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CONTENTS PAGE P3- inspirational introductory comments by our editorial team of Lorena B, Naobi C, Emma M, Harrison S, Nikita B and Elliot J. PP4-5- Elliot J reviews Peter Frankopan’s essay on global history in What is History Now? PP6-7- Emma M explores the historical and cultural significance of one of the 20th century’s most famous artists- Frida Kahlo. PP 7-10- Owen W uncovers the story of how an African American policeman infiltrated the USA’s most notorious white supremacist organisation. PP10-12- Hannah B explores the symbiotic relationship between music and protest during the US Civil Rights Movement. PP12-14- Naobi C evaluates the career of a sporting pioneer who overcame sexism and discrimination to blaze a trail for future generations of female athletes. PP15-18- Lorena B delves into the causes, key events and consequences of the US involvement in Vietnam. PP19-20- Martha L reviews Miranda Malins’ and Paul Lay’s excellent podcast on 17th century history. PP21-22- Michaela H looks at the tragedy of the Holodomor, a man-made famine in Ukraine in the 1930s. PP22-24- Nikita B considers whether the collapse of the USSR in 1991 was a turning point in modern Ukrainian history. PP24-27- Valentina T-F looks at the origins of the International Rescue Committee and how it has inspired a new show on Netflix. PP27-28- Andrew B reviews the ground-breaking documentaryFire in Babylon- which delves into the wider historical context of cricket in the West Indies. P29- everyone loves a fun, festive History quiz! 2 | Page
EDITORIAL Our editorial team has devised a ‘manifesto for History’ which reminds us of the importance of the subject in the 21st century! If History means anything in the 21st century it should surely be all about broadening our intellectual horizons and perspectives; and the sheer range and variety of the articles in this year’s edition of The Cromwellian speak to this deep truth about our subject. History also helps us address one of the most profound questions that face humankind- how did we get to where we are today and where might we be going next? The answer to this question for the historian usually lies in digging into the past, exploring many intellectual paths both travelled and less travelled; and exploring the deep roots of issues. Years in the archives and dusty libraries may then enable historians to speak truthsboth comfortable and uncomfortable- in order to answer this question. A thought to consider is whether History and historians still have an important role to play in the Anthropocene Age. As one politician famously remarked in 2016 ( can you tell us which one?! ) do we really need more ‘experts’ telling us what to think? The editorial team for this magazine would answer ‘yes’ to this question because the world in all its messy complexity has never been more in need of ‘expert’ historians to remind us of our common humanity and point out the mistakes of the past; in the hope that current leaders will start listening to historians and not repeat past errors. What makes historians worth listening to is that they are generally equipped with a healthy sense of perspective and a nuanced sense of the ebb and flow of events. Historical experts do not necessarily need to be eminent professors or scholarly doctors of history, like Dr Strong and Dr Strange! Indeed, the ‘experts’ who have written the articles for this year’s magazine are all students who have taken it upon themselves to re-evaluate and re-interpret the past in new ways. In this way, our understanding of the past constantly evolves and it really is the case that each generation writes its own history. We are sure that you will be enlightened and challenged to think deeply about the historical issues that you encounter in the following pages- enjoy!
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WHAT IS HISTORY NOW? Elliot J reviews Peter Frankopan’s essay on the importance of global history which appears in the 2021 work- What is History Now?. This book has injected fresh impetus into the perennial debate on the nature of History. In particular Elliot considers what might be meant by the term, global history… In his essay, Peter Frankopan takes a close look at the interesting and highly complex topic of global history. The broadest definition of the term rests on the assumption that global history just alludes to widening one’s historical perspective. However, this assumption can encapsulate a vast amount of topics, and doesn’t specify any particular area of history. The thought is that embracing ‘global history’ should prevent bias towards the “traditional” areas of historical education, such as the World Wars, Rome and the Tudors. Frankopan goes on to suggest that the historical community should spread educational resources around the world so that people can learn about all sorts of topics, like those connected to the south Pacific and pre-colonial America. The second definition of global history focuses on the idea of refining the historical scope of any historical event, region or person, by researching this topic in depth and in “greater global texture and context”. Frankopan identifies the Middle Ages as a topic where most of the traditional resources are focussed on Europe, when there are plenty of stories about Africa, the Middle East and Asia, with the Mongols, waiting to be told. Overall, this definition encourages historians to look again at the connections between Eurocentric topics and the rest of the world. The third group of historians view global history as a means to find links between the dots of known history that connect people, regions and continents together. Frankopan thinks that this means investigating the history of travel and transport of goods and resources; following trade routes and seeing how communities influenced each other through art, language, goods and technologies. The study of local and international connections like the Silk Road, and maritime links through the Mediterranean, Pacific, Atlantic and 4 | Page
Indian Oceans, allows for knowledge about transport, communication, financial and infrastructural aspects of various societies and how they have developed. This approach can help to explain the borrowing and learning between cultures, and shows how the world has always been much more “globalised” than commonly thought, even centuries ago; with African pottery being found in the most northern regions of Scotland and Mediterranean wine being found in Plymouth; or even an East-Asian coin, with Arabic inscriptions, being found in England. Tracing the journey of one commodity or transaction can help historians understand how the world worked, and how communities connected and interacted with each other. Other historians prefer to view global history as the study of the social and cultural life of all the peoples, rather than just the traditional focus on elites and rulers. These historians would prefer to look beyond the rulers, courts, senior officials, elite culture and diplomatic exchange, and instead look into the socio-cultural aspects of the day, “taking in fuller cross-sections of society”. This might involve looking at the histories of common people and how key events affected them and how they have lived over the centuries. This interpretation of “Global History” privileges the life of the ordinary person rather than the commonly explored lifestyles of the rich and powerful. Finally, Frankopan brings up a hypocritical aspect; the fact that the vast majority of modern historians are Western influenced males, looking into other societies and stories. Truly “global history” might involve equipping every culture and nation with the resources and abilities to be able to study their own history and give their point of view on events; so we teach the future generations how to remove as much bias as possible. In conclusion, Peter Frankopan deeply researches “global history” and considers how it can widen the geographical lens, develop the teaching of historical analysis and research for as many communities and cultures around the world as possible, allowing for the investigation of all cultures, societies and histories by as many different historians as possible. Overall, Frankopan gives the impression that whatever “global history” is classified as, it should be researched, invested and discussed, more than it currently is.
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LIFE IN THE CASA AZUL- HOW THE MEXICAN REVOLUTION AND FRIDA KAHLO’S TROUBLED PAST AFFECTED HER ART Emma M explores the historical and cultural significance of one of the 20th century’s most famous artists. Frida Kahlo, the Mexican painter, was born in 1907 in a poor town called Coyoacan in the outskirts of Mexico City, even though she often claimed to be born in 1910, so she would be associated with the Mexican Revolution that started in the same year. Throughout her childhood and while she was becoming an adult, Frida was surrounded by the cruel civil war. Her suffering of polio that left her with a limp and the bus accident that impaled her through the hip and fractured her spine and pelvis- which led to her infertility- caused physical and mental pain which contributed to the uniqueness of her artwork. Her recovery lasted several weeks and forced her to wear a full body cast for three months, once she got released from the hospital. She had to spend most of her time resting in bed; that's why her parents encouraged her to start painting. They did this by building her an aisle that allowed her to paint in bed. Frida Kahlo's father was a photographer and Frida got most of her knowledge from working in his atelier. Politically, Frida aligned herself with the ideas of the Mexican Revolution and its rejection of Porfirio Diaz’s dictatorship. She was a communist and supported revolutionary leaders like Leon Trotsky. The Mexican Revolution also encouraged a resurgence of pride in Mexico's indigenous cultural roots which Kahlo embraced through the vibrancy in her art and clothing style. Her art expressed her revolutionary and political views and was designed to give the struggles of the Mexican working class a voice in society. During this time she reconnected with an old friend called Diego Rivera, who was also a Mexican artist focusing on Impressionism. At first Frida just wanted Diego to evaluate her work but soon a romantic bond formed between them . Despite Frida’s mother disapproving, they married and were soon known as the artist couple- “the elephant and the dove”. This was because Frida’s was a dainty, small frame next to Diego’s daunting appearance. Their marriage was 6 | Page
not conventional; they had separate houses, studios, lovers and lives. All throughout their marriage they travelled, had affairs and fell out; but always ended up supporting and coming back to each other. Frida’s health worsened in 1950 when she was diagnosed with gangrene in her right foot. She had to stay in a hospital and go through several surgeries but regardless of being bedridden and later having a part of her right leg amputated, she continued to work and paint. Suffering from depression and attempting suicide she still supported a demonstration against President Jacobo Arbenz of Guatemala. This was her last public appearance. One week after her 47th birthday, she passed away from pulmonary embolism in her precious and beloved Blue House. After her death, Diego Rivera made sure that the influence Frida Kahlo's art had on society wasn't forgotten and made a museum out of the Blue House which can be visited to this day.
HOW RON STALLWORTH INFILTRATED THE KU KLUX KLAN Owen W uncovers the story of how an African American policeman infiltrated the USA’s most notorious white supremacist organisation. The Ku Klux Klan is a white supremacist group founded on December 24th 1865, which is ironic as the holiday season synonymous with family and celebration was the season that saw the dawn of one of the most notorious hate-groups known to man. With their name deriving from the Greek phrase ‘kuklos’, which translates to ‘circle’-and the idea inspired by drunken Confederate veterans in the small town of Pulaski- ‘the KKK’ demanded for African-Americans to vote for the Democrats, or not vote at all. Often associated with white hoods and masks, the KKK would ride into the night with the intention of frightening black people through malicious acts of: burning down houses, driving black farmers off their land and extending hostilities to Southern whites that opposed them. The Ku Klux Klan would have a resurgence in 1915, after the federal government had many members of the Klan arrested and punished. The resurgence would 7 | Page
be as a result of the 1915 film, ‘The Birth of A Nation’, in which director D.W. Griffith would portray the group in a more admirable light. Little did they know that a century later, a film would be released that acted as the antithesis of Griffith’s motion picture; that film was ‘BlacKKKlansman’, a satire that followed the true story of Ron Stallworth and how he infiltrated the Ku Klux Klan in 1978. What is the story of Ron Stallworth? Why did he undertake this operation at a time in which the group were at their most radical? How did his childhood and background influence his decision, if at all? This piece of work will seek to explain Stallworth’s actions as well as the thoughts behind them, the prevalence of the Ku Klux Klan in the late 1970s and how it affected the Klan for years to come. Stallworth was the first African American officer and detective hired by the police department of Colorado Springs. Raised in El Paso, Texas, Stallworth claims he “never had a fear of white people”. That stemmed from his mother’s teachings, which encouraged Stallworth to stick up for himself if anybody referred to him using a derogatory term. Upon enlisting in the police department, he claimed that his white colleagues “harboured no bigotry against him personally” yet they “hadn’t reached a point where they could see past their stereotypes”. Stallworth then saw an ad in the local Colorado Springs newspaper stating that the Ku Klux Klan was starting a new chapter and looking for members. He would send a letter including his office telephone number, but he would mistakenly sign his real name as he thought nothing would come from it. Two weeks later on November 1st, he was asked to attend a meeting held by the Klan. Naturally, Stallworth would have to send a white undercover officer to take his place, a man whose identity is unknown but is simply referred to as ‘Chuck’. Furthermore, Stallworth was contacted by a regional KKK office in which he spoke directly to David Duke, the Grand Wizard of The Ku Klux Klan, to confirm his membership. Stallworth described Duke as a “con-artist” and that “his appearance was that of an all-American boy every mother would want as a prom date for her daughter”. He also describes the former Grand Wizard as a “very pleasant conversationalist”. It would be on January 10th 1979 that Stallworth would be assigned to protect David Duke during his visit to Colorado Springs; Stallworth offered a group-photo with Duke, claiming that “no one will ever believe me if I 8 | Page
tell them I was your bodyguard” when in reality, it was because no one would ever believe that Stallworth successfully completed this investigation. Humorously, the next time Duke and Stallworth spoke on the phone, Stallworth being undercover at this point, Duke “proceeded to tell me about his encounter with the, as he put it, “n-- cop who threatened to arrest me for assaulting him.” The investigation would conclude after a local KKK organiser who was moving out of Colorado Springs, suggested that Stallworth succeed him. The chief closed the investigation and instructed Stallworth to destroy all evidence of it; this connotes that the chief of the investigation did not in fact care for the operation and feared for the consequences of the case being tied back to the department, an idea that is corroborated when considering Stallworth’s words on this matter as he claimed that “if word got out that CSPD officers were sworn Klansmen he would have a PR disaster on his hands.” While the investigation would come to an abrupt close, the seven and a half month period saw the: prevention of three cross-burning ceremonies, identified KKK members who had top security clearance at the North American Aerospace Defence Command, traced links between further white supremacist groups in Colorado, learned of unfulfilled plans to bomb homosexual night-clubs and foiled plans to steal automatic weapons from an army base. Stallworth always described this investigation as “just another case”, yet it is undoubtedly one of the bravest, most noble investigations he could’ve undertaken, especially when considering he was the first African-American officer in Colorado Springs. The investigation that Ron Stallworth undertook in 1979 was incredibly noble; Stallworth would write and publish a book titled ‘Blakkklansman’ in 2014. It was a semi-biographical depiction of the events that took place while maintaining elements of satire, most notably renaming Chuck as Flip Zimmerman. This book would be adapted into a film in 2018, directed by Spike Lee and starring John David Washington. The film would maintain a message that Spike Lee would state is “pretty accurate”; it implies that things are not getting better for black people in America, highlights the blatant brutality against protesters and most notably Heather Heyer is homaged after permission was received from her mother. She was a thirty-two year old Charlottesville protester who was murdered on eight counts of malicious wounding and hit-and-run in 2017. This 9 | Page
corroborates Stallworth’s idea that racial prejudice has become more mainstream, now more than ever. While the Ku Klux Klan may not be as powerful or imposing as they were in the 20th century, racial hatred against black people is still prevalent and has grown increasingly more violent in recent years.
THE TRANSFORMATION OF AFRICAN AMERICAN ARTS DURING THE CIVIL RIGHTS MOVEMENT Hannah B explores the symbiotic relationship between the arts and protest during the US Civil Rights Movement… Jazz music played a major role in empowering African Americans to contribute to the Civil Rights Movement, due to the Black representation provided by figures such as Louis Armstrong, Duke Ellington and Billie Holiday. Blackdominated music was an effective way of further amplifying the message of equality; as writer Ashwanta Jackson articulates, “it was music whose greatest stars were Black, and in a country filled with oppression of Black people, that was revolutionary''. To elaborate on Jackson’s point, the music industry was one of the only professions which could transcend the segregative barriers of 1950’s America. Recognising their unique position, Black musicians created an undeniable association between Jazz and the Black struggle. Jazz synthesised the rhythmic complexity of traditional African ‘call and response’ music with the modern interpretation of exciting pitch receival, so through the appreciation of Jazz, western listeners were subconsciously supporting an art form stemming from African culture. Furthermore, the Black audience of Jazz had their experiences nationally recognised and validated, encouraging the Black community to unify and fight for an improvement. With the overarching themes of struggle, frustration and hope, it was Martin Luther King who declared that Jazz was the soundtrack for the Civil Rights movement. In his autobiography, ‘Stride Towards Freedom’, King describes how Jazz music captured the "hardest realities of life and put them into music, only to come out with some new hope or sense of triumph,". This supports that Jazz was not only an effective tool for increasing awareness towards racial discrimination, 10 | Page
but also as a method of motivation from a Black perspective. The transformation of African American musical culture is exemplified with the case study of Jamilia Jones. In 1958, Jones attended a nonviolent activist training session which was interrupted by police. As an act of resistance, they began singing the anthem of the Civil Rights Movement,"We Shall Overcome”, when Jones recalls the policeman asking her, “if [she] would not sing so loud?”. She explains how the police were fully equipped to manage acts of physical violence from the group; however, they were powerless against the strength of their singing. From this, it can be deduced that African American music was further transformed from a pleasurable pastime into an effective method of resistance. African American arts in their visual and literary form also underwent significant transformations as the Civil Rights Movement progressed. Like music, theatre could encapsulate the Black struggle and broadcast this to receptive audiences, but in the same breath, it could also be used to further promote racism in society. Ava DuVernay explores how film was used as a vehicle to promote racist ideologies. She focuses on Griffith’s “Birth of a Nation” from 1915 and how its themes of white saviourism were still prominent during the Civil Rights Movement. The severity of racism in the early 20th century is illustrated by President Wilson’s description of the film as “history written with lightning” whilst having private screenings in the White House. Furthermore, the film is estimated to have earned $18,000,000 in the first two years of screening. By the 1970s, African American visual arts had greatly advanced. Writer Lorraine Hansbury directed “A Raisin in the Sun” which sees a black family from Chicago navigate the socioeconomic consequences of racism in 1950s America. The play ends with the family’s integration into a white neighbourhood; however, there is a sense of foreboding as the family acknowledge the inevitable difficulties they are yet to face. The transformation can be seen here, as visual arts developed from demonising and ostracising Black people- as seen in “The Birth of a Nation”- to empathising with them. The continual discovery of talented Black writers over the 20th Century in the likes of Maya Angelou and Langston Hughes resulted in further appreciation for their expression. So, it can be convincingly stated that
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the visual arts were transformed, in an attempt to counteract the centuries of Black misrepresentation through white supremacist lenses.
FRANCINA ‘FANNY’ ELSJE BLANKERS-KOEN- THE FEMALE PIONEER OF OLYMPIC ATHLETICS In this article, Naobi C evaluates the career of a sporting pioneer who overcame sexism and discrimination to blaze a trail for future generations of female athletes… ‘The Flying Housewife’ was the nickname given to Francina “Fanny” Elsje Blankers-Koen who was the first female athlete to win four gold medals across her four events at the Olympics. Why is this significant? Well, the modern Olympics started in 1896 when only male athletes were allowed to compete. Then, in the following years, more specifically in the 1900 Olympics in Paris, women were finally allowed to compete. In the Olympics of 1948, there were 385 female compared to 3715 male athletes who competed. Female athletes are often frowned upon and even scoffed at, even now in modern-day society; however, back then it was worse. Patriarchy ruled over not just the sporting world but also the real world. Blankers-Koen was even called “too old” to compete by her own husband; it took years to try and persuade her father who was against women competing in sports at all to let her enter the trials for the 1936 Olympics. World War II then ruined the peak of her career as a high jumper. During the 1948 Olympics, she competed in the 100 m, 200 m, 800 m hurdles and relay 4 x 100m. For her personally, many at home did not believe in her success, only motivating her more to go on to become one of the most successful track athletes of that time. “She darns socks with artistry. Her greatest love next to racing is housework.” This quote from the Daily Graphic newspaper of that time was a description of Blankers-Koen. Other female athletes also faced discrimination and were 12 | Page
scrutinised for their performances such as Dorothy Manley was described in the press with discriminatory comments such as “housework keeps her fit” and “she crawls under the tables to polish the legs”. During the Olympic Games these comments continued as the list of discriminatory actions against women became endless; for example, women had to sew their own kits, there were only nine events available and they were confidently catcalled by the crowd and the press. Ironically, the women who competed, stole the show. However, they still faced a backlash getting headlines such as, “big-hearted Dutch mother so nicely called the fastest mother in the world.” This ‘Dutch mother’ won all her races across 11 heats in 8 days and went on to set 16 world records across 8 different events, winning 58 Dutch championships over 20 years and finally retiring in 1955. BlankersKoen was a pioneer for female athletes, inspiring millions and as she rightfully stated her winning was “good propaganda for all women.” She was aware of how important her just competing was for female athletes; meaning she would be disappointed to learn how female athletes' discrimination has continued and is still present today. Recent announcements of how the Olympics in Paris next year in 2024 will be the first Olympics where the number of female athletes (5250) will finally be equal to the number of male athletes (5250) attending has shocked people into the realisation of how slow the progress has been towards equality. However, there is hope. The continued push for equality in women's sports and the success of modern female athletes who are taking the sporting world by storm-like Blankers Koen did- spreads awareness and motivates female athletes to keep fighting for equality. Big events such as World Cups or international tournaments inspire nations to invest more in women's sport as everyone has a thirst for their country to win. The need for more pioneering athletes such as Blankers-Koen is at an all-time high so we can finally put this inequality problem to rest. Sources: Guardian, The. “50 Stunning Olympic Moments No10: Fanny BlankersKoen Wins Four Golds.” The Guardian, Guardian News and Media, 18 Jan. 13 | Page
2012, www.theguardian.com/sport/blog/2012/jan/18/fanny-blankerskoen-olympic-moments. Of Encyclopaedia Britannica, The Editors. “Fanny Blankers-Koen.” Encyclopædia Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica, inc., 2010, www.britannica.com/biography/Fanny-Blankers-Koen. Olympics, The. “Olympics | Olympic Games, Medals, Results & Latest News.” Olympics.Com, 2025, olympics.com/en/. Hampton, Janie, and Sebastian Coe. The Austerity Olympics: When the Games Came to London in 1948. Aurum Press, 2012.
AMERICAN INVOLVEMENT IN THE VIETNAM WAR Lorena B delves into the causes, key events and consequences of the American involvement in a conflict which has cast a long shadow for over fifty years… Vietnam had a troubled background even before its civil war. The French had colonised the country and then the Japanese seized the colony from 1940 until 1945. A group by the name of the ‘Viet Minh’ had decided to declare independence - which began the French Indochina War. The Viet Minh went on to defeat the French in 1954 and they collectively decided to take part in a meeting to discuss what would happen to Vietnam. Countries such as the United States and the Soviet Union participated as well and Vietnam was divided into northern and southern states. This meeting had concluded that the North of Vietnam was to be taken over by communist leader, Ho Chi Minh, and the South of Vietnam was to be led by capitalist leader, Ngo Dinh Diem. By this point, the French had left the country. In 1957, the civil war erupted when the North and South of Vietnam clashed in ideological terms. The leaders of the two governments wanted a united country; however, they wanted Vietnam united under one ideology - either communism or capitalism.
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The capitalist leader, Ngo Dinh Diem, was rather unpopular amongst some South Vietnamese people and more specifically the ‘Viet Cong’, a rebel group against the South Vietnamese government. Later, the Viet Cong would be fighting alongside the North Vietnamese against Diem. However, Diem and South Vietnam were supported by the United States, which was vehemently opposed to communism. Before and during America’s involvement in Vietnam, the United States had promised to protect any country threatened by communism: this was the so-called Truman Doctrine. This is a key aspect of the Cold War - as many proxy wars had ensued as a result of it. Initially, America was not physically involved in the Vietnam War. However, due to Cold War paranoia, Presidents Dwight Eisenhower and John F. Kennedy sent military advisers to aid South Vietnam. It was Lyndon B. Johnson who actively sent US military troops to Vietnam, as a result of the incident at ‘the Gulf of Tonkin’. This event was marked by the ‘unprovoked attacks’ by North Vietnam on American ships when they entered North Vietnamese waters. However, it is said that only the first boat was attacked and that the second was a misunderstanding based on interrupted communication. This gave Lyndon B. Johnson a pretext to escalate American military involvement in Vietnam. Immediately, the USA began Operation ‘Rolling Thunder'; and began dropping bombs on North Vietnam and on the Ho Chi Minh Trail which was a supply road in Laos and Cambodia. They sent in around 3,500 US soldiers. Moreover, the American soldiers attempted to win the ‘hearts and minds’ of the Vietnamese people by building medical and educational institutions. Still, they were despised because alongside building hospitals they were assaulting people with napalm and Agent Orange. The Viet Cong in turn used guerilla warfare, as they did not have the same technology and weaponry that the Americans did. They used ambushes, punji sticks and booby traps - as well as hiding under ground. The Viet Cong weren’t dressed in any uniform but rather, they were dressed in normal clothes to deceive American and South Vietnamese soldiers. This would make it harder for the American soldiers to tell them apart from Vietnamese civilians.
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A turning point in the Vietnam War was the ‘Tet Offensive. ‘Tet’ marks the first day of a new year in Vietnam and there was no fighting expected to happen. However, knowing this, the North Vietnamese and Viet Cong launched an offensive on the American military bases and caught the US soldiers off guard. One key aspect of the Vietnam War was that this was the first televised war and so the entirety of it was on American news at 6pm each day. The Tet Offensive was therefore broadcast and shown to the citizens of America, changing public attitudes and perspectives towards American involvement in Vietnam. It was humiliating to the soldiers, and Americans back home. Walter Cronkite was a key broadcaster and he essentially posed the question of whether it was worth sending thousands of soldiers and paying millions of dollars to fight in Vietnam if they were so easily ambushed by the Vietnamese. He had essentially shown America that the United States was at a disadvantage, that perhaps it was no longer worth fighting. The Tet Offensive was a pivotal moment in the Vietnam War. This is the point at which the My Lai Massacre took place, barely a month or so later in a search and destroy mission when a group named ‘Charlie Company’ had been searching in My Lai village for any Viet Cong soldiers. They didn’t find any, and instead began a massacre in which they killed women, children and older people; yet they did not stop at that, as they went on to assault and mutilate these people. Some say that this was a result of the copious amounts of drug taking by the soldiers, as a result of low morale and some say it was inexperience - one might argue both. Truthfully, the American soldiers were in fact inexperienced, especially when it was no longer a choice to join but rather a product of a conscription process known as the draft. These men were deployed for 6 month periods, and had no prior experience or training. So when they were easily ambushed and attacked, their morale had significantly declined. The Tet Offensive was also a trigger in the heightened emotions that may have led to this Massacre. The only man charged with the massacre was a man named Calley, who was said to have planned the Massacre; although it was said he was a scapegoat and so his sentence was lessened. This again had a devastating impact on the American public’s opinion of the Vietnam War as many began realising that it was no longer fighting against communism or for freedom but had turned to killing innocent civilians. The My Lai Massacre had 16 | Page
just happened to be ‘worse’ than the others, perhaps almost animalistic. American soldiers were killing ordinary Vietnamese people beforehand as well - destroying homes, the ecosystem and anything that stood in their way. After years of involvement in the Vietnam War, the United States could no longer justify their spending on the war and the cost in lives they were paying. The United States was a super power, and in terms of the Cold War, a loss like this would falter their reputation for strength, especially after their efforts in the Korean War. However, back home people began to protest and an antiVietnam war movement had begun. A common chant shouted at protests was, ‘Hey hey LBJ, how many kids did you kill today?’ A key moment in this protest movement was the Kent State shootings: an event characterised by peaceful demonstrations held at a university in Ohio, when national guards began shooting at the students. They killed 4 students and injured 9. At this point in time, America had no choice but to consider retreating from the war as it was costing more than just money and lives, but also endangering civil peace. In 1969, President Nixon became President and began removing troops from Vietnam. Although he was decreasing US military involvement, he had begun bombing North Vietnam and neighbouring countries such as Laos and Cambodia; all this whilst peace talks began and America began considering Vietnamization. Vietnamization was a plan that was implemented to reduce American involvement and help South Vietnam defend itself against North Vietnam. Its purpose was to ‘leave with honour’. In 1973, all groups signed an agreement to cease fighting and America pulled away more troops - however, not all. They were still funding and advising from afar and by 1974 they cut all financial aid and left South Vietnam to fend for themselves against the North and the Viet Cong. The North launched an attack, troops entered Saigon and by April 30 1975 the Communists had won and Vietnam was united under the Communist ideology. In conclusion, American involvement in the war was arguably unnecessary as it was never their war to begin with. The only reason for their involvement was the Cold War and their interest in stopping the ‘Domino Effect’ of Communism in Asia - so that the Soviet Union had no advantage over the United States. As a 17 | Page
result of the ‘Truman Doctrine’, the Americans saw it as their responsibility to protect those living in fear of communism, and used this justification to enter Vietnam. However, this intervention had disastrous consequences for both Vietnam and the USA, as both countries suffered severe social and economic effects as a result of their involvement. As a result of the war, the American government had lost the trust, even of many Americans, and was viewed more negatively by the rest of the world; not only that - but the USA had been humiliated by the recordings and photos that showed them fleeing from the Viet Cong.
A REVIEW OF 1666 AND ALL THAT Martha L reviews Miranda Malins’ and Paul Lay’s excellent podcast on 17th century history- a must for all A Level historians! EPISODE 2: in Episode 2, Miranda Malins and Paul Lay recall the future King of England, Prince Charles, travelling to Spain incognito in 1623 ahead of the proposed Spanish Match. Alexander Samson explains how this trip to Madrid sparked Charles’ love for art; the podcast reveals that Charles was captivated with the Habsburgs’ cultivated image of invincibility and how the paintings of King Philip IV were carried in procession. This exposure to the Spanish Court impacted on Charles’ perception of Divine Right and led to a growing sense of admiration for the Spanish Court and the way it functioned. Charles and the Duke of Buckingham arrived in Madrid on 7th March 1623-which staggered many, as it was a serious breach of protocol- under the identities of John and Tom Smith! James I wanted the Spanish Match to be successful in order to ally with Spain and restore the lost possessions of his daughter, Elizabeth, and sonin-law, Friedrich, which had been taken from them by the Austrian Habsburgs. Alexander Samson edited a volume of essays on the Spanish Match, arguing that the sophistication of architecture in Habsburg Madrid transformed Charles’ outlook, with painters such as Tischen having a huge influence on him. 18 | Page
It was a culture shock for Charles as he witnessed ceremonial Court culture, festivals, feasts and the novelty of bullfighting. Charles was also served dinner by noblemen on their knees! This arguably resulted in Charles’ growing taste for European absolutism, aspects of which would be implemented during his Personal Rule in the 1630s. However, unbeknown to Charles, this perception of the Spanish Crown’s splendour and riches was something of a facade; as revealed in the podcast, Philip was in debt and the Spanish Crown was bankrupt. Overall, this podcast was extremely insightful into unpacking the chronology of the Spanish Match and the importance of the Spanish Court culture that impacted Charles so significantly. EPISODE 3: in Episode 3, Miranda Malins and Paul Lay tell a dark story from 1678 about a troubled churchman, Titus Oates, who alleged that the Jesuits and their allies were plotting to assassinate King Charles II and return England to Catholicism. The fabricated Popish Plot- forged with no grain of truth- cost the lives of 30 innocent people, who were deemed traitors and who were hung, drawn and quartered. Paul Lay recalls that when Israel Tonge and Titus Oates met in 1677, Oates convinced Tonge that the Jesuits had been the cause of the Civil Wars; and that Jesuits wanted to assassinate Charles II with silver bullets! Oates said that Jesuits orchestrated a fire in Southwark 1676 and the murder of a magistrate, Sir Edmund Berry Godfrey. The first plot victim was William Staley, the son of a Catholic goldsmith, who was arrested and then died at Tyburn 1678. Edward Coleman was another. Oates’ testimonies went largely unchallenged and Coleman was proven guilty. In April 1679, Parliament charged the Earl of Danby with secretly obtaining a yearly subsidy from the Catholic King Louis XIV France. This further aggravated the paranoia stoked by the Plot. Charles II was especially concerned about the long awaited trial of George Wakeman. Wakeman and his fellow defendants became the first Catholics implicated in the plot, to be acquitted. This led to social unrest, with the fury of the London Mob. The final and arguably the most significant execution was that of Plunkett on 2nd July 1680 and the Earl of Shaftesbury being arrested for treason was ultimately the turning point, as the Popish Plot’s political
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spearhead had gone; and as Malins and Lays stated, the Plot had essentially ‘evaporated’. Titus Oates was convicted of perjury and died 1705. Overall, this podcast is beneficial to students studying the 17th Century and is a beneficial research tool. The way the podcast narrates the history and chronology of events is a helpful revision tool for those who are studying this era; it is easy to understand and accessible, even if you are just interested in learning about a new period or event in history.
THE HOLODOMOR Michaela H explores the tragedy of this man-made famine in Ukraine in the 1930s. The Holodomor itself was an orchestrated famine, created by Stalin’s government as an attempt to eliminate Ukrainian resistance to the Soviet communist regime. The genocide was concentrated around 1932 to 1933 and was part of a larger Soviet famine which killed over 5 million people, with 3.9 million being Ukrainians. The genocide reached its peak in June 1933, with 20 people dying of starvation every minute. The tragedy began when Stalin enforced collectivisation of farms in 1929, deporting those who refused to give up control of their fields. With all private land now under the control of Stalin’s government, there was a significant drop in productivity which led to disorganisation within the rural economy, food shortages and importantly, armed peasant rebellions. In August 1932, Stalin sent a letter to his associate Kaganovich, stating his concerns that the unrest and rebellions in Ukraine may lead to its independence and separation from the USSR. That same month, the Politburo issued a law called the ‘Five Stalks of Grain’, stating that anybody, even a child, who was caught stealing grain from socialist property would be tried and imprisoned. As a result of this law, 2000 Ukrainians were executed by the start of 1933. Following the first law, Ukraine’s borders were sealed in January 1933 as directed by Stalin and Molotov, to prevent Ukrainians leaving in search of food. As the winter continued, the USSRwide famine grew worse, directly intensifying the effects on Ukraine. 20 | Page
Communist apparatchiks began to sack and raid peasant homes, forcibly taking anything edible; crops, personal food stores and even pets. Of course these savage actions were mostly driven by fear and hunger; however, the initial motivation was born from an age-old hatred, stemming from the Kremlin itself. The aftermath of the Famine’s peak may be even more shocking than the event itself. Aside from the millions of Ukrainians who perished from hunger, there are police records of cannibalism and mass lynching, alongside general lawlessness like theft. The Ukrainian countryside became littered with the graves of the starved and corpses were still being found in urban areas after 1934, despite the attempt to mitigate the deaths by using ration cards. The Famine was a physical and moral attack on the Ukrainian people. It intensified the policy of Russification while also suppressing Ukrainian culture and the language itself was banned. It was also a chance to eradicate those who supported the short-lived Ukrainian People’s Republic, which was declared in 1917 after the Russian Revolution, but quickly quashed by Bolshevik forces. Anyone unlucky enough to fall victim to the Russification campaign was liable to imprisonment, public vilification or being sent to a Gulag. A potent demonstration of Soviet repression can be seen through the suicide of Mykola Skrypnyk, a well known Ukrainian Communist involved with the People’s Republic. He considered suicide preferable to facing the court at one of Stalin’s show trials. It is important to note that publications about the Holodomor were suppressed and it was only publicly mentioned in 1986 after the Chernobyl Incident. Bibliography The Gates of Europe - Serhii Plokhy https://www.britannica.com/event/Holodomor https://holodomormuseum.org.ua/en/the-history-of-the-holodomor/ https://cla.umn.edu/chgs/holocaust-genocide-education/resourceguides/holodomor#:~:text=In%20August%20of%201932%2C%20the,of%20tho se%2C%202%2C000%20were%20executed.
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HOW DID THE COLLAPSE OF THE USSR SHAPE THE FUTURE OF THE UKRAINE? Nikita B considers whether the collapse of the USSR in 1991 was a turning point in modern Ukrainian history… The collapse of the Soviet Union can be called a decisive historical event for Ukraine; some historians consider it to be the beginning of the uniqueness of Ukraine as a country, which is a little erroneous, but again, everything depends on the perspective from which this event is presented. Let's start with the main point: on August 24th, 1991, the independence of Ukraine was proclaimed as a separate sovereign country amidst the vastness of the then collapsing Soviet Union. Immediately after this, we move on to the second aspect, which cannot be ignored; these are the economic difficulties that Ukraine faced immediately after the collapse of the Soviet Union. This could have been predicted since it was difficult for the young country to establish an economy after so many years of complete monopoly of the Soviet Union; private entrepreneurs and businesses were not functioning and all state-owned enterprises were not yet operating, so the authorities and parliament of Ukraine had a hard time in order to establish a capitalist economy for the country. The country was faced with inflation and an economic crisis and also the lack of plans and mechanisms for starting private and public businesses. Also, the government of Ukraine was faced with an important and determining question of the geopolitical direction of the country. Would it remain in the CIS ( Commonwealth of Independent States ) community or would it move closer to the West and the European Union? Here it is also important to note the signing of the Budapest Memorandum between Ukraine, the USA, Great Britain and Russia that Ukraine would surrender all its nuclear weapons in response to which these countries promised to act as guarantors of the security and territorial integrity of Ukraine; which Russia would violate in the future when it began to occupy part of Donetsk and Luhansk regions and then seized Crimea.
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Also, after the collapse of the Soviet Union, the question of the cultural heritage of Ukraine and its language issue hung in public discussions. Since 2014, the Russian language has been completely removed from television and all media in Ukraine. Speaking about the cultural heritage of Ukraine, because of the negative attitude of the Soviet authorities, it was only thanks to the desire of the Ukrainians themselves that it was possible to preserve the Ukraine’s culture and language as well as folklore, folk dances and songs and customs that were passed down from generation to generation. Another interesting aspect of Ukrainian history after the collapse of the Soviet Union was the Euromaidan, which occurred as a result of the refusal of the President of Ukraine, Viktor Yanukovych, to sign an agreement beginning a process of European integration for Ukraine. After such a sharp refusal, thousands of Ukrainian students came out peacefully to protest on the street in order to express their dissatisfaction with the decision; but then the peaceful protest escalated into clashes with security forces. As a result of the subsequent revolution, the president fled to Russia, which confirmed that he was completely pro-Russian. Since February 24th, 2022, Ukraine has expressed a great desire to become a member of the Eastern NATO bloc as it was faced with a full-scale invasion by Russia of the territory of Ukraine. The course of the war has shown that after over 30 years of independence, Ukraine has developed a resilient army of professionals. This page in the history of Ukraine has not yet been finished, but it will have a great influence on the future of this country; especially if in thirty years time, the country has moved towards the West, which for most countries of the post-Soviet space is still an unattainable goal.
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THE ORIGINS OF THE INTERNATIONAL RESCUE COMMITTEE Valentina T-F looks at the origins of the International Rescue Committee and how it has inspired a new show on Netflix. Netflix’s Transatlantic explores how Varian Fry, Mary Jane Gold and the Emergency Rescue Committee (ERC) evacuated thousands of refugees from Marseilles during World War II. Set in 1940, Fry and Gold are two Americans who, with their group of allies, organise a secret operation to rescue artists, writers, and refugees fleeing Nazi persecution. This series is based on“The Flight Portfolio”, which is a piece of historical fiction based on the true story of Varian Fry, a cofounder of the ERC working in Marseilles, and his team that helped more than 4,000 people flee the Nazis. Therefore, both the novel and the series are based on real-life events. Firstly, all the characters in the series are real people; the most important of which are Varian Fry, Mary Jane Gold, and Albert Hirschman. The principal head of the mission was Varian Fry, an American journalist who was the founding member of the Emergency Rescue Committee. Based in Marseilles, he helped artists, writers, and more to escape Europe. When Fry returned to the USA, the ERC merged with the International Rescue Committee to help refugees. He was able to help people partly due to the help of First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt; she secured emergency visas for artists and scholars endangered by the Nazis, helping Fry to establish operations in Marseilles. After the war, Fry was named “Righteous Among the Nations” by the Yad Vashem Holocaust Memorial in 1994. In addition, Mary Jane Gold, an American heiress from Chicago helped support the refugees by staying in France; eventually, she joined Fry as a courier, funding the evacuations with her own money and also renting the Villa Air-Bel, where the whole team stayed during this time. Once she returned to the US, she worked for the IRC. Lastly, Albert Hirschman was a Jewish-German humanitarian and anti-Nazi activist; before he joined the team, he participated in the Spanish Civil War on the Republican side and worked for a political group opposing the Nazi Party; and also worked against Mussolini in Italy. As part of the team, he enlisted activists who helped smuggle refugees over the Pyrenees into Spain. After the war, Hirschman 24 | Page
served two years with the Army Intelligence and became a faculty member at Princeton University. In conclusion, these three important real-life characters were the key for many people surviving the Second World War, as despite the dangers that they were put in, they didn’t hesitate and did the right thing with all of the resources that they had in hand at the time. In the present day, the International Rescue Committee still provides humanitarian support in over 40 countries around the world. The IRC has six objectives; economic well-being, education, empowerment, health, safety, and supporting women and girls. People are able to support them by donating money to the cause or volunteering. From another perspective, the Netflix series “Transatlantic” has massively helped the cause, by making it visible to younger generations. In conclusion, the series has served as a way to open doors for everyone to be informed of the brave actions that were taken by a few ordinary people during World War Two. Furthermore, "Transatlantic" serves as a powerful reminder of the ongoing work of the International Rescue Committee, which continues to provide vital humanitarian support in various parts of the world. By raising awareness and inspiring a new generation of viewers, the series contributes to the cause by encouraging support, donations, and volunteerism to help those in need. In conclusion, the following quote easily encapsulates the remarkable impact and enduring legacy of Varian Fry, his colleagues, and the International Rescue Committee (IRC), coming from David Miliband, the IRC’s President, and CEO; “Fry and his colleagues had little precedence but through action and ingenuity…they supported over 4,000 people with funds, jobs, places to hide, and means to leave Vichy France. For 90 years, this spirit has persisted throughout the IRC and throughout our programs in 40 countries worldwide, as we continue to help and support people during times of conflict to survive and rebuild their lives." This shows that what they did, did not go to waste, as Miliband is bringing to light how Fry demonstrated the immense power of human agency and determination in the face of overwhelming challenges. Despite the lack of a clearly established framework, Fry and his colleagues took decisive action to save the lives of thousands of people. This highlights the potential for individuals, driven by a deep sense of empathy and justice, to 25 | Page
make an extraordinary difference. The mention of the IRC's persistence reinforces the enduring spirit of humanitarianism. The commitment to assisting and uplifting those affected by conflict has transcended time and geographical boundaries. This quote prompts a reflection on the power of individuals to effect change through action and ingenuity. It reminds us of the transformative impact that dedicated individuals and organisations can have in providing essential support to those in need. Therefore, this Netflix show establishes a new beginning for the Committee, and extends beyond the screen, as it educates, inspires, and honours the bravery of individuals who risked their lives to save others. It reaffirms the importance of standing up against injustice and reminds us that even in the face of overwhelming adversity, a small group of dedicated individuals can make a profound difference in the lives of many. Bibliography
unknown, unknown (2023) The true story behind Transatlantic and the IRC, The IRC. Available at: https://www.rescue.org/article/true-story-behindtransatlantic-and-irc (Accessed: 01 June 2023). IRC, press release (2023) New netflix series transatlantic inspired by the story of Humanitarian Varian Fry & the Origins of the International Rescue Committee, The IRC. Available at: https://www.rescue.org/press-release/new-netflixseries-transatlantic-inspired-story-humanitarian-varian-fry-origins (Accessed: 01 June 2023). Airbel, A. impact lab (2018) Airbel impact lab - research & innovation at the IRC, Airbel Impact Lab - Research & Innovation at the IRC - Home. Available at: https://airbel.rescue.org/?_ga=2.180028324.1049901840.16856372051254030259.1685637205 (Accessed: 01 June 2023). ERC, I. (2023) Varian Fry’s Holocaust Rescue Network and the origins of the IRC, The IRC. Available at: https://www.rescue.org/article/varian-frys-holocaustrescue-network-and-origins-irc (Accessed: 01 June 2023).
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FIRE IN BABYLON AND THE IMPORTANCE OF THE STORY THAT IT TELLS Andrew B reviews this powerful documentary which delves into the wider historical and social context of cricket in the West Indies. "Fire in Babylon" is a documentary that tells the story of the West Indian Cricket Team, which dominated the sport in the 1980s and produced legendary players. Despite their recent decline, this film highlights their exceptional cricket skills and sheds light on the racial prejudices they faced, ultimately changing West Indian Cricket forever. Initially, the West Indian Cricket Team was mostly composed of white men due to the ethos of the Imperial Cricket Conference. However, the inclusion of Black cricketers began with J Wood and CP Cumberbatch, who represented Trinidad and defeated the English team in 1897. This led to an increase in the participation of Black cricketers in inter-island competitions, despite facing prejudice from the gentlemen amateurs. Charles Ollivierre emerged as a star player during the 1900 Tour to the West Indies, becoming the first Black man to play first-class cricket in England. This milestone challenged the perception of Black individuals in cricket and society, as they were previously limited to bowling roles; which was traditionally perceived as the more subservient of cricket’s skills. Although the number of Black players in the West Indies cricket team increased, racial prejudice persisted, and white men continued to captain the team. It wasn't until 1960 that Frank Worrell became the first Black captain, setting the stage for future great West Indian captains. "Fire in Babylon" begins by describing the poor state of West Indian Cricket after World War II. The team was often referred to as "Calypso Cricketers," a derogatory term suggesting their perceived lack of determination to win consistently. However, the appointment of Clive Lloyd as captain in 1974 marked a turning point; and he forged a group of talented young cricketers, such as the fast bowlers Andy Roberts, Michael Holding, and Wayne Daniel. Despite criticism of their tactics, rooted in racial prejudice, the West Indian team continued to excel. After defeating India, the next challenge came during the 1976 tour of England, 27 | Page
where the West Indies showcased their formidable pace attack and star batsmen Sir Viv Richards and Gordon Greenidge. The team was further fuelled by the remarks made by the England captain, Tony Greig, about how he would make the West Indies ‘grovel’. The West Indians also mastered the art of controlled aggression, making their fast bowling highly effective and the overall result was a decisive victory for the West Indies. Despite their dominance, the West Indies faced challenges in receiving fair salaries from the cricketing board. In 1982, some players were enticed to tour South Africa, despite its apartheid policies. However, many players refused, including Sir Vivian Richards, as they did not want to support state-sponsored racism. This refusal reflected the West Indian team's influence as an inspiration to Black people globally. The pinnacle of the West Indies' dominance came during the 1984 tour of England, where they showcased four of the greatest Test bowlers: Michael Holding, Joel Garner, Malcolm Marshall, and Courtney Walsh. The West Indies won 5-0 and the series earned the nickname "Blackwash." This series not only displayed their cricketing prowess but also had a significant impact on Black supporters and Black cricket participation in England. In conclusion, the story of Black cricketers in the West Indies reflects the changing landscape of racism over the past century and therefore is a crucial part of modern history and our understanding of it.
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OUR SUPER-FUN HISTORY QUIZ! Step away from your digital device for five minutes and join us for a festive quiz that will both educate and entertain! 1) In which colony did the Boston Tea Party take place on December 16th 1773? 2) What was the name of the US Civil Rights activist who refused to give up their seat on a bus on 1st December 1955? 3) Apollo 8 was launched on 21st December of which year? 4) What world-wide humanitarian aid organisation was established on December 11th 1946? 5) In which year was Charles Dickens’ A Christmas Carol published? 6) The Irish Free State became an independent member of the British Commonwealth in December of which year? 7) What nationality was Abel Tasman, the seafarer who ‘discovered’ New Zealand in December 1642? 8) The USSR ceased to exist in December of which year? 9) Some British women were permitted to vote in a general election for the first time in December of which year? 10) John Lennon was assassinated on December 8th of which year? 11) ‘Bonnie Prince Charlie’ was born on 31st December in which year? 12) George Washington won his 2nd presidential election in December of which year? 13) Edward VIII abdicated the British throne on December 11th in which year? 14) Who sent the first transatlantic radio signal on December 11th 1901? 15) Who was President of the USA when Japan launched a surprise attack on Pearl Harbor on 7th December 1941?
Answers: 1- Massachusetts: 2-Rosa Parks: 3-1968: 4- UNICEF: 5-1843: 6- 1921: 7-Dutch: 8-1991: 9-1918: 10-1980: 111720: 12: 1792: 13-1936: 14- Guglielmo Marconi: 15- Franklin D Roosevelt
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We hope you have enjoyed reading Issue 10 of the Cromwellian. If you would like to get involved in editing or contributing to subsequent editions, please get in touch with Mr Pathak or another member of ‘Team History’…
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