of Kenya. The initial challenge was keeping seedlings watered in the first year. In addition, despite the presence of a protective fence, intensive browsing by wild browsers, including impalas, bushbucks, elands, giraffes and black rhino, presents a major challenge, according to Mr Knocker. Weeds such as the Parthenium hysterophorus, native to the Caribbean region, pose a serious threat to the wildlife. It produces an allergen that causes respiratory problems and severe dermatitis. Other unwanted plants that grow within the plots are cactus (Opuntia ficus-indica), Lantana camara and the wattle tree (Acacia mearnsii). These weeds have to be uprooted from time to time. In good time, Mzee Keen and Mr Knocker will achieve their aim of enhancing the biodiversity of the area by increasing the tree cover. And in some 50 or so years, people living or visiting the sanctuary will have the two gentlemen to thank for the acacia and other forests in the area. The writer is the Managing Editor, Miti magazine Email: wanjiru@mitiafrica.com

FORESTRY

An oasis in the drylands of Tsavo Sagalla Hill is a diversity hotspot that needs preserving By JAN VANDENABEELE

agalla Hill is close to Voi, in fact just south of the town. The hill is like an oasis, and driving on Mombasa Road to the coast through the dry expanses of Tsavo National Park, one would hardly imagine that the hill tops right off the road support a life system for a numerous population. There is agriculture, fruit trees, water resources, forests and plantations. Driving up Sagalla hill reveals a succession of dryland to sub-humid species, up to a plateau on the hill top, with a maximum altitude of 1,500 metres above sea level. The hill is longitudinal and oriented north-south, and is influenced by the Indian Ocean, being a barrier to moistureladen winds. The southern and eastern slopes receive quite some rainfall, while the western and northern slopes are more in a rain shadow. Mean annual rainfall is low at the base - 600mm and higher at the top, at least 1300mm, with a considerable amount of cloud precipitation. The Taita Hills, of which Sagalla Hill is a part, are the northern-most component of the socalled “Eastern Arc Mountains”. The chain of hills and mountains include the Pare and Usambara mountains in Tanzania. They are among the 34 globally recognised “biodiversity hotspots”, because of the high number of endemic plants and vertebrate species found there. And sure enough, the top of Sagalla Hill is the only place in the world where you find the Sagalla Caecilian (Boulengerula niedenii), a small limbless amphibian that burrows in moist soil. A surprising and unusual find on Sagalla Hill is the bracken or eagle fern (Pteridium aquilinum), a

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species normally associated with the more moist climate of temperate or subtropical regions. The species grows at top end of the eastern slopes of the hill, supported by moist winds. Inevitably, the forests on Sagalla Hill have suffered from logging for valuable tree species, and in the 1960s and 80s the then Forest Department planted blocks of cypress, eucalyptus and pine in gazetted areas. Some of these areas are degraded now, with trees drying up. Not much of the original moist forest is left, although the hill is still an important water catchment and a lifeline for its population. Eric Muambi, a local resident, showed us “Mwakaleto rock”, an execution place, where habitual criminals were thrown off the rock, after all means of rehabilitating them were exhausted. However, despite its past association, the rock provides stunning views of the plains below,

including Mombasa Road heading south. Mr Muambi also narrated how, after a long dry spell, the people used to put a goat in a cave to appease the gods to bring rain. If the goat disappeared, the rains would come. If it did not disappear, it had to be replaced with another, bigger one. It is clear that the Sagalla people have lived in the hill for a long time. In the past, the population was small and did not destroy the fragile environment. Today however, concerted efforts are needed to restore the forest and use the land in a sustainable way. The writer is the Executive Director, Better Globe Forestry Email: jan@betterglobeforestry.com

REFORESTATION

WWF has taken action to restore degraded forest. (Photo: Eddie Oketcho, WWF Uganda)

Coming together to restore a forest WWF Uganda, NFA and the community work collectively to re-establish Navugulu Central Forest Reserve BY EDDIE OKETCHO

eet Muhammad Katerega, a resident of Bozza Village in Mpigi District, Central Uganda. Mr Katerega is a father, husband, and also the Chairman of Kisitu Environment Development Association (KEDA) a community members’ association formed in 2012 with the goal of collaborating with government and other partner organisations to restore a forest reserve that suffered severe degradation over a decade ago. Mr Katerega lives not more than 100 metres from a government Central Forest Reserve (CFR) called Navugulu. About 30 metres from his house is a nursery bed where over 500 tree seedlings have just been watered for the day. Across the bare ground in his backyard is a small kitchen constructed with mud and wattle. On peeping into the kitchen, a curtain of smoke shields his coughing daughter from sight as she tries to reignite the dwindling flame from a three-stone fire. A cooking pot is suspended on the three stones as she pushes some small pieces of firewood further into the weak flame. Just like the other 1,200 families living

around the Navugulu CFR, Mr Katerega’s family has depended on the forest for charcoal, firewood, traditional medicine, and water, among other benefits that the forest provides. However, some unscrupulous business people have gradually cut down huge chunks of the forest reserve for timber, without regard for the long-term effects of mass deforestation. In 2012, the forest reserve was finally destroyed. The once lush hills of Bozza village were bare – there were no trees to shield the ground from the scorching sun. It was at the peak of the January - February dry season that Mr Katerega and his association felt the need to take action.

The challenge of deforestation According to a 2009 UNDP report, Uganda continues to lose close to 92,000 hectares of forest cover annually. This is equivalent to over 7,000 hectares of forest cover lost every 30 days. On the other hand, Uganda’s Ministry of Water and Environment estimates that the country currently plants slightly over 5,000 hectares of

forest per year. With this ratio of tree planting-todestruction, it will take only 39 years to deplete Uganda’s remaining forest cover.

Energy poverty One of the major drivers of forest loss in Uganda is energy poverty. According to Uganda’s Renewable Energy Policy (2007), over 90 per cent of Ugandans depend on charcoal and firewood for cooking. This heavy dependence on wood fuel places immense pressure on the country’s forest resources, household incomes, health and general wellbeing of family members. Most of these rural communities also lack clean energy for lighting. For example, kerosene lamps are used by over 80 per cent of households in Uganda and yet kerosene contributes to the loss of about 54 lives everyday due to indoor air pollution (WHO Report 2009). The rural communities around the Earth Hour Forest are also estimated to spend between US$8 and US$12 per month for replacement lighting services, including candles, kerosene, dry cells, or charging batteries for light.

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Working with government In 2012, as KEDA was finalising their registration, the World Wide Fund for Nature Uganda Country Office (WWF UCO) approached the government of Uganda through the National Forestry Authority (NFA) with a proposal to embark on a massive tree-planting initiative. The initiative was later to be known as the Earth Hour Forest. It was intended to inspire individuals, institutions and corporate organisations to join hands with WWF and NFA in a forest cover restoration effort for the country. NFA accepted the proposal and gazetted the Navugulu CFR. The reserve covers close to 2,714 hectares in the three districts of Mpigi, Butambala and Mityana.

The launch In March 2013, the Earth Hour Forest initiative was officially launched with a ceremonial planting of six hectares. The target was to secure commitments from the Ugandan public, corporate organisations and other relevant stakeholders to plant up to 500,000 trees, the equivalent of about 1,225 hectares. Since the degradation of Uganda’s forest cover is focused, deliberate and intense, it was thought that the restoration of the country’s forest cover needed to be equally deliberate and focused, especially through joint interventions like the Earth Hour Forest.

Community involvement in tree planting After the launch of the Earth Hour Forest initiative, the over 100 members of Mr Katerega’s association were encouraged to become the local custodians of the restored reserve. Mr Katerega says he has not found any challenges motivating his community members to participate in the restoration of the reserve. The goodwill, according to Mr Katerega, is attributed to two factors: The community members have experienced the adverse effects of the loss of forest cover and are committed to restoring it. WWF and other partners have offered incentives in the form of improved cooking stoves, photovoltaic lights and supporting some income-generating activities like beekeeping and growing of tree nurseries.

The Earth Hour Forest Initiative The Earth Hour Forest initiative is part of the global Earth Hour campaign1 that started in 2007 and is celebrated in over 160 countries around 1 Earth Hour is a global conservation initiative started and supported by the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF). Across the world, individuals, businesses, governments and communities are invited to turn off their non-essential lights for “one hour”, hence the name “Earth Hour”.

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the world. The Earth Hour campaign calls upon everybody to take action, big or small, that is aimed at doing something special for the planet. While tree-planting is not a new concept and the global “Earth Hour” campaign is about a lot more than just planting trees, what makes the Earth Hour Forest approach different from other tree-planting initiatives is its contextual and implementation. Since 2011, WWF Uganda had focused on encouraging mass adoption of improved technologies like the energy efficient stove and solar PV lights. The responses were exciting and the demand for these technologies was growing every day. However, the difference in numbers between those using the improved stoves and those destroying the forest was heavily disproportionate. There was need to address the issues of the demand for charcoal and firewood but also address the restoration of the degraded forest areas. As part of Earth Hour 2013, WWF UCO fronted the Earth Hour Forest as its way of doing something special for the planet and supporting livelihood improvement.

Achievement registered so far WWF-Uganda, NFA and various corporate partners have joined hands to restore the Navugulu CFR and have so far achieved the following: 109 hectares planted by Standard Chartered Bank - Uganda, corporate pioneers in the Earth Hour Forest. Discussions are going on to plant more. 109 hectares committed by Uganda Breweries Limited (UBL) with over 60 hectares planted so far. More planting is still going on. 33 hectares planted so far by the Kampala Serena Hotel with another 50 hectares committed and yet to be planted. Serena Hotel also participated and hosted Earth

Hour’s global “lights out” event in 2013 and 2014. Government of Uganda, through the National Forestry Authority (NFA) provided the land for the Earth Hour Forest. NFA also coordinates the tree planting events and provides technical support. Kisitu Environment Development Association (KEDA) does the community mobilisation. Barclays Bank Uganda gave away 100 improved cook stoves (for charcoal and firewood) to active and consistent community members. In addition, they also gave away 53 single light solar kits to improve lighting at household level. Through online crowd funding, 20 backers donated to the communities around the Earth Hour Forest through a campaign called Light up a Village. Thirty six single light solar kits and 95 improved cook stoves were purchased from the funds raised and distributed to the active members. An improved stove saves approximately 33 mature trees from being cut down each year. This is an estimated 1,580 pounds of carbon absorbed in a year. Of the 195 stoves distributed, this translates to 6,435 trees saved when the stoves are used consistently for a year. Cleaner technologies also save the lives of women who are primarily responsible for cooking in the home. A total of 89 solar kits were also distributed. So as the trees continue to grow, the hope is that the communities living around the forest will depend on alternative sources of energy for fuel and also use more efficient technologies if they have to use wood fuel. The writer is Communications Officer at World Wide Fund for Nature, Uganda Email: eoketcho@wwfuganda.org

FORESTRY

Greening the Ugandan Economy Initiative seeks to restore degraded forests and plant 2.5 million hectares over the next 10 years BY BOB KAZUNGU

he Government of Uganda has identified the forestry sector as a vehicle for sustainable development as stipulated in Vision 2040 and the National Development Plan. In September 2014, the government committed to restore 2.5 million hectares of degraded lands as a contribution towards the Bonn Challenge, a global goal to restore 150 million hectares of degraded and deforested lands by 2020. These targets and commitments aim to stem the increasing deforestation trends, currently estimated at 90,000 hectares per annum. To enhance interventions in the forestry sector in Uganda, the Ministry of Water and Environment (MWE) in March 2015 initiated a 10year tree-planting campaign “Greening Uganda’s Economy” through tree-planting and sustainable forest management. The programme supports establishment of plantations and development of the forestry industry to ensure efficient and sustainable extraction of wood and other products. In addition, the programme enhances community livelihoods through supporting establishment of woodlots and on-farm tree stocks for household incomes; supports natural forest management including enhancing forest ecosystem services like carbon sequestration,

water catchment protection to ensure food security and improved livelihood; and ensures effective coordination of all initiatives and enhanced forest governance. For the “Greening Uganda’s Economy” to be implemented appropriately, it is important to assess the potential for restoration of the degraded lands. Deforestation and forest degradation is a global concern. As a result, a number of global initiatives and decisions have been made to restore the degraded lands including the REDD+ initiative under the auspices of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), the Rio declaration and the recent Bonn Challenge. In Uganda, although we are to a certain degree aware of areas for potential restoration like the bare hills, we are still faced with the dilemma of what other areas within that landscape require specific intervention. Faced with this challenge, there are cases of unsuitable interventions and / or actions by different players due to lack of a clear assessment of the opportunities available and the likely interventions. Further, Uganda is part to a number of global initiatives that promote landscape approaches to natural resource management and related activities.

The Bonn Challenge and Forest Landscape Restoration At the invitation of the German government and the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), the Bonn Challenge was established at a ministerial roundtable in September 2011. The challenge calls for the restoration of 150 million hectares of deforested and degraded lands by 2020. This is as a practical, action-orientated platform to facilitate the implementation of several existing international commitments that require restoration, including the CBD Aichi Target 15, the UNFCCC REDD+ goal and the Rio+20 land degradation target. The IUCN estimates that the annual net benefit to national and local economies of restoring 150 million hectares is approximately US$ 85 billion per year. This could also sequester an additional 1 GtCO2e (gigatonnes of equivalent carbon dioxide) per year, reducing the current emissions gap by 11 - 17 per cent. Several governments, private sector companies and community groups have signalled their intent to align with and invest in achieving the Bonn Challenge and almost 20 million hectares have already been pledged. Commitments of further 40 million hectares are being finalised. These commitments were concretised during the Conference of the Parties - COP 20, in Lima, Peru in December 2014. The Bonn Challenge is supported by the Global Partnership on Forest Landscape Restoration (GPFLR), for whom the IUCN acts as the secretariat. The partnership is a voluntary network of governments, international and non-governmental organisations and others. It facilitates exchange and learning, generates new knowledge and tools, acts as a vehicle to mobilise capacity and expert support to address the practicalities of in-situ landscape restoration. The partnership is working with private sector investors to identify ways to close financing gaps. The Bonn Challenge resonates with ordinary people, helping them feel empowered to take practical action. In this respect, in an online poll of more than one million global citizens, it was voted as the most important forest intervention, and the

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second most important overall intervention, that global leaders should support as an outcome of Rio+20. Uganda’s commitment to restore up to 2.5 million hectares of degraded lands was drawn from the existing national commitments. These include increasing forest cover to 1990 levels; from the current 15 per cent to 24 per cent. Uganda Vision 2040 in Chapter 5.8 reads: Efforts will be made to restore and add value to the ecosystems (wetlands, forests, range lands and catchments) by undertaking re-forestation and afforestation on public land, promoting participation of the population in tree planting on both private and public land and enhancing private investment in forestry through promotion of commercial tree planting on private land and adoption of green agriculture practices. Following this pledge, Uganda will be implementing a number of actions including completing the assessment of restoration opportunities across Uganda and assessing our national policies from each sector to identify where these can support and be supported by forest landscape restoration. In addition, Uganda will establish a national mechanism to coordinate the national restoration effort across all sectors of society and publicise the pledge and the Bonn Challenge across the country through a “farm radio” station that will help to support knowledge uptake and raise awareness at the community level.

The Concept of Forest Landscape Restoration Forest Landscape Restoration (FLR) is defined as “a planned process to regain ecological integrity and enhance human well-being in deforested or degraded landscapes”. It comprises tools and procedures to integrate site-level forest restoration actions with desirable landscape-level objectives, which are decided upon by various participatory mechanisms among stakeholders. The concept of FLR was conceived to bring about compromises between the needs of both humans and wildlife, by restoring a range of forest functions at the landscape level. It includes actions to strengthen the resilience and ecological integrity of landscapes and thereby keep future management options open. The participation of local communities is central to the concept. Communities play a critical role in shaping the landscape and gain significant benefits from restored forest resources. Therefore, FLR activities are inclusive and participatory and desire to achieve the following outcomes: Identification of the root causes of forest degradation and prevention of further deforestation;

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Positive engagement of people in the planning of forest restoration, resolution of land-use conflicts and agreement on benefit-sharing systems; Compromises over land-use trade-offs that are acceptable to the majority of stakeholders; A repository of biological diversity of both local and global value and delivery of a range of utilitarian benefits to local communities including a reliable supply of clean water, environmental protection particularly watershed services (e.g. reduced soil erosion, lower landslide risk, flood/ drought mitigation) etcetera. A sustainable supply of a diverse range of forest products including foods, medicines, firewood etc., monetary income from various sources e.g. ecotourism, carbon trading via the REDD+ mechanism and from payments for other environmental services (PES). FLR combines several existing principles and techniques of development, conservation and natural resource management, such as landscape character assessment, participatory rural appraisal, adaptive management, and so on, within a clear

and consistent evaluation and learning framework. The IUCN hosts the “The Global Partnership on Forest Landscape Restoration,” which co-ordinates development of the concept around the world. As part of this undertaking, the Ministry of Water and Environment, in partnership with the IUCN, is facilitating a National Forest Landscape Restoration (FLR) process. FLR is a forward looking approach that aims to generate multiple benefits from restored forests across landscapes. In June 2014, the Ministry initiated a Restoration Opportunities Assessment (ROAM) tool to provide relevant analytical inputs to forest restoration processes, such as the national REDD+ strategy, that will complement the Greening Economy campaign. The ROAM report shall be launched in June 2015. The writer is a Policy and Planning Specialist at the Forestry Sector Support Department, Ministry of Water and Environment Email: bob.kazungu@mwe.go.ug Bob.Kazungu@gmail.com

FARM FORESTRY

Communities living around forests have been instrumental in providing labour for various types of work, like seedling production and planting. There is a perception however, that their contribution is not equal to the benefits they are allowed to enjoy from the forests. (Photo: KFWG)

Bridging Kenya’s wood deficit gap Farm and dryland forestry are the most viable areas for expanding the country’s forest production BY RUDOLF MAKHANU

ccording to 2013 reports by the Kenya Forest Service (KFS) and United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), Kenya has a deficit of 12 million cubic metres of wood. It is also known that state forests cannot satisfy the demand for timber at the current per capita consumption of one cubic metre, particularly given that the agriculture, construction, energy and manufacturing sectors are set to experience renewed growth as envisaged by Vision 2030. It is now clear that farm and dryland forestry are the most viable areas for expanding the country’s forest production. This realisation has seen forestry players change tack. In efforts to revitalise and promote farm forestry in Kenya, the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) and KFS have partnered to launch the Forest and Farm Facility Programme (FFF)1. In November 2014, FAO and KFS commissioned a scoping study to provide a country-level overview of the status of forest

1 FFF is a multi-donor programme, hosted by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.

and farm producer organisations, their needs and demands and status of the cross-sectoral platforms. This article presents key highlights of the findings and recommendations of the scoping study. The full report is available at FAO-Kenya.

Findings The report describes 17 forest and farm producer organisations. Among the findings is that the groups have broad differences in form, membership, funding, etcetera. The report reveals that between 2005 and 2015, the government of Kenya has committed approximately Ksh 37 billion (US$ 438 million) while development partners have committed Ksh 194 billion (US$ 2.29 billion) to programmes that they classify as having a “significant” or “principal” climate change component. A large portion of the funds will go to tree-planting as a form of climate change mitigation and adaptation. The report notes high community dependency on forest and farm forestry-based goods and services. Based on six main products - timber, treated transmission poles, industrial firewood,

wooden furniture, construction poles and charcoal - the report notes the high contribution of the sub-sector to the gross domestic product (GDP). A recent study carried out by the Miti Mingi Maisha Bora2 programme estimates the annual retail value of the charcoal industry to be in the range of Ksh 64 - 80 billion.

Sustainability of the FFF Programme The study identifies the following considerations to ensure FFF Programme sustainability. • Align programme activities with development priorities of county governments where the programme will be implemented. • Partner with and strengthen the capacity of lead institutions (KFS, KEFRI and county governments) to ensure activities initiated are sustained beyond the programme period. 2 Miti Mingi Maisha Bora (MMMB) programme is a joint forest sector support initiative of the Governments of Finland and Kenya. Its overall objective is a reduction in poverty through ensuring that the forest sector contributes effectively and sustainably to improving the lives of the poor, restoring the environment, and aiding the economic recovery and growth of Kenya, within the context of Vision 2030.

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• Prioritise capacity building of apex organisations as relates to organisational development for enhanced service delivery to members. Relevant skills required include financial management, governance and leadership, communication and networking, and conflict management and resolution. • Prioritise activities that have a business case for self-financing. • Support the establishment of financing mechanisms.

Conclusions The scoping study report makes the following conclusions; • With the country having a wood deficit of 12 million cubic metres, and the fact that it is unlikely to increase the area under gazetted forests by a significant level, farm forestry provides an opportunity to increase the wood supply to meet the deficit. • Numerous producer organisations serving diverse needs of members exist with vertical and horizontal linkages, where members belong to more than one organisation. Most national level producer organisations however lack strong grassroots representation, with local voices lacking prominence in the national arena. There is no single umbrella organisation or platform bringing together all forest and farm producer groups in the country. Regional (multicountry platforms) for forest and farm producer organisations are inadequate, with the African Forest Forum representing the interests of a small section of Kenyan stakeholders. There is supportive policy environment to spur increased wood production. The constitution of Kenya 2010 commits to increasing tree cover by 10 per cent while the draft forest policy 2014 (objective five) explicitly supports development of community and farm forestry and marketing of forest-based products. • It is evident that farmers are willing and able to plant a wide variety of tree species, when their direct benefits are clear. Tree seedling quality can be improved dramatically if there is a sufficient market demand for high quality seed and seedlings. • As relates to participatory forest management (PFM) the level and nature of benefits accruing to community forest associations (CFAs) is insufficient to sustain their active participation, while entrepreneurial capacity of people engaged in non-timber forest products (NTFP) collection is weak. For small-holder tree farmers, extension service is inadequate in some areas as relates to production, value addition and marketing of forest and farm forestry products. Across the country, markets for payments of

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environmental services are not well established. While contribution of forest based goods and services to rural livelihoods and national economy is high, it is however not accurately captured in national Environmental Accounting. • County-based Natural Resource Management forums only exist in six counties. Existing ones lack an apex platform at national level. • Regional (multi-country platforms) for forest and farm producer organisations are largely absent. • Cross-sectoral platforms at all levels are insufficiently established. Representation of indigenous communities and minority groups is inadequate at some levels.

Recommendations The study makes the following recommendations: • Catalyse and facilitate formation of countybased cooperatives focusing on forest and farm forestry products and services. This could be done in phases starting with those with significant production levels. • Support nursery operators in marketing their produce, through value addition. There is also need for communication support for technology diffusion, awareness creation and promotion activities. • Facilitate and provide opportunities to farmers to explore and learn new propagation techniques and to promote the procurement of valuable germplasm that is difficult to access. • Enhance effectiveness and sustainability of apex producer organisations and platforms through capacity building on strategic planning, governance, resource mobilisation, networking and advocacy and membership recruitment. Strengthen the entrepreneurial/business capacity of producer organisations, with the anticipated output being functional businesses based on viable business models. • Improve provision of extension service by strengthening the capacity of county governments and producer groups through training of trainers

and support of farmer field schools. • Coordination and networking among onfarm tree growers and a central market place mechanism is a priority. • There is urgent need to overcome the isolation of small and medium forest enterprises by connecting them to each other and to markets, service providers and decision-makers through establishment of county-based multi-sector platforms. • Support establishment of a national multisector platform for all forest and farm producer organisations. The National Environment Civil Society Alliance of Kenya (NECSA – K) could be strengthened as it is an already functional multisector platform. • Set up / or strengthen existing regional (multi-country) platforms for forest and farm producers to ensure local voices influence global dialogue and decision-making. Africa Forest Forum provides an opportunity. • Support multi-stakeholder platforms to broaden and diversify their membership base through membership recruitment campaigns to ensure critical areas of the country are covered. • Strengthen Indigenous Information Network to coordinate local voices as relates to indigenous communities, minority and marginalised groups including women, to inform/influence global agenda • Support African Forest Forum to broaden its membership in Kenya and services offered for improved representation of local communities at regional and global level. Kindly contact FAO-Kenya and KFS for details on the FFF programme.

The writer is the Executive Director of EcoConquest Development Innovations (ECODIN), the NGO wing of Eco-Conquest Africa Ltd, a consulting firm Email: rmakhanu@gmail.com or ecoconquestafrica@gmail.com

FOREST MANAGEMENT

Shared duties and benefits Communities and forestry authorities work through the intricacies of collaborative forest management in Uganda BY DEZI IRUMBA AND ROBERT ESIMU

ollaborative forest management (CFM) is defined as “a mutually beneficial arrangement in which a local community or forest user group and a responsible body share roles, responsibilities and benefits in a forest reserve or part of it.” In the Ugandan context, the local communities refers to the people living adjacent to a forest while the responsible bodies could be the National Forestry Authority (NFA), Uganda Wildlife Authority, local governments, communal land association or private forest owners for Central Forest Reserves (CFRs), national parks or local forest reserves. CFM was initiated in the 1990s and piloted in sites around Namatale, Tororo peri-urban and Budongo CFRs. The first sites provided many lessons that informed the demand for policy change to include a policy statement and a section on CFM in the Uganda Forest Policy (2001) and National Forestry and Tree Planting Act (2003). These significant changes in the policy and legal framework in favour of CFM ignited the adoption and scaling up of CFM as a forest management approach, especially in CFRs where there was animosity between the forest managers and the forest-dependent communities over access and use of forest resources and land for treegrowing. The assumption was that the involvement of local communities would create an opportunity to manage forests on a sustainable basis due to improvement in decision-making, transparency and accountability in the forest sector. Whereas the CFM processes and implementation are supposed to be spearheaded by NFA, this has largely been possible due to the support given by civil society organisations (CSOs) that promote sustainable forest management and conservation. These include but are not limited to Nature Uganda, ECOTRUST, WWF, CARE, JGI, Environment Alert and BUCODO/CODECA. These and other CSOs have provided invaluable support to the success of CFM. This is demonstrated by the fact that in CFRs where CSO support has ceased, CFM activities have almost ground to a halt. The situation is exacerbated by the fact that NFA currently seems to be experiencing financial constraints, hence the inadequate funding for CFM implementation. CFM implementation in Uganda has led to:

• Demand for pro-poor policies and schemes Equitable sharing of rights, roles, responsibilities and benefits are inherent in any CFM process. While about 30 CFM agreements have been signed between the NFA and various community groups to date, the question of benefit-sharing has not been resolved. The communities involved in CFM have been demanding a share in the benefits, but NFA cannot share certain benefits due to lack of a benefitsharing policy. Similar demands and questions are emerging on how the communities will benefit from the REDD+ and forest certification schemes.

• Change of curricular CFM requires specialised skills besides the core forestry science. The demand for increased community participation in decision-making in forestry governance has consequently led to the need for training institutions to review their curricular/syllabi to include aspects of community forestry. At Makerere University, a Bachelor’s Degree in Community Forestry was initiated to meet this demand. Community Forestry and CFM are taught as course modules at Nyabyeya Forestry College for diploma and certificate graduates.

• Development of knowledge and skills CFM requires a specialised set of knowledge and skills which could not be obtained from any training institution in Uganda at the time CFM was introduced. The forestry staff at the time comprised purely professional and technical people knowledgeable and skilled in the science of forestry and trees. This therefore required specialised training on CFM through workshops, short courses and mentoring sessions. The trained staff facilitated the CFM processes in the various CFRs. Over the years, some of these facilitators have become consultants in Participatory Natural Resources Management processes.

• The demand for social science employees in forestry With the introduction of CFM, the need for social science employees is no longer a question of debate. Although the forestry training institutions have modified their curricular to bring on board aspects of social forestry, their impact is not yet significantly felt on the ground where CFM is being implemented. As a result, some sources from the NFA have indicated that there is a proposal to recruit social scientists to support forestry staff in the implementation of CFM.

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• Formation of community based organisations and promotion of social cohesion Communities living adjacent to CFRs are some of the remotest, poorest, less knowledgeable and perhaps the most disorganised sections of society. CFM pre-conditions the communities to register an organisation so as to participate in the process. As a result, the community based organisations (CBOs) participating in CFM are as many as the number of CFM agreements signed in the country. These CBOs are being used to promote community development and awareness. Through these organisations, some community groups have been able to access Community Driven Development (CDD) funds from their subcounties. Besides, these CBOs have created social relationships among members that hold the groups together. • Increased accountability Before the introduction of CFM, forestry management was purely a domain of forestry professionals and technicians. The local community had no say on matters related to forestry resources in their area. This situation created fertile ground for corruption. CFM emphasises sharing of roles, responsibilities and benefits/returns. The system has imparted knowledge in the local community on what constitutes good forest management. Forestry staff can no longer get involved in illegal forestry activities especially in CFM areas, without questions from the local community. In addition, CFM has been able to promote the participation of women and other under-privileged members of the community in forestry decision processes. • Improved protection of forest reserves Through community participation in forestry boundary tree-planting and routine monitoring of illegal activities, there has been a reduction in illegal activities in certain CFRs where CFM is being implemented effectively. In Budongo CFR, for example, significant portions of the boundary were demarcated through community boundary tree-planting. In these areas, the excuse of encroachment due to unclear boundaries does not hold any more. Given that members of CFM expect tangible benefits from the forest resources they are comanaging with the NFA, some of those who were involved in illegal activities abandoned the practice. • Increase in the forest resource base and incomes Most community groups involved in CFM are very

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active in tree-growing both on their farms and in areas within the CFRs allocated to them. Some of the groups involved in tree-growing are around Tororo peri-urban plantation, Budongo (mostly along the boundary), Itwara, Kalinzu, KasyohaKitomi, Echuya and Bugoma CFRs. Some of the earliest groups especially around Tororo, Kasyoha Kitomi and Budongo have already sold their mature trees. • Reduced conflicts between NFA and local communities The participation of the local communities in forestry governance through CFM has helped to reduce conflicts between them and the forestry staff. Some of the conflicts in the past have led to assault and even loss of life of forestry staff. Such conflicts are no longer common especially in areas where CFM is being implemented effectively. While the above are positive consequences, there are also some negative outcomes of CFM. Some of these arise from poor implementation of the process. These include: •Reduced economic livelihoods CFM creates a sort of conversion where community members involved in forest products trade abandon their illegal activities in anticipation of accessing the same resources legally through CFM. Over the years, communities around Budongo, Mabira and other CFRs have not accessed key resources like timber and charcoal that were specified in their CFM agreements. This has left them in a weaker economic state than they were before CFM when they would access these resources illegally. Before CFM was implemented around Budongo for example, several bars were thriving, supported by incomes from illegal sale of timber. When the local community embraced CFM, they denounced illegal timber harvesting, there was no

more money for drinking, and consequently some of the bars, especially around Nyabyeya, closed. • Rise in illegal forest activities In certain CFM sites, there has been a rise in illegal activities because the local community either interpreted CFM as offering them a chance to extract forest resources illegally, or the CFM structures are too weak to take full control. Sometimes the NFA staff lack adequate funds, knowledge and skills to support the local community to implement CFM. • Intra-community conflicts One of the key non-tangible benefits of CFM is power and prestige. A chairperson of a CFM committee is viewed as more powerful than a village LC1 chairperson. This is because the CFM chairperson is in charge of a key resource (forest) at the local level. Sometimes, some of the CFM chairpersons have grown so powerful as to monopolise decisionmaking for their personal benefit. This has caused intra-community conflicts, led to mismanagement of the forest and sometimes spread the conflict to involve NFA and the local government. The most recent conflicts have been around Itwara CFR. Thus, whereas in principle CFM is meant to lead to sustainable forest management, in practice this is yet to be realised. The local communities feel that benefits seem to accrue to the NFA only, thus defeating the essence of the arrangement. The faster the issues of benefit-sharing are addressed, the better for the sustainability of the scheme. Dezi Irumba is a quality and learning coordinator at CARE Uganda Email: Dirumba@co.care.org Robert Esimu is a manager at Zion Integrated Investments Limited Email: robertaesimu@gmail.com

TIMBER INDUSTRY

Not a walk in the park Drying eucalyptus wood is a tough job. Here are some tips BY NELLY ODUOR

ood is a hygroscopic1, porous, anisotropic2 and non-homogenous material. Sawn timber contains water in fibre cavities (capillary water) and bound water inside the fibre wall (hygroscopic water). When freshly cut green wood dries out, it shrinks, particularly across the grain. The major reason for drying or seasoning wood is to ensure that the timber is dimensionally as stable as possible before use in a structure or manufactured item. Timber is dried until it is in moisture equilibrium with its working environment. The purpose is to ensure that any subsequent movement of the timber in furniture, fittings, joinery, construction, etcetera, is small or negligible and accommodated within the product design. Other advantages of using dried timber over green timber are; • removal of excess water (during drying) 1 2

Tends to absorb water from the air. Of different physical properties along different axes.

reduces weight, thus reducing shipping and handling costs, • proper drying reduces shrinking and swelling of wood while in use, • strength, electrical and thermal insulating properties of wood increase, • wood is machined easily and efficiently, • wood is more securely fitted and fastened together with nails, screws and adhesives, • warping, splitting and other effects of uncontrolled drying are largely eliminated, • paint and varnish are more effectively applied and maintained. Most eucalyptus species have a mean density of 500-800 kg per cubic metre. Generally, eucalyptus wood dries slowly and is difficult to dry. It has a tendency to check3 and collapse during drying. One of the main reasons for this is that the core of the eucalyptus log has the highest moisture content. Since the eucalyptus wood has low permeability, the surface dries fast while the inner part is still wet. This marked moisture 3

Develop small cracks.

gradient causes internal tensions, resulting in the drying defects mentioned above. The other reason for drying defects in eucalypts is due to growth stresses in standing trees, which become unbalanced upon felling or cross-cutting. These stresses are more pronounced in fast-growing trees such as eucalypts and are related to the growth conditions of the tree. The stresses produce radial cracks from the pith to the bark in the round timber of the felled tree. These growth stresses cause difficulties during processing, resulting in poor sawing accuracy, board distortion and end splitting. It is also noted that their effects are quite different in tangential (crosswise) and radial (circular) boards. In tangential and sub-tangential boards, the stresses produce splitting and bow defects; while in the radial ones the stresses produce mainly crooked deformation. In countries like Australia and South Africa, air-drying was the traditional practice for the early drying of eucalypts from green to below

The general manager of Kisima Farm in Timau, Charlie Dyer, showing how they dry eucalyptus timber. (Photo: BGF)

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Drying of one-inch thick eucalyptus timber in Kisima Farm. The timber is mostly in good shape and not split at the ends. (Photo: BGF)

f.s.p. (fibre saturation point). Drying to final moisture content was usually accomplished in a conventional kiln, although in the past, air-drying was used for the complete drying process. Alternatives to the use of air-drying as a pre-drying treatment for kiln drying are forced air dryers, pre-dryers4 of various types, low temperature dryers, fan shed dryers, warehouse dryers or even progressive dryers. Currently, predryers are no longer used in this restricted sense only. In Australia, boards of young regrowth of Eucalyptus regnans were wrapped in plastic film and kept in stacks of enclosed sheds with water sprays from the time they were sawn until stacked for drying. This was to minimise predrying degrade. Then kiln drying was carried out under tightly controlled pre-dry conditions (temperature, air speed and humidity) until a constant moisture content of 12 per cent was obtained. These conditions include developing kiln drying schedules for these species, where temperature, relative humidity and air circulation is controlled in the kiln. It is known that slowing the drying rate reduces defects such as internal checking, 4 Pre-dryers are usually large halls, which can be divided into different zones. Fans ensure the necessary air circulation through the stacks in the pre-dryer while heating elements ensure the temperature is held on a constant level. The energy consumption is small and the timber can be dried down to the fibre saturation point.

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collapse, case hardening and surface checking. However, if timber is dried too slowly, sap stain and mould growth can discolour it. To solve the problem of growth stresses, some methods, such as storage under water or ringing5 the ends of freshly felled logs, are employed. Currently, the best solution to reduce the growth stresses damage seems to be the appropriate sawing pattern procedure of the log. Most eucalypts tend to check on back-sawn surfaces during seasoning, sometimes severely, but quarter-sawn surfaces usually remain comparatively free of checks. For this reason and because of the greater dimensional stability of quarter-sawn timber, it has been traditional practice in certain parts of Australia to quartersaw ash eucalypt (Eucalyptus nitens) timber for use as flooring, mouldings, joinery, and so on. In Kenya, the usual practice has been to ring or place steel plates (plate of gang nails) on the ends of freshly felled logs to prevent end splits. Logs are allowed to air dry for six to 12 months depending on the climate. The logs to be used as transmission poles or fencing can then be treated with wood preservatives. For timber, the logs are sawn and the timber is kiln dried. Solar kilns, such as the one found in Kisima farm, Timau, Kenya (see Miti issue 24) are in use. It has been noted that sawing eucalyptus timber into 1-inch thick pieces also reduces

the drying defects. In Swaziland, timber merchant NHR Investments (formerly Montigny Investments) use special band saws with double blades to reduce the growth stress. The timber is then kiln-dried carefully where temperature, relative humidity and air are controlled. Drying models have since been developed to realise dried timber with minimum degrade in the shortest time. The points to consider when sawing eucalyptus: • Never include the pith in sawn boards. • Saw the log as soon as possible after felling to minimise end splits. • If quarter-sawing, pay attention to crook. • If back-sawing (flat-sawing) do not saw wide boards - they will cup - and dry the timber slowly and carefully. • Keep log lengths short if using straightening cuts to deal with movement, especially when quarter-sawing. Suggested lengths are 3 metres for diameters up to 45cm and 4 metres for larger diameters. The writer is Senior Research Scientist/Deputy Centre Director, Kenya Forestry Research Institute (KEFRI), Forest Products Research Centre - Karura Email: nelliecoduor@yahoo.com noduor@kefri.org

5 Binding and tightening (a) steel wire(s) around the end of the logs.

(Photo: Jan Vandenabeele)

A plank from mukau (Melia volkensii) timber, showing the “texture” of the wood.

Wood properties and their significance Physical and mechanical features determine use and serviceability BY HAROLD TURINAWE

he properties of wood include all characteristics that determine its quality and affect the serviceability of its end products. The properties are usually categorised as physical or mechanical. The latter is related to strength and machining properties. Choice and suitability of timber for particular tasks is an output of matching wood properties with task requirement appropriately. The properties of wood vary both within and between species. This is because wood is a natural material and trees are subjected to constantly changing conditions such as moisture and growing space. The properties also vary in the different fibre orientations, i.e. radial, tangential and longitudinal. It is for this reason that strength properties of wood are usually referred to as “parallel to the

grain” or “perpendicular to the grain” in structural design. Three orders of structural variation have been recognised in wood, namely macroscopic, microscopic and ultra-scopic. All have been observed to have a bearing on mechanical and physical properties of wood. Due to this variation in properties of wood, timber cannot be manufactured to a particular specification like other materials used in construction. Instead, we select the best of the material already produced naturally. This article dwells on the physical properties of wood and their significance in nature and in the use of timber.

Physical properties of wood Physical properties of wood determine its quality and influence its behaviour in service. Physical properties influence strength, durability and

resistance to fungal attack. The principle physical properties of wood that influence choice of wood for a task include appearance, density and moisture content. Other properties such as thermal, electric, coefficient of friction and nuclear radiation are of secondary importance in general timber applications but important in specialised areas. The versatility of wood is demonstrated by the wide variety of its products and is a result of a spectrum of desirable physical characteristics of many species of wood. For example, to select a wood species for a product, the value of appearance-type properties, such as texture, grain pattern or colour may be evaluated against the influence of characteristics such as machinability, dimensional stability or decay resistance.

Miti April - June 2015

Appearance of wood Sometimes, timber is chosen for making furniture, wall panelling and certain sports goods solely on the basis of its aesthetic appeal. The decorative appearance of many timbers is determined by texture, figure, colour and lustre of wood or a combination of all four of these characteristics. The texture of wood depends on the size of the cells and or their arrangement. Wood can be referred to as fine, coarse, even textured or uneven textured. Figure is defined as the â&#x20AC;&#x153;ornamental markings seen on the cut surface of timber.â&#x20AC;? These are formed by the structural features of the wood. The four most important structural features inducing figure are grain, growth rings, rays and knots. The colour of wood is largely due to various extractives present in the cell wall of the heart wood and may change with exposure to light, while lustre depends on the ability of the cell walls to reflect light. The appearance of wood is significant in surface finishing of wood products since at this stage the main attribute considered is aesthetic value of the product. The decorative value will depend on colour, texture, figure, lustre and most importantly, the way in which it bleaches, or takes fillers, stains and transparent paint finishes. Some would-be defects in a strict sense such as knots, pinholes, bird pecks, decay in isolated pockets, mineral streaks and in-grown bark are strikingly decorative in appearance. With careful selection, these can be utilised for particular architectural treatment properties such as decorative furniture. However, it must be noted that often more than one property of wood is important for any given task. Therefore, selection of a timber for its appearance must be evaluated against other properties such as machinability, stability or decay resistance.

Moisture content Moisture content (MC) of wood is defined as the weight of water in wood, expressed as a percentage of the oven dry weight of wood. Several attributes of wood including weight, shrinkage and strength depend upon the MC of the wood. In trees, moisture content can range from about 30 per cent to more than 200 per cent of the weight of wood substance. In softwoods, the moisture content of sapwood is usually greater than that of heartwood. However, in hardwoods, the difference in moisture content between heartwood and sapwood depends on the species. Wood is a hygroscopic material which readily adsorbs water from the surrounding air depending on the temperature and humidity of the atmosphere and duration of exposure. This means the moisture content of wood is different under different weather conditions. The amount of water present in wood influences its strength and stiffness, but also

Miti April - June 2015

affects dimensions, its susceptibility to degrading fungi, its workability as well as ability to accept adhesives and finishes. Normally, the strength is low when moisture is high. For example, the strength properties of wood, especially compression parallel to the grain, increase as moisture content decreases. However, this increment is pronounced below fibre saturation point and the relationship between strength and moisture content may not apply when timber contains defects. Density of wood increases by approximately 0.5 per cent for every 1.0 per cent increase in moisture content up to a moisture content of 30 per cent. Rapid changes in moisture cause moisture gradients in wood which induce stresses perpendicular to the grain and may cause splitting of wood. The moisture-induced stresses develop due to constrained shrinkage or swelling during fast drying or wetting. The above influence is significant in seasoning of timber and also influences durability and choice of protection for wood in service. Wood performs well with its moisture content reduced to equilibrium moisture content (EMC) of the area of intended use. EMC is defined as that moisture content at which the wood is neither gaining nor losing moisture from the environment.

Density Density is defined as the ratio of mass to volume and is expressed in such terms as grams per cubic centimetre or kilograms per cubic metre. According to Desch and Dinwoodie (1996), density of wood is the single most important property controlling performance of wood. Moisture makes up part of the weight of each product in use and the MC in wood increases the mass of wood as well as the volume. The density of wood must reflect this fact and thus to obtain an accurate measure of density, mass and volume must be carried out at the same moisture content and if not, as in the case of measurement of basic density, it must be stated. This is why in practice wood density is referred to as green density, basic density and oven-dry density. In practice, density is required at 12 per cent moisture content, the level with which most timbers are in equilibrium with a relative humidity in

the atmosphere of 65 per cent. According to Desch and Dinwoodie, determination of density should be carried out at 12 per cent moisture, or corrections to 12 per cent MC equivalents can be made using standardised calculations to account for the changes in mass and volume at higher moisture contents. However, care must be taken in computation of density of a piece of wood since the density of wood is determined not only by the amount of wood substance present but also by the presence of both extractives and moisture. The calculated density of wood is usually considered as an approximation due to the natural variations in the anatomy of wood, moisture content and heartwood to sapwood ratio. However, for practical reasons, the estimated values are sufficient to permit proper utilisation of wood where weight is important such as estimation of structural loads and calculation of shipment weight.

Calorific value Calorific value of wood is defined as the number of heat units that are liberated when a unit weight of wood is burned in oxygen, the residual materials being oxygen, carbon dioxide, sulphur dioxide, nitrogen, water and ash. Calorific value is also known as the heat of combustion or heat value for the fuel. Calorific value is one of the most important thermal properties in the evaluation of materials as potential fuels and only one factor is considered in assessing overall efficacy. Regular combustion and low ash content are also very important but are difficult to quantify. The heat value of wood varies from species to species even when expressed in terms of oven-dry mass of wood. The fuel value of timber depends largely on the amount of wood substance in a given volume i.e. on the density, the chemical composition of the wood substance and the state of dryness of the wood. In general, the denser the wood, the higher its potential for fuel, but this may be affected by the presence of substances such as resin. The writer is the Technical and Marketing Manager Standard Tools Ltd Email: harold@standardtools.co hturinawe@gmail.com

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DFO

Forest Pro Movemeduce Permit nt

TimberDeclaration

Buyerseller agree-

Timber Movement

Tree ownership Receipts

Timber Harvesting

• Buyer-seller agreement • Harvesting license /permit • Declaration form • Movement permit • Receipts of fees paid

Make sure you have all documents:

tion it m Per r nse Lice selle er ent Buy eem Agr lara Dec

Carry all relevant documents and ensure your timber is marked during transportation

Norwood - LumberMan

Wood-Mizer LT70

Grade, stack and store timber with good air circulation to guarantee quality and profit.

Use right tools, right dimensions and reduce waste when splitting. No power saws.

Seek further guidance on legal timber from the Forest Sector Support Department, the National Forestry Authority, District Forestry Offices, or Environment Protection Police. You can also call 0414-340684 or Email to ps@mwe.go.ug

Dealing in legal timber is profitable, saves our forests and benefits the country

Declare your timber and acquire a Forest Produce Movement Permit from District Forest Officer at the district of origin

r Ha Licenrvesting se

Timbe

Use the right and legal tools for cutting down and crosscutting trees.

Acquire timber-harvesting license or permit from the District Forest Officer or National Forestry Authority.

Acquire a declaration of ownership of the trees from the LCs.

DFO

Sell, Buy or Use legal timber

Procedure for legal timber trade in Uganda

This is produced with support from the European Union (EU) and the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). The contents of this document may in no case be considered as reflecting the opinion of the EU or FAO.

If timber is from neighbouring countries, clearance is made at Uganda Revenue Authority boarder posts and the District Forest Office. It is important that you carry all necessary documents from the country of origin.

Only graded/value added timber is allowed for export

ENERGY

Keeping healthy and saving trees Cooking with a gasifier saves fuel and time, reduces smoke and produces charcoal for other uses BY MARY NJENGA ab, MIYUKI IIYAMA a, JAN DE LEEUW a, KRISTINA RÖING DE NOWINAc, THOMAS KÄTTERER d, GEOFFREY KIMUTAI c AND SUNDBERG C D1

he demand for energy remains huge globally and it is rising due to population increase and most importantly, changing lifestyles that increase requirements for energy. About 2.5 billion people depend on biomass (vegetable matter) energy for cooking and heating. Of this, wood makes up 87 per cent. In sub-Saharan Africa, more than 90 per cent of the population relies on firewood and charcoal. Charcoal is the principal fuel used in Kenya, providing cooking and heating energy for 82 per cent of urban and 34 per cent of rural households, while firewood is used by almost all households in the rural areas.

Nutritional benefits in cooking food “Cooking made us human,” claims Wrangham (2009). Wrangham, a professor of biological anthropology at Harvard University, associates invention of fire and cooking food to evolution of shorter intestines in man, compared to primates. This makes it difficult for human beings to process raw carbohydrates. Cooking makes food soft, easy to break down and more digestible, allowing human beings to derive optimal energy and other nutrients from carbohydrates. Cooking also makes food safer, gives it rich and delicious tastes and reduces spoilage. The benefits of cooking food in Africa/ Kenya might be impaired by the fact that charcoal is increasingly becoming expensive, while deadwood and other forest residues that were collected for free are getting scarce. Poor households desperate to put food on the table World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF), Nairobi, Kenya Wangari Maathai Institute for Peace and Environmental Studies, University of Nairobi, Kenya c International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), Nairobi, Kenya d Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (SLU), Uppsala, Sweden 1a b

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are forced to use unsafe sources of fuel such as plastic bottles, plastic basins and old shoes or else abandon traditional nutritious food that takes long to cook.

The pain of sourcing firewood “Collecting firewood from forests is tiring and time-consuming; robbing us of time that we could spend on income generating activities and it is a risky undertaking. Our children lose many hours that would otherwise be spent in school. “If I want to reduce the number of trips to the forest, I carry a load of firewood that is so

heavy that I am helped by two women to put it on my back,” laments Margaret, a mother of eight children. After a long day in the forest, women are hardly able to feed themselves or their families and are forced to neglect some of their responsibilities, which results in domestic disagreements. Women also risk head, spine and leg injury from carrying heavy loads of fuel wood - no wonder many African/Kenyan women complain of backache and knee pains in their old age. Research shows that households also buy

Parts of gasifier. (Source: Nemer Achour)

firewood from groups of women and young men who collect it daily for sale. A load of about 30kgs costs over Ksh 350 and lasts for about three days. At this consumption rate, firewood collectors spend two days every week collecting the commodity. Women are care-takers and are expected to conserve mother-nature. However, when chances of putting cooked food on the table are threatened, women do whatever needs to be done. They cut down young tree samplings to use as fuel. Others cut down timber trees on their farms and domestic disagreements occur. Worse still, fruit trees that are meant to provide the family with free sources of nutritious food are also cut down.

Lighting and cooking with a gasifier. (Photos: Mary Njenga)

Cooking with a gasifier One of the novel innovations that could reduce the burden of sourcing firewood, reduce expenditure on cooking fuel, save trees and improve kitchen environment is a domestic gasifier. Gasification of wood and coal has been known and used since 1800, with major applications of coal-based “gaslight” in London and Paris during the 1850s. A gasifier burns biomass under controlled oxygen where the volatiles and tars are burnt and charcoal and wood gas are made. The resulting gas mixture and charcoal can be used as energy. A domestic gasifier has three parts. The top part is a gas chamber, 15cm in height where combustion of gases take place; the middle inner part is a fuel

container that is 22cm high where gasification takes place; and a lower air inlet, 6cm in height. The gasifier is lit at the top and primary air enters at the bottom and moves up through the packed bed of fuel. The gasifier is lit outside using dry tree prunings, leaves or papers and taken into the kitchen after the fuel has caught fire and stopped smoking. When the flame goes off, it means the charcoal is ready. One can also lift the pot to check if the charcoal is ready. To harvest the charcoal, one removes the cooking pot and then the top part. The charcoal is in the fuel container, which is emptied in a pot and covered completely for about 30 minutes to stop oxygen supply and any further burning.

Smoke – the killer in the kitchen Smoke from the kitchen is associated with over 4.3 million deaths every year, making it one of the world’s leading causes of death. Most of the deaths occur in developing countries and mainly affect women - because they spend a lot of time preparing food in the kitchen - and little children whose lungs and other body organs are still developing. Using inefficient cooking technologies such as poor performing cook stoves, poor quality biomass such as wet wood, wood from tree species with low energy and/or with toxins, and cooking in kitchens with inadequate ventilation all escalate the problem. Coughing, sneezing and headaches are common among women while in smoky kitchens and bronchitis, lung cancer, asthma and tuberculosis have also been linked to smoke in the kitchen.

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The hifadhi cook stove.

Communities that use the gasifier prefer to empty the charcoal onto the ground and cover it with soil. This way, it takes less than five minutes to cool down. After that, the cooled charcoal is picked carefully – avoiding soil so as not to reduce its heating value – and stored in another container, ready for use. Studies are on-going to assess the benefits of using charcoal from the gasifier cook stoves as soil amendments for increased crop productivity. Participatory cooking tests were carried out in Embu in 2014. Grevillea robusta prunings or twigs of about 3cm in diameter were used for a meal of one kilogram of maize flour and 750g of sukuma wiki [(Brassica oleracea) kale] and 2,087ml of water. This meal was assumed to be enough for the Kenyan standard household of five people. In the study, performance in cooking with a gasifier was compared to performance using the hifadhi and the three-stone cook stoves. Converting the tree prunings into charcoal took about 51 minutes and the cooked meal was ready in 32 minutes, leaving 19 minutes of available energy that can be used to cook or heat something else. Below is a summary of the experience. Comparative advantages and disadvantages of the gasifier: • When charcoal produced during cooking is harvested and used again, cooking with the gasifier saves 40 per cent of fuel compared to three-stone cook stove and 27 per cent compared to the improved cook stove. Optimal fuel saving with a gasifier occurs when charcoal is harvested for another use. • If the gasifier is used for cooking and the charcoal is not harvested when ready but allowed to burn into ashes, saving of fuel is only 6 per cent compared to the three-stone cook stove. • Saving fuel helps households reduce expenditure on cooking energy, reduces the

Miti April - June 2015

Three-stone cook stove.

workload and saves time spent by women and children in collecting firewood. The saved time could be spent on other productive activities as well as leisure and education for children. It would also allow households to process food types of their choice, improving nutrition. • The gasifier uses small pieces of wood which could be sourced from prunings or twigs of trees in the farm. It could also use crop residues such as coconut husks and maize cobs and still produce useable charcoal. Use of tree prunings and crop residues as cooking fuels will save trees and forests. • The gasifier significantly reduces concentration of carbon monoxide (CO) and fine particulate matter (PM2.5). • Reducing emissions from cooking with firewood and other biomass will save women and children from death and illnesses associated with smoke in the kitchen and also save income spent on health. Challenges in using a gasifier • It takes 11 minutes to light, which is longer than the four and eight minutes respectively taken in lighting the improved and the threestone cook stoves. • The gasifier requires chopping of wood into small pieces to fit into the fuel container. Users are being trained on this. • The galvanized wall of the gasifier becomes very hot, posing a risk of burns. There is need to protect children from this risk. • The gasifier costs Ksh 3,000 compared to Ksh 500 and negligible cost for the improved and three-stone cook stoves respectively. The Ksh 3,000 is subsidised through project funding and the actual price could be much higher. However, the long-term benefits of using the gasifier are worth much more. • The gasifier does not warm the room, which the three-stone cook stove does very well. • The gasifier does not allow roasting of such

foods as maize and potatoes, which the three-stone cook stove allows. Roasting can however be done later, using the charcoal produced from the gasifier.

Conclusions and recommendations The gasifier cook stove reduces consumption of cooking fuel, hence reducing expenditure on fuel and saves time spent on collecting firewood. The gasifier uses tree prunings, hence saving trees that would otherwise be cut down for cooking. It cooks fast, freeing time for other activities. The gasifier produces low emissions which could reduce premature deaths and costs of health associated with smoke in the kitchen. Low emissions also reduce release of green-house gases and particles into the air, hence mitigating against climate change. There is need for a mindset change and awareness-raising on the benefits of improved cooking technologies for improved livelihoods, environment and ecosystems. Acknowledgement This article is based on on-going research that is investigating the feasibility of small-scale bio char production and use to improve livelihoods on smallholder farms in Kenya. The financial and technical support from World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF), Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (SLU), International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), Lund University and the Swedish Research Council are highly appreciated. Many thanks go to the Livelihoods Programme for introducing the authors to the hifadhi cook stove and the artisans producing them in Embu. This work would not have been achieved without the active participation of farmers and all members of the research team. References for this article can be obtained from the Miti Editor.

Mary Njenga is a Post-Doctoral Researcher, Bioenergy, at the World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF)

WATER MANAGEMENT

Empowering people for conservation IUCN Uganda is promoting a community fund for water management BY SOPHIE KUTEGEKA AND MOSES EGARU

he Community Environment Conservation Fund (CECF) empowers communities to access credit to tackle poverty. It at the same time addresses water and other natural resource management concerns. The model has been piloted between 2012 and 2015 in the Upper Aswa sub-catchment in northern Uganda, Lokok sub-catchment in Karamoja, and three river micro-catchments in the Mt Elgon region. The tool implements theÂ International Union for Conservation of NatureÂ - IUCNâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Resilience Framework (RESFRAM), which promotes diversity, sustainable infrastructure and technology, selforganisation and learning, as pillars for social, economic and ecological resilience. The fund is managed at village level by committees elected by the respective villages, who report to the communities once a month. During the monthly village meetings, the elected committees account to the community on the progress made in implementing the village natural resource management plans. There is also an assessment of household participation and performance in water and

natural resource management, which forms a basis for which households are selected to access the revolving fund (CECF). At the meeting, local government officials are engaged to update

the community on any development activities being undertaken. In the past, water and other natural resource conservation and management projects have promoted alternative livelihood activities, often decided by external actors, to take pressure off the environment. However, such alternatives have often been very unrealistic and, many times, not in line with the livelihood priorities and aspirations of the beneficiaries. In addition, the dilemma of water resources management is that poverty was very rife and driving communities to exploit their natural resources unsustainably through indiscriminate tree-cutting, wetland drainage, cultivation and bush-clearing. The existing governance arrangements were weak and poorly enforced. IUCN therefore set out to provide a supportive framework that would promote sustainable utilisation of natural resources and ensure governance and accountability of actions. It would at the same time address poverty, which is the main driving force for natural resources mismanagement.

Miti April - June 2015

As a response to these, the CECF establishes a credit facility to communities who have collectively agreed to implement a management plan for water and other natural resources in their area. Community-based water resource management (CbWRM) work is promoted, undertaken and monitored by whole communities as a condition to access the credit facility. However, the money can be borrowed and used for any livelihood activity that meets the needs and aspirations of a household. In this way, the CECF delivers sustainable water and natural resources management without prescribing specific livelihood priorities on the beneficiaries. Guidelines about the tool can be found at www.iucn.org/about/work/ programmes/water/resources/wp_resources_ reports/

• In Upper Aswa and Lokok sub-catchments, US$ 38,000 was disbursed under the CECF model to about 120 selected villages, benefiting over 4,600 households. As a result, 178km of stream banks have been demarcated and are under natural regeneration and restoration. • One hundred and twenty four water sources have been protected, and local councils of six sub-counties have officially endorsed by-laws that have successfully regulated water and natural resource use in the sub-catchment. • Twelve woodlots (each about 1.5 acres) have been established with the aim of providing communities with wood for building and cooking and reducing pressure on the environment. Four hundred and four households established fruit tree gardens in an effort to supplement on food and nutrition in the household, alongside greening the landscape. • Eleven manyattas as well as three kraals, two primary schools and one health centre III have been fenced using live fences, reducing biomass off-take by about 70,000 cubic metres annually in those areas. In addition, there are cases of increased water retention in adjacent wetlands, and pasture and water availability along the streams during the dry seasons. • Strong governance structures have been established, with villages closely working with local government and holding monthly meetings to discuss lending and receipt of funds, and the environmental performance of the borrowers. • Within the Aswa catchment, over 196 local water sources that are accessed by over 4,346 households were brought under better management. There are functional management committees that support the community in routine management of water sources. As the main water users, women constitute the majority in these

Miti April - June 2015

(Photos: IUCN)

The quick results

committees. All water points have been fenced using locally available materials, and cleaning rosters for routine communal cleaning have been drawn. The catchments of these water points have been protected; with grass and trees planted around the water points following the Government of Uganda water source protection guidelines. This has contributed to availability and access of clean water to communities, and reducing instances of water related diseases that impact negatively on the people’s ability to adapt to climate change. The protection of the catchment is also ensuring availability of water especially during the dry season (mostly from traditional water sources).

What do we learn and recommend? Through implementation of the CECF, IUCN has specifically learnt that incentive-based approaches deliver multiple outcomes including: • Empowering local communities to directly participate in natural resources management; • Promoting accountability and governance of natural resources; • Improving the well-being of the society by providing access to credit to diversify

livelihood options, while reducing pressure on natural resources within the catchment; • Reducing water and natural resource related conflicts by providing a platform for discussion and arbitration in case they arise. The approach integrates natural resources management and livelihoods enhancement. It is therefore a sustainable, local-level environmental management financing model that is integrated, participatory and that ensures community ownership of the processes and results. The main recommendation from this approach is the need to promote incentive-based approaches that recognise pressing livelihood needs both at individual and household level in order to achieve the desired effect. Sophie Kutegeka is a Senior Programme Officer, IUCN Email: Sophie.KUTEGEKA@iucn.org Moses Egaru is Project Officer - Strengthening Adaptive Capacities of Local Governments and Communities Project Email: Moses.EGARU@iucn.org

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