Liceo Journal of Higher Education Research 2010 by Brian Tubongbanua

Editorial Board EDITOR IN CHIEF Teresita T. Tumapon, Ph.D. Liceo de Cagayan University, Philippines Science and Technology Victor B. Amoroso, Ph.D. Central Mindanao University, Philippines Ken Kawasaki, Ph.D. Kochi University, Japan Benito C. Tan, Ph.D. National University of Singapore Health, Social Science and Business Veneracion G. Cabana, Ph.D. University of Chicago, USA ; Mt. View College, Philippines Fatima Shad Kaneez, DMED, Ph.D., Universiti Brunei Darussalam Mary Janet M. Arnado, Ph.D. Research Institute for Gender and Women, Philippines Eddie R. Babor, Ph.D. Holy Name University, Philippines Managing Editor Genaro V. Japos, Ph.D. Finance Manager Jose Maria Z. Valdehuesa, MBA Technical Staff Salvador C. dela Pe単a III, M.A. - Copy Editor Donald D. Abelgas - Layout and Design Jun Brian P. Tubongbanua - Webmaster Bernard A. Gutierrez - Plagiarism Detection Jony V. Berjes, MM - Cover Design

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Accredited Research Journal 2009-2012 by the Commission on Higher Education Republic of the Philippines Category B, CMO 09 Series of 2010

VOLUME 6 NO. 2 2010

Liceo de Cagayan University Cagayan de Oro City, Philippines

ÂŠ 2010

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crown of achievements 2010 Ranked Category B Philippine Journal Gold Prize - Quality Assurance Award for Journal Publication Outstanding Performance of the Editorial Board of a Journal Publication Quality Assurance Award for Peer Review System Quality Assurance Award for Plagiarism Detection Global Online Journal Award

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Vol. 6 No. 2 December 2010 ISSN: 2094-1064 CHED Accredited Research Journal, Category B

Liceo Journal of Higher Education Research Science and Health Section Cutting Edge Research

A Densityâ&#x20AC;&#x201C;Dependent Epidemiological Model for the Spread of Infectious Diseases ROBERTO N. PADUA rnpadua@yahoo.com Liceo de Cagayan University ALFEO B. TULANG Bukidnon State University Date Submitted: Oct. 6, 2010 Final Revision Complied: Nov. 21, 2010

Plagiarism Detection: Passed License No. 944146510808541 Original: 82.69%

Abstract - A population consists of healthy (H), infected (I) and recovered (R) individuals at any time (t). The infected individuals I(t) are capable of infecting the healthy individuals (H(t)) but not the recovered ones. A density dependent population model is used for the healthy individuals within the environment with maximum carrying capacity M. The first model developed and used in this paper consists of a coupled system of differential equations. The model can be used to predict an outbreak or massive epidemic through its infection rate b. The second model is a simplification of the first model assuming a density-dependence structure in all the compartments or states of the disease. It is shown that with such simplification, it is possible to predict the trajectory of the infectious disease over time given the rate of population growth of the susceptible or healthy population, the rate of infection and the rate of recovery from the infectious disease.

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Due to the density-dependence structure of both models, the birth and death rates are already implicitly factored into the epidemic model. Data for the spread of HIV across different countries of the world were used to illustrate the usefulness of the model. Keywords - epidemic, non-linear differential equations, logistic curve, variation of parameters, chaotic dynamical systems, human immune-deficiency virus (HIV)

INTRODUCTION Models of the spread of infectious diseases have always been considered useful in epidemiology. In particular, mathematical epidemiologic models allow medical practitioners to predict the onset of an outbreak, establish control measures to prevent such an outbreak and, more importantly, understand the dynamics of disease spread. Since the bubonic plague of the 19th century, man has become more wary of infectious diseases. To date, infectious diseases brought about by more virulent viruses like the AH1N1 virus, the HIV virus, and others are of greater interest to mankind particularly with the unsettling knowledge that human population increases while stretching earth’s resource capacity to carry such a load. Most mathematical models for the spread of diseases are stochastic. The McKendrick (1978) model is a classic example of such a model when the spread of the disease is modeled as a spatio-temporal Poisson process. Perhaps, the most common epidemic model is the Kermack – McKendrick model (from Epidemic Modeling by Gani, 1982). In this model, there are no births, the population size N is fixed, and there are three states: susceptible (S), infected (I) and removed (R). People move from being susceptible to being infected and then to being removed. The main problem with the Kermack – McKendrick model, even if it is the one often used in practice today, is the fact that it assumes a fixed population N and no births occur. It is similar to assuming a population that remains the same and where every infected individual 2

A Density-Dependent Epidemiological Model for the Spread of Infectious Diseases

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eventually recovers. On the other hand, models which account for the realities in epidemiology often result to extremely complicated mathematics, as will be later seen in this paper. A more realistic model must take into account the fact that population growth fluctuates (even if growing) and is naturally controlled by the maximum carrying capacity of the environment. Density-dependent models, generally, account implicitly for the births and deaths that take place in the population of organisms within a limited environment without explicit reference to both birth and death rates of the organisms. Such a model can, for instance, be used in reference to both the human (host) population and the vector population growth trajectories. The model can also be used to describe the movement from one epidemiological stage to another of individuals for directly transmissible diseases. To this end, assume a maximum carrying capacity of M individuals in an environment. We introduce the basic logistic population model (Anderson, 1982) by letting H(t) be the population of healthy individuals at time t, I(t) the population of infected individuals and R(t) is the number of recovered individuals.

The logistic model for population growth is:

whose solution is:

The discrete counterpart of (3) is a source of rich dynamical behavior:

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For the population becomes extinct; for 1 < a< 3.57 the population tends to a stable limit while for , the population experiences a series of busts and booms appearing like a chaotic process. We wish to exploit the variety of dynamical behaviors in the formulation of our epidemiological model. BRIEF LITERATURE REVIEW Epidemiological models for large populations require the use of deterministic or compartmental mathematical models. For example, this is done in the case of tuberculosis and HIV infection modeling. In the deterministic model, individuals in the population are assigned to different subcategories or compartments, each representing a specific stage of the epidemic. Letters such as M, S, E, I, and R are often used to represent different stages. Individuals in a population move from one stage to another stage of the epidemic model. The rate at which such individuals move from one class to another are mathematically expressed as derivatives or rates of change with respect to time, hence the model is formulated using differential equations. While building such models, it must be assumed that the population size in a compartment is differentiable with respect to time and that the epidemic process is deterministic. In other words, in deterministic models, the notion of randomness or stochasticity does not factor in the model formulation, only the history of the movement of individuals from one stage to another (Brauerand Castillo-Chavez, 2001). Terminology â&#x20AC;˘ We survey some of the most common forms of deterministic epidemic model. In order to better appreciate the presentation, the following is a summary of the notation used in this paper:M -- Passively Immune Infants

â&#x20AC;˘

S -- Susceptibles

â&#x20AC;˘

E -- Exposed Individuals in the Latent Period

A Density-Dependent Epidemiological Model for the Spread of Infectious Diseases

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•

I -- Infectives

•

R -- Removed with Immunity

•

β -- Contact Rate

•

μ -- Average Death Rate

•

B -- Averate Birth Rate

•

1/ε -- Average Latent Period

•

1/γ -- Average Infectious Period

•

R0 -- Basic Reproduction Number

•

N -- Total Population

•

f -- Average Loss of Immunity Rate of Recovered Individuals

•

δ -- Average Temporary Immunity Period

The SIR Model The simplest of all epidemiological models is the KermarckMcKendrick Model. In 1927, W. O. Kermack and A. G. McKendrick developed a simple model in which only three categories or compartments are involved in a fixed population: susceptible: S(t), infected, I(t), and recovered, R(t).The compartments used for this model consist of three classes: • S(t) is used to represent the number of individuals not yet infected with the disease at time t, or those susceptible to the disease • I(t) denotes the number of individuals who have been infected with the disease and are capable of spreading the disease to those in the susceptible category • R(t) is the compartment used for those individuals who have been infected and then recovered from the disease. Those in this 5

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category are not able to be infected again or to transmit the infection to others. The flow of this model is as follows: Susceptible - Infected - Recovered or S I R. Using a fixed population, N = S(t) + I(t) + R(t), Kermack and McKendrick derived the following equations: The number of susceptible individuals decrease in proportion to the number of susceptible present who are in contact with infectious individuals: = - βSI The number of infected individuals change according to the number of susceptible individuals infected (βSI) minus the number of individuals who recover from the disease (γI) = βSI –γI The number of individuals who recover from the disease is a fraction of the number of infected individuals (γI): = γI Certain assumptions were made in the formulation of these equations: First, individuals in the population are assumed to be equally likely to contract the disease depending on a rate β, which is considered the contact or infection rate of the disease. Therefore, an infected individual makes contact and is able to transmit the disease with βN others per unit time and the fraction of contacts by an infected with a susceptible is S/N. The number of new infections in unit time per infective then is (βN)(S/N), giving the rate of new infections (or those 6

A Density-Dependent Epidemiological Model for the Spread of Infectious Diseases

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leaving the susceptible category) as (βN)(S/N)I = βSI (Brauer and Castillo-Chavez, 2001). For the second and third equations, consider the population leaving the susceptible class as equal to the number entering the infected class. However, a number equal to the fraction (γ which represents the mean recovery rate, or 1/γ the mean infective period) of infectives are leaving this class per unit time to enter the removed class. These processes which occur simultaneously are referred to as the Law of Mass Action, a widely accepted idea that the rate of contact between two groups in a population is proportional to the size of each of the groups concerned (Daley andGani, 2005). Finally, it is assumed that there are no births nor deaths during the time scale of the epidemic. For a long time, this basic epidemiological model was used in analyzing the spread of infectious diseases until other more precise and realistic models were formulated. However, even the new models of the spread of infectious diseases base their initial formulation from this classic epidemiological model. The SIR Model with Births and Deaths It is possible to modify the basic McKendrick model to incorporate births and deaths. Using the case of measles, for example, there is an arrival of new susceptible individuals into the population. For this type of situation births and deaths must be included in the model. The following differential equations represent this model: The number of susceptible individuals still decrease by the same amount as before but there is an arrival of new susceptible from the population i.e. from N-S:

= - βSI + μ(N - S) Consequently, the rate at which the number of infected individuals change is the same as in the old classic model but decreases by a factor μI: = βSI - γI–μI

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Finally, the rate at which the number of recovered individuals change is the same as before but decreased by a factor μR: = γI - μR The SIS Model with Births and Deaths The SIS model is an epidemiological model in which the population, once infected, does not gain any immunity from the disease. The SIS model can be easily derived from the SIR model by simply considering that the individuals recover with no immunity to the disease, that is, individuals are immediately susceptible once they have recovered. Susceptible - Infected - Susceptible It follows that the system of differential equations governing SIS is the same as SIR but with the last equation removed. There are only two compartments in this model, either one is susceptible to the disease or he is already infected: = - βSI + μ(N - S) + γI = βSI - γI - μI The SIRS Model This model is simply an extension of the SIR model as we will see from its construction. Susceptible-Infected-Recovered-Susceptible The only difference is that it allows members of the recovered class to be free of infection and rejoin the susceptible class. For instance, this will be the model for infectious diseases like dengue where immunity from one serotype of the dengue flavivirus does not guarantee immunity from the other serotypes.

= - βSI + μ(N - S) + fR = βSI - γI - μI = γI - μR - fR 8

A Density-Dependent Epidemiological Model for the Spread of Infectious Diseases

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Models with More Compartments The SEIS Model The SEIS model takes into consideration the exposed or latent period of the disease, giving an additional compartment, E(t). Susceptible-Exposed-Infected-Susceptible In this model an infection does not leave a long lasting immunity thus individuals that have recovered return to being susceptible again, moving back into the S(t) compartment. The following differential equations describe this model:

= B - βSI - μS + γI = βSI - (ε + μ)E = εE - (γ + μ)I The SEIR Model Many diseases have what is termed a latent or exposed phase, during which the individual is said to be infected but not infectious. Susceptible-Exposed-Infected-Recovered In this model the host population (N) is broken into four compartments: susceptible, exposed, infectious, and recovered, with the numbers of individuals in a compartment, or their densities denoted respectively by S(t), E(t), I(t), R(t), that is N = S(t) + E(t) + I(t) + R(t) = B - βSI - μS = βSI - (ε + μ)E = εE - (γ + μ)I = γI - μR The MSIR Model There are several diseases where an individual is born with a passive immunity from its mother. 9

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Passive Immunity-Susceptible-Infected-Recovered To indicate this mathematically, an additional compartment is added, M(t), which results in the following differential equations: = B - δMS - μM = δMS - βSI - μS = βSI - γI - μI = γI - μR The MSEIR Model For the case of a disease, with the factors of passive immunity, and a latency period there is the MSEIR model. Passive Immunity-Susceptible Exposed-Infected-Recovered = B - δMS - μM = δMS - βSI - μS = βSI - (ε + μ)E = εE - (γ + μ)I = γI - μR Reproduction Number From every epidemiological model one can compute an epidemiological quantity called basic reproduction number or BRN. This is a threshold quantity which determines whether an epidemic occurs or the disease simply dies out. The BRN is defined as the number of secondary infections caused by a single infective introduced into a population made up entirely of susceptible individuals (S(0) ≈ N) over the course of the infection of this single infective. This infective individual makes βN contacts per unit time producing new infections with a mean infectious period of 1/γ. Therefore, the basic reproduction number is R0 = BRN = (βN)/γ This value quantifies the transmission potential of a disease. If the basic reproduction number falls below one (R0< 1), i.e. the infective may not pass the infection on during the infectious period, the infection 10

A Density-Dependent Epidemiological Model for the Spread of Infectious Diseases

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dies out. If R0> 1 there is an epidemic in the population. In cases where R0 = 1, the disease becomes endemic, meaning the disease remains in the population at a consistent rate, as one infected individual transmits the disease to one susceptible (Trottier and Philippe, 2001). In cases of diseases with varying latent periods, the basic reproduction number can be calculated as the sum of the reproduction number for each transition time into the disease. An example of this is tuberculosis. (Blower, Mclean, Porco, Small, Hopewell, and Sanchez, 1995) calculated from a simple model of TB the following reproduction number: R0 = R0FAST + R0SLOW In their model, it is assumed that the infected individuals can develop active TB by either direct progression (the disease develops immediately after infection) considered above as FAST tuberculosis or endogenous reactivation (the disease develops years after the infection) considered above as SLOW tuberculosis. Other Considerations within Compartmental Epidemic Models Vertical Transmission In the case of some diseases such as AIDS and Hepatitis B, it is possible for the offspring of infected parents to be born infected. This transmission of the disease down from the mother is called Vertical Transmission. The influx of additional members into the infected category can be considered within the model by including a fraction of the newborn members in the infected compartment (Brauer and Castillo-Chavez, 2001). Hyman (1997) also developed an HIV model based on vertical transmission. Vector Transmission Diseases transmitted from human to human indirectly, i.e. malaria spread by way of mosquitoes, are transmitted through a vector. In these cases, the infection transfers from human to insect and an epidemic model must include both species, generally requiring many more compartments than a model for direct transmission. For more information on this type of model see the reference Population Dynamics of Infectious Diseases: Theory and Applications, by R. M. Anderson (Brauer 11

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and Castillo-Chavez, 2001) Others Finally, epidemiologists can develop more detailed and realistic models by considering other peculiar characteristics of the disease. Some of these considerations may include: (taken from Mathematical Models in Population Biology and Epidemiology by Fred Bauer and Carlos Castillo-Chávez, 2001): • Nonhomogeneous mixing • Age-Structured populations • Variable infectivity • Distributions that are spatially non-uniform • Diseases caused by macroparasites • Acquired immunity through vaccinations FORMULATION OF THE MODEL Let M be the maximum carrying capacity of an environment and as before: (5) where are the number of healthy, infected and recovered individuals at time t respectively. The rate at which the number of healthy individuals change depends on the number present based on the logistic model plus the number of individuals who recover less the number of individuals who get infected at that time: Moreover, the number of infected individuals change as a fraction of the healthy ones while the number of those who recover is a fraction of those who get infected. (6)

A Density-Dependent Epidemiological Model for the Spread of Infectious Diseases

R.N. Padua and A.B. Tulang

The system (6) defines our model. Differentiating once, we obtain: (7)

Differentiating again and substituting (8) We can rewrite (8) in differential operator form: (9) Let Equations (9) have a solution x(t) which can be written as:

whereXc is the complementary solution to Xp is a particular solution to the method of variation of parameters.

and We attempt to use

First, the complementary solution is easy to obtain: (10) .

We assume a particular solution of the form: (11) .

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The method of variation of parameters leads to the system: (12)

with solutions given by: (13)

In order to evaluate (13), we need to find Q(t). Since we wish the population model to behave in a density 窶電ependent way, we assume that: (14) and evaluate: (15) The derivatives of x(t) are: (16)

which, when substituted to (15) yield: (17) Q(t) = 14

A Density-Dependent Epidemiological Model for the Spread of Infectious Diseases

R.N. Padua and A.B. Tulang

where:

We can use (17) to compute: A(t) =

. In particular:

and note that:

The computation for B(t) and C(t) are shown in the Appendix.

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SIMPLIFICATION OF THE MODEL The extremely complicated function obtained in section 2 renders the model unusable for non- mathematicians. For this reason, we further simplify Model (6) yet retain most of its richness. To do so, we re-define Model (6) into: (18) or which is the same thing as saying that the population of healthy individuals changes through the increment added by those who recovered at time t and decrement by those who get infected at that time. Moreover: (19)

These together imply that: (20) Equation (20) has a neat and rather simple solution: (21) The logistic curve tends to its upper limit (i.e. the healthy individuals continues to grow to the maximum carrying capacity) provided a (1 – b + c > 0) or b – c < 1 and decreases if b – c >1. (22)

The quantity of interest is phrased as an index. Let:

A Density-Dependent Epidemiological Model for the Spread of Infectious Diseases

R.N. Padua and A.B. Tulang

if then an epidemic outbreak is likely to happen, otherwise, if , then the epidemic is contained. It is interesting to note that the more complicated model (6) actually results to the same conclusion. We can further explore the dynamics of the corresponding discrete epidemic growth model: (23) Suppose first that the population progresses unhampered by diseases according to its natural law where 1< Îą â&#x2030;¤3. Assuming regularity, the climax population is predicted to be . It is of interest to find out the climax population when infectious diseases are present. In this case:

Extinction occurs if the numerator is zero or equivalently if : (25) Just what effect have infection and recovery on the population dynamics of healthy individuals? If the natural growth rate is to produce a stable long run population, then 1 < a< 3.57. With infection and recovery factored in, we need: (24) 1 < a (1 + c - b) < 3.57 or (25) That is, the survival rate (c - b), which is the difference between the recovery rate and infection rate, must be between the prescribed 17

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limits. For instance, if a = 2, then the survival rate must be such that -0.5 < c – b < 0.785 for a population that doubles once every generation. If c – b falls below -50% (i.e. more infection than recovery), then the population is in danger of extinction. Can these natural processes of infection and recovery impact on a population experiencing periods of bust and booms (chaotic)? Chaos occurs when the population growth rate exceeds or is equal to 3.57. This means that if we wish to bring back the population to a stable population, we require that ao>3.57 and (1 + c – b)< 1, or c – b < 0 (that is, the infection rate must exceed the recovery rate). Nature has a way of dealing with run – away population growths. There is a way to test this hypothesis by correlating the percentage of cases noted for the A(H1N1) virus to the population growth rates of various countries since 2005. A high positive correlation is an evidence for the hypothesis while a low non – significant correlation is an evidence against it. There is yet another important insight that can be gained from this analysis. Since nature favors balance and stability, it follows that the spread of infection will be faster in areas of high population densities (and growth) such as the highly urbanized cities than in rural areas. Mathematically, this means that if a0 > 3.57 then, to achieve balance, nature provides for c – b < 0. Thus, one important disease control measure that can be implemented is to decongest urban centers by creating jobs in the rural areas so people will move out of the cities. NUMERICAL RESULTS We provide several numerical simulations and one (1) real-life data to test the hypothesis that “nature has a way of dealing with run-away population growth rates”.For the numerical simulations, we generated data starting from an initial population of x0 = 0.10 (or 10% of the maximum carrying capacity) with various combinations of (a,b,c) = (population growth rate, infection rate, recovery rate). The combinations are chosen to provide the following scenario: Run-Away Growth Rate with Nature Balance: (4, .75, .25) Stable Growth Rate with Nature Balance: (3, .75, .70) Stable Growth Rate with Medical Intervention: (3, .50, .75) 18

A Density-Dependent Epidemiological Model for the Spread of Infectious Diseases

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The â&#x20AC;&#x153;run-away growth rate with medical interventionâ&#x20AC;? scenario is omitted because that will certainly lead to a chaotic process. We generated 30 generations (roughly 30 lifetimes) of each to determine the long-run behavior of the population.

Figure 1: High Growth Rate with Natural Counterbalance by Nature through Disease Spread

Figure 2: Stable Population Growth Rate with Natural Counterbalance by Nature 19

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Figure 3: Stable Population Growth Rate with High Medical Intervention for Infection Notice how the first two graphs tend to stability in the long run with the last graph (using high medical intervention on a stable population ) resulting to a chaotic population dynamics instead. Table 1 shows the simulated values for the graphs above. Table 1: Simulated population values for different scenarios Paramet

Param.

a= 4

0.1

a= 3

0.1

a= 3

0.1

b= .75

0.18

b= .75

0.2565

b = .50

0.3375

c = .25

0.2952

c = .70

0.543517

c = .75

0.838477

High Growth Rate with Nature Balance

0.416114

Stable Growth Rate with Nature Balance

0.707103

Stable Growth Rate with High Medical Intervention

0.507876

0.485926

0.590259

0.937267

0.499604

0.689282

0.22049

A Density-Dependent Epidemiological Model for the Spread of Infectious Diseases

R.N. Padua and A.B. Tulang

0.5

0.610391

0.644527

0.5

0.677769

0.859169

0.5

0.622435

0.45374

0.5

0.669778

0.929475

0.5

0.63035

0.245817

0.5

0.664075

0.695216

0.5

0.635776

0.79459

0.5

0.65996

0.612063

0.5

0.639577

0.890407

0.5

0.656977

0.365933

0.5

0.642271

0.870098

0.5

0.654813

0.423854

0.5

0.644194

0.915757

0.5

0.653243

0.289299

0.5

0.645572

0.771019

0.5

0.652105

0.662058

0.5

0.646562

0.839015

0.5

0.65128

0.506508

0.5

0.647276

0.937341

0.5

0.650683

0.220248

0.5

0.64779

0.64402

0.5

0.650251

0.859719

0.5

0.64816

0.45226

0.5

0.649938

0.928953

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Cutting Edge Research

DISCUSSIONS The numerical simulations illustrate the effects of the spread of infectious diseases on the population dynamics with and without medical intervention. In particular: 1. We note that stable populations (those with low to medium population growth rates) will stay stable even without medical intervention. This may be attributed to the fact that for such populations, the maximum carrying capacity is well above the current levels of the population. This ,of course , means that contact and infection rates are minimized, effectively reducing the basic reproduction number to less than 1 indicating that the infectious disease will die out in the long run. 2. Unstable populations (those with high population growth rates) will tend to be stabilized through the spread of infectious diseases and low recovery rates.For these population types, the approach to the maximum carrying capacity of the environment is very fast. Once the population size reaches a high enough percentage of the maximum carrying capacity, contacts and infection rates become very high, effectively increasing the basic reproduction number of the infectious disease to a quantity greater than 1. Competition for a limited resource will become very intense with a few getting a good share while the majority barely surviving; high population density will cause congestion a situation ripe for infectious disease transmission. The situation will persist until the population size again falls well below the maximum carrying capacity. The cycle is repeated because of the high population growth rates and so, one observes a period of “busts” and “booms” in the population of healthy individuals. The way to avoid this situation is really to establish a rational population growth rate policy that is consistent with available national resources. 3. On the other hand, with progress in medical science enabling scientists to arrest the spread of virulent diseases, even stable populations can go into a chaotic regime because of resource limitations (density-dependence). Consider a stable population with growth rate 22

A Density-Dependent Epidemiological Model for the Spread of Infectious Diseases

R.N. Padua and A.B. Tulang

a < 3.57. Because of the high recovery rates from infectious diseases (due to medical science), recovered individuals rejoin the population adding to the new births in the system. This situation effectively pushes the population growth rate past its stable threshold of 3.57, thereby, inducing a state of chaotic regime in the population of healthy individuals. This situation, therefore, cycles back to the situation in item 2 above. Global Analysis of the Spread of HIV and the Relationship of Infection Rates of HIV and Population Densities Using the model developed, we analyzed the spread of the Human Immune Deficiency Virus (HIV) across different countries in various continents of the world. Data were obtained from the 2010 CIA (International Atlas) as published in the NET and supported by UNESCO for the following information: national population growth rates, estimated prevalence/infection rate of HIV as reported, the population densities of the countries, and the socio-economic development index based on UN published ranking of countries (2010). The objectives of the analysis are: (a.) to determine the population trajectories of the different countries given their population growth rates and HIV infection rates in the long run, and (b.) to determine the relationship of socio-economic development and infection rate to ascertain the impact of public health care on the spread of infectious diseases. It is noted that HIV, unlike other infectious diseases , has no cure as of this writing. Thus, once infected there is no hope for recovery from the disease. It follows that for this type of infectious disease the parameter c = 0 and the population trajectory is determined solely by the growth rate ,a, and the infection rate, b in the population. Note likewise that the model is a global model and does not take into account the specific mode of transmission of HIV. The latter case is handled by more detailed models as in Hyman (1997).

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Infection Rates for HIV surrogate measure to public health care) and infection rate across 100 countries of diverse population densities. Table 2 shows the results of the analysis: Table 2: Summary of the regression analysis with infection rate as dependent variable and SES as independent variable The regression equation is Infection rate% = 8.31 - 3.01 DEV. Predictor Constant DEV. S = 3.934

Coef 8.3106 -3.0063

SE Coef 0.9917 0.4868

R-Sq = 28.0%

R-Sq(adj) = 27.3%

T 8.38 -6.18

P 0.000 0.000

rate and the level of socio-economic development of a nation (p <.01). The higher the level of development, the smaller is the infection rate (r of the level of socio-economic development and infection rate suggests a reciprocal transformation. Table 3 shows the analysis using the reciprocal of the level of SES as the independent variable: Table 3: Regression analysis using a reciprocal transformation for the independent variable: Level of SES The regression equation is Infection rate% = - 3.33 + 9.19 1/dev Predictor Constant 1/dev 24

Coef -3.3328 9.193

SE Coef 0.9371 1.309

T -3.56 7.02

P 0.001 0.000

A Density-Dependent Epidemiological Model for the Spread of Infectious Diseases

S = 3.782

R-Sq = 33.5%

R.N. Padua and A.B. Tulang

R-Sq(adj) = 32.8%

A more detailed analysis suggested by the reciprocal transformation revealed that infection rate varies inversely as the level of development (p<.01) and that 33.5% of the variations in the infection rates of the countries can be explained by the inverse of the socio-economic development of these countries ( r = 0.578). DISCUSSIONS 1. A global analysis of the relationship between infection rate (as dependent variable) and the level of a country’s socio-economic development revealed that a country’s level of development significantly correlates with the spread of HIV. Public health care systems in more developed nations are superior to the corresponding public health care systems in less developed nations which explains why the HIV spread is easily arrested in more developed countries. 2. However, the level of a country’s socio-economic development explains only a little over a third of the variances observed for the HIV infection rates in 100 countries. This means that other explanatory factors could account for the high infection rates even in some more developed nations such as their lifestyles, beliefs, traditions, and societal permissiveness given the nature of the infectious disease being examined. 3. Interestingly, the relationship between population growth rate and level of development was found to be highly significant ( r = -0.6403, t = -8.25) so that roughly 41% of the countries’ population growth rates are accounted for by their levels of development. More developed nations tended to have lower population growth rates as opposed to the less developed nations which registered high to very high population growth rates. That is, developed nations have population policies that tended to encourage lower population growth rates than the less developed nations (which do the opposite).

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4. Finally, the relationship between population density and infection rate can be inferred indirectly. The relationship between population density and SES is roughly r = 0.1703 while the relationship between SES and infection rate is given by r = 0.5781. By the of infection or prevalence of HIV is about r = 0.0984. The low correlation between infection rate and population density in this particular case is an indication that the maximum carrying capacities(in terms of resources, space etc.) of the countries are still well above their current levels. Population Trajectories of Selected Countries Based on Growth Rates and Infection Rates We recomputed the new population growth rates based on the current growth rates of the country and the infection rates for HIV. The results are displayed in Table 4 for selected countries (the complete listing is placed in the appendix): Table 4: Predicted long run populations of selected countries under an HIV regime Stable Limit

growthrate

infection rate

new growth rate

Predicted Stable Limit

1. Brazil

1.2

0.7

1.1916

16%

2. Madagascar

1.7

2.949

66%

3. Uganda

2.69

4.1

2.57971

61%

4. Philippines

1.96

1.5

1.9306

48%

5. Cambodia

1.77

2.6

1.72398

42%

6. Brunei

1.76

0.2

1.75648

43%

A Density-Dependent Epidemiological Model for the Spread of Infectious Diseases

R.N. Padua and A.B. Tulang

Extinction

1. Bahamas

0.93

0.9021

2. Maldives

-0.17

0.1

-0.16983

3. Tunisia

0.98

0.04

0.97961

4. Norway

0.34

0.1

0.33966

5. Singapore

0.2

0.998

6. Canada

0.82

0.3

0.8175

7. United States

0.98

0.6

0.97412

Unstable Limits

1. U. Arab Emirates

3.69

0.18

3.68336

Cycles

2. Niger

3.68

1.2

3.63584

Cycles

Discussions: 1. Results show that the Philippines would have a stable limit at 48% of its carrying capacity given its current HIV infection rate. Countries in the same stable limit category include Brazil, Madagascar, Cambodia and Brunei. Uganda with the highest infection rate in this category of countries is saved from oblivion because of its high population growth rate. 2. Developed countries, in general, with stringent population policies leading to very low growth rates and positive infection rates are in danger of extinction. These include: the United States of America, Singapore, Canada and others. 3. Only two countries: the United Arab Emirates and Niger will undergo cycles in their population sizes and will not achieve a stable long run population despite the HIV infection spreading in the population at the given rates. 27

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Cutting Edge Research

CONCLUSION The spread of infectious diseases in a given population is inextricably linked to the issue of population growth within a limitedresource environment. Nature has a way of maintaining the critical balance between population growth and resource availability by way of such infectious diseases. Even with advancements in medical science, the only rational way to deal with the spread of infectious diseases is to implement a population growth policy that is consistent with a limited-resource scenario since, as the current model predicts, a chaotic regime will be inevitable in the long run. LITERATURE CITED

Anderson, R. M. ed. (1982) Population Dynamics of Infectious Diseases: Theory and Applications, Chapman and Hall, London-New York. Anderson, R. M. & May, R. M. (1991). Infectious Diseases of Humans. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Bernoulli, D. & Blower, S. (2004). An attempt at a new analysis of the mortality caused by smallpox and of the advantages of inoculation to prevent it. Reviews in Medical Virology, 14, 275 – 288. Blower, S. M., Mclean, A. R., Porco, T. C., Small, P. M., Hopewell, P. C., Sanchez, M. A., (1995).The intrinsic transmission dynamics of tuberculosis epidemics. Nature Medicine, 1, 815 – 821. Brauer, F. & Castillo-Chávez, C. (2001). Mathematical Models in Population Biology and Epidemiology. NY: Springer. Daley, D. J. & Gani, J. (2005). Epidemic Modeling and Introduction. NY: Cambridge University Press. Hethcote, H. W. (2000). The mathematics of infectious diseases. Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics, 42, 599 – 653. 28

A Density-Dependent Epidemiological Model for the Spread of Infectious Diseases

R.N. Padua and A.B. Tulang

J.M. Hyman, J. Li, E.A. Stanley (1999). The differential infectivity and staged progression models for the transmission ofHIV, Mathematical Biosciences 155 77â&#x20AC;&#x201C;109. Trottier, H., & Philippe, P. (2001). Deterministic modeling of infectious diseases: theory and methods. The Internet Journal of Infectious Diseases.Retrieved December 3, 2007, from http://www.ispub. com/ostia/index.php?xmlFilePath=journals/ijid/volln2/model.xml.

FOR INQUIRIES, WRITE TO: The Managing Editor Liceo Journal of Higher Education Research Liceo de Cagayan University Cagayan de Oro City, 9000 Philippines Email: liceojournal@yahoo.com.ph Fax: 63+ (08822) 727459 URL: http://www.ejournals.ph http://www.liceojournal.com

Vol. 6 No. 2 December 2010 ISSN: 2094-1064 Liceo Journal of HigherJournal, Education Research CHED Accredited Research Category B

Liceo Journal of Higher Education Research Science and Health Section

Influence of Interactive Science Centrum to Students’ Science Learning and Attitude VICTORIA O. SUMANPAN vos1223@yahoo.com Mindanao University of Science and Technology Date Submitted: Jan. 13, 2010 Final Revision Complied: Aug. 27, 2010

Plagiarism Detection: Passed License No. 944146510808541 Original: 97.54%

Abstract - This study investigated the influence of the exposure to interactive science exhibits on the student’s science learning and attitude towards science. It also determined the students’ learning experiences and values acquired after their interaction with the exhibits. The respondents were the 130 fourth year high school students who were randomly sampled. The respondents came from one private and one public school in Cagayan de Oro City and were able to visit the Oro Science and Technology Centrum at the Mindanao Polytechnic State College. Descriptive research design was utilized. Pretesting and posttesting were done. The findings revealed that there existed a significant influence of the exposure to the interactive science exhibits on the student’s science learning and attitude towards science. The t-tests showed significant differences at 5% level of significance for both measures namely the science learning test and science attitude test thru the pretest and posttest scores. Generally, the students had wholesome experiences during the visit. They strongly agreed that the exhibits had been attuned to the Centrum’s objectives, that is, to promote science and technology (S & T) culture and to motivate students’ interest in science. The students 30

Influence of Interactive Science Centrum to Students’ Science Learning and Attitude

V.O. Sumanpan

suggested that the OSTC maybe made more attractive and effective, mainly through addition of space and exhibits. The positive demand of the Science Centrum services will remain unharnessed without the implementation of the relevant and vigorous marketing activities. Teachers should place a premium on science centrum visits to enrich classroom lessons as well as to provide hands-on and minds-on experiences on science. The study found out that there is a significant influence of the science centrum visit to the students’ science learning and attitude towards science. Keywords - interactive science exhibits, science centrum, science learning, attitude, scientific values Background and Rationale Science museums or science centrums have their origin in the “cabinets of curiosities” or “miscellanea” assembled by scientificallyminded people (Grolier Encyclopedia, 2000). These collections became numerous during the Renaissance and from them full-scale museums began to emerge in the 17th century and until these days. They embodied the basic element of modern science museums: a desire to interest visitors about the history and the nature of science and technology and to entertain. Museum of science and industry can be classified into two general types: historical museums, which preserve and display objects that have been important to the development of science and technology; and science centrums, which teach the principles related to these fields. The two types are not necessarily mutually exclusive, although most institutions fall into one category or the other. Science Centrums have been increasingly considered as an informal science learning centers containing interactive science exhibits. These exhibits try to translate difficult concepts in science and technology into simpler and easy-to-understand terms. The procedures and methods used in a science centrum is investigatory in nature, thus visitors are required to interact with the science exhibits to be able to learn the concepts demonstrated by every exhibit. The Philippine Government thru the Department of Science and Technology (DOST) 31

Liceo Journal of Higher Education Research

has been promoting programs to develop science and technology (S&T) culture especially among the students. Science centrums development particularly in the countryside is one of the top S&T projects of the DOST. One of the country’s science centrums is the Oro Science and Technology Centrum. It was established in 1993 by the Northern Mindanao Foundation for Science and Technology (NMFST) with the support of the Department of Science and Technology of Region X and MUST. It is located inside MUST main campus in Cagayan de Oro City. With new developments, it has now twenty one interactive exhibits and at least twenty science kits. Science education is delivered in different pedagogical techniques and learning environments. Determining if the science centrum as an informal learning environment can promote science learning and stimulate student’s interest in science is the central problem of this study. Furthermore, the study tried to forecast the clientele trend of the OSTC using the historical and enrolment data. CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK Science centers are increasingly recognized and valued as a key part of educational and recreational infrastructure. However, the future well-being of science centers will depend on the extent to which today’s science centers are willing to involve and respond to key dynamics which are influencing people’s decision including how and where they learn, and how and where they enjoy their leisure time. Science centers are facing immense challenges to maintain relevancy for people and communities in the midst of rapidly changing social and technological centers. It is no longer sufficient to consider current best practice alone, we need to analyze those trends and shifts which will be helpful in defining future science centers experiences and in sustaining a key role for science centers in tomorrow’s communities (Ghisalberti, 2002) Researchers contend that field trips to science museums and science centers can be valuable and exciting opportunities for enhancing children’s learning and positive attitude toward science and science museums. (Paris, Troop, Hederlong, & Sulforo, 1994)

Influence of Interactive Science Centrum to Students’ Science Learning and Attitude

V.O. Sumanpan

It is in this context and concept that the study is being based upon. Both in formal and in informal educational setting, education is more effective if students and adults alike are able to “learn by doing” (Paloma, 1995). In the science centers students are encouraged to have hands-on and minds-on activities to be able to experience discovery learning. A study of Absin (2002) found out that the selected freshmen students of Xavier University with higher laboratory exposure in the secondary level had significantly higher science cognitive skills. In similar situations like a science laboratory and a science center, learners are exposed to discovery or investigatory approach of learning. There is that kind of pedagogy applied in both settings and that is – a handson phenomenon. Absin (2002) recommended that teachers must give more emphasis on the hands-on knowledge process rather than just merely knowing the facts. The findings of Talisayon (1995) revealed that students-visitors expressed interest in visiting the science centrum again. The percentages of visitors were 74% for grade school and 66% for high school students who got interested in science after the science centrum visit. Furthermore, she found out that 69% of the grade school students and 57% of the high school students replied that their visit made them want to be a scientist or engineer. Two years after the visit the percentage decreased to 55% for grade school and 42% for high school students. The science centers might be one of the solutions to the waning interest of students to take a science career. The independent variable in the study was the student’s exposure to the interactive science exhibits situated at the Oro Science and Technology Centrum. The dependent variables were the science learning acquired by the students and the students’ attitude towards science through the results of the science test and science attitude scale respectively. Nonetheless, the acquired scientific values and the choice of a science career were likewise analyzed in a qualitative manner. The schematic diagram for the conceptual framework is shown Figure I.

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Figure I Schematic diagram showing the interplay of variables used. OBJECTIVES The study aimed at determining the influence of the Oro Science and Technology Centrumsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; Interactive science exhibits on the studentsclientele, specifically the fourth year high school science students. Specifically, the research sought answers to the following objective: 1. To determine the influence of the interactive science exhibits on the students-clientele in terms of: science learning, attitude towards science, and learning experiences and scientific values Brief Literature and Related Studies Science centers are increasingly recognized and valued as a key part of educational and recreational infrastructure. Researchers contend that fieldtrips to science museums or science centrums can be valuable and exciting opportunities for enhancing childrenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s learning of attitude toward science and science museums (Paris et al., 1994). It is in this context that the study is built upon. Education is more effective if students and adults alike are able to learn by doing. In the science centrums, students are afforded hands-on and minds-on 34

Influence of Interactive Science Centrum to Students’ Science Learning and Attitude

V.O. Sumanpan

experiences to learn. Absin (2000) recommends that teachers must give more emphasis on the hands-on knowledge process than just merely knowing the facts. The findings of Talisayon (1995) revealed that students expressed interest in visiting the science centrum again. The percentage of visitors who wanted to visit the science centrum again was 74% for graders and 66% for high school students. Furthermore, she found out that 69% of the graders and 57% of the high school students wanted to become a scientist or engineer as a result of their visit to the centrum. Exposure to science centrums can be one of the solutions to the waning interest of students in taking up a science course. Many studies were done concerning science centrum’s effectiveness in terms of its programs. As an informal learning environment, its existence has been a constant source of study in developed countries where science centrums or museums are fully established. These studies dealt more on the cognitive skills and the strategy or pedagogy of learning. It is important to note that exhibits in the science centrums are interactive in nature. The exhibits are there to be manipulated, thus a “hands-on” experience for the student-visitor. In other words, the learning process involved is investigatory in the sense that the visitor is allowed to manipulate if provided. The visitor does the procedure by himself and thereby discovers the principles demonstrated by every exhibit. Paris et al., (1994) assessed the impact of an extra-curricular science program on children’s interest and learning about biology. About 184 children in grades 3, 4 & 5 participated in hands-on biology activities in the museum. As found out, the children’s ability to solve problems and attitude significantly increased. Borun (1984) studied the effectiveness of museum exhibits in conveying scientific context and facilitating subsequent classroom learning. The author pointed out that the benefits of the museum visit were in the affective domain, particularly in motivation. Students found the exhibits more enjoyable than the lesson itself.

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Paris (1995) evaluated the specific and general effects of an instructional program on dinosaurs as demonstrated by the cognitive achievement and scientific attitudes of sixth grade students. Analysis revealed significant correlation between attitude toward learning about science and attitude about the science museum. Latest study about interactive science learning was done by Pagsinohin (2002). The study revealed a significant difference in the science learning between those high school students exposed to interactive learning methods and those exposed to traditional learning methods. Students in the experimental group (interactive method group) performed significantly better than those in the control group (traditional method group). The findings of this study would be a new addition to the already existing knowledge revolving around the science centrum’s influence on the student’s science learning and attitude towards science. The Oro Science and Technology Centrum The Oro Science and Technology Centrum (OSTC) is a sciencethemed science centrum located at Mindanao University of Science and Technology (MUST). It was created by virtue of a Memorandum of Agreement (MOA) between the Department of Science and Technology (DOST X) – Mindanao Polytechnic State College (now MUST) and Northern Mindanao Foundation for Science and Technology, Inc. (NMFST). It has been there in MUST since 1993. The NMFST is a SEC registered non-profit, non-stock private organization. MUST is a pioneering member of NMFST. The OSTC has three (3) main galleries. The first is the General Science Gallery, which houses the twenty-one (21) science equipment demonstrating the topics on electricity and magnetism, optics, sound and sensors, light, and 3-D illusions. The second is the Dark Room Gallery featuring the plasma sphere, the colored shadows, the Jacob’s ladder, and the wonder of phosphorescence. The third is the Van de Graaff Gallery, which is the most popular among the exhibits. The Van de Graaff generator is an electricity exhibit also. Almost all the exhibits are interactive. There is also the Chemagic demonstration like burning money, which the kids love much, the oxygen-generation 36

Influence of Interactive Science Centrum to Students’ Science Learning and Attitude

V.O. Sumanpan

science magic, and buoyancy. During the annual science month celebration (EO 28), the OSTC usually invites the Philippine Science Centrum (PSC) to display its mobile science centrum exhibits, which excite a number of viewers. From CY 2001-2006, there was a consistent increase of viewers, thus an increase of revenues that benefitted both the NMFST and MUST. In 2002, NMFST constructed the 3-room OSTC building at MUST. OSTC’s viewers are not only students, teachers, principals, and supervisors from private and government schools but also parents and tourists. It is listed by the Department of Tourism as one of the tourists’ and field-trippers’ destinations. However, a preliminary survey indicated a need for more exhibits to attract frequent viewers and new viewers as well. At the OSTC, the viewers can verify from the explainers or centrum guides the science principle behind each exhibit. However, the explainers are directed to encourage the viewers to do discovery learning first before an explanation is given. Explainers are university students/ fresh graduates of Physics or Chemistry. Apart from permanent exhibitions, the centrum presents temporary exhibits, usually during the science month which is in September. The exhibits are mostly from the Philippine Science Centrum’s mobile/ traveling exhibits and from the research outputs of university faculty. The facility also develops other educational programs like the Sci-Art summer trainings for ages 6 -12: Level I and 13 above: Level II. The OSTC is a member of the Mindanao Association of Museums (MAM) and of the eleven science centrums in the countryside assisted by the Department of Science and Technology. METHODOLOGY The study employed the descriptive research design. Pretest and posttest were done. The study which was done at the Oro Science and Technology Centrum at the Mindanao Polytechnic State College, had as respondents the randomly sampled 130 high school students in a public and a private school in Cagayan de Oro City. The study used three instruments for data gathering. The science 37

Liceo Journal of Higher Education Research

learning test consisted of 20 items based on the thirteen science exhibits. The science attitude scale consisted of two parts: the item part and the evaluation part. The learning experiences scale consisted of thirteen (13) questions. The questionnaires were validated using Kuder Richardson Formula 20 via SPSS computer software. The data collected were analyzed using percentage, mean, rank, and standard deviation. T-test was also used to test the hypothesis. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS Influence of Science Centrum to Students’ Science Learning Table 1 shows that the students’ mean score in the posttest was significantly higher than their mean score in the pretest. T-test result indicated a significant influence of the interactive exhibit exposure on the students’ science learning at 5% level of significance. This result confirmed the findings of McClafferty and Rennie (1997) that visiting a science centrum resulted in a positive cognition among the students. It also likewise affirmed the studies of Talisayon (1995) and Pagsinohin (2002) that children significantly learned scientific principles from interaction with science exhibits at a science centrum. Table 1. Mean scores of the students before and after the interaction with science exhibits Mean Scores

Pretest

7.66

1.91

Posttest

12.98

2.11

Df = 129

Paired Differences Mean Se 5.32

2.81

t 21.60

Probability 0.000*

Significant at ∞ = 0.05

Influence of the Science Centrum to Students’ Attitude to Science As shown in table 2, the students’ attitude towards science improved dramatically after the science centrum experience as indicated by the 38

Influence of Interactive Science Centrum to Students’ Science Learning and Attitude

V.O. Sumanpan

grand mean of 4.18 and 4.25 for the pretest and posttest, respectively. Result of t-test showed that at ∞ = 0.05 there existed a significant influence of the exposure to interactive science exhibits on the students’ attitude towards science. Similar result was also found by Paris et al. (1994) attitude of an instruction program at the science centrum positively influence students’ attitude toward science learning. The respondents had generally wholesome educational experience at the science centrum as revealed in Table 3. Table 2. Comparative attitude means of the students before and after the interaction with the interactive science exhibits. Statements 1.

Before x

After

4.71

Strongly agree

4.85

Strongly Agree

4.45

Agree

4.53

Strongly Agree

4.45

Agree

4.53

Strongly Agree

Science is important for the progress of civilization or society. I am interested and willing to increase my knowledge of science. Science is creativity and inventivity.

Science is needed in almost everything we do.

4.33

Agree

4.42

Agree

5. 6.

I am interested to use science outside of school. Science is not interesting because it gives me no freedom to express.

4.00

Agree

3.90

Agree

4.23

Disagree

4.41

Disagree

Learning science is difficult.

3.32

Undecided

3.52

Disagree

Science is enjoyable and exciting.

4.11

Agree

4.17

Agree

3.55

Agree

3.72

Agree

4.25

Agree

4.25

Agree

4.52

Strongly Disagree

4.26

Disagree

3.91

Agree

4.05

Agree

4.42

Agree

4.53

Strongly Agree

4.56

Strongly Agree

4.65

Strongly Agree

4.48

Agree

4.55

Strongly Agree

4.02

Disagree

4.14

Disagree

3.77

Disagree

3.88

Disagree

3.77

Agree

3.97

Agree

4.40

Disagree

4.25

Disagree

3.78

Agree

3.95

Agree

4.65

Strongly Agree

4.66

Strongly Agree

4.18

Agree

4.25*

Agree

I enjoy doing more than the assigned work in science. 10. I would like to develop my science skills and subject more. 11.

Science is not important in everyday life.

12.

An understanding of science is needed by artists and writers as well. Science is a very useful and necessary subject.

13. 14. 15.

Science has contributed greatly to society. Science helps develop a person’s mind and teaches him to think. I never like science and it is the subject I am almost afraid of. Science makes me nervous and uncomfortable. Science is very interesting. I have always enjoyed my science Science is not as important as other school subjects. I enjoy studying my lessons in science. Study of science is very necessary to education and life.

16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21.

Grand Mean:

V.D. = verbal description t-test value = significant at 5% level of significance 39

Liceo Journal of Higher Education Research

The respondents not only learned some scientific principles but they were also scientifically motivated to take a career along science. They had fun learning science principles. Also, they found the exhibits attractive and the centrum staff knowledgeable of the principles demonstrated by the display. However, they suggested for additional exhibits. Table 3. Summary of responses to the items in learning experience scale. Statements

Verbal Description

The exhibit showcases were relevant to the objectives of the science centrum namely to promote Science and Technology and to motivate studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; interest in science.

4.69

Strongly Agree

I learned the various principles behind every exhibit.

4.38

Agree

Clear illustrations on the labels and signage were used in the exhibit areas.

4.28

Agree

The explainers explained the principles behind every exhibit clearly.

4.01

Agree

The exhibits in the science centrum increased my understanding of the relevance of science to life.

4.32

Agree

The experience encouraged me to take up a sciencerelated degree.

3.52

Agree

Relevant films were shown during the visit.

3.78

Agree

Actual demonstrations were made by the explainers.

4.13

Agree

The exhibits enhanced/enriched the classroom science lessons. The interaction with exhibits encouraged the science teachers to visit the science centrum.

4.22

Agree

4.20

Agree

11.

The exhibits at the science centrum supported classroom science lessons.

4.23

Agree

12.

The exhibits were attractive.

4.45

Agree

13.

The exhibits presented science, math and technology principles. Grand Mean:

4.40

Agree

4.19

Agree

10.

The students showed great interest in learning at the science centrum. Open-mindedness, curiosity, and positive attitude towards science were the three top scientific values rated by the students as shown in Table 4. Although an explanation about the principles depicted in every exhibit was given by the centrum staff, the students were instructed to discover for themselves what every exhibit portrays. 40

Influence of Interactive Science Centrum to Studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; Science Learning and Attitude

V.O. Sumanpan

Table 4. Values as rated by the students Values

% Answered

Rank

Open-mindedness

6.89%

Curiosity

6.41%

Positive Attitude towards science

5.56%

Cooperation-constant awareness of the limitations of science Teamwork

5.43%

4.90%

Patience

4.63%

Resourcefulness

4.30%

Intellectual Honesty

4.10%

Objectivity

4.10%

10.

Orderliness

3.97%

11.

Teachable

3.71%

12.

Accepting authority

3.38%

13.

Systematic

3.24%

14.

Innovative

2.78%

15.

Accuracy in reporting

2.38%

16.

Suspending Judgment

1.13%

Total

100

CONCLUSIONS Significant findings lead to the following conclusions: 1. Exposure to the science centrum significantly influenced students in learning science principles as shown in every exhibit at the science centrum. 2. Exposure to the science centrum developed the studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; positive attitude toward science. 3. Exposure to the science centrum helped the students adopt scientific values.

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RECOMMENDATIONS 1. Since interaction with science exhibits yielded positive results on the cognitive and affective aspects of the students, it is recommended that teachers put premium on Science Centrum visits and integrate interactive approach to learning into the curriculum. 2. Teachers should undergo a training on interactive approaches to enhance the formal education agenda of the Department of Education. 3. Improve the science centrum by adding more science kits. 4. The science centrum should conduct massive marketing of its services to reach out to remote school sites in the region. 5. A study that involves pretesting and posttesting to determine the influence of science centrum on the development of the students’ scientific values and inclination toward science career should be conducted. 6. A wholistic impact assessment should be done regarding science centrum project to consider its effects on various clientele including parents, teachers, and other professionals in the field of science. LITERATURE CITED Absin, S. B. Science Readiness and its effects on science learning, Xavier University, Cagayan de Oro City, S Y 1999-2000. Flexer, B. K., &Borun, M. (1984).The impact of a class visit to a participatory science Museum exhibit and a classroom science lesson. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 21 (9), 863 – 873. Fraser, N.J. (1998) Science learning environments: assessment, effects and determinants. (Fraser B.J. & Tobin, K. G. Eds.) International Handbook of Science Education part one Netherlands. KluwerAcademic Publisher. McClafferty, T.P., & Rennie, L., J. (1997, March). A triangulation strategy to measure children’s learning outcomes from an interactive exhibit. Chicago: Paper presented at the annual meeting of the National Association for Research in Science Teaching. 42

Influence of Interactive Science Centrum to Students’ Science Learning and Attitude

V.O. Sumanpan

Michie, M. G. (1996). Influence on secondary science teachers to undertake field trips. Unpublished Master’s Thesis, Deakin University, Geelon, Victoria, Australia. Padua, R. N. Elements of Research and Statistical Models. MPSCPublishing House, Cagayan de Oro City 2000. Pagsinohin, M. M. (2002). Comparative effectiveness of interactive exhbits and traditional method in introducing scientific concepts to high school students. MPS DEVCOM special Problem. University of the Philippines at Los Baños OpenUniversity Paris, S.G., Troop, W. P., Hederlong, J., & Sulfaro, M. (1994).Children’s explorations in the hands-on science museum. The Kamehameha Journal of Education; 5, 83 – 92 Talisayon, V. M. and S. Talisayon (1987). Evaluation study of Singapore Science Centrum 1987. Talisayon, V. M. (1995) Evaluation of clientele impact of science exhibits at the Philippine Science Centrum and Science Works. Department of Science and Technology, Philippines. Tohin, K. G. (1998) Quantitative perceptions of learning environments. World Learning Environments Rsearchers. Vol. no 2, pp. 130-162.

Vol. 6 No. 2 December 2010 ISSN: 2094-1064 LiceoAccredited Journal of HigherJournal, Education Research CHED Research Category B

Liceo Journal of Higher Education Research Science and Health Section

Extent of Escherichia coli Contamination of Cagayan de Oro River and Factors Causing Contamination: A Translational Research in Southern Philippines LESLEY CASAS LUBOS Dawsonia@yahoo.com GENARO VIRADOR JAPOS drgvjapos@yahoo.com Research and Publication Office Liceo de Cagayan University

Date Submitted: Aug. 13, 2010 Final Revision Complied: Oct. 9, 2010

Plagiarism Detection: Passed License No. 944146510808541 Original: 90.74%

Abstract - The study determined the extent of fecal contamination of Cagayan de Oro River stretching along the nine (9) river barangays. Sampling sites covered the upstream, midstream, and downstream areas. The Multiple Tube Fermentation Technique (MTFT) was used to identify the presence of total coliform, fecal coliform, and Escherichia coli in the water samples. The average coliform values obtained from all the sampling sites exceeded the acceptable values (1000 fecal coliform organisms/100ml) set by the Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR). Temporal variability is a critical differentiating factor in the concentrations of total coliform across sampling areas. The spread of coliform was similar in the three sections of the river. The anthropogenic factors that contribute to E. coli and coliform contamination include the absence of toilets in 61.2% of the respondents;presence of 29.2% of toilets draining into the river; 34% of respondents having domestic animals with manure 44

Extent of Escherichia coli Contamination of Cagayan de Oro River and Factors Causing Contamination: A Translational Research in Southern Philippines

L.C. Lubos and G.V. Japos

going to the river; and presence of the same contaminants in the tributaries of the river. There is evidence that the Universitybased translational research is effective in greater utilization of research findings: in increasing community awareness; enriching content for instruction; enhancing pedagogy of biodiversity education, generating local legislation on river conservation; and, promoting biodiversity research in higher education. Keywords - Fecal contamination, E. coli, river quality, human and animal wastes, translational research

I. INTRODUCTION Every year 700,000 people die from food - or waterborne diseases in the Asia-Pacific region alone, including the PhilippinesÂ (WHO,2010). A gram of human feces has 10 million viruses, one million bacteria, one thousand parasite cysts and 100 parasite eggs, thus humans and animals are not safe in contaminated rivers (DENR, 2004). Excessive exposure to the natural elements and the need for food and water are critical issues of import. After floods or water disasters, waterborne transmission of agents, such as Escherichia coli, is common and causes widespread disease (Smeltzer, 2008). Widespread contamination of rivers has been evident in many areas of the country. This study mainly focuses on microbial contamination found along the rivers of major barangays in Cagayan de Oro City, extending from Mambuaya to Bonbon river. Escherichia coli or E. coli is one of the microbial organisms found in rivers. It is common to almost allwarm-blooded animals, including humans, and can be passed through fecal route towards freshwater sources. It is the primary facultative organism of the human gastrointestinal tract. As long as these bacteria do not acquire genetic element encoding for virulence factors, they remain benign commensals in the gastro-intestinal tract (Evans, 2007). As people become aware of the conditions of the environment, they also become conscious of their actions toward the environment. 45

Liceo Journal of Higher Education Research

They begin to find time to reflect on their relationship with nature, to think of ways and means to protect the environment, and to analyze environmental phenomenon on their own local community. They become more concerned about their surroundings (Deauna and Dorado, 1996). Cagayan de Oro City is the capital of Misamis Oriental, Philippines. To the south, the city is bordered by Bukidnon and Lanao del Norte (Iligan City). The Municipality of Opol, Misamis Oriental, borders the city on the west and Tagoloan, Misamis Oriental , to the east. To the north lies Macajalar Bay facing the Bohol Sea. Its total land area is 488.86 kmÂ˛ representing 13.9% of the entire Misamis Oriental. According to the 2007 census, the city has a total population of 553,966. There are 80 barangays composing Cagayan de Oro City, 14 of which are situated along the river side. The Cagayan de Oro River is a major river of Cagayan de Oro City and surrounding barangays. Its contribution to the growth of the city and the role it plays to sustain the cityâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s development cannot be overemphasized. The river is rich and abundant in natural resources specifically aquatic creatures. It also serves as a means of livelihood to some people. Improper waste disposal greatly affects the eco-system in the river . Throughout the history of Cagayan de Oro City, the Cagayan de Oro River has been used for bathing, washing clothes, as food sourcing and in recent years, ecotourism activities such as whitewater rafting, which has been frequented by many foreign and local tourists. With the increase in the population of the residents along the river banks as a consequence of urbanization comes the question of proper sewage disposal and fecal contamination of the river. However, despite this growing threat and rapid developments in the city, not much concern has been given about the Cagayan de Oro River as reflected by only a few studies done on assessing its water quality. Most of the studies done on Cagayan de Oro River are those concerning its physico-chemical properties (Calingin, 2000) as cited by Alvarez, Zainoden, Abdullatif, Alamban, Laguindab, Mamari, Itao and Modehar, (2008). One of the important approaches in assessing the water quality of Cagayan de Oro River is to determine the extent of 46

Extent of Escherichia coli Contamination of Cagayan de Oro River and Factors Causing Contamination: A Translational Research in Southern Philippines

L.C. Lubos and G.V. Japos

fecal contamination in the river. This is essential in providing information regarding sanitation and health-improvement. The study took off from the study of Alvarez, Zainoden, Abdullatif, Alamban, Laguindab, Mamari, Itao and Modehar, (2008). from Xavier University conducted in five barangays in Cagayan de Oro City. The study had different sites from the barangays utilized in the present study. This study serves as a continuing assessment of the status of the river with regard to fecal pollution. Furthermore, detection of E. coli provides a better understanding of the potential public health risks it poses to various barangays located along Cagayan de Oro City. This study also provides insights on disease prevention, health promotion, and health maintenance. OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY The study aimed at determining the extent of Escherichia coli contamination in the Cagayan de Oro River stretching along nine barangays. Specifically, this study was conducted to (1) determine the Most Probable Number (MPN) index of total coliform, fecal coliform, and E. coli in the water samples obtained from the nine river barangays; (2) determine whether the MPN index of total coliform, fecal coliform, and E. coli is acceptable according to specific standards; (3) determine the factors that contributed to E.colicontamination ; and (4) generate participation from stakeholders in the community for stronger advocacy through translational research. SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY The results of the study offer awareness of disease-causing contaminants in the Cagayan de Oro River and suggestions for effective waste management system.

Liceo Journal of Higher Education Research

II. MATERIALS AND METHODS A. Entry Protocol A preliminary survey was conducted along the target areas. A letter asking permission to conduct the study was given to the barangay captains. The researchers personally visited and explained to the barangay captains and officers the objectives of the study. B. Sampling One-day microbial sampling in three replicates was conducted in three consecutive months with 28-day interval as prescribed by DOST10 Microbial Laboratory, the agency that approved the sampling plan. The study measured the fecal bacteria indicators, including the Total Coliform Count (MPN/100 mL), Fecal Coliform Count (MPN/100 mL), and E. coli detection/enumeration (MPN/100 mL) ,based on the Regional Standards and Testing Center â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 10. The counts were analyzed based on the acceptable value set by the DENR Administrative Order Number 34. C. Methods Used and Description The study was conducted last June 2008 to May 2010. Samples were collected from the Cagayan de Oro River stretching along nine (9) river barangays ,namely Mambuaya, Dansolihon, and Bayanga(UPSTREAM);Lumbia, Upper Balulang, and Nazareth (MIDSTREAM ); and Barangays 13 (Isla de Oro), Kauswagan , and Bonbon ( DOWNSTREAM )( Refer to the figures below). The locations were chosen since no microbial studies have been conducted in these areas and with the increase in the population of the residents along the river banks as a consequence of urbanization comes the question of proper sewage disposal and fecal contamination of the river. To detect the presence of E. coli inthe Cagayan de Oro River, a cross-sectional study was used. Cross-sectional means the division of long stretch of the river from upstream , midstream, to downstream in search of variations and contamination of bacteria. 48

Extent of Escherichia coli Contamination of Cagayan de Oro River and Factors Causing Contamination: A Translational Research in Southern Philippines

L.C. Lubos and G.V. Japos

The study involved an interview with the household occupants along the sampling sites and the collection of water samples from the upstream, midstream, and downstream sampling sites. A landmark was considered for sampling 25 meters away from the center point of reference. Moreover, to ensure accuracy of the samples, a red flag secured in a rick was placed as a marker for the sampling spot. The researcher, assisted by the research assistants and community representative , took part in the actual collection of the samples. Proper collection procedures (Eaton, Clesceri, Rice, and Greenberg, 2005) were observed to prevent any significant change in the composition of the samples prior to their analysis to ensure accurate analytical results. Factors such as time and holding temperature can affect microbial density. In this study, the water sample collected was maintained at a temperature of 4 - 10 celciusand the samples were analyzed after 6 hours of collection pursuant to the procedures prescribed by DOST- 10. The samples were brought to the Department of Science and Technology 10 Regional Test and Students laboratory. Statistical Analysis One-way analysis of variance was used to test differences in spatial and temporal variables. T test for dependent sample was used to determine the significant difference in the pretest and posttest of the learners who were exposed to the biodiversity lessons. III. RESULTS Table 1 and Figure 1 reveal that almost all of the sampling sites were fecally contaminated as shown by the MPN indices for three samplings . The safe level total count is Â only 1000 MPN/100mL. However , all samplings areas exceeded the allowable standard, which is alarming.

Liceo Journal of Higher Education Research

Table 1. Mean ÂąSD MPN Values of Total Coliform, Fecal Coliform, and E. coli along the 9 River Barangays of Cagayan de Oro City for 3 Samplings

High counts of total coliform were observed . Bonbon showed the highest MPN index of 16,000/100ml, followed by Kauswagan, and Isla de Oro and Nazareth ( 11,833/100ml), Dansolihon (11,833/100ml), Upper Balulang (9,566/100ml), Bayanga (8,300/100ml) , Mambuaya (8,300/100ml) and Lumbia (4,400/100ml). For fecal coliform count, Bonbon had the highest MPN index of 8,300/100mL, followed by Upper Balulang ( 7,270MPN/100ml), Kauswagan and Bayanga (6,933MPN/100ml), Isla de Oro (6,866MPN100ml), Mambuaya (990MPN/100ml), Nazareth (4,976MPN/100ml), Lumbia (3,400MPN/100ml), and Dansolihon (2,496 MPN/100ml). For E. coli count, Bonbon had the highest value of 7,066MPN/100ml, followed by Kauswagan ( 6,933MPN/100ml), Upper Balulang (5,626MPN/100ml), Bayanga (3,980MPN100ml), Mambuaya ( 3,420MPN/100ml), Lumbia (3,230MPN/100ml), Nazareth 50

Extent of Escherichia coli Contamination of Cagayan de Oro River and Factors Causing Contamination: A Translational Research in Southern Philippines

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(2,056MPN/100ml0), Isla de Oro ( 1,730MPN/100ml), and Dansolihon ( 1,296MPN/100ml). Test of Differences in Temporal and Spatial Variables Table 2. One way anova for temporal differences for total coliform (Oct., Nov., Dec., 2008) OCT: 11,711.11

NOV: 14,822.22

DEC: 6,033.33

Sum of Squares

Mean Square

Sig.

Between Groups

357482222.222

178741111.111

8.894

.001

Within Groups

482324444.444

20096851.852

Total

839806666.667

MEAN

In the test of difference for temporal variable, in the three sampling months (October, November, December of 2008) registered significant difference in the level of concentration of total coliform. The F value is 8.894 at .001 probability, indicating that temporal variable is a critical differentiating factor in the concentrations of total coliform across sampling areas. Table 3.One way ANOVA of temporal differences of fecal coliform (Oct., Nov., Dec., 2008) MEAN

OCT: 4,866.67

NOV: 11,500.00

DEC: 1,355.56

Sum of Squares

Mean Square

Sig.

Between Groups

477716296.296

238858148.148

14.050

.000

Within Groups

408002222.222

17000092.593

Total

885718518.519

In the test of difference for temporal variable, in the three sampling months (October, November, and December) of 2008, there registered significant differences in the levels of concentration of fecal coliform. The F value is 14.050 at .000 probability implying that temporal variable 51

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is a critical differentiating factor in the concentrations of fecal coliform across sampling sites by month. Table 4. t test for dependent sample for the difference in the pretest and posttest of the learners after exposure to biodiversity education [N= 278: no. of test items 25]. DATA

Pretest

Posttest

Mean Difference

Mean

7.6

19.4

11.8

Description

low

High

Significance

.00000

Data in Table 4 indicate that the pretest mean of 7.6 jumped to 19.4 or an increase of 11.8 points. This is described as a rise from low to high. Therefore, the learners benefited significantly in their knowledge on biodiversity education. Table 5. Household profile that help explain E.colicontamination of the Cagayan de Oro River (CY 2008)

Data show that of the 292 sampled respondents, 108 (29.2%) respondents have toilet that drain into the river; 61.2% do not have toilets and they dispose their fecal matter into the river while 34% 52

Extent of Escherichia coli Contamination of Cagayan de Oro River and Factors Causing Contamination: A Translational Research in Southern Philippines

L.C. Lubos and G.V. Japos

maintain domestic animals whose manure goes to the river. Thus, in a random group of 10, some 4 have toilets and 6 do not have any. These are evidences of direct anthropogenic activities that cause river contamination of coliform and E.coli. The findings corroborate the previous findings of Alvarez, Zainoden, Abdullatif, Alamban, Laguindab, Mamari, Itao and Modehar, (2008) from Xavier University that showed a similar trend. During the on site field inspection conducted by the researchers, the presence of human and animal wastes are also there in the tributaries of the Oro river. Thus , when the waters meet in the Cagayan de Oro river, the contaminants contribute also to the anthropogenic activities along the river community that pollute the river. IV. DISCUSSION As seen in Table 1 and Figure 12, Bonbon consistentlyhad the highest MPN valuesfor fecal coliform count and E. coli . The factor that contributes to high fecal contamination of the water is increasing population of residents along the river banks.Based on the ocular observation and inspection , most of the residents do not have toilets. They directly flush or drain their fecal waste into the river. Aside from that, Bonbon is located near the mouth of the river or downstream. This supports the contention of Pratt (1995) and Lata, Ram, and Madhoolik, (2009) that areas nearby the mouth of the river or areas downstream receive large doses of pollutants. Levels of fecal-coliform bacteria in a river or stream can be influenced by many factors. The high fecal coliform concentrations in the different sites along the Cagayan de Oro River indicate the presence of wastes, both of human and animal (pigs, goats, cows, dogs, and chickens). This observation confirms the study of Alvarez, Zainoden, Abdullatif, Alamban, Laguindab, Mamari, Itao and Modehar, (2008). The pathways these bacteria take to get into streams and rivers are varied and depend on the sources and the hydrologic conditions. Fecal-coliform bacteria from poultry houses and piggery might be washed into a stream down into the river during rainfall, pigs and dogs might defecate directly into a stream or river while feeding, and bacteria from human sources might enter the water as a result of 53

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sewage spills, leaking sewer lines, malfunctioning septic systems, or the number of toilets draining into the river or direct defecation into the river. Escherichia coli is a bacterium commonly found in human and animal digestive tracts (fecal matter) High concentrations of fecal indicator bacteria like E. coli indicate an increased likelihood of pathogens being present (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,1986). E. coli is widely used indicator of fecal contamination in water bodies. External contact and subsequent ingestion of bacteria coming from fecal contamination can lead to harmful health effects (Money, Carter, and Serre, 2009). A person swimming in a highly contaminated water has a greater chance of getting sick from swallowing disease-causing organisms, or from pathogens entering the body through cuts in skin, the nose, mouth, or the ears. Diseases and illnesses such as typhoid fever, hepatitis, gastroenteritis, dysentery, and ear infections can be contracted in waters with high fecal coliform counts (Boothman and Weston, 2002).Some strains can cause diarrhea, nausea and, if untreated, possible death (Todar, 2008). The high MPN indices indicate that fecal contamination is present and that possible pathogens in the water give risk to the people who utilize the river for bathing, swimming, diving, and other human activities. Ecotourism in the City will adversely affectedif the concentration of disease-causing bacteria are not substantially reduced. According to Keeling (2007), contamination of drinking water by microbial pathogens, chemical compounds, or radiologic agents has the potential to affect the health of the population and may lead to severe morbidity and mortality in vulnerable population. In general, the closer a sample is taken to the time and/or entry point of contamination, then the higher the concentrations of the bacteria. Inversely, the longer and/or further away from the point of entry, the lower the concentrations of bacteria will be (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency) as cited by Alvarez, Zainoden, Abdullatif, Alamban, Laguindab, Mamari, Itao and Modehar, (2008). Thus, it is possible that the high fecal coliform concentrations obtained from the sampling sites are causedby a closer distance of the sampling site to the point of entry. In this study, all the samples were taken from areas within a distance of 50 meters from the river banks. The study confirmed the occurrence of human activities that contribute to fecal 54

Extent of Escherichia coli Contamination of Cagayan de Oro River and Factors Causing Contamination: A Translational Research in Southern Philippines

L.C. Lubos and G.V. Japos

contamination.One of these activities is the disposal of human feces as well as livestock manure that goes directly into the river. Transport, dilution, dispersion, and concentrations of fecal coliform are also strongly influenced by the timing, spatial distribution, and amount of rainfall, runoff, and stream flow, as well as light penetration, which is reduced by turbidity (Bracken and Harding, 2006). On test of differences in temporal and spatial variables, as shown in table 2 for totalcoliform (Oct., Nov., Dec., 2008), it is notable that the mean in October (11,711.11 ) increased (14822.22) in November and sharply decreased (6033.33) in December of 2008. There was a dry spell during those months of October and November; the rains came in December. The sampling was done after the rain whenthe bacteria in the sampling sites were already eroded by the strong current of water. For fecal coliform, the mean (4,866.67 ) in October rose (11,500.00) in November and these plummeted ( 1,355.56) in December of 2008 after heavy rains. It is interesting to note that fecal coliform was higher than the 1000 tolerable limit even during rainy season, suggesting high level of human activity, which is the disposal of human and animal wastes into the river regardless of the season. No significant differences were noted in the spatial variable, indicating that the concentration of bacteria was the same in the upstream, midstream and downstream sampling sites. This finding implies that the contamination is widespread from the upstream to the midstream and downstream areas. The presence of piggery and domestic animals in the upstream and thepresence of communities of people in the midstream and downstream areas gives a connected to the sources of contamination (Table 5).. Since Cagayan de Oro City is identified by the Water Regulatory Board as one of the urbanized areas with critical water quality , it is important for the city to restore the quality of its water resources to safeguard public health, and to protect the ecotourism industry of the city. Improved sanitation and sewerage must be in place to prevent contamination of the water. Existing laws must be strictlyimplemented for the protection of the rivers. Efforts focused on environmental development process must be exerted so that the existing balance in our ecosystem is sustained. 55

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The results of this study call for the concerned government agencies to share the responsibility of conserving and protecting the Cagayan de Oro River as valuable water resource. University-based translational research in Southern Philippines. The results of the study were presented to the community leaders and constituents of the 17 river barangays of the Safer River, Life Safer Foundation. The mothers are organized already by the Executive Director of the Safer River Life Saver Foundation of Liceo de Cagayan University. The foundation implemented the health teaching advocated in the study to limit exposure of people to the river and to reduce the household wastes that could pollute the river system. The research findings were translated to komiks or â&#x20AC;&#x153;riverzinesâ&#x20AC;? and were introduced in the social studies and science classes for curricular integration. The results of pretest and posttest showed a significant increase in knowledge on E. coli contamination and river conservation. Local legislations were proposed on river conservation. River conferences were organized by the University in cooperation with the Philippine Association of Institutions for Research. The results of the study were used by the Safer River Life Saver Foundation for its advocacy and conservation programs. Moreover, the results were transformed into a teaching module for utilization in the ecology, microbiology, and epidemiology classes. The results of the research became the backbone of the Assessment of the physico-chemical, hydrological and biological characteristics of the Cagayan de Oro River and the socio-economic and cultural attributes of the human settlement along the river, a 1.6 million research project funded by the Silliman University- CHED Zonal Research Center for 2010. The research findings helped in the achievement of the International Award for Best River Research Project conferred by the Philippine Association of Institutions for Research during the 1st International Conference for Higher Education Research in Vigan City, Ilocos Sur, April 28- May 2, 2010. V. CONCLUSIONS The MPN index of total coliform, fecal coliform, and E. coli in the nine river barangays are indicative of high fecal contamination with 56

Extent of Escherichia coli Contamination of Cagayan de Oro River and Factors Causing Contamination: A Translational Research in Southern Philippines

L.C. Lubos and G.V. Japos

Bonbon as the most contaminated and Dansolihon , the least. The factors that contribute to the riverâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s fecal contamination are improper disposal of human wastes into the river due to the unavailability of toilet; disposal of livestock manure into the river; and domestic animalsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; defecation at the river tributaries. Direct anthropogenic activities cause river contamination of coliform and E. coli such as: absence of toilets (61.2%); presence of toilets that drain into the river (29.2%), and, and presence of domesticated animals (34%). Temporal variable is a critical differentiating factor in total coliform and fecal coliform in the concentration of bacteria in the river. During dry season when the current is slow and water level is stable, the concentration increases sharply,but plummits during heavy rains due to strong currents. Coliform concentrations in the upstream, midstream, and downstream sections of the river did not vary indicating that sources of contamination are prevalent. There is evidence that the University-based translational research is effective in greater utilization of research findings; in increasing community awareness, enriching content for instruction, enhancing pedagogy of biodiversity education, generating local legislation on river conservation, and promoting biodiversity research in higher education. RECOMMENDATIONS 1. Samples from tributaries of the Cagayan de Oro River should also be taken and analyzed since these tributaries could also be a contributory factor to the contamination of the river. 2. Wider study covering other river barangays, especially those upstream barangays, should also be conducted to further establish the implications of fecal contamination of the river to the cityâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;secotourism industry. Evaluation of the translational research program of Liceo de Cagayan University is needed to determine future causes of action on biodiversity education. 3. Evaluation of the translational research program of Liceo de Cagayan University is needed to determine future courses of action on biodiversity education.. 57

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4. The microbial and chemical status of the river must be regularly monitored for its restoration and preservation. 5. Barangay officials should hold seminars regarding proper disposal of human wastes and seek sponsorship from companies for toilet facilities for less fortunate families. 6. The findings of this study should be enacted by the City Council for local legislation in the protection of the Cagayan de Oro River, particularly in regulating and safekeeping tourism activities in the oro river such as white water rafting, boat race and fluvial parade. 7. The strain of E. coli found in the river must be identified. 8. Conduct molecular analyses to pinpoint the sources of E. coli, for example human, livestock, poultry, piggery as an aid in better management of waste disposal. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Heartfelt acknowledgments are due to: Dr. Mariano M. Lerin, President, Liceo de Cagayan University for the faculty research grant and support to foreign and local travels for the paper presentations; and, the Commission on Higher Education for the travel grant to Singapore. LITERATURE CITED Alvarez, S. ,W. Zainoden, M. Abdullatif, L. M. Alamban, S.Laguindab, N. Mamari, D. M. Itao and H. Modehar (2008). A cross-sectional study on the extent of fecal contamination of Cagayan de Oro River along five urban barangays and the factors affecting contamination.(October 2007 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; January 2008).JPAIR Journal. Boothman, S. M., J. Weston, L. (2002). Sources of Fecal Coliform Pollution within the Manly Lagoon Catchment. In: UTS Freshwater Ecology Report 2002, Department of Environmental Sciences, University of Technology, Sydney. page 5 Bracken L., C. Hendricks & A.Harding (2006). Apparent bias in river water inoculums following centrifuge. J. Microbiological methods. Vol. 67(2): 304-309. Deauna, M.C. and S.L. Dorado (1996). Environmental science for Philippines schools. 927 Quezon Avenue, Philippines Phoenix Publishing House Inc. Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR) â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Region 10. Standard methods for examination of water and wastewater. 58

Extent of Escherichia coli Contamination of Cagayan de Oro River and Factors Causing Contamination: A Translational Research in Southern Philippines

L.C. Lubos and G.V. Japos

DOST.(1997) How to Collect Water samples for Microbiological Studies. Vol.No.2 Eaton, A. D, L. S. Clesceri, Eugene W. Rice, and Arnold E. \Greenberg, editors.(2005). Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and `WasteWater.2nd edition. Evans, D. Jr. and D.G. Evans. Medical Microbiology.(2007).The University of Texas Medical Branch at Galveston.4th edition. Greenpeace (2007) The State of water in the Philippines. p. 12 Keeling, S., (2007). Application of pathogenicity marker found on Eschirichia coli for assessment of irrigation water quality. Vol. 79 No. 5.Retrieved July 2008, from http://vnweb.hwwilsonweb.com/hww/results/getResults.jhtml. Lata, P., S. Ram , and Madhoolika. (2009). Real Time PCR for the Rapid detection of vanA Gene in surface Waters and Aquatic Macrophyte by Molecular Beacon Probe. Environmental Science and Technology, Vol.43.No.9 .Retrieved July 2008, from http://vnweb.hwwilsonweb. com/hww/results/getResults.jhtml. Money, E., G. Carter, and M. Serre. (2009). Modern Space/Time GeostatisticsUsing River Distances: Data Integration of Turbidity and E. coli Measurements to Assess Fecal Contamination Along the Raritan River in New Jersey. Environmental Science and Technology, Vol.43.No.10.Retrieved July 2008, from http://vnweb.hwwilsonweb. com/hww/results/getResults.jhtml. Pratt, C. R. (1995). Ecology. Springhouse, Pennsylvania.pp 148-150. Smeltzer, S.C. (2008). Textbook of medical-surgical nursing (11th Edition, Volume 2). Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams and Wilkins, a Wolters Kluwer Business. pp 2565-2566. World Heath Organization (1999). United Nations Environmental Programme. Global Environmental Outlook 2000.Earthscan Publications, London, Op. cit. FOR INQUIRIES, WRITE TO: The Managing Editor Liceo Journal of Higher Education Research Liceo de Cagayan University Cagayan de Oro City, 9000 Philippines Email: liceojournal@yahoo.com.ph Fax: 63+ (08822) 727459 URL: http://www.ejournals.ph http://www.liceojournal.com 59

Vol. 6 No. 2 December 2010 ISSN: 2094-1064 LiceoAccredited Journal of HigherJournal, Education Research CHED Research Category B

Liceo Journal of Higher Education Research Science and Health Section

Pedagogy in Environmental Science for Nonscience Students in Higher Education of Southern Philippines BERNADETE I. DEL ROSARIO rosebern_99 @yahoo.com Davao Doctors College Date Submitted: Mar. 14, 2009 Final Revision Complied: Aug. 1, 2010

Plagiarism Detection: Passed License No. 944146510808541 Original: 97.85%

Abstract - The STSE approach was used in teaching the environmental science course for nonscience students. Using activities derived from the local environment, a learning climate unique to the STSE approach was developed. Its influence was determined through the academic achievement, environmental science self-efficacy and sociopolitical perspective of the students. Quantitative and qualitative designs were used in the study. An experimental design using Solomonâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Four Group Design was used for the quantitative part, while observation and interview were used in the qualitative part. Effect on academic achievement was determined using twoway ANOVA on the posttest scores of four groups, while the effects on efficacy and sociocultural perspectives were determined through the t-test of weighted means derived from the answers to a questionnaire. Observation and focus group interview were used for qualitative analysis of lessons especially for environmental science self-efficacy and sociocultural perspectives. The STSE approach was found to be effective in improving the academic performance as well as the environmental science self-efficacy of the students. In the analysis of sociocultural perspectives, political and moral

Pedagogy in Environmental Science for Nonscience Students in Higher Education of Southern Philippines

B.D. Rosario

values are more dominant than the religious perspectives. However, there is no significant difference. The results of the study provide encouragement for all who want to depart from standard textbooks and course outlines Key words - Science, Technology, Society and Environment INTRODUCTION In recent years, there has been a clamor for environmental protection and concern both in scientific world as well as in the academe. In this issue, man is both a villain and a victim. Man is a victim and a villain in the sense that the destruction of his environment also affects him, being a part of that system as a predator, a competitor, a prey or a symbiont (Grizzle, 1994). Students in the academe are also as much a part of the system that tries to understand the relationship of man to science, technology, society and the environment. For these students, education becomes relevant and meaningful to the extent that they are able to maximize resources and methods in understanding the subject. It is therefore the purpose of this paper to use the science, technology, society and environment (STSE) approach by developing locally based activities in teaching an environmental science course and to determine its influence on academic achievement, science self-efficacy and sociocultural perspectives of the students. Environmental science is a 3-unit non-laboratory subject. Examination of its course evaluation reveals that, although some students appreciate science, many lack interest and complain that science classes are boring and that the subject matter is very technical with too many terms to memorize to the point that they often feel sleepy. These students will soon find their way into government or private corporations where they will get employed. It is therefore important that their education is holistic â&#x20AC;&#x201C; developing in them cognitive competence as well as moral and personal discernment with the adoption of environmentally conscious attitude (Kastenholz and 61

Liceo Journal of Higher Education Research

Erdman, 1994). The challenge then for teachers and administrators is to find an effective methodology or approach that will make the nonscience environmental course interesting to students. With regards to methods and resources, many approaches have been tried, some have succeeded, some had no effect, but many are emerging as renewed models and strategies. Of these emergent models, STSE is one model which is promising. Another important aspect of the approach is that activities can be derived from the local community to make the lessons more relevant. Familiarity with the environmental issues and problems of the community may make the experience more effective. One factor that should be considered when using locally based activities is the sociocultural perspective of the students living in a particular cultural backdrop. The approach used in the experimental group is the (STSE) approach using varied strategies to allow student exposure to issues in the context of experience which would provide opportunities for the students’ construction of knowledge. The effect of the STSE approach was measured in terms of academic achievement, environmental self-efficacy and sociocultural perspectives associated with the environment. Pedretti’s (1996) action research created the STSE model or the STS model with an E. The crucial elements of STS education identified are: critical social reconstruction, decision making, action and sustainability. Critical reconstruction requires students to understand the impact of science and technology as products of human ingenuity with positive and negative effects. Aikenhead (1990) and Fleming (1989) advocate an STS education that is based on understanding and participating in the decision-making process. Students are encouraged to gain a clear understanding of how decisions are made at the local, provincial and national government levels, and within the private and industrial sectors (Pedretti, 1996). Action is the third part of the model and this prepares students to function responsibly and effectively by being empowered. Literacy here would require responsible use of resources and consideration of human needs to bring about environmental sustainability. This is the source of the E in STSE which means the “ environment”. The STSE 62

Pedagogy in Environmental Science for Nonscience Students in Higher Education of Southern Philippines

B.D. Rosario

model could provide a learning climate unique to the methodology used that could influence the academic performance of the students and their scientific efficacy. In addition, the influence of the local culture where the activities were derived was included in the analysis. The STSE model has three implications to the science curriculum. First, a structure for issues of importance and relevance is provided where issues can serve as the basis of the curriculum. Second, the STSE model can be used in close association with an existing curriculum where relevant and compelling issues can be tackled without jeopardizing the entire curriculum. The third most important implication is that the model can serve as a reflective tool for critical analysis and evaluation. The STSE model could provide a learning climate unique to the methodology used that could influence the academic performance, environmental science self-efficacy and sociocultural perspectives of the students. METHODOLOGY Quantitative and qualitative designs were used in the study. An experimental design using Solomon Four-Group pretest-post test was used for the quantitative part while observation and interview of students were used in the qualitative part. Twenty five (25) students per class were randomly chosen from four sections consisting of 4045 students with comparable entrance IQ. Four sections, R1, R2, R3 and R4 were created for the Solomon four group design. R1 and R3 were the sections exposed to the STSE approach. R2 and R4 were not exposed to the STSE approach. R1 and R2 were given pretest, and R3 and R4 were not given any pretest. These students were enrolled in the Environmental Science subject offered to nonscience students of the school. The school is one of the top ten universities found in Davao City. The city where the study was undertaken is usually described as a center for culture and business. Because of the combined characteristics of the school and the city, many students from neighboring provinces are attracted to study in the university. Three instruments were prepared namely: 1) the pretest-posttest 63

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achievement test based on the semesterâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s final departmental exam. It was validated and tested for reliability. Using EDSTATS coefficient alpha determination at .05 level of significance, the reliability was 0.819; 2) Science Self-efficacy Scale is a scale modified from Baldwin et al. (1999), and was validated for content by experts in the field; 3) the third instrument was the student questionnaire for cultural perspectives based on the syllabus and the perceived sociocultural factors. The scale was modified from R. McGinnis and P. Simmons (1999). An ethical clearance was obtained at the start of the class and the students were informed that they are participants in a study. A general orientation on class requirements and university policies was carried out in the first meeting. The questionnaire on cultural perspectives was administered to four sections on the second meeting during the first week of classes. The questionnaire on environmental self-efficacy was administered to the four sections also on the second meeting during the first week of classes. In the third meeting, the pretest on academic achievement was administered to the experimental group (R1) and the control group (R2). During the semester, 10-15 students per class were interviewed for cultural perspectives. Focus group discussion was carried out for in-depth interview. Classes were observed and monitored. Some sessions were tape-recorded and photographed for better analysis. Interviews were also tape-recorded.

Pedagogy in Environmental Science for Nonscience Students in Higher Education of Southern Philippines

B.D. Rosario

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS Academic achievement was compared using the posttest results of the four sections following the Solomon Four Group Design. The results of the four sections were subjected to Two-Way ANOVA using the SPSS 10 program to determine the influence of STSE approach and pretest on the posttest scores of the students. The ANOVA results showed that, although there is significant difference among the posttest 65

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scores of the four groups, the pretest did not influence the posttest scores while the STSE intervention did. Table 1. Two-way ANOVA Source

POSTTEST

PRETEST

7.854

STSE

2.560

PRETEST*STSE

22.961*

Error

.556

TOTAL

100

Sig .000 .832 .000 .458

The multiple comparisons of all the groups in the study utilized the standard t-test. R1 and R2 were the sections with pretest while R3 and R4 were the sections without pretest. The STSE approach was used in R1 and R3, while in R2 and R4, the STSE approach was not used. Table 1 shows the multiple comparisons. Table 2. Multiple Comparisons Test of Posttest Scores

Groups

Group Pairing

R1 W

R2 WS

Mean Difference

Significance

R2 WS

8.3200*

.003

R3 W

.8000

.986

R4 WS

6.8800*

.019

R1 W

-8.3200*

.003

R3 W

-7.5200*

.008

R4 WS

-1.4400

.927

Pedagogy in Environmental Science for Nonscience Students in Higher Education of Southern Philippines

R3 W

R4 WS

B.D. Rosario

R1 W

-.8000

.986

R2 WS

7.5200*

.008

R4 WS

6.0800*

.048

R1 W

-6.8000*

.019

R2 WS

1.4400

.927

R3 W

-6.0800*

.048

*Significant @ .05 level WS â&#x20AC;&#x201C; without STSE W- With STSE The results show that R1 and R3 differ significantly from R2 and R4. The factor responsible for the difference is the use of the STSE approach in R1 and R3 which means that the STSE approach had a positive effect on the scores of the students. This result is similar to that of the studies of Bradford, et al, (1995); Pedretti (1996), Yangco (2000) and Myers (1996) where a course using STS approach helped students learn better. The advantages of the use of environmental issues in the curriculum are in fact shown by the studies of Kastenholz and Erdman (1994), Butler (1999), Garcia (2001), Secord and Greengove (2002), van Weelie (2002) and Hart (2002). It shows that the effectiveness of the STSE approach, which is anchored on the theory of constructivism, has to do with the central role of students in planning and carrying out class activities (Yager, 1996: Tobin, et al., 1994 and Kumano, 1993). In the interviews and focus-group discussions, students prefer the freedom given to them to choose their activities rather than simply accept prepared activities provided by the teacher. When students take control of their own learning, it enables them to focus more on important concepts. As more opportunities are given to them to ask questions, they tend to become more interested and participative. These observations are reflected in the studies of Chin, et al. (2002) and Penick (1996). The new role of students makes him/her very participative and creative in the lessons about the environment. Development of creativity is highly associated with STS and other 67

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constructivist approaches. Environmental Science Self-efficacy A questionnaire made up of 20 statements was given to the students in the four sections at the beginning and end of the second semester of School Year 2001-2002. Two groups were compared by converting answers to weighted mean equivalents. The two groups were made up of 40 students exposed to STSE and another 40 students not exposed to STSE. The mean gains were compared using independent sample t0test. The result of the comparison is shown in the following table. Table 3. Environmental science self-efficacy

N Efficacy 1

With STSE

Mean

Std. Dev.

.3010

.227

Sig.

2.706*

.008

R1 + R3

Efficacy 2 Without STSE R2+R4

.1605

.237

*significant @ .05 level The table shows that the comparison of the weighted means of the environmental science self-efficacy of the two groups (p<0.008) is significant at .05 level, which means that the STSE approach results to a significant improvement of self-efficacy of studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; willingness to do something for the protection of the environment. The questionnaire on environmental science self-efficacy 68

Pedagogy in Environmental Science for Nonscience Students in Higher Education of Southern Philippines

B.D. Rosario

determined students’ beliefs or expectations. The issues about the environment challenged the students’ willingness to do something towards clarification or resolution of issues. This is the theoretical basis as given by Bandura (1977) where behavior change in learning is a result of beliefs or expectations about behavioral outcomes and beliefs or expectations about one’s ability to carry out the behavior. This change in beliefs and expectations was determined by comparing the weighted mean of the questionnaire as a tool for pre- and posttest. It is an indicator that can help determine whether students’ confidence levels increase as they go through the course as has been tested earlier and found to be effective in gaining insights about students’ selfefficacy (Baldwin, et al., 1999). The significant difference derived by comparing the STSE and nonSTSE group in Table 2 shows that the STSE approach had a positive impact on students’ self-efficacy in terms of environmental concern. Two groups opted to extend their knowledge to communities by holding lectures and demonstration teaching . The issue found to be most significant for this action was the issue of waste management. Another group of 10 students went to a water source supplying water to Davao City to determine water quality and to be familiar with the purification process. Four groups with 8 students each went to the communities with environmental problems to interview some residents in the area. These activities were planned and done by students. Conducting the interview and holding the focus group discussions further affirmed the need of the students to be given freedom for their creativity and self-expression. One significant observation is that, in the two sections where STSE was used, students wanted to do something useful for the communities which they have chosen. Not all of the students opted for the community work. Some students worked on document analysis and prepared a thorough social analysis through power point or video presentation for interesting reports to the class. The difference in level of their environmental self-efficacy may be due to the effect of some factors such as (1) prior experiences in performing the behavior; (2) opportunities to observe others similar to oneself performing the behavior; (3) persuasion by a respected authority and (4) one’s self-perceived level of physiological arousal (Bandura, 1977). 69

Liceo Journal of Higher Education Research

Students are unique individuals with varying interests; therefore exposure and self-realization help in developing higher levels of selfefficacy. STSE as an approach provides the exposure through field trips, film showing and community work. Another positive factor in the approach is that students are given the opportunity to plan as a group. In this activity, students are challenged to be creative and work as a team. The cooperative learning environment is recommended for this activity to promote better learning. Sociocultural Perspectives A questionnaire determining the opinion of students on certain statements covering three major areas of culture , namely political, moral and religious was administered to four sections of twenty-five students each at the start and end of the classes in the second semester of School Year 2001-2002. Table 3 shows the result of the comparison of the weighted means of the opinions. Table 4. Sociocultural perspectives of Non - STSE and STSE groups of students

The comparison of the opinion of the students in terms of sociocultural issues shows that there is no significant change in their opinion whether they were exposed or not exposed to the STSE approach. This result confirms the observation that culture does not change easily and that paradigm shifts take time to complete (Hodson, 1999). . 70

Pedagogy in Environmental Science for Nonscience Students in Higher Education of Southern Philippines

B.D. Rosario

Several authors claim that different geographical origins promote conflicting worldviews (Cobern, 1994 and Jedege & Aikenhead, 1999). Students in the university come from different origins and as such it is expected that there are some differences in the orientation towards science and towards the environment because of different scientific worldviews (Cobern, 1995). Students have strong emotional commitments to certain beliefs and practices they have grown into. To shift or change their paradigm would be difficult. One’s social and cultural orientation made up of gender, ethnicity, religion, sexual orientation and politics affect one’s learning capacity. The sections when analyzed were found to be diverse in terms of the students’ places of origin. Although the university is in Davao City, many students from neighboring areas also enrolled. Summarizing the options derived from the focus group interview, one can see that although the students belong to different sections, their views about the questions do not differ considerably. The students believe that there is no bias in the discussion of the lessons and that they need to know all sides of the story being university students. Although some appear to be indifferent, and some are perceived to be “elitist”, the range of their opinions did not differ significantly. In terms of school culture, they belong to a group and they share the culture of this group. It is this feeling of “belonging” that gives them the reason to help their classmates in making assignments and to cooperate in doing their projects. The STSE approach is an approach that enables students to be independent and to be creative. It helps in their academic performance, giving them better understanding of the concepts about the environment. Having better understanding enables some of them to be more self-efficacious and extend learning beyond the classroom. Helping certain communities and doing research beyond the classroom are proofs of their self-efficacy. In terms of cultural perception, the result of the study shows that they have a strong sense of belonging to a group and that is to the university, thus sharing similar views and common values, and consequently registering no significant difference in their cultural perspectives as indicated by the t-test results of the sociocultural questionnaire of the STSE and non-STSE groups. In the analysis of the sociocultural perspectives, the most dominant 71

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perspective that surfaced was the political perspective where the government is given a primary responsibility in environmental protection, conservation and sustainable development. The students believe that the community’s role is to cooperate with the government. Students affirmed such commitment as individual members of the community. Moral values associated with the sense of what is right in terms of environmental concerns and population issues also surfaced in many discussions. Religious values though that were associated with cultural practices of farming, population and environmental conservation did not surface much in the discussion. These observations may be supported by the results of the focused interview and in the discussions of the lessons on water resources and waste management. The STSE approach is an effective teaching approach for the improvement of the academic achievement and science self- efficacy of nonscience students in Environmental Science. In terms of sociocultual perspectives, political and moral sociocultural perspectives are more dominant than the religious perspectives however, sociocultural perspectives of students in the nonscience courses using the STSE approach and those using the non-STSE approach do not differ significantly as they exhibit common ideas and values. The results of the study provide encouragement for all who want to depart from standard textbooks and course outlines. Student involvement in real world experiences should be encouraged more. Approaches like the STSE promise to add excitement, new trials, and new information for science education. LITERATURE CITED Ahern-Rindell, A. (1999). Applying inquiry-based and cooperative group learning strategies to promote critical thinking.Journal of College Teaching. December 1998/January1999. Aikenhead, G.S. (1990). Scientific/technological literacy, critical thinking, classroom practice.In S. Norris & L. Phillips (eds.), Foundations of literacy policy in Canada. Calgary, Alberta: DetseligEnterprizes. Aikenhead, G.S. and Ryan, A.G. (1992). The development of a New Instrument: “Views on science-technology-Society” (VOSTS). 72

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Science Education. 76(5):477-492. Baldwin, J.A., May, D.E. and Burns, D. (1999). The development of a college biology self-efficacy instrument for nonmajors.Science Education. 83: 397-408. Bandura, A. (1977). Social learning theory.Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Bradford, C.S. , Rubba, P.A. & Harkness, W.N. (1995). Views about Science-Technology-Society interactions held by college students in general education physics and STS courses. Science Education. 79 (4): 355-373. Brooks, J. G. and Brooks, M.G. (1993). In search of understanding: the case of constructivist classrooms. Alexandria, Va.: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. Butler, S. (1999). Catalyzing student autonomy through action research in a problem centered learning environment. Research in Science Education. 29(1):127-140. Christine, C.; Brown, D.E. and Bruce, B.C. (2002). Student â&#x20AC;&#x201C;generated questions: a meaningful aspect of learning science. International Journal of Science Education. 24(5): 521-549 Cobern, W.J. (1994). World View, culture, and science. Science Education International. 5(4): 5-8 Cobern, W. J. (1995). Constructivism for science teachers.Science Education International. 6(3):8-12. Crowther, D. T. (1999). Cooperating with constructivism.Journal of College Science Teaching. Sept/Oct.: 17-23 Garcia, L.C. (2001). Utilizing Local environmental issues in developing critical thinking in High school students.Unpublished masteral thesis. University of the Philippines, Quezon City. Fleming, R.W. (1989). Literacy for a technological age.Science Education. 73(4), 391-404. Guzman, R.S. and de Guzman, R.Z. (2000). Environmental Education for sustainable development.Quezon City: Wisdom Advocates Publishing. Grizzle, R.E. (1994). Environmentalism should include human ecological needs. BioScience. 44(4): 263-268. Hart, P. (2002). Environment in the science curriculum: The politics of change in the Pan-Canadian science curriculum process. 73

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International Journal of Science Education. 24(11): 1239-1254. Hodson, D. (1999). Going beyond cultural pluralism: Social education for sociopolitical action.Science Education. 83: 775-796. Hogan, K. (2002). Small groups ecological reasoning while making an environmental management decision. Journal of Research in Science Teaching. 39(4):341-368. Jedege, O.J. and Aikenhead, G.S. (1999). Transcending cultural boarders: implications for science teaching. Research in Science and Technological Education.17(1): 45-63. Kastenholz, H. G. and Karl-Heinz Erdman. (1994). Education for responsibility within the framework of UNESCO. Journal of Environmental Education. 25(2): 15-20. Kumano, Y. (1993). Doctoral dissertation.The effects of STS Instruction in Japan comapared to results reported in the US. PHD in Science Education.University of Iowa. Iowa City, IA. USA. Mabajiorgu, N.M and Ali, A. (2003). Relationship between STS approach, scientific literacy, and achievement in biology. Science Education. 87(1): 31-39. McGinnis, J.R. and Simmons, P. (1999). Teachersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; perspectives of teaching science-technology society in local cultures: A sociocultural analysis. Science Education. 83: 179-211. Myers, L. Mastery of basic concepts. Science and Technology/ Science as reform in science education. Ed. By Robert E. Yager, (1996). New York: State University of New York Press. Pedretti, E. (1996). Learning about science, technology and society (STS) education through action research project.: Construction of an issues-based model for STS education. School science and Mathematics. 96 (8): 432-439. Penick, J. E. (1996). Creativity and the Value of Questions in STS. Science/Technology/ Society as reform in the education. (Edit. R.E. Yager) Albany, New York: State University of New York Press. Secord, D.L. and Grungrove, C. L. (2002). Environmental Science a vehicle for building natural sciences and EE into a new Interdisciplinary Urban Public University. The Journal of Environmental Education. 34(1): 32-37. Solomon, J. G. Aikenhead (Eds.) (1994). STS education international perspectives on reform. New York & London: Teachers College Press. 74

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Tobin, K. D.J., Tippins and Gallard, A.J. (1994). Research on instructionalstrategies for teaching science. (edit. D.J. Gabel), Handbook ofresearch on science teaching and learning. New York: Macmillan. Weelie, V., Daan and Wals, A.E.J. (2002). Making biodiversitymeaningful through environmental education. InternationalJournal of Science Education. 24 (11): 1143-1156. Yager, R. E. (Ed.), (1996). Science and Technology/Science as reform in science education. New York: State University of New York Press. Yangco, R.T. (2000). The STS Approach in Developing Decision-Making Skills of High School Biology Students. Unpublished doctoral dissertation.University of the Philippines, Quezon City.

Vol. 6 No. 2 December 2010 ISSN: 2094-1064 Liceo Journal ofResearch Higher Journal, Education Research CHED Accredited Category B

Liceo Journal of Higher Education Research Business and Policy Section Cutting Edge Research

Patterns and Dynamics of an ArroganceCompetence Theory in Organizations ROBERTO N. PADUA rnpadua@yahoo.com MARIANO M. LERIN TERESITA T. TUMAPON ttumapon@mail.com Liceo de Cagayan University ZOSIMA A. PAĂ&#x2018;ARES Cebu Normal University Date Submitted: Oct. 1, 2010 Final Revision Complied: Nov. 5, 2010

Plagiarism Detection: Passed License No. 944146510808541 Original: 81.37%

Abstract - An arrogance-competence theory in human organizations is developed by the axiomatic approach to theory development. The evolved theory states that a personâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s degree of arrogance heightens as function of increased levels of insecurity as a method for compensating for his perceived inadequacies and that such degree of arrogance bears on job performance and competence ultimately, defining the performance of an organization. Each person defines an ordered pair (arrogance, competence) for himself and interacts with other persons in the organization who also possess the ordered pair characteristics. The interactions of these individuals in an organization describe an interesting dynamical system which relate to chaos theory through a dyadic function or Bernoulli function having an invariance measure equal to a beta probability distribution. Further, the paper explored the relationship between the pair arrogance-competence and individual productivity in relation to the overall organizational productivity. Under the invariant measure, the index of organizational productivity of 76

Patterns and Dynamics of an Arrogance-Competence Theory in Organizations

R.N. Padua, M.M. Lerin, T.T. Tumapon and Z.A. PaĂąares

a large theoretical organization is shown to be about 97%. To maximize organizational productivity, the number of people with high arrogance measures needs to be minimized. This confirms the policies of two large companies: Matsushita Electric Industrial Co., the largest manufacturer of consumer electric appliances in the world, and Norberto Odebrecht, who founded Construtora Norberto Odebrecht, a Latin America conglomerate in engineering, construction, chemicals, mining and oil, in 2007 which provided for disincentives for arrogant behavior in the work place. Keywords - arrogance scale, competence scale, compensating mechanism, performance, chaos and bifurcation INTRODUCTION Arrogance is defined as that species of pride which consists in exorbitant claims of rank, dignity, estimation or power or which exalts the worth or importance of the person to an undue degree. Pride and arrogance is as old as civilization itself. Events in world history have, time and again, demonstrated that the downfall of the greatest empires and civilizations on earth can be attributed, at least in part, to the arrogance of their leaders. The fall of the great Roman Empire, for instance, is replete with historical accounts of leadership arrogance; the Nazi Empire , led by Hitler who believed himself invincible, is a more recent reminder of this phenomenon. Despite the central role that pride and arrogance plays in mundane day to day human interactions, very little scientific work has been done to scrutinize and analyze the anatomy of these innately human characteristic. Blatant display of arrogance is often dismissed as an idiosyncrasy that can be tolerated or that needs to be tolerated. People seldom ask the cause of such an arrogance, and more importantly, they also seldom stop to reflect the implications of such a display of arrogance in the actual workplace of that individual. A 2007 landmark study by the University of Akron investigated arrogance and its implications to an organizationâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s morale and bottom line. According to the researchers, accounts of arrogant employees 77

Liceo Journal of Higher Education Research

Cutting Edge Research

abound, but evidence is predominantly anecdotal and that there is little systematic research on arrogance within organizations, and sparse empirical data that verify the alleged negative relationship between arrogance and performance. The researchers developed the Workplace Arrogance Scale (WARS) to help obtain empirical data. Among other things, Silverman and others (2007) found empirical evidence to support the claim that the more arrogant a person is, the more selfcentered and the less agreeable he is likely to be. Likewise, in another portion of the study which involved a 360-degree performance feedback survey, arrogance was shown to be negatively related to performance and cognitive ability. Competitive advantage might be gained by providing disincentives for arrogant behavior while providing for positive reinforcements for positive behaviors like humility. In fact, two large organizations in the world made organization-wide efforts to eradicate arrogance and complacency in the workplace resulting to critical successes. In the same Akron study (2007), the examples given included: Konosuke Matsushita, founder of Matsushita Electric Industrial Co., the largest manufacturer of consumer electric appliances in the world, and Norberto Odebrecht, who founded Construtora Norberto Odebrecht, a Latin America conglomerate in engineering, construction, chemicals, mining and oil. According to the study also, employees who resign do not leave the organizations but leave the managers. Among the various types of organizations, the academe is perhaps one of the best places to study the anatomy and workings of arrogance in the workplace. The organization is structured such that arrogance can be easily detected at various nested levels: among the students, among the professors, between students and professors, among middle level deans and directors, between professors and deans, and among educational top level managers. Arrogance, in this setting, is normally founded on â&#x20AC;&#x153;perceivedâ&#x20AC;? intellectual superiority. For this reason, the propositions developed in Section 3 are all directed toward academic institutions. This study attempts to develop a theory on arrogance and competence in relation to organizational productivity (which applies to all organizations including the academe), first through a deductive approach to theory development and then, through a mathematical 78

Patterns and Dynamics of an Arrogance-Competence Theory in Organizations

R.N. Padua, M.M. Lerin, T.T. Tumapon and Z.A. Pañares

modeling approach using chaotic dynamical systems. It is a basic research and can, perhaps, form the core of an empirical validation study in the future, particularly in the academe. Arrogance is such a basic phenomenon that is imperative that scientific studies be done to analyze in detail the repercussions and implications of arrogance in the workplace. The Base Axioms of Arrogance This section develops the minimal set of sufficient axioms or selfevident truths which will be used to generate the propositions and ultimately the main theory for the study. The set of sufficient axioms will be gathered from existing reports, studies and critical analyses on the subject matter. Arrogance is defined in various ways but we shall adopt the more accepted convention that it is that species of pride which consists in exorbitant claims of rank, dignity, estimation or power or which exalts the worth or importance of the person to an undue degree (Katz, 2007). Like all other negative chief features of a person, arrogance has components namely : (1.) early negative experiences, (2.) a constant fear and sense of insecurity, (3.) misconceptions about the nature of self, life or others, (4.) a maladaptive strategy to protect the self, and (5.) a persona to hide all of the above in adulthood. People build their arrogance from different foundations. Some start with money, others with intellect, education, lineage, job status, good looks, athleticism. Some allow their arrogance to sprout from even the most obscure hobbies or traits. Arrogance can be based on real qualities or possessions: a genius IQ, a staggering bank account. It can just as easily be based on illusion: a ‘brilliant’ strategist who gleans every last idea from others, a ‘millionaire’ who owns nothing more than a generous line of credit. It can be rooted in the past: an out-ofshape, fast-food addict with a glorious, football youth. (Katz, 2007) Axiom 1: People build their arrogance from different foundations. Arrogance is one of the seven basic character flaws or negative personality traits. We all have the potential for arrogant tendencies, but if they become an enduring, dominant pattern then one is said to have a “chief feature of arrogance”. (Bion, 1967). The positive aspect of 79

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arrogance is called pride while the negative aspect is called vanity. The exact opposite of arrogance is self-deprecation. Axiom 2. All people have the potential for arrogant tendencies but it is normally not their chief feature. Arrogance is a way of manipulating others’ perceptions of yourself in order to avoid taking a “hit” to your self-esteem. In this case, however, the basic strategy is to get others to see you as special, perfect or flawless — diverting attention from your ordinary imperfections, weaknesses and failings — and thereby keeping your self-esteem artificially inflated. Arrogant behaviour strikes us immediately. There is the condescending dismissal, the impatience, the interruptions, the measured humiliations, the whispered asides, the outright neglect. Many people bristle at arrogance, quickly asserting themselves or rejecting the speaker. Others must suffer quietly as the arrogant person is in a position of power. Some take a person’s arrogance as a signal of importance. (Katz, 2007) Axiom 3: Arrogance is a compensatory mechanism to keep one’s selfesteem artificially inflated or intact. Competence is generally perceived as a good trait or characteristic of a person. On the opposite end of the spectrum, being arrogant is perceived as a negative trait. Competence and arrogance, however, are often related. Being smart, bright and clever leads to competence in many areas related to success in one’s career. But having these intellectual gifts also means that one gets used to being right, being perceived as a good problem-solver and being highly valued by others which , unfortunately, often lead to arrogance.(Golson, 2009)

Patterns and Dynamics of an Arrogance-Competence Theory in Organizations

R.N. Padua, M.M. Lerin, T.T. Tumapon and Z.A. PaĂąares

Golson (2009) constructs an interesting two-dimensional graph : Arrogance-Competence Grid:

Figure 1: Two-Dimensional Arrogance-Competence Grid The characteristics of people belonging to each quadrant are summarized in the table below: QUADRANT

DES-CRIPTION

HIGH ARROGANCE-HIGH COMPETENCE

CHARACTERISTICS 1.

These people are often quite successful but they can also be destructive to morale and relationships, and ultimately to the organization.

As leaders, they tend to oppress subordinates. Â Bosses with this combination create subordinates who become adept at passive aggression. Of course they say all the right words and show appropriate compliance, but they secretly take pleasure in the inevitable obstacles and setbacks the high competence/arrogance style creates. And they will watch passively as the leader fails when in fact they could help.

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III

IV.

Low ArroganceHigh Competence

Low ArroGance-Low Competence

High ArroGanceLow Competence

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These are the people who provide solid problem solutions and do so in a way that’s not offensive or abrasive. You want all of these folks you can get in your organization. But if the low arrogance is due to insecurity, you may need to do a lot of work to encourage them to take the initiative and go to bat for their solutions.

They’re likely to expect their work to speak for them and may have trouble selling themselves when necessary and appropriate.

They’re more likely to be facilitative and supportive in a leadership role than aggressive, charismatic or forceful.

These people aren’t likely to rise to the executive ranks unless they’re related to someone in power.

They may be delightful people to spend time with, but they don’t have the cleverness to solve complex business problems or the arrogance to bluff their way through.

They’re too dumb to know when somebody’s peeing on their leg and too nice to tell them to quit if they realize it.

They’re dangerous. They don’t realize the limits of their ability and don’t have the good sense to ask for a second opinion.

They can make a big splash early in their careers but they’ll usually flame out.

Their unfounded self confidence can propel them far beyond their true abilities. Then, they can take the organization down unless they’re very lucky.

Source: Golson (2007) Axiom 4. Organizations , in general, benefit from a mix of proper levels of arrogance and high levels of competence. Axiom 5. Job competence is directly related to a person’s cognitive intelligence keeping the emotional quotient constant. Finally, the level of a person’s job competence is strongly correlated with his cognitive intelligence. Keeping attitude constant, several 82

Patterns and Dynamics of an Arrogance-Competence Theory in Organizations

R.N. Padua, M.M. Lerin, T.T. Tumapon and Z.A. Pañares

studies have shown that highly intelligent people tend to be more competent than less intellectually gifted ones. It is when attitude is factored in that one sees aberrant results like a highly intelligent person manifesting poor job competence.(O’Boyle, Humphrey, Pollack, Hawyer, Story, 2010) Derived Propositions and Theory The five axioms derived from serious scientific studies on arrogance form the core of self-evident truths which will now be used to generate a series of propositions related to arrogance in the academe. We begin with the simplest proposition: Proposition 1. There will be arrogant personalities in the academe. By Axiom 2, we note that all people have the potential for arrogant tendencies although these do not manifest as their chief feature in majority of the cases. Without loss generality, it is reasonable to assume a normal distribution of aberrant cases of arrogant people in the academe where there are a reasonably large number of individuals. Thus, there will be arrogant personalities in the academe. We will now characterize the foundations of the arrogant behavior of those people identified in the academe through Proposition 2. Proposition 2. Those with arrogant personalities in the academe mainly build their arrogance from their own perceived intellectual superiority and work related experiences. By axiom 1, arrogant people build their arrogance from different sources. Those identified as arrogant in the academe, therefore, build their arrogance from a variety of sources. However, the academe’s main business and the way to be recognized in this setting is through one’s intellectual outputs, it follows that the most likely source of arrogance in the academe is a feeling of intellectual superiority. The next proposition explains why those identified as arrogant in the academe lean on their perceived intellectual superiority apart from the fact that they are in an academic setting: Proposition 3. Those identified as arrogant in the academe are most likely to have negative experiences with respect to their esteemed intelligence in the past or have been excessively exposed to positive reinforcements on their perceived intellectual superiority in the past. 83

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People identified as arrogant in the academe appear intellectually superior because this would be the most effective means to inflate their self-esteem in this setting by Axiom 3. This also means that at some point in time, this was precisely the aspect of their self-esteem that was most vulnerable and perhaps, openly exposed to both positive and negative reinforcements, hence, its (intellectual superiority) appearance as a foundation for their present arrogance. Proposition 4. Every person in the academe has an (arrogance, competence) mix. The interactions of individuals of varying (arrogance, competence) mix belonging to the same or different levels in the organizational hierarchy define 64 predictable patterns of organizational encounters. By axiom 2, each individual in the academe possesses a certain degree of arrogance. Likewise, each individual in the academe has a job competence measure as reflected in his job performance appraisal. Therefore, each individual will have an (arrogance, competence) measure. By Olson’s Grid, there are four possible quadrants to which the (arrogance, competence) measure may be plotted: (H,H), (L,H), (L,L) and (H,L) where H denotes high and L denotes low. Similarly, each person in the academe may be in any one of the following levels in the hierarchy of the organization: subordinate position (Inf.) or superior position (Sup). Thus, any two persons , A and B, in the academe can be interacting in 4 possible ways e.g. (Inf.,Inf), (Inf, Sup), (Sup, Inf), (Sup, Sup). Together with the individuals’ (arrogance, competence) grids, these make for a total of 4 x 4 x 4 = 64 possible encounters. One possible encounter is when person A is in an inferior level position while person B is in a superior level position (e.g. A = student, B = professor) and person A’s grid coordinate is (H,H) or high arrogance-high competence while person B’s grid coordinate is also (H,H). When they will interact, the person in the inferior level position will become passive-aggressive (outwardly agreeing with person B but inwardly disagreeing with him and aggressively finding ways to prove B wrong to humiliate him). On the other hand, if both persons are on the same organizational level (A = professor, B = professor), then the encounter has two possible outcomes: (1.) A and B will continue to outdo each other resulting in a competition with better organizational outcomes or (2.) both players resort to passive-aggressive strategy aimed at putting the other person down which will result in lower 84

Patterns and Dynamics of an Arrogance-Competence Theory in Organizations

R.N. Padua, M.M. Lerin, T.T. Tumapon and Z.A. Pañares

individual and organizational productivity. Proposition 5. In the academe, a person’s degree of arrogance diminishes with increasing cognitive intelligence. More intelligent individuals are generally more competent. Highly intelligent people with high arrogance score are more likely underachieving in the workplace. By Axiom 5, more intelligent people are generally more competent while keeping emotional intelligence constant (e.g. attitude towards work is kept constant). We next show that in the academe, a person’s degree of arrogance diminishes with increasing intelligence. Since most of those identified as arrogant in the academe based their arrogance on their perceived intellectual superiority (which is inflated, thus the high arrogance measure), it follows that the more intelligent a person is, the lesser is the inflationary effect needed to demonstrate superiority in that respect. Therefore, real intelligent people will be less arrogant than “perceived” intelligent people in the academe. Finally, since highly intelligent people generally have higher competence measures and arrogance diminishes with increasing intelligence, it follows that highly intelligent people with high arrogance measures will be less competent than highly intelligent people with low arrogance measures (and hence, will achieve less than expected). THEORY Organizational performance is highly linked with the job performance of its human resources. The propositions proved demonstrated that the quality of work done by the human resources of the organization depends on their job competence which in turn is a function of their arrogance measure and cognitive intelligence. The overall organizational performance, however, ultimately hinges on the positive outcomes of the various possible encounters of the players in the organization. At any given point in time, all 64 possible encounters are taking place in academic institutions with seemingly random yet strictly predictable outcomes. Thus, improved organizational performance can be achieved by providing disincentives for arrogant behaviors and by examining the foundations of the observed arrogant behavior of the organization’s human resources (insecurities and intellectual superiority foundational issues). 85

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DYNAMICS AND INTERACTION ANALYSIS We analyze the interactions of people in an organization by first examining a mathematical relation between arrogance and competence within an individual. Having done this, we then proceed to analyze the dynamics when two individuals of various (arrogance, competence) pairs interact in an organization. From the previous theory, we note that arrogance is inversely related to competence. But arrogance, to some degree, is present in every individual and so it would be of interest to determine by how much competence is affected by arrogance. To this end, suppose that an arrogance measure ai is evolved where 0 ≤ ai ≤ 1 so that a person’s level of arrogance is expressed in percentage i.e. 0% arrogance means a humble individual while 100% arrogance means a truly arrogant individual. Similarly, let us measure competence ci on the same scale 0 ≤ ci ≤ 1. A general relation that can be proposed is given by: (1).. ci = pai – [pai] where p is an integer and [x] is the “floor function” or the greatest integer less than or equal to x. This is called the p-adic function and in the case that p = 2, we have the dyadic function or Bernoulli map: (2) ci = f(ai) = 2ai –[2ai]. This map exhibits a rich dynamical behavior. For instance, starting from a = , we can trace the orbital path: f(a), f(f(a)), f(f(f(a))),…, fn(a) as follows:

and the values of ci cycle between two values 2/3 and 1/3 (called stable points). If a = 1, then f(a) = 0 and there is only one stable point namely a = 0. In fact, if a is any rational number between 0 and 1, there will be instances in which we will observe 2 stable points, 22= 4, stable points,…, 2p stable points. When a is an irrational number, then we observe a phenomenon called chaos, a seemingly unpredictable pattern of observations. The orbital path for a = 0.951433 is shown graphically:

Patterns and Dynamics of an Arrogance-Competence Theory in Organizations

R.N. Padua, M.M. Lerin, T.T. Tumapon and Z.A. Pa単ares

Next, consider a fixed point in time and suppose that we are able to measure the arrogance of people in an organization. The following possibilities exist: Quadrant (Arrogance-Competence)

Arrogance Interval

Description

Frequency of Occurrence In a Large Organization (n>500)

H-H

[.75,1]

Often quite successful people but they can also be destructive to morale and relationships, and ultimately to the organization.

28%

L-H

[,25,.50]

These are the people who provide solid problem solutions and do so in a way that is not offensive or abrasive

.22

L-L

[0,.25)

They may be delightful people to spend time with, but they do not have the cleverness to solve complex business problems or the arrogance to bluff their way through

28%

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H-L

(.50,.75)

They are dangerous. They do not realize the limits of their ability and do not have the good sense to ask for a second opinion. They can make a big splash early in their careers but theyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;ll usually flame out.

22%

The orbital path has an important interpretation in social behavior theory. A person with an arrogance measure a0 will, according to the model, have a competence score of f(a0). A personâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s arrogance is actually a measure of the difference between his actual competence and his own perceived competence. Thus, a rational person will try to minimize this negative social characteristic by leveling off his arrogance (perceived competence) to his actual competence. Hence, by a learning process, he will now attempt to put his arrogance at a1 = f(a0). The process continues until he reaches his stable limit of arrogance (and, therefore, his level of competence). To illustrate, we begin with a humble person whose arrogance measure is a0 = 10%. This person will have a competence measure of c0 = 20%. Realizing this, the person will grow a little more arrogant and will set his arrogance measure at a1 = 20% to find his new competence measure to be c1 = 40%. Again, he resets his arrogance measure to a2= 40% because he learned from the earlier experience that by increasing his arrogance measure, he also increased his competence measure. This time, his new competence measure is c2 = 80%. Emboldened by this new result, he becomes truly arrogant and sets a3 = 80% only to find a reduced competence of c3 = 60%. The succeeding orbital path is {20%, 40%, 80%,60%,â&#x20AC;Ś.} with four (4) stable limits if we continue the process. The person learns that his optimal strategy is to set his arrogance measure at a = 40% (not too arrogant and not too humble either). This model is more realistic than a purely deterministic model where the competence c is exactly related to arrogance by, say, an equation of the form c = -pa because it is a tenuous assumption to 88

Patterns and Dynamics of an Arrogance-Competence Theory in Organizations

R.N. Padua, M.M. Lerin, T.T. Tumapon and Z.A. Pañares

stereotype people as being “always” arrogant and whose competence can always be predicted by the equation. People change according to the context they find themselves in on a day to day basis which is captured by the present model. The following results are quoted from Demidov (1986): Results: 1. If the initial condition is irrational (as almost all points in the unit interval are), then the dynamics are non-periodic—this follows directly from the definition of an irrational number as one with a non-repeating binary expansion. This is the chaotic case. 2. If x0 is rational the image of x0 contains a finite number of distinct values within [0, 1) and the forward orbit of x0 is eventually periodic, with period equal to the period of the binary expansion of x0. Specifically, if the initial condition is a rational number with a finite binary expansion of k bits, then after k iterations the iterates reach the fixed point 0; if the initial condition is a rational number with a k-bit transient (k≥0) followed by a q-bit sequence (q>1) that repeats itself infinitely, then after k iterations the iterates reach a cycle of length q. Thus cycles of all lengths are possible Within our computing limits as human beings, we can only measure arrogance in terms of rational numbers between 0 to 1, which implies that a person’s arrogance measure eventually stabilizes to a limit or limit cycles (in the case of more than one limit point). Consequently, his competence measure also stabilizes to a limit or limit cycles. Now, considering competence as a strong indicator of productivity, the results imply further that we can predict the ultimate productivity measure for such an individual in the organization. The other interesting point to ponder is the fact that person with high arrogance measures (a > 0.50) eventually settles down to arrogance measures lower than his original arrogance measure. For instance, begin with a person whose arrogance measure is 95%. His orbital path will be {90%,80%, 60%,40%, 20%, 80%, 60%,…}. It follows that if this person is rational , he will set his arrogance measure at a = 20% after a period of learning in the organization. Conversely, a person 89

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with low arrogance measure ( a< 0.50) eventually settles to a higher arrogance measure (higher than the original arrogance measure but not quite reaching a 50% arrogance measure). The Effect of Interactions of People on the Arrogance-Competence Pairs We first consider a two-person interaction in the organization. The interaction of any two people with measures (ai, ci) and (aj,cj) respectively is given by: (3) cicj = 4aiaj – [4aiaj] In order to analyze this situation, we agree that a person has a high (H) arrogance measure if a > 0.5 and a low (L) arrogance measure if a< 0.5. It follows that we need to investigate only the following possibilities of interactions: H-H, H-L (or L-H), and L-L. H-H Interaction or Two Persons with High Arrogance Measures Two individuals with high arrogance measures will tend to outdo each other. Thus, each person will therefore be as arrogant as he can to intimidate the other. The limit cycles for these two individuals will always be {80%, 60%, 20%, 40%}. In the long run, they will each settle for a high arrogance measure of a= 80% giving c = 60% for each but the product competence measure will then be cicj = 4*.80*.80 - [2.56] = 56%. This is the result if both individuals were incurably arrogant. However, in reality, one player tries to maximize his own arrogance measure but adopts strategies to undermine the other player’s arrogance measure. If individual A succeeds in putting down individual B, then this would mean that aA = 80% and cA = 60% while aB = 20% and cB = 40% with a product competence measure of cAcB = 4*aA*aB – [4*aAaB] = 64%, a surprising outcome. What happens if the two individuals succeed in putting down each other? Then, this would mean that aA = 20% and aB = 20% each with a competence measure of 40% but a product competence measure of cAcB = 16%.

Patterns and Dynamics of an Arrogance-Competence Theory in Organizations

R.N. Padua, M.M. Lerin, T.T. Tumapon and Z.A. PaĂąares

In summary, we have three scenarios when two arrogant individuals collide in an organization: Scenario 1: The two individuals outdo each other independently each one trying to maximize his own output to produce a product competence measure of 56%. Scenario 2: Each individual tries to maximize his own output while putting down the other individual and one of them succeeds in doing so, then a product competence measure of 64% is computed. Scenario 3. The two individuals succeed in putting down each other to produce a product competence measure of 16%. Unfortunately, the more likely scenario in an organization is Scenario 3 with the least productivity output. The desirable outcome for an organization is Scenario 2 but the scenario breeds an unhealthy working environment in the long run. Scenario 1 is the next best scenario for the organization. This can be achieved by minimizing the direct contacts between the two individuals and facilitating an environment which confines the two players to their own work. L-L Interaction or Two Persons with Low Arrogance Measures The orbital path for these two individuals will always be {20%, 40%,80%, 60%,â&#x20AC;Ś}. The natural tendency for these two individuals will be to settle for an arrogance measure of a= 40% for a competence measure of c = 80% each. The product competence measure however, is cAcB = 64%. The two individuals will neither compete with each other nor try to put down each other. The organization will settle at an equilibrium productivity output of around 64%. H-L Interaction or High Arrogance-Low Arrogance Interaction In a high arrogance-low arrogance encounter, the high-arrogance person dominates and will put down the low arrogance person to maximize his competence score. The low arrogance person does not retaliate. The limit cycle orbital path of the high arrogance person will always be {80%,60%,20%,40%...} while the corresponding orbital path 91

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of the low-arrogance person will always be {20%,40%,80%,60%,…}. The arrogance choices will be aA = 80% and aB = 20% which yield a product competence measure of 64%. Invariant Measure and Organizational Productivity Analysis Chaos is defined as the system’s sensitivity to initial conditions. In the case of the dyadic function used as a model for the pair competencearrogance measures, chaos arises almost everywhere (a.e.) with respect to the usual Lebesgue measure μ because there are “fewer” rational numbers than irrational numbers on [0,1] in the Lebesgue sense. The chaotic , seemingly random pattern of observations, can be described by ergodic theory through their invariant measure i.e. the statistical probability distribution that describes their random behavior. It can be shown that the invariant measure for the distribution of competence scores based on a dyadic function is : (Devaney, 1997):

This is the beta distribution with parameters a = ½ and b = ½ . This beta distribution is U-shaped on the interval [0,1] which means that extremely arrogant people with arrogance measures close to 1 is rare and happens only 6% of the time in an organization and the same holds true for extremely humble people. Most of the time, the arrogance measure will fall strictly on the open interval (0,1). The main interest, from an organizational point of view, is on the impact of the presence of arrogance-competence pair on the overall organizational productivity. From our previous axiomatic theory development, we know that productivity varies directly with competence but inversely with arrogance. This means that if Pi = productivity of the ith person, ci = competence of the ith person and ai = arrogance measure of the ith person, then: The potential organizational productivity is defined as the average of all these individual productivity measures:

Patterns and Dynamics of an Arrogance-Competence Theory in Organizations

R.N. Padua, M.M. Lerin, T.T. Tumapon and Z.A. Pa単ares

while the realized organizational productivity is equal to the average productivity scores considering all possible encounters in the organization. Let PHL, PLL, PHH denote the productivity scores arising out of the encounters of H-L, L-L and H-L arrogance measures and suppose that that there are nHL, nLL and nHH such encounters respectively. Then:

The index of organizational productivity (IOP) is the ratio of the realized organizational productivity (PReal) to the potential organizational productivity

The index indicates how much of the potential organizational productivity is being realized by the organization by way of the interaction of the human resources in the organization.

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Illustration: Suppose that we have a theoretical organization where the distribution of the arrogance scores follow the beta distribution. Then, we know that the arrogance measures obey the following distribution:

Without interaction, the corresponding productivity measures by group would be: PH = .50 (.60/.80) = 37.5% and PL = 0.5 (.80/.40) = 100% 94

Patterns and Dynamics of an Arrogance-Competence Theory in Organizations

R.N. Padua, M.M. Lerin, T.T. Tumapon and Z.A. Pa単ares

and so on. Thus, the potential organizational productivity measure would be the weighted average of the productivity measures above: = .28(.375) + .22(1.00) + .28(1.00) + .22(.167) = .64175 or 64% Considering the various interactions as earlier presented, we obtain the competence measures for each type of interaction as follows. We examine the various kinds of interactions that can occur in this theoretical organization and determine the frequency of occurrence of each type of interaction assuming the beta distribution of arrogance measures. Using the interaction analysis in the previous section, we determine the outcome competence measures for each type of interaction together with the net arrogance measure. From these quantities, we compute the productivity measures for each type of interaction. These information are summarized in the table provided below for convenience:

PReal = .10(.35) + .10(.64) + .16(.40) + .32(.80) + .32(.64) = 62.38% The corresponding index of organizational productivity is then:

Thus, under normal conditions, an organization will be able to achieve 97% of its potential organizational productivity in the presence of a diverse human resource with different arrogance levels. To maximize the realized organizational productivity, the number of individuals with high arrogance measures need to be minimized. Notice that this is consistent with the policies of both Konosuke Matsushita and Norberto Odebrecht (2007) which provide disincentives for arrogant behavior in the workplace.

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CONCLUSIONS An arrogance-competence theory in organizations is developed showing a dyadic relation between the level of competence and level of arrogance of a person in such a way that arrogant individuals tend to become less competent while humble individuals tend to be more competent. The productivity of an individual varies directly with his level of competence and inversely with his level of arrogance. When applied to the entire organization and assuming a beta distribution of arrogance, the theory concludes that such types of organizations can only achieve 97% of their potential organizational productivity. Policies which provide disincentives for arrogant behavior in the workplace are consistent with the goal of making the organization more productive and robust. This policy was tested in two different international organizations by Konosuke Matsushita and Norberto Odebrecht (2007) which provided disincentives for arrogant behaviors in their respective companies with positive results on their productivity.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT The main author acknowledges the financial support of the Liceo de Cagayan University Research Center to this research project under LDCU Grant No. 007-2010. LITERATURE CITED Bion, W. R. (1967). On arrogance. (In his Second thoughts (pp. 87-88). (London: Heineman) Demidov, E. (2000), Chaotic 1-Dimensional maps, (Wiley Series, New York) Golson, H. L. (2007), Influence for Impact, (McGrawhill, New York) Katz, L. S. (2006) , Distinctions between Self-Esteem and Narcissism (Mc. Grawhill, New York) Linas V., (2004) The Bernoulli Map, the Gauss-Kuzmin-Wirsing Operator and the Riemann Zeta 96

Patterns and Dynamics of an Arrogance-Competence Theory in Organizations

R.N. Padua, M.M. Lerin, T.T. Tumapon and Z.A. Pañares

O’Boyle, E. H., Humphrey, R., Pollack,J., Hawyer, T., Story,P.(2010) “The Relation Between Emotional Intelligence and Job Performance” (Journal of Organizational Behavior, Wiley Interscience) Wolf, A. (1986)”Quantifying Chaos with Lyapunov exponents,” in Chaos, edited by A. V. Holden, Princeton University Press. Dean J. D., Fully Chaotic Maps and Broken Time Symmetry, (1999) Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht Netherlands ISBN 0-7923-5564-4 FOR INQUIRIES, WRITE TO: The Managing Editor Liceo Journal of Higher Education Research Liceo de Cagayan University Cagayan de Oro City, 9000 Philippines Email: liceojournal@yahoo.com.ph Fax: 63+ (08822) 727459 URL: http://www.ejournals.ph http://www.liceojournal.com

Vol. 6 No. 2 December 2010 ISSN: 2094-1064 Liceo Journal ofResearch Higher Journal, Education Research CHED Accredited Category B

Liceo Journal of Higher Education Research Business and Policy Section

Predictors of Development of Microfinance Beneficiaries in the Rural Villages of Northeastern Mindanao, Philippines EMILIANA J. LOZANO lozano_emiliana@yahoo.com College of Business Administration and Accountancy Father Saturnino Urios University Date Submitted: Aug 11, 2010 Final Revision Complied: Sept. 9, 2010

Plagiarism Detection: Passed License No. 944146510808541 Original: 95.33%

Abstract â&#x20AC;&#x201C; The study determined the predictors of development of microfinance beneficiaries of City Social Welfare and Development Office in Butuan City, Philippines. The predictors were grouped according to the adequacy and effectiveness of the microfinance program components. Results show that on the adequacy of the program components as the predictor of development, the multiple correlation of .7148 suggests a moderate, direct and significant relationship between the triple combination of capability building, micro-lending and savings mobilization to development of beneficiaries. This implies that no single variable can adequately explains its effect to another variable, it is always a combination. Meanwhile, on the effectiveness of the program components as the predictor, the regression coefficient of .6779 reveals that there is a moderate, direct and significant relationship between information, education and communication (IEC) and development of beneficiaries. As such, it is hereby recommended that implementing agency should focus more on capability building, micro-lending and savings mobilization and information, education and 98

Predictors of Development of Microfinance Beneficiaries in the Rural Villages of Northeastern Mindanao, Philippines

E.J. Lozano

communication. Social funds for the development of these predictors are clearly a complement to, not to substitute for, effective sectoral policies, nor should they try to fulfill all the investment financing needs of all poor communities. Social funds must work in tandem with local government funds, NGOs, communities and other development agents to leverage and out investments that serve the broader national objectives of poverty alleviation. INTRODUCTION In 2008, the total population in the Philippines (2008) was 90,348,437 of which 35% (31,694,232) is the rural population. Out of this number, 36% (11,695,172) is the rural poor with a gross national income per capita of P1,890.00. The causes of poverty were identified as decline in the productivity and profitability of farming, smaller farm sizes and unsustainable practices that have led to deforestation and depleted fishing waters (IFAD Report, 2008). In that same year, government financial institutions had an estimated total of 2,000,000 microfinance borrowers while the private financial institutions, more than 100,000 borrowers. In order to fast tract the performance of microfinance program being the cornerstone strategy in alleviating poverty in the Philippines, Ex-President Gloria Macapagal Arroyo requested the Department of Social Welfare and Development Office to act as the lending conduit for microfinance program considering that all the 1,600 towns have DSWDs. On December 31, 2009, government reported that a total of P150 billion in loans for microfinance program with 7 million borrowers was registered from 2001-Oct. 2009 but poverty incidence remained high at 27%. In the state of the nation address of President Aquino, he mentioned that government funds is becoming scarcer, hence, the need for more focused and cost-effective government programs to leverage resources that would serve the broader national objectives of poverty alleviation. In the case of microfinancing, it is but imperative to know the predictors of development to align with the thrust of the new administration. 99

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FRAMEWORK Poor peoples’ access to financial services that they need to improve their income is a crucial factor in breaking the poverty cycle in the Philippines. The International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD) supports institutions that adopt the Grameen banking approach, providing microcredit in the form of small, even tiny loans to borrowers who have little or no collateral (IFAD in the Philippines, operations.ifad.org). In China, capacity building is one of the sustainability program for poverty reduction (Zhang Xianfeng, 2007). In the Philippines, viability of Grameen banking is a function of innovative microfinance services such as loans, savings and insurance products with more emphasis to capacity building – training in microfinance skills, income generation activities, health, food security and education – through partnerships between MFIs and NGOs (The Philippines, Rural Micro-Enterprise Finance Project Interim Evaluation Report, 2003). In promoting financial systems, savings mobilization was a way of ensuring sustainability. The “savings before credit” approach, developed by the Cooperative d’Epargne et de Credit (COOPEC) and “Credit Mutuel”, encouraged borrowers to honor their debts (IFAD. org). For a credit scheme to mobilize its own financial resources, a combination of savings promotion approaches can be used such as free deposits, savings deposits as a condition for obtaining credit, and forced savings (as part of a loan and withheld by the scheme). The savings approach used will depend on the clientele and type of credit that is needed (Savings and Credit, IFAD.org). There is a need for alternative mechanisms to sustain activities of peoples’ organization (POs) considering that around a third of Pos is at a low level of organizational maturity (Summary of Problems and Issues Concerning RPOs in IFAD projects in Various Countries in the Asia and Pacific Region – Philippines, IFAD.org, 2009). Some projects succeeded in forming their target number of SelfHelp Groups (SHGs) but were not quite successful at forming groups of good quality. SHGs had no clear vision of where their groups were headed nor were they aware of or familiar with the aims and objectives 100

Predictors of Development of Microfinance Beneficiaries in the Rural Villages of Northeastern Mindanao, Philippines

E.J. Lozano

of the SHGs. This highlights the importance of recognizing, prioritizing and providing support for capacity building of the poor and of their organizations in organizational as well as technical matters. Training programs, including literacy programs can help ensure a proper leveling off of information, and understanding of organizational rules, thereby strengthening government mechanisms. Proper orientation on the concepts of SHGs has been cited in most projects as essential for both the SHGs and their members and leaders (A Review of IFAD Projects Experiences in Asia and in Building Organizations of the rural Poor, IFAD.org). In the 16th Session of the UN Commission on Sustainable Development, information and communication was identified as one of the key technologies. Likewise, the potential for advancing technologically and also for continuously increasing productivity is defined by investments in three areas of an economy: research, education and infrastructure which are the sources of public goods (Dennis, for GAIF-2008, FAO, UNIDO, IFAD). OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY The study has the following objectives: 1) to know the extent of adequacy and effectiveness of the implementation of microfinance program components of City Social Welfare and Development Office in Butuan city in terms of information, education and communication; capability building; savings mobilization; and micro-lending and 2) to determine the predictors of development of microfinance beneficiaries when the program components are grouped according to adequacy and effectiveness. METHODOLOGY Adequacy and effectiveness of the microfinance program components were measured first considering that a development happens only when there is a provision to render the program beneficial to the participants and meets their needs. The provisions are information, education and communication; savings mobilization; capability building and micro-lending. 101

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There were two groups of respondents, the implementers (CSWD staff) and beneficiaries (microfinance availers). Their ratings were treated using weighted mean to determine the level of adequacy and effectiveness and stepwise regression analysis for the determination of the predictors of development. T-test was also applied to determine whether or not the responses of the beneficiaries and implementorsaresignificantly different. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The findings of the study are presented, analyzed, and interpreted by the following tables: Table 1 Summarized Data on the Adequacy and Effectiveness of the Implementation of Information, Education and Communication Program Component Program Indicators 1. 2. 3.

Information Dissemination Direct Instruction Communication Exchange Grand Mean

Adequacy Mean 3.45 3.55 3.20 3.40

VD VA VA A VA

Effectiveness Mean VD 3.58 VE 3.62 VE 3.32 VE 3.49

Legend: VD - Verbal Description VA - Very Adequate A-Adequate VE â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Very Extensive Table 1 shows that information, education and communication program of the City Social Welfare and Development Office in Butuan city was both very adequate and very effective. On adequacy.followup interview revealed that direct instruction was thoroughly carried out by CSWD considering the presence of a CSWD Day Care Center with a Teacher in every barangay who can readily provide instruction needed by anybody who intend to join the microfinance program. On effectiveness. Respondents disclosed that they understood very well the requirements in joining microfinance. Program.

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Predictors of Development of Microfinance Beneficiaries in the Rural Villages of Northeastern Mindanao, Philippines

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Table 2 Summarized Data on the Adequacy and Effectiveness of the Implementation of Savings Mobilization Program Program Indicators

Adequacy

Effectiveness

Mean

Orientation Seminar

2.37

3.41

Strategic Management Strategy formulation

2.81

3.24

Strategy Implementation

2.91

3.24

Strategy Evaluation

2.74

3.14

Sub-Mean

3.0

3.21

Grand Mean

2.68

3.31

Table 2 shows that the provision of savings mobilization program though adequate only but it has meet the needs of the beneficiaries. On Adequacy.respondents stressed that orientation seminar on savings mobilization as well as the strategic management was minimal. Only a few of the beneficiaries joined the program aside from limited income from the financed projects. On Effectiveness. Interview revealed that long-term objectives for savings mobilization were not established considering that savings were just personal not for the organization as a whole. Table 3 Summarized Data on the Adequacy and Effectiveness of the Implementation of Capability Building Program Program Indicators 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Policy Formulation Resource Generation Leadership Training Technology Acquisition Asset Development Grand Mean

Adequacy Mean 3.05 3.01 3.32 3.41 2.96 3.15

VD A A VA VA A VA

Effectiveness Mean 3.25 2.83 3.39 3.38 2.52 3.07

VD E E VE VE E E

Table 3 shows that the capability building program of CSWD was very adequate though it was only effective in meeting the needs of the beneficiaries. On adequacy. The grand mean rating manifests the greater efforts of CSWD on capability building but on the aspect of 103

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effectiveness, there is still a need for continuous improvement on the implementation of the program components. Table 4 Summarized Data on the Adequacy and Effectiveness of the Implementation of Micro-lending Program Adequacy

Program Indicators

Effectiveness

Mean

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Selection of Beneficiary Orientation Loan Processing Loan Release Monitoring and Evaluation

3.56 3.50 3.31 2.96 3.03

VA VA VA A A

3.42 3.43 3.37 3.39 3.35

VE VE VE VE VE

Collection Efficiency

3.30

3.35

3.28

3.24

Grand Mean

Table 4 shows that the micro-lending program of the City social Welfare and Development Office of Butuan City was both very adequate and very effective. On adequacy. CSWD staff disclosed that orientation activity was continuously carried out by their Day Care Workers who were assigned in the different barangays of Butuan city. Meanwhile, loan release was handled by the City government. The role of CSWD was the giving of information to the beneficiaries about the schedule of their personal appearance in getting the check representing the loan proceeds. On effectiveness. Interview revealed that until this time (since 20002), there are still collectibles from beneficiaries and most of them have no more projects. Table 5 Results of the Stepwise Regression Analysis on the Adequacy of the Microfinance Program Components as Predictorsof Development of the Beneficiaries Step 1 Variable: Capability building Entered Dependent Variable: Mean of Development Variable

Regression coefficient

Std. Error

F (1, 89)

Probability

Capability Building

0.5547

0.0629

77.895

.00000

Constant

2.0236

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Predictors of Development of Microfinance Beneficiaries in the Rural Villages of Northeastern Mindanao, Philippines

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Std. Error of Est. = 0.4850 r squared = 0.4667 R = 0.6832

Analysis of Variance Table Source

Sum of squares

D.F.

Mean Square

F Ratio

Probability

Regression Residual

18.3249

77.895

6.000E-14

20.9374

0.2353

Total

39.2623

Table 5 shows the stepwise regression analysis on the adequacy of the implementation of the microfinance program components as the predictor of development of the beneficiaries. In the first step of the analysis, capability building entered as the best predictor of development as indicated by a regression coefficient of 0.5547 supported by an F value of 77.895 at .00000 probability. This means that there is a direct, moderate and significant relationship (r= 0.6832) between capability building and development. The coefficient of determination (r squared)) points out that capability building explains 46.67% of the variance of development of beneficiaries. Interview with the beneficiaries revealed that it is capability building that puts them to the start-up phase of development and its continuing activity enabled them to grow. Capability building program develops their organization, produces their products, and install the tools and functions required of efficient operations. Likewise, the International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD) which employs microfinance as the means to alleviate world poverty came up with their assessment during the Donor Peer Review in 2002 that efficient use of grant for capability building can help Microfinance Institutions reach sustainable growth not only of themselves but above all their beneficiaries.

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Step 2 Variable: Micro-lending Entered Dependent Variable: Mean of Development Variable

Regression coefficient

Std. Error

F (1, 88)

Probability

Partial r

Capability Building

0.3549

0.0890

15.913

0.00014

0.1531

Micro-lending

0.2923

0.0959

9.283

0.00305

0.0954

Constant

1.6917 Std. Error of Est. = 0.4639 Adjusted r squared = 0.5067 r squared = 0.5176 Multiple r = 0.7195

Analysis of Variance Table Source

Sum of squares

D.F.

Mean Square

F Ratio

Probability

Regression

20.3229

10.1614

47.214

1.000E-14

Residual

18.9394

0.2152

Total

39.2628

In the second step of the analysis, micro-lending entered as second best predictor as shown by a regression coefficient of 0.2923 supported by an F value of 9.283 at .00305 probability. The multiple correlation of 0.7195 is indicating a moderate, direct and significant relationship between the combined effects of micro-lending and capability building on development of beneficiaries. This means that when the beneficiaries are provided with capability building and microlending, this combination predicts 0.5176 (r squared) of the variance of development. This implies that no single variable can adequately explain its effect to another variable, it is always a combination. Keeping the right balance between funding capability building and the provision of loan capital is a great challenge, especially for IFAD whose principal funding instrument has been long-term investment to governments.

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Step 3 Variable: Savings Mobilization Entered Dependent Variable: Mean of Development

Variable

Regression coefficient

Std. Error

F (1, 88)

Probability

Partial r

Savings Mobilization

0.1715

0.0595

8.319

0.00494

0.0873

Capability building

0.2645

0.0910

8.440

0.00465

0.0884

Micro-lending

0.3046

0.0923

10.898

0.00140

0.1113

Constant

1.4795 Std. Error of Est. = 0.4458 Adjusted r squared = 0.5445 r squared = 0.5597 Multiple r = 0.7481

Analysis of Variance Table Source

Sum of squares

D.F.

Mean Square

F Ratio

Probability

Regression Residual

21.9758

7.3253

36.867

0.000E+00

17.2865

0.1987

Total

39.2623

In the third step of the analysis, savings mobilization entered as the third best predictor of development. Based on the interview with the beneficiaries, only those with personal savings have sustained their projects considering the limited releases from the city government and roll-back was not made possible all the time considering the just distribution of the cityâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s funds for livelihood projects. According to the IFAD Donor Peer Review in 2002, loan capital requirements are considerable during growth stage and some MFIs fund their growth by mobilizing savings. The repayment schedule of the subsidiary loan from the MFI to the government was harmonized with the mobilization of alternative resources (through equity or savings) in order to avoid disruption in the funding of the loan portfolio. The multiple correlation of 0.7481 suggests a moderate, direct and significant relationship between the triple combination of capability building, micro-lending and savings to development of beneficiaries. 107

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The lessons learnt from IFAD experiences to date publicizes the appropriate balance between, on one hand, institutional strengthening and technical assistance, and on the other, loan capital as a tool for decision for rural finance (IFAD Donor Peer Review, 2002). The coefficient of determination (r squared) proves that the combined effects of capability building, micro-lending and savings mobilization explains 55.97% of the variance of the development of beneficiaries. Therefore more than one half of the development of beneficiaries is a function of capability building, micro-lending and savings mobilization . Table 6 Results of the Stepwise Regression Analysis on the Effectiveness of the Microfinance Program Components as Predictors of Development of the Beneficiaries Step 1 Variable: Information, Education and Communication Entered Dependent Variable: Mean of Development Variable

Regression coefficient

Std. Error

F (1, 89)

Probability

Information, Education and Communication

0.7687

0.0884

75.682

0.00000

Constant

1.0273 Std. Error of Est. = 0.4888 r squared = 0.4596 r= 0.6779

Analysis of Variance Table Source

Sum of squares

D.F.

Mean Square

F Ratio

Probability

Regression Residual

18.0436

75.682

1.900E-13

21.2187

0.2384

Total

39.2623

Table 6 shows stepwise regression analysis of the effectiveness of the implementation of the microfinance program components as predictor of development of the beneficiaries. In the first step of the analysis, 108

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E.J. Lozano

information, education and communication (IEC) entered as the best predictor of development as indicated by a regression coefficient of 0.7687 supported by an F value of 75.682 at 0.00000 probability. This means that there is a direct, moderate and significant relationship (r = 0.6779) between IEC and development of beneficiaries. The coefficient of determination (r squared) points out that IEC explains 45.96% of the variance of development of beneficiaries. Step 2 Variable: Capability Building entered Dependent Variable: Mean of Development Regression coefficient

Std. Error

F (1, 88)

Probability

Partial r

Information, Education and Communication

0.6112

0.1232

24.630

0.00000

0.2187

Capability Building

0.1924

0.1062

3.282

0.07344

0.0360

Constant

0.9964

Variable

Std. Error of Est. = 0.4821 Adjusted r squared = 0.4672 r squared = 0.4790 Multiple r = 0.6921

Analysis of Variance Table Source

Sum of squares

D.F.

Mean Square

F Ratio

Probability

Regression Residual

18.8066

9.4033

40.453

3.500E-13

20.4558

0.2325

Total

39.2623

CONCLUSION In the context of the findings, the researcher concludes that when the provisions to render the program beneficial to the participants are adequate, capability building, micro-lending and savings mobilization in combination are the predictors of development of microfinance 109

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beneficiaries. Meanwhile, when the provisions are effective which means that they meet the needs of the beneficiaries, information, education and communication are the predictors of development. RECOMMENDATIONS On the bases of the findings and the conclusion drawn from the study, the following recommendations are offered for consideration, to wit: 1. Capability building of implementers to focus on the development and implementation of marketing strategies, remedial measures on problematic accounts, monitoring and evaluation, conflict handling and management, simple bookkeeping, mobilizing savings and strategic management; 2. Implement a combination of savings promotion such as free deposits, savings deposits as a condition for obtaining credit, and forced savings (as part of a loan and withheld by the scheme); 3. Implementers to have a clear vision of where the self-help groups (SHGs) will be headed to ensure a proper leveling off of information and understanding of organizational rules, thereby strengthening government mechanism. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Grateful acknowledgments are due to Dr. Napoleon Hernandez, Executive Director, National Research Council of the Philippines for the research grant; Fr. John Christian U. Young, President and Dr. Evangeline P. Jamili, Dean of CBA of Father Saturnino Urios University for the leave grant during the presentation of this paper in the International Research Conference in Vigan City sponsored by the Philippine Association of Institutions for Research; and, Dr. Victoria U. Sy, Research Director, University of San Jose Recoletos for being the consultant of this study.

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LITERATURE CITED A Review of IFAD Projects Experiences in Asia and in Building Organizations of the Rural Poor, IFAD.org. Dennis, B., for GAIF (2008), FAO, UNIDO, IFAD. Rawlings, L. (2004). Evaluating Social Funds A Cross Country Analysis of Community Investment.World Bank. Savings and Credit, IFAD.org. Summary of Problems and Issues Concerning RPOs in IFAD Projects in Various Countries in the Asia and Pacific Region – Philippines, IFAD.org, (2009) The Philippines, Rural Micro-Enterprise Finance Project Interim Evaluation Report, (2003). www.ifad.org/evaluation. Zhang Xianfeng, A. (2007). “Assessment of IFAD Project Sustainability for Rural Poverty Reduction in China”. Shanghai, University of Geosci. http:// ieeexplore.ieee.org/Xplore/login. jsp?.u

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Vol. 6 No. 2 December 2010 ISSN: 2094-1064 Liceo Journal ofResearch Higher Journal, Education Research CHED Accredited Category B

Liceo Journal of Higher Education Research Business and Policy Section

Marketing Practices for Selected Organically-Grown Vegetables in a Farming Community of Southern Luzon,Philippines JULIETA A. DE LOS REYES jadelosreyes74@yahoo.com University of the Philippines - Los Ba単os, Laguna Date Submitted: Sept. 3, 2009 Final Revision Complied: June 11, 2010

Plagiarism Detection: Passed License No. 944146510808541 Original: 99.81%

Abstract -The paper examined the marketing practices for selected organically-grown vegetables in Baras, Rizal and determined their implications for sustained food safety and marketability. Key informant interviews were conducted and primary data were collected through personal interviews of all the members of the KAKASA cooperative in Baras, Rizal. Personal observation of the marketplace was also done. Pretested questionnaires were used during data collection. The study revealed that: the system of producing organic vegetables in Baras, Rizal can be considered leaning more towards marketorientation but still lacking in volume due to absence of steady market; due to low level of consumer knowledge regarding the benefits derived from consuming organic vegetables, the farmers received very little price premium or there is none at all; there is high market potential for organic vegetables grown in Baras, Rizal; and there is a high level of knowledge on organic farming among the farmer-respondents but there is low level of awareness on proper handling of organic products among the traders. There is therefore, a greater tendency for the marketing system not to preserve the organic vegetables, which in the end can also affect their marketability.

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Marketing Practices for Selected Organically-GrownVegetables in a Farming Community of Southern Luzon, Philippines

J.A. de los Reyes

Keywords - organic farming, chemical-free, marketoriented, value-addition, minimal processing, clustering INTRODUCTION It is common knowledge that the use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides has been acutely abused by the farmers for want of a better yield that could lead to higher income. Even after harvest, incidences of formaldehyde soaking to prolong freshness have been repeatedly reported for vegetables, more frequently for eggplant. In the meantime, these chemicals have been known to leave harmful effects in the body such that efforts to reduce their use in food production have been going on for quite some time now. In fact, the use of organic fertilizers as yield enhancers has already taken off and is now slowly inching its way toward popularization among farmers. Aside from organic fertilizers, organic pesticides as well as insecticides are also slowly being made known to the farmers. The ultimate goal is for the farmers to go completely organic in their vegetable production systems. In consonance with this, the municipal local government of Baras, Rizal envisioned the town to be known for growing organic vegetables. In fact, a policy pronouncement that Baras, Rizal will be the first organic town in the Philippines has already been issued by the municipal mayor. Also, in support of this, the farmers formed a cooperative called KAKASA (Kasamahan sa Kalikasang Pagsasaka) and all the members are one in deciding that they will be full-fledged organic vegetable growers. They are confident that they can be partners of the LGU in promoting Baras as the first organic town in the Philippines. At present, many farmers in the area are already engaged in organic cultivation of “pinakbet” vegetables. A number of farmers take advantage of the rich soils of the Laguna Lake shore for planting okra, eggplant, string beans, bittergourd, squash and more. Some of them plant the same in the hilly portions of the town and as an alternative to chemical fertilizers they concoct organic fertilizers out of varied fermented plant juices (FPJ). Similarly, they use fermented juices of “luyang dilaw,” “siling labuyo” and other spices as pesticides 113

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and insecticides. It is interesting to note however, that although there are local executive initiatives and a cooperative has already been formed, still the level of organic farming adoption has so much left to be desired for and this is due to a number of reasons. One is the fact that unlike the conventional way of cultivation, the yield in organic farming is significantly lower especially during the first few months of the shift in the system of cultivation. Another reason is the lack of steady market which is caused by inadequate consumer awareness on the benefits of consuming organic vegetables. While the number of consumers who are already well aware of the positive attributes of organic vegetables is increasing, the issue of certified or true to form organic stuff becomes apparent. Still another important concern is the issue of sustaining the safety of these foods and proper handling and distribution come into the fore because to be truly organic, handling of this type of vegetables should also be different from the conventional ones. Otherwise, it will be useless for vegetables to be grown organically if such care and maintenance will not be sustained all throughout the marketing channel where these vegetables pass until they reach the final consumers. The problem therefore of sustaining the food safety of these organic vegetables must be addressed at the institutional level considering that the town is envisioned as the first organic town in the Philippines. In the same manner, marketability must be ensured to keep the incentives to the current farmers and to encourage those who are still hesitant. OBJECTIVES The general objective of the study was to evaluate the marketing practices for selected organically-grown vegetables in Baras, Rizal and relate these to the ability of the marketing system to sustain food safety. Specifically, it sought to: 1. present an overview of the marketing system for organicallygrown vegetables in the selected study area; 2. determine the implications for food safety of the knowledge, attitude and practice of the farmers; 114

Marketing Practices for Selected Organically-GrownVegetables in a Farming Community of Southern Luzon, Philippines

J.A. de los Reyes

3. identify the problems encountered in the selling of organicallygrown vegetables; and 4. come up with recommendations and suggest plans of action for improvement of the current situation. METHODOLOGY The study made use of the descriptive type of analysis, which involved the use of frequency tables and computation of means or averages. The flow of the product was traced to determine the market channels. The knowledge, attitude and practices (KAP) of farmers and traders regarding the handling of organically-grown vegetables were determined using pre-identified indicators. Primary data were collected through personal interviews of all the members of the KAKASA cooperative in Baras, Rizal who were growing organic vegetables at the time of the interview. Pre-tested questionnaires were used during data collection. Restaurant and resort owners in the vicinity of Rizal were also formally consulted regarding their willingness to buy organic vegetables. Key informant interviews were also conducted with the mayor, farmer leaders, officers of the cooperative, municipal administrator and other key personnel as the respondents. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The Marketing System Marketing Practices The organic vegetables farmers interviewed performed the following marketing activities: washing/cleaning, sorting/grading, packaging and labeling (Table 1). Washing/Cleaning Washing and cleaning are frequently done for leafy vegetables like pechay and mustard because they are in direct contact with the 115

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soil. However, other vegetables such as eggplants are also washed. Frequently, tap water is used to wash the freshly harvested organic produce but only one farmer-respondent washed his organic vegetables. Sorting and Grading Sorting and grading are performed for okra, bitter gourd, squash and eggplant. Seven or 35 percent of the interviewed farmers performed sorting/grading based on size, length, extent of visible damage, shape and color (Table 2). For okra, two kinds are being produced: the “baby” okra and the regular ones. The “baby” okra is smaller or shorter and is harvested, at the most, when already two inches long. Many health conscious consumers prefer this type because it is more succulent and can be eaten raw to take advantage of more fiber. Along with color, size is also considered in sorting and grading squash and corn. For string beans and bitter gourd, the more important considerations are length but bitter gourd has an additional requirement of being evenlyshaped and fairly straight. Surprisingly, while it is to be expected that organically-grown vegetables are more prone to insect damages because no chemical inputs are applied, still the preference is for them to have less visible fruit and leaf damages. Table 1. Marketing practices of 20 farmer-respondents, Baras, Rizal MARKETING PRACTICES

NUMBER REPORTING

PERCENTAGE

Washing/Cleaning

Sorting/Grading

Packing/Packaging

100

Labeling

* Multiple responses

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Marketing Practices for Selected Organically-GrownVegetables in a Farming Community of Southern Luzon, Philippines

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Table 2. Basis for grading, 7 organic farmer-respondents who are sorting/grading their vegetables, Baras, Rizal. NUMBER REPORTING

PERCENTAGE

Length

BASIS FOR GRADING

Size

100

Color

Damage

Shape

* Multiple responses Packing/Packaging Packaging or more appropriately packing is done to facilitate transportation and handling of vegetables. All of the farmerrespondents performed this practice using anyone of the following: small baskets, kaings, banana leaves and polyethylene bags. Ordinary okras are packed by the hundreds while baby okras are packed on a per kilo basis. Small baskets are more frequently used for baby okras with each basket containing around one kilogram. A basket costs P10-15 each. One kilogram capacity kaings are also used as packaging material. They are cheaper than the baskets at only P10 each. Sometimes vegetables are also packed in banana leaves but it is true only when the produce is marketed within the vicinity of the municipal hall. For long distance deliveries such as those sold to the Organic Producers and Traders Association (OPTA), polyethylene cling wrappers are utilized on packs of a kilogram of okra. Big polyethylene bags, with capacities of around two to four kilograms, are then used to contain the small packs of produce. Labeling Labeling is the putting of some sort of identification for the packed products. This is particularly important for those which were consolidated and marketed elsewhere other than in the local market in Baras (e.g. those to be sold through the OPTA). Labeling practiced 117

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however is as crude as writing the name of the farmer-owner on the polyethylene bags using marking pens (e.g. Pentel pens). Only two farmers claimed to have been doing this practice. Production and Disposal Organic vegetable growing is a relatively new phenomenon in Baras, Rizal although the local leadership has already signified through a municipal ordinance its intent of making Baras, Rizal the first organic town in the Philippines. In fact Table 3 would show that on the average, a total of only 7,690 kilograms of various types of organic vegetables were produced in Baras during the last harvest season, of which an average of 91 percent was sold in different market outlets inside and outside of the municipality. The highest percentage of volume sold was obtained for tomato and patola at 99 percent each (average of 208 and 371 kgs for 2 and 3 farmers, respectively) while the lowest was for okra at 83 percent (average of 94 kgs for 5 farmers). The average amount given away was almost 4 percent equivalent to an average of almost 8 kilograms for seven farmers. On the other hand, the amount used at home was 1.55 percent (average of 7.17 kgs for all farmers) while the marketing losses reached 3.38 percent (average of 9.14 kgs for all the farmers). Eggplants were found to be the most widely grown vegetable type with nine respondents reporting. On the average, a total of 307 kilograms of eggplants per farmer were produced with one farmer harvesting as low as 8 kilograms and another one as high as 1,083 kilograms. Bitter gourd ranked second with seven respondents reporting. One farmer was able to produce a total of 1,075 kilograms of bitter gourd although there was one fresh starter who produced only 15 kilograms. Okra followed with five respondents reporting. One okra producer was not able to sell his produce but the volume sold of another farmer reached as much as 250 kilograms from the total production of 282 kilograms. The volume sold then was computed to be 94 kilograms (83%). Squash production reached a maximum of 440 kilograms but the smallest producer had only 88 kilograms for an average of 228 kilograms per producer. Of this average, 212 kilograms (93%) were sold, 9 kilograms (4%) were given away, 1 kilogram (1%) 118

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was used at home, and 7 kilograms (3%) were lost during marketing. Table 3. Production and disposal, by type of vegetables produced, 20 farmer-respondents, Baras, Rizal

* Less than one percent ** Multiple crops per farmer Outlets Table 4 shows the outlets for different organic vegetables grown in the area. All the six types of vegetables were more popularly sold direct to the consumers or the market place where the farmers did the selling process themselves. Only bitter gourd, okra and patola were occasionally marketed through the cooperative (KAKASA) which eventually sold to OPTA. On the other hand, eggplant, bitter gourd, and tomato passed through the traders. Table 4. Outlets by type of vegetable marketed, 20 farmer-respondents, Baras, Rizal.

Furthermore, the most popular reason why an outlet is chosen is 119

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the â&#x20AC;&#x153;sukiâ&#x20AC;? (regular buyer) system with 70 percent of the respondents reporting. This is not surprising since the Filipinos are inherently hospitable and fond of harboring long lasting friendly relationships. Considering this, the want for a higher price for their product was found to be only of secondary importance to 45 percent of the farmerrespondents. Thirty percent (6) were credit-tied with their markets (Table 5). Table 5. Reasons for choice of market outlet, 20 farmer-respondents, Baras, Rizal FREQUENCY

PERCENTAGE

Credit-Marketing Tie-Up

REASON

Regular Buyer (Suki)

Accessibility

High Price

Others

Mode of Sale Half of the farmer-respondents delivered their produce to their intended markets. Only 5 (25%) sold on picked-up basis and only one resorted to both modes of selling. There were four farmers who did not respond to this question (Table 6). For those delivered, the usual market outlets were the retailers in Baras public market. The tricycle is the usual mode of transport because the market is relatively near. In this case, the farmers shouldered the fare of P10-15 per trip depending on the volume transported. Products that were picked up were sold to traders who paid the cost of transportation. Table 6. Mode of sale, 20 organic farmer-respondents, Baras, Rizal MODE Delivered

120

FREQUENCY

PERCENTAGE

Marketing Practices for Selected Organically-GrownVegetables in a Farming Community of Southern Luzon, Philippines

J.A. de los Reyes

Picked-Up

Combination

No Answer

Prices Received The average selling prices for the sold organic vegetables are shown in Table 7. Inconsistency in pricing was observed in the cases of bitter gourd and patola since their delivered prices were much lower than the picked-up price. Economic theory indicates that the price of the delivered produce should be higher by the cost of transportation between the two markets. However, when bitter gourd was picked up, the farmer was paid P50/kg but when it was delivered, the farmers received an average of only P35.40/kg. Similarly, the picked-up patola commanded a higher price of P20/piece while the delivered ones were paid only P6/kg. Although their behavior would seem irrational, the lack of steady market forced the farmers to bring their own produce to the target market and offer them even at lower prices. For them, it is better to recoup a little amount rather than nothing at all. In contrast, pickedup produce were highly demanded at the time hence the farmers were paid a higher price by the traders. Table 7. Average selling price by mode of sale and by type of vegetable, Baras, Rizal VEGETABLE TYPE

PICKED-UP

DELIVERED

20.6

21.25

35.40

Okra (P/kg)

14.80

Squash (P/kg)

Tomato (P/kg)

Patola (P/piece)

Eggplant (P/kg) Bitter gourd (P/kg)

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Marketing Channel The marketing channel for organic vegetables grown in Baras, Rizal is quite short. Table 8 shows the four channels that can be traced within the area. Direct marketing to consumers was the most widely practiced selling option. This is being done by 9 (45%) farmerrespondents, the usual targets of which are the Baras municipal employees every Tuesday. During Saturdays on the other hand, and during peak harvest period, the farmers take advantage of the market day when they are allowed by the Municipality to set up selling tables in a strategic area in the market. Such place has been designated as their regular market day stall to enable the consumers to develop the habit of buying their organic vegetables from the same place. Six farmerrespondents with an equivalent of 30 percent of the total volume sold their produce to the OPTA through the KAKASA, their cooperative. The OPTA on the other hand, sold to the retailers or the institutional buyers. Four farmers each sold to the retailers and to the wholesalers and this is usually done during the off-market days. Table 8. Marketing channels for organic vegetables grown in Baras, Rizal

The Traders Only four traders were traced as market outlets for the organic vegetables of the farmer-respondents. This is to be expected since as 122

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shown previously, only 40 percent of them sold through the traders. All of the traders sourced their organic produce from the farmers and paid the latter cash for the main reason that they are their â&#x20AC;&#x153;suki.â&#x20AC;? All of them sold to direct consumers but there was one who sold to a trader as well. The sampled traders distributed only four of the six vegetable types considered in this study. It can be seen in Table 9 that the traders had the highest margin of P12.50 per kilogram for bitter gourd, which resulted from the buying price of P50.00/kg and selling price of P62.50/ kg. For eggplant, okra, and tomato, the traders imposed a margin of P5.00/kg. Table 9. Prices paid and received by type of vegetable, 4 traders, Baras, Rizal

Knowledge, Attitude and Practice The knowledge, attitude and practice of the farmers and the traders would more or less reveal the possible chemical state of the produce as they change hands from one channel participant to another until they reach the final consumers. Correct knowledge and practice as well as possession of proper knowledge are therefore a must for handlers of organically-grown vegetables. To have an idea of their knowledge, attitude and practice regarding organic vegetables marketing/handling, the farmer-respondents and the traders were asked whether they would agree or disagree on several leading questions. The questions were translated into Filipino to facilitate better understanding between the enumerator and the respondents. Table 10 shows the average ratio of the correct answers to the total number of questions asked from the 20 farmer-respondents and the four trader-respondents.

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Farmer-Respondents Results indicate that the interviewed organic farmers have relatively good knowledge when it comes to the proper handling of their organic vegetables as shown by an overall average ratio of 0.85. All of them know that Formalin (formaldehyde) is a health hazard and therefore should not be used to prolong the shelf life of organic vegetables. This is evidenced by the 1.00 ratio obtained for questions pertaining to the use of Formalin. The lowest ratio was obtained for the question referring to the use of old newspapers as packaging material or liners for packing organic vegetables with a computed average ratio of only 0.55. This may have been brought about by the fact that many of the respondents do not know that the ink used in printing the newspapers also contains chemicals that may contaminate the organic vegetables. Another important aspect is the relatively lower ratio obtained for Question 3 (0.70), which pertains to the putting together of organic and non-organic vegetables while on display on selling stalls. A few of the farmer-respondents believe that putting these two types of vegetables side by side cannot cause any residue contamination to the organic vegetables, which in the strictest sense is not true. All of them also believed that organic vegetables should be duly certified by an authorized agency because many of the potential consumers are wary that what they are selling are not truly organically-grown. Proper certification according to them will help a lot in convincing the consumers to go organic as this would justify the premium in price that they are charging. When it comes to premium pricing, it is surprising to note that still there are a few farmers who do not agree to charging a higher price for their organic products. This may have been an offshoot of the lack of regular markets making it difficult for them to sell their produce at regular price and doubly more so when charged for a price higher than that prevailing in the market for conventional ones.

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Table 10. Average ratio for knowledge, attitude and practice of 20 farmer-respondents and 4 traders, Baras, Rizal. QUESTION NUMBER

ITEM

FARMERREPONDENTS

TRADERS

Formalin is not hazardous to health in fact many are using this to keep fruits and vegetables fresh

1.00

1.0

Organically-grown vegetables can be dipped into Formalin solution to prolong their shelf life.

1.00

1.0

While on display on selling stalls, organic vegetables can be put side by side with nonorganic ones.

0.70

0.0

Organic vegetables could be priced higher than their non-organic counterparts.

0.90

0.50

Organically-grown vegetables should have less visible fruits and leaf damages.

0.80

0.50

Sorting and grading of organically-grown vegetables should be performed.

0.80

0.75

Organic vegetables should be duly certified by an authorized body.

1.00

0.75

Organic vegetables should be carefully packaged and properly labeled.

0.90

0.25

During storage, organic vegetables can be put in the same storage unit as the non-organic ones.

0.85

1.0

Organic vegetables can be washed with water from unknown source.

0.85

0.50

Old newspapers can be used as packaging material for organic fruits and vegetables.

0.55

0.25

0.85

0.60

AVERAGE

Trader-Respondents Unlike the farmer-respondents, the trader-respondents fared poorly when it comes to their knowledge, attitude and practice towards the marketing of organic vegetables. This is exemplified by 125

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an average KAP ratio of only 0.60 out of a perfect ratio of 1.0 (Table 10). All the four traders obtained a perfect score for questions related to the inappropriate use of Formalin to prolong the freshness of organic vegetables. This may have been a positive result of the frequent airing of the discovery of Formalin traces in foods especially those from China. This in a way educated the people on the health hazards posed by the use of Formalin. On the other hand, all of them practiced the mixing of organic vegetables with the conventionally-grown ones while on display in retail stores. Three or 75 percent tended to favor the use of old newspapers as wrapper for organic vegetables. In addition, the same proportion thought that it is not necessary to package and label the organic vegetables as packaging and labeling are labor intensive and would entail additional costs. This attitude plus the fact that they are putting organic vegetables side by side with chemicallycontaminated ones pose a problem in maintaining the safety of their organic vegetables, which in a way can serve as a deterrent to the more knowledgeable consumers. Market Potential Due to lack of more comprehensive and reliable primary data on the demands and suppliers of organic vegetables in the institutional markets within and around Baras, market potential of organic vegetables was assessed based only on the results of the brief interviews conducted with a few restaurants and resorts in the area and on the key informant interviews and focus group discussions. Resorts and Restaurants All the sample restaurants interviewed showed positive interest in buying organic vegetables produced in Baras, Rizal although only one of them was able to experience offering organic vegetables as part of their menu. The vegetables this restaurant used to offer were the salad type and were delivered by the supplier already packed in Styrofoam boxes covered with plastic cling wrapper. A pack also 126

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contained salad dressing and was good for single consumption. The price was pre-determined by the supplier and the owner merely added some mark-up. She only stopped offering the product because her supplier stopped producing organic salad vegetables because of disease infestation during production. She however is still willing to start serving organic salad vegetables if supply is assured because she believes that her A and B markets will be more than willing to pay a premium on healthy options such as organic vegetables. When asked on the possibility of accepting supply of organic â&#x20AC;&#x153;pinakbetâ&#x20AC;? vegetables from Baras, the owner replied positively but added that it should be conditioned on the assurance of steady supply. The same willingness was reported by the resort owners who were interviewed. They said that they are willing to include organic vegetables in their menus, which of course will be priced higher than the conventionally-grown crops. Similarly, supermarket owners and operators are also very willing to sell organic vegetables because of the recognized increasing importance of organic vegetables in a healthy diet. However, selling through the supermarkets would entail more sophistication and training on the part of the farmers or the marketing conduit in terms of minimally processing the vegetables, sorting and mixing and packaging them, including the art of displaying them on selling counters to attract more buyers. A more pressing concern when marketing through this intermediary is the fact that selling to them is normally on consignment basis and all that the supermarket can provide is a space within the store where the products can be displayed. The seller is required to provide the personnel who will take care of displayed products and everything that needs to be done in order to effect a sale. The store usually imposes, at the minimum, 15 percent mark-up to the selling price quoted by the seller. Payment by the supermarket for the sold products takes as long as 30 days or more, thus would require large amount of capital for the farmers. Marketing Problems A number of problems are being experienced by the farmers while marketing their organic vegetables (Table 11). Based on the interviews 127

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conducted, the most common was the low and unstable price as reported by 9 out of 14 farmers who encountered some marketing problems. This problem stemmed out of the low level of awareness of many of the consumers on the benefits from eating organic vegetables instead of the conventionally-grown ones. Some do not even have any knowledge on what organic vegetables are and how they came to be called organic. Majority of the organic vegetable farmers are expecting that their produce will be given some sort of price premium so that they could somehow recoup or offset the reduction in income due to the decrease in yield relative to those plants applied with chemical pesticides and fertilizers. It should be noted that a shift from chemical to organic inputs reduces the yield per unit of cultivated land especially during the initial stages of organic farming. Studies and organic farming advocates however, claim that improvements in soil conditions and eventually increase in productivity are achieved within several years of continuous organic farming. In addition, organic vegetables are also better in quality because they do not contain chemicals that are considered hazardous to human health. Table 11. Marketing problems encountered, 20 farmer-respondents, Baras, Rizal

Low and unstable price

NUMBER REPORTING 9

High transportation cost

Poor farm-to-market roads

No steady market

Scrupulous traders

Lack of means of transportation

Consumers not yet familiar with organic vegetables

Lack of capital

Poor quality of produce

None

PROBLEM

* Multiple responses 128

PERCENTAGE 45

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The second most widely experienced problems are high transportation cost and poor farm-to-market roads (4 or 25% each). The high transportation cost is not only a function of high cost of fuel, it is also affected by the poor quality of the farm-to-market roads resulting to high maintenance cost for delivery vehicles. Lack of means of transportation is also a contributory factor especially for those who are planting on the hilly portions of the municipality. The lack of steady market and the presence of scrupulous traders were the complaints of a total of eight farmers (4 or 20% each). This was emphasized by the fact that the delivered vegetables were priced lower than the picked-up ones as previously discussed. One farmer each also complained of the following: consumers not being familiar with organic vegetables, lack of capital and poor quality of produce. The poor quality of the organic vegetables is gauged relative to the visibility of insect damages and the seemingly stunted growth of the produce especially for eggplants and okra. CONCLUSIONS Based on the results of the study, the system of producing organic vegetables in Baras, Rizal is market-orientation but still lacking in volume due to absence of steady market. This lack of production volume is the primary reason why the farmers did not see the need to perform post-harvest activities for their harvested crops. Also, the channel of distribution of the organic vegetables is quite short and there is a big possibility for direct marketing to establishments within and around Baras, Rizal. Due to low level of consumer knowledge regarding the benefits derived from consuming organic vegetables, the farmers received very little price premium or there is none at all. The most dominant problem pressing the farmers is the low and unstable price for organic produce. Even then, there is high market potential for organic vegetables grown in Baras, Rizal. There is a high level of knowledge on organic farming among the farmer-respondents but there is low level of awareness on proper handling of organic products among the traders.

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POLICY IMPLICATIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS The above findings have some policy implications both at the local and the national levels. For one, the job or the responsibility of the LGU does not end with its issuance of policy pronouncement declaring Baras, Rizal as the first organic town in the Philippines. While this is a very important component of the enabling environment to ensure the success of organic vegetable farming in the area, provision of logistics and market support are also necessary elements. For instance, there are areas of concern that only the LGU can address more effectively and more efficiently also and at a faster rate. In some cases, the LGU can be a very good partner of the national government in promoting the welfare of all the organic vegetable producers. In line with this, the following courses of action are recommended: 1. Implement clustering in the production and marketing processes Since they are producing â&#x20AC;&#x153;pinakbetâ&#x20AC;? vegetables it will be more manageable if the farmers will be clustered by type of vegetable. Each cluster should be properly trained for organic vegetable growing techniques. The idea is for each group to specialize in the technology for the production of one crop and take advantage of the economies of scale. Grouping should be done in such a way that the farmers themselves would choose their own groupmates and they would agree that they will help each other in achieving efficiency in production and marketing. Towards this end, the LGU should initiate the move to standardize the production procedure for the FPJs as fertilizer, pesticide and insecticide. Chemical analysis of these concoctions should be done by the experts either from a university or from the Bureau of Plant Industry so that application standards can be recommended for adoption by all the organic farmers. 2. Encourage farmers to perform grading and standardization. Grading and standardization will enable the farmers to maximize the value of their produce. The low quality or the off-sized ones will of course demand lower price but the better quality and larger ones can command higher price in the market. At the same time, there is some sort of classiness in the sorted and graded produce. Several studies have proven the better income generating capacity of sorted and graded produce. 130

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J.A. de los Reyes

3. Products should be properly packed and labeled. Since a resolution declaring Baras as the first municipality in Rizal to go organic farming, has already been passed, it is but appropriate that a label for Baras products be carried and made known to the consumers. This could be done through the use of proper label. A nice and simple logo indicating KAKASA as the selling cooperative and Baras as the host municipality would be most appropriate. Products of individual farmers should be properly labeled also for traceability. This move is in anticipation of the increase in production as triggered by the development project being implemented in cooperation with the KAKASA organic vegetables farmers. 4. The KAKASA Cooperative should affirm its role as marketing conduit for the organic vegetables farmers in Baras, Rizal. The necessity to make KAKASA as marketing conduit/arm of the farmers is supported by the target market outlets that do not want to deal with individual farmers. This is more costly on their part particularly in terms of time and effort and more particularly in the reliability of quantity and quality of supply. Marketing through the cooperative will also reduce the unit cost of transporting the products as the volume loaded in the vehicle is maximized per trip made. In addition, the KAKASA as a group will have more bargaining power especially in terms of price determination since it will have a bigger volume to enable them to lobby for a higher price. 5. Conduct of consumer awareness campaigns. While the restaurants and resort owners are very willing to accommodate suppliers of organic vegetables, they claim that they would need extra help in educating the consumers so that their sales of organic vegetables can be enhanced. Colorful posters with easily remembered slogans or logos and flyers in their establishments would help a lot in consumer education. Audio and video presentations during trade fairs could also help a lot. Another option is the song-writing and slogan writing contests which can be held among all the schools in the town and the winning entrees can be aired at the Radyo DZLB and other similar radio stations. The municipality can take care of these as part of their advocacy campaign for organic farming. 6. The municipality should facilitate the putting up of an institutionalized certification process along with a duly authorized certification body for organic vegetables in the area. This will help a 131

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lot in the marketing of organic vegetables grown in Baras, Rizal since the growing number of health conscious consumers can be assured of truly organically-grown vegetables from Baras, Rizal. The charging of price premium can also come naturally with the certification. 7. Encourage farmers and traders to perform value-adding activities for their organic produce. Value-adding activities as the name implies enable one to generate more income for the product being sold. This could be in the form of minimal processing (cutting into desired sizes) of the vegetables into: pinakbet packs, sliced squash, sinigang packs, etc. The womenfolks can lend a hand in this endeavor as they are good at this kind of menial jobs. 8. Conduct proper product handling seminars for traders and to some extent to the farmers also. This is to address the lower KAP ratio obtained for the traders and some farmers as well implying their lower level of knowledge on how to properly handle organic vegetables. The experts from the Post-harvest Training and Research Center (PHTRC) at UPLB can be tapped for this endeavor. LITERATURE CITED Lantican, F. A. (2003). Farm Income Diversification and Market Development (TCP/PHI/2901 D). Consultant’s Mission Report. Department of Agriculture – Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Uy, J. (2003). The Case of Bukidnon Lettuce Cluster. In. Farm Income Diversification and Market Development (TCP/PHI/2901 D). Consultant’s Mission Report. Department of Agriculture – Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations by Lantican, Flordeliza A. 2003 Varona, B.M. (2003). Healing Wonders of Diet: Effective Guide to Diet Therapy. Philippine Publishing House. FOR INQUIRIES: Email: liceojournal@yahoo.com.ph Fax: 63+ (08822) 727459 URL: http://www.ejournals.ph http://www.liceojournal.com 132

Vol. 6 No. 2 December 2010 ISSN: 2094-1064 CHED Accredited Research Journal, Category B

Liceo Journal of Higher Education Research Business and Policy Section

Community Drugstore (Botika ng Barangay): Its Contribution to Family Living Standards DAISY R. PALOMPON MAURO ALLAN P. AMPARADO JEZYL T. CEMPRON ESPERIDION B. CORVERA MARYLOU B. ONG Cebu Normal University Commission on Higher Education (CHED) - USC Zonal Research Center 2009 Grant-in-Aid Study Date Submitted: Oct. 1, 2010 Final Revision Complied: Nov. 5, 2010

Plagiarism Detection: Passed License No. 944146510808541 Original: 90.99%

Abstract - Botika ng Barangay (BnB) is a drug outlet managed by a legitimate community organization, nongovernment organization and/or local government unit. It is a government-initiated poverty alleviation program to increase access of community people to affordable medicines. This study determined the contributions of the Botika ng Barangay to the improvement of family living standards in Cebu Province. Findings revealed that the BnB recipientsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; level of acceptance was generally high. They utilized the BnB products as the need arises. They were satisfied of the BnB services in terms of product line, health-related effects, cost and personnel services. Their mean health-related expenditures for 3 months was Php 84.97 based on actual BnB prices and Php 205.89 based on commercial drugstore prices. Their mean savings was Php 120.93. From 2005 to 2008, the mean life expectancy was age 62. The mean infant mortality rate was 1.9 while the mean 133

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child mortality rate was 1.0. Based on interviews, problems encountered with BnBs were availability of stocks, operating hours, and variety of medicines sold. The establishment of BnBs has contributed to the improvement of family living standards in Cebu Province. Keywords - Botika ng Barangay, acceptance, utilization, satisfaction, contribution, family living standards. Background and Rationale of the Study One of the perennial problems that plagued the Filipinos is the phenomena of poverty. This has been demonstrated in the various economic crises that the Philippines has experienced. The province of Cebu is not exempted in the poverty count. According to the National Statistical Coordination Board or NSCB, in the year 2006 survey, Central Visayas, in which Cebu belongs, ranked third on poverty estimates, fourth in 2003 and third in 2000 (Awit, 2008). Moreover, it ranked 11th among the 17 regions with the highest poverty incidence in the country with a poverty incidence of 30.3 percent. Furthermore, in Central Visayas, Cebu ranked third to Negros and Bohol with a poverty incidence of 23.5 percent. With the scenario, it is deemed possible that people in Central Visayas may have difficulty purchasing their basic needs, more so when one or more members of the family become ill. It is observed that in a tropical country like the Philippines, Filipinos are prone to develop minor or major infirmities. This observation is supported by the Department of Healthâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s mortality statistics in 2000 which revealed that the major causes of death in the country are diseases of the heart, diseases of the vascular system, malignant neoplasm, pneumonia, accidents, pulmonary tuberculosis, chronic obstructive pulmonary diseases, certain conditions originating in the perinatal period, diabetes mellitus and nephritis (DOH Administrative Order, 2005) all of which are preventable given the proper access and availability of health services but at which the marginalized members of the society are deprived of. The World Bank (2002) explains that marginalized members 134

Community Drugstore (Botika Ng Barangay): Its Contribution to Family Living Standards

D.R. Palompon, M.A.P. Amparado, J.T. Cempron, E.B. Corvera and M.B. Ong

of the society categorically referred to as the poor members of the community have inadequate access to medicines and other treatment. It is presented that low income of poor families and high prices of medicines at most commercial outlets, reduce the purchasing power of the poor with respect to pharmaceutical products, leading to selfmedication and inadequate medical consultations and treatment of illnesses. In addition to the low purchasing power of the poor, they further lack access to free and/or subsidized medicines, caused by their limited access to medical professionals and medical facilities, absence of health insurance coverage. Provision of free and subsidized medicine by the government is also inaccessible due to budgetary and inadequate systems and procedures for government procurement of drugs and medicines for public facilities. Sometimes the poor are not aware on how proper medical treatments and medicines on one hand, and possible sources of free/subsidized treatments and medicines, on the other. The Philippines is among the countries where 30 percent of the population have no regular access to essential medicine, according to The World Drug Situation released by the World Health Organization or WHO in 2000 (Recto, April 2007). In view of these observations, policies were recommended to improve societyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s marginalized membersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; access to affordable medicines and drugs. This policy should naturally be part of a comprehensive national development program which includes a successful economic development strategy that augment peopleâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s income and increase access to resources and a national health care and development program. Thus the Philippine government, through the Department of Health or DOH issued Administrative Order No. 23-A, 1996 which paved the way to the establishment of Botika ng Barangay. Botika ng Baarangay or BnB is a drug outlet managed by a legitimate community organization, non-government organization and local government units. As of the year 2003, there are already 11,000 licensed BnBs throughout the country. Of this, 247 BnBs are in Cebu (Positive News Media, 2008). Despite the number of existing BnBs, it is observed that even in barangays with BnB shingles, most of the people still prefer to buy medicines from privately-owned drug stores. 135

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Many seemed to question its viability that they stop to patronize BnB services. These observations and assumptions created a need to revisit the primary objective of BnB which is to increase access of marginalized members of the society to medicines and whether this objective has been attained. It is also a must to determine whether this government program has somehow addressed the alleviation of poverty in the community. Based on the premise presented, this study assessed the contribution of Botika ng Barangay to the living standards of the families of Cebu Province. Moreover, it determined the level of acceptance, the extent of utilization of products, its level of satisfaction on the BnB services and the contribution of BnB to living standard in terms of health-related expenditures, savings, mean age at death, infant and child mortality rates . Generally, this study determined whether the BnB program has realized the poverty alleviation thrust of the government. Review of Related Literature and Studies Every Filipino has the right to have access to quality and affordable healthcare thus the need for lowering at half the price of essential medicines. In response to this, the Department of Health, through its Center for Health Development Offices, and its partnership with Local Government Units, various Government and Non-Government Organizations established the Botika ng Barangay. This program promotes equity in health services by providing low cost essential medicines as well as self-reliance and fiscal sustainability to assure constant availability of the medicines in the area. Botika ng Barangay was first established in 2003 by virtue of Department of Health Administrative Order 70 which provides for the licensing of BnB. The establishment of BnBs is a joint undertaking of the DOH and the Philippine International Trading Corporation or PITC. BnBs sell medicines of the same quality at half the price to cater to the poor (Philippine Information Agency, 2007). The Philippine Government makes health its top priority ensuring adequate supply of drugs with generic names at the lowest possible cost. Some of the medicines which can be bought from BnBs are Paracetamol, 136

Community Drugstore (Botika Ng Barangay): Its Contribution to Family Living Standards

D.R. Palompon, M.A.P. Amparado, J.T. Cempron, E.B. Corvera and M.B. Ong

Mefenamic Acid, Salbutamol, Multi-vitamins capsules and syrups, Oresol, Metoprolol, Ascorbic Acid, Metformin, Glibenclamide, Cotrimoxazole, and Amoxicillin (http://www.boholnewsdaily.com/ boholnews-doh-targets-15000-botika-ng-barangay-outlets-in-2010. html, 2010). One of the most common drugs sold over the counter is the headache and fever tablet paracetamol, which costs P2.74 in commercial outlets. At the government-run Botika ng Barangay , paracetamol costs just a fifth of that at only 50 centavos. Other drugs are as affordable to impoverished Filipinos at the Botika ng Barangayâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;the anti-diarrhea loperamide for P1.05 against P4.10 in private drugstores, and the antidiabetes glibenclamide at 78 centavos against P8.90 (Ragaza, retrieved April 2010). The Department of Health targets about 15,000 Botika ng Barangay to saturate all areas in the country by 2010. The DOH is now working on a 1:2 ratio or one BnB per two barangays to provide the medical needs of the public especially in far-flung areas. DOH secretary Francisco Duque said this program has given the public an easy access of cheaper medicines (http://www.boholnewsdaily.com/boholnewsdoh-targets-15000-botika-ng-barangay-outlets-in-2010.html, 2010). But even though medicines are cheaper at Botika outlets, these community drugstores have failed to gain a foothold in the drug market. The village drugstores number 12,000 against the 700 or so Mercury Drug outlets, but their market share is only 5% as against Mercuryâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s 60%. Unable to make a dent, health experts doubt whether the Botika ng Barangay program can pull down drug prices to half of 2001 levels, as it aims at by 2010. One problem is that the industry is still very much dominated by big pharmaceutical companies that dictate drug prices and promote branded medicines. Another problem is that Botika ng Barangay stores are inefficiently run enterprises that are no more than medical sari-sari stores, where procurements are irregular, unsystematic and even overpriced (Ragaza, retrieved April 2010). But even in communities with Botika ng Barangay, residents cannot turn to these drugstores for help for serious illnesses, such as malaria, influenza and tuberculosis, the leading causes of mortality and morbidity in the country. The Botika ng Barangay also does not have 137

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medicines for filariasis and schistosomiasis, two of the leading diseases in some poor communities in the Philippines (www.manilatimes.net/ national/2009/april/14/yehey/top_stories/20090414top7.html, 2010). It is surmised that the establishment of Botika ng Barangay will answer the needs of poor to medicines. As previously mentioned, BnB is timely for the community since this provides cheaper medicine and quality-controlled stocks. Moreover, Kanavos, , (2002) and the Filipino Report Card on Pro-Poor Services” (2001) revealed that there is low pharmaceutical use by the poor due to higher prices. In the study of Schafhuetle, Hassel, Noyce & Weii, cost influences views and behaviors of the client on the accessibility of medicines to BnB listed. Related Studies According to Kanavos, Lim & Pascual (2002), the Philippines has high prices of medicines which affect the purchasing capacity of the residents to address their needs for medicines. Their study further stated that although high drug price is one of the important causes of the poor’s lack of access to drugs and medicines, it is not the only factor. Even if drug prices were to be cut in half in the Philippines, the most likely big beneficiaries would be the middle classes and the rich. The poor’s lack of access to drugs and medicines also springs from three other sources: first, their problematic access to hospitals, clinics, physicians, other health professionals and health workers, diagnostic centers and laboratories and medical facilities. In summary, the overall problem in the Philippines seems to be one: non-affordability; poor accessibility; limited availability; and inadequate coverage. In light of the above, one ought to look at the problem in a more holistic way as a health and medical care problem. The study of Case et. al. in 2002 finds that household income is a strong predictor of children’s health. More specifically, the authors find that when household income doubles, the probability that a child 3 years old or younger is in excellent or very good health increases by 4%. Comparable improvements for children between ages 4 and 8, 9 and 12, and 13 and 17 are 4.9%, 5.9% and 7.2%, respectively (Neun, 2007). The link between an individual’s state of health and socioeconomic 138

Community Drugstore (Botika Ng Barangay): Its Contribution to Family Living Standards

D.R. Palompon, M.A.P. Amparado, J.T. Cempron, E.B. Corvera and M.B. Ong

status may not be direct, but the theoretical underpinnings are obvious. Income, education, and employment represent a level of social advancement that, to a large extent, determines access to medical care. In turn, improved access to care improves health (Henderson, 2006). Papas et. al. in 1993 have examined mortality rates for Americans at various income levels. Their research shows that the 1986 death rates for Americans with income less than $9,000 were significantly higher than those for Americans earning more than $25,000. More importantly, these differences have widened since 1960. They concluded that socioeconomic status is a strong indicator of health status (Henderson, 2006). Conceptual Framework The 1987 Philippine Constitution, Section II, Article XIII mandates the state to protect and promote the right to health of the people. It is further mandated to adopt “an integrated and comprehensive approach to health development which shall endeavor to make essential goods, health and other social services acceptable to all the people at affordable cost. Republic Act no. 6675, otherwise known as the Generic Act of 1988, prescribes that it is the policy of the state to “ensure the adequate supply of drugs with generic names at the lowest possible cost”. The Local Government Code of 1991 prescribes the kind of relationship between Local Government Units, People’s Organizations, nongovernment organizations and private sector that may exist within the framework of devolution and the latter’s role as partners in the delivery of basic services.

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Figure 1. Conceptual framework of the study It is through these legal bases that Botika ng Barangay was established. As a government-initiated poverty alleviation program to increase access of community people to medicines, the impact of Botika ng Barangay to the recipients in the community is being studied. Initially, the factors that shall be considered are the awareness of the community on the existence of BnB in their locale. Determining the residentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; level of awareness on BnB services can influence the acceptability of the residents towards BnB. When recipients attained a certain level of acceptability to the BnB services, it is assumed that this will further influence their utilization of the services of BnB which could also influence the satisfaction of the residents to BnB services. The satisfaction level of recipients shall also influence the recipientsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; decision whether to continue its utilization or not and vice-versa. 140

Community Drugstore (Botika Ng Barangay): Its Contribution to Family Living Standards

D.R. Palompon, M.A.P. Amparado, J.T. Cempron, E.B. Corvera and M.B. Ong

The contribution of the utilization of BnB services on socioeconomic factors shall also be considered focusing on living standards indicators such as health-related expenditures, savings, physical quality of life composed of sub-variables such as mean age of death, infant mortality rate and child mortality rate. This study determined the contributions of BnB in the improvement of family living standards. It ascertained the project clientsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; level of acceptance, extent of utilization and satisfaction of the services availed from the Botika ng Barangay. Moreover, this study gauged the contribution of the services of Botika ng Barangay on the living standards of the residents in terms of savings, mean life expectancy, mean infant mortality rate and mean child mortality rate. The results will be used to craft recommendations for intervention responses that address specific concerns regarding the program for policy implications. The above concepts, framework, related literature and studies were the bases for the formulation of the problem and implications of the study. METHODOLOGY The descriptive design was utilized to determine the contributions of the BnB on the improvement of family living standards which was measured through health-related expenditures, savings, mean age at death, mean infant mortality rate and mean infant mortality rate. This study was conducted in Cebu Province, Philippines. Based on the list of BnBs provided by the Department of Health Region VII, there were 247 BnBs in Cebu Province. In order to identify which BnBs to be included in the study, the following inclusion criteria were considered: BnB which are located in Cebu Province; existing for at least 2-3 years; and belongs to low income barangays. The researchers utilized the poverty map of the Department of Social Welfare and Development and Peace Foundation in selecting the BnBs. The multi-stage purposive sampling was applied to select the research locales from the municipalities to the selection of respondents BnBs. The local government unit, rural health officer, rural municipal 141

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social worker and police officers assisted in the identification of the barangays. Hence 19 barangays were selected from the ten municipalities. From the 19 BnBs identified, sample respondent households was done using the following inclusion criteria: the family have stayed in the barangay for 2-3 years; and have availed of the BnB services. The list of household per barangay were obtained from the Offices of the Barangay Captains with the guidance of the barangay health workers. The total population of households was approximated at ten thousand (10,000). Utilizing Slovenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s formula at 0.05 margin of error, the total sample size of four hundred (400) was drawn. Table 1 reveals the distribution of samples per barangay. There were 37 respondents from Alegria, 32 from Bogo, 27 from Boljoon, 40 from Borbon and 20 from Catmon. Further, 22 were taken from Dalaguete, 41 from Pinamungahan, 82 from San Remegio, 18 from Tabuelan and 81 from Tuburan. A researcher-made questionnaire was used which was pilot tested prior to its actual use. The following variables were considered: Personal Information. This part of the researcher-made instrument included data regarding the family respondent such as age, gender, position in the family and average monthly family income. Level of Acceptance of the BnB Services. A 9 item yes or no checklist was developed by the researchers to measure the extent of acceptance of the BnB beneficiaries. Extent of Utilization of the BnB Services. This was measured through the frequency of utilization of BnB services in a monthâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s time. The frequency were daily, weekly, twice a week, monthly and as the need arises. Level of Satisfaction. This was measured using 12 indicators related in the aspects of BnB product line, health-related effects, cost and personnel services. A four-point likert scale measured the extent of satisfaction which ranges from 4 which was interpreted as very satisfied to 1 which was interpreted as dissatisfied. 142

Community Drugstore (Botika Ng Barangay): Its Contribution to Family Living Standards

D.R. Palompon, M.A.P. Amparado, J.T. Cempron, E.B. Corvera and M.B. Ong

Health-related Expenditures. Respondents were asked to indicate their expenditures in the last 3 months based on actual BnB prices and prices from commercial drugstores. Savings. This portion of the questionnaire is answered by the researcher. The researcher deducts the total health-related expenditures based commercial drugstores from the total health-related expenditures based on BnB prices. Data is reflected on a column marked savings. Should there be a deficit, it is recorded on the column marked deficit. Problems Encountered. Moreover, data on problems encountered and suggestions of the respondents were obtained through interview. The second questionnaire was formulated to obtain records from the Local Civil Registrarâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Office of the respondents. Mean age of death, infant mortality rate, and child mortality rate were acquired from the Civil Registry from 2005 to 2008. Research assistants were trained prior to the actual data gathering for a day which included the presentation of the proposed study and the simulation of interview sessions. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Table 1. Profile of the respondents Profile Gender Male Female Position in the Family Father Mother Sibling Relative Grandmother Average Monthly Family Income 1,000 and below 1,001-2,000 2,001-3,000 3,001-4,000 4,001-5,000 5,001 and above Age

90 310

22.5 77.5

81 287 28 3 1

20.3 71.8 7.0 0.8 0.3

86 101 52 54 29 78 Mean 42.77

21.5 25.3 13.0 13.5 7.3 19.5 SD 15.57

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Mothers, being the common customers in BnB is a typical scenario in a rural area and a reflection of the family culture of Filipinos where matters pertaining to health are usually left on the care of female family members. Further implications which can be derived pertains to the income of rural residents which strengthens the notion that income, education, and employment represent a level of social advancement that, to a large extent, determines access to medical care for health improvement (Henderson, 2006). The impact of income towards health maintenance is further clarified in the study of Case et. al.(2002) which identified that household income is a strong predictor of childrenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s health. More specifically, the authors find that when household income doubles, the probability of attaining excellent health among children is increased (Neun, 2007). Level of Acceptance on BnB Services As a means of determining the status of Botika ng Barangayâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s acceptability, utilization and satisfaction among the BnB recipients, these were addressed during the interview and data gathering. Table 3. Level of acceptance of the BnB services Indicators Low

0.5

Moderate

3.3

High

385

96.3

Total

400

100

In the three years average of existence of the BnB in the respective barangays, the community availed of its services for many times. Hence, when level of acceptance was surveyed. the Botika ng Barangay has gained a high level of acceptance among the beneficiaries of its services since most of them state that the BnB has answered their needs for health maintenance specifically on the availability of medicines within their locality. 144

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The acceptance of the residents on the BnB services implies an awareness of the importance of these drug outlets for addressing their health needs. This has also erased the notion that residents do not like BnB drugs because the medicines are not effective. However, acceptance may only be on the cognitive level of the residents, the best way to measure the depth of their acceptance is to determine the frequency at which they have patronized the BnB products. Hence, the extent of utilization of BnB products was determined. Table 4. Extent of utilization of BnB products (n=400; multiple response) BnB Products

Daily

Weekly

Twice a month

Monthly

As the need arises

Total

Vitamins and minerals

108

Antipyretics

239

261

Pain reliever

105

120

Liniments

Antibiotics

150

167

Antihypertensive

Hypoglycemic agents

Cough preparations

Colds preparations

Anti-allergy

Anti-asthma

Anti-ulcer, antacids

Anti-diarrheal

Anti-helmintics

Antiseptic agents

Cottons

Diapers

Contraceptive Pills

Diapers

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Table 4 shows the extent of utilization of the BnB products. It reveals that the 5 products that most respondents purchased were: Antipyretics (261 out of 400); Antibiotics (167 out of 400); Pain reliever (120 out of 400); Vitamins and minerals (108 out of 400); and cough preparations (42 out of 400). The first three most commonly purchased products are often needed when fever, infections and pain are experienced which is not a usual experience among household members, hence, residents availed of these products when the need arises. However, the fourth commonly purchased item which are vitamins and minerals, are not used when the need arises but are by nature used on a daily basis and it is placed on the lower rank of commonly purchased products. This implies that the community in general have not prioritized health promotion and illness prevention practices. This finding is explained by the economic profile of the community which is below poverty level affirming the low purchasing power of the community, thus, health promotion is considered less among their basic priorities. On a positive perspective, the presence of the BnB is helpful indeed to the community since the common illnesses addressed to by the BnB services occur as an emergency case, thus, the accessibility of BnB services is indeed a great convenience for the respondents without additional cost of transportation to acquire the needed medicines. A common observation among community respondents was the distance of the community or barangay from the poblacion. The nearer is the barangay to the poblacion, the fewer are the residents who acquired its services due to the accessibility of medicines commercial drug outlets. Table 5 presents the respondentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; level of satisfaction of the BnB services. The community were very satisfied with the services in the aspects of product line, health-related effects, cost and personnel services (weighted mean of 3.64). Among the 12 indicators, they were satisfied with availability of stocks in the BnB (weighted mean of 3.24). Stocking of medicines in BnB outlets considers different factors such as the marketability of the products, availability of funds for payment of stocks and the space provided for the BnB outlet.

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D.R. Palompon, M.A.P. Amparado, J.T. Cempron, E.B. Corvera and M.B. Ong

Table 5. Level of satisfaction Weighted Mean

Interpretation

1. Efficacy of medicine sold in BnB.

3.66

Very satisfied

2. Availability of the stocks in BnB.

3.24

Satisfied

3. Variety of medicines in BnB in relation to health needs.

3.45

Very satisfied

4. Operating hours of BnB.

3.49

Very satisfied

5. Location of BnB in relation to its accessibility.

3.79

Very satisfied

Health-related Effects 6. Improvement of over-all health situation of the family due to BnB. 7. Reduction of the total health care cost of the family.

3.71

Very satisfied

3.76

Very satisfied

3.82

Very satisfied

9. Knowledge of the staff on disease information.

3.67

Very satisfied

10. Knowledge of the staff on drug information.

3.67

Very satisfied

11. Courtesy of the staff.

3.75

Very satisfied

12. Efficiency of the staff.

3.72

Very satisfied

Grand Mean

3.64

Very satisfied

Indicators Product Line

Cost 8. Price of BnB compared to other drugstores in the locale. Personnel Services

Health-related Expenditures and Savings Table 6 presents the average health-related expenditures of the respondents based on actual BnB prices and commercial drugstore prices. It also shows the savings if they purchased from the BnB. As shown on the table, health-related expenditures were Php 84.97 and Php 205.89 based on BnB prices and commercial drugstore prices, respectively. Savings was Php 120.93. Table 6. Health-related expenditures and savings for 3 months Indicators

Mean

Health-related Expenditures based on actual BnB prices

84.97

Health-related Expenditures based on commercial drugstore prices

205.89

Savings

120.93

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The difference in the prices of medicines purchased in BnB and commercial drugstore shows a significant gap which an economicallydeprived customer can best derived benefit through savings. BnB products are purchased through bidding by the Department of Health which assures that the products have therapeutic benefit at reasonable costs, whereas, commercially-sold medicines have higher profit orientation due to their respective overhead expenses. The P120.93 savings can be used by the community household to address other needs such as food, school allowance of children and transportation, to name a few. Mean Age of death from 2005-2008 The mean age of death was also compared from the year 2005 to 2008. Table 7. Mean Age of Death from 2005-2008 Year

Mean

2005

2006

2007

2008

Grand Mean

The mean age of death shows the common age at which community residents die. Data revealed that there was a slight reduction in the mean age of death in 2006-2007, however, it maintained in the year 2008 after 2 years of BnB establishment. Reduction of mean age of death indicates shorter lifespan among residents which can be attributed to illnesses that can be cured through medicines available for the community.

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D.R. Palompon, M.A.P. Amparado, J.T. Cempron, E.B. Corvera and M.B. Ong

Mean Infant Mortality Rate from 2005-2008 Table 8 presents the mean infant mortality rate from 2005 to 2008. Table 8. Mean infant mortality rate from 2005-2008 Year 2005 2006 2007 2008 Grand Mean

Mean 2.2 2.4 1.5 1.5 1.9

The mean was infant mortality rate is 1.9. Per observation, infant mortality rate shows a decline from 2005 to 2008. Infant mortality rate is often used as indicator for health status in an area, with the reduction portrayed it is implied that indirectly, the BnB services could have attributed to its reduction since it has addressed the health needs of infants in the community. Critics of U.S. medical care often cite high infant mortality rates as evidence of a breakdown in the current delivery system. One can make a compelling argument linking poverty and poor access to care with high mortality rates (Henderson, 2006). Mean Child Mortality Rate from 2005-2008 Table 9 presents the mean child mortality rate from 2005 to 2008. Table 9. Mean child mortality rate from 2005-2008 Year

Mean

2005

4.0

2006

0.4

2007

0.0

2008

0.0

Grand Mean

1.0 149

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The mean child mortality rate was 1.0. Similar to the infant mortality rate, the table also shows a decrease in the child mortality rates from 2005 to 2008 which further strengthens the implications that BnB has contributed to the provision of accessible and affordable medicines to address health needs of children in the community or barangay. Problems Encountered with BnB Table 10 presents the problems encountered by the residents when availing services from BnB. This table shows that the top three problems were the availability of stocks, operating hours, and variety of medicines sold. Table 10. Problems encountered with BnB Problems

Rank

Availability of stocks

104

Operating hours (8AM to 12NN; closed in the afternoon and at night)

Variety of medicines sold

No attendant but BnB is open

Does not sell drugs without prescription

Location

(multiple response)

The narrative disclosure of the respondents regarding their evaluation of BnB services validated their responses in the questionnaire. Problems ranked first and third are simply pointing out to the stocks of medicines in BnB. However, another concern that should be addressed with is the opening hours and management of BnB since irregular store hours discourage customers from patronizing the products and in cases of emergency, residents would be having difficulty acquiring the needed medicines for particular illnesses. The irregularity of services can also be attributed to the multitasks assigned to the BnB 150

Community Drugstore (Botika Ng Barangay): Its Contribution to Family Living Standards

D.R. Palompon, M.A.P. Amparado, J.T. Cempron, E.B. Corvera and M.B. Ong

storekeepers and the very low compensation they have received which is not commensurate to the services they have rendered. As revealed by Radaza (retrieved April 2010) Botika ng Barangay stores are inefficiently run enterprises that are no more than medical sari-sari stores, where procurements are irregular, unsystematic and even overpriced. Hence, BnB operators need to review these concerns to maintain the operation of BnB in their respective barangays. On the concern for prescription, a new provision for new medicines included in BnB outlets has addressed this concern. The concern on the distance, is a remote occurrence when the recipient of BnB services lives in distant sitio, hence this observation was identified. CONCLUSION The establishment of community drugstores (BnBs) in Cebu province has contributed to the improvement of living standards of families in Cebu Province. It has increased the access of people to medicines, however, policies that govern the operation of Botika ng Barangay have to be revisited to address concerns pertaining to this aspect. Intensification of campaign on BnB establishment among LGUs in order to convince them of the benefits of BnB thereby making it their policy mandate; the Department of Health (BFAD) should address the availability of stocks and variety of medications in all branches of BnB; to strengthen the quality of services, re-training for the personnel managing the BnBs should be conducted and crafting of policies regarding the standardization of the prices of medications in all BnBs should be undertaken. LITERATURE CITED Awit, J. (2008, June 10). â&#x20AC;&#x153;One Hundred Eighty Four Poor Familiesâ&#x20AC;?. Sun Star. Retrieved November 5, 2008 at www.sunstar.net. Department of Health Administrative Order. 2005. Kotler, P. et. al. (2003). Management: An Asian Perspective. Singapore: Prentice Hall.

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Neun, S. P. and R. E. Santerre. (2007). Health Economics: Theories, Insights and Industry Studies. 4th Edition. Singapore: SouthWestern. Philippine Information Agency. (2008). Botikang Barangay outlets top 10,005 Nationwide. Retrieved at www.PIA.gov.ph. Ragaza, J. M. Retrieved at http://www.manilatimes.net/national/2009/ april/15/yehey/top_stories/20090415top5.html, retrieved on April 3, 2010). Recto, R. (2007).Botikang Barangay.Retrieved at www. senate.gov.ph/press_release/2007/0414_recto1.asp. Schafheutle, E.I. (2002). Access to medicines. Cost as an influence on the views and behaviour of patients. Retrieved at www.ncbi.nlm. nih.gov/sites/entrez. The World Bank. (2002, June 28). Philippines health policy note on improving the poorâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s access to affordable drugs. Electronic Sources (http://www.manilatimes.net/national/2009/april/14/yehey/top_ stories/20090414top7.html, retrieved on April 3, 2010). (http://www.boholnewsdaily.com/boholnews-doh-targets-15000botika-ng-barangay-outlets-in-2010.html, retrieved on August 9, 2010). FOR INQUIRIES, WRITE TO: The Managing Editor Liceo Journal of Higher Education Research Liceo de Cagayan University Cagayan de Oro City, 9000 Philippines Email: liceojournal@yahoo.com.ph Fax: 63+ (08822) 727459 URL: http://www.ejournals.ph http://www.liceojournal.com

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Vol. 6 No. 2 December 2010 ISSN: 2094-1064 CHED Accredited Research Journal, Category B

Liceo Journal of Higher Education Research Business and Policy Section

for Business and Management Courses MARIA VICTORIA U. SY marivic125@hotmail.com Research Director University of San Jose Recoletos, Cebu City

Final Revision Complied: Nov. 5, 2010

Plagiarism Detection: Passed License No. 944146510808541 Original: 99.90

Abstract â&#x20AC;&#x201C; the Practicum Program of the Business and Management of San Jose Recoletos. Using the descriptive design, the researcher administered a survey among students involved in the practicum program and their trainers. The practicum program was generally rated excellent by the students from the Entrepreneurship, Business Administrative, Management, students. As rated by the trainers, the practicum developed values, job knowledge, and work accomplishment. They rarely

Keywords â&#x20AC;&#x201C; practicum program, trade and business

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INTRODUCTION An institution of higher education has the main responsibility of equipping individuals with the advanced knowledge and skills required for positions of responsibility in government, business and the professions. This primary aim of education is based on the principle that the school performs a creative rather than a conservative function. The school is viewed as an agent of change in a world of flux where people learn not only to think but also to engage in problem solving. Consequently, the school must not only be an author of development plans, it must also be an implementer of activities leading to development. With rapid changes taking place in the immediate environment, it is important to give attention to preparing the undergraduate students to adapt to these changes in the real world so that they remain current, relevant, and useful as a national resource even long after graduation. For this purpose, every teacher must be oriented toward associating academic theory with practical affairs. Professors must nurture the concept among their students that pupils learn more by practice rather than by mere analysis and interpretation of theory. For the academic programs to be effective, schools should take into account that learning does not only take place inside the academic domain, but also outside and beyond the portals of the university. For this reason, schools should expose their students to various work situations. This is viewed as an effective means of producing professionals who are more than capable of responding to the needs of todayâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s business world. Thus, the concept of professional development through field practice or otherwise known as practicum has been advanced. The College of Commerce of the University of San Jose-Recoletos is one of the key participants of this arrangement. The department of the college assign students to perform various types of activities which are applications of the concepts acquired by the students in the classroom. These practical activities are done by the students in various firms and business organizations, where they are engaged as apprentices. There is a need to determine if the practicum programs have helped the students acquire relevant experiences and met its objectives. 154

Effectiveness of Practicum Program for Business and Management Courses

V.U. Sy

Some reports from the firms that accepted the students during practicum indicate that there were inadequacies in the skills of some students that could be addressed by instructions. On the other hand, some students reported that they encountered problems in the workplace both with the management and those supervising them and their clients. There were issues also whether the length of time that the students spend outside, the expenses and the extended work of teachers in supervising them would compensate the amount of learning that could very well justify the efforts of the university in putting up a practicum program. Hence, this study was conducted to explore some answers. OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY This study sought to evaluate the effectiveness of the practicum program of the business and management courses offered by the College of Commerce of the University of San Jose-Recoletos and at the same time to determine the quality of performance of the practicum students as a basis to present proposals for improvement. METHODOLOGY The study utilized the descriptive method of research specifically normative survey with the researcher made questionnaire as the main instrument of data collection. It was divided into two blocks. The first block of the instrument contains queries concerning the effectiveness of the practicum program while the second part contains questions on the quality of performance rendered by the practicumers. In order to ascertain the functionality of the questionnaires as the main instrument of data collection, the proponent conducted a dry run among the students who have taken up the practicum program and five company executives who served as the trainers for these students. All of them were not included in the actual study. The students identified as the dry run respondents have taken up the practicum program but did not graduate from their courses yet. Copies of the questionnaires were distributed among the dryrun respondents. The proponent personally administered the 155

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questionnaires to explain to the respondents the mechanics of answering the questions. Likewise, she also made herself available to clarify or answer whatever queries that were raised by the respondents. Once the questionnaires were retrieved, the researcher took note on the trend of response and non response. As the variations were within a reasonable range, the instruments were then finalized for administration. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS Table 1 contains data on the respondents of the study. Table 1. Distribution of respondents Category

82.30

Banking and Finance

20.35

Management

22.12

2.65

A. Practicum Students

Marketing Entrepreneurship

1.78

Business Administration

35.40

B. Managers/Executives of Trainer Companies TOTAL

17.70

113

100.00

The table consisted of two groups: first group (n=93)consisted of the business and management students enrolled in the practicum program of the college while the other group (n=20) constituted the executives/managers/heads of the identified business organizations considered as trainer/ employer. Table 2 contains the data concerning the effectiveness of the business and management practicum program in terms of advancing theory and practice consistency. The information revealed that in terms of supporting theory and practice consistency, the commerce students from the four disciplines generally regarded the programs as effective (Âľ=2.95). This finding denoted that the theories on concepts that they have learned from their classes were generally applicable in their respective work assignments. 156

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Specifically, the item average of 2.93 showed that the practicum program was rated effective in creating relevance between the concepts learned and in the application of the theories to actual work situations. It can be inferred from this finding that the doctrines discussed in the classrooms were pertinent to existing business practices. In terms of the manifestation of work processes in the context of theory or concepts, the practicum program was generally rated effective as exhibited by the item average of 2.92. This finding pointed out that the principles learned by the students in the classroom were generally considered useful and relevant in the course of performing their work in the company where they are assigned. The program was also rated effective (µ=2.99) in highlighting the fact that application of the theory can be implemented in the practicum situation. This information implied that the consonance between theory and practice achieved the goals of the business and management practicum program. Table 2. Effectiveness of the practicum program in attaining theory and practice consistency

Legend: Range Interpretation 3.26 – 4.00 Very Effective (VE) 2.51 – 3.25 Effective (E) 1.76 – 2.50 Less Effective (LE) 1.00 – 1.75 Ineffective (I) 157

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On the other hand, the program was also considered effective (µ=3.05) in restructuring the student’s work activities to conform to theory and policy. This finding signified that the students were able to correct defective work activities by using the theories and concepts they have learned to comply with the policies of the firm/company where they are deputized. Referring to the principles/theories learned to make corrections in one’s work as an indicator was deemed effective (µ=2.87). This means that the students were properly guided in the conduct of their duties based on what they have assimilated in the classrooms. Lastly, the method of assigning the practicum students to the different firms based on their field of specialization was considered effective as denoted by the item average of 2.97. It can be inferred from this finding that the department tried its best to deploy their practicumers in those areas where they are best suited based on their major field of study. In a nutshell, the data disclosed that most of the theories and principles discussed in the classrooms were practiced by the students in their work assignments during the duration of their practicum program. Table 3 highlights data concerning the effectiveness of the practicum program in developing the communication skills among the students/participants. Table 3. Effectiveness of the practicum program in developing communication skills

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As revealed by the factor average of 3.15, the practicum program of the business and management courses in the College of Commerce was deemed effective in terms of its ability to enhance the communication competencies among its participants. In terms of selecting a medium that is appropriate for the message, the weighted mean is 3.16. This means that the practicum program is able to develop and enhance the students’ ability to converse to others utilizing the right way or medium. As for developing the ability to express one’s ideas, the program was also rated to be effective in this area as revealed by the item average of 3.07. It can be deduced from the finding that the practicum program contributed significantly in developing the students’competence in expressing or magnifying their ideas. However, some respondents opined that such circumstance took place if they were assigned as frontliners. In some cases where they were relegated to perform clerical tasks, the students were not able to maximize such ability as they expected. The practicum program was also considered in coming the students’ abilities to write reports (µ=2.97) and in preparing letters (µ=2.89). These two activities were commonly done by the practicumers in the sense of fulfilling their work obligations. Likewise, the program was also considered very effective in cultivating the importance of keeping information confidential as unraveled by the item average of 3.36. For this training, the practicumers averred that they were made to understand the necessity of maintaining certain data as classified since it had an important bearing on the firm’s operations. On top of being able to uphold information confidentially, the program was also considered equally effective in enhancing the student’s ability to explain and describe information accurately as evidenced by the item average of 3.13. This means that the students were able to give factual and current data to other people in the company when they were assigned to perform this task to those people who needed such information. Understanding what others were saying was another important communication skill which was largely considered to be developed very effectively by the practicum program as displayed by the item 159

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average of 3.33. Feedbacking ability as a major component of the process was believed to be enhanced by the practicum program. Lastly, the practicum program was also considered to be very effective in intensifying the studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; ability to sort and categorize data as shown by the item average of 3.27. It can be inferred from this finding that the students considered their practicum program to be very useful in helping them to classify and process information which are needed in their line of work. In general, the data showed that the practicum program effectively developed the communication skills of those who took the course and they were able to gain self confidence in conversing with other people. Table 4 highlights the data concerning the practicum programâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s effectiveness in developing the conceptual skills of the students. Table 4. Effectiveness of the practicum program in conceptual skills

Specifically, the program was very effective in enhancing the studentâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s capacity to understand new concepts/theories and grasp ideas quickly as shown by the item average of 3.27. As students were exposed to a myriad of theories and principles based on their classroom training, assimilating these in their actual work environment was not a problem for them. However, some students confided that the extent to which the theories were applied in their work environment was not as extensive as what they have learned from their classes. As shown by the item average of 3.20, the practicum program was 160

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regarded as effective in nurturing the student’s ability to analyze work plans. It can be noted from this information that the students were able to organize and plan their work well based on the time frame set by their employers/supervisors. Furthermore, the program was viewed “very effective” in helping the students utilize time and material resources wisely as indicated by the item average of 3.37. It can be inferred from the finding that the practicum program has helped the students to become more economical and prudent in using their time and material resources. The Majority of the respondents said that their employees were very strict in terms of observing the set work schedule. As revealed by the item average of 3.20, the students were able to follow the planned actions. The practicum program was considered to be effective in refining the student’s knack in complying with the plans set by their respective employees. This was normally the case as the students were graded according to how they performed their jobs based on the standards established by the firms. Ability to solve problem creatively merited an effective rating as shown by the item average of 3.15. This means that the students were able to find innovative solutions as they were confronted with different work related problems. Likewise, in terms of the ability to develop plans, the practicum program was also viewed as effective in developing such competence among the students as evidenced by the item average of 3.12. It can be deduced from this finding that the students were able to formulate a plan of activities in the process of accomplishing their task. The data also showed that the practicum program was able to enrich the students’ ability to set priorities for their program of activities. This can be attested by the item average of 3.10. With their actual job experiences, the students reiterated that they were able to discern which activities needed to be done first and which of those did not require immediate attention. The program significantly enhanced the students’ capacity to formulate clear and measurable objectives (3.21). Since the program enabled the students to plan better, it can also be noted that better plans also mean that the goals to be attained and explicitly and clearly articulated. 161

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Table 5 presents the data regarding the effectiveness of the business and management course practicum program in terms of enhancing the interpersonal skills of the students. Table 5. Effectiveness of the practicum program in enhancing interpersonal skills

As shown by the factor average of 3.28, the practicum program was deemed effective in terms of its ability to nurture interpersonal skills development among its participants. In terms of cultivating the ability to work collaboratively with others, the finding was very effective as shown by the item average of 3.47. This implies that in many cases, the students were able to adjust and work cooperatively with other individuals in the firm where they were assigned. Regarded as effective was the programâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s contribution in helping the students become more assertive in meeting the deadlines for their assigned tasks as revealed by the item average of 3.20. Their exposure to field work has made them realized the importance of submitting their output within the scheduled time frame. The practicum program was also considered as effective in improving the studentâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s ability to make thoughtful and ethical decisions even under stressful conditions. The activities experienced 162

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by the students in the firm where they had their practicum honed their abilities to make prudent decisions even when they were put under a lot of pressure. They were able to maintain their cool despite the tense environment. With an item average of 3.31, the practicum program was also viewed as very effective in improving the student’s capacity to exhibit self confidence in their professional relationship and group discussions. This means that the students exuded an aura of trust worthiness and self assurance in their dealings with a person or group of persons in the firms where they rendered their field practice. Likewise, the practicum program was also deemed very effective (µ=3.33) in promoting the student’s capability to build harmonious relationships with the clients. It can be inferred from the finding that the students in line with their assigned tasks, were able to deal with various types of clients that their firms were serving. However, some respondents voiced out their observations that the firms must also set clear policies on the extent to which their clients can be served as there were some customers who exhibited hostility or familiarity with the students. Also regarded as an effective component of practicum program was its ability to enhance the students’ skills in negotiating deals or contracts, as shown by the item average of 3.12. This implied that most of the practicumers were empowered by their employers to deal directly with a number of customers particularly those assigned in sales and marketing. Lastly, the practicum program was contemplated to be very effective (µ=3.30) in advancing the student’s ability to exhibit patience for other people’s mistakes and weaknesses. From the training they have acquired, the practicumers were more tolerant and flexible in understanding other people’s abilities and weaknesses. Table 6 contains data pertaining to the effectiveness of the practicum program in promoting the employment potentials among the students.

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Table 6. Effectiveness of the practicum program in employment preparedness among students

As shown by the factor average of 3.29, the practicum program was deemed very effective in preparing the students to enter the world of work. Specifically, the practicum program was deemed very effective (µ=3.30) in placing the students in any of the branches of the company where they did their field work. This means that the program was able to train, prepare and equip the students with the necessary skills and knowledge for them to be commissioned anywhere. According to most of the respondents they did a very good job during their stay with the firm, they were normally invited to join the company’s workforce after graduation. Broadening the students’ experience through the field activities taken was also regarded as a very effective outcome of the practicum program as shown by the item average of 3.40. It can be deduced from this finding that the program helped the students to get a realistic preview of the present demand and trends in the business world. In terms of referrals received by the students to other companies, the program was considered effective in this area (µ=3.22). This information pointed out the fact that through the program, students had greater chances of being employed as their opportunities were not only confined to the firm where they rendered their apprenticeship 164

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but, in many cases, they were informed of existing vacancies in other organizations or allied offices. Corollary to the finding in item number 2, the practicum program was considered to be very effective in exposing the students to new business techniques and trends as indicated by the item average of 3.38. This is true since students were privileged to be acquainted with current work process and strategies utilized by the companies where they were assigned. The item average of 3.19 denoted the fact that the practicum program was observed effective in assessing whether the students will be accepted for various positions in different firms after undergoing the program. This finding is validated by the result in item number 1. Lastly, the practicum program was also viewed as effective in providing the students with chances of undertaking modern training and development. This was signified by the item average of 3.23. Depending on where they were assigned, the students opined that their employers allowed them to undergo further training to augment their knowledge in class so that they will be able to perform their assigned tasks better. Table 7 highlights the data concerning the effectiveness of the monitoring schemes utilized in the practicum programs. As disclosed by the factor average of 3.14, the monitoring scheme adopted to assess the impact of the practicum program was deemed generally effective. As shown by the item average of 3.22, the orientation procedure conducted to clarify the agreed upon course objectives or goals was considered generally effective. This means that all the practicumers were properly introduced to the rudiments, expectations and policies of the practicum program before they were assigned to the various components. Likewise, the instruments/tools used in measuring the studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; performance before and after undergoing the practicum program was rated effective as evidenced by the item average of 2.99. However, many students commented that there was a need to improve the method of assessing the impact of the program among the participants

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so that its inherent weaknesses can be rectified. Table 7. Effectiveness of the practicum program in monitoring schemes used

In terms of the method of counseling adopted by the faculty to help the students cope with their job requirements, such practices were viewed as effective (Âľ=3.11). Students were free to consult their respective advisers whenever they had problems related to their job assignment. Compiling of attending works, new skills acquired and other pertinent information about the student taking the practicum subject was regarded very effective. Some respondents however, said that classifying and documenting new skills assimilated by the students who underwent the program were not strictly practiced. Requiring students to submit progress reports on actual work experiences was very effective in keeping an eye on how they were facing their assignments. The item average of 2.78 is indicated that the frequency of ocular inspection/company visits made by the supervising faculty was considered to be effective. Among the items rated, this garnered the 166

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lowest score as many students averred that their advisers were not consistent in visiting them in their respective work environments during the duration of the program. Corollary to item number five (5), comparing the actual performance of the practicumers vis-à-vis with the standards set by the firm, was also regarded as an effective monitoring scheme. It can be inferred from this finding that to ensure the realization of the program’s objectives and count its deficiencies, the students’ accomplishments will be compared to actual objectives pursued by the firm. This is done by assessing the work in the placement setting. Table 8 presents the summary data on the effectiveness of the practicum programs for the business and management courses contrived by the University of San Jose-Recoletos College of Commerce, as assessed by its students. Table 8.Summary data on the effectiveness of the practicum program

As shown by the general average of 3.16, objectives from the composite average of 3.50 obtained from the entrepreneurship students, 3.17 from the business administration groups, 3.14 from the management, 3.06 from the baking and finance and 3.37 from the marketing group, the practicum program for the business and management courses was appraised as generally effective. Specifically, the program was effective in terms of enhancing theories and practice consistency, (µ=2.95). This indicated that the concepts learned in class were applied in actual business situation. The factor average of 3.15 shows that the program was effective 167

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in improving the communication skills of the students. With the activity, they were exposed to the various communication and information sharing strategies transpiring in the firms which helped the management to make prudent decisions. In the area of developing the students’ conceptual skills, the program was also noted to be effective in developing the former’s competencies in this area as shown by the factor average of 3.21. The practicumers were able to relate the significance of the theories learned in the classroom in the course of doing the jobs. In the area of promoting interpersonal skills, the practicum program was regarded as very effective (µ=3.28). The students were able to polish their skills in dealing with various types of people that they come into contact with as they perform their tasks. In terms of preparing the students for employment, the practicum program was considered very effective in this concern as evidenced by the factor average of 3.29. The participants were able to enhance their skills thereby equipping them with the necessary mindset to join the labor force. Lastly, with regard to the monitoring schemes adopted in connection with the practicum program, these were rated to be effective as shown by the factor average of 3.14. It can be deduced from this finding that the program had built in mechanisms to enable the school to measure its effectiveness and relevance. From the findings, one can surmise that the practicum program for the business and management courses of USJ-R’s College of Commerce – met its objectives in matching the theories introduced in the classroom to its applicability in the work situation, development of the communication, conceptual and interpersonal skills among the students. Moreover, it was deemed sufficient to prepare the students to enter into the real business world and the schemes used to monitor the students’ performance were likewise deemed appropriate. However, among the various respondents, the entrepreneurship groups were the ones who consistently rated the program to be low. This was because the students felt that the program they had was not relevant to their course. They preferred to set up and establish an entrepreneurial business as a means of validating theories in the Practicumers Quality Performance actual application of their 168

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classroom training. Table 9 highlights the summarized data revealing the quality of performance rendered by the practicum students as evaluated by the heads/officials of the companies where they were assigned. Table 9. Summarized data on the practicumersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; quality of performance INDICATORS

FACTOR AVERAGE

INTERPRETATION

Work Attitudes and Values

3.61

Very Good

Job Knowledge

3.53

Very Good

Work Accomplishment

3.58

Very Good

3.57

Very Good

General Average

As disclosed by the general average of 3.57, the practicumers were generally rated to exhibit a very good performance by their immediate superiors. In terms of work attitudes and values, the students were rated very good as evidenced by the factor average of 3.61. This means that the practicumers demonstrated marked interest in their work and took pride in being affiliated with the firm. In the dimension of job knowledge, the students were also rated very good as shown by the factor average of 3.53. This finding implied that the practicumers in general exhibited knowledge and understanding in almost all phases of their assigned tasks and other related duties. In the area of work accomplishments, the practicumers were likewise assessed as very good as shown by the factor average of 3.58. This means that the students did a very good work rarely committed errors, and the outputs were orderly, accurate and complete. The very good performance of the practicum students clarified the issue raised in previous years as to the benefits of the practicum program. Evidence proved that the excellent implementation indeed 169

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resulted to very good performance of the practicum students. So far, only in interpersonal skills that they need to enhance from very good to excellent. The gap between excellent implementation and very good performance could be explained by some institutional and supervisory issues that need to be strengthened. From these findings, it can be surmised that students enrolled in the business and management courses taking up the practicum program have more than adequate preparation possible to tackle the challenges in the business world. These individuals are flexible and are able to cope with the evolving requirements of new business trends. CONCLUSION The practicum program for business and management students was implemented in an excellent manner by 80% of the major courses. It succeeded in bridging theory and practice consistently, and developed the students’ effective interpersonal skills. These skills made them better prepared in the world of employment. The excellence in monitoring schemes assured the attainment of the objective of the practicum program in terms of very good work attitude, job knowledge, and work accomplishment. Development of interpersonal skills is one area of focus for improvement from very good to excellent. LITERATURE CITED Ates, L. N. (1999). “Opportunities of Industry-Academe Linkages for Commerce Students of Holy Cross of Davao College, Davao City: Basis for Systematic Student Practicum Assignments”. Unpublished Thesis, University of San Jose-Recoletos, Cebu City, . Baird, B.N. (2002). The Internship, Practicum and Field Placement Handbook: A Guide for the Helping Professions. 3rd edition Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall. Bruhacher, J. S. (2003). Modern Philosophies of Education. New York: McGraw Hill Book. Caluscusan, N. (1979). “Qualifications of Business Graduates by Selected Organizations/Firms in Negros Oriental.”Unpublished 170

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Master’s Thesis, University of San Jose-Recoletos, Cebu City. Cetron, M. J. (2004). Schools of the Future: When Business and Education Can Cooperate to Save our Schools. New York: McGraw Hill Book Company. Chapin, L. A. Russell & A. E. Ivey. (2004). Supervised Practicum and Internship. Belmont, California: Thomson Learning. Crookes, G. (2003). A Practicum in TESOL. New York: Cambridge University Press. Grabe, M. and C. Grabe. Integrating Technology for Meaningful Learning. New York: Houghton Mifflin Company, (2004). Horejsi, C. R. and C. L. Garthwait. (2002). The Social Work. Boston, Massachusetts: Allyn & Bacon. Powers, D. K. (2004). Higher Education in Partnership with Industry. San Francisco, CA: Jossey- Bass Publishers. Sayom, V. (1984). “Higher Evaluation and Manpower Development: An Exploratory Study.” Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, Divine Word University, Tacloban City. Sweitzer, F. H. and M. A. King. (2004). The Successful Internship – Transformation and Empowerment in Experiential Learning. Second Edition, Belmont, California: Thomson Learning. FOR INQUIRIES, WRITE TO: The Managing Editor Liceo Journal of Higher Education Research Liceo de Cagayan University Cagayan de Oro City, 9000 Philippines Email: liceojournal@yahoo.com.ph Fax: 63+ (08822) 727459 URL: http://www.ejournals.ph http://www.liceojournal.com

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Vol. 6 No. 2 December 2010 ISSN: 2094-1064 Liceo Journal of HigherJournal, Education Research CHED Accredited Research Category B

Liceo Journal of Higher Education Research Social Science Section Cutting Edge Research

Bayesian Reproduction Number Estimation for Dengue Virus Transmission ROBERTO N. PADUA rnpadua@yahoo.com Liceo de Cagayan University DEXTER S. ONTOY dexter_s_ontoy@yahoo.com Cebu Normal University ALFEO B. TULANG Bukidnon State University

Final Revision Complied: Oct. 10, 2010

Plagiarism Detection: Passed License No. 944146510808541 Original: 93.52%

Abstract - The estimation of the reproduction number of dengue viral transmission is an active area of research owing to the importance of the reproduction number as an epidemiological quantity. It determines, among others, the intensity of intervention and control measures necessary to contain an outbreak. This study uses the reproduction number proposed by Favier, Degallier, Rosa-Freitas, Boulanger, Costa Lima, Luitgards-Moura, Menkes, Mondet, Oliveira, Weimann, & Tsouris (2006) but employs a Bayesian estimation procedure to estimate the parameters found in the reproduction number. Earlier studies by Chowell, Rivas, , Smith, & Hyman (2006) showed that reproduction numbers computed from this basic formula overestimates the viral transmissibility and hence, also overestimates the control mechanisms employed

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the reproduction number by the prior distribution of the parameters in a Bayesian viewpoint. The new estimation procedure is tried out for selected cases in Central Visayas and Bukidnon where outbreaks of dengue cases were noted for 2010. Keywords - reproduction number, Bayesian estimation,

INTRODUCTION Dengue, a mosquito â&#x20AC;&#x201C; borne disease, whose etiological agent is health problem worldwide. The vector mosquito is known to be the Aedesaegypti which thrives in tropical and subtropical climates. The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates 50 million annual worldwide cases of dengue (WHO (2010)). Individuals who recover from one serotype become permanently immune to it but can still be infected either partially or wholly with the other three (3) serotypes. important observation for its control. (Chowell and Sanchez, 2006). Models for the transmissibility of dengue had been proposed and validated in the past. The standard dengue epidemic model (with distributed infectious period in hosts) assumes a pure initial exponential epidemic growth and is used to estimate the reproduction number Ro for the disease. Other transmissibility model incorporates more realistic incubation and infectious period distributions and estimates data. Reproduction numbers are important epidemiological quantities. o

infectious case during its period of infectiousness in an entirely susceptible populations in steady state (Anderson, 1991). For vector â&#x20AC;&#x201C; borne diseases, Ro is the number of secondary cases generated by 173

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a primary infectious case via the vectors in an entirely susceptible population. Usually, if Ro> 1 an epidemic occurs while if Ro< 1 then no outbreak is expected. In public health, Ro is used to quantity the intensity of control interventions necessary to prevent an outbreak. In 1910, for instance, Sir Ronald Ross showed that malaria outbreak can be controlled by reducing the population of mosquitoes below a certain threshold. The basic reproduction number Ro for dengue is difficult to obtain because it requires data on the immunological history of the population from prior exposure to the dengue strains. Dengue is transmitted in urban and semi â&#x20AC;&#x201C; urban areas by the vector mosquito Aedesaegypti which is a highly anthropophilic daytime feeder. Humans are infected when they are bit by feeding infectious females while susceptible mosquitoes acquire infection when feeding on infectious humans. Such dynamics can be extremely complicated when modeled by a single basic reproduction number Ro. Instead, we opt to adopt a more general reproduction number defined as: (1) where is the percentage of the populations that is effectively immune at the onset of the outbreak. We then define a system of differential equations that depend on the following: (2)

The quantities are related through a coupled system of differential equations defining the spread of the disease to . 174

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By analyzing the trajectory of the spread of the disease over time, it might be possible to obtain a good estimate of .The reproduction numbers obtained in this manner are functions of certain parameters (observable from the hosts and vector organisms) which, in this paper, are themselves considered random. Consequently, the natural approach to such an estimation problem is to place the analysis in the Bayesian context. In Bayesian estimation, the assumed distribution of the parameters is called the prior distribution while the distribution of the random variable x given the parameter values constitute the conditional distribution of the observations given the parameters. The posterior distribution of the random variable x is, by Bayes’ Theorem, equal to the product of the prior distribution and the conditional distribution of x given the parameter values. The mean or expected value of x , E(x), of the posterior distribution is the quantity of interest in this paper. It is shown in the analysis that this quantity is simply the mean of the conditional distribution of x given the parameter, E(x│θ), times the prior distribution of θ which serves as a . BRIEF LITERATURE REVIEW Chowell, Rivas, , Smith, & Hyman (2006) estimated the reproduction number of dengue fever from spatial epidemic data based on the 2002 reproduction number was estimated from spatial epidemic data at the level of municipalities using: (a) a standard dengue epidemic model and assuming pure exponential initial epidemic growth rate, and (b) epidemic curve. Using the standard epidemic model, the overall mean reproduction number was 3.09 (95% CI: 2.34, 3.84) while using the more realistic model, the overall mean reproduction number was 2.0 (95% CI: 1.75, 2.23), both of which indicate an epidemic outbreak. The standard dengue epidemic model overestimates thereproduction number and therefore, also overestimates the intensity of intervention required for preventing the disease from further spreading.

dengue fever (DF) to dengue hemorrhagic fever (DHF) and dengue 175

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shock syndrome (DSS). DHF and DSS are the most severe forms of the disease. Most primary dengue infections are asymptomatic. Dengue attack rates vary from 40% to 50% but could reach 80% to 90%. The fatality rate of DHF can be more than 20% if not treated but can be reduced to less than 1% with appropriate medical therapy (WHO, March, 2006). The transmission dynamics of dengue had been observed to depend on climatological conditions particularly those which relate to the survival and biological development of the vector Ae. Aegypti. For instance, Watts (2006) in a laboratory experiment found that the extrinsic incubation period and the susceptibility of the mosquitoes depend on temperature. Higher temperatures, generally, shorten the incubation period from 12 days (at 300C) to 7 days (at 350C) while no incubation takes place at temperatures below 170C. Moreover, higher cases of dengue infection are noted during the rainy season due to the increase in the number of breeding sites for the vector organism. The tropical climate of the Philippines with long periods of rain and high temperatures are conditions which make the transmissibility of dengue very ideal. The Mexican Experience Koopman, Prevots, Vaca Marin, Gomez, Zarate, Aquino, Longini, Sepulveda (1991) noted that Mexico was free of the principal vector Ae. aegypti and consequently of dengue, in the early 1960â&#x20AC;&#x2122;s. A re-entry of the principal vector was noted in 1978 with at least three dengue serotypes co-circulating in Mexico since 1983. Dengue hemorrhagic fever (DHF) became a cause for public health concern in 1994. The time lag between the introduction of the dengue virus in 1978 to the emergence of DHF in 1994 is usually attributed to the strong correlation between nonneutralizing antibodies and severe disease. Several reasons were forwarded for the re-emergence of dengue such as immigration of people infected with absent strains bringing reductions in mean herd immunity. In Mexico, some regions were noted to have annual epidemic outbreaks of dengue while only sporadic epidemics are noted elsewhere. In particular, the Chowell, Rivas, , Smith, & Hyman (2006) study focused on Colima, Mexico where only sporadic epidemics 176

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were noted but also, where the principal vector Ae. aegypti is endemic. The similarities between the conditions in Colima, Mexico and Cebu, Philippines are almost uncanny. Colima has a tropical climate (like the Philippines) with a mean temperature of 23.2oC and a long coastline extending 157 kilometers and a population of almost half a million (488,028). The temperature range in Colima is well within the ideal for the incubation of dengue virus of which more than one serotype is known to be co-circulating in the population. The state of Colima experienced a dengue epidemic in 1997 and an outbreak in 2002. It is interesting to note that in 2002, high dengue incidence was noted worldwide. Thirty Latin American countries, for instance, reported over one million cases of dengue and more than 17,000 cases of DHF. In Colima, as in other parts of Mexico, continuous low level transmissions go undetected by similar to the situation in the Philippines. present and as long as two or more of the following symptoms are detected: myalgia, arthralgia, retro-orbital pain, headache, rash, or some manifestations of hemorrhage e.g. petechiae, hematuria, hematemesis, melena. We note that the index reported case was a 10-year old female diagnosed in the municipality of Manzanillo on from Colima are less likely to be prone to underreporting problems because most have a dengue serotype 2 subsequent to a serotype 1, 3 or 4. A dengue serotype 2 found subsequent to the other serotypes leads to higher incidence of dengue hemorrhagic fever (DHF), making The situation in Colima, Mexico parallels those found both in Bukidnon and Cebu provinces Philippines for 2010. The climatological conditions in both provinces are almost identical to the one in Colima, Mexico. It is , therefore, possible that considering the local dengue data from these two(2) provinces in the Philippines and the subsequent application of a Bayesian estimation procedure for the reproduction number of dengue, a comparison of the reproduction numbers as reported by Chowell, Rivas, , Smith, & Hyman (2006) and our own reproduction can be made. 177

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Standard Dengue Epidemic Model Anderson and May (1991) modeled the transmission dynamics of dengue. This model modified the original models of Ross (1910) and Macdonald (1957) and was used in several studies to estimate the reproduction number of dengue (Marques, Forattini, and Massad, (1994), Massad (2001), Luz (2003) and Favier (2006).) The basic model considers two populations: humans and mosquitoes. The humans are classified in four (4) epidemiological states: The female mosquitoes are classified as: The total number of human is and the total number of mosquitoes is . In the classical model, the disease窶田aused mortality for humans is assumed very small while the birth and natural death rates for mosquitoes are assumed to both be equal to . A susceptible human will be infected with dengue once bitten by an infectious mosquito during feeding. The rate at which humans get infected is: (2)

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where:

R.N. Padua, D.S. Ontoy and A.B. Tulang

= number of female mosquitoes per person = mean rate of mosquito bites per mosquito = transmission probability per bite = probability that a bite is made by an infectious mosquito.

Once a human is infected with dengue, the virus undergoes an (latency period) and followed by an infectious period of mean duration . On the other hand, susceptible mosquitoes become infected from an infectious human during feeding at the rate: . of followed by an infectious state from which they do not recover. The mean adult life span of a mosquito is . The model is then: (3)

where where x(t) denotes the derivative with respect to t. For this model, the basic reproduction number is: (4)

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so that Ro is the product of the number of infectious mosquitoes generated during the infectious period of a primary infectious and the number of infectious humans generated by the proportion of infectious mosquitoes surviving the incubation period . Formula 2 is difficult to implement in practice Favier, Degallier, Rosa-Freitas, Boulanger, Costa Lima, Luitgards-Moura, Menkes, Mondet, Oliveira, Weimann, & Tsouris (2006) approximates this by: (5) where r is the initial growth rate of the epidemic. Since the reporting rates for r may vary considerably. Favier et al. (2006) showed that approximation (4) is robust to this underreporting due to asymptomatic or mild cases as long as the reporting rates is constant. Intrinsic Incubation Period for the Vector Organism The effect of temperature on the ability of Aedesaegypti to transmit dengue (DEN)- 2 virus to rhesus monkeys was assessed as a possible explanation for the seasonal variation in the incidence of dengue hemorrhagic fever in Bangkok, Thailand (Watts, 2006). In two laboratory experiments, a Bangkok strain of Ae. aegypti was allowed to feed upon viremic monkeys infected with DEN-2 virus. Bloodengorged mosquitoes were separated into two groups and retained at constant temperatures. Virus infection and transmission rates were determined for Ae. aegypti at intervals ranging from 4 to 7 days during a 25-day incubation period. Results of the first experiment for mosquitoes infected with a low dose of DEN-2 virus and maintained at 200,240, 260, and 300C, indicated that the infection rate ranged from 25% to 75% depending on the incubation period. However, DEN-2 virus was transmitted to monkeys only by Ae. aegypti retained at 30°C for 25 days. In the second experiment, the infection rate for Ae. aegypti that ingested a higher viral dose, and incubated at 26, 30, 32, and 35°C ranged from 67% to 95%. DEN-2 virus was transmitted to monkeys only by mosquitoes maintained at L 30°C. The extrinsic incubation period was 12 days for mosquitoes at 300C, and was reduced to 7 days for mosquitoes incubated at 32°C and 35°C. These results imply that 180

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Ae. aegypti hemorrhagic fever epidemics in-Bangkok. Bayesian Estimation Model for the Reproduction Number The parameters of (4) , namely, r, h, µm, τe, and τiare treated as random variables in a Bayesian context. We do this by treating the individual parameters of a probability distribution. Let Xi be the lifespan of the ith mosquito whose distribution is: (6) of

where mean lifespan of a mosquito. The prior distribution is, following Chowell, Rivas, , Smith, & Hyman (2006), given by: (7) or: so that: (8) its posterior distribution. Our interest is on the mean of the posterior distribution: (9)

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It follows that: (10) where:

, we obtain:

(11) as the Bayesian mean of the life span of mosquitoes. In the Chowell study (2006), the values of α and are and while days. In a similar fashion, the Bayesian incubation period for the mosquitoes can be estimated. If y represent the extrinsic incubation period of the virus in the mosquitoes, then the posterior mean of y is: (12) whose estimated parameter values are dependent on the ambient temperature (1995) Focks. We can also make use of the Watts (2006) results to deduce that the mean extrinsic incubation period τe is somewhere between 7 days to 12 days or τe = 9.5 days Turning to the parameters in the human hosts, we find that with similar assumptions as before: (13) where E(w) is the posterior Bayesian mean host infectious period. The Chowell study gives: Moreover, the Bayesian mean host incubation period will be: (14) where: We assume the same model for the initial epidemic growth rate r: 182

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(15)

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as in the paper of Chowell, Rivas, , Smith, & Hyman (2006). LITERATURE CITED Anderson, R.M. & May, R.M. (1991). Infectious Diseases of Humans, Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Blower, S.M. & Dowlatabadi, H. (1994). Sensitivity and uncertainty analysis of complex models of disease transmission: an HIV model, as an example, International Statistical Review 62 (2) 229–243. Brauer, F. & Castillo-Chavez, C. (2000). Mathematical Models in Population Biology and Epidemiology, Springer Verlag,New York. Bowman, C., Gumel, A.B., van den Driessche, P., Wu, J. & Zhu, H. (2005). A mathematical model for assessing control strategies against West Nile virus, Bulletin of Mathematical Biology 67 1107– 1133. on parameter estimates in susceptible-infected recover epidemic model, Far East Journal of Theoretical Statistics 19 163–183. Chitnis, N., Cushing, J.M. & Hyman, J.M. (2006). Bifurcation analysis of a mathematical model for malaria transmission, SIAM Journal of Applied Mathematics 67 24–45. Chowell, G., Castillo-Chavez, C., Fenimore, P.W., Kribs-Zaleta, C., Arriola, L., and Hyman, J.M. (2004). Model parameters andoutbreak control for SARS, Emerging Infectious Diseases 10 1258–1263. Chowell, G., Hyman, J.M., Diaz-Dueñas, P. &Hengartner, N.W. (2005). Predicting scorpion sting incidence in anendemic region using climatological variables, International Journal of Environmental Health Research 15 425–435. Chowell, G., Rivas, A.L., Smith, S.D., & Hyman, J.M. (2006). connectivity in the 2001 uruguayan foot-and-mouth disease epidemic, AmericanJournal of Veterinary Research 67 1–12. Chowell, G., & Sanchez, F. (2006). Climate-based descriptive models of dengue fever, Journal of Environmental Health 68 60–63. 183

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Christophers, R. & Aedesaegypti L. (1960). The Yellow Fever Mosquito, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Cummings, D.A., Schwartz, I.B., Billings, L., Shaw, L.B., &Burke, D.S. (2005). Dynamic effects of antibody-dependentenhancement on the fitness of viruses, PNAS 102 15259–15264. Diekmann, O., & Heesterbeek, J. (March 10, 2005). Mathematical Epidemiology of Infectious Diseases: Model Building, Analysis and Interpretation, Wiley, New York, 2000 InstitutoNacional de Estadı´sticaGeografia e Informa´tica. XII census of population and household, 2000, accessed. Available rom:http://www.inegi.gob. mx/inegi/default.asp. Efron, B., & Tibshirani, R. (1986). Bootstrap methods for standard errors, confidence intervals, and other measures ofstatistical accuracy, Statistical Science 1 54–75. Espinoza-Go´mez, F., & Hernańdez-Suarez, C.M. R. CollCardenas (2001). Factoresquemodifican los indices larvarios deAedesaegyptien Colima, Mexico [factors that modify the larval indices of Aedesaegypti in Colima, Mexico], PanAmerican Journal of PublicHealth 10 6–12. Espinoza-Go´mez, F., Hernańdez-Suarez, C.M., Rendoń-Ramrez, R., Carrillo-Alvarez, M.L., & Flores-Gonza´lez, J.C. (2003). Transmisiońinterepide´micadel dengue en la ciudad de Colima, Mexico[interepidemic transmission of dengue inthe city of Colima, Mexico], SaludPublica Mexico 45 365–370. Esteva, L., & Vargas, C. (2003). Coexistence of different serotypes of dengue virus, Journal of Mathematical Biology 46 31–47. Favier, C., Degallier, N., Rosa-Freitas, M.G., Boulanger, J.P., Costa Lima, J.R., Luitgards-Moura, J.F., Menkes, C.E., Mondet, B., Oliveira, C., Weimann, E.T., & Tsouris, P. (2006). Early determination of the reproduction numberfor vector-borne diseases: the case of dengue in Brazil, Tropical Medicine and International Health 11332–340. Favier, C., Schmit, D., Muller-Graf, C.D., Cazelles, B., Degallier, N., Mondet, B., &Dubois, M.A. (2005). Influence of spatialheterogeneity on an emerging infectious disease: the case of dengue epidemics,Proceedings Biological Sciences 272 1171–1177. Feng, Z. & Velasco-Hernandez, X .(1997). Competitive exclusion in a vectorhost model for the dengue fever, Journal ofMathematical Biology 35 523–544. 184

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Ferguson, N.M., Donnelly, C.A. & Anderson, R.M. (1999). Transmission sero-prevalence surveys, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London B 354 757–768. Focks, D.A., Daniels, E., Haile, D.G., & Keesling, J.E. (1995). A simulation model of the epidemiology of urban dengue fever:literature analysis, model development, preliminary validation, and samplesof simulation results, AmericanJournal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 53 489–506.Mexican National Center for Epidemiological Surveillance and Disease Control (CENAVE). Dengue SerotypesCirculating in Mexico, accessed March 04, asp?id=14. Gubler, D.J. (1998). Dengue and dengue hemorrhagic fever, Clinical Microbiology Reviews 11 480–496. Gu´zman, M.G. & Kouri, G. (2003). Dengue and dengue hemorrhagic fever in the Americas: lessons and challenges, Journalof Clinical Virology 27 1–13. Hyman, J.M., Li, J. & Stanley, E.A. (1999). and staged progression models for the transmission of HIV, Mathematical Biosciences 155 77–109. Jacquez, J.A. (1996). Compartmental Analysis in Biology and Medicine, Michigan Thompson-Shore Inc., Michigan. (1997). Potential changes in the distribution of dengue transmission under climate warming,American Journal Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 57 285–297. Koopman, J.S., Prevots, D.R., Vaca Marin, M.A., Gomez Dantes, H., Zarate Aquino, M.L., Longini Jr. I.M., Sepulveda Amor, J. (1991). Determinants and predictors of dengue infection in Mexico,American Journal of Epidemiology133 1168–1178. Li, C.F., Lim, T.W., Han, L.L. & Fang, R. (1985). Rainfall, abundance of Aedesaegyptiand dengue infection in Selangor,Malaysia, Southeast Asian Journal of Tropical Medicine and Public Health 16 560–568. Lorono-Pino, M.A., Cropp, C.B., Farfan, J.A., Vorndam, A.V., Rodriguez-Angulo, E.M., Rosado-Paredes, E.P., Flores-Flores, L.F., Beaty, B.J. & Gubler, D.J. (1999). Common occurrence of concurrent infections by multiple dengue virusserotypes, American Journal of 185

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Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 61 725–730. Luz, P.M., Codeco, C.T., Massad, E., Struchiner, C.J. (2003). Uncertainties regarding dengue modeling in Rio de Janeiro,Brazil, Memo´rias do InstitutoOswaldo Cruz 98 871–878. MacDonald, G. (1957). The Epidemiology and Control of Malaria, chapter Epidemics, Oxford University Press, London, pp. 45–62. Marques, C.A. (1994). Forattini, O.P., &Massad, E.The basic reproduction number for dengue fever in Sa˜oPaulostate, Brazil: 1990–1991 epidemic, Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicineand Hygiene 88 58–59. Massad, E., Coutinho, F.A., Burattini, M.N. & Lopez, L.F. (2001). The risk of yellow fever in a dengue-infested area,Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 95 370– 374 Singapore Ministry of Health. The communicable disease surveillance in Singapore 2004, accessed May 04,2006. Available from:http://www.moh.gov.sg/cmaweb/attachmentspublication/36 c375c79a8t/Vector-Borne_Diseases.pdf. Mourya, D.T., Yadav, P., & Mishra, A.C. (2004). Effect of temperature stress on immature stages and susceptibility of Aedesaegypti mosquitoes to chikungunya virus, American Journal Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 70 346–350. Muir, L.E., & Kay, B.H. (1998). Aedesaegypti survival and dispersal estimated by mark–release–recapture in northernAustralia, American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 58 277–282. Navarrete-Espinosa, J., Gomez-Dantes, H., Celis-Quintal, J.G., & Vazquez-Martinez, J.L. (2005). Clinical profile of dengue hemorrhagic fever cases in Mexico, SaludPublica Mexico 47 193– 200. Ooi, E.-E., Goh, K.-T., & Gubler, D.J. (2006). Dengue prevention and 35 years of vector control in Singapore, EmergingInfectious Diseases 12 (6) 887–893. Otero, M., Solari, H.G., & Schweigmann, N. (2006). A stochastic population dynamics model for Aedesaegypti: Formulation and application to a city with temperate climate, Bulletin of Mathematical Biology 68 1945–1974. Ross, R. (1910). The Prevention of Malaria, John Murray, London.

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Schultz, G.W. (1993). Seasonal abundance of dengue vectors in Manila, Republic of the Philippines, Southeast Asian Journal of Tropical Medicine and Public Health 24 369–375. (2004). The risk of a mosquitoborne infection in a heterogeneous environment,PLoS Biology 2 1957–1964.[49] D.W. Vaughn, S. Green, S. Kalayanarooj, B.L. Innis, S. Nimmannitya, S. Suntayakorn, T.P. Endy, B.Raengsakulrach, A.L. Rothman, Ennis, F.A. & Nisalak, A. (2000). Dengue viremiatiter, disease severity, Journal of Infectious Diseases 181 2–9. Wearing, H.J., Rohani, P. & Keeling, M.J. (2005). Appropriate models for the management of infectious diseases, PLoSMedicine 2 e174. Wearing, H.J. & Rohani, P. (2006). Ecological and immunological determinants of dengue epidemics, PNAS 10311802–11807.G. Chowell/ Mathematical Biosciences 208 (2007) 571–589 589 World Health Organization (April 04, 2006). Clinical diagnosis resources/publications/dengue/012-23.pdf. World Health Organization (March 04, 2006). Dengue and dengue mediacentre/factsheets/fs117/en/. van den Driessche, P., & Watmough, J. (2002). Reproduction numbers and sub-threshold endemic equilibriaforcompartmental models of disease transmission, Mathematical Biosciences 180 29–48. FOR INQUIRIES, WRITE TO: The Managing Editor Liceo Journal of Higher Education Research Liceo de Cagayan University Cagayan de Oro City, 9000 Philippines Email: liceojournal@yahoo.com.ph Fax: 63+ (08822) 727459

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Global Justice and the Public Sphere: The Dynamics of Fraser’s Critical Theory RAFAEL D. PANGILINAN rafael_pangilinan1002@yahoo.com Department of Social Arts and Humanities Centro Escolar University Date Submitte: July 17, 2010 Final Revision Complied: Oct. 10, 2010

Plagiarism Detection: Passed License No. 944146510808541 Original: 91.50%

Abstract - In this paper, I locate Fraser’s theory in relation to Rawls’ concept of justice as fairness, but particularly to Habermas’ shift of focus to the social institutions and practices where deliberation takes place, in a decentered idea of justice. I identify Fraser’s key intervention through her feministinspired critique of Habermas in relation to power and its effects upon the structural exclusions from the public sphere. At the same time, I note that Fraser drew attention to power struggles within that sphere; it is contested internally thanks to the deliberations of a plurality of competing publics drawn from among the dominated. I also trace the development of Fraser’s theory of justice through the various stages of her familiar double-headed account in terms of recognition and redistribution, to its current form in which, in the postWestphalian context, the third dimension of the political site of the injustice of misrepresentation has been integrated. I argue that this new prominence given to the political is in part the result of the exchange with Honneth. Finally, I turn to the concept of a nascent global public sphere, developed along the lines of Habermas’ decentered notion of authority, using the example of the challenges to the legitimacy of the US and UK 188

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decision to declare war against Iraq. Keywords - misrepresentation, recognition, Westphalian, public sphere, critical theory

post-

The conception of justice as fairness put forward in John Rawls’ Theory of Justice (Rawls 1971) established the importance of a focus on justice and on how our views of justice need to change in the context of plural modern societies. In a way, Rawls’ Theory of Justice restored important moral questions to the status of serious philosophical research. Rawls concentrated on our need to think about the organization of society that could validly be described as a just society. He returned to the idea of the social contract to redesign it in an intersubjective mode. His view of the social contract differed from preceding views in that he sought to generate basic political principles of pure procedural justice. He highlighted the idea that rights do not belong to the state of nature but to a political order, and that there are moral elements in the contract procedure that are best represented by the idea of the veil of ignorance to secure moral impartiality. Later, Rawls pursued the premise of political autonomy to define how we could find a translation of the concept of justice into the political realm. Political Liberalism (Rawls 1993) is the work in which Rawls established the idea of a political concept of justice in a plural society. His paradigm of justice, because it defined fairness in terms of certain procedures that generate an adequately just outcome, entailed not just an idea of moral equality but a rough equality of powers and resources. If Rawls defined justice as fairness, Habermas redefined it as a decentered process of deliberative measures, shifting focus from the social contract to the social institutions and actual practices through which deliberation takes place. With this move Habermas articulated the notion that justice is an ongoing deliberative process of social inclusion, instantiated in his reconstruction of the idea of the public sphere. This is the reason why solidarity plays a major role in his definition of justice. Cooperation and dialogue—rather than the founding moment that is usually the case with social contract theories—serve as the basic premises on which the legitimating processes of political authority are 189

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articulated through the exercise of deliberation. Instead of resorting to the device of a social contract, as Rawls had done, Habermas took up the Kantian premises apparent in Rawls’ project and turned them into the communicative premises of his own discourse theory. They became the rules of the legitimizing processes required for the building up of collective authority. Instead of a veil of ignorance Habermas proposed a principle of universalization that defines impartiality as a procedure of ideal role taking and thus moved to an embodied, decentered idea of justice. Habermas’ pragmatic presuppositions articulated the idea that there are possibilities of an inclusive, non-coercive rational discourse between free and equal participants where everyone is required to take the perspective of everyone else. In this way, Habermas connected his earlier conception of the public sphere to the sphere of justice and thus made rational discourse the device needed to find the generalizable interests that would emerge step by step with collective deliberations. Contrary to Rawls’ translation of the social contract, Habermas no longer needed to define principles of justice prior to the deliberating processes by which societies ordered their interests. Instead, he sought to find a more open procedure of argumentative praxis without giving up the Kantian idea of the public use of reason or the pluralist view of modern societies. Nancy Fraser has undertaken the challenge left by Rawls’ and Habermas’ theories of justice to develop further the complex and dynamic view of justice they advanced. The aim of this paper is to present how this has been achieved, the significance of her position in the wider debate about justice and the possibilities it offers when viewed in the light of recent debates about globalization and cosmopolitanism. The historical context out of which her work and this larger theoretical project evolved had to do with the emergence during the 1960s of struggles for civil rights, of emancipatory social movements against racism, of peace movements and of feminism both as a form of activism and as a theoretical position. It also had to do with the emergence of new social movements which, in reaction to the earlier ones, began to question the idea of justice more exclusively in terms of identity politics and social recognition.

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I. INTRODUCING POLITICS INTO THE SCHEMA OF JUSTICE It was not a coincidence that Fraser turned her interest in justice to explore the role of power. Indeed, as a feminist, she questioned why the role of power did not appear as a basic premise in Habermas’ discourse theory. In “What’s Critical about Critical Theory?” (Fraser 1988) Nancy Fraser questioned Habermas’ theory of communicative action for not paying attention to the important criticisms coming from feminism. Focusing on the Habermasian distinction between the symbolic and material aspects of reproduction in modern societies, Fraser showed how women’s activities are considered under a questionable patriarchal design. Fraser’s interpretations of the symbolic contents of women’s labor, and of the ways in which economic injustice is hidden through its symbolic content, led her to point out the limitations of the Habermasian distinction between system and the life-world. The most important question, however, that Fraser was able to illuminate was that actions related to the nuclear family are regulated by power and that Habermas’ earlier conception of power reduces it to its bureaucratic dimension. Fraser showed how far male dominance is intrinsic to the ways in which institutions are designed. She understood that the meanings we give to our actions, the expression we give to our needs and the interpretations we make of how things are, are all sites of political struggles. She targeted the double dimension of Habermas’ conception of reproduction—system and life-world—precisely because it missed how the struggle for meanings is also a struggle of power. In a second stage of her criticism of Habermas, the target of her thinking was Habermas’ notion of the public sphere. In her famous essay, “Rethinking the Public Sphere” (1988), Fraser criticized Habermas for defining the idea of the public sphere in a narrow way, as if it were one, compact, singular entity. Fraser demonstrated that in Habermas’ description of the public sphere, we find accessibility to the public sphere to be a given. For Fraser, by contrast, the exclusion of women and of other groups of people was central to the whole process of constituting a bourgeois public sphere. She observed that: “it was the arena, the training ground, and eventually the power base of a stratum of bourgeois men, who were coming to see themselves as a “universal 191

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class” ” (Fraser 1997). In “preparing themselves to assert their fitness to govern” (Fraser 1988: 73) men excluded women from active citizenship. According to Fraser, Habermas’ view of the public sphere was idealized because it gave no account of this structural exclusion and gave no space to thinking about reactions from other competing publics. By erasing the site of the power struggles in the public sphere, Habermas had been blinded to the efforts of counterpublics to question the processes of social inclusion and deliberation itself. Competing publics are a crucial part of an emancipatory concept of the public sphere and as counterpublics they react against exclusion and develop their claims for social inclusion precisely because they are not considered capable of being part of the more general public sphere. With the aid of the concept of publics and counterpublics, Fraser was able to develop a more dynamic idea of social struggles for inclusion in modern plural societies and at the same time to add a more political dimension to the notion of the public sphere. She was arguably one of the first social theorists to develop a decentered notion of the public sphere and address its dynamics as a political site of struggle. She was also capable of defining this process with new terms that helped us understand the different levels in which publics gain some kind of authority. By distinguishing between weak publics (civil society) and strong publics (parliament), Fraser could locate the territory of a decentered notion of authority and of the influence of different social actors in political terms; that is, as a struggle for hegemony. For Fraser, the importance of the public sphere as a site of domination as well as solidarity lies in how processes of hegemony effectively unfold. Fraser insisted on the need to understand such strategies of power as political; for example, how cultural processes of legitimation in public debates bracket inequalities in the status of women (and of other groups) as if we were all equal. In our empirical experiences of the public sphere, Fraser concluded, these processes mask how in stratified societies “unequally empowered social groups tend to develop unequally valued cultural styles” (ibid.: 79) and accordingly do not foster what she was to call the right to participatory parity. Fraser’s achievement was to situate power in relation to struggles around meanings that we associate with life-world actions and social institutions. This criticism made a major impact on Habermas’ own 192

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understanding of the public sphere and led him to redefine his own initial conception of it. Habermas now acknowledged that “a different picture emerges if from the beginning one admits the coexistence of competing public spheres and takes account of the dynamics of those processes of communication that are excluded from the dominant public sphere” (Habermas 1992: 425). Responding to Fraser’s focus on processes of exclusion and domination, he added: we may use ‘excluded’ in Foucault’s sense when we are dealing with groups that play a constitutive role in the formation of a particular public sphere. ‘Exclusion’ assumes a different and less radical meaning when the same structures of communication simultaneously give rise to the formation of several arenas where, beside the hegemonic bourgeois public sphere, additional sub-cultural or class-specific public spheres [Fraser’s counterpublics] are constituted on the basis of their own and initially not easily recognizable premises. The first case I did not consider at all at the time; the second I mentioned in the preface but left it at that. (Ibid.: 425) Habermas now recognized how such processes of inclusion and exclusion are constitutive of the public sphere. Just as Fraser needed to reframe Habermas’ original conception of the public sphere to expand its emancipatory scope, she also needed to address how his idea of justice fits into feminist foci on systemic relations of inequality, given that the feminist literature was more inspired by ideas of domination and resistance than those of justice. For Fraser, these two different starting points could be addressed critically by reconfiguring our understanding of them in terms of their respective political frames. To be sure, she argued, power strategies are needed to transform societies. However, power unfolds into two different strands: one that connects to the Foucauldian idea of practices of domination in the cultural domain; the other, the more Marxist strand, which focuses on class and what we need to do in terms of political participation. Fraser uses Habermas’ progressive approach to justice and deliberation to address the dilemmas arising between these two potentially conflicting dimensions of domination and class struggle. Thus, though Fraser emphasized the contestatory function of counterpublics, she did not view them (to employ a double negative) 193

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as processes that could not entail claims of inclusion. She maintained that separatist groups which envision themselves as forming enclaves of resistance, still need to have a political program with emancipatory goals in order to transform their societies. Fraser explains how the Gramscian notion of hegemony fits with this idea because “to interact discursively as a member of a public—subaltern or otherwise—is to aspire to disseminate one’s discourse into ever-widening arenas” (Fraser 1988: 82). She argues that in stratified societies counterpublics have a dual character: “On the one hand, they function as spaces of withdrawal and regroupment; on the other hand, they function as a basis and training ground for agitational activities directed toward wider publics.” It is “precisely in the dialectic between these two functions that their emancipatory potential resides” (ibid.: 82). II. FROM POLITICS TO REFRAMING JUSTICE It was in response to the problems that emerged in the political arena with particularistic identity groups that Fraser developed her critique of them. Her intuition was that social movements and identity politics have become so self-interested in their own theoretical debates that they have forgotten that justice needs to contemplate a broader axis. In developing novel ideas about recognition, Fraser maintained that we have left behind other important issues that relate to how societies should grapple with violations of justice, and in particular that questions of distributive justice need our continuing attention. We cannot subsume all violations of justice to the spectrum of recognition. Fraser accordingly proposed her now well-known perspectival dualism between recognition and redistribution as two conceptual axes of justice. Fraser was preoccupied with the problem of the fragmentation of the public sphere: namely, that the mere generalization of particulars makes identity politics lose sight of the political strategies needed to transform societies. Fraser developed her dual notion of justice based on questioning the theoretical separation between the paradigms of recognition and redistribution. Habermas’ intuition about configuring a de-centered notion of justice through processes of deliberation (as legitimizing devices) was rearticulated in Fraser’s view on the 194

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decoupling of claims about cultural politics (recognition) from claims of social politics (redistribution). The division of feminism into two theoretical aspects, one based on the politics of difference and the other on the politics of equality, became the target of Fraser’s arguments inasmuch as they present themselves as either/or positions. Fraser was able to show how these two claims—recognition and redistribution— are both claims about social inclusion that have become historically cogent in the context of social movements. We need to consider them in their relation to one another. The binary opposition between class politics versus identity politics and multiculturalism versus social democracy is too often presented as if their claims belong to two different paradigms: the redistribution paradigm focusing on injustices defined as socio-economic; and the recognition paradigm focusing on injustices understood as cultural patterns of representation, interpretation and communication. In the first paradigm we seek the remedy for injustice in restructuring economic relations; in the recognition paradigm we seek a remedy for social injustice in cultural or symbolic exchange. In the first paradigm we search for equality, while in the second we search for difference. If we understand gender injustice in a larger normative context, we can relocate distribution and recognition as configuring two different kinds of claims that are part and parcel of one paradigm of justice. Economic demands can be seen from this perspective as a basic organizing principle of restructuring capitalist societies and the moral wrongs they seek to redress are located in different forms of distributive injustice, such as gender-based exploitation, marginalization and deprivation. In the other aspect, that is, in terms of how gender lines have been drawn according to andromorphous designs, we need to focus on institutional patterns of cultural valuation. These moral wrongs constitute violations of justice in terms of social relations, institutional designs and cultural practices. In developing this position Fraser’s main addressee was not Habermas but thinkers preoccupied with developing theories of recognition, notably Charles Taylor (1994) and Axel Honneth (Fraser and Honneth 2003). Both developed a Hegelian perspective on recognition, though it was in collaboration with Honneth that Fraser’s ideas have taken shape.1 Taylor and Honneth tie the concept 1

] At the core of Honneth’s reading of Hegel is the idea that a social and political theory 195

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of recognition to questions about self-realization and maintain that it is in the quest for recognition by another subject that we seek to fulfill our own identity. To deny someone recognition is to deprive her of human flourishing. Fraser argues that Taylor and Honneth place the concept of recognition in the paradigm of self-realization because they pose questions in terms of the good life rather than justice. She proposes that we conceive of recognition as belonging to the paradigm of justice and treat moral wrongs as questions related to social status: “This means examining institutionalized patterns of cultural value for their effects on the relative standing of social actors” (ibid.: 29). Understanding how patterns of cultural valuation are built in which some people appear inferior, excluded or invisible, allows us to speak of misrecognition or status subordination. Fraser wishes to escape the pitfalls of thinking about recognition in terms of psychological ideas about self-realization and stresses instead that we should conceive of recognition as belonging to institutionalized patterns of cultural valuation. Her insight is into how practices of subordination are related to violations of justice. Fraser was able to develop this important amplification of the paradigm of justice by connecting its sociological and philosophical sides, that is, by showing how we are dealing with a problem of rights that she identifies under the register of parity of participation. By treating misrecognition as a matter of an externally manifested violation of justice, we understand that what we need to do is to change social practices “by deinstitutionalizing patterns of cultural value that impede parity of participation and replacing them with patterns that foster it” (ibid.: 31). Fraser conceptualizes the philosophical problem of recognition under a scenario of social injustice related to patterns of cultural value, institutional forms of interaction and the ways in which that works from such atomistic premises cannot account for human beings’ constitutive dependency on non-instrumental social relations for the many aspects of their identities and agency that touch upon their integrity as moral subjects and agents. Human beings’ moral subjectivity and agency stands in need of the recognitive relations of care, respect, and esteem with others in all phases and spheres of life. Such relations of recognition cannot be accounted for adequately in terms of a model of human beings as self-interested actors or, indeed, in terms of any atomistic model of human agency. On the contrary, such an account requires a model of human agency as constituted in and through relations with others, where one’s formation as an ethical subject and agent is dependent on the responsiveness of others with respect to care for one’s needs and emotions, respect for one’s moral and legal dignity, and esteem for one’s social achievements. In the absence of such responsiveness, Honneth argues, one cannot develop the practical relations to self—self-confidence, self-respect, and self-esteem—that are crucial to one’s status as a competent ethical subject and agent.

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we can change both. Instead of speaking of recognition in terms of needs, she highlights the idea that justice is related to practices that change reality. At the same time, Fraser introduces a meta-level of deliberation which reconstructs Habermasâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; original idea of justice as a reflexive concept. She conceives of this meta-level of deliberation about processes of deliberation as the legitimating device of genuine democratic arguments. In so doing, she gives a new political twist to the idea of the legitimating practices of deliberation as inclusive and democratic. The principle of participatory parity presupposes that all (adult) human beings should be conceived as partners of interaction who possess equal moral worth. On the other hand, in relation to redistribution, Fraser conceives of the institutional economic mechanisms by which resources are systematically denied to excluded groups as a violation of justice. Instead of the Marxist understanding of class in terms of ownership of means of production, Fraser understands class as an order of objective subordination derived from economic arrangements that deny some actors the means and resources they need in order to have participatory parity. III. JUSTICE IN A POST-WESTPHALIAN FRAME Westphalian sovereignty is the concept of nation-state sovereignty based on two principles: territoriality and the exclusion of external actors from domestic authority structures. In the Westphalian system, the interests and goals of states (and later nation-states) were widely assumed to transcend those of any individual citizen or even any ruler. States, in effect, became the primary institutionalized actors in an interstate system of relations. This system harks back to the Peace of Westphalia, signed in 1648, in which, according to the conventional account, the major European powers came together under the rule of Daniel Lewis, and agreed to abide by the principle of territorial integrity. The idea of Westphalian sovereignty and its applicability in practice have been questioned from the mid-20th century onwards from a variety of viewpoints. Much of the debate has turned on the ideas of internationalism and globalization which, in various interpretations, appear to conflict with Westphalian sovereignty (Gross 1948: 39). 197

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In his critical review of Nancy Fraser and Axel Honneth’s book, Thomas McCarthy points out an important problem related to Fraser’s paradigm of justice constructed under the two axes of redistribution and recognition (McCarthy 2005). He writes that Fraser’s double axis design reminds him of the Habermasian separation between system and life-world, which Fraser earlier criticized in her essay “What’s Critical about Critical Theory?”. McCarthy points out that when pressed by Honneth (Fraser and Honneth 2003: 156) on why she adopts only two perspectives, economic and cultural, to the apparent exclusion of the legal and political, Fraser falls back on the two basic forms of societal integration, social and systemic, which play such a central role in Habermas’ construction (McCarthy 2005: 399). Perhaps in response to such criticism, Fraser has revised her approach to the question of the political in her later work on “Redefining Justice in a Globalizing World” (Fraser 2005). Fraser’s integrated theory of justice signaled in its earliest forms her concern with the global context, but she has taken a full postWestphalian turn only recently, after her series of exchanges with Honneth. “Globalization” she argues, “is changing the way we argue about justice” (ibid.: 69). Justice claims can no longer be assessed in terms of what is owed to members of a given community, since the injustices suffered by groups and individuals increasingly have their sources outside the boundaries and the reach of national states. “[T] he grammar of argument has altered’. Whether it is distribution or recognition that is contested, it is no longer a matter of “what is owed . . . [but] who should count as a member and which is the relevant community” (ibid.: 72). She argues that these issues may be addressed through the incorporation of a third, specifically political, dimension to her model, alongside the economic dimension of distribution and the cultural dimension of recognition. The injustices specific to this level she names as injustices of representation. The political is distinct from the other two aspects of participatory parity, her general criterion of justice, insofar as it specifies the reach of the other two, to tell us “who is included and who excluded from the circle of those entitled to a just distribution and reciprocal recognition” (ibid.: 75). Fraser distinguishes two levels of misrepresentation: ordinarypolitical misrepresentation that is the object of much of the literature 198

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on political systems of representation, and the higher order concern with frame-setting, for the Keynesian-Westphalian frame is a powerful instrument of injustice, which gerrymanders political space at the expense of the poor and despised. Her paper identifies a task that is at once urgent and formidable: “How can we integrate struggles against maldistribution, misrecognition, and misrepresentation within a post-Westphalian frame?” (ibid.: 79). The Introduction to her earlier exchanges with Honneth (Fraser and Honneth 2003: 5) closes with a brief comment on their differences over the nature of contemporary capitalism. Honneth claims that the capitalist economic order is subject to an overarching normative recognition order, while Fraser argues that modern global capitalism is relatively autonomous, with its own mechanisms and processes that are not directly so regulated. However, in her contribution to this collection, Fraser moves away from systems talk as she draws on Castells’ model of the network society: “[M]atters, so fundamental to human well-being . . . belong not to “the space of places””—the space in which nation-states reside—but to ““the space of flows”” (Fraser 2005: 81). Within a post-Westphalian model of justice, the all affected principle of representation can no longer depend on state-territoriality (ibid.). Fraser shifts attention to the struggle for ‘meta political democracy’ as she turns her attention and ours to the how of post-Westphalian justice and the demands of a transformative politics of framing that remains dialogic, reflexive and participatory: to processes of collective democratic deliberation. Many of the important struggles of our times relate to legal discrimination and political domination, and what exactly we mean when we speak of legal equality and political democracy. Furthermore, if we seek to leave behind the Westphalian frame of analysis and turn to a global scenario, as Fraser among many now argues, then politics and law not only appear as vital dimensions of justice but dimensions we would have to comprehend in close connection with one another, since the rights of individuals, regardless of citizenship, are secured in part through the mediation of international law. Needless to say, this interrelationship also lies at the core of Habermas’ concerns in Between Facts and Norms (Habermas 1996). At first, Habermas dealt with the interrelationship between law and 199

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politics under the scenario of the nation-state. His basic idea, which he referred to as the co-originality of rights and democracy, is that individual autonomy and political power can only be secured through the mediation of law and that it is the procedure of lawmaking as a collective exercise that begets legitimacy for the rule of law. In this work Habermas differentiates between communicative power (in Arendtian terms) and administrative power. His view of power as the associational ways in which societies transform their self-regulating practices is embedded in a decentered notion of the public sphere and its dynamics. With the principle of popular sovereignty, Habermas argued: “[all] governmental authority derives from the people, the individual’s right to an equal opportunity to participate in democratic will formation is combined with legally institutionalized practice[s] of self-determination . . . and . . . this principle forms the hinge between the system of rights and the construction of a constitutional democracy.” (Ibid.: 169) Habermas sees the existence of rights as institutionalizing the communicative conditions for reasonable political will-formation. He recognized that the nation-state once represented a response to the historical challenge to find a functional equivalent for earlier forms of social integration; yet when we move beyond the nation-state to the processes of globalization, as we must, we are left with a void. The question is how to fill the mediating role of the rule of law in the schema of global politics and this is where Fraser steps in. To fill this void, Fraser center-stages the idea of participatory parity at the most abstract level of a theory of justice. In her Spinoza Lectures she places the political dimension of representation firmly alongside that of redistribution and recognition. She acknowledges that in her previous work she did not see that she needed to introduce this third dimension more integrally into her paradigm of justice, and that to do so she has to return to the meta-level of the framework of justice. The intuition she articulates is that the political is about establishing criteria of social belonging’ as well as processes of ‘establishing decision rules and that questions of representation constitute the third dimension of justice alongside those of redistribution and recognition. If we now face the challenge of thinking about justice in a global frame, we need to address normative standards of representation and misrepresentation 200

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to deal with the people’s right to participate in political arenas on a par with others. With predatory states, transnational private powers, transnational corporations, international speculators and the way the global economy dictates systems of social interaction, the participatory imparity of more than half of the world population has now become a stark and devastating reality. In order to address and redress this injustice, Fraser focuses on struggles against restrictive framing. By extending and radicalizing the demands of justice, she finds the means to bring the political back into the conceptualization of global democracy. Fraser uses her well-established idea of participatory parity to confront problems of misrepresentation at this global level. It allows her to face questions of substance and procedure at the same time while making apparent the mutual entwinement of these two aspects. As a form of political authority it offers a substantive principle of justice that helps us evaluate existing social arrangements; as a procedural standard it enables us to evaluate the democratic legitimacy of norms. From the methodological point of view, it allows us to go back and forth from first order to second order questions, and these dialogical moves articulate the need to strengthen the interrelationship between democracy and justice in a radically reflexive template. The transition from thinking about justice in the frame of the modern territorial state to that of a global order is not easy to accomplish. The political dimension of representation has been as crucial a dimension of justice in the national framework as it is in the global and reflecting on the meta-issue of the frame does not begin with the global. The nation was never as naturalized as it normally appears in retrospect and the dismantling of institutionalized obstacles to the participation of some people on a par with others has been a recurrent feature of past struggles. The question of who is included and who excluded from the circle of those entitled to make justice claims on one another, and the metaquestion of the procedures which structure such public processes of frame setting and misframing, have been the stuff of political argument from the start of the modern era, even if it is true that globalization makes this aspect of the grammar of justice more visible. We do not have to go along with Fraser’s ultimatist slogan, “no redistribution or recognition without representation”, to see the close 201

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connections between these dimensions of justice. Fraser’s transformative approach seeks both to change the boundaries of the “who” of justice in the light of the fact that many injustices in a globalizing world are not territorial in character, and to democratize the ways in which these frames are constructed and boundaries are drawn. Fraser’s tentative solution to post-Westphalian frame setting, the all affected principle, holds that all those affected by a given social structure or institution have moral standing as subjects of justice in relation to it. The principle of doing justice to those affected contrasts with a liberal conception of the public sphere in which the right to express a view upon an issue is not conditional upon one’s direct interest in it. However, it leads to problems of determining who is affected and how claims to be affected are assessed. We expect further deliberations around this thorny question of applying democratic processes of determination to the “who” of justice claims. IV. CONCLUSION: CRITICAL THEORY, THE PUBLIC SPHERE AND GLOBAL JUSTICE In a further essay, “Transnationalizing the Public Sphere: On Legitimacy and Efficacy of Public Opinion in a Post-Westphalian World” (2007), Fraser returns to her initial concerns about the political character of the public sphere. She acknowledges that this concept was first introduced to give an account of how our communicative practices contribute to a decentered normative notion of justice. It matters, accordingly, who participates and on what terms. As a mechanism for holding state officials accountable for their actions, the public sphere should somehow correlate with sovereign power. When dealing with transnational public spheres, it is no longer adequate to associate the notion of communicative power with sovereign states, but it is a complicated question to figure out how persons who are not considered members of concrete political communities could have equal rights to participate in political life. To address this problem, Fraser argues against both an empiricist approach that sacrifices normative force and an externalist approach that sacrifices critical traction. The alternative she puts forward is to design a critical-theoretical approach that “seeks to locate normative standards and emancipatory political possibilities 202

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precisely within the historically unfolding constellationâ&#x20AC;? (Fraser 2007). It is on this basis that Fraser begins to rethink the relationship between politics and law in the global context. To be sure, we need to understand how rights have become a space of meanings about wider inclusion than can be seen in a strictly national frame of analysis. A more sociological approach, like that adopted in T.S. Marshallâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s theory of democratic rights, could offer Fraser some resource to think of sovereignty beyond the constraints of the nation-state. The principle of parity of participation would need to be developed in connection with two differentiated notions of sovereignty. On the one hand, there is the institutional frame of international law designed as a process of social inclusion to protect individuals beyond the scope of the nation-state. This might be thought of as an external concept of sovereignty. On the other hand, the mediating role of international law deals with how nation-states themselves need to comply with agreements about what needs to be done to solve issues of internal justice. This would be an internal concept of sovereignty. That sovereignty is empirically changing should give us some hope as we start imagining new ways of conceptualizing it. Think of the case when even a superpower cannot guarantee the security and welfare of its own population except with the help of other nations. It would appear that in such a case sovereignty is losing its classical meaning. The maintenance of law and order within the nation-state needs now to be re-conceptualized to see how the global demands of justice cope with the protection of the rights of world citizens. This is because at the global scale, one crucial institutional protection persons can have as individuals lies in how their claims for new rights of inclusion should be protected by international law and by agreements among nationstates to enforce it. The authoritative source of legitimation lies in the idea of a world public sphere. Consider, for example, how the US and UK sought the cooperation of other countries in their decision to go to war in and against Iraq. Few countries were on their side, most were against. The moral authority behind the critique of unilateralism derived from the many expressions of dissent developed in different public spheres. What was most interesting was the process of decoupling political authority from this exercise of force and its connection instead with the legitimating processes of deliberation in a world society. Spain, whose 203

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civil society was in the main against the decision of former Prime Minister Aznar to support the invasion of Iraq, saw the government lose power in the elections that followed. The contradictory ways in which public opinion recovered from the marginalization of opposition to the war has led the international press (and more slowly the internal American press) to publish widely on the lack of legitimacy behind the US and UK decision to go to war. It was in relation not only to international law as such (with all its ambiguities of interpretation and application) but also to normative standards developed within an international public sphere that the moral and political authority of this act of force has been critically evaluated. Fraser does not have a particularly optimistic view of the normative role of the public sphere in transforming classical political concepts. The key issue is whether the public sphere has the capacity to be a site in which new meanings and new articulations of political practices are generated. The institutional basis of a world public sphere needs the mediation of a reconstructive process that can show us how international law can become a legitimate order when its reflexivity becomes the condition of its institutionalization.2 Fraser’s own account of justice would have to integrate the idea of a world public sphere to explain how the concept of parity of participation could be considered as a new stage in the development of the right of political participation and a new dimension of human rights for world citizens. Fraser argues that because we do not possess a vision of the role of the public sphere, “we have lost the capacity to use that category critically—in a way that has political bite” (Fraser 2007). However, the most important question about the space of a world public sphere is whether actors can acquire the capacity to act politically within it and how in turn these performances can lead to new processes of lending authority to 2 ] A further of this issue is offered by Habermas when he comments in Between Facts and Norms that both Weber and Parsons operated with a notion that ideas and interests (Weber) or cultural values and motives (Parsons) interpenetrate in social orders through certain collective practices. The reason why Habermas follows Parsons in particular is because Parsons was concerned with the evolution of law in terms of its function of securing solidarity. According to Habermas: “Parsons understands modern law as a transmission belt by which solidarity—the demanding structures of mutual recognition we know from face to face interaction—is transmitted in abstract but binding form to the anonymous and systematically mediated relationship of a complex society.” (Habermas 1996: 76) Parsons relied heavily on Marshall’s account of the gradual extension of rights of inclusion in order to understand how collective institutions fostered practices of solidarity.

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the world community. Claims of inclusion and considerations of how new processes of inclusion could take shape, need the participation of those excluded actors who possess the imagination to make us look at things through alternative perspectives. If we go back to Habermas’ interest in how certain practices provide new clues as where to go from here, we would argue that we cannot dispense with the category of the world public sphere in thinking about any possible transformation. Even though we do not know how this could be accomplished, it is clear that we would have to revisit most of our political categories and see the new forms and shapes they take as they articulate around the idea of world political authority. If it is true that constitutional norms and legal constructs were first introduced by elites, as Habermas has argued, then his commentary about the kind of law making which anticipates the change in the state of consciousness that is triggered among the addressees in the course of its implementation (Habermas 2006), is highly pertinent to this conception of the world public sphere as a sphere that relates to rights. A reflexive internalization takes place when innovatory legal propositions are put into public debate. These processes entail a learning process in which nations, as it were, change their view of themselves and reconstructed practices of sovereignty allow independent actors to discover the benefit of acting as world citizens and members of an international cooperative community. The defense of the concept of a world public sphere may be considered along the lines of developing a decentered notion of political authority. This means decoupling the conceptual linkage between national law and the state’s monopoly on legitimate force in favor of a supranational law that still gets its force by means of the sanctions monopolized by nation states, but is now given authority by the way citizens recognize themselves as authors of international laws. It would certainly be difficult to imagine a new political constitution of a world society without some normative idea of a world public sphere providing the mediation between international law and world politics. This is one way, we think, in which Fraser’s abiding concerns with the politics of the public sphere might be integrated with her more recent thinking about post-Westphalian democratic justice.

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LITERATURE CITED Fraser, N. (1988). “What’s critical about critical theory?: The case of Habermas and gender” In Feminism as critique: On the politics of gender, ed. Seyla Benhabib and Drucilla Cornell, 31–56. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. Fraser, N. (1997). “Rethinking the public sphere: A contribution to the critique of actually existing democracy.” In Justice interruptus: Critical reflections on the “post-socialist” condition, 69–98. New York and London: Routledge. Fraser, N. (2005). “Reframing justice in a globalizing world.” New Left Review 36: 69–88. Fraser, N. (2007). “Transnationalizing the public sphere: On the legitimacy and efficacy of public opinion in a post-Westphalian world.” Theory, Culture and Society 24, no. 4: 1–24. Fraser, N. and A. Honneth. (2003). Redistribution or recognition? A political-philosophical exchange. London and New York: Verso. Gross, L. (1948). “The peace of Westphalia.” The American Journal of International Law 42, no. 1: 20–41. Habermas, J. (1992). “Further reflections on the public sphere,” trans. Thomas Burger. In Habermas and the public sphere, ed. Craig Calhoun, 421–461. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press. Habermas, J. (1996). Between facts and norms: Contributions to a discourse theory of law and democracy. Trans. William Rehg. Cambridge: Massachusetts: MIT Press. Habermas, J. (2006). The divided west. Trans. Ciaran Cronin. Cambridge: Polity Press.

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McCarthy, T. (2005). “Review of Fraser and Honneth.” Ethics 115, no. 2: 397–402. Rawls, J. (1971). A theory of justice. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. Rawls, J. (1993). Political liberalism. 2nd ed. New York: Columbia University Press. Taylor, C. (1994). “The politics of recognition.” In Multiculturalism: Examining the politics of recognition, ed. Amy Gutmann, 25–73. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. FOR INQUIRIES, WRITE TO: The Managing Editor Liceo Journal of Higher Education Research Liceo de Cagayan University Cagayan de Oro City, 9000 Philippines Email: liceojournal@yahoo.com.ph Fax: 63+ (08822) 727459 URL: http://www.ejournals.ph http://www.liceojournal.com

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Vol. 6 No. 2 December 2010 ISSN: 2094-1064 CHED Accredited Research Journal, Category B

Liceo Journal of Higher Education Research Social Science Section

Philosophy’s Entanglement in Metaphysics and Ontology and Their Relationship to Science and Technology in Heideggerian Philosophy EDDIE R. BABOR eddiebabor@yahoo.com Full-Fledged Professor of Philosophy Director, Publication Office Holy Name University Tagbilaran City

Date Submitted: Apr. 16, 2010 Final Revision Complied: July 6, 2010

Plagiarism Detection: Passed License No. 944146510808541 Original: 81.13%

Abstract - This paper argues that science and technology have both failed to acknowledge Being according to Heidegger. This failure is underscored by Heidegger in Being and Time and his post-Being and Time works. He laments that science and technology should have shown due credence to a relationship of difference between Being and beings which he calls ontological difference and that science and technology should have, likewise, placed a considerable dose of importance to a relationship of identity – a relationship between Being and the human person. This is why Heidegger has refused to call man man, but Dasein. He places man above the ambiance of rationality. To him, man is a process; he is in a process of fulfilling his mission as the guardian of Being. But this goal is somehow shattered by science and technology. To become a guardian of Being, Dasein should embrace meditative thinking rather than calculative thinking. It is Heidegger’s desire that both science and technology should have served as pathways where the Being of beings and the beings of Being can be gleaned through. But because of science and technology’s rigorous utility of calculative thinking, they both proceeded to deprive man of the terminal point of his 208

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existence, i.e., to become the guardian of Being. Instead, they both reduced man to a mere commodity. Technology authors the resurgence of technological beings, viz.: computers, cell phones, microwaves, palm pilots, fax machines, DVDs, VCDs, among others. Consequently, Heidegger laments that science and technology have succeeded in enframing (Gestell) man and eventually they both have achieved to dehumanize man. But this paper maintains that Heidegger is neither antiscience nor anti-technology. Heidegger does not deny the enormous contributions of science and technology to us. However, he is also quick to warn us of the dangers that science and technology may bring to us like inventions that intervene and disrupt the intrinsic flux of nature, including the human body, or those that could bring grand scales of destruction to life, viz.: instruments of war that could surely bring mass destruction to any form of life, hungry and deadly germs that could result from scientific experiments, specifically in bioethics. So, to dispel these disastrous effects man must engage in meditative thinking to soften the appalling and abominable blows of science and technology. INTRODUCTION Undeniably, science and technology readily provide the cozy ambiance where the human person could fully exercise his creativity. It is in science and technology that man finds the indubitable gratification of his power to supply his wants and needs. So, what’s science? What’s technology? Has not science invaded into our private lives? Has not technology gain access in dictating the kind of thinking and willing we have to make? Have science and technology not succeeded in robbing us of our individuality, of our uniqueness, or of our dignity? But how does Heidegger understand science? And how does he assess the mighty power of technology? I. Science according to Heidegger In What Is Metaphysics, Heidegger argues: “Our existence – in the community of researchers, teachers, and students - is determined 209

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by science. What happens to us, essentially, in the grounds of our existence, when science becomes our passion?” 1 But has science truly become our passion? Has it succeeded in permeating into all human affairs and endeavors so that every thing should accounted in the spectacle of science? Does science have a place in any philosophical undertaking? Has philosophy something to contribute towards the improvement of science? Heidegger opines: “The greatness and superiority of natural science during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries rests in the fact that all scientists were philosophers.”2 In trying to place science in a particular epoch, Heidegger observes that medieval and modern sciences are more or less the same in that both deal with concepts and facts. “Hence, it remains basically inadequate to try to distinguish modern from medieval science by calling it the science of facts.”3 What differs between the two pertains to “. . . the manner of setting up the test and intent with which it is undertaken and in which it is grounded.”4 To Heidegger, modern science is characterized by the following, viz.: (1) It is a science of facts; (2) It engages in experimental research; and (3) It upholds calculating and measuring investigation.5 Based on these characteristics, Heidegger contends that “modern science is mathematical.”6 In this vein, the mathematical revolves around the characteristics of modern science. This means that facts, experiments, calculation, and measurement are all treated as mathematical.7 Here, it is good to know what Heidegger means by mathematical. Heidegger is quick to trace the etymological derivation of the term mathematical from its Greek source which is mathemata which means “what can be learned.”8 In this, Heidegger asserts that the mathematical has two meanings, namely: (1) What can be learned in the manner we have indicated, and only in that way; and (2) The manner of learning and the process itself.9 So, what is the service of the mathematical to philosophy? To Heidegger: “We inquire, therefore, about the metaphysical meaning of the mathematical in order to evaluate its importance for modern metaphysics.”10 Heidegger is sharp in his position that “mathematics could not become the standard of philosophy….”11 As a philosopher, he is not interested in mathematics per se but of the mathematical. This leads him 210

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to argue, thus: “. . . modern natural science, modern mathematics, and modern metaphysics sprang from the same root of the mathematical in the wider sense.”12 But among these three disciplines, it is metaphysics that must dig deeper into the mathematical. Says Heidegger: Because metaphysics, of these three, reaches farthest to beings in totality – and because at the same time it also reaches deepest, toward the Being of beings as such, therefore it is precisely metaphysics that must dig down to the bedrock of its mathematical base and ground….13 Hence, between mathematics and the mathematical it is the latter that Heidegger puts more emphasis. Heidegger writes: The new form of modern science did not rise because mathematics became an essential determinant. Rather, that mathematics, and a particular kind of mathematics [analytical geometry of Descartes, infinitesimal calculus of Newton, differential calculus of Leibniz], could come into play and had to come into play is a consequence of the mathematical project.14 As Heidegger disqualifies mathematics to be the standard of philosophy, he also asserts that philosophy cannot provide a ground for the sciences. Obviously, Heidegger is aware that science pursues its undertakings through mathematics inasmuch as it treats its objects of inquiry through numerical measurement.15 This leads him to maintain: “Philosophy can never be measured by the standard of the idea of science.”16 As has been presented, the mathematical play a vital role in science, mathematics, and metaphysics or philosophy in general. It must be made clear here, however, that Heidegger has reduced science to the auspices of natural science specifically in the works of by Galileo and Newton. This allows Heidegger to posit that it is in its inquiry about nature that science (natural science) consists within itself the mathematical as it projects about nature. Simply put, science, for Heidegger, is the mathematical projection of nature. Now, since 211

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metaphysics is in itself a science it would be easy for Heidegger to contend that science is in itself metaphysical. True enough, it is Heidegger’s conviction that metaphysics is the ground of sciences. In this light, it is not hard to see the consistency of Heidegger’s claim that the mathematical bears the relation between science and metaphysics. How is being treated in science (natural science)? And what is the subject-matter of metaphysics? Heidegger is firm in his conviction that “Philosophy is metaphysics.”17 He writes: Philosophy is metaphysics. Metaphysics thinks of being as a whole – the world, man, God – with respect to Being, with respect to the belonging together of beings in Being. Metaphysics thinks beings as beings in a manner of a representational thinking that gives ground. For since the beginning, philosophy, and with that beginning, the Being of beings has shown itself as the ground (arche, aition, principle).18 Now, since philosophy is metaphysics Heidegger immediately wishes to drive the point that the variance between science (natural) and metaphysics is that the former deals with the ontic (being) while the latter deals with the ontological (Being). Sciences that are non-philosophical (positive sciences) deal with beings in the context of their regional ontology.19 Through regional ontology, these sciences are able to determine their respective subject area and consequently gain the ability to project their respective basic concepts. Thus, biology, physics, chemistry, zoology, psychology, sociology, anthropology, among others, are all interested in being, and thus, deals with beings. However, inasmuch as all beings intrinsically have Being just as Being always exists in the context of beings, so that there can be no Beingless beings in the same manner that there is no beingless Being, Heidegger contends that metaphysics serves as the ground of these sciences. He remarks: The development of philosophy into the independent sciences that, however, interdependently communicate among themselves ever more markedly, is the legitimate completion of philosophy. Philosophy is ending in the present age. It 212

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has found its place in the scientific attitude of socially active humanity.20 For Heidegger, any research or anything which man does in his attempt to understand beings as beings is always metaphysics. And in the manner of manâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s attempt to understand anything in so far as it is (being as being) he cannot help but be influenced by a sort of a philosophical attitude in which he bases his metaphysical interpretation of his discovery. This means that Heidegger sees the presence of metaphysics in any discovery in the different fields of learning be it in physics, chemistry, biology, medicine, zoology, industry, agriculture, among others. For Heidegger, philosophy has evolved into the sciences.21 This evolution is underscored by Heidegger in the context of philosophical attitude on the part of the physicists, chemists, biologists, physicians, zoologists, industrialists, agriculturists, among others in their discoveries. In other words, Heidegger is driving home the point that without metaphysics all these sciences can never have a rightful and an authoritative claim in their discoveries since what they embrace as their discoveries are dependent on their attitudes which Heidegger construes as philosophical. Hence, this philosophical attitude should have been ever present in Alexander Fleming when he discovered penicillin; in Priestly when he discovered oxygen; in Roentgen when he discovered X-ray; in Finlay and company when they discovered terramycin; in Lippershey when he discovered telescope; in Bundy when he discovered time recorder or bundy clock; in Mitterhoffer when he discovered typewriter; in Taylor and Young when they discovered radar; in Niepse, Sr. when he discovered photography; in Laennec when he discovered stethoscope; in Goodyear when he discovered rubber; in Edison when he discovered movie machine; in Nobel when he discovered dynamite; in Aspdin when he discovered cement; in John Walker when he discovered match; in Thornton when he discovered gun; in Pascal when he discovered adding machine; and in Bushnell when he discovered submarine. What all these scientists invented are nothing other than beings. Daseinâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s scientific existence revolves around what Heidegger calls a trinity, viz.: (1) relation to the world; (2) attitude; and (3) irruption. 22 He remarks: 213

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That to which the relation to the world refers are beings themselves-and nothing besides. That from which every attitude takes its guidance are beings themselves–and nothing further. That which the scientific confrontation in the irruption occurs are beings themselves-and beyond that nothing. 23 Heidegger continues to argue: But what is remarkable is that, precisely in the way scientific man secures to himself what is most properly his, he speaks of something different. What should be examined are beings only, and besides that – nothing; beings alone, and further – nothing; solely beings, and beyond that nothing.24 With the efforts and discoveries of scientists, Heidegger laments that something is faulty in their attitude. To Heidegger, the modern scientists and even the ancient ones have focused their attention only on being25 and have put Being into utter oblivion. Besides, science readily and willfully tosses the issue of nothing out of its interest. To Heidegger, “… science wishes to know nothing of the nothing.”26 “The nothing is rejected precisely by science, given up as a nullity.” 27 Science, indeed, preoccupies itself only with something; it hates nothing. But where does the something in science stamp from? Has philosophy something to do with it? Can science justifiably claim independence from philosophy? Once Descartes had written: “. . . the whole of philosophy is like a tree: the roots are metaphysics, the trunk is physics, and the branches that issue from the trunk are all the other sciences….” But to this, Heidegger poses a deeper problem: “In what soil do the roots of the tree of philosophy take hold?”28 Without any reservation, Heidegger singles out metaphysics as the roots of philosophy. In order to reinforce this claim, Heidegger asserts that: “Metaphysics thinks beings as beings.”29 This means that “. . . metaphysics always represents beings only as beings.”30 What about Being? Can’t metaphysics accommodate it (Being)? In this sensitive problem Heidegger opines: From its beginning to its completion, the propositions 214

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of metaphysics have been strangely involved in a persistent confusion of beings and Being. This confusion. . . must be considered an event and not a mere mistake. . . . Owing to this persistent confusion, the claim that metaphysics poses the question of Being lands us in utter error.31 Heidegger realized later that as the ground of ontic sciences, metaphysics fails to claim any marked difference since it deals only with beings in so far as they are beings. This led Heidegger to abandon his arguments in fundamental ontology and resorted to come to terms with metontology. In metontology Heidegger earned further realization that there is a glaring phenomenon of recoil (Umschlag) at the heart of fundamental ontology. In metontology, Heidegger finds ontology turning back on itself as it wrestles to confront the question on the very idea of questioning, thus: “What is Being?” “How does Being differ from being (ontological difference)? This caused Heidegger, in Being and Time, to commission Dasein to inquire about Being. Since Heidegger gives ontological priority to the question of Being rather than of being, he finds ontology superior than metaphysics. Whereas metaphysics deals with the beings of Being, ontology deals with the Being of beings. Thus says Heidegger: “Ontology is now the name for the question about the Being of beings.”32 This, however, does not mean that Heidegger abandons metaphysics. In fact he contends: If ontology as the question about the Being of beings does not question the ground upon which it stands, the sense of being itself, and does not become grounded in a fundamental ontology by means of this question, it remains naïve and opaque.33 This means that without metaphysics or fundamental ontology, ontology per se, which questions not about the various regions of beings – because it is the job of metaphysics to do so – but about the unity of Being within these multiplicity (various regions of beings) cannot stand alone. It needs the solid foundation of metaphysics – this is why metaphysics is fundamental ontology. It is easy for Heidegger to posit in Being and Time that the 215

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unconcealment of Being can only come to the fore through the mediation of Dasein. This is the period where Heideggerian Scholars claim that it is the early Heidegger (Heidegger I) who is rigidly convinced that Being can only be “let be” through Dasein. But the later Heidegger (Heidegger II) – as the same scholars keenly observed – had to change the course of his thinking, i.e., from metaphysics to metontology. “It is through metontology that Heidegger realizes that philosophy is not scientific, and that he started to doubt if, indeed, science is the mathematical projection of nature.”34 This drives Heidegger to a head-on collision against the problem of ontological difference, i.e., the difference between Being and being. And this underscores what is technically called the kehre or the turning point of Heidegger’s philosophical career. As Heidegger’s kehre sip into the deepest recesses of his philosophical prowess, Heidegger succumbs to admit of his eventual failure to provide the sciences with metaphysical grounding so that decisively he turned his back from metaphysics35 in favor of ontology. It is in ontology – not in metaphysics – that Heidegger finds Being as truly the ground of everything. “Ontology enables [Heidegger] to justify philosophy as scientific.”36 Thus, “whereas the ontic sciences proceed on the basis of regional ontology, taking as object some realm of being, scientific philosophy, (i.e., ontology) takes as its object Being itself, although Being is not an object at all. . . .”37 In sum, it is through ontology not through metaphysics that Heidegger succeeded in justifying philosophy as a science. II. Technology According to Heidegger In The Question Concerning Technology, Heidegger maintains that the central concern in the twentieth century is the humankind’s relationship to technology. In this no-easy-read-essay, Heidegger seeks to analyze and evaluate the essence of technology. In this direction, Heidegger contends: “. . . technology is not equivalent to the essence of technology.”38 “Indeed, Heidegger maintained that the essence of technology is bound up with revealing the totality of being; in the ‘laying bare’ of phenomena.”39 In this light, Heidegger 216

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takes technology as a means of understanding Being. Technology, for Heidegger, can be a good vehicle for Dasein to come to terms with his creative powers. Technology, then, is a modest and a noble pathway through which the Being of beings and the beings of Being can be gleaned. But how is this made possible? For Heidegger, truth – which he calls “clearing” – is graciously intertwined in technology. In this regard, it is good to go back to the archaic way which technology was viewed in relation to truth. During the Aristotelian era, the mode of thinking about truth was fashioned according to the lingo of poiesis, phronesis, and praxis. This is why until now, philosophers still use the following binaries: techne-poiesis and phronesis-praxis. In its elementary interpretation, poiesis means the way of knowing the truth – which Aristotle calls alethia, while techne means the art of knowing (not necessarily the truth). Plainly, techne is the act of knowing.40 To Heidegger, there lies no disparity in the meanings of techne and poiesis. The Greek word “. . . techne means “bringing forth” [and it is] very much the same way that art or poiesis is a bringing forth.”41 In this regard: Techne refers to the activities or skills of the craftsmen, but also to the arts of the mind and the fine arts. Both techne and poiesis, as bringing forth are human activities aimed at revealing; both concern alethia, the revealing or the truth that is revealed.42 Heidegger maintains: “Technology is a mode of revealing. Technology comes to presence in the realm where revealing and unconcealment take place, where alethia, truth, happens.”43 Now, it appears that Heidegger is not satisfied with his explanation of the tandem of techne-poiesis inasmuch as he also takes refuge to another pair, i.e., phronesis-praxis. To Heidegger, phronesis means a way of being while praxis is action or conduct of one’s own life.44 If we combine the two sets of binaries, viz.: techne-poiesis and phronesis-praxis, the effect would be the merging of technology with human existence. This is the reason why Heidegger cautioned us 217

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earlier that the central concern in the 20th Century is mankind’s relatedness to technology. So, what has technology offered to man? How did Heidegger reckon with technology in the context of thinking? In what way can Heidegger’s thoughts be of help to us in this technological age where almost everybody is enmeshed with technological devices? True enough, man’s passion to be creative specifically in the ambit of technology could result to a dastardly act of human devastation. In The Question Concerning Technology, Heidegger opines that “the essence of technology is by no means anything technological.” To him, technology’s driving force is not located in machines themselves, nor even in various human activities that are associated with modern modes of production.45 In this scenario, Heidegger gladly dishes out his insights on thinking. Bluntly, he qualifies a technological society as “thought-poor.” And he is dead serious in forwarding his fatal blow that what makes a technological society thought-poor is because its citizens are bent on the quickest and cheapest way of subsistence.46 Heidegger is aware that “even while we are thoughtless, we do not give up our capacity to think.”47 Consequently, in our “thoughtlessness,” we resort to neglect (lie fallow) our thinking capability. Our thinking power is right here within us; however, we fail to cultivate it and eventually leave it unused. Expressed differently, what makes us thought-poor or even thought-less is because we are intrinsically “thinkingful.” The capacity to think is right here at the core of our being. Thus, man – the Dasein - is inherently a thinking being. In fact, Heidegger remarks that man’s destiny is to think. For Heidegger, the ground of thoughtlessness is man’s flight-fromthought. It is Heidegger’s conviction that “man today is in flight from thinking.”48 He, however, cautiously says that the contemporary man will surely deny of his flight from thinking. Such can be easily justified through the far-reaching schemes and researches done in science. But Heidegger is quick to retort the justification in that he believes that thinking in science is not the same brand and caliber of thinking in philosophy. Heidegger argues that thinking in science requires calculation while thinking in philosophy requires meditation. Here, Heidegger speaks of two kinds of thinking, namely, (1) Calculative; and (2) 218

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Meditative. To Heidegger, calculative thinking has the following features:49 It remains calculation even if it neither works with numbers nor uses adding machines; it computes; its computation is always novel, ever more promising, and more economical; it races from one prospect to the next; it never stops. Thus, it never collects itself; it does not contemplate on the meaning of being; and It is the result of planning and investigation. On the contrary, meditative thinking has the following nuances:50 It contemplates on the meaning which reigns in everything that is. It is the kind of thinking which the contemporary man misses. It does not just happen by itself any more than does calculative thinking. It requires greater effort just as it demands more practice. It is in dire need of a delicate care than any other genuine craft of whatever sort. It is a thinking that is capable of waiting (like a farmer who patiently waits for the growing and ripening of the seed that he has planted). To Heidegger, Dasein is capable of meditative thinking. To him “…man is a thinking, that is, a meditating being.”51 Meditative Thinking in Relation to Man’s Rootedness to His Native Land Here, Heidegger keenly observes that man, now, is being threatened to be uprooted from his native or indigenous foundation (he cites here the diaspora of the Germans. Many were driven from Germany just as many also stay behind and continued to settle in their native land). But Heidegger claims that there is no difference if one leaves his native land and settle somewhere else and stay behind one’s native land. Heidegger immediately validates this claim by forwarding his position that in the advent of technology, man’s way of life has diametrically changed. Thus, even those who stayed behind their homeland also suffer the same fate as those who left. In other words, both are exposed to technology, namely, radio, newspapers, television, magazines, and the like. Heidegger supports his contention through the contention of a poet named, Johann Peter Hebel who wrote: “We are plants which – whether we like to admit it to ourselves or not – must with our roots 219

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rise out of the earth in order to bloom in the ether and to bear fruit.”52 He translates Hebel’s statement as follows: The poet means to say: For a truly joyous and salutary human work to flourish, man must be able to mount from the depth of his home ground up into the ether. Ether here means the free air of the high heavens, the open realm of the spirit.53 Based on the context of Hebel’s claim, Heidegger raises the following questions: “Does meditative spirit still reign over the land? Is there still a life-giving homeland in whose ground man may stand rooted, that is, be autochthonic? Thus, Heidegger’s blatant observation: Whether one is autochthonic or not, one cannot escape from the growing power of technology that has attained success in changing the lifestyles of all – whether one remains in one’s homeland or becomes a foreigner or alien in another land. In Heidegger’s own term, it is exactly the atomic age that causes man’s loss of autochthony. Science, Heidegger does not deny, successfully controls the life of man. It has determined man’s relation to man and man’s relation to the world. But he is convinced of the promise of scientists that atomic energy or nuclear science is not at all disastrous; it can rather bring man to a new realm of progress and a new era of happiness. Therefore, for man to take advantage of what science and technology can offer him in relation to autochthony, man must realize that science and technology has reduced the world to a mere backyard. Man stops to remain native in his homeland; man now is globalized – man is internationalized. Meditative Thinking in Relation to Science and Technology Heidegger argues: No single man, no group of men, no commission of prominent statesmen, scientists, and technicians, no conference of leaders of commerce and industry, can brake or direct the progress of history in the atomic age. No merely human 220

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organization is capable of gaining dominion over it.54 In raising the aforesaid remark, Heidegger asks: “Is man, then, a defenseless and perplexed victim at the mercy of the irresistible superior power of technology?”55 His answer is: “He would be if man today abandons any intention to pit meditative thinking decisively against merely calculative thinking.”56 So, definitely man’s only salvation from being totally victimized by the power of technology is to resort to meditative thinking. Inasmuch as man’s decision to be autochthonic cannot spare him from becoming another victim of technology, Heideger proposes a new way of looking at autochthony. To Heidegger, this is possible through: (1) Releasement toward things;57 and (2) Openness to the mystery.58 Heidegger humbly confesses that man undeniably needs technical devices or scientific gadgets. But man must avoid of being firmly shackled to these devises. It is Heidegger’s advice that despite man’s utter need of technical devices man must avoid of being enslaved by them. This is what Heidegger mean by “releasement toward things.” It is man’s affinity to technical devices in the context of “yes” and “no.” Yes, because man needs them. No, because man should be cautious enough not to be enslaved by them (here, Heidegger sounds like another Herbert Marcuse. The latter claims that science and technology has reduced man to a mere commodity. Thus, Marcuse believes that man buys himself in the market. Man’s possession of what technology can give him assures man of his dignity and elevates his status in society. Brand new and beautiful cars, jewelries, spacious and exotic houses are sure trademarks of man’s status symbol in society).59 Like Heidegger, Marcuse laments that technical gadgets become man’s gods – man becomes technology’s slave. In Heidegger’s new vision of technology, he writes: We let technical devices enter our daily life, and at the same time leave them outside, that is, let them alone, as things which are nothing absolute but remains dependent upon something higher (man). I would call this comportment toward technology which expresses ‘yes’ and at the same time ‘no’ by an old word, releasement toward things.60

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Through “releasement toward things,” we can spark meaning in our dependence on entities zuhanden: ready-to-hand (technological devices). Thus, if calculative thinking fails to afford man the meaning of reality, calculative thinking sanitizes the mess by allowing man to see his relatedness to technological devices in a different mode. Although scientists are not keen in claiming this, but Heidegger confidently believes that there is something “hidden” (mysterious) in science and technology. This “hiddenness” in science is something that should enable us to find meaning in it. To this, Heidegger maintains: The meaning pervading technology hides itself. But if we explicitly and continuously heed the fact that such hidden meaning touches us everywhere in the world of technology, we stand at once within the realm of that which hides itself from us, and hides itself just in approaching us. That which shows itself and at the same time withdraws in the essential trait of what we call the mystery. I call the comportment which enables us to keep open to the meaning hidden in technology, openness to the mystery.61 Heidegger is convinced that releasement toward things and openness to the mystery belong together; they are correlative terms. Through them man can dwell in the world in a different manner. Through them, man can soundly accept technology without being endangered by it. Through them, a new autochthony is possible.

III. Effects of Technology In this paper, I settle to conjecture at least three glaring consequences of technology to man and his society. They are as follows: (1) Resurgence or emergence of technological beings; (2) Enframing; and (3) Dehumanization of the members of the human species. (1). Resurgence/Emergence of Technological Beings It is undeniably true that we are increasingly disposed to a 222

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technological culture where almost everybody’s life is affected by a rabid disease, i.e., attachment to technological gadgets. Writes a Heideggerian scholar: From computers to cell phones, microwaves to palm pilots, fax machines to DVD [VCD] players, technology pervades nearly every part of our lives. We use it at work. We use it to communicate. We use it to travel. We even use it for entertainment. Nearly everything we do involves some sort of technology. In fact, most of us would be lost without it.62 Yes, in all nooks and corners of human concerns, technology has successful claimed its might. There is technology everywhere. From agriculture to industry, from medicine to theology, from engineering to lawyering, from nursing to policing; yes, indeed, from life to death, or from the womb to the tomb, there is technology (cremation is a good example of high-tech annihilation of a cadaver). It is worthless to deny that nature now lost its intrinsic power to be powerful. It is now mechanized. Gadgets, gigantic, and super-power machines are invented to change the course of nature. In agriculture, you have hydroelectric dams and hydroelectric plants against the oldfashioned water mill. Because of the advent of technology there is now the language machines,63 the robots are getting normal fixtures in factories, in laboratories, and even in hospitals. The advent of technology brought home the notion of electronic brains (or artificial intelligence); cybernetics64 was launched by Norbert Wiener; virtual reality65 and holographic66 appearances are doing well in visuals and audio aspects in cinematography; time travel (through a time machine),67 cloning, genetic engineering, surrogate motherhood, vaginal repair, surgical virginity, sex transplant, bust lift, bust reductions, mastopexy, hair transplant, liposuction, rhinoplasty, human genome projects, embryo testing, among others all find their way in human society. True enough: “What Heidegger called ‘the essence of technology’ infiltrates [into] human existence more intimately than anything humans could create. The danger of technology lies in the transformation of the human being, by which human actions and aspirations are fundamentally distorted.”68

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(2). Enframing (Gestell) In The Question Concerning Technology, Heidegger writes: Enframing means the gathering together of two setting – upon that sets upon man, i.e., challenges him forth, to reveal the actual, in the mode of ordering, as standing-reserve. Enframing means the way of revealing that holds sway in the essence of modern technology and that is itself nothing technological.69 If, indeed, techne means “to bring forth,” what kind of “bringing forth” or revelation does modern technology do? Isn’t modern technology disrupting the normal course of Nature’s revelation of its own Being? To Heidegger, modern technology settles for a rather challenging revelation to Nature since instead of letting nature be, it “orders” or interrogates its concealed energy. Thus, only those parts of “. . . Nature that [are] revealed as ‘standing reserve,’ as energy that can be appropriated, is revealed, and in this way the unconcealedness of Nature itself is mitigated, or blocked, by being directed in these narrow aims.”70 In Heidegger’s analysis, the Gestell (enframing) is a distasteful consequence of modern technology’s mode of “bringing forth” (techne) of reality. Instead of letting Nature reveal itself in its own pace and manner, modern technology “orderes” nature to hasten and to unconceal out of its own timing and movement. Here, Heidegger observes that modern technology has enticed man to drive his impulse towards putting the world into boxes (frames). This occurs as man encloses within the bounds of calculative thinking his experiences, be it physical, emotional, psychological, or spiritual. Hence, mathematical equations, physical laws, chemical experimentations, enjoy prominence in the act of classifying our varied and multi-dimensional grades of experience. (3). Dehumanization As modern technology enframes nature, it also drags man to perdition. It has divested man of his inherent capabilities. It has reduced man to a mere statistics, a mere commodity. It has entered 224

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into the innermost recesses of our existence. It has transformed the way we feel, the way we think, and the way we will.71 Yes, technology, indeed, has relentlessly overtaken us – exclaims Heidegger in The Question Concerning Technology.72 He argues that modern technology has transformed the entire world, including ourselves, into “standing reserves,” into raw materials who are mobilized in technical processes. In the end, we are shamefully reduced to objects of technique; we become incorporated into the very mechanism that we have created.73 And the poignant picture of man painted by modern technology is punctuated by another devastating blow against man, i.e., modern technology has crafted man to be a voracious consumer. Here, comes the categorically no-cryptic, but pseudo–modernist word consumerism. As members of a consumerist society, modern technology has reduced us to mere commodities. We become our tools, our gadgets. Thus, we are our clothes; we are our CDs, VCDs, iPods, MP3 players, DVD players; we are our computers, our electronic note books and lap tops; we are our coffee-makers; we are our water–dispensers; we are our cellular phones; we are our cars; we are our degrees; we are our achievements; we are our professions (lawyers, doctors, priests, nurses, engineers, professors, among others). But, in truth and in fact, are we? Should we be? All these correspond to our status symbol. The more we have technological gadgets, the more we think we have dignity, honor, reputation, and esteem. In a word, we are what we have! We buy ourselves in the market. CONCLUSION To Heidegger, science refuses to know something of the nothing. It decisively prefers to know nothing of the nothing when nothing is essential in understanding human existence, specifically in the context of dread. At first, Heidegger was glued to his conviction that science is the mathematical projection of nature, and that metaphysics is the ground of all sciences. But later he changed course and declared that metaphysics pales in the face of the question on the truth of Being. This led Heidegger to cling to ontology. It is through his notion of metontology that made him yield to a realization that metaphysics 225

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recoils its back upon itself relative to the problem of Being. It is in ontology that he finally found the proper locus on the truth of Being. Heidegger is not anti-technology. He is aware that technology is necessary in human existence. He does not deny that technology has made human existence easier, more efficient, more comfortable, and more enjoyable. But in his confirmation with technology, he firmly expresses his caveat, i.e., there are many dangers that lurk around the auspices of technology. These dangers pertain to inventions that intervene and disrupt the intrinsic flux of nature (including the human body), or those that could bring grand scales of destruction to life, like: instruments of war, hard and soft instruments of war that could surely bring mass destruction to any form of life, hungry and deadly germs that result from scientific maneuvers or experimentations, among others. In order to dispel, if not to mitigate, these disastrous effects of technology, man must engage in meditative thinking, rather than in calculative thinking. Meditative thinking can modestly soften the appalling and abominable blows of technology, i.e., dehumanization, reification of man in a form of number or commodity.

END NOTES Martin Heidegger, “What Is Metaphysics?” in Martin Heidegger: Basic Writings. David Farrell, ed. (USA: Harper Collins, Publisher, 1993), p. 94. 2 Martin Heidegger, “Modern Science, Metaphysics, and Mathematics,” in Martin Heidegger: Basic Writings. David Farrell Krell, ed. (USA: Harper Collins, Publisher, 1993), p. 272. 3 Ibid. 4 Ibid. 5 See, ibid., p. 273. 6 Ibid., also p.278. 7 See, ibid., p. 292. 8 See, ibid., p. 274. Other than mathemata, Heidegger also mentions the following: manthanein which means “to learn,” mathesis which means teaching. As teaching mathesis means two things: (1) Studying and learning; and (2) doctrine taught. For further readings, see ibid. 9 See, ibid., p.277. 1

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10Ibid., p. 295. 11 Ibid., p. 296. 12 Ibid. 13 Ibid. 14 Ibid., p. 293. 15 See, ibid., p. 293. But Heidegger makes it clear that “. . . .numbers are the most familiar form of the mathematical. In this way, this most familiar mathematical becomes mathematics. But the essence of the mathematical does not lie in number.” See, ibid., p. 277. 16 Ibid., p. 110. 17 Martin Heidegger, “The End of Philosophy and the Task of Thinking” in Martin Heidegger: Basic Writings. David Farell Krell, ed. (USA: Harper Collins Publisher 1993), p. 432. 18 Ibid. 19 See, ibid., p.435. 20 Ibid., p.434. 21 Ibid., p. 435. 22 Martin Heidegger, “What is Metaphysics,” loc. cit., p.95. 23 Ibid. 24 Ibid. 25 Ibid., p. 109. 26 Ibid., p. 96. 27 Ibid., p. 95. 28 Martin Heidegger, “The Way Back Into the Ground of Metaphysics,” in Martin Heidegger: Pathmarks. William McNeil, ed. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999), p.277. 29 Ibid. 30 Ibid. 31 Ibid., p. 281. 32 Otto Poggeler, Heidegger’s Path of Thinking. (USA: Humanity Press International, Inc. 1995), p. 35. 33 Ibid. 34 Trish Glazebrook, “Heidegger’s Understanding of Science,” in 3220389/ref=sib_rdr_toc/103-13161117925465?%5Fencoding/=UTF8&p-S002#reader-page. 35 See ibid. 36 Ibid. 227

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Ibid. Martin Heidegger, “The Question Concerning Technology,” in Martin Heidegger: Basic Writings. David Farrell Krell, editor. (New York: Harper and Row Publishers, 1993), p. 311. 39 Richard Walton, “Heidegger in the Hands-on Science and Technology Center: Philosophical Reflections on Learning in Informal Settings,” in http://scholar.lib.vt.edu/ejournals/JTE /v/2n1/walton.html p. 5. 40 For further readings, see Jacques Taminiaux, “Philosophy of Existence I, Heidegger,” in Twentieth – Century Continental Philosophy, Routledge History of Philosophy, Vol. VIII. Edited by Richard Kearny. (New York: T.J. Press, Ltd., Padstow, Cornwall, 1994), pp. 44-46. 41 http://www.brownhen.com/2002_10_27_backhen.html. 42 Ibid. 43 Martin Heidegger, “The Question Concerning Technology,” op. cit., p. 322. 44 Jacques Taminiaux, “Philosophy of Existence I, Heidegger,” loc. cit. 45 http://maven.english.hawaii.edu/criticalink/heidegger/guide6. html. 46 For further readings, see Eddie R. Babor, “Heidegger In His Discourse on Thinking,” in Holy Name University Graduate School Journal. Vol. 13, No. 1, March 2002, pp. 29-35. 47 Martin Heidegger. Discourse On Thinking. Trans. by John M. Anderson and E. Hans Freund. (New York: Harper and Row Publishers, 1966). p. 45. 48 Ibid. 49 See Ibid. 50 See Ibid., pp.46 – 47. 51 Ibid., p. 47. 52 Ibid., p. 46. 53 Ibid. 54 Ibid., p. 53. 55 Ibid., pp. 52 – 53. 56 Ibid., p. 53. 57 See Ibid., p. 54. 37 38

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See Ibid., p. 54. For further readings see Herbert Marcuse, Eros and Civilization. (Boston: Beacon Press, 1955 and Idem. One Dimensional Man. Boston: Beacon Press, 1964), p. 38. 60 Ibid., p. 54 61 Ibid., p. 55. 62 Craig Condella, “Overcoming the Destiny Of Technological Being,” in http://www.fordham.edu/philosophy/fps/ symposia/2001fall/condella.htm. 63 For further readings see Wanda Torres Gregory, “Heidegger On Traditional Language And Technological Language,” in http://www. bu.edu/WCP/Papers/Cont/ContGreg.htm., pp.5-7. 64 Cf. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/cybernetics and http://www. rpg.net/forums/phorum/pf/read.php?f=116&i=215&t=215 65 Cf. http://www/users.cloud9.net/~bradmcc/VirtualReality.html and http://www.philosophersmag.com/printer_friendly.php?id=713 66 Cf. http://www.hologram.net/theory/intro.htm and http://www. hologram.net/theory/thrymenu.htm. 67 Cf. http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/time/through.html and http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Oracles/2588/page4.htm 68 http://www.regent.edu/acad/schcom/rojc/mdic/martin1.htm. 69 Heidegger, “The Question Concerning Technology,” op. cit., p.325. 70 http://www.brownhen.com/2002_10_27_backhen.html. For further readings, confer with the following: http://scholar.lib.vt.edu/ ejournals/JTEV/v12n1/walton.htm. and http://www.maven.english. hawaii.edu/criticalink/heidegger/guide6.html. 71 Cf. http://www.regent.edu/acad/schom/rojc/mdic/martin1.html. 72 Heidegger, “The Question Concerning Technology,” op. cit., p. 329. 73 For further readings see Andrew Feenberg, “From Essentialism to Constructivism: Philosophy of Technology at the Crossroads,” http://www.rohan.sdsu.edu/faculty/feenberg/talk4.html. 58 59

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LITERATURE CITED Babor, E. (March 2002). “Heidegger in His Discourse On Thinking,” in Holy Name University Graduate School Journal, Vol.13, No.1, pp.29-35. Babor, E. (2007). The Human Person Not Real, But Existing. Manila: C @ EPublishing, Inc. Babor, E. (2009). Logic: The Philosophical Discipline of Correct Thinking. Manila: C @ E Publishing, Inc.. Babor, E. (2006). Ethics: The Philosophical Discipline of Correct Living. Manila:Rex Book Store, 2006. Glazebrook, T. Heidegger’s Philosophy of Science, in 3220389/ref=sib_rdr_ toc/103-1316111-7925465?%5Fencoding/=UTF8&p-S002#readerpage. Guignon, C., ed. (1995). The Cambridge Companion to Heidegger. NewYork: Cambridge University Press. Heidegger, M. (1966). Discourse on Thinking.Trans. by John M. Andersonand E. Hans Freund. New York: Harper and Row Publishers. Heidegger, M. (1993). “The Question Concerning Technology,” in Martin Heidegger: Basic Writings. David Krell, F. ed. New York: Harper and Row, Publishers. Kearney, R., ed. (1994). Twentieth – Century Continental Philosophy. NewYork: T.J. Press, Ltd., Padstow, Cornwall. Krell, D.F., ed. (1993). Martin Heidegger: Basic Writings. New York:Harper and Row Publishers. Marcuse, H. (1955). Eros and Civilization.Boston: Beacon Press.

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McNiel, W., ed. (1999). Heidegger: Pathmarks. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Poggeler, O. (1995). Heidegger’s Path of Thinking.USA: Humanities PressInternational, Inc. Zimmerman, M. (1990). Heidegger’s Confrontation with Modernity. U.S.A.:Indiana University Press. Zimmerman, M. (1964). One Dimensional Man. Boston: Beacon Press. Zimmerman, M. (October 2001). “The Science of Being: Heidegger and Kant,” in HolyName University (DWCT) Graduate School Journal, Vol.12,No.2B, pp.17-35. Zimmerman, M. (1997). “A Reflection and a Critical Survey on the Meaning ofHuman Nature: From Thales to the Stoics,” in Philippine Journalof Arts and Sciences.Vol.1, pp. 68-74. Zimmerman, M. (December 2003). “Kong Zi’s Concept of Virtues: A HermeneuticalApproach,” in UNITAS: Quarterly Scholarly Journal of theUniversity of Santo Tomas. Vol.76, No.4, , pp.459-490. Zimmerman, M. “Modern Science, Metaphysics, and Mathematics,”in Idem. Zimmerman, M. “The End of Philosophy and the Task of Thinking,”in Idem. Electronic Sources http://www.bu.edu/wcp/Papers/Cont/ContGreg.htm. http://www.rohan.sdsu.edu/faculty/feenberg/talk4.html. http://www.fordham.edu/philosophy/fps/symposia/2001fall/condella/ htm. http://maven.english.hawaii.edu./criticalink/heidegger/guide6.html. http://scholar.lib.vt.edu/ejourals/JTE/v12n1/walton.html. http://www.brownhen.com2002_10_27_backhen.html. http://www.regent.edu/acad/schcom/rojc/mdic/martin1.html. 231

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http://philo.at/pipermail/register/2002-April/000513.html. http://commhum.mccneb.edu/philos/ccha.htm. http://www.fordham.edu/philosophy/1c/babich/tech.htm http://www.actus.org/heidegger.html. http://www.shef.ac.uk/~ptpdlp/index.html. http://www.123infinity.com/. http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/time/timespeak.html. http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/time/through.html. http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Oracle/2588/paged4.htm. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cybernetics http://www.hologram.net/theory/intro.htm. http://www.users.cloud9.net/~bradmcc/VirtualReality.html. http://www.philosophersmag.com/printer_friendly.php?id=713. FOR INQUIRIES, WRITE TO: The Managing Editor Liceo Journal of Higher Education Research Liceo de Cagayan University Cagayan de Oro City, 9000 Philippines Email: liceojournal@yahoo.com.ph Fax: 63+ (08822) 727459

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Vol. 6 No. 2 December 2010 ISSN: 2094-1064 CHED Accredited Research Journal, Category B

Liceo Journal of Higher Education Research Social Science Section

Origination and Proliferation of Names: Genealogy Making for Family History MICHAEL VINCENT P. CACERES mikey_vpc@yahoo.com Curator, Museo de la Universidad de Zamboanga

Date Submitte: July 17, 2010 Final Revision Complied: Oct. 10, 2010

Plagiarism Detection: Passed License No. 944146510808541 Original: 91.50%

Abstract - It is fascinating to know how names came into existence. It revealed a rich series of chronicles that took place in order the first set of names were finally established. The first recorded name can be attributed to Adam as reflected in the holy bible, were other names emerged and evolved, through the course of time and the growing social interactions among men. This paper explored the history on how names came into existence and its significance in relating it to other names based on genetic characteristics and/or by affiliation. In the Philippines the evolution of names integrated the inclusion of surname only in 1849. This development was distributed in various parts of the country maintaining our Hispanic image in the same way our culture and beliefs were molded, more or less based on language and not by genetic characteristics. Names are not simply names. They reveals the history of being a part of a family and even the community. This is a historical research which aimed to provide key elements in understanding the history and evolution of names that took place. This will also serve as a guide on how to construct genealogy, commonly known as the family tree. Keywords - Genealogy, Ancestry, Pedigree 233

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INTRODUCTION The origin of family names could be outlined as having undergone a long process. Family names came late even in the most advanced civilizations. In a civilized era like today, it is hard to imagine how life is without a name. The mere fact that one has an incomplete name presents several difficulties. Though, some studies reveal that there are some groups that are still primitive in terms of the usage / assignment of complete name, that is, they only have the first name and no surnames at all. The identification of names is very important especially in writing biographies, autobiographies or tracing a family history. The study is incomplete unless (1) the history of names is conducted and fulfilled; and (2) the lineage of the family members of the ancestral line and the descendants are fully identified. Genealogy is the study of tracing names and its history. Expert on this field is called Genealogist. This paper will provide a step-by step procedure on the conduct of a simple to comprehensive research on genealogy that will lead in the tracing of oneâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s family tree, which may even direct to disclose secrets. This paper provides brief account on the origin of names in the early history of man and later zero-in in the Philippines on how names came to being. The paper presented two sample genealogies that of (1) Jose Rizal and the other of (2) Jesus Christ. In the Philippines, the Family History Center in Quezon City, The National Archives of the Philippines, Iglesia Filipina Indipindiente and Palacio Arzobispado in Intramuros are among those that maintain the records of the evolution and history of the names in the country. The Catholic Church (particularly the Vatican) is believed as one of those that hold the bulk of archival records of the history, origin and development of names. But due to their paramount objective of respecting every catholicâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s privacy, these data are kept on high restrictions even to researchers. For research purposes, government offices such as the civil registrar, hospitals and cemeteries may provide data on this endeavor. Other sources may include school record, diary, land titles, death certificates and medical records. 234

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METHODOLOGY This paper followed the historical method, and employed extensive and intensive archival research on records pertaining to names. It aimed to present various designs of genealogy creating pedigrees of linking a character (person) with the rest of family members. Interviews and field visit to cemetery were also conducted as part of the data gathering procedure. A pedigree was created to show a better picture of the family tree. A pedigree or family tree is significant in tracing a family history, its origin and relationship which may be beneficial in claiming inheritance, and tracing disorders in the family that may be passed from one generation to the next. The paper is limited to explaining you how names developed. Pedigree in genealogy is presented through symbols as shown below. LEGEND: Kinship diagramming of symbols and conventions

This method may be very tedious; contemporary genealogists prefer to use available softwareâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s for their pedigree. â&#x20AC;&#x153;Genealogy software includes tons of easy-to-use tools that will help you discover and organize your research. Organizational tools link people together based on relationships, merge individuals into family trees, help spot problems and locate duplicate entries. This software will also aid in the search for individuals and entire families.1 One may also log on to http://www.familysearch.org/eng/default.asp as a source engine in tracing oneâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s own family members. A genealogy must not only contain names, other data should be included such as dates and place of births and place and date of deaths.

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DISCUSSION The Study of Names “Early ethnographers developed genealogical notation to deal with principles of kinship, descent and marriage, which are the social building blocks of non-industrial cultures” (Kottak, 1991.26). The Genealogical Method is a procedure by which ethnographers discover and record connection of kinship, descent and marriage using diagrams and symbols (Ibid, 32). Genealogy is the study of family linage, early times knowledge about their ancestors and lineage strengthens their position and religious status in the community. It became as basis for their inheritance, positions and affiliations. Genealogy before was of a mixture of mythology, oral tradition and fiction. History tells that genealogy would often associate themselves to God, making God as their ancestors, in order to establish certain iconic stature in the community or the empire at large. Genealogy also became as the basis of other societies for the prevention of bloodrelated marriages or it may be for the transfer of power from parents to child preferably to the eldest son and so on. Genealogy is an essential aspect of the Mormon faith so family relationship can continue beyond grave. Primitive societies organized into clans and tribes often associate their ancestors to gods, legendary heroes or animals. Israel (Holy Bible), Greeks and Romans constructed early genealogies. Genealogy later was associated to power, rank and property used by Sumerians, Babylonians, Egyptians and Chinese (Grolier, 1998. vol. ix.79). Pedigree is a record of ancestors of a human, animal or plant presented in chart form, the record provides genetic information about individuals in the pedigree. Human pedigrees are used in genetic counseling. Pedigrees sometimes can predict certain characteristics about an offspring such as eye or hair color, size or even sex (Encyclopedia Americana, 2002. vol. xxi, 593). A family tree refers to a genealogy “the study of the history of past and present members of a particular family, which usually includes the preparation of a “family tree” or pedigree chart. This shows the past and present members of the family joined 236

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together by a series of lines that help in ascertaining their relationship to each other, and the location, documentation and recording of a family history, including stories about the personal lives of individual members of the family, sometimes even including pictures of these individuals or family groups.â&#x20AC;?2 Genealogists are archive researchers who trace and develop chart lines of descent and family trees using based on various public and private records, such as court records, original tax books and immigration records. Typical activities include (1) determining the line of enquiry and initiating, supervising and participating in the research; (2) creating a plan for intended research; (3) reporting to clients and suggesting further paths for research; (4)visiting archives, county courthouses, libraries, churches and other places where public records are kept; (5) compiling genealogical reports, which often contain charts, photographs, copies of documents, audiotapes of interviews, and resources to find out more information and (6) attending workshops, lectures and training sessions on genealogical methodology and research techniques.â&#x20AC;?3 Genealogy was an oral tradition and only in the 16th century it became very important in Europe as basis for legal inheritance (Encyclopedia Americana, 2002. vol. xxi, 380-381). Genealogy is very relevant to history, law, anthropology, sociology and eugenics. Origin of Names Literature in history, anthropology and sociology commonly agreed that, it was only between 11th and 12th centuries the people of Europe began using surnames.4 In many cultures where male is a dominant figure (patronymic) the male surname is adopted, except metronymic cultures, were females are the dominant figure. Occupational titles were also used as surnames such as positions in courts, military and honors. The name of the place (topographic/ geographical) was also dominant as surname particularly during biblical time such as Jesus of Nazareth. Some societies make use of weather condition, calamities and natural phenomena as surnames. There was a time in Europe were kings and religious officials were the one declaring/ issuing surnames 237

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among illiterates with no apparent reason or explanation at all. Spelling and pronunciation of names evolved centuries after and across cultures as a natural order of the social change.5 In ancient Rome, there are three to four names; forename, clan name, family name and honorary name. In western practices the family name or surname appears last (last name), but in many Asian countries the family name appears first (Grolier, 1998.10). â&#x20AC;&#x153;Anthropologists must record genealogical data to reconstruct history and understand current relationshipâ&#x20AC;? (Kottak, 1991.26). This is to uncover historical events that may have shaped or changed our story and our history.

Above is a hypothetical representation of the standard symbols and conventions on kinship and diagramming is the most common genealogy structure use by anthropologists and ethnographers. Generation One (G1) indicates female (deceased) having marital relationship with male (deceased). From Generation One (G1) they 238

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have three children showing generation two (G2), three males, the eldest of the males married twice or into marital relationship twice. From G2, the eldest among siblings has three children, male, female and male. Philippine Natives and the Contemporary Long before the Spaniards set foot on the shores of the Philippines, natives generally did not adopt/ acquire their respective family names similar to the European system. The middle class natives or literate have used surnames as revealed by their academic records in the University of Santo Tomas (1611). Illiterate natives who do not have their surnames just drew the symbol â&#x20AC;&#x153;crossâ&#x20AC;? on whatever documents or transaction papers. This led to the idea of adopting surname Juan dela Cruz. The absence of surnames was actually present among the illiterate members of the society; however, middle classes have their respective surnames. The names of the natives generally adopted from flora and fauna but were later changed by the Spaniards during baptism by adopting names of saints.6 The general population of the Philippines even today believed that Filipino names of Spanish sounds or similarities is a by product of natives intermarriages with the Spaniards in the early 16th century. It was also believed that Christianized natives in the Philippines especially those carrying Spanish surnames are of Spanish origin. However, research revealed that only a fraction of the population married Spanish soldiers and the remaining population having Spanish surnames were simply products of the Claveria list. The only string that binds Spaniards and the Filipinos is religion and culture. The Spanish bloodline is no where to be found in the general population. Older generation in the Philippines opt to adopt names of saints being a predominantly Catholic country such as Juan as St. John, Maria as Mother Mary, Jesus as Jesus Christ and Jose as St. Joseph. They may have two or three names and certainly the name of the saint is attached to it such as Maria Clarisa, Juan Miguel and Jose Vicente. This was through the influence of the Spanish teachings. The coming of the Americans saw a transition of adopting names first, the blending of 239

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Spanish and American influence as part of the transition such as Joseph instead of Jose, Mary instead of Maria and John instead of Juan. These Christian names being a reflection of sainthood are influenced by the Spaniards but only of an American translation. The Bulletin 9 of the Bureau of Education (1915) provides a list of Philippine Baptismal names compiled by E.E. Schneider. It shows the shift of names from Spanish to English as a source of social history (Ocampo, 2010.36). It is based on Roman Martyrology and the Catholic saints, feast and solemnities (Ibid.42). This was largely because of Spanish influence.The Post American Occupation names shifted from sainthood to American popular culture as influenced by Hollywood characters. Today, names come in various forms. It may be a combination of parent’s name, places, events, objects or weird objects, symbols and representation ranges from medicine tablets, numbers, spellings with different sound/ pronunciation which may or may not have meaning. But, generally, experts say, names reflect the social history in accordance to the time, places and events. The Claveria List It was through the effort of Narciso Claveria y Zaldua (Governor General of the Philippines on July 16, 1844 until December 26, 1849) issued the royal decree on the distribution and implementation of surnames to the natives of the Philippines on November 21, 1849 (Decree of 21 November 1849). Gov. Claveria brought Spanish names to the Philippines and the natives were given either the privilege to choose or simply awarded to them.7 The list of produced and approved family names can be referred from the “Catalogo Alfabetico de Apellidos”. This decree (reprinted in Spanish below) may be translated as follows: Claveria declared “Having heard the testimonies of the Most Reverend Bishops, the Reverend Provincials of the religious orders, and the Honorable Assessor General of the Government, I hereby order”8: 1. A copy of the printed catalogue of surnames, previously prepared for this purpose, shall be remitted to all the heads of provinces of these islands. 240

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2. These officials shall assign to every town, in accordance with the number of families therein, the number of surnames that appear necessary, taking care that the distribution be made by letters, in the appropriate proportions. 3. Having thus formed the catalogues corresponding to each town, the head of the province shall send these to the respective parish priests for distribution to the cabecerias (barangays); this distribution shall be carried out with the help of the gobernadorcillo, another municipal official, and two competent and respected principales. Each cabeza shall be present with the individuals of this cabeceria, and the father or oldest person of each family shall choose or be assignea one of the surnames in the list, which he shall then adopt, together with his direct descendants. 4. Natives of Spanish, indigenous, or Chinese origin who already have a surname may retain it and pass it on to their descendants. 5. Children whose fathers are dead shall be given the surname of the paternal grandfather, and in the absence of this, the surname of the brothers or relatives of their father, thus avoiding unnecessary multiplicity and ensuring that those of the same family branch shall have the same surname. 6. The children of unknown fathers shall be given the surnames of the mother, and if this is also unknown, the surnames of the guardian, or baptismal sponsor, or of the parish priest in case the sponsor does not allow it. 7. In the lists that will be made for the cabecerias, in order to complete the register later, each person shall indicate (a) his baptismal name, followed by the new surname which may be assigned to him, and (b) the name which, until then may have served him as surname, leaving him free to retain this as long as he wishes. 8. To avoid confusion which might result to the prejudice of those who with their surnames inherited from his majesty certain benefits, the names of Lacandola, Mojica, Tupas, and Raja Matanda shall not be adopted except by those who have a just title to posses them. 9. Families who can prove that they have kept for four generations their surname, even though it may be the name of a saint, but not those 241

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like de la Cruz, de los Santos, and some others which are so numerous that they would continue producing confusion, may pass them on to their descendants, the Reverand fathers and the heads of provinces are advised to use their judgment in the implementation of this article. 10. Having notified the elders or parents of the new surname which corresponds to them and to the members of the family, that is, all those who because of their close relationship should bear the surname, each barangay shall be assigned two or three days for any onjections which may be made before the parish priest; the latter will act on these objections in accordance with the provision of this superior decree. 11. School teachers shall have a register of all the children attending school, with their names and surnames, an shall see to it that they shall not address or known each other except by the surname listed in the register which should be that of the parentâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s. In case of lack of enthusiasm in compliance with this ode, the teachers shall be punished in proportion o the offense at the discretion of the head of the province. 12. The heads of the families shall make known their new surnames to their children who may be absent, in addition to the notification that shall be furnished by the gobernadorcillo o the gobernadorcillo of the town in which the absent relative I residing. For this purpose they will form official expedients o specific communications to this effect, signed by the gobernadorcillo and the respective cabezas with the approval of the parish priest. Likewise they shall remit to the head to the province a list of the names of individuals in the service of the army to whom a surname has been assigned, so that the said provincial head may inform the branches of the army, and the surname which corresponds to each soldier may be recorded in his personnel file. 13. For record purposes, the gobernadorcillo of each town shall keep a list of the individuals who, by virtue of the preceding article, have been informed of the surnames which they are to use. 14. In Towns where the residents were born in other places where their families still reside, the gobernadorcillo, without prejudice to the provisions above, shall send a list of their names to the gobernadorcillo of the towns from which they had come, so that on the one hand there may be no alternation or delay in transmitting the surnames which correspond to each one, and on the other there may be unnecessary 242

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duplication. It adds to the confusion to assign a surname to individuals who should adopt that of the family from which they are descended, and no other. 15. The Cabecerias in each town shall be numbered, starting fom one and so forth; all classes of people in them shall be enrolled, natives as well as mestizos, no matter what their occupations may be, such circumstances being duly recorded. 16. Once the list of the cabecerias are finalized and approved by the reverend parish priest, a register for each of them shall be prepared so that by assembling all of these, a general register for each town will result, signed by the gobernadorcillo and approved by the parish priest, following the customary practice for the annual inventories of the provinces; three copies thereof shall be prepared, one to serve as a master copy in the parish, another to be conserved by the head of the province in the archives, and the third to be sent to the heads of families. The family names played a significant role under the Spanish system. It organized the political system of the country in terms of cedula or community tax, population distribution and monitoring the population for government records and correspondence. In contrast, Filipino descendants of rajahs and noble men were given the option to keep their names. Among the clans, who were also exempted from forced labor and paying taxes under the Spanish rule, were the Lakandulas, Solimans, Gatmaitans, Gatbontons, Salongas, Layas, Lapiras, Macapagals, Salamats, Manuguits, Balinguits, Banals, Kalaws, among others. Claveriaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s contribution to the development of Philippine genealogy was of necessity for our identity and eventually ushered maturity to the civil society, be they of the middle class or of lower economic status or educational attainment.9 The Role of Family History Center10 The origins of the Family History Library can be traced to the founding of the Genealogical Society of Utah (GSU) in 1894. Its main 243

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purpose is to fulfill one of the Latter Day Saints Church fundamental tenets: that deceased family members, especially ancestors, can be baptized by proxy into the LDS church, as well as receive other saving ordinances. However, this practice is controversial and the transmission of records has been opposed by the Holy Office and Catholic dioceses around the world, who accounted for approximately one billion baptismal certificates. The GSU library is in Granite Mountain in Salt Lake City, Utah, where the headquarters of the Latter Day Saints (LDS) Church are located. It is the largest genealogical library in the world. Granite Mountain is a mass of solid rock in Salt Lake City, Utah where the library is located. Despite its name, Granite Mountain is primarily composed of quartz monzonite, an igneous rock similar to granite in appearance, physical characteristics, and chemical composition. This is the same material used to construct the Salt Lake Temple and the facade of the LDS Conference Center. The Granite Mountain Records Vault (also known simply as The Vault) is a large archive and vault owned by The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints excavated 600 feet. The Granite Mountain facilities feature a dry, environment-controlled facility used for longterm record storage, as well as administrative offices, shipping and receiving docks, a processing facility and restoration laboratory for microfilm. The Genealogy of Jose Rizal11 Dr. Jose Rizal is the national hero of the Philippines; his family name was originally named as Mercado meaning market. Don Francisco Mercado went over to the list of family names issued by Claveria he did not like the names listed. He decided to use Rizal from the word Ricial meaning rice field to be attached to the name of Jose as his family name. Jose later carried the family name as Rizal, the only child of the 11 children of Don Francisco to carry the family name Rizal for security protection against the Spanish government. The genealogy of Jose Rizal covers six generations is ancestral in structure, and traces his ancestors rather than his descendants. 244

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The Genealogy of Jesus Christ12 The genealogy of Jesus Christ follows the ancestral structure (meaning tracing its roots, opposite of this is descendants from Jesus to contemporary if applicable). The genealogy is biblical in nature and the data is base from Luke 3:23-38 courtesy of the Family History Center â&#x20AC;&#x201C;Church of the Latter Day Saints Philippine Temple in Quezon City Philippines. Observe the flow of entries in the pedigree, G represents the number of generations traced or discovered linking all ancestors of Jesus, it has a total of 78 generations. The entries on the pedigree listed only the male figures/ characters showing son-father relationship (patrilineal). 245

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GENERATION (G)

NAMES

Notes

G1 G2 G3 G4 G5 G6 G7 G8 G9 G10 G11 G12 G13

God Adam Seth Enos Cainan Meleleel Jered Enoch Mathusala Lamech Noe Sem Arpharao

Origin/ father of Adam Son of God Son of Adam Son of Seth Son of Enos Son of Cainan Son of Meleleel Son of Jered Son of Enoch Son of Mathusala Son of Lamech Son of Noe Son of Sem

G14 G15 G16 G17 G18 G19 G20 G21 G22 G23 G24 G25 G26 G27 G28 G29 G30 G31 G32 G33 G34 G35 G36 G37 G38 G39 G40 G41 G42 G43

246

Cainan Sala Heber Phalec Ragau Saruch Nachor Chara Abraham Isaac Jacob Juda Phares Estom Aram Aminadab Naasson Salmon Booz Obed Jesse David Nathan Mattatha Menan Melea Eliakim Jonan Joseph Juda

Son of Arpharao Son of Cainan Son of Sala Son of Heber Son of Phalec Son of Ragau Son of Saruch Son of Nachor Son of Chara Son of Abraham Son of Isaac Son of Jacob Son of Juda Son of Phares Son of Estom Son of Aram Son of Aminadab Son of Naasson Son of Salmon Son of Booz Son of Obed Son of Jesse Son of David Son of Nathan Son of Mattatha Son of Menan Son of Melea Son of Eliakim Son of Joseph Son of Joseph

Origination and Proliferation of Names: Genealogy Making for Family History

G44 G45 G46 G47 G48 G49 G50 G51 G52 G53 G54 G55 G56 G57 G58 G59 G60 G61 G62 G63 G64 G65 G67 G68 G69 G70 G71 G72 G73 G74 G75 G76 G77 G78

Simeon Levi Matthat Jorim Eliezer Jose Er Elmodam Cosam Addi Melchi Neri Salathiel Zorobabel Rhesa Joanna Juda Joseph Semei Mattathias Maath Nagge Esli Nahum Amos Mattathias Joseph Janna Melchi Levi Matthat Heli Joseph Jesus

M.V.P. Caceres

Son of Juda Son of Simeon Son of Levi Son of Matthat Son of Jorim Son of Eliezer Son of Jose Son of Er Son of Elmodam Son of Cosam Son of Addi Son of Melchi Son of Neri Son of Salathiel Son of Salathiel Son of Rhesa Son of Joanna Son of Juda Son of Joseph Son of Semei Son of Mattathias Son of Maath Son of Nagge Son of Esli Son of Nahum Son of Amos Son of Mattathias Son of Joseph Son of Janna Son of Melchi Son of Levi Son of Matthat Son of Heli Son of Joseph

Concluding Note It is of no doubt that in writing family history, the genealogy or the pedigree created is a central element in understanding the family origin and the relationship of each of the characters. However, the genealogy has its limitation depending upon the availability of the data or information. The paper suggested various sources in getting the information other than government records. One may look in 247

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cemeteries, directories, written files or by referral. It would be pleasing to know if everyone considers that a genealogy is necessary to preserve our family history and story for the next generation. Scholars and enthusiasts in making the genealogy of various characters or personalities made significant contribution in the field of humanities and social sciences such as knowing the ancestry which substantiated our hunger in knowing their past and their personalities. The Genealogy is being used as basis in claiming inheritance, recognition as a family member, genetic defects and many others since then and today. This brought us to the conclusion that using genealogy in writing history is indeed a necessity in understanding family origin. The coming of Narciso Claveria Y Zaldua was a blessing in giving us identity in order to establish the fundamental structure of a Philippine society first, having our surnames. (Endnotes) http://genealogy-software-review.toptenreviews.com/Accessed 07, 2010

July

http://glossary.adoption.com/genealogy.html/ Accessed July 07, 2010

http://ww2.prospects.ac.uk/p/types_of_job/genealogist_job_ description.jsp/ accessed July 07, 2010

http://surnames.behindthename.com/glossary/view/family_name/ accessed June01, 2010

http://www.intl-research.com/surname.htm/ Accessed June 01, 2010

Domingo Abella, director of Bureau of Records and Management (BRM) an introductory note to â&#x20AC;&#x153;Catalogo Alfabetico de Apellidosâ&#x20AC;?, National Archives of the Philippines (NA). P. VII: â&#x20AC;&#x153;The Spanish surnames of many Filipinos have often misled foreigners here and abroad, who are unaware of the decree on the adoption of surnames issued by Governor-General Narciso Claveria in 1849. Until quite

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recently in the United States, The Filipinos were classified in demographic statistics as a “Spanish-speaking minority,” along with Puerto Ricans, Cubans, Mexicans, and other nationals of the central or South American republics. The Philippines, as is well known, was a Spanish colony when Spain was mistress of empires in the Western Hemisphere, but the Americans were “hispanized” demographically, culturally, and linguistically, in a way the Philippines never was. Yet the Spanish surnames of the Filipinos today-Garcia, Gomez, Gutierrez, Fernandez-seem to confirm the impression of the American statistician, as well as of the American tourist, that the Philippines is just another Mexico in Asia. Nor is this misunderstanding confined to the United States; most Spaniards still tend to think “Las Islas Filipinas.” As a country united to them through the language of Cervantes,and they catalogue Philippine studies under “Hispano America.” 7 Catalogos Alpabeticos de Apellidos, courtesy of the National Archives of the Philippines. vii-viii: “Somehow overlooked, this decree, with the Catalogo Alfabetico de Apellidos which accompanied it, accounts for another curiosity which often intrigues both Filipinos and foreign visitors alike, namely, that there are towns in which all the surnames of the people begin with the same letter. This is easily verifiable today in parts of the country. For example, in the Bikol region, the entire alphabet is laid out like a garland over the provinces of Albay, Sorsogon, and Catanduanes, which in 1849 belonged to the single jurisdiction of Albay. Today’s lists of municipal officials, memorials to local heroes, even business or telephone directories, also show that towns where family begins with a single letter are not uncommon. Thus, the minor misinformation of the foreigners about the “Spanish-speaking” Philippines, and the confusion of the Filipinos themselves about their “one-letter” towns both stem from a decree which ironically was intended to end the “confusion in the administration of justice, government, finance and public order.”” 8 From the words of Narciso Claveria, excerpt from “Catalogo Alfabetico de Apellidos”, National Archives of the Philippines (NA), P. x; “During my visit to the majority of the provinces of these islands, I observed that the natives in general lack individual surnames 249

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which distinguished them by families. They arbitrarily adopt the names of saints, and these results in the existence of thousands of individuals having the same surname. Likewise, I saw the resultant confusion with regard to the administration of justice, government, finance, and public order, and the far-reaching moral, civil and religious consequences to ahich this might lead, because the family names are not transmitted from the parents to their children, so that it is sometimes impossible to prove the degrees of consanguinity for purposes of marriage, rendering useless the parochial books which in Catholic countries are used for all kinds of transactions. For this purpose a catalogue of family names has been compiled, including the indigenous names collected by the Reverend Fathers Provincial of the religious orders, and the Spanish surnames they have been able to acquire, along with those furnished by the vegetable and mineral kingdoms, geography, arts, etc. in view of the extreme usefulness and practicality of this measure, the time has come to issue a directive for the formation of a civil register, which may not only fulfill and ensure the said objectives, but may also serve as the basis for the statistics of the country, guarantee the collection of taxes, the regular performance of personal services, and the receipt of payment for exemptions. It likewise provides exact information of the movement of the population, thus avoiding unauthorized migrations, hiding taxpayers, and other abuses.” 9 Domingo Abella, director of Bureau of Records and Management an introductory note to “Catalogo Alfabetico de Apellidos”, National Archives of the Philippines (NA). P. viii-ix “Lieutenant General Narciso Claveria y Zaldua was born in Gerona, but he lived in Vizcaya. On 16 July 1844, he arrived as Governor and Captain General of the Philippines. He also the Vice-Patron of the Church and Supreme Commander of the Armed Forces in the Philippines. He was the best type of the class of the Spanish colonialist, a true caballero, a gentleman in every sense of the word, one who could alleviate tensions rather than exacerbate them, honest,

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hardworking, and more interested in the welfare of the colony than in his personal fortune. In response to the problems he uncovered in his travels, Claveria issued numerous decrees that long outlived him. The best known among them is the decree of 5 October 1847 on the election of gobernadorcillos and other local officials, which remained in force until the Maura reforms in the 1890s. Perhaps the best measure of Claveria’s passion for order was the decree of 16 August 1844rectifying the Philippine calendar which had been “out of joint” for nearly three hundred years. Claveria, in consultation with the archbishop, removed this anomaly by announcing that December 30 (Monday), 1844 be immediately followed by January 1 (Wednesday) 1845. At least on the calendar the Philippines again became part of Asia.” 10 http://www.familysearch.org/eng/default.asp/Accessed February01, 2010 11 Rizal’s Genealogy courtesy of Bahay Tsinoy Museum, Intramuros, Manila, Philippines. Note that Jose Rizal had a baby boy but died (because of premature) and he died in 1896 leaving his wife Josephine Bracken with out a child. 12 Data courtesy of Family History Center, Church of Latter Day Saints Manila Temple, Quezon City, Philippines/ File paper. LITERATURE CITED Books Abella, Domingo (1849). “Catalogo Alfabetico de Apellidos”, National Archives of the Philippines (NA). P. VII Encyclopedia Americana (2002). Pedigree. Vol. 12 Encyclopedia Americana (2002). Pedigree. Vol. 21 Kottak, Conrad Phillip (1991). Anthropology: The Exploration of Human Diversity, Mc Graw Hill Inc. 251

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Grolier International Encyclopedia (1998). Genealogy. Vol. IX. Ocampo, Ambeth (2010). Dirty Dancing: Looking Back Publishing.

II. Anvil

Electronic data http://www.familysearch.org/eng/default.asp/ Accessed February01, 2010 http://genealogy-software-review.toptenreviews.com/Accessed 07, 2010

July

http://glossary.adoption.com/genealogy.html/ Accessed July 07, 2010 http://www.intl-research.com/surname.htm/ Accessed June 01, 2010 http://ww2.prospects.ac.uk/p/types_of_job/genealogist_job_ description.jsp/ accessed July 07, 2010 http://surnames.behindthename.com/glossary/view/family_name/ accessed June01, 2010 Field Collection Family History Center, Church of Latter Day Saints Manila Temple, Quezon City, Philippines/ File paper. Rizalâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Genealogy courtesy of Bahay Tsinoy Museum, Intramuros, Manila, Philippines.

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Vol. 6 No. 2 December 2010 ISSN: 2094-1064 CHED Accredited Research Journal, Category B

Liceo Journal of Higher Education Research Social Science Section

Spiritual Intelligence and Work Stress among Basic Education Faculty of a Private NonSectarian School SALVADOR C. DELA PEÑA III vadz_2000@yahoo.com Liceo de Cagayan University

Date Submitte: March 30, 2010 Final Revision Complied: May 19, 2010

Plagiarism Detection: Passed License No. 944146510808541 Original: 92.58%

Abstract - The study, a descriptive-correlational type, measured the degree of spiritual intelligence and work stress among 34 Basic Education (i.e., elementary and secondary) faculty. A standardized questionnaire was used to determine the respondents’ spiritual intelligence while a pretested researcher-made questionnaire was used to measure the respondents’ level of work stress. The statistical tools used for data analysis and interpretation were the mean, t-test, and Pearson r. Results showed that elementary and education faculty have high levels of spiritual intelligence and are moderately stressed. Identified stessors included task, role, physical, and interpersonal demands. No significant difference in the levels of spiritual intelligence and work stress between elementary and secondary faculty was seen. Also, no significant relationship was found between the respondents’ levels of spiritual intelligence and work stress. Keywords - spirituality, spiritual intelligence, work stress, stressors, teaching stressors

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INTRODUCTION Organizations like academic institutions rely significantly on their “human capital” to achieve their goals. For academic institutions, the faculty force is salient in optimizing educational resources for an outstanding studentry. Organizations cognizant of the value that the “human capital” brings in ensuring business viability and sustainability make large investments on researches, training and development, and institutionalization of company-wide programs to better the quality of life of the employees. Of major concern for organizations is the identification of working conditions that result in job stress among employees. Survey of research literatures would reveal the many studies conducted in relation to occupational stress and its consequent effect on job performance, and zeroing in on factors that contribute to the workers’ stress, and the variables that mitigate the stress experience. A shared ultimate goal of these studies is to determine the necessary interventions that organizations can employ to minimize the experience of work-related stress among employees. The present study likewise seeks to contribute to this line of inquiry by investigating the work-related stress among the university’s basic education faculty, specifically the factors that cause it, and the degree of manifestation of stress indicators. Many would agree that teaching is among the many professions that can cause work-related stress. Reviews of international literature have established that teachers serve one of the most stressful professions (Antoniou et. al, 2000). For instance, a survey on teachers’ work related stress by the European Trade Union of Education showed that teachers experience physiological, behavioural and psychological manifestations of stress, and that the long term consequences of stress exposure such as burnout or cardiovascular diseases are a common trend for teachers in Europe (Billehoj, 2007). In another study on the stress accompanying teaching, analysis of teachers’ scores revealed the occurrence of severe psychological distress among secondary teachers (Tuettemann, 1991). Stress factors for teachers would include workload/working intensity, role overload, increased class size per teacher, unacceptable pupils behaviours, bad school management, insufficient funding for the school/lack of resources, bad social climate, low social status 254

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of teachers, self-defeating beliefs, fear of conflict, lack of parental support, poor pay, evaluation apprehension, lack of social support from colleagues, lack of job stability and security, and lack of career development (Billehoj, 2007). Such widespread concern with teacher stress and burnout stems from evidences that prolonged occupational stress can negatively affect the teachersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; well-being and will impair the quality of teaching (Antoniou, Polychroni and Walters, 2000). To cite, teachers under stress felt ill as a consequence of excessive stress, and felt disenchanted with their profession and desired for early retirement (Wilson, 2002). Teacher stress is identified as one factor related to teacher attrition and cause of high teacher turn-over and absenteeism among Pacific educators (Hammond and Onikama, 1996). Other potential indicators could include sleeping problems/insomnia, cardiovascular diseases/symptoms, frequent interpersonal conflicts, migraines, hypertension, gastrointestinal disorders (Billehoj, 2007). Numerous studies have been conducted on teacher stress or occupational stress, particularly linking the stress experience to organizational factors (e.g., systems and processes) and person factor (e.g., rational intelligence, age, gender, social status, self-esteem, locus of control and the like) that contribute and/or prevent it. However, localized studies on the role of spirituality in teacher stress have not yet been given prominent status in the area. Thus, it is also this studyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s aim to discover a potential relationship between spirituality (expressed in terms of spiritual intelligence) and work stress. Recently, interest in spirituality at the workplace has gained momentum, as evidenced by international research projects on spirituality in organizations. Attempts to explain the revival of the movement focus on three themes: (a) unstable work environment that is primed by turbulent social and business changes, and which in turn spurs individuals to seek spiritual solutions to the consequent tension; (b) profound change in values globally exemplified in a developing sense of social responsibility, quest for post-material assets, search for self-actualization as opposed to material security; and (c) integration of eastern philosophies in otherwise westernized management of organizations (Giacalone and Jurkiewicz, 2003). That spirituality and meaning at the workplace is beneficial for the business in terms of morale and productivity is a view that 255

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has gained acceptance among management consultants, human resources professionals and mainstream business schools (Wong, 2003). Accordingly, managers and employees alike create meaning and purpose to cope with increasing feelings of stress and alienation in the workplace. Says Paul T.P. Wong, professor at Trinity Western University in Canada, “for companies to survive in the 21st century in the face of economical downturn and global competition, it would be helpful to seek inspiration from Above [God/heaven] and tap into the employees’ spiritual resources. “Spirituality’s goal is greater personal awareness of universal values, helping an individual live and work better and more joyfully” (Brandt, 1996). Research also shows that employees find it difficult to separate their spiritual lives from their work lives (Zimmerman, 2004). Research conducted by East (2005, as cited in Litzsey, 2003) found that employees who feel spiritually connected at work experience peace of mind, inner strength, serenity, patience, calmness and positive attitude. Studies suggest that movement toward self-reflection helps protect teachers from stress (Wilson, 2002). FRAMEWORK The study is anchored on Gall’s conceptualization of the integral aspects of religion and spirituality in responding to daily living and the challenges of life (Gold, 2010).. The visualization of individual response to stress portrays the integration of one’s religious or spiritual resources in response to the perceived stress. As stressed in the postulated concept, of vital importance is the resulting meaningmaking step that is composed of the synthesis of the person factors, spiritual connections, and spiritual coping toward a unified life purpose is of vital importance. The synthesis is seen to foster a sense of holistic well-being, which includes, but far transcends, resolving the identified stress. Related to Gall’s concept is Gibbons’abstract definition of Spirituality at Work: “A journey toward integration of work and spirituality, for individuals and organizations, which provides direction, wholeness, and connectedness at work” (Gold, 2010). The concept suggests that the person’s spirituality contributes to his work, especially in dealing with work-related stress. Rak and Peterson as cited by Gold (2010) 256

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reasoned that in times of stress or crisis, individuals with a strong spiritual orientation would seek support and direction from the spiritual realm. Such reasoning further suggests spirituality’s influence on the way a person deals with a situation. Likewise, Van Dierendonck and Mohan as cited by Gold (2010) affirmed the interconnection of the person’s spiritual life and daily activity at home, in the workplace, or in his community by stating that “spiritual experiences and practices are significant in life and play an important part in establishing an integrated personality.” That is, the person’s spiritual health affects both the person and his social milieu. Directly linking work stress to meaning and purpose, which are the spiritual dimensions of wellness, Dossey (1991) as cited by Schafer (1996) noted that “meaning makes the problems of life bearable, and without it we cannot process or integrate them.” As Schafer (1996) summarized in his book, “the stronger the sense of meaning and direction, the lower the distress-symptom score and the greater the proportion who report being very healthy and very happy.” What is stress? This study takes Appley and Trumbull’s definition of stress as cited by Sulsky and Smith (2005). Stress is defined in terms of the event or situation in the environment that contributes to or causes a noxious or disruptive experience; that event or situation is called a stressor. In organizational research, as cited still by Sulksy and Smith (2005), Caplan defined stress as “any characteristic of the job environment that poses a threat to the individual.” That is, by occupational stress is meant negative environmental factor or stressor associated with a particular job. In identifying work stressors, the study considered the four main causes of work stress cited by Daff (2003). First stressor is task demands. They are stressors arising from the tasks required of a person holding a particular job. Second stressor is physical demands. They are stressors associated with the setting in which an individual works. Third stressor is role demands. They are challenges associated with a role – that is, the set of behaviours expected of a person because of that person’s position in the group. Some people encounter role ambiguity, meaning they are uncertain about what behaviours are expected of them; and role conflict, which occurs when they perceive incompatible demands from others. Fourth stressor is interpersonal demands. 257

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They are stressors associated with relationships in the organization. Interpersonal conflict occurs when two or more individuals perceive that their attitudes or goals are in opposition. Spirituality, on the other hand, is understood in the light of the description of spirituality as authored by the 1995 Summit on Spirituality: “It is the capacity and tendency that is innate and unique to all persons. This spiritual tendency moves through the individual toward knowledge, love, meaning, hope, transcendence, connectedness, and compassion. Spirituality includes capacity for creativity, growth, and the development of a value system. Spirituality encompasses the religious, spiritual, and transpersonal.” (as cited by Gold, 2010). Furthermore, an objective measure of the spirituality construct spirituality is spiritual intelligence. Many definitions of spiritual intelligence have been suggested. Zohar and Marshall (2001), for instance, define spiritual intelligence as “the ultimate intelligence which we address and solve problems of meaning and value, the intelligence with which we can place our actions and our lives in a wider, richer, meaning-giving context, the intelligence with which we can assess that one course of action or one life path is more meaningful than another.” To Wigglesworth (2004), it is “the ability to behave with Compassion and Wisdom while maintaining inner and outer peace (equanimity) regardless of the circumstances.” David King (2008) further defines spiritual intelligence as “a set of mental capacities which contribute to the awareness, integration, and adaptive application of the nonmaterial and transcendent aspects of one’s existence, leading to such outcomes as deep existential reflection, enhancement of meaning, recognition of a transcendent self, and mastery of spiritual states.... When applied, these processes are adaptive in their ability to facilitate unique means of problem-solving, abstract-reasoning, and coping.” OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY This study determined the level of spirituality and work stress among the faculty of the Basic Education Department of the Liceo de Cagayan University. Further, this study sought to achieve the following specific objectives: (1) identify the respondents’ degree of spiritual intelligence and work stress; (2) determine the difference in the degree 258

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of spiritual intelligence and work stress of the respondents when grouped by department; and (3) establish the relationship between the respondents’ degree of spiritual intelligence and work stress. METHODOLOGY The study used the descriptive-correlation type of research. Using questionnaires, it described the respondents’ degree of spiritual intelligence and work stress. The relationship between these variables was explored. The study had as respondents the elementary and high school faculty of the Basic Education Department of Liceo de Cagayan University. Since the population size of the faculty was small, the whole population was considered for the study. However, out of the total population of 55 - 18 elementary and 37 secondary teachers - who were given the set of questionnaires through each department’s Office of the Principal, only 34 or 62 percent of them, representing more than half of the population, turned in the questionnaires within the oneweek retrieval period. An effort to follow up the questionnaires after the lapse of the retrieval period was exerted by the researcher, but no more questionnaires were submitted. To gather data on the respondents’ level of work stress, a researcher-made questionnaire based on published literature on work stress was used. Reliability analysis of the questionnaire yielded a Cronbach’s Alpha of .958 and average inter-item correlation of .409. when pretested. The questionnaire identified 23 work stressors for the respondents to indicate the frequency of stress occurrence on a five-point scale (5 – always [very high], 4 – frequently [high], 3 – occasionally [moderate], 2 – seldom [low], 1 – never [very low]). The work stressors were grouped into four factors: task, role, physical, and interpersonal.

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Respondents’ stress scores were described based on the following ranging: Mean scores

Interpretation

4.21 – 5.00 3.41 – 4.20 2.61 – 3.40 1.81 – 2.60 1.00 – 1.80

Very High High Moderate Low Very Low

The instrument used to measure the respondents’ spiritual intelligence was David King’s Spiritual Intelligence Self-Report Inventory-24 (SISRI-24), which was used with permission. SISRI-24 has four factors/subscales: (1) Critical Existential Thinking, or the capacity to critically contemplate meaning, purpose, and other existential/ metaphysical issues (e.g., existence, reality, death, the universe), and to come to original existential conclusions or philosophies; also the capacity to contemplate non-existential issues in relation to one’s existence (i.e., from an existential perspective), (2) Personal Meaning Production, or the ability to derive personal meaning and purpose from all physical and mental experiences, including the capacity to create and master (i.e., live according to) a life purpose, (3) Transcendental Awareness, or the capacity to identify transcendent dimensions/ patterns of the self (i.e., a transpersonal or transcendent self), of others, and of the physical world (e.g., holism, nonmaterialism) during normal states of consciousness, accompanied by the capacity to identify their relationship to one’s self and to the physical, and (4) Conscious State Expansion, or the ability to enter and exit higher/spiritual states of consciousness (e.g., pure consciousness, cosmic consciousness, unity, oneness) at one’s own discretion (as in deep contemplation or reflection, meditation, prayer, etc.). A standardized questionnaire, SISRI-24 has a Cronbach’s Alpha of .920, a standardized alpha of .922, split-half reliability of .91, and an average inter-item correlation of .34. SISRI-24 uses a 5-point Likert scaling (0 – not at all true of me, 1 – not very true of me, 2 – somewhat true of me, 3- very true of me, 4 – completely true of me).

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Respondents’ levels of spiritual intelligence were described based on the following ranging: Mean scores 3.21 – 4.00 2.41 – 3.20 1.61 – 2.40 0.81 – 1.60 0.00 – 0.80

Interpretation Very High High Moderate Low Very Low

The data gathered were analysed and interpreted using the mean to determine the respondents’ level of spiritual intelligence and work stress, the t-test for independent samples to determine any significant difference in the level of spiritual intelligence and work stress of the respondents when grouped by department, and the Pearson r to determine the relationship between the respondents’ spiritual intelligence and work stress. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Problem 1. Respondents’ degree of spiritual intelligence and work stress

Table 1.1 Respondents’ degree of spiritual intelligence by factor and by group Factors Critical Existential Thinking Personal Meaning Production Transcendental Awareness

Conscious State Expansion

Respondents

Mean

Interpretation

Overall

2.6555

High High

Elementary

2.987

High school

2.497

High

Overall

3.241

Very High

Elementary

3.473

Very High

High school

3.130

High

Overall

2.908

High

Elementary High school Overall Elementary

11 23 34 11

3.000 2.863 2.7588 3.054

High High High High

High school

2.617

High

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As shown in Table 1.1 on the respondents’ level of spiritual intelligence, both elementary and high school faculty indicated very high spiritual intelligence in personal meaning production while they indicated high spiritual intelligence in all other factors as critical existential thinking, transcendental awareness, and conscious state expansion. The finding clearly suggests that the basic education faculty have high spiritual orientation. In work setting, the faculty are highly involved in religious activities such as the Holy Mass for every major school event, yearly recollection, and observance of religious events such as the Advent, Christmas, Month of the Holy Rosary, among others. These events somehow strengthen the spiritual consciousness of the faculty. In their private lives, these faculty have their own religious affiliations, most of them are Catholics while a very few belong to other Christian denominations. Thus, any subject concerning religion is, after all, not alien to them. According to King (2008), spiritual intelligence could be related to Horn and Cattell’s (1966) theory of fluid and crystallized abilities. Accordingly, fluid abilities would reflect the individual biological potential for spiritual intelligence. So far, evidence for biological foundations of spiritual intelligence was found, and this suggests that the potential exists in human beings. Crystallized abilities, on the other hand, would represent those aspects of spiritual intelligence that are learned in educational and cultural settings. As such, the nature of the workplace, whether it fosters or not spirituality in the workplace, is one contributing factor in the enhancement of the said potential. The existential view of human nature holds that one basic dimension of living is the search for meaning, purpose, values, and goals. According to Viktor Frankl as cited by Corey (2006), meaninglessness or “the frustration of the will to meaning” in life leads to emptiness and hollowness, or otherwise known as existential vacuum. As cited in King (2008), the concept of existential vacuum may be experienced not only as a state of meaninglessness, but also a state of intense psychological discomfort regarding questions about existence. Critical existential thinking, a factor of spiritual intelligence, addresses man’s search for meaning and purpose. It provides an adaptive role not only to crisis of an existential nature, but also other life issues such as stress at work. Teachers, in order to alleviate themselves from the concomitant physical and psychological discomfort that their job brings, need “to 262

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critically analyze their issues and circumstances, thereby more readily solving the existential frustration and averting its side effects” (King, 2008). A high capacity for personal meaning production allows an individual to attach purpose and meaning to his or her positive or negative experiences. Extracting personal meaning and purpose in what teachers are doing in school and inside the classroom helps transform the stressors they encounter and reduce their negative impact. In King (2008), Mascaro and Rosen (2005) found significant and positive correlations between measures of hope and both implicit and explicit measures of personal meaning. They also confirmed that measures of personal and spiritual meaning were negatively correlated with depression, and that spiritual meaning moderated the relationship between daily stress and depression, i.e., when spiritual meaning was low, the relationship between stress and depression was high. Likewise, Litzsey (2003) agrees that “when there is a lack of meaning or purpose in work, employees tend to feel separated and alienated from oneself. This can cause employee frustration and reduced productivity”. Overall, these findings suggest attaching spiritual meaning to events in one’s life acts as “a buffer against the effects of stress on well-being.” As it is, respondent teachers in this study appeared to have high capacity for personal meaning production; hence, expectedly would experience moderate, if not low levels of stress. On the other hand, transcendental awareness, or the awareness of something more than the physical or material, as defined by King (2008), allows individuals to draw inner strength when material and physical sources seem unavailable. It provides individuals a sense of wholeness, integration, connectedness, and additional personal meaning. A study by Nygren as cited by King (2008), for instance, revealed a significant relationship between self-transcendence and resilience, sense of coherence, purpose in life, and life satisfaction. In terms of conscious state expansion factor of spiritual intelligence, with higher states obtained via transcendental meditations, several related studies where noted by King (2008) as demonstrating links between the said construct and positive psychological health. Accordingly, the related relaxation has anxiety-reducing effects and gives one a clear mind and focus and efficient means for problem263

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solving, decision-making, and reasoning in the midst of stressful conditions. Table 1.2 Respondents’ degree of work stress by factor and by group Factors/ Stressors

Respondents

Mean

Interpretation

Overall

2.974

Moderate

Tasks

Elementary

3.121

Moderate

Role

High school Overall Elementary

23 34 11

2.903 2.697 2.864

Moderate Moderate Moderate

High school

2.619

Moderate

Overall Elementary High school

34 11 23

2.694 2.691 2.696

Moderate Moderate Moderate

Overall Elementary

34 11

2.765 2.909

Moderate Moderate

High school

2.696

Moderate

Physical

Interpersonal

Table 1.2 on the respondents’ level of work stress reveals that both elementary and high school faculty were moderately stressed by all identified task, role, physical, and interpersonal factors. No job is stress-free. It is just that some jobs are more stressful than others for a variety of reasons (Sulksy and Smith, 2005). As Malone (2006) put it, “you cannot abolish stress from your life; you can only try to manage it effectively.” Undeniably, teaching is stressful, but the stress level will surely vary depending on the teaching environment. But the most salient stressors in teaching are excessive amount of work, meeting deadlines, high intellectual demands of the job, rigid practices to follow, access to the equipment needed to do the job, and communication gaps resulting to relational strain. Problem 2. Difference in the degree of spiritual intelligence and work stress between elementary and high school faculty To test if there is a significant difference in the spiritual intelligence 264

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between elementary and high school faculty, Independent Sample T-test was used. The Independent-Samples T -test procedure compared the means for the two groups of cases. The mean values for the spiritual intelligence of elementary and high school faculty are displayed in the Group Statistics table. Table 2.1a Group statistics (Spirituality) Department

Mean

Standard Deviation

Standard Error Mean

Elementary

74.55

13.736

4.142

66.26

10.078

2.101

High school

Table 2.1b Independent samples test (Spirituality) Levene’s Test for Equality of Variances

Equal variances assumed Equal variances not assumed

2.157

Sig.

.152

t-test for Equality of Means

Sig. (2tailed)

Mean Difference

Std. Error Difference

95% Confidence Interval of the Difference

Lower

Upper

1.991

.055

8.285

4.160

-.189

16.759

1.784

15.349

.094

8.285

4.644

-1.595

18.164

As shown in the table above, significance of the Levene’s Test is high at .152 (or greater than 0.05); hence, result that assumed equal variances for both groups was used. Significant value of the t-test is at .055 (or higher than 0.05). This indicates that there is no significant difference in the level of spiritual intelligence between elementary and high school faculty.

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Table 2.2a Group statistics (Work Stress) Department

Elementary High school

Mean

Standard Deviation

Standard Error Mean

67.55

19.138

5.770

63.57

15.096

3.148

Table 2.2b. Independent samples test (Work Stress) Leveneâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Test for Equality of Variances

Equal variances assumed Equal variances not assumed

.164

Sig.

.688

t-test for Equality of Means

Sig. (2tailed)

Mean Difference

Std. Error Difference

95% Confidence Interval of the Difference

Lower

Upper

.659

.514

3.980

6.036

-8.315

16.276

.606

16.185

.553

3.980

6.573

-9.941

17.902

From the table above, significance of the Leveneâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s test is 0.688 (or greater than 0.05); hence, result that assumed equal variances among groups was used. T-test value is .659 (or greater than 0.05). This indicates that there is no significant difference in the level of work stress between elementary and high school faculty. Problem 3. Relationship between spiritual intelligence and work stress

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Table 3. Correlation between spiritual intelligence and work stress Variables Spiritual Intelligence

Pearson Correlation

Spiritual Intelligence

Work Stress

.209 .236

Sig. (2-tailed) N Work Stress

Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed) N

.209

.236 34

To test if there is a significant relationship between spiritual intelligence and level of work stress among the basic education faculty, Pearson Correlation Coefficient was used. From the table above, the correlation coefficient of spiritual intelligence and work stress is 0.209. This indicates that spiritual intelligence and work stress are not strongly correlated. The significance of each correlation coefficient is also displayed in the correlation table. The significance level is 0.236, or is above 0.05. This indicates that there is no significant relationship between the spiritual intelligence and level of work stress among the faculty. This finding, however, does not contradict the general assumption that spiritual health is significantly related to assuming responsibility to manage oneâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s stress or having healthy spiritual life is invaluable during times of stress (Greenberg, 2002). However, the finding directly suggests that spiritual intelligence does not guarantee anyone immunity from stress. Coping with stress does not only require spiritual intelligence but also analytical problemsolving skill, social support, and availability of resources needed to address a stressor. Similarly, Thoresenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s (1999) analytical review of related studies and literature as to the existence of relationship between spirituality and health reiterates the fact that in over 300 studies conducted on spirituality and health, many but not all cases showed a positive relationship between spiritual or religious factors and health. He further cited that other factors such as psychosocial and sociocultural factors that could explain health outcomes were not accounted for in prospective studies. Also, experimentally designed studies have 267

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not yet been conducted and “without much evidence from replicated and experimentally designed studies, matters of causality remain unclear”. Thoresen (1999) goes further to cite psychosocial mechanisms that were pointed out by other researchers -- mechanisms that could possibly explain a spiritual/religious-health connection. These could include cognitive/motivational processes such as self-perception of worth, perceived self-efficacy beliefs about competence to take action needed to accomplish goals, locus-of-control beliefs, and optimistic explanatory style behavioural; interpersonal processes such as group meditation skills, spiritual help-seeking through prayer or personal religious counsel, opportunities for fellowship, involvement in formal social programs, and companionship; and socio-cultural processes. These factors may decrease the chance of major overwhelming stresses --- factors which were not included in the scope of this particular study. CONCLUSION Teaching is inherently stressful. Causing stress are several interplaying factors such as physical conditions, intellectual demands, role expectations, interpersonal demands, task demands, organizational practices, and personal expectations towards work, colleagues, and the organization itself. How stressful teaching can be depends not only on the individual teacher’s spirituality but also on other moderating factors such as the teacher’s level of analytical problem-solving skill, interpersonal skill, emotional quotient, and support system. RECOMMENDATIONS In the light of the findings of this research, and in support of the findings of other researchers, the following recommendations are made: That spirituality in the workplace be integrated in the organization’s culture to engender a sense of meaning and fulfilment among employees, hence create a practical, inexpensive, beneficial buffer against work-related stress, and ultimately promote overall work satisfaction and employee productivity and peak performance. In 268

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keeping with the goal, this integration of spirituality may be observed in the following ways: (1) congruence between existing school policies and core values of the university, (2) management decisions reflecting spiritual values as well as the university’s core values adhered to by all employees, (3) creation of a sense of community and open line of communication among employees and between employees and the higher-ups, and (4) creation of regular university-wide programs that would promote and strengthen spirituality on the personal and organizational level. That a regular stress management program for faculty and staff be conceptualized and regularly implemented. As such, identified stressors be timely and appropriately addressed. That further studies with a wider scope in terms of participants for the study (i.e., with college faculty and administrative personnel) and examination of mediating factors or variables to account for the stress experience and spirituality of university employees be conducted. LITERATURE CITED Antoniou, A.S., Polychroni, F., Walters, B.University of Manchester (2000). Sources of Stress and Professional Burnout of Teachers of Special Educational Needs. Paper presented at ISEC 2000, Greece. Retrieved from http://www.isec2000.org.uk/abstracts/papers_p/polychroni_1.htm Billehoj, H. (October 2007). Report on the European Teachers Union Committee for Education (ETUCE) Survey on Teachers’ Work-related Stress. Retrieved from http://etuce.homestead.com/News/2008/March2008/DraftReport_ WRS_EN.pdf Brandt, E. (1996, April). Corporate Pioneers Explore Spirituality. HR Magazine, 41, 82- 87. Corey, Gerald (2006). Principles and Techniques of Counseling and Psychotherapy, 7th edition. Singapore: Thomson Learning Asia. Daff, R. (2003). Management. Canada: Thomson. Giacalone, R. A. and Jurkiewicz, C. (2003). Handbook of Workplace Spirituality and Organizational Performance. New York: M.E. Sharpe, Inc. Gold, J. M. (2010). Counseling and Spirituality: Integrating Spiritual and Clinical Orientations. New Jersey: Pearson Education, Inc. Greenberg, J.S. (2002). Comprehensive Stress Management, 7th edition. New 269

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York: McGraw-Hill. Hammond, O. W., & Onikama, D. L. (1997). At Risk Teachers. Honolulu, Hawaii: Pacific Resources for Education and Learning. King, D. (2008). The Spiritual Intelligence Project. Retrieved from http://www. dbking.net/spiritualintelligence/ Litzsey, C. 2003). Spirituality in The Workplace and The Implications It Has On Employees and Organizations. Graduate School of Southern Illinois University Carbondale. Retrieved from http://wed.siu.edu/Public1/ department/Litzsey%20paper.pdf Malone, S. (2006). Surviving stress. New Delhi: Indiana Publishing House. Schafer, W. (1996). Stress management for wellness. California: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc. Sulsky, L. and Smith, C.(2005). Workstress. USA: Wadsworth. Thoresen, C.E. (1999). Spirituality and Health : Is There a Relationship?. Journal of Health Psychology, 4, 3, 291-300. Tuettemann, E. (1991). Teaching: Stress and satisfaction. Issues In Educational Research, 1(1), 1991, 31-42. Wigglesworth, C. 2004). Spiritual Intelligence and Why It Matters. Retrieved from homepage of Conscious Pursuits Inc.: www.consciouspursuits.com Wilson, V. (2002). Feeling the Strain. An overview of the literature on teachersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; stress. University of Glasgow. Scottish Council for Research In Education. SCRE Research Report No 109. Retrieved from https://dspace.gla.ac.uk/ bitstream/1905/213/1/109.pdf Wong, P. T. P. (2003). Presidentâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Column, September 2003: Spirituality and Meaning at Work. Retrieved from http://www.meaning.ca/archives/ presidents_columns/pres_col_sep_2003_meaning-at-work.htm Zimmerman, E. (2004, August 15). The many delicate issues of spirituality in the office. New York Times. Retrieved from http://www.spiritinbusiness.org/ new/images/Spitituality.html Zohar, D. and Marshall, I. (2001). Spiritual Intelligence: The Ultimate Intelligence. London: Bloomsbury Publishing PLC.

FOR INQUIRIES: Email: liceojournal@yahoo.com.ph Fax: 63+ (08822) 727459 URL: http://www.ejournals.ph http://www.liceojournal.com 270

Vol. 6 No. 2 December 2010 ISSN: 2094-1064 CHED Accredited Research Journal, Category B

Liceo Journal of Higher Education Research Education Section

Implementation of Research Programs of Partner Institutions in Visayas and Mindanao n University

GENARO V. JAPOS drgvjapos@yahoo.com Research and Publication Office Liceo de Cagayan University TERESITA T. TUMAPON ttumapon@mail.com Liceo de Cagayan University EMILIANA J. LOZANO lozano_emiliana@yahoo.com College of Business Administration and Accountancy Father Saturnino Urios University Date Submitte: Oct. 30, 2009 Final Revision Complied: Feb. 27, 2010

Plagiarism Detection: Passed License No. 944146510808541 Original: 100%

Abstract â&#x20AC;&#x201C; The study examines the implementation of research programs of 15 partner institutions in Visayas and Mindanao in Regions 7,9,10,11,12,and 13. The study revealed that the partner institutions have established quality assurance mechanisms such as accreditation, ISO, and IQuAME. Their quality earned recognition by the Commission on Higher Education through grants of autonomy and deregulation. The implementation of the research programs of the 15 partner institutions is satisfactory, indicating that the mechanisms in place are not yet mature, robust, and sustainable despite management support, wellcrafted agenda, and adequate planning. The quality assurance mechanisms in place among the 15 partner institutions are not robust since it merely generated a satisfactory implementation of 271

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is still the weakest link even among the supposedly strong institutions. The strong management, agenda, and planning mechanisms are indicators that these schools have the potential to promote and achieve research excellence. The very satisfactory management and agenda are the distinguishing features that characterize autonomous and deregulated institutions in terms of research program implementation. The best practices in the implementation of the research programs include the following: management support, adequate fulltime personnel, release time for researchers, partnership and linkages, external consultants, locally relevant researches, niching of expertise, advocacy, of the research agenda, research master plan, tracking system for researchers, quality assurance in the undergraduate level, research-based institutional innovations, and investment in faculty development. Keywords â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Research Programs, partner institutions, practices in research

best

INTRODUCTION education institution from a basic education institution. Knowledge creation is the primary mandate of higher education in order to propel national development through a cadre of professionals imbued with Filipinos (Alcala 2000). In the Philippines, only a handful of the almost two thousand HEIâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s are knowledge creation centers. These schools have reached a higher degree of maturity that the Commission on Higher Education granted them autonomous and deregulated status since 2002. Teachers in studies whether on not the resources are available for research endeavours, (Joson and Cuelo 2010). The research capability trainings motivated and enhanced researchersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; skills in statistics indicating that 272

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the initiatives introduced created a community of researchers which enhanced the research culture of the university (Mirasol 2010). The autonomous and deregulated institutions have achieved Level III accreditation and have Centers of Excellence and Development. They have very high performance in the licensure examinations. They have quality assurance programs to deliver excellent education. These institutions have achieved higher levels of research productivity. Hence, the other HEIs can benchmark their research practices against the best practices of these schools. As worthy models, the dissemination of good practices help stimulate the promotion and production of quality researches (Thompson and Strickland 2001). Ruben C. Umaly, Secretary General, Association of Universities of Asia and the Pacific stressed that research is a mission of universities. Research is a pillar in the promotion of excellence in academic programs in the undergraduate, graduate and lifelong of education; community service, societal transformation through promotion of peace, democracy, values, sustainable development, poverty alleviation; and, the preservation and promotion of national culture and heritage. Cognizant of the need to take a more active role in the promotion of research excellence, the Liceo de Cagayan University forged partnerships with institutions in Regions 7, 9, 10, 11, 12 and 13 located in the Visayas and Mindanao. The purposes of the partnership are: (1) collaboration of research projects so researchers from LDCU will have opportunities to research in other schools and in partnership with external experts for professional cross-pollination; (2) publication of researches in other journals and publication of researches from other schools in the journals of LDCU; (3) exchange of experts for capability building and peer review system; (4) partnership with stronger institutions to learn from their best practices and to connect with their linkages and affiliations; and (5) source out funding for researches of the specialized research centers. As the convenor of the First Research Partnership Conference, the university desires to assess the research program of the partner institutions as basis for collaborative arrangements.

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FRAMEWORK Mona D. Valisno (2000) Commissioner of CHED said that the country wants to pole vault into the 21st century by making the Philippines as a knowledge based industry center and education center in the AsiaPacific region. CHED plays a very active role in providing world class professional services and as provider of globally competitive and excellent education, research and training. Thus, CHED intensifies the establishment of national, regional and global research linkages with knowledge generating and knowledge consuming entities. The quality assurance framework espoused by CHED demonstrates the significant role of research capability as a criterion for performance. The institution has to have a research community of faculty, post graduate students and post doctoral researchers that fosters and supports creative research and other advanced scholarly activity. The research programs of HEIs must have structures and systems to generate publications, and levels of interaction of a scholarly community (CHED MEMO No. 15 Series of 2005). There are parameters for research excellence. First, a functional research program has an overall strategy for the management and development of its research activities and the provision of research facilities. Second, the research agenda addresses national needs and priorities, and that the outcomes are utilized. Third, the quality of research must be at levels of international excellence. Fourth, the research publications are internationally serialized and refereed by national and international experts. Fifth, there are partnerships and linkages for the research program. Sixth, the faculty researchers have research experience in other universities in the Philippines and abroad. Seventh, there is a link between the graduate program and the research center with the latter giving support to the graduate research students. Eighth, the research outputs are disseminated to the community (IQuAME Operations Handbook 2005). Research stands at the pillar of instruction, extension and production among the four fold functions of higher education. Teachers use their expertise to create new knowledge that they use to teach their students and disseminate to the community as inputs to the development strategy. 274

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The implementation of a research program requires management mechanisms, productivity, agenda, advocacy, planning, monitoring and evaluation, impact to users and quality assurance (CHED MEMO No. 16 Series of 2005).

Figure 1. The process flow chart for implementation of the research program

OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY The study aimed to assess the research programs of partner institutions in Visayas and Mindanao. Specifically, the study pursued the following objectives: (1) to describe the research partner institutions along selected variables; (2) to determine the level of implementation of the research programs; (3) to compare the level of implementation of the research programs of the autonomous/deregulated and the non-autonomous/deregulated schools; and, (4) to showcase the best practices in research that can be a model for other institutions. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY This section discusses the research design, research environment, selection of respondents, research instruments, data gathering procedure, and statistical techniques.The study utilized the nonexperimental research design employing the descriptive method applying the following techniques: survey, interview, and documentary analysis. The study involved 15 partner institutions from Region 7 in Visayas, Regions 9, 10, 11, 12, and 13 in Mindanao. The study used the non-probability sampling design employing the purposive sampling technique generating 34 respondents who are administrators and 275

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faculty involved in research. Respondents were chosen on the basis of their adequate knowledge and first hand experience on the operations and management of their research programs. Table 1. Distribution of the respondents of the study by region REGION

ADMIN

FACULTY

TOTAL

The parameters were taken from accreditation standards for Level III, Center for Excellence and Quality Assurance from IQuAME. The researcher visited the schools to forge partnership with them for research purposes. Interviews were conducted on the status of their research programs, their expectations, and what Liceo de Cagayan University can offer to them as reflected in the terms of the Memorandum of Agreement. Then the schools were asked to send administrators and faculty participants to the first research partnership conference held last February 26-27, 2007 at the Dynasty Court Hotel, Cagayan de Oro City. The respondents were asked to answer the questionnaire. The study used the following statistical techniques to facilitate analysis. Frequency, percentage, mean, standard deviation for the descriptive part of the analysis. T-test for independent samples to test the difference in the ratings of respondents grouped by autonomous/deregulated and non-autonomous/deregulated.

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RESULTS AND DISCUSSION On Profile of Research Partner Institutions Table 2. Profile of the schools by selected variables A. By Corporate Ownership Public SUCs (3) 1. Central Visayas State College of Agriculture, Forestry and Technology 2. MSU-GenSan 3. Mindanao Polytechnic State College

Private Sectarian (7) 1. Holy Name University 2. University of San Jose Recoletos 3. Xavier University 4. Southern Christian College 5. Notre Dame of Dadiangas University 6. Notre Dame of Marbel University 7. Mountain View College Private Non-Sectarian (5) 1. Universidad de Zamboanga 2. Liceo de Cagayan university 3. University of Mindanao 4. Davao Doctors College 5. St. Joseph Institute of Technology

B. By CHED Status Autonomous

Deregulated

Non-Autonomous/ Deregulated 7

C. By Accreditation With Level II Programs

With Level III Programs

By corporate ownership, three institutions are public SUCs while 12 are private. There are seven private sectarian schools while the rest are non-sectarian. Of the 12 private schools, five (5) are autonomous while the three (3) are deregulated. Among the 15 partner institutions, seven (7) have Level II Accredited Programs by PAASCU, PACUCOA, ASCU and AAHCUP while five (5) have Level III academic programs. 277

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On Implementation of the Research Programs Management Table 3. Level of implementation of the research program of partner institutions under the indicator research management Indicators

MEAN

The program has been designed to secure the strategic leadership advantage of the institution for knowledge creation in the area it operates.

3.84

1.22

The research program is a priority of the governing board and the management of the institution

3.88

.75

The management has provided appropriate structure to institutionalize the promotion of research culture.

4.25

1.22

There are existing policies to govern the operations of the research center.

4.25

.76

Adequate support, facilities and equipments are given to fast track research programs.

3.69

.78

Top of the line researchers and specialists are actively involved in the research center.

3.53

.98

Adequate incentives and benefits are provided to fasten doing research. There are mechanisms to deload the faculty of teaching functions to concentrate on research projects.

3.53

1.05

3.53

1.41

3.81

.67

Mean

Research management is rated very satisfactory (X = 3.81, SD = .67). The respondents expressed that their research programs have secured their strategic leadership advantage for knowledge creation. This indicates that research is viewed as a competitive edge. Research is one of the four components for Level III Accreditation and a requirement for Ar Category for IQuAME. It is also considered for grant of deregulation and autonomy by CHED. The respondents indicated that the research program is a priority of the governing board and the management of the institution (3.88 278

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VS). The governing board approves the research policies while the management administers the research program. The majority of the research centers receive their research funds from allocations approved by the governing board. Rated highest are the provisions for appropriate structure to institutionalize the promotion of research centers (4.25 VS) and the policy that gives support to the operations. All research centers are managed by qualified staff. Some schools have full-time researchers such as Davao Doctors College. The schools have research manuals. The respondents also noted the very satisfactory support, facilities and equipment needed to fast track the research programs. Most centers have statisticians, editors, faculty researchers, student assistants, statistical softwares and high-speed computers. Some schools have specialized centers that maintain top of the line experts with incentives and benefits. The best brains of the schools are usually included as researchers in the centers. Some schools practice deloading of teachers who do research. They are relieved, either partial or full, of heavy teaching duties to find time for research. Other schools pay the research involvement of the teachers separately on top of teaching compensation. Productivity Table 4. Level of implementation of the research program of partner institutions under the indicator research productivity Indicators 1. 2. 3. 4.

There is a clear definition of who are allowed to do research such that the quality and integrity of research outputs are maintained. There are mechanisms to ensure that the research programs and final outputs undergo scrutiny by competent experts. There is an adequate financial support for faculty researches. There are enabling mechanisms to sustain research productivity of the faculty.

MEAN

3.69

.97

3.63

.83

3.56

1.05

3.59

.95

279

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The ratio is one research output per professor in every semester or year. 6. The research outputs are communicated promptly to end users. 7. The research productivity generated per academic year is adequate to meet requirements of accreditation and other agencies. 8. The research outputs are printed in journals of other colleges and universities. 9. The quality of research outputs is comparable to other reputable institutions in the Philippines. 10. The faculty has completed their researches on time as scheduled. Mean

2.44

1.27

3.56

1.27

2.84

1.14

2.81

1.18

3.03

1.09

2.91

.96

3.21

.74

The respondents rated the research productivity satisfactory (3.21, SD = .74). The policies are clear regarding who are allowed to do research to maintain quality and integrity. Usually, teachers with professorial rank are given the research grants since they possess the appropriate academic degrees. Outputs are scrutinized by experts through peer review, reactions during research dissemination, proposal reviews, panel interview and editing of the manuscript. Faculty outputs are made possible through adequate financial support in the form of deloading, honorarium, and compensation equivalent to the subject loads. Promotion in rank and salary, financial incentives, awards and citations, and partnerships and linkages are the mechanisms to sustain research productivity. For the faculty in the professorial level, only few complete their researches as evidenced by a low ratio of professor to research outputs by semester. It is because some faculty in the professorial level perform other administrative assignments like chairmanship, committee membership in accreditation, IQuAME, school celebrations, and community extension services, among others. Joson and Cuelo (2010) explain that inspite of the belief that research is a basic function, the faculty generally feel that they are receiving low support from their department heads. In general, the research productivity is satisfactory to meet the requirements of accreditation and other agencies. This implies that the satisfactory rating is for compliance, and certainly not enough 280

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to achieve excellence. In the experiences of the schools, an academic program due for Level III Accreditation needs the research output of the faculty of that program only. Outputs of the faculty of other programs can not be used for the research requirement of the program seeking accreditation. Few schools claimed that their outputs are printed in other journals outside of their institution. Mostly the researches are published in in-house journals only. Due to the peer review system, the quality of research outputs is satisfactorily comparable to that of other reputable institutions in the Philippines. More often, the acceptance rate is high in the Philippines as contrasted to the low acceptance rate by the international publications for researches done by Filipinos. Furthermore, completion of researches within the schedule is rated satisfactory. Some respondents claimed that few researchers can finish on time due to pressures of teaching and other assignments. Agenda Table 5. Level of implementation of the research program of partner institutions under the indicator research agenda Indicators

MEAN

There is a research agenda that serves as framework and guide of the research activities.

4.25

.67

There is annual review and evaluation of the research agenda.

3.59

.98

There are specialized research centers that actualize the research agenda.

3.59

1.62

The crafting of the agenda is done by internal and external experts.

3.31

.97

The research agenda address local, regional, national, and global development needs.

3.81

1.06

The research agenda reflect the expectations of the disciplines and the faculty who do them.

3.63

.83

Mean

3.70

.78

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The research agenda are rated very satisfactory (3.70, SD = .78). These agenda serve as framework and guide of the research activities. Most research agenda are newly crafted following a review process. There is annual review and evaluation of the research agenda. In some schools, the review and evaluation is institutional while the others do it by academic program. Some schools have specialized research centers that streamline research in certain disciplines. The crafting of the agenda by internal and external experts is rated satisfactory. Very few schools get external experts for the crafting and review of the research agenda. This implies that the perspective of the agenda might be limited since the external view is not included. The agenda address local, regional, national and global development needs. This means that the development priorities of the local government units, the regional development council (NEDA), the development thrusts of President Gloria Macapagalâ&#x20AC;&#x201C;Arroyo, and the development goals of UNESCO, World Trade Organization, International Declarations, International Summits of Leaders, among others are also considered. Moreover, the research agenda reflect the expertise of the disciplines and the faculty. Some schools reported that their academic programs have research agenda with corresponding list of priority research topics contributed by the teachers of the major fields. Advocacy Table 6. Level of implementation of the research program of partner institutions under the indicator research advocacy Indicators 1. 2. 3. 4.

There is a research advocacy program of the institution. The advocacy targets the institutionsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; stakeholders who are directly concerned with the research outputs. The research outputs are disseminated in public fora. The research outputs are provided to the identified end users for proper utilization Mean

282

MEAN

3.56

.98

3.41

.87

3.47

1.39

3.53

.95

3.49

.87

Implementation of Research Programs of Partner Institutions in Visayas and Mindanao

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The research advocacy program measured by four parameters is rated satisfactory (3.49, SD = .87). Although the advocacy program itself is very satisfactory, the outreach towards the stakeholders is only satisfactory. This supports that the advocacy program has not penetrated to a wider segment of the beneficiaries. It is because the public fora as avenues for dissemination are rated only satisfactory. Few stakeholders can attend public fora. Public facilities have limited accommodation. The respondents also rated very satisfactory the provision on research outputs for proper utilization. The respondents said that outputs are given to the direct beneficiaries such as administrators of public and private institutions for policy and program implementation. Planning Table 7. Level of implementation of the research program of partner institutions under the indicator planning Indicators 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

The research program is a prominent feature of the institutionâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s strategic plan. Research is an important thrust of the institutionâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s mission. There is a written document of the research plan of the institution. The academic departments were involved in the formulation of the plan. The plan has objectives that address local, national and global needs. Mean

MEAN

3.50

.95

3.62

.94

3.72

.89

3.34

1.07

3.53

1.05

3.54

.83

The planning component is very satisfactory (3.54, SD = .83). It is interesting to note that although research is an important thrust of the mission (3.62 VS), it is not a prominent feature in the strategic plan. This implies that research has not reached long-term sustainability since it merely complies the requirements of accreditation, CHED and immediate needs of the institution. The strong presence of research in the strategic plan would guarantee the knowledge creation thrust of the schools. 283

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While written document of the research plan is very satisfactory, the academic departments’ involvement in the formulation of the plan is only satisfactory. This denotes that research planning is done mostly by the research centers with limited contribution from the academic departments. The consequences for this could be that the promotion of research excellence of the centers does not lift the instructional and extension functions of the schools. The respondents rated very satisfactory the plan objectives as addressing local, national, and global needs. In the experiences of the schools, they derive their objectives from CHED’s national research agenda and the schools’ vision-mission. Implementation Table 8. Level of implementation of the research program of partner institutions Indicators 1.

The research topics were drawn from the research agenda of the institution.

The research center is managed by well qualified personnel who have track record of research excellence. There are quality assurance measures that guarantee excellence in the research outputs.

Mean

MEAN

3.53

.98

3.56

.84

3.25

.95

3.45

.79

The respondents rated very satisfactory the item “the research topics were drawn from the research agenda of the institution.” This means that research activities emanated from the research agenda which allow the schools to actualize the purposes of the research program. Another item rated very satisfactory is the presence of well qualified personnel who have track record of research excellence. Most research centers are managed by doctorate degree holders, some of them are even holding concurrent position as vice-president for academic affairs. However, quality assurance measures that guarantee excellence in the research outputs is rated satisfactory. Policies on 284

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quality assurance are specified in the research manuals of these schools. However, they pertain to faculty researches. Some schools have quality assurance for undergraduate researches. Monitoring and evaluation obtained a mean rating of 3.06, satisfactory. All the five items got a rating of satisfactory. In the interview, the respondents said that when researchers are given the grants, they sign a contract specifying the period covered in the research. After the proposal is approved, a partial payment is given. Then, the faculty submits the final paper on the date specified. When the faculty can not meet the deadline, a monitoring activity is done to check on the progress of the researcher. The findings suggest that there is little monitoring done during the implementation stage of the research. Monitoring and Evaluation Table 9. Level of implementation of the research program of partner institutions under the indicator monitoring and evaluation Indicators

MEAN

There is a tracking system that monitors the progress of the different phases of the research process.

3.03

.78

There is a tracking system to gauge the implementation of the recommendations of the research.

2.78

.79

The technical review panel implements appropriate interventions to safeguard the integrity and quality of researches.

3.19

.78

The quality of the researches completed is evaluated for merit. The research paper of the university is evaluated o a periodic basis.

3.31

1.03

2.97

.93

3.06

.73

Mean

Although rated satisfactory, most schools do not track down the implementation of research recommendations. The explanation is either time is limited or it is not the usual practice. Hence, research results do 285

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not make a significant difference in the lives of the beneficiaries. The technical review panel satisfactorily implements measures to safeguard the integrity and the quality of researches. Some schools reported that proposals and final write-ups go through a review process by a technical panel. Others said that they have oral defenses/ interviews. These processes are done prior to the finalization of the research for publication. Most members of the review panel are inhouse experts. Few came from other universities in the Philippines. The interviews disclosed that the schools have difficulty in getting referees/reviewers. After the proposal is approved, most schools do not evaluate formally the merits of the researches except when awards are given. However, the panel of reviewers makes corrections on the research and affix their signatures only when their corrections are complied with. Some schools evaluate the researches on a periodic basis. Others evaluate their agenda every year. Impact to Users Table 10. Level of implementation of the research program of partner institutions under the indicator impact of researches to users Indicators

MEAN

The intended users benefit from the implementation of the results of the study.

3.00

.88

There are clear indications that the researches made a difference in the lives of the beneficiaries.

2.69

1.00

The benefits outweigh the costs of the research implementation.

2.94

.88

There is evidence of greater awareness on the part of the beneficiaries on the issues covered in the research.

2.91

.86

The research findings answered the needs and concerns of the beneficiaries.

3.03

.90

Mean

2.91

.82

The impact of researches to the users is satisfactory (2.91, SD = 286

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.82). The mean ratings given by the respondents are homogeneous, indicating a ubiquitous trend in the 15 partner institutions. The findings suggest that the mechanisms are not robust in terms of the research results contributing to the greater awareness of beneficiaries and actually answering their needs and concerns. Since the researches did not make a real difference in the lives of the beneficiaries, it is evident that the benefits did not outweigh the costs of the research implementation. From the experiences of the institutions under survey, the means to reach the users are limited. While research publication is the most frequently used medium of advocacy, it has limited circulation. Very little attempts are done to disseminate the results to the research sites. Hence, the use of researches as inputs to policy, planning and implementation is also limited. Quality Assurance Table 11. Level of implementation of the research program of partner institutions under the indicator compliance to IQuAME indicators Indicators 1.

2. 3. 4. 5.

The institution has an overall strategy for the management and development of its research activities and the provision of research facilities. The institutionâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s research addresses national needs and priorities. The institutionâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s research is at levels of international excellence. The institution is successful in securing income for its research activities. Faculty members have research experience in other universities/research institutions in the Philippines

MEAN

3.62

.87

3.53

.95

2.75

1.08

2.94

1.13

2.56

1.19

and/or abroad. 6.

There is support for graduate research students.

2.94

1.11

The research contributes to the community.

3.13

.98

3.07

.84

Mean

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The extent of compliance to IQuAME indicators is only satisfactory (3.07, SD = .84). The research capability therefore of these schools is not adequate for the Ar Category of IQuAME, meaning the expertise of the school in research is comparable to international standards (Primer on IQuAME 2005). This means the schools have not reached a maturity level and robustness of research system required for such institutions under the IQuAME framework. However, there is evidence that the research mechanisms are in place in terms of strategy for management and development of research activities and the provision for research facilities. The Holy Name University, Xavier University, University of Mindanao, Notre Dame of Marbel University, Mindanao Polytechnic State College and Southern Christian College reported strong partnerships and linkages with research and funding institutions. The others are starting to build a track record of research excellence. There is also a consensus among schools that the researches address national needs and priorities as reflected in their research agenda. The respondents rated satisfactory the “institution’s research is at levels of international excellence” (2.75, SD = 1.08). This could be gauged by the reviewing system. Only the Liceo de Cagayan University reported that it has foreign experts on its roster of referees. The others consisted of published Filipino experts who are in-house or external to the university. The researchers generally have tough standards to hurdle since the acceptance rate of researches is less than 25% by the international publications. Some schools do not even have ISSN registration at the national library. Another item rated satisfactory(2.916, SD = 1.13) is “the institution is successful in securing income for its research activities”. Most research centers are dependent on limited institutional allocations every year. Other institutions collect research fees from students to sustain operations such as Liceo de Cagayan University, St. Joseph Institute of Technology, and Mountain View College. Only few have incomes from clients for commissioned researches. Holy Name University reported that the polling researches are doing well since HNU is the only polling research center outside Manila. The others, like Xavier University, received grants from funding agencies. The findings still suggest that the research centers are not independent financially from 288

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the institutions with respect to their operations. Interviews with some respondents confirmed that very few faculty members have research experiences in other institutions in the Philippines. Since research activity is generally given as an overload with pay, the researchers are full time teachers who have very limited availability to engage in research outside the university. However, some schools indicated their researchers had opportunities to present their studies in national and international venues. Unfortunately, most faculty members experienced that their schools do not support them fully in financing of interactive travel. On the other hand, there is satisfactory rating for â&#x20AC;&#x153;support to graduate research students.â&#x20AC;? From the experiences of schools, there is little connection between the research center and the graduate school in the structure. More often, the personnel in the research center are professors, panelists and advisers of other researchers. But this is done in their private capacity. This has dire consequences. The expertise of the graduate school professors is not used to revitalize the research center and vice versa. The topics for thesis and dissertations are not linked to the research agenda. Hence, the graduate school has limited contribution to the actualization of the research agenda. The schoolsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; research programs have satisfactory contributions to the community. Funded researches fulfill the requirements of the agency (Layton 1995). These are usually studies of national and global significance which do not answer local needs. Most schools reported that their studies are basically in-house, which investigate problems within the school. Table 12. Summary of the level of implementation of the research programs of the partner institutions Parameters

Mean

1. Management

3.81

.67

2. Productivity

3.21

.74

3. Agenda

3.70

.78

4. Advocacy

3.49

.87

5. Planning

3.54

.83

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6. Implementation

3.45

.79

7. Monitoring & Evaluation

3.05

.73

8. Impact to Users

2.91

.82

3.07

.84

3.36

.78

9. Quality Assurance

Grand Mean

The level of implementation of the research programs of partner institutions is only satisfactory (3.36, SD = .78). This suggests that in general, schools are barely able to meet the research requirements and public expectations. Only the management, agenda, and planning are rated very satisfactory. The research productivity, advocacy, implementation, monitoring ad evaluation, impact to users, and quality assurance are rated satisfactory. On Difference in the Implementation of the Research Program Results of the test of difference reveal that the deregulated and the autonomous schools have significantly higher ratings in research management (t=2.597 Sig. .017 2T) and productivity (t=3.735 Sig. .002, 2T). Research is a critical element in the grant of deregulation and autonomy by CHED. Level III accreditation is a requirement for such grants. Hence, the research programs are revitalized to meet CHED expectations. Other universities already have track record for research even before the CHED came up with the grants. In the interviews, the respondents stressed that the importance given to research greatly increased when their schools wanted to get the autonomy or deregulation. The policies were reviewed and revised to reflect more researcher-friendly provisions for benefits and recognition, higher quality assurance mechanisms, standard publications and budget. Results of the test of difference reveal that the deregulated and the autonomous schools have significantly higher ratings in research management (t=2.597 Sig. .017 2T) and productivity (t=3.735 Sig. .002, 2T). Research is a critical element in the grant of deregulation and autonomy by CHED. Level III accreditation is a requirement for such grants. Hence, the research programs are revitalized to meet CHED expectations. Other universities already have track record for research even before the CHED came up with the grants. In the interviews, 290

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the respondents stressed that the importance given to research greatly increased when their schools wanted to get the autonomy or deregulation. The policies were reviewed and revised to reflect more researcher friendly provisions for benefits and recognition, higher quality assurance mechanisms, standard publications and budget. Table 13.Test of difference in the implementation of the research programs of the deregulated/autonomous and the non-deregulated/autonomous schools Component

Deregulated/ Autonomous Mean

None deregulated/ Autonomous Mean

Mean Diff.

Sig. (2 tailed)

Interpretation

Decision on Ho

Research Management

3.80

2.78

.61

2.697

.017

Reject

Research Productivity

4.09

3.29

.80

3.735

.002

Reject

Research Agenda

3.79

3.40

.38

1.125

.280

Not Reject

Research Advocacy

3.6*

3.19

.40

1.61

.129

Not Reject

Planning

3.56

3.45

.10

.310

.759

Not Reject

Implementation

3.64

3.33

.31

.995

.337

Not Reject

Monitoring & Evaluation

3.16

3.00

.16

.683

.506

Not Reject

Impact to Users

3.12

2.97

.14

.471

.645

Not Reject

Quality Assurance

3.25

2.76

.48

1.79

.094

Not Reject

The two groups of schools did not differ significantly in the other components. The findings imply that although autonomous/ deregulated schools have better management and productivity, they perform similarly with the other schools in some components: agenda, advocacy, planning, implementation, monitoring and evaluation, impact to users and quality assurance. This further implies that these schools are catching-up in terms of their research programs. Some of these schools have Level III programs but are not yet granted deregulation and autonomy. 291

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On Best Practices in the Implementation of Research Programs 1. Management Support. The driver for research excellence is the management. The full support of the management for the operations of the research center and particularly the financial support matters so much. Management support comprises of policies, structures, processes and resources. 2. Adequate Fulltime Personnel. These are fulltime researchers, clerks, and statisticians, among others who speed up the completion of research activities. 3. Release time for Researches. When teachers are given release time, they can do fieldwork and concentrate on their research. Quality of researches and wider coverage are assured when teachers are given release time. 4. Partnership and Linkages. Schools with little track record for research have achieved improvements in their research programs through partnerships with stronger and prestigious research institutions. Grants are channeled through a mother MOA and trickle down to the partner institutions. Stronger institutions which partner with developing schools can use effectively their best practices to help these schools and to find new avenues to publish their researches. 5. External Consultants. Developing schools greatly improved in their research programs when they utilized external consultants who can provide accelerated direction. These consultants are well established and connected. They can help find funding sources and research opportunities. 6. Locally Relevant Researches. Schools which conduct locally relevant researches contribute in great measure to the community particularly in the areas of peace and development, gender and reproductive health, environmental management and health, among others. 7. Niching of Expertise in Research. Some schools identified particular areas of expertise which form the flagship of the research program such as polling or social weather research, marine biology, environment, peace and development, among others. The researches will produce a track record. 8. Advocacy. Some schools treat advocacy as integral part of the research methodology wherein the researchers disseminate the findings to the respondents and community/agency leaders for validation and 292

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affirmation. In the process, beneficiaries can provide rich insights as inputs to the final manuscript. 9. Attractive Research Compensation and Rewards. A school reported that when the compensation for research reached 6 units for local studies, 9 units for regional studies and 12 units for national studies, the number of takers greatly increased. The compensation is computed by hourly rate times 54 hours for 3 units subject. 10.Annual Review of the Research Agenda and the Research Program. Schools which conducted regular evaluation are able to define their priorities sharply and have motivated their researchers to keep on track with the agenda. Inclusion of external experts provided a balanced view in the direction of the research program. 11.Research Masterplan. Research centers which crafted a master plan are able to secure support from the top management particularly inclusion of research in the strategic plan and the allocation of financial resources. The master plan helps to actualize the vision-mission of the school. 12.Tracking System for Researches. Some schools implemented efficient and effective tracking mechanisms to guide the researchers in the various stages of the research process. This hastens the completion of the studies on schedule. 13.Quality Assurance in the Undergraduate Level. Schools which implemented quality assurance for researches of students are able to strengthen research in the disciplines particularly of the faculty expertise. This contributes to research development on the institutional level. Some schools have assigned personnel to supervise research in the undergraduate level. 14.Research-Based Institutional Innovations. Results of research were utilized to launch innovative programs such as term scheduling, community extension, tuition payment through credit cards, marketing strategies, faculty development schemes, commercial production of prototypes, environmental management programs, new admission policies, remedial teaching, and performance in board examinations, among others. 15.Investment in Faculty Development. Schools which invested substantially in the advanced degrees of their teachers are able to generate research experts. This results when teachers are sent on fulltime study in universities with strong research tradition. 293

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CONCLUSIONS On the basis of the findings, the following conclusions are drawn: 1. The partner institutions have established quality assurance mechanisms such as accreditation, ISO, and IQuAME. Their quality earned recognition by CHED through grants of autonomy and deregulation. The implementation of the research programs of the 15 partner institutions is satisfactory, indicating that the mechanisms in place are not yet mature, robust, and sustainable despite management support, well-crafted agenda, and adequate planning. 2. The quality assurance mechanisms in place among the 15 partner institutions are not robust since it merely generated a satisfactory implementation of the research programs. This affirms the prognosis that research is still the weakest link even among the supposedly strong institutions. 3. The strong management, agenda, and planning mechanisms are indicators that these schools have the potential to promote and achieve research excellence. The very satisfactory management and agenda are the distinguishing features that characterize autonomous and deregulated institutions in terms of research program implementation. 4. The best practices in the implementation of the research programs include the following: management support, adequate fulltime personnel, release time for researchers, partnership and linkages, external consultants, locally relevant researches, niching of expertise, advocacy, attractive research compensation and rewards, annual review of the research agenda, research master plan, tracking system for researchers, quality assurance in the undergraduate level, researchbased institutional innovations, and investment in faculty development. LITERATURE CITED Alcala, A.C. (2000). Gradaute education in the Philippines: starategies for reforming higher education towards global excellence. The Cebu Doctors College Graduate Journal Vol. 4 SY 1999-2000. CHED MEMORANDUM Order No. 15 Series of 2005. Implementing rules and regulations of CMO No. 15 series of 2005. CHED MEMORANDUM Order No. 16 Series of 2005. Implementing rules 294

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and regulations of CMO No. 15 series of 2005. IQuAME Operations handbook for the review team (2005). The Commission on Higher Education. Joson, M.M.A. and R.P. Cuelo (2010). To do or not to do research: an education of the cycle 1 research initiative of La Consolacion College Bacolod. Refereed Conference Proceedings. Towards Global - ASEAN Institutional Research Strategic Alliances. 10th Annual Southeast Asian Association for Institutional Research. Cavity City: De la Salle University - Dasmariñas ISSN 2094 83 pp 326-330. Layton, S. (1995). Competitive strategy: planning your organization’s success. CA: Crisp Publications, Inc. Mirasol, J. M. (2010). Enhancing the research capability of higher education institutions: The Bukidnon University Initiatives. Refereed Conference Proceedings. Towards Global - ASEAN Institutional Research Strategic Alliances. 10th Annual Southeast Asian Association for Institutional Research. Cavity City: De la Salle University - Dasmariñas ISSN 2094 83 pp 331-336. Primer on IQuAME (2005). Commission on Higher Education. Thompson, A.A. & Strickland, A.J. III (2001). Strategic management: concept and cases: USA McGraw Hill Higher Education 12 Ed. Valisno, M.D. (2000). Moving towards comparability; strengthening human resources development in the Philippines. The Cebu Doctors College Graduate Journal Vol. 4 SY 1999-2000.

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Vol. 6 No. 2 December 2010 ISSN: 2094-1064 Liceo Journal ofResearch Higher Journal, Education Research CHED Accredited Category B

Liceo Journal of Higher Education Research Education Section

We Will Work in Teams: An Action Research MA. FLORECILLA C. CINCHES fcinches@liceo.edu.ph University Planning Office Liceo de Cagayan University Date Submitte: Apr. 7, 2010 Final Revision Complied: Aug. 10, 2010

Plagiarism Detection: Passed License No. 944146510808541 Original: 98.46%

Abstract - This longitudinal study looked into the presumed effects of the group approaches in teaching statistics on the performance of graduate students in their final exams for three years. It considered adult learning theories and cooperative learning approaches in the designing of the group interventions. The study utilized a pre-experimental research design complemented with critical incident techniques and document analysis. Findings revealed that the statistics final exam performance improved significantly through the years of study with the students in the third year of implementation having the most improved scores. Student participation also increased and many of the students transformed in their outlook about statistics positively. Keywords - adult learning, collaborative teaching techniques, critical incident technique, transformative learning

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INTRODUCTION This study started more than three years ago with a simple desire of creating a more facilitative learning atmosphere among graduate students in my Statistics class and later on in Research Methodology. This was also after finishing a study on “Learning Styles among College and Graduate Students in Lourdes College, Cagayan de Oro City”(2001) where a major recommendation was to explore learning strategies that would develop in the students a more balanced perception dimension of learning style (Felder, 2000). Another situation that catalyzed this study was after having observed continuous disappointing results of comprehensive examinations among my students especially in Statistics. These situations pushed me to explore other means of maximizing learning in the graduate subjects taught, especially for Statistics. Thus, this action research was conceptualized. As a teacher, I have captured my main orientation in action research from Emily Calhoun (1994) who said that “action research is a fancy way of saying let’s study what’s happening in our school and decide how to make it a better place.” Surely, helping graduate students make their learning experiences positively more meaningful as well as pass their comprehensive exams are great ways in making my school a better place for students to stay. For this kind of research, the inquiry process was structured but was not as formal as other forms of research. However, it has provided me with valuable means of gathering information relative to the objective of this study especially that of attempting to improve my adult teaching – learning practices in graduate education. THEORETICAL AND CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORKS Concepts of adult learning supportive of andragogy comprised the main backdrop of this action research. The succeeding discussions supplied the conceptual handles that strengthened the theoretical underpinnings of this study specifically in the designing of classroom interventions in my Statistics classes.

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In many adult education literatures, Jack Mezirow (1991) asserts that transformation is the main goal of adult learning. Adult educators however challenged this claim of transformative learning as unique to adulthood. Patricia Cranton (2002) an adult education professor of University of New Brunswick, Canada said that while it is true that transformative learning requires that learners address problems through critical reflection, there are some instructional approaches used to facilitate transformative types of learning that are also used in the other classifications. She further emphasizes that transformative learning is not necessarily the only goal. She cited that the â&#x20AC;&#x153;larger framework to which adult learning fits is based on Habermas (1971) three kinds of knowledge namely, the instrumental knowledge, communicative knowledge and emancipatory knowledge. Cranton expounded on these sources of knowledge saying that instrumental knowledge is sourced by establishing causal explanation or cause-and-effect. With this, objective knowledge can be derived from scientific methodologies. The acquisition of instrumental knowledge is a goal of education in the trades, technologies, and sciences. On the other hand, she argues that communicative knowledge comes from the understanding of ourselves, others, and the social norms of the community or society in which we belong. It is derived through language and almost all the time validated by consensus among people. The acquisition of communicative knowledge is a goal in the study of human relations, political and social systems, and education (Cranton 2002). Meanwhile, emancipatory knowledge is the kind of knowledge born out of self-awareness that frees us from constraints. This is a product of critical reflection and critical self-reflection. She further said that acquiring emancipatory knowledge can be a goal in all facets of adult teaching and learning on the context of critically questioning for example, the role of technology, which is in itself instrumental knowledge, or the underlying assumptions of a political system, which is in itself communicative knowledge. Emancipatory knowledge therefore according to Habermas (1971) as cited by MacIsaac, (1996), is an explicit goal in life skills learning, literacy programs, self-help groups, womenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s studies courses, and community action groups. The acquisition of emancipatory knowledge 298

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is transformative. Spear (2001) said that acquiring of emancipatory knowledge requires so much metacognition where adults reflect not only on the learning but more so on their thinking about their learning processes. Mezirow (1991) said that emancipatory learning results in transformations of learner perspectives through critical reflection. In this situation, the teacher plays an active role in fostering critical reflection by challenging learners to consider why they hold certain assumptions, values and beliefs (Cranton, 1994). For Statistics subjects, it is not uncommon for students to openly express their dislike for numbers or for statistics because of a belief born out of negative past experiences. This paper took a position that teaching interventions designed to improve student performance must consciously integrate opportunities to reverse strongly held beliefs and or their assumptions first before openness to relearn new material can be optimized. Teaching for transformation is setting the stage and providing the opportunity for such. Cranton (2002) said that “when students actually revise their assumptions or larger frames of reference, there is little we can do aside from giving support.” Many adult educators assert that there is no particular teaching strategy that guarantees the adult learners transformation. Oftentimes even the teacher herself or the transforming student could not pinpoint just what initiated or sustained the change of assumptions. But one thing is certain though that the adult educator tacitly and consistently commits to this goal of transformation by creating and subliminally diverse learning opportunities for the students are created for them to rethink, question, reflect on their thinking in the learning atmosphere. Imel (1995) and Spear (2001) said that adult educators who do believe that they have a role in re-directing the learner’s orientation and or facilitating transformative learning do perceive that teaching adults is different. It is within this perspectives would likely thrive. Donaldson, Flannery, and Ross-Gordon (1993) as cited by Imel (1995) combined and re-analyzed studies that examined adult students’ expectations of effective teaching and compared them with those of traditional students. In the study, the six most frequently mentioned attributes adult learners expected of effective instructors were as 299

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follows: knowledgeable; shows concern for student learning; presents material clearly; motivates; emphasizes relevance of class material and enthusiastic. There were also four other teacher’s characteristics that students frequently mentioned but were not part of the top ten items which were also mentioned in the Donaldson, Flannery and Gordon, 1993 study. These are: creates a comfortable learning atmosphere; uses a variety of techniques; adapts to meet diverse needs and dedicated to teaching. St. Clair (2002) cited that Malcolm Knowles’ andragogy is almost certainly the best known concept in adult education. Establishing adult education as a discrete area of academic study was an important aim for Knowles and his contemporaries. Knowles (1980) claimed that andragogy is “the art and science of teaching adults,” and set out four key assumptions. Some salient features of these assumptions were pointed by St. Clair such as, “Teachers are obliged to facilitate adults in the normal movement from dependency toward increasing selfdirectedness.” This implies helping adult learners to move from their strongly held beliefs to become open to relearning something that could help them cope with real life situations. This also means transformative learning. Knowles asserts that the adults ever-increasing reservoir of experience are rich resource for learning which adult educators could tap to make adult learning relevant. Furthermore, when learners see education as a means to develop competence, they commit themselves to this transformation process. Two additional assumptions were later added in 1999 with his associates Holton and Swanson in their “Reframing the Andragogical Model of Learning,” these are: adults need to know the reason to learn something; and the most potent motivators for adult learning are internal, such as self-esteem. This action research took the position that certain assumptions of Knowles are operative in adult education especially in the graduate school where the students come for continuing education to develop “increased competencies,” with an “ever-increasing reservoir of experiences that is a rich resource for learning.” Graduate students are actual practitioners in their respective disciplines. In Lourdes College, the student-based faculty evaluation results revealed that graduate students were ready to learn when their teachers convinced them that 300

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the topics discussed involve practicality in the real-life situations (LCSATP, 2003). It is very important that Statistics educators rethink about and continually assess their personal theories of learning and teaching in light of the adult learning concepts, theories and researches. Garfield (1993) and Giraud (1997) strongly recommend the reforming of teaching Statistics and consider the use of collaborative groups to supplement or replace traditional method of teaching. In this light, teachers need to experiment with different teaching approaches and activities and monitor the results, not only by using conventional tests but by carefully listening to students and evaluating information reflecting different aspects of their learning. In this way, teachers may continually analyze and refine their theories of how students learn statistics. This study considered three different group techniques in teaching Statistics and determined which of these group approaches worked. These were the buzz groups, working teams and modified collaborative teams. From the foregoing discussions, this study was guided by the research model below shown as Figure 1.

Figure 1 Research Model

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OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY This study intended to find out the presumed effects of group approaches in teaching statistics among graduate students in terms of their final exam performance and their outlook towards Statistics. Thus, it also tried to determine the methods that shall increase participation among the three Summer Statistics Classes; to look into the life giving and non-life giving experiences of the students; to establish Statistics class performance after the interventions for the last three years in terms of their Statistics Final Exams; to find out Summer Statistics studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; assessment of their learning experiences with reference to the collaborative interventions. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY The main research design used was a combination of descriptive method and pre-experimental method using the post test only design. This study used a pre-experimental design, recognizing that there are several confounding variables that limit generalizability of results. It tried to assume though that the results of the final exams for three years can be attributed to the intervention done by the researcher, basing on quantitative and qualitative data. It also recognized that it could not fully account for the variations in the dependent variables that might have resulted because of the interventions. The results of the study can only be attributed to the three summer classes and therefore an attempt to generalize the study to larger populations of graduate students in Lourdes College may not be possible. Other means of data gathering methods were the document analysis in terms of records of students, critical incident method, where the students were asked to identify the strong and weak points of the interventions and the survey questionnaire which was given only to the third group at the end of the course after their final exams as well as the participatory and non-participatory observation of the groups. For all three groups, group dynamics and team building approaches were used to increase cohesiveness.

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RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS Methods used to increase participation of the students in learning Graduate School Statistics. There were three basic approaches used for three summers in teaching statistics: they were the buzz groups approach, the working team approach and the modified collaborative teams approach. Table 1 below shows the different approaches: Table 1. Group approaches used Buzz Groups Working Teams Modified Collaborative Teams

For all three groups, the first activity on the first day of meeting was intended to: (1) level off expectations between what they intend to learn and what the course could offer; (2) keep the students in touch with their true feelings about Mathematics or Statistics for that matter; and (3) set the initial tone for dialoguing and team learning. After they went into some individual introduction to the whole class, a worksheet was passed around. They were made to answer the worksheet for 10 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 15 minutes for thorough reflection and they were asked not to put their names in the paper. After accomplishing the worksheet, they were requested to group themselves into three and choose people they were likely to be comfortable with. In my observation for the last three years there will always be one or two who are shy enough to join a group. I would then encourage some groups to invite those who were hesitant to integrate to any group. I used to request five to six people or more who would like to share their minds about their answers to the whole class. Worksheets were voluntarily submitted when asked if they were willing to give back their answered worksheets after the plenary session. Most often, I would get 98% to 100% of the worksheets given out. 303

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Thus, I tabulated each year and this helped me look into the initial realities of my students and then plan my strategies better and perhaps to a certain point of adding topics openly expressed by students that were not included in the original plan. In other words, from these collected worksheets; I was able to find some answers that helped me address their needs. Table 2 has the summary of worksheets results and shows the general profile of the students’ answers of the worksheets on the first day’s team building approach. On the average, during the study, there were only 22% of the subjects who liked Mathematics/Statistics, while 78% generally disliked Mathematics and Statistics for that matter. It was important for me to establish this kind of information because among my goals in teaching Statistics was to let my student love statistics the way I do, to a certain extent, at the end of the course. Some of the answers for the question “why do you dislike mathematics?” ranged from negative grade school and high school experiences either from teachers, classmates or even their own parents. As earlier discussed most students do not like mathematics visà-vis statistics. Thus, one of the promises that I gave them was that at the end of the summer course, they will learn to at least be liberated from disliking Mathematics and appreciate statistics. This promise prevailed all throughout the three summer classes conducted. Table 2. Summary of answers of the worksheets for the first day qualitative data (Top three answers only) Reponses Question I like Mathematics I don’t like Mathematics Reasons for liking

304

2002 (n=22)

2003 (n=26)

2004 (n=24)

25%

13%

27%

75%

87%

73%

Like numbers Enjoy computing

Like mathematics Neither like nor dislike

Enjoy numbers Parents/teachers taught me how to love math

F.C. Cinches

We Will Work in Teams: An Action Research

Reasons for disliking

How could we help you like statistics?

Expectations of the Course

What are you willing to give up/ and invest?

I just don’t like math Negative experiences in school Negative experiences with teachers

family members do not like math sad experience with teachers; punished by parents for failing math

negative experiences in school, such as teased by classmates, accused by teacher for cheating; not inclined to numbers

Show us how we can use this in our field; Understand our limitations Classmates should be more accepting of each other to like statistics

Be kind and gentle to us Teacher should be patient with us Help us to appreciate it

Its practical use The teaching strategy Teacher need to be patient and understanding

Teacher will be considerate and patient more time for assignments apply stat in work inspire us to like statistics

Include the use of computer; Teacher should go slow for us to catch up more time for assignments open notes

Be more considerate & don’t forget that we don’t like math Real cases that we can use in school Teach us to use calculators and computers; Discuss hypothesis testing more time

Give up malling Sleep Movies

Going home weekend Malls Quality time for studying

Malls Dates Too much outing movies

Buzz Group. For the first summer of intervention, the modified buzz group approach was used. After the first activity, the class was oriented to the objectives and requirements of the course, including the mechanics of buzz groups. The buzz group members seated closely to each other. There were three to four to a group. They referred to their buzz groups immediately in the following situations: (a) each time major concepts were introduced where they were asked to reflect on the concepts; (b) where there were difficult questions asked relative to any topic just discussed; (c) for group exercises and case studies introduced 305

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in the class and (d) outside the class, the same grouping was used for the discussion of their assigned reports. The group memberships were diverse in terms of age range, majors and even liking for mathematics. As expected, students who were inclined to mathematics tended to be more of the leaders of the groups and facilitated peer coaching. As observed, the buzz groups became very functional in terms of dialoguing and consultation. However, group outputs were not rated. The group exercises were meant to sharpen certain expected skills and competencies especially in terms of application, synthesis, and evaluation of concepts. Students specifically in this summer class of 2002 find the discussion of concepts of measurement and introduction to probability quite complicated. If only to respond to their request to be considerate, I was true in honoring their request for giving them more time for assignments and to help them appreciate the use of statistics in research. Thus, each time I finished a concept, cases and problems for exercises were always veered towards research applications in their workplace. Examples would be organizing of data for better decisions such as weighted mean, etc. When the concepts were presented this way, I found them quite eager to learn and was seeing them even after class hours in my office. I believed that these were initial responses of the topic presented. Knowles (1980) as cited by St Clair (2002) said that adult learners learn better when they are informed to what extent the concept could be used in real life situations and not only in academic exercises. Regular feed backing were done in terms of giving back their daily worksheets the next day and most often, I would write my candid comments and was generous with my praises for the sincere attempts in their work to understand and make them appreciate statistics better. I was also consistent in these gestures of affirmation in all of my three summer classes. On the first and second year, there were no attempts to get the students assessment through the questionnaire but the critical incident method was utilized. I asked them to list down at least three incidents/ situations that barred them from appreciating statistics better in a separate sheet given to them after the final exams. I also asked them to write the life giving situations they experienced in the Statistics class whether in class or outside the class. From the feedback, I was 306

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able to gather some positive and negative comments of their learning experiences. These were the top three life-giving experiences of the students for the first year. 1. Got the real picture of Statistics and appreciated it now. 2. The group was very accepting of those who were slow. 3. The teacher was great, showed conscious concern about our work and knows her craft. These were the top three non-life giving comments in their experiences for the first year: 1. There were some classmates who did not participate in the group work and were very discouraging; 2. The buzz groups needed more time for team building a more or less cohesive group so that we could work well together; and 3. The teacher tended to be fast at times and we could not catch up. Working Teams.The comments were seriously considered so that the course plan for Statistics class in Summer 2003 took a different format in terms of grouping approaches and even in the manner of assigning shared responsibilities. I called the groups as working teams. I took time for team building and grouped them only when I have sensed that they were already comfortable with each other. I also saw to it that students were assigned to groups heterogeneously with most of those who like Mathematics as coached. I didnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t call them leaders. This time I made it a point to announce to them that even if they were grouped, there were outputs that would be rated individually even if they were group projects. The Working Teams functioned to a certain extent similarly like the buzz groups of the previous summer. They were seated closely to each other so that it was easy for them to come together for difficult questions asked or assigned group exercise. There were projects that the course required, namely: (1) reporting on assigned topics and (2) a mini-research that aimed to forecast employment in schools, hospitals, industries, private service agencies and even government corporations. Group reporting was rated on an 307

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individual basis using prepared Rubrics for Class Presentation in the Graduate School. The group project on mini-research was however rated as a group output. Scales of measurement topic which the previous summer class found difficulty to understand was assigned this time to a group. Sufficient references and other reading materials were provided and the group was coached on how to present the topic in a very simple way. With their own references, the Summer 2003 Statistics class saw a different presentation of Measurement Scales. For practical applications, it was presented with reference to the kind of information collected in a hypothetical study and how it would be treated statistically. It presented a forward looking presentation that made the students look forward too for the testing of hypothesis as a topic towards the end of the course. I observed that the students were competent in their report and also saw how they projected their enthusiasm in the topic which was in return appreciated by the whole class. This was shown in the manner that their classmates interacted with them after their reports. As Holton and Swanson (1999) claimed, adults need to know the reason why they should be learning that instructional segment if we are to motivate them to learn. It can be seen that lessons are therefore appreciated by the adults if they know the reason why they should learn the topic. Knowing that this will be used later in data collection, meant a lot for most of them and the Measurement Scales topic was appreciated. The quiz on Measurement scales showed better results than last year. That’s why in the interaction, there were already questions as to “what specific data” or “how do we organize data if they are nominal, or ordinal.” For the group who reported, the topic assigned was regarded as a way of developing their competence and adults are motivated to learn when they saw it as means to develop competence (Knowles as cited by St. Clair, 2002). I also made good my promise to avoid being too fast when I presented major concepts of Statistics. But data later on would show that I have not really mastered the skill of moderating my pace in presenting concepts. In my observations, I have seen how the class became more functional especially in grouped exercises. I saw to it that I would 308

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be going around and extend some scaffolding especially when the problems were quite difficult, such as probability. However, when I saw that the group could manage on their own processes, I withdrew to allow them for independence and interdependence. I saw the emergence of the social interdependence in terms of cooperation. Members would try to solve on their own and I saw them comparing answers of their exercises later. Every one in the group would rejoice if their answers would hit the nail on the head. I continued to give them immediate feedbacks of their work whether individually or in groups. I also got their answers on the strengths and weaknesses of the Statistics class as a whole. From the critical incident method, the following data were gathered. These were the top three life-giving experiences of the students for the second year. 1. Learned very much about mean, median, mode & analyze data. 2. The groupings still made us laugh even if subject is heavy, bonding was evident. 3. All most everyone came on time, an encouragement to learn. 4. Computer use was very fulfilling. These were likewise the top three non-life giving comments in their experiences for the first year: 1. Time is not enough for exercise and lengthy assignments 2. Teacher need to slow down in some difficult topics; and 3. Room was too chilly. Modified Collaborative Teams. For the third summer for Statistics, I did more or less lengthy preparations for the class considering the experiences of the past two summers and I was bent on getting better, if not best result this time. On the first day of classes, after the orientation and the group dynamics exercise, I gave them a 5-page article I prepared entitled â&#x20AC;&#x153;We Will Work In Teams.â&#x20AC;? It contained a simple introduction from me, a set of principles of Learning Statistics as summarized by Professors Laurie Snell and Peter Doyle (1996) and the mechanics of grouping called the Jigsaw Puzzle Approach and the Student Teams-Achievement 309

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Divisions (STAD). This explained how modified collaborative groups will be working in the class. Together, with this, we discussed the class syllabus that contained the requirements. I grouped them only after I gave my first quiz and selected the five top students to become the peer coach of their groups. I was also very careful when I distributed the members heterogeneously. The STAD had five major componentsclass presentations, teams, quizzes, individual improvement scores, and team recognition. Class presentations in STAD differed from the usual teaching only in that they must be clearly focused on the STAD unit. In this way, students realized that they must pay careful attention during the class presentation, because doing so helped them to do well on the quizzes, and their quiz scores determined their team scores to a certain extent. Teams were composed of four or five students who represented cross-sections of the class in terms of academic performance, sex, and major field. The main function of the team was to prepare its members to do well on the quizzes. After I have presented the topic, the team came together and did team learning. They studied together the worksheets or other materials that were prepared. Upon observation, team learning took the form of students discussing difficult part of the topics and if there are problems to be solved, they do it together, compared answers, and corrected any misconceptions if teammates made mistakes. Thus, the most important feature of this approach was the team. At every point, emphasis was placed on team members who encouraged each other to try their best for the team. The student negotiated to give due credit for the group work. Originally, I had set a 10% for group work and 90% for individual work for their quizzes. After, a compromise, we ended up with 25% group work and 75% individual work. The idea behind the individual improvement scores was to give each student a performance goal that the student can reach, but only if he or she worked harder and performs better than in the past. Any student can contribute maximum points to his or her team in this scoring system, but no student can do so without showing improvement over past performance. The Jigsaw Approach operated in a different way. In topics where complex mathematical computations were not required, such as kinds of variables, measurement scales, sampling, methods of data collection, methods of data presentation and introduction to the Normal Curve, 310

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I used the Jigsaw approach. In cases like this, I prepared the materials before hand with corresponding references and distributed a set of reading materials to each group. The topics were usually divided into four segments which corresponded to the number of members of the groups. After giving each member one segment, I allowed them sufficient time to review or work on their assigned material so that they become an expert on the assigned topic. After that I formed temporary â&#x20AC;&#x153;expert groups.â&#x20AC;? I had each student from each jigsaw group joined other students assigned to the same segment and there they discussed the topics among themselves and decided how they the materials were to their jigsaw groups. They were allowed enough time to discuss the main points of their assigned segments. I stayed with each group and listened to how they developed their assigned segment. I came in when necessary especially in terms of providing the scaffolds that they needed to encourage them towards critical thinking and analysis. Depending on the length of each segment assigned, they stayed in their expert groups for 10 to 15 minutes. After the expert group discussion, they went back to their original jigsaw grouping. Each student therefore discussed the assigned segment to their group until all segment of the topics have been tackled. During this process, I floated from one group to another, listening and observing the processes in their group dynamics. In many instances, the discussions among themselves were smooth save for few isolated cases where some of the members became dominating and in some cases disruptive. In this situation, I came in and made appropriate interventions, such as moderating the discussion so that everyone got the chance to participate in the assigned topic-segment. I have assessed studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; degree of mastery of all the materials and rewarded the groups whose members all reached the preset criterion of excellence or gave bonus points on their individual scores if this criterion were met. Teams were likewise praised that were working well. Students evaluated themselves on how well their group did in the jigsaw (e.g., active listening, checking each other for understanding, and encouraging each other) and set goals for further interaction. A rubric was used in this case. This was for them to improve their interaction. 311

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Quizzes were conducted right after the jigsaw groups finished their processes so that each one shall be encouraged to contribute positively to team’s attainment of the set criteria. The team provided the peer support for academic performance that is important for learning. Comments like “the group provided the bonding needed for us to be ourselves and therefore, we are free to ask our classmates when we do not know what to do.” From comments of this sort, it can be seen that the team also provided the mutual concern and respect that are important for such outcomes as inter-group relations, self-esteem, and acceptance of mainstreamed students and eventually in the appreciation of the course. It reinforced the social component of learning. After one to two periods of teacher presentation and one to two periods of team practice, the students took individual quizzes. Students were not allowed to help one another during the quizzes. Thus, every student is individually responsible for knowing the material. From the critical incident data, the following top 5 positive comments were gathered: 1. Stat doesn’t only involve numbers, it also deals with analyzing results, know when to use the statistical tools; helpful in developing critical thinking; 2. Strategy used in teaching stat allowed us to go into group works, bonding was fantastic, activities were so exciting and grouping was so effective; 3. Professor’s mastery of the stat was inspiring, not too tight, learn to appreciate stat 4. Stat is challenging, strengthened what was learned in College; The following negative comments were also analyzed: 1. Some of the topics not useful; 2. time constraints

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3. Too long assignments 4. Sometimes the teacher is fast. Statistics classes performance for the last three years in Statistics Final Exams Table 3. Summary of final exams results Final Exams Results Final Exams Results (raw scores)

Buzz Group

Working Team

Collaborative Team

95 - 100

9.09

11.54

20.83

89 - 94

22.73

19.22

20.83

83 - 88

18.18

23.08

16.67

77 - 82

13.64

23.08

25.00

71 - 76

22.73

8.33

65 - 70

9.09

11.54

4.17

64 and below

4.54

11.54

4.17

Total

100.00

Table 3 shows the performance of the three groups of the Statistics classes from 2002 to 2004 in their final exams. Analysis of the data would reveal that on the first summer class, there were more than 20% (94-100) who performed very well, while more than one third of the class or 36% failed or those who got scores were 76 below. On the second summer, there were more than 30% who performed better and only 23.08% failed. The last summer saw an increase of the high performers to 41.66% with only more than 16% failing. In my assessment, this improvement especially on the third summer performance was due to my serious effort to increase studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; participation in their learning processes as well as my desire to let my students enjoy and like Statistics. Collaborative Team Studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; assessment of their learning experiences when the teaching interventions were implemented From the questionnaire floated to the students after they took 313

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their final exams, Table 5 summarizes their assessments and shows how the students disclosed the major learning experiences they had in the class. Very prominent in the table is item no. 2 which says “I can be myself….” and rated as excellent. Another highly rated item is no. 3 which states that “I enjoy the group because we discuss the procedure together.” However, there were two items which were the lowest and were rated only as good. Item no. 7 “My teacher’s pace” had the lowest mean of 3.32 and item no. 1 “I am able to relate the concepts presented to my previous knowledge” with a mean of 3.47. Further interviews during the time they got their corrected final exams papers, would show that some of them had totally forgotten their statistics in college especially those professionals who were in the age range of 45-50. Thus, relating to the statistical concept discussed in class was very difficult for them. They would usually say, “I don’t remember that anymore.” Nevertheless, the study found the last grouping approach generally very good . Table 5. Mean and standard, deviation distributions of students assessment of the class Questionnaire Item

Mean

Interpretation

1. I can relate the concepts to previous knowledge

3.45

0.74

Good

2. I like my group because I can be myself, I am not ashamed to ask when I do not know

4.64

0.49

Excellent

3. I enjoyed the group because we discuss procedure together.

4.55

0.51

Very Good

4. We also analyze the answers together.

4.50

0.13

Very Good

5. We see to it that we ask each other before asking our teacher.

4.23

0.81

Very Good

6. There are sufficient times for practice activities

3.91

0.68

Very good

7. My teacher’s pace.

3.32

0.72

Good

8. I use the group test result and individual worksheets results as means of improving my skills

4.36

0.66

Very Good

9. I have become aware of my misconceptions of Statistics

3.77

0.61

Very Good

10. I will be able to use statistics in practical situations.

3.73

0.70

Very Good

11. I work best when I know my teacher will check my work.

4.27

0.63

Very Good

12. The grouping was just the right combinations of members

4.27

0.63

Very Good

13. Everyone works hard to learn

4.41

0.50

Very Good

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Insights Teaching adults is really different compared to teaching adolescents. In teaching statistics to adults, most of them have to be convinced that learning Statistics can be in their advantage because of practical life applications. Thus, the strategies facilitated knowledge from instrumental and communicative sources to attain transformative adult learning - - the emancipatory learning which is unique to adult education. Jack Mezirow, an adult theorist argues in his theory of transformative learning that significant changes in adults will occur only if educators recognize how deeply embedded in the self are the values and assumptions that drive oneâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s behavior. In this study, it was assumed that students in statistics could get out of their fears and apprehensions in learning the subject if they are aware and if they recognize the advantage of possessing statistical skills and competencies, especially in terms of higher planes of decision making as teachers and as professionals. In this study, students were led into activities that allow them to get in touch with their fears of numbers because of past experiences. This was important so that the studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; assumptions that were distorted by their past experiences could gradually be given up after having gone through the process. The giving up of old assumptions was facilitated not only by the teacher but also by their classmates especially in their peer groups. When students answered that they have started appreciating statistics, this was a sign that the students with negative regard for numbers had gradually become convinced of giving up of their old assumptions about math and were ready to take on new views. As a teacher, being more of a facilitator of the learning process rather than projecting the image of an expert, helped remove many of the barriers of learning, especially among those with traumatic experience with teachers in the past. Meanwhile, Donaldson, Flannery and Gordon, said that adult learners expect effective instructors to honestly show concern for learning at the same time knowledgeable and be enthusiastic of creating a comfortable non-threatening atmosphere in the class as well as deliberately use variety of techniques. Emphasizing relevance of the 315

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material presented was very important. The expectations set by the students at the start of the course gave me a chance to win them to my side. I may not have won them all but I strongly believed from the last data I got from them that most of those who thought of statistics as something to be feared, started to appreciate Statistics. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS Some salient points of the adult learning theory advanced by Knowles were very evident in the subjects of the study, thus, the claim of universality in andragogy were well verified in the graduate students involved in the study. Although, the generalizability of this study is limited, it further implies that together with the supporting literatures of the study, it may do well for graduate school faculty to re-examine their approaches to teaching adults and determine to what extent they could enrich some forms of the traditional method of teaching professionals in the graduate education. It has also been demonstrated that adult learning took three forms as advanced by Cranton, such as instrumental knowledge, communicative knowledge and emancipatory adult learning. The use of computers and calculators were important sources of instrumental knowledge while the groupings made for the social component of learning which is the communicative learning source. These sources of knowledge supported the emancipatory learning of the graduate students. Among the group approaches, the modified collaborative team approach was deemed to be more effective since it was after this approach where more statistics graduate students got better performance. It was also on this approach where lengthy preparations, improvements were done based on the experiences of past two summers, group approaches. There was also more involvement of the adult learners not only in terms of negotiations but also in the development of the topics owing to the nature of the collaborative learning approach used. Lastly, the social component of learning as manifested by the fulfillment the students got in teams and or in the groupings was consistently seen as a very important element to consider in learning. 316

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Groups need to be managed though and the teacher need to set the stage of facilitating the effective groupings so that they address both the issue of gaining new skills and competencies and at the same time gain and bond with new friends. The team approach does not undermine individuality, depending on how the instructor facilitates, individuality could also be addressed in team learning. LITERATURE CITED Calhoun, E. (1994). How to use action research in a self-renewing school. Alexandria, V.A.: Association of Supervision and Curriculum Development (ASCD). Cinches, F.C. (2001). Learning styles of college and graduate students of an RVM college in Cagayan de Oro City. Faculty Journal 2001, Lourdes College, Cagayan de Oro City Cranton, P. (1994). Understanding and promoting transformative learning. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Cranton, P. (2002). Teaching for transformation. Contemporary Viewpoints On Teaching Adults Effectively. http://education.gsu.edu/ctl/FLC/ Foundations/Transformational.pdf (Retrieved September, 2004). Donaldson, J.F., Flannery, D. and Ross-Gordon, J.A. (1993). A triangulated study comparing adult college studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; perceptions of effective teaching with those traditional students. Continuing Higher Education Journal 57, no. 3. Garfield, J. (1993). Teaching Statistics using small group cooperative learning. Journal of Statistics Education v.1,n.1. http://amstat.org/ publications/jse/v1n1/garfield.html (Retrieved October 2001) Giraud,G. (1997). Cooperative learning and Statistics instruction. Journal of Statistics, v.5,n.3 http://www.amstat.org/publications/jse/v5n3/ giraud.html (Retrieved October 2001). Holton,E.F., and Swanson,R.A. (1999). Reframing the andragogical model of learning. Academy of Human Resource Development (AHRD). Baton Rouge, LA Imel, S. (2002). Metacognitive skills for adult learning. Trends and Issues Alert No. 3 http://www.nifl.gov/nifl/fellowship/cromley_report.pdf (Retrieved April 2003) Knowles, M.S.(1980). The modern practice of adult education. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. 317

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MacIsaac, D. (1996). A summary on the critical theory of Jurgen Habermas. Northern Arizona University. http//physicsed.buffalostate.edu/ danowner/habcritthy.html (Retrieved Sept. 2003). Maslow,A.H. (1971). The farther reaches of human nature. New York: The Viking Press Merriam, S. & Caffarella, R. (1991). Learning in adulthood. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Mezirow, J. (1991). Transformative dimensions of adult learning. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Rogers, C. (1961). On becoming a person. Boston, Houghton Mifflin. Santos, G.V. (2002). Perceived classroom motivational approaches of teachers and learning Style of generation y college students of XYZ University, Cagayan de Oro City. PAGE 10 Journal. Philippine Association of Graduate Education, Region 10, Cagayan de Oro City. Spear, K. (2001). Understanding executive education: A framework from adult learning theory. The White Paper Series: Lore International, Inc. St. Clair, R. (2002). Andragogy revisited: Theory for the 21st century. Myths and Realities http://adulted.about.com/gi/dynamic/offsite. htm?site=http%3A%2F%2Fericacve.org (Retrieved June 2004) Snell, L. and Doyle, P. (1996). principles of learning Statistics/Mathematics Dartmouth College, Hanover, NH (1996). http://www.dartmouth. edu/~chance/teaching_aids/books_articles/isi/section3_7.html (Retrieved April 2004)

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Vol. 6 No. 2 December 2010 ISSN: 2094-1064 CHED Accredited Research Journal, Category B

Liceo Journal of Higher Education Research Education Section

Determinants of Research Involvement, Dissemination and Utilization among the Arts and Sciences Faculty in Southern Philippines JOFI VALDEHUEZA-MAHILUM College of Arts and Sciences School of Graduate Studies Liceo de Cagayan University Date Submitte: March 14, 2010 Final Revision Complied: July 27, 2010

Plagiarism Detection: Passed License No. 944146510808541 Original: 98.79%

Abstract â&#x20AC;&#x201C; This study aimed to identify the determinants of research involvement, dissemination and utilization among the CAS faculty of selected HEIs in Region X. The research design used was the descriptive research design. The independent variables comprised selected faculty profile, attitude towards research, and organizational support for faculty research. Meanwhile, the dependent variables were the extent of faculty participation research activities of terms of research involvement, research dissemination, and research utilization. The CAS faculty of the selected HEIs in Region X are evidently involved in research. However, the number of researches done is rather low due to some factors to include heavy work load, lack of institutional funding, non-credit of research work for promotion, and lack of de-loading scheme. Furthermore, the dissemination of research findings is generally in-house, thus the dissemination coverage is limited or localized. While research outputs are utilized, the utilization is generally focused on instruction â&#x20AC;&#x201C; somehow limited depending on the relevance of the research topic to the subject lesson(s). Research recommendations for other areas aside from instruction are 319

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utilized the least. The foregoing conclusions imply the need for the HEIs to intensify their research activities to maximize research involvement of their faculty and the dissemination and utilization of research findings. Keywords - Research Involvement, Research, Utilization, organizational support to research INTRODUCTION In the field of education, teachers are not only expected to deliver instructional functions, but are also encouraged to undertake researches. In fact, the Commission on Higher Education takes the advocacy in motivating higher education institutions to deliver an effective and efficient implementation of research, instruction, and community extension. Calmorin (2000) advances the principle that research-oriented teachers are progressive ones. The importance of educational researches is highly recognized for its positive bearing on the improvement of quality instruction, student achievement, and teaching strategies. Research findings are utilized as a basis towards improved instructional practices and areas of concerns for community services. Seltiz, stated that the teachersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; role in participatory decision in the school setting necessitates research involvement and actual research undertaking. Gaceta (1995), on his part, argues that there is a need for teachers as decision-makers to profess truth by exploring significant research agenda that could either be school-based or communitybased areas of concerns. Conceptually, researches provide significant database which guide teachersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; and school administratorsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; decisions on what, when, and where to improve (Anglin, Golduen and Angelin 1992). Such contribution of research is a key consideration to put research results to proper utilization. Calmorin and Calmorin (1995) emphasize that research has deepseated psychological aspects. It stimulates and challenges man to remove the threat of stagnation. It guides him in his efforts to obtain good results that contribute to his satisfaction and self-fulfillment.

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J.V. Mahilum

CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK The study was conceptualized on the basis of the CHED’s mandate that underscores the interplay of the three functions of higher education institution, namely research, instruction, and community extension. The importance of research in education cannot be taken for granted aside from the fact that it is one of the criteria of evaluation among the different key areas in quality assurance. It is, therefore, imperative that the faculty of HEIs be required to engage in research activities, be actively involved, and put the research findings to use effectively. Berg (1998) posits that the relevant faculty research must be undertaken in accordance with approved research agenda. Researches that are not within the research agenda of the school will not find useful benefits in research utilization. The dependent variables of the study were the faculty’s involvement in research and extent of dissemination and utilization of the research findings. The independent variables were the organizational support for faculty research, faculty profile, faculty’s attitude towards research, and selected school factors. Figure I presents the research paradigm which shows the interplay of the independent and dependent variables. The study hypothesized that a strong organizational support towards faculty research and the faculty’s positive attitude towards research increase the faculty’s active involvement in research undertaking, dissemination, and utilization. Weise (1995) discusses that administrative support toward research serves as a motivating factor for the faculty to meet the actualization of developing their research capability. Such support serves as an intrinsic motivation for the faculty to undertake researches as part of their school functions. Van Dalen and Deubold (1998) points out that research utilization is a benchmark in assessing the research program effectiveness and functionality. Leedy (1994) presents the idea that appropriate research capability development is important in guiding researchers on proper research direction. Ary (1999) suggests that researches to be conducted by school practitioners should be action-oriented with the main goal of attaining immediate application for their end results. The focus should be on quality improvement of existing practices and to solve negative 321

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conditions in the school situations and the communities they serve. Adanza (1997) stresses that research agenda and problems can be generated in the work environment, classroom discussion, technological and scientific advancement, specialization, program offerings, and management practices of organization, among others. Weirsman (1995) cites some factors that motivate teachers to conduct research. These factors include adequate time, funding, research capability of the researcher, attitude of the researcher, administrative support, and facilities and equipment. Several health-related researchers expressed their concern that using research findings is not easy due to the utilization and implementation barriers. Some of these barriers are insufficient time due to heavy workload, inadequate organizational support, little participation in research-related activities, unclear directions for whom to disseminate, and lack of linkages for utilization (Parahoo and Mc Caughn, 2001; Retsas, 2000).

Figure 1. Schematic Diagram of the Study

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OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY The study sought to (1) determine the profile of the faculty in terms of educational attainment, area of specialization, length of teaching, number of researches conducted for the past five years, type of research conducted, rank, teaching load, institutional research, funding attitude towards research, organizational support for research, and research output for promotion; (2) assess the extent of involvement in dissemination and utilization of researches among the faculty and, (3) identify which of the independent variables significantly determine the facultyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s extent of involvement in research and dissemination and utilization of research. SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY The findings of the study will be of benefit to the following academic constituents: Commission on Higher Education. The findings of the study will serve as good impart to CHED in the implementaion of the national Higher Education Research Agenda and will provide leads for the supervision of schools for the research program. School Administrators. The findings will give them significant feedback on how adequate their organizational support is for the research activities of the institution. CAS Deans. They will be provided with necessary data on the facultyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s extent of research involvement that will serve as basis for strengthening research activities of their college. Faculty. This study will help them develop a more positive attitude towards research so as to increase the level of their involvement in research activities. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY The descriptive research design was used in this study. Adanza (1997) explains that a descriptive method of research is designed for the researcher to gather information about present condition. The main 323

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objective of this research design is to describe the nature of a situation as it exists and to explore the causes of a particular phenomena. The population of the study comprised the 130 of the regular faculty of the Colleges of Arts and Sciences that have selected HEIs in Region X. these colleges have attained Level 3 accredited. The distribution of the respondents by institution is as follows:

HEIs

No. of Respondents

Bukidnon State University 20 Liceo de Cagayan University 28 MSU – IIT 18 Lourdes College 8 Central Mindanao University 17 Capitol University 14 Xavier University 18 Mindanao University of Science and Technology 7 TOTAL 130

A researcher-made questionnaire was used as data-gathering tool. The first part of the questionnaire gathered relevant data on the faculty’s profile and attitude towards research, organizational support for faculty research, and research output as basis for promotion. The second part measured the extent of the faculty’s involvement in research and dissemination and utilization of research findings. The questionnaire was tested for reliability. Yielding a .93 Cronback Alpha correlation, which indicated a very high reliability. The statistical tools used in the analysis of data were frequencies and percentages for the faculty profile; weighted mean for organizational support, faculty’s attitude towards research, and the extent of faculty’s involvement in research dissemination and utilization of research findings; and

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multiple regression analysis to identify which of the independent variables determine the variables. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Description of the Respondents and other Factors Table 1: Profile of the faculty respondents 1. Educational Attainment B.S. Degree B.S. Degree with Masteral Units MA/MAT/MS/MM Masteral Level with Doctoral Units Ph.D./Ed.D./D.M. Total

Frequency 1 14 57 24 34 130

Percentage 0.77 10.77 43.85 18.46 26.15 100

35 2 16 36

26.92 1.54 12.31 27.69

2. Area of Specialization English Mass Communication Math/Statistics Natural Sciences (Biology/Physics/Chemistry) Social Sciences (Sociology/Political Science/History/ International Studies/Economics) Educational Management Psychology Foods, Nutrition & Dietitics Philosophy/Pastoral Theology PE Filipino Total

16.92

4 1 1 2 2 9 130

3.08 0.77 0.77 1.54 1.54 6.92 100

3. Length of Teaching Experience 46-50 41-45 36-40 31-35 26-30 21-25 16-20 11-15 6-10 Below 6 years Total

1 5 5 8 11 8 22 19 29 22 130

0.77 3.85 3.85 6.16 8.47 6.16 16.93 14.63 22.32 16.93 100 325

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Number of Researches

11 and above 9-10 7-8 5-6 3-4

6 1 3 10 40

1-2

none

5. Researches Conducted Health Environmental Management Political & Social Issues of the Society Teaching & Learning (Educational Researches) Poverty Alleviation Biodiversity/ Biological Concerns Student Achievement/ Discipline

33.08

33 28 10 3 3 6 20

25.38 21.54 7.69 2.31 2.31 4.62 15.38

22 65 1 5 11 10 130

16.92 50.0 13.08 3.85 8.46 7.69 100

66.92

20.77 100

Teaching Load

More than 24 units 21-24 17-20 13-16 9-12 5-8 Total 7.

27 130

Total

4.62 0.77 2.31 7.69 30.77

Organizational Support for Faculty Research

With institutional research funds Without institutional research funds

33.08

130

100

B.S. Degree B.S. Degree with Masteral Units MA/MAT/MS/MM Masteral Level with Doctoral Units Ph.D./Ed.D./D.M.

1 14 57 24 34

0.77 10.77 43.85 18.46 26.15

Total

130

100

Total 8.

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Educational Qualification

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In terms of educational attainment, almost half (43.85%) of the respondents have earned MA/MAT/MS/MM degree, while 26.15% have earned PhD/EdD/DM degree, 18.46% have completed units in the graduate studies, 10.77% have earned a BS degree with units in a masterâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s study, and 0.77% have earned only a BS degree. Findings indicate that most of the faculty hold appropriated graduate degree essential in college teaching. As to the area of specialization, the distribution was highly variable. Such variability is not expected since the respondents belong to a service college. With regard to the length of teaching, the highest percentage of the faculty taught for 6-10 years (22.32%), followed by those who taught for 6-20 years (16.93%), 6 years and below (16.9%), 26-30 years (8.47%), 21-25 years and 31-35 years (6.16%), 36-40 and 41-45 years (3.85%), and 46-50 years (0.77%). As to the number of researches conducted for the last five years, the highest percentage of the faculty conducted 1-2 researches (33.08%) followed by those who conducted 3-4 researches (30.77%). Only very few conducted more than five researches. About 20% have not conducted research. The types of research conducted were on the areas of health (25.38%), environmental management (21.54%), student achievement/ discipline (15.38%), politics and social issues (7.69%), biodiversity (4.62%), poverty alleviation (2.31%), and education/teaching and learning (2.31%). As revealed, there are four dominant research agenda: health, environment, student achievement, and politics and social issues. In terms of teaching load, 16.92% had 24 units; 50%, 21-24 units; 13.08%, 17-20 units; 3.85%, 13-16 units; 8.46%, 9-12 units; and 7.69%, 5-8 units. The variations in the loading depended on the type of school. In state colleges and universities, the regular load is lower than 21 units. In private HEIs, the regular load is 21 units with extra units as overload.

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Table 2: Extent of organizational support for faculty research Mean

Descriptive Interpretation

2.81

Sometimes

3.17

Sometimes

3.00

Sometimes

2.99

Sometimes

3.36

Sometimes

6.1 access to internet

3.50

Always

6.2 access to library resources

3.60

Always

6.4 I.T. Laboratory

3.23

Sometimes

6.5 access to computers

3.45

Sometimes

6.6 access to computer printers

3.25

Sometimes

6.7 access to statistical services

3.04

Sometimes

3.23

Sometimes

Indicator 1. On the provision of deloading scheme for faculty researchers. 2. On the provision of extra honorarium/pay over and above the teaching loads. 3. On the provision of travel and allowances allotted for faculty research dissemination. 4. On the provision of travel and allowances allotted for faculty research utilization. 5. On the provision of merit increases and points for promotion in rank after conducting researches.

Overall Mean

As to the organizational support for faculty research, 66.92% received funding from their respective schools, while 33.08% did not get any funding. The lack of institutional funding could be one reason for the faculty not to undertake a research work. In addition, over a fourth of the respondents claimed that research output is given credit for promotion or ranking, thus encouraging them to conduct research. On the other hand, majority of the respondents (77.69%) said that research work has no credit for promotion. Table 3: Attitude of CAS faculty toward research Indicator 1. I consider research as an integral part of my functions.

328

Mean

Descriptive Interpretation

3.63

Strongly Agree

Determinants of Research Involvement, Dissemination and Utilization among the CAS Faculty in Southern Philippines

2. I consider research as a key to professional growth and development. 3. I consider research as a fulfillment of my selfactualization need. 4. I consider research as an avenue for intellectual development of the learners. 5. I consider research as an essential activity in the partnership of the school and community it serves. 6. My research participation does not interfere with my instructional function. 7. I have sufficient time to engage in faculty research. 8. I consider research in harmony with my work load and class schedules. 9. I feel a strong sense of fulfillment having participated in the research function/activities of my department. 10. I find it pleasant and comfortable working with my research project. Overall Mean

J.V. Mahilum

3.72

Strongly Agree

3.47

Moderately Agree

3.78

Strongly Agree

3.76

Strongly Agree

2.83 2.40 2.86

Moderately Agree Moderately Disagree Moderately Agree

3.51

Strongly Agree

3.6

Moderately Agree

3.31

Strongly Agree

On attitude toward research, the most salient indicators that the faculty strongly agreed to were research as an avenue for intellectual development of the learners (3.78) and research as an essential activity in the partnership of the school and the community it serves (3.76). The finding implies that the CAS faculty adheres evidencebased intervention for the intellectual development of the learners. A favourable attitude was also indicated on research as an important component of the school and the community, suggesting that the CAS faculty are aware of the importance of the trilogy of functions of HEI instruction, research, and community extension. On the other hand, the faculty disagreed on the indicator that they have sufficient time to engage in research (x=2.40). Several of them commented that their fulltime teaching load, especially those from institutions that do have deloading scheme for faculty, prevent them from conducting research. Extent of Facultyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Research Involvement and Dissemination and Utilization of Research Findings

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Table 4: Extent of Faculty research involvement, dissemination and utilization of research Research Involvement 1. Formulation of research agenda of the institution. 2. Review and revision of research agenda of the department. 3. Sharing ideas with other faculty researchers regarding proposal making. 4. Advising students who are conducting research activities. 5. Participating actively with the research activities of the schoolâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s research office/center. 6. Assisting the editorial board in the production of research editorials. 7. Participating actively in the in-house research capability building sessions. 8. Participating in quality improvement activities. 9. Assisting with research undertaken by other faculty researchers. Overall Mean

Mean

Descriptive Interpretation

2.69

Moderate Extent

2.85

Moderate Extent

2.96

Moderate Extent

3.20

Moderate Extent

2.82

Moderate Extent

2.31

Low Extent

2.80

Moderate Extent

2.93

Moderate Extent

2.81

Moderate Extent

2.83

Moderate Extent

3.07

Moderate Extent

2.79

Moderate Extent

2.68

Moderate Extent

2.49

Low Extent

2.92

Moderate Extent

2.79

Moderate Extent

Research Dissemination 1. Discussing research findings with professional colleagues in the department. 2. Discussing research findings with professional colleagues in other departments. 3. Discussing research findings in the research locale. 4. Disseminating research findings to other schools/offices/agencies, etc. 5. Reading research findings during a relevant forum / conferences / seminars / etc. Overall Mean

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Research Utilization 1. Presenting areas/recommendations for improvement/enhancement of the weak parameters of the study to concern individuals/ groups/agencies. 2. Using research findings to instructional practices and strategies. 3. Integrating relevant research findings in class lessons. 4. Presenting areas for appropriate utilization/ application in the research locale. 5. Utilizing relevant research findings to community extensions services. Overall Mean

2.80

Moderate Extent

3.03

Moderate Extent

3.17

Moderate Extent

2.78

Moderate Extent

2.80

Moderate Extent

2.91

Moderate Extent

The data reveal that the extent of the facultyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s research involvement was moderate (2.8). The highest rated indicator of research involvement is advising student researchers for their thesis. The faculty are assigned as thesis advisers or panelists. On the other hand, the lowest rated indicator is assisting the editorial board in the publication of research journals (2.31). This finding implies that there are still HEIs that do not have an editorial board for research. It is also worth noting that several research activities had the involvement of the faculty to a moderate extent. These activities included the formulation of research agenda of the department and the institution, sharing of ideas with other faculty regarding ranking, participating in the research activities of the research center/office, participating in research capability building sessions, participating in quality improvement activities, and assisting other faculty in a research work. Moreover, research dissemination was done to a moderate extent (2.79)). Done to the highest extent (3.07) was discussing research findings with peers in the department. This finding discloses that inhouse dissemination through research forum is done in the different HEIs. The main goals of such dissemination are to inform other faculty of the significant research findings for possible utilization and to motivate other faculty to engage in research. Meanwhile, done to the lowest extent (2.49) is disseminating research findings to other institutions. This fact shows that external dissemination is rare. 331

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Research utilization was also done to a moderate extent (x=2.91). Done to the highest extent is integrating research findings into subject lessons (2.91). Such activity is done only when a research topic is related to a subject lesson. Research outputs are integrated into subject lessons to provide evidence-based cases for discussion. On the other hand, done to the lowest extent is presenting areas for appropriate utilization in the research locale. This finding indicates that research recommendations are not utilized much. Determinants of Facultyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Involvement in Research Table 5: Regression analysis of the independent variables as determinants of faculty involvement in research 1.

Educational Attainment

Research Utilization

F-value

p-value

Remarks

1.95

0.028

F-value

p-value

1.96

0.027

F-value

p-value

1.71

0.031

Significant

F-value 2.29 3.07 3.01

p-value 0.002 0.000 0.001

Remarks Significant Significant Significant

Significant

*significant at 5% level 2.

Length of Teaching Experience

Research Utilization *significant at 5% level 3.

Number of Researchers

Research Involvement *significant at 5% level 4. Attitude Research Involvement Research Dissemination Research Utilization

Remarks Significant Remarks

*significant at 5% level

Educational qualification is a significant determinant of research involvement as shown by the F value of 1.95 at .028 level of significance. This finding suggests that the higher the educational attainment of the faculty, the higher the extent of their involvement in the utilization of research findings. 332

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Moreover, length of teaching is a significant determinant of research utilization as revealed by the F value of 1.96 at .027 level of significance. This finding implies that the facultyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s number of years in teaching had developed their ability to utilize research outputs for instruction. Data also disclose that the number of researches conducted for the last five years was a significant determinant of research involvement as supported by the F value of 1.71 at .013 level of significance. This finding implies that the more researches are conducted by the faculty, the higher is the extent of their research involvement. Research involvement means direct participation of the faculty in the conduct of research. Finally, the facultyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s attitude toward research is a significant determinant of research involvement (F=2.29 at .002 level of significance), research dissemination (F=3.07 at .000 level of significance), and research utilization (F=3.01 at .001 level of significance). It can be inferred then that there is a positive acceptance among the faculty of research as an integral component of their responsibilities; that is, a faculty is both an educator and a researcher. CONCLUSIONS The CAS faculty of the selected HEIs in Southern Philippines are involved in research. However, the number of researches done is rather low due to heavy workload, lack of institutional funding, noncredit of research work for promotion, and lack of de-loading scheme. Furthermore, the dissemination of research findings is generally inhouse, thus the dissemination coverage is limited or localized. While research outputs are utilized, the utilization is generally focused on instruction â&#x20AC;&#x201C; somehow limited depending on the relevance of the research topic to the subject lesson(s). Research recommendations for other areas aside from instruction are utilized the least. The foregoing conclusions imply the need for the HEIs to intensify their research activities to maximize research involvement of their faculty and the

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dissemination and utilization of research findings. RECOMMENDATIONS Based on the findings and conclusions of this study, the following recommendations are advanced: 1. HEIs as research institutions should consider allocation adequate budget to fund research activities. Adequate funding for faculty research will encourage a significant number of faculty to engage in research, which will intensify the institution’s research capability. 2. HEIs should put in place institutional schemes that promote research involvement among the faculty. These schemes may include de-loading for those who are into research, substantial research honorarium, credit for promotion or ranking, and award for best research paper, among others. 3. HEIs should ensure that the researches undertaken are along the institution’s research agenda and that the research findings are well disseminated to whom they are intended for utilization. 4. HEIs should establish a wider linkage with various research institutions to facilitate a wider dissemination of research findings. Linkages will also allow the undertaking of research collaboration to further intensify the culture of research among partner institutions. 5. Faculty members should be trained in editorial work so they would know the standards and expectations of editors as a means of raising the bar of their research writing skills. LITERATURE CITED Adanza, E. G. (1997). Research Methods: Principles and Applications. Manila: Rex Printing Co. Inc. Angelin, L. W., R. Goldwin, and J. S. Angelin (1992). Teaching: What It’s All About. New York: Harper and Row. Ary, D. (1999). Introduction to Research in Education. New York: Holt, Rhinehart and Winston, Inc. Berg, W. D. (1998). Educational Research. New York: David Mc Kay Co.

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Calmorin, L. and M. Calmorin (1995). Methods of Teaching and Thesis Writing. Rex Printing Co. Inc. Calmorin, L. P. (2000). Educational Research, Measurement, and Evaluation.Manila: National Book Store. Gaceta, A. C. (1995). “Teachers as Decision-Makers,” in Celeste Botor and Ariente Ortinero (Eds.). Philosophy of Education Concerns: Purposes, Context, and Methods of Education. Manila: Rex Printing Co., Inc. Leedy, P. D. (1994). Practical Research: Planning and Design. New York: Mac Millan Co. Parahoo, K. and E. Mc Caughn (2001). “Research Utilization Among Medical and Surgical Nurses.” Journal of Nursing Management, 9 (1). Retsas, A. (2001). “Barriers to Using Research Evidence in Nursing Practice.” Journal of Advance Nursing, (31) 3. Seltiz, M. et.al. (1997). Research Methods in Social Relations. Indiana: Pi Delta Kappa Inc. Van, D. and O. Deobold (1998). Understanding Educational Research. New York: Mc Graw-Hill Book Co. Weiss, C. H. (1995). Evaluation Research: Methods for Assessing Program Effectiveness. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall Inc. Weisman, W. (1995). Research Methods in Education. Ithacan, Illinois: F.E. Peacock Pub. Co. Inc. FOR INQUIRIES, WRITE TO: The Managing Editor Liceo Journal of Higher Education Research Liceo de Cagayan University Cagayan de Oro City, 9000 Philippines Email: liceojournal@yahoo.com.ph Fax: 63+ (08822) 727459 URL: http://www.ejournals.ph http://www.liceojournal.com

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Vol. 6 No. 2 December 2010 ISSN: 2094-1064 Liceo Journal ofResearch Higher Journal, Education Research CHED Accredited Category B

Liceo Journal of Higher Education Research Education Section

Predictors of Research Dissemination and Utilization in State Higher Education Institutions in Region IV, Philippines MARIO A. FETALVER, JR. mario30phd@yahoo.com College of Arts & Sciences

Romblon State University Date Submitte: Oct. 15, 2010 Final Revision Complied: Nov. 18, 2010

Plagiarism Detection: Passed License No. 944146510808541 Original: 94%

Abstract - The study focused on the determinants that influence research dissemination and utilization in State Higher Education Institutions in Region IV, Philippines. The needed data were collected using the survey questionnaire. The statistical tools such as weighted mean, standard deviation, frequency counts, percentage, ranks, and stepwise multiple regression analysis were used in the study. The respondents involved 289 informants; 67 of them were administrators completely enumerated, and 222 faculty members chosen by stratified proportional random sampling. Findings on research dissemination indicated that there is a need to strengthen the scheme of effective communication or diffusion of research outputs. However, findings on research utilization reveal to the much extent of its user but it calls for a mechanism to monitor and evaluate research utilization. Regression relationship analysis showed that there is significant relationship between research dissemination and research rewards, position, age, leadership skills, library facilities, agenda and priorities in research, goals and objectives in research and foreign funds. While, research utilization is predicted by their attitudes and

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interest in research, research networks and linkages, age, research training and library and library facilities, holdings and materials. Keywords - Research improvement, human and material resource factors, research dissemination and utilization

INTRODUCTION

The challenge of globalization demands critical attention to research in order to generate knowledge and discover new strategies for improving the quality of human life. Through the years, however, research that could help in their solution seemed to have been neglected and undervalued. There are administrators of higher education institutions who believe that their sole primary function is instruction and that research is expensive, time-consuming, and not affordable. Research, however, is meaningful and productive. Its benefits are gauged in terms of the extent and direction of the growth and development of a growing society like the Philippines (Arcelo, 1994). Studies in the 1990â&#x20AC;&#x2122;s show that higher education institutions play a significant role in conducting productive research. Colleges and universities are looked up to for research that generates new knowledge and technologies. These institutions of higher education are seats of dynamic research activities and centers of creativity, development and excellence where recent theory and practice in various fields of human endeavor and data and information are readily available for public utilization. This study attempts to study the determinants of research dissemination and utilization in state higher education institutions in the Philippines.

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OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY This study aimed to find (a) the predictors of research dissemination and utilization in State Higher Education Institutions in Region IV, Philippines, and (b) whether the following factors such as institutional research program, human resource and material resources predict the research dissemination and utilization in state higher education institutions in the Philippines. CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK The study is based on the belief that research and studies (Deza, 1999) should be conducted primarily for the delivery of quality education in order to cope with the challenges of globalization or internationalization (United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization-UNESCO, 1999), and to fulfill the research function of HEIs in the Philippines as decreed in the Education Act of 1982 (as cited by Banaag, 1994), to advance knowledge through research, and apply new knowledge to improve the quality of human life and respond effectively to fast changing societal needs and conditions of this millennium. Pursuant to Republic Act No. 7722, Commission on Higher Education (CHED) in 1994 was mandated to ensure and protect the advancement of learning in higher education institutions through productive and useful researches. HYPOTHESIS There are variables that predict the research dissemination and utilization in state higher education institutions in Region IV, Philippines. METHODOLOGY Research Design. The study made used of the descriptivecorrelational method. This aims to describe, assess, and determine the research dissemination and research utilization as influenced by 338

Determinants of Research Dissemination and Utilization in State Higher Education Institutions in Region IV, Philippines

M. A. FETALVER, JR.

independent variables. Subject and Respondents of the Study. There are two groups of respondents who are involved in the study. This group of informants involved 289 respondents including 67 administrators and 222 faculty members involved in instruction and research. Sampling Techniques. Complete enumeration is used in the choice of 67-administrator respondents, and the stratified proportional random sampling is used to get the final sample of the 222-faculty respondents of the study. Research Instrumentation. Data gathering was done using the two sets of survey questionnaires. One set was administered to the administrators and the other set to the faculty members. Statistical Design and Treatment of Data. The weighted mean, frequency counts, and percentages, were used to describe the variables in the study. Stepwise Multiple Regression Analysis was used in determining the significant determinants that predicted the research dissemination and research utilization in Region IV, Philippines. III. Results and Discussion On research dissemination. Figure 1 revealed that 19.72% of them reacted that their research outputs are disseminated through research journals. Twelve or 4.15% said that generated knowledge is disseminated through newsletters and 9 or 3.11% through bulletin.

Figure 1. Research Dissemination as to Publication media

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The finding implies the difficulty of publishing research outputs through these types of research channels. Reasons are insufficiency of funds; unawareness of the research activities on the part of the researchers; and hard-up leadership skills in managing research (Wolf, 1990 in Rowey, 1999). The data also indicate that only 29.75%, which is 25-49% of the research outputs are disseminated through these channels. The disseminated outputs only imply â&#x20AC;&#x153;low or 50% less than the minimum required.â&#x20AC;?

Figure 2. Research Dissemination as to Academic Works It was shown in the academic works (figure 2) that research outputs were disseminated through these media (seminar-workshops, conferences, convention congress & congress, professional meetings, speeches and lectures and forum with 35.28 percentages which indicate that 35.28 percent is in the range of 25-49% of researches disseminated. This means that the dissemination is low or 50% less than the minimum standard required.

Figure 3. Research Dissemination as to WWW Channels 340

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In like manner WWW Channels in figure 3 showed a 4.5% indicating that research outputs were disseminated through these channels. It means very low (less than 25% of the researches are disseminated) kind of dissemination. Extent of research dissemination. Getting research findings known to society is critical for utilization and use. Researchers have the duty to ensure that research dissemination takes place (Ricafort, 1995) as table 1 indicates it. It reveals that the overall average weighted mean of 2.74 of the group reactions, which shows the weighted mean ratings of 2.93 for administrators and 2.55 for faculty, is to a “much” extent. The highest ranked indicator reveals that administrator (3.00) and faculty (2.63) respondents “write a technical research report” to a “much” extent. As they “disseminate research output in a locally available materials” and produce research materials for instruction/ training, operation purposes” to a “much” extent. Table 1: Extent of research dissemination of research outputs Research Dissemination Indicators (1-4 Scale)

Weighted Mean

Descriptive Rating

Write a technical research report.

2.82

Much

Disseminate research output in a locally available materials

2.80

Much

Produce research materials for instruction/ training, operation purposes.

2.77

Much

Write a research paper in publishable form.

2.72

Much

Publish a research output.

2.69

Much

Present research output and findings in different academic media channels.

2.65

Much

2.74

Much

Grand Mean

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Extent of research utilization. Research that is relevant has immediate utility, practicality, and relationship to the real and everyday problems of society. Table 1 revealed grand mean of 2.96, indicating the use of research outputs as to much extent.. Table 2: Extent of research utilization of research outputs Research Utilization Indicators (1-4 Scale)

Weighted Mean

Descriptive Rating

Uses research results to solve problems.

3.03

Much Extent

Utilize findings to improve the instruction.

3.02

Much Extent

Utilize research results to develop community and extension services.

3.00

Much Extent

Utilize the research outputs to improve and develop curriculum.

2.97

Much Extent

Interpret research findings accurately.

2.97

Much Extent

Utilize research output for the development of administrator, faculty and staff of research.

2.92

Much Extent

Use research results to formulate and make policies.

2.88

Much Extent

Promote the production of devices

2.86

Much Extent

2.96

Much Extent

Grand Mean

It can be noted from the table that respondents “use research results to solve problems” (wm=3.03) indicating much extent in the use of research outputs. That is, coping with change in schools needs knowledge and information, and problems are solved using the generated knowledge through research (Navarro, 1997). As Bennet (1983) in Deza (1999) puts that unused knowledge is useless knowledge. One indicator of research utilization implies “the improvement of the instruction per se.” Research can support the education through the improvement of instruction and monitor important instructional concerns (Gray, 1998 in Katz and Coleman, 2001). Extension services

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and community development is one of the higher educationâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s functions aside from research and instruction and is integral part of research utilization (Cuyno, 1989). Regression Analysis between Research Dissemination and determinants Publication Media. The best predictors of the research dissemination in terms of publication media were rewards (beta=.3024, p<.01) . This implies that rewards trigger them to publish their outputs in this type of research channels. This concurs on the study of Chamberlain and Tang (1997) that productive researches and disseminated are positively influenced by the rewards be it extrinsic or intrinsic ones. More likely, the dissemination of researches is significantly influenced by the Leadership Skills (beta=.1026, p<.05) in managing and monitoring research activities of the respondents. This affirms the belief of Ricafort (1995) that disseminating researches require leadership skills. Able leadership can possibly encourage faculty researchers to use different publication media in disseminating their research outputs. It can be noted that the availability of Library Facilities, (beta= .0940 significant at .0769 levels) implies the development of research culture through strengthened dissemination of research outcomes. The influence implies that those who published researches also depend on the adequacy of library holdings and facilities. The new knowledge being flourished by the presence of recent materials found in the library are as important as publishing it. However, position held by the respondent (beta= -.2629, p< .01) and Age (beta= -.0991, P <.05) negatively and significantly influenced research dissemination as to Publication Media. The impact of Position simply means that respondent-administrators and faculty regardless of their position can publish research outputs. The figures 19.1302 very significant at .0000 levels reject the joint hypotheses that the variables Rewards, Position, Leadership Skills, Library Facilities, and Age do not influence Research Culture as to research dissemination in terms of using the publication media. The 21.22% of the variance of the dependent variable is explained by these predictors. Academic Works. It is also depicted in the same table 4 the 343

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predictors of research dissemination such as rewards (beta=..2554, p< .01), position (beta = .1499, p< .01), agenda & priorities (beta=.1421, p< .0144), and library facilities (beta=.1026, p< .05). As Katz and Coleman (2001) attributed research output dissemination to rewards, incentives and recognition (RIR) provided by the school. However, the quality of disseminated research output can be characterized as to the recent availability of library facilities and holdings. New knowledge and information explored from the library is a big help to make quality types of researches. The low quality type of library facilities would mean a poor type of research dissemination to the society. WWW Channels. The presence of modern research technologies implies quality type of research diffusion as variables foreign funds with beta= .1636, p< .01), position (beta=. 1277, p< .05), and goals and objectives with beta=. 0399) also influenced research dissemination. Table 3: Stepwise multiple regression analyses between research dissemination and the on independent variables, n = 289 Independent variables

Research Dissemination Publication Media B

Beta

Agenda & Priorities Goals & Objectives Rewards

Academic Works

Level B .3826

WWW Channels

Beta

Level B

.1421*

.0144

Beta

Level

.1558 .1222* .0399 1.2860 .3024** .0000 1.6470 0.2554** .0000

Gender Age

Extent of Dissemination

Level B

-1.1032 -.0952* .0464 -.0194 -.0991* .0440

-.1196 -.2242* .0000

Civil Status Position

.2847 -.2629** .0000 .2462

.1499** .0089 .1001 .1277* .0326 .6774

.2301** .0000

.9730

.2649** .0000

.2909

.2084** .0002

Research Training Leadership Skills

.0527 .1026* .0407

Foreign Funds

.1750 .1636** .0049

Library Facilities

.1389 .0940* .0469 .2302

R Square

0.2122

344

0.1746

.1026*

.0336 0.0630

0.2793

Determinants of Research Dissemination and Utilization in State Higher Education Institutions in Region IV, Philippines

M. A. FETALVER, JR.

F Stat

19.1302

15.0149

6.3927

21.9400

Sig. of F

.0000

.0004

.0000

Decision

Reject Ho

Legend: * Significant at 5% (p< .05), ** Very Significant at 1% (p< .01)

Extent of Dissemination. Table 3 presents the regression analysis between the extent of dissemination and the independent variables. The extent of dissemination is best predicted by five factors, namely (a) Research Training (beta=. 2649, p< .01), (b) position (beta=. 2301, p< .01), (c) Leadership skills in research (beta= .2084, p<. 01), Age (beta= -.2242, p< .01) and Gender (beta= -.0952, p<. 05). The figures 21.940 highly significant at .0000 do accept the joint hypotheses that these variables do influence research culture as to the extent of research Dissemination. Regression Analysis between Research Utilization and the Determinants Table 4 reveals that research utilization is predicted by (a) attitudes and personal interest on research (beta= .2785, p<. 01), (b) Age of the respondents (beta = -.1725, p< .01), (c) linkaging and networking ( beta= .2020, p< .01), (d) research training attended (beta =.1814, p< .01), (e) position (beta =.1526, p< .01), and (f) library facilities of the school (beta = - .0921, p< .05). The relevance of research has its immediate utility, practicality and significant relationship to the real and everyday problems of society (Bramble and Mason, 1989). The influence of attitudes and personal interest in research indicates positive behavior as regards knowledge in the use of research outputs. Linkaging and networking imply access to disseminating research necessary for its utilization. However, those who are in the position to publish their research output should do so, thereby providing the necessary venue for research utilization.

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Table 4: Stepwise multiple regression of research utilization on independent variables, n = 289 Research Utilization

Independent Variables

Beta

Level

Linkage and Networking

.7447

.2020**

.0010

Age of the Respondent

-.1011

-.1725**

.0007

Position

.4941

.1526**

.0062

Attitudes and personal interest in research

.7649

.2785**

.0000

Research Training Attended

.7325

.1814**

.0027

Library Facilities

-.4072

-.0921*

.0337

R Square

0.3300

F Stat

23.1362

Significance of F

.0000

Decision

Legend:

* Significant at 5% (p< .05),

Reject Hypothesis

** Very Significant at 1% (p< .01)

CONCLUSIONS The real test of any research endeavor is the dissemination of research findings through different media channels such as publication media, academic works, and worldwide web channels, that is, an indication that they are aware of the effective dissemination and utilization of research findings. Regression analysis showed that research dissemination as to publication media is predicted by rewards, age, position, leadership skills, and library facilities. However, research dissemination in terms of academic works is predicted by agenda and priorities, rewards, position, library facilities. While research dissemination through website channels is predicted by goals and objectives, position and foreign funding. On the other hand, the extent of dissemination of research is predicted by the rewards, their gender, position, research training, and leadership skills of the respondents. Research utilization is influenced by the linkaging and networking, age of the respondents, position, attitudes and interest, research training and library facilities. 346

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M. A. FETALVER, JR.

RECOMMENDATIONS The researcher recommends the following recommendations: 1. The system of research networks and linkages should be given much attention and prioritization be it local, national or international, because developing the research capacity would mean effective means and systems of networking and linkaging. 2. Findings and results must known to society. Research findings must be disseminated through the following media: books, research journals, research magazines, newsletters and news releases, circulars and bulletin, seminars, workshops and conferences, professional meetings, speeches and lectures, internet, compact discs, and databases. 3. The refereed research journals and e-journals and modern technology should be provided and be made accessible those who conduct researches for effective and wider research dissemination. 4. The system of research networks and linkages must be prioritized by the institution. It is recommended that the administrators and faculty should (if possible) be sent oftentimes to attend trainings and seminars/workshops in relation to research. Possibly, more research trainings and seminars must be provided for them to enhance their skills. LITERATURE CITED Arcelo, A. A. (1998). Research in Private Higher Education. National Centennial Congress on Higher Education: Higher Education in the Philippines From the Revolution to the 21st Century. Manila. pp. 1-6. Banaag, I. A., (1994). Research Capability and Productivity of A State College: An Institutional Assessment. Dissertation. De La Salle University, Taft Avenue Manila. Bramble, W. Jr. and E. J. Mason. (1989). Understanding and Conducting Research: Applications in Education and the Behavioral Sciences. â&#x20AC;&#x153;Some Perspectives on Research and Reality.â&#x20AC;? McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York. Pp. 425.

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Challenges of Globalization. UNESCO at the dawn of the 21st century 1988-1999. Chamberlain, Mitchell and Thomas Tang. Attitudes Towards Research and Teaching: Differences Between Administrators and Faculty Members. Edited by Leonard Blair. Journal of Higher Education. Ohio State University Press. vol. 68, No. 2, March-April 1997, pp. 212-225. Commission on Higher Education. (1998). CHED Research Priorities and Grants. National Higher Education Research Agenda (NHERA - 1998-2007). Pasig city. pp. 1-7. Cuyno, R. V. (1993) Research Planning, Evaluation and Monitoring in Obnamia, C. (Ed) Research Management. TUP University Research and Development Services, Manila, pp. 50-53. Deza, F. C., (1999). Research Capability, Productivity, and Utilization in the Ten Saint Paul Higher Education Institutions. Dissertation. De La Salle University, Taft Avenue, Manila. Katz, E. & M. Coleman. (2001). The Growing Importance of Research at Academic Colleges of Education in Israel. Education + Training. Vol. 43 No. 2. MCB University Press. pp.82-93. Ricafort, N. C. (1997). Research Utilization in Organizations & Research Dissemination and Utilization. LNU Research Journal, Leyte. Vol. 4 October. pp. iii-5 Rowey, J. (1999). Developing Research Capacity: The Second Step. International Journal of Educational Management. Vol. 13 Number 4. MCB University Press. pp.208-212. FOR INQUIRIES, WRITE TO: The Managing Editor Liceo Journal of Higher Education Research Liceo de Cagayan University Cagayan de Oro City, 9000 Philippines Email: liceojournal@yahoo.com.ph Fax: 63+ (08822) 727459 URL: http://www.ejournals.ph http://www.liceojournal.com 348

Vol. 6 No. 2 December 2010 ISSN: 2094-1064 CHED Accredited Research Journal, Category B

Liceo Journal of Higher Education Research Education Section

Reinventing Graduate Instruction in a Web Environment GENARO V. JAPOS drgvjapos@yahoo.com TERESITA T. TUMAPON ttumapon@mail.com Liceo de Cagayan University Date Submitted: April 25, 2010 Final Revision Complied: July 7, 2010

Plagiarism Detection: Passed License No. 944146510808541 Original: 100%

Abstract - The study explored the effectiveness of the Web-based instruction pedagogy in three graduate classes in the development of knowledge, skills, attitude, and values of the students. The study used the experimental pretest and posttest design in three settings. A researcher-made instrument was validated and tested for reliability using Cronbach alpha test (.84). The study concludes that the use of Web-based instruction significantly improved the studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; knowledge of the course and its bearing on the personal, professional and organizational development; enhanced their cognitive and metacognitive skills; developed their ability to use web-based technology; positively changed their attitude toward the use of online system for self-directed learning; and strengthened their commitment to collaborative learning, excellence, and quality research. Keywords - Reinventing instruction, Web-based technology, pedagogy, learning effectiveness of online technology

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INTRODUCTION In spite of the advances in instructional techniques, the traditional instruction remains the most widely used in graduate classes. Oral reporting, aided by a liquid crystal display (lcd) or overhead projector, has been the preferred mode of delivery. The problems observed in graduate teaching include (1) polarity between teacher-intensive and student-passive instructions wherein the teacher consumes much of the instructional time and/or shifts to studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; oral reporting with limited interactions, critical thinking, and teacher supplemental information; (2) little time for library work since students come to attend class and then hurriedly go home after class; (3) library materials irrelevant to the studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; needs; (4) inadequate learning evaluation since it is limited to mid and finals with little or no checkup tests; (5) limited autonomy of students to study at their own pace and interest; (6) irregular attendance of students and late submission of course outputs;(7) traditional and limited technologies for teaching and learning; and (8) information intensive with limited opportunities for analysis, reflective and critical thinking and valuing. Most schools offering graduate programs have Internet facilities, but these are not utilized during graduate classes. Since many classes are held once a month for the whole day, there is no time for students to use the library resources and the Internet. The study is significant for a number of reasons: (1) to serve as an innovative teaching model for graduate programs in different disciplines for a more effective instruction; (2) to enhance the effectiveness of teachers in the delivery of instruction, thus contributing to the richness and relevance of graduate programs to the nationâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s need for expert human resources; (3) for graduate students to optimize the use of their time and opportunity to enroll in student-friendly and academically responsive programs. FRAMEWORK The study used the concepts on experiential learning drawn from the andragogy of Knowles, the zone of proximal development of Vigotzky, and the constructivist teaching strategy. Reinventing instruction is a radical shift in the concept and process of teaching 350

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G.V. Japos and T.T. Tumapon

from a regular classroom (with teacher-dominated instruction with prevalent student oral reporting and optional use of online sources) to a Web-environment (with computer laboratory, Internet facility, and online teaching, learning, evaluation, and feedbacking). Elements of Reinventing Instruction Autonomy. The learner accesses the course guides, proceeds at own pace, decides which online sources to use, and selects the lesson content to be learned. Learning Environment. The learner uses a computer laboratory, accesses online library, performs research activities and statistical computations in the class and accesses the Internet to produce and pass course outputs. Interactive Teaching. The teacher explains the lesson, designs workshops, utilizes the computer for online searches by students, facilitates peer interactions and feedbacking, and requires students to correspond to online authors. Research Simulation. The learner transforms thesis into a journal article, engages in a practicum on peer review of research articles, constructs research instrument based on the literature review, and performs a small-scale research. Course Evaluation. It is a combination of teacher-and-student designed tests, online submission of answers, peer-checking and feedbacking, and portfolio assessment of online submissions. Features of a Web-based Instruction The features of a Web-based instruction include: (1) class email is created for online provision of the course guide, lesson modules, examination questions, session instructions, teacher feedback, student outputs, learning resource attachments, peer evaluation, among others; (2) use of computer laboratory with internet connection; the class is conducted using a computer laboratory with Internet connection; (3) online validation of the learnerâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s answers, studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; answers are validated online with the class; (4) class outputs are submitted online and posted in blogs and Website; (5) statistical procedures are done using the SPSS and Minitab software (6) students evaluate the work of

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their peers and post their comments online; and Websites are searched for authoritative information particularly online peer-reviewed journals that are ISI indexed. In a Web-based learning (Fu,Wu, Ho, 2009), collaboration within the group and competition between and among groups take place. Both learning occurrences stimulate knowledge growth in the knowledgecreation spiral. A competitive learning atmosphere encourages students to develop higher analytic skills, while collaborative learning atmosphere prompts students to demonstrate higher synthetic skills (Ostrow and Di Maria-Ghalili, 2005). The development of those learning skills necessitates the creation of a learning environment that integrates ICT. Web-based instruction is seen to increase student engagement in both instruction and evaluation, which provides opportunities for exploration, analysis and feedbacking (Williams and Chen, 2009). It was also found that learners who completed Web-based library tutorial exhibited greater improvement than those who attended a lecture. (Stevens, 2009). The use of interactive learning develops a greater degree of autonomy. Interactive learning makes the learners knowledgeable, resourceful, and responsible members of their classroom environment. OBJECTIVES The study sought to accomplish the following objectives: (1) to describe the elements of reinventing instruction as these apply in a graduate level class; and (2) to determine the efficacy of teaching and learning in a Web-environment. METHODOLOGY The study used experimental pretest-posttest design in three settings involving quantitative and qualitative techniques. The survey questionnaire and interviews were used for data gathering. Content analysis of course work in electronic formats was also done. The study was conducted among the graduate students in the research classes of the researcher in Cagayan de Oro City, Iligan City, and Davao City. 352

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G.V. Japos and T.T. Tumapon

Table 1. Distribution of graduate respondents by place Place

Population

Sample

Cagayan de Oro

Davao City

Iligan City

Total

From a population of 77, a random sample of 67 respondents or 87% was taken as respondents. The survey questionnaire measured the elements of reinventing instruction as applied in a Web-environment and how the instruction improved the graduate students in the research class. The statistical techniques used in the study were the frequency count, percentage, weighted mean, and t-test. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Comparison of pretest and posttest for knowledge Table 2 T-test for knowledge during pretest and posttest

Variable

Knowledge Pretest

Knowledge Posttest

Number of Mean VP Cases

Standard Standard Deviation Error

0.83

2.94

4.16

0.50

Difference

T-Value

P-value

-1.22

-10.11

0.00

Interpretation

0.10

0.06

Significant

The knowledge pretest mean was 2.94 (average) while the posttest mean was 4.16 (high), with a mean difference of 1.22. The increase in knowledge was significant (t=-10.11, P-value=.00), indicating improvements in the graduate respondentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; knowledge of the course contents. They gained better grasp of the course description, objectives/ 353

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purposes, content, assignments/projects, and workshop topics. Their experiences helped them develop personal competencies, acquire more knowledge, and produce better outputs. Table 3 t-test for academic skills during pretest and posttest

Variable

Number of Cases

Mean VP

Standard Standard Deviation Error

Skills Pre-test

2.92

0.87

0.10

Skills Post-test 67

4.07

0.56

0.06

Difference

T-Value

P-value

-1.151

-9.01

0.000

Interpretation

Significant

Comparison of Pretest and Posttest for Academic Skills The graduate studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; academic skills improved from a pretest mean of 2.92 (average) to a posttest mean of 4.07 (high). The mean difference of 1.151 was found to be significant. Though the majority of the graduate students were computer literate; however, they were not prepared for the navigation of the specialized Websites for the concepts under study. While many could operate a personal computer, only a few had experiences with a laptop. As required, they created blogs for their ideas to be posted and accessed by the web surfers. Those who did not have an email account opened their account and started to email as a medium of communicating among their classmates and their teacher. Many students found the task of annotating Websites enriching, expanding their frontiers in the discovery of knowledge. The utilization of peer-reviewed journals (ISI) from the Wilson omnifile was effective in the search for research literature. The skillful selection of powerpoint presentations from the Web cut short the time to read fine fonts on screen. The email was used to evaluate the work of classmates and to give comments and suggestions. The Web-based instruction also included computations using excel, SPSS, and minitab. They also downloaded other software they found useful. Among the metacognitive skills they developed were: synthesis of experience in few words and critical thinking particularly in the evaluation of research literature. 354

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G.V. Japos and T.T. Tumapon

They also used metaphors in expressing their experiences and graded their own papers based on a set of criteria and validated by their classmates. The ability to narrow down broad search terms to specific searchable topics was evident. They learned also to communicate in diagrammatic formats. Finding answers to their own questions online was considered challenging. They also developed the habit of using sources published in the last three years, reviewing selected articles in online peer-reviewed journals and using standard peer-reviewed journal forms. These exercises allowed them to discern what reviewers are looking for in researches. Table 4 t-test for attitude during pretest and posttest

Variable

Number of Cases

Mean

Standard Deviation

Standard Error

Attitude Pre-test

3.11

0.87

0.10

Attitude Post-test

Difference

0.51

P-value

Interpretation

Significant -1.15

4.27

T-Value

-9.89

0.000

0.06

Comparison of Pretest and Posttest for Attitude There was a significant improvement in attitude as shown by an increase in means (pretest=3.41 > posttest=4.27) with a mean difference of 1.15. The substantial change was noted in the studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; preference to see the larger picture to increase the power of cognition. This is attributed to the teacherâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s exhortation that students need to levitate from third world to first world thinking. By changing their attitude in the way they perceive reality, they could look at clearer configurations. They indicated a proactive stance towards change in graduate pedagogy. One of the things they learned was on withholding judgment and decisions until sufficient information is made available, particularly information from credible scientific literature. The students indicated a change particularly in looking for connections and sense from knowledge and experience; in seeing 355

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opportunities in problems, and in believing that the best is yet to come, hence people should be given the benefit of the doubt. Table 5 t-test for values during pretest and posttest

Variable

Number of Cases

Mean

Standard Deviation

Standard Error

Values Pre-test

3.52

0.82

0.10

Values Post-test

4.51

0.41

Difference

T-Value

P-value

-0.98

-8.93

0.000

Interpretation

Significant

0.05

Comparison of Pretest and Posttest on Values Values were the only aspect with high pretest means (3.52) that even surged very highly in the posttest (4.51). When subjected to statistical test, data show a significant difference in the values before and after the exposure to Web-based instruction (t-8.93, pvalue 0.000). After one trimester, the students demonstrated a greater passion for excellence. They now put more value on expertise that drives performance. They have realized that people are the most important assets in the organizations. They now recognize that when something goes wrong, the system must be analyzed and the people empowered. Moreover, they now subscribe more to the proverbial line, â&#x20AC;&#x153;Honesty is the best policy.â&#x20AC;? The positive change in values came about through the writing of introspective experience papers and a sustained self-reflection. The values are directly connected to work and living, integrity and character. Implications 1. Contrary to the popular belief that adult learners who have low computer literacy will not benefit from Web-based instruction, the study showed that given an effective pedagogy in a Webenvironment, adult learning is optimized and instruction can be reinvented. 356

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2. The situation in the Philippines in which graduate classes are held on weekends and internet laboratories are generally not used for such classes, there is so much of opportunities to learn faster and better. 3. The use of Web-based instruction shatters the digital divide in third world countries. The use of computer technologies in teaching and learning allows for the delivery of first world education in a third world environment. CONCLUSIONS On the basis of the findings, the following conclusions are drawn: 1. Students’ knowledge of the enrolled graduate course in research and its purpose and relation to the students’ role in the organization’s growth and development significantly increased after exposure to Web-based instruction. 2. The application of Web-based instruction developed the cognitive and metacognitive skills of the graduate students as well as their ability to use online learning resources as a new way of coping with the demands of the lessons. 3. The graduate students’ attitudes towards the use of Web technologies for learning changed positively. They developed a proactive stance towards change and a scientific attitude in doing research. 4. The graduate students developed greater passion for excellence and valued more expertise that drives performance and honesty as the best policy for self-directed learning. 5. The graduate students who took the research course in different settings of the study obtained similar mean gains validating the effectiveness of the web-based instruction in the graduate program as a means of developing knowledge, skills, attitudes, and values. Hence, graduate education was reinvented under a web technology-based environment. RECOMMENDATIONS 1. Graduate classes should be held in an Internet laboratory. If such facility is limited, at least 50 percent of class session hours should 357

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be spent at the Internet laboratory. Students may be charged internet laboratory fees for the use of the facilities to pay for the technician, maintenance and energy consumption since classes are held on weekends. 2. Faculty should be trained on the effective use of the ICTs for instruction to maximize learning opportunities. 3. The instrument to measure studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; empowerment for knowledge, skills, attitudes and values could be used for nonWeb-based instruction as point of comparison. 4. Access to and utilization of research literature both print and online should be afforded to the graduate students as means to infuse scientific orientation. LITERATURE CITED Fu, Fl; Wu, YL and Ho, H.C. (2009). An investigation of cooperative pedagogic design for knowledge creation in Web-based learning. Computers and Education. V. 53 No. 3 (Nov. 2009) p. 550-562 Ostrow, L. and Di Maria-Ghalili, R.A. (2005). Distance evaluation for graduate nursing: one state schoolâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s experience. Journal of Nursing Evaluation V. 44 No. 1 (Jan. 2005) p. 5-10 Stevens,C. (2009). Unified theory of acceptance and use for websites in higher education. Journal of Educational Computer Research. V. 40 No. 2 p. 229-257 Williams, J. and Chen, S.J. (2009). Using Web 2.0 to support the active learning experience. Journal of Information System Education V. 20 No. 2 (Summer 2009) p. 165-174 FOR INQUIRIES, WRITE TO: The Managing Editor Liceo Journal of Higher Education Research Liceo de Cagayan University Cagayan de Oro City, 9000 Philippines Email: liceojournal@yahoo.com.ph Fax: 63+ (08822) 727459 URL: http://www.ejournals.ph http://www.liceojournal.com

358

AUTHOR INDEX Vol. 6, No. 2 – December 2010 A Amparado, Mauro Allan P., 133

M Mahilum, Jofi Valdehueza, 319

B Babor, Eddie R., 208

O Ong, Marylou B., 133 Ontoy, Dexter S., 172

C Caceres, Michael Vincent P., 233 Cempron, Jezyl T., 133 Cinches, Florecilla C., 296 Corvera, Esperidion B., 133 D de los Reyes, Julieta A., 112 de la Peña, Salvador C., 253 del Rosario, Bernadette I., 60 F Fetalver, Mario A., Jr., 336

P Padua, Roberto N., 1, 76, 172 Palompon, Daisy R., 133 Pañares, Zosima A., 76 Pangilinan, Rafael D., 188 S Sumanpan, Victoria O., 30 Sy, Maria Victoria U., 153 T Tumapon, Teresita T., 76, 271,349 Tulang, Alfeo B., 1, 172

J Japos, Genaro V., 44, 271, 349 L Lerin, Mariano M., 76 Lubos, Lesley C., 44 Lozano, Emiliana J., 98, 271

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GUIDE FOR AUTHORS The Liceo Journal of Higher Education Research is the official research journal of Liceo de Cagayan University. The journal is published once a year. For paper submission, the paper must be an original copy, about 5,000 words, double-spaced, and with tables and figures. The research abstract must have 200 words and at least 5 key words or phrases. Manuscript Preparation 1. Organize the paper following these major headings: Title, Author(s) and address (es), Abstract, Introduction, Materials and Methods for experimental study or Methodology for non-experimental study, Results and Discussion, Conclusions, Acknowledgment, and Literature Cited. The Literature Cited should substantially consist of articles published in current content-covered or peer-reviewed journals. Minimize citations of unpublished reports and theses. 2. Type the entire manuscript double-spaced on a short white bond paper (8.5x11 in) on one side only with 2.5 cm margins all around using a Times New Roman font size of 10. References, Acknowledgments, Table Titles, and Figure Legends should be typed double-spaced. Number consecutively all pages including title page, figures, and tables. 3. Leave two spaces before and after the major headings and two spaces before and after the sub-headings. Do not use footnotes rather you can use endnotes if the discipline need such. 4. Spell out acronyms or unfamiliar abbreviations when these are mentioned for the first time in the text. 5. Write the scientific names of species completely with author(s) when it is first mentioned in the text and without author in succeeding references. Scientific names should be written in italics or bold face. 6. Do not spell out numbers unless they are used to start a sentence. 7. Use the metric system only or the International System of Units. Use abbreviations of units only beside numerals (e.g. 6 m); otherwise, spell out the units (e.g. kilometers from here). Do not use plural forms or periods for abbreviations of units. Use the bar for compound units (e.g. 1 kg/ha/yr). Place a zero before the decimal in numbers less than 1 (e.g. 0.25) 8. When preparing Tables and Figures, consider the journalâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s printed page of 5.75 in x 8.5 in and the reduction that will be necessary. Titles of Tables and Captions of Figures should be as short as possible and understandable without referring to the text. Captions of Figures should be typed double-spaced in a separate sheet. Figures should consist only of simple line drawings, computer-generated graphics or good quality black and white photographs. Label of Figures should be of such a size so that these are still legible even after reducing the size by as much as 50%. Use preferably Adobe Photoshop CS, Adobe Indesign CS and or PDF computer-generated graphics. 360

9. Cite references in the text as author (year). Writing of et al. in the list of references/ literature cited is discouraged but instead authors are mentioned; references in press as (author, in press) and unpublished reference as (author, unpubl. data or author, pers. comm.). If two or more references are cited, arrange them by year. 10. Manuscript should be as concise as the subject and research method permit, generally not to exceed 5000 words, single-space. 11. To promote anonymous review, authors should not identify themselves directly or indirectly in their papers or in experimental test instruments included in the submission. Single authors should not use the editorial “we”. 12. A cover page should show the title of the paper, all authors’ names, titles and affiliations, email addresses, and any acknowledgements. Pagination: All pages, including tables, appendices and references, should be serially numbered. Major sections should be numbered in Roman numerals. Subsections should not be numbered. Numbers: Spell out numbers from one to ten, except when used in tables and lists, and when used with mathematical, statistical, scientific, or technical units and quantities, such as distances, weights and measures. Percentage and Decimal Fractions: In nontechnical copy, use the word percent in the text. Hyphens: Use a hyphen to join unit modifiers or to clarify usage. For example: a crosssectional equation; re-form. See Webster’s for correct usage. Keywords: The abstract must be followed by at least three keywords to assist in indexing the paper and identifying qualified reviewers. Data Availability: A line immediately following the Keyword identifiers should indicate whether the data are available. Abstract/ Introduction An abstract of about 200 words should be presented on a separate page immediately preceding the text. The Abstract should concisely inform the reader of the manuscript’s topic, its methods, and its findings. Keywords and the Data Availability statements should follow the Abstract. The text of the paper should start with a section labeled Introduction,” which provides more details about the paper’s purpose, motivation, methodology, and findings. Both the Abstract and the Introduction should be relatively nontechnical yet clear enough for an informed reader to understand the manuscript’s contribution. The manuscript’s title but neither the author’s name nor other identification designations, should appear on the Abstract page. Documentation Citations: In-text citations are made using an author-year format. Cited works must correspond to the list of works listed in the “Literature Cited” section. 1. In the text, works are cited as follows: author’s last name and year, without comma, in parentheses. 361

Liceo Journal of Higher Education Research

2. For cited works that include more than one work by an author (or same co – authors) that is published in the same year, the suffix a, b, etc., is to follow the date in the within-text citations and in the “Literature Cited ” section. 3. When the author’s name is mentioned in the text, it need not be repeated in the citation. 4. Citations to institutional works should use acronyms or short titles where practicable. 5. If the paper refers to statutes, legal treatises, or court cases, citations acceptable in law reviews should be used. Conclusions Conclusions should briefly answer the objectives of the study. They are not repetitions of the discussions but are judgments of the results obtained. Literature Cited Every manuscript must include a “Literature Cited” section that contains only those works cited within the text. Each entry should contain all information necessary for unambiguous identification of the published work. Use the American Psychological Association Manual of Style, for business and social science; Council for Science Editors (CSE) for Science; Modern Language Association (MLA) for language and literature; Campbell and Turabian for philosophy, history and religion. Since the LJHER is multidisciplinary, the use of a different style format that is relevant to a particular discipline is allowed. Submission of Manuscripts Authors should note the following guidelines for submitting manuscripts: 1. Manuscripts currently under consideration by another journal or publisher should not be submitted. The author must state upon submission that the work has not been submitted or published elsewhere. 2. For manuscripts reporting on field surveys or experiments: If the additional documentation (e.g. questionnaire, case, interview schedule) is sent as a separate file, then all information that might identify the authors(s) must be deleted from the instruments. 3. Manuscripts should be submitted via email as Microsoft Word or PDF file to the Editor at email address: liceojournal@yahoo.com.ph Please submit separate files for (1) the manuscript’s title page with identifying information (not forwarded to reviewers), (2) the manuscript with title page and all other identifying information removed, and (3) any necessary supplement files such as experimental instructions and/or response memoranda on invited revisions. A copy of the research questionnaire or tools is encouraged for submission. The editors and the reviewers nee to refer to these tools. 362

4. Revisions must be submitted within 2 months from the decision letter inviting a revision. 5. Vital information is available at this Website: www.liceojournal.com. Comments The Liceo Journal of Higher Education Research welcomes submission of comments on previous articles. Comments on articles previously published in the Liceo Journal of Higher Education Research will generally be reviewed by two reviewers, usually an author of the original article (to assist the editor in evaluating whether the submitted comment represents the prior article accuracy) and an independent reviewer. If a comment is accepted for publication, the original author will be invited to reply. All other editorial requirements, as enumerated above, apply to proposed comments. Policy on Reproduction The objective of the Liceo Journal of Higher Education Research is to promote the wide dissemination of the results of systematic scholarly inquires into the broad field of accounting. Permission is hereby granted to reproduce any of the contents of the Liceo Journal for instructional use as long as the source and copyright are indicated in any such reproductions. Written application must be made to the Liceo Journal of Higher Education Research, Liceo de Cagayan University RN Pelaez Blvd., Kauswagan, Cagayan de Oro City, Philippines, for permission to reproduce any of the contents other than for instructional use â&#x20AC;&#x201C; e.g., inclusion in books of readings or in any other publications intended for general distribution. In consideration for the grant of permission, the applicant must notify the author(s) in writing of the intended use to be made for each reproduction. Normally, the Liceo Journal of Higher Education will not assess a charge for the waiver of copyright. Except where otherwise noted in articles, the copyright interest has been transferred to the Liceo Journal of Higher Education Research. Where the author(s) has (have) not transferred the copyright to the Liceo Journal of Higher Education Research, applicants must seek permission to reproduce (for all purposes) directly from the author(s).

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LIST OF ADMINISTRATORS 2010-2011 Name

Position

TOP ADMINISTRATORS

Dr. Rafaelita P.Pelaez Dr. Mariano M. Lerin

Chairman of the Board of Directors President

Mr. Alain Marc P. Golez

Vice President for Administration

Dr. Teresita T. Tumapon

Vice President for Academic Affairs

Mr. Fruto M. Teodorico

Vice President for Finance

Mr. Rudolf Caesar P. Golez

Vice President for External, Cultural and Alumni Affairs

Dr. Jose Vicente N. Noble

Vice President for Student Personnel Services

Mr. Jose Ma. Z. Valdehueza

Assistant Vice President for Finance

ACADEMIC DEANS Atty. Ponce Vic M. Ceballos Mrs. Ma. Chona V. Palomares

Dean, College of Law Dean, College of Nursing

Dr. Teresita T. Tumapon

Dean, Graduate Studies

Dr. Martina A. Brobo

Dean, College of Education

Dr. Fe. S. Tolibas

Dean, College of Arts and Sciences

Atty. Leo Paolo L. Perez

Dean, College of Business and Accountancy

Dr. Jose D. Clar

Dean, College of Engineering

Mr. Erwin B. Bucio

Dean, College of Criminology

Dr. Amelda C. Libres

Dean, College of Medical Laboratory Science

Dr. Nimfa R. Lago

Dean, Graduate Pharmacy

Dr. Andrew P. Ponte

Dean, College of Information Technology

Dr. Estelita G. Dy

Dean, College of Radiological Technology

Mr. Denise O. Orong

Dean, College of Physical Therapy

Engr. Emilio F. Matheu, Jr.

Assistant Dean, Graduate Studies

Ms. Elvy Q. Malabo

OIC Principal, Grade School

Mrs. Joan B. Gallaron

Principal, High School

Dr. Ma. Fe D. Opina

Consultant, Grade School

Ms. Maria Thea Jean P. Boo

Coordinator, Promotions and Student Recruitment Office OIC, Institute of Short Studies

ACADEMIC DEPARTMENT HEADS Dr. Linda L. Mondo単edo Mrs. Sherlita M. Barrun

Director, Libraries and IMC University Registrar

Mrs. Evangeline N. Cabe

Director, Guidance and Placement Office

Dr. Genaro V. Japos

Director, Research and Publication Office

Dr. Lesley C. Lubos

Associate Director, Research and Publication Office

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SPECIAL ASSISTANTS AND CONSULTANTS

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