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EDITORIAL BOARD for 2010 Vol. 1 No. 1 EDITOR IN CHIEF Lesley C. Lubos, Ph.D. , Liceo de Cagayan University, Philippines MEMBERS OF THE BOARD Victor B. Amoroso, Ph.D., Central Mindanao University, Philippines Arvin C. Diesmos, Ph.D., National Museum of the Philippines Benito C. Tan, Ph.D., National University of Singapore Hilly Ann Roa Quiaoit, Ph.D.., McKeough Marine Center, Xavier University, Philippines GUEST EDITOR Abner A. Bucol, Suakcrem - Silliman University & Negros Oriental State University, Philippines CHIEF EXECUTIVE OFFICER Mariano M. Lerin, Ph.D., CPA, Liceo de Cagayan University, Philippines MANAGING EDITOR Genaro V. Japos, Ph.D., Liceo de Cagayan University, Philippines FINANCE MANAGER Lorimer S. Capinpuyan, MM, Liceo de Cagayan University COPY EDITOR Teresita T. Tumapon, Ph.D., Liceo de Cagayan University, Philippines Technical Staff Donald D. Abelgas - Cover, Layout and Design Jun Brian P. Tubongbanua, MM - Office Manager Bernard A. Gutierrez - Plagiarism Detection Specialist

Aims and Scope The Asian Journal of Biodiversity (AJOB) aims to publish new discoveries in species diversity, ecological diversity, genetic diversity, biodiversity modelling and biodiversity education which provides new information necessary to preserve, conserve and protect the faunal and floral richness of Asia.

The Asian Journal of Biodiversity is an international peer reviewed and multidisciplinary journal that provides a venue for scholars to publish their research findings. Through the new knowledge generated, this journal intends to empower citizens to take an active role in biodiversity conservation.

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Number 1

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December 2010

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EDITORIAL POLICY The Asian Journal of Biodiversity (AJOB) is open to the global community of scholars who wish to have their researches published in a peer-reviewed journal.

Contributors can access the website: www.ejournals.ph. The Editorial Board invites guest editors and peer reviewers from the Philippines and abroad for every issue of the journal.

The Asian Journal of Biodiversity is viewed as a premier journal that publishes peer-reviewed biodiversity researches. Publishable research articles embrace new discoveries in species diversity, ecological diversity, genetic diversity and biodiversity education, which provide new information necessary to preserve, conserve and protect the faunal and floral richness of Asia. The journal primarily has as its audience, scientists, academicians, graduate students, environmentalists, policy makers, and other individuals interested in pushing the frontiers of biodiversity research. The primary criterion for publication in the Asian Journal of Biodiversity is the significance of the contribution an article makes to the body of knowledge.

The efficiency and effectiveness of the editorial review process are critically dependent upon the actions of both the research authors and the reviewers. An author accepts the responsibility of preparing the research paper for evaluation by independent reviewers. The responsibility includes subjecting the manuscript to evaluation by peers and revising it prior to submission. The review process is not to be used as a means of obtaining feedback at early stages of developing the research paper.

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to meet the accepted standards of their discipline and prevents the dissemination of unwarranted claims, unacceptable interpretations and personal views. Peer review increases the probability that weaknesses will be identified, and, with advice and encouragement, fixed. For both grant-funding and publication in a scholarly journal,it is also normally a requirement that the subject is both novel and substantial.

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Criteria for Acceptance and Rejection. A manuscript is accepted when it is (1) endorsed for publication by 2 or 3 referees, (2) the instructions of the reviewers are substantially complied; (3) the manuscript passes the plagiarism detection test with a score of at least 80 for originality; and (4) the manuscript has an English writing readability score of below 60 in the Flesch Reading Ease test and a Gunning Fog Index of at least 12; otherwise the manuscript is rejected. The referee’s evaluations include an explicit recommendation of what to do with the manuscript, often chosen from options provided by the journal. Most recommendations are along the following lines: • to unconditionally accept the manuscript, • to accept it in the event that its authors improve it based on referees’ recommendation, • to reject it, but encourage revision and invite resubmission, • to reject it outright In situations where the referees disagree substantially about the quality of a work, there are a number of strategies for reaching a decision. When the editor receives very positive and very negative reviews for the same manuscript, the board will solicit one or more additional reviews as a tie-breaker. In the case of ties, the board may invite authors to reply to a referee’s criticisms and permit a compelling rebuttal to break the tie. If the editor does not feel confident to weigh the persuasiveness of a rebuttal, the board may solicit a response from the referee who made the original criticism. In rare instances, the board will convey communications forth and back between an author and a referee, in effect allowing them to debate on a point. Even in such case, however, the board does not allow referees to confer with each other and the goal of the process is explicitly not to reach consensus or to convince anyone to change his/her opinions.

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Notes

90.0 – 100.00 Easily understandable by an average 11

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60.0 – 70.0 Easily understandable by 13 to 15 year old students 0.0 – 30.0 Best understood by university graduates Moreover, the Gunning Fog Index, developed by Robert Gunning, an American Businessman in 1952, measures the readability of English writing. The index estimates the years of formal education required to understand the text on a first reading. A fog index of 12 requires a reading level of a US high school senior (around 18 years old) or third year college / university in the Philippines.

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STAGES OF THE PUBLICATION PROCESS AND ADVOCACY 1. Quality Assurance by the Editorial Board

1. Preliminary quality assurance evaluation. a. b. c. d.

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Word count for abstract and content English writing readability and Gunning Fog Index Plagiarism detection Technical editing

e. f. g. h.

Formula checker software Application of corrections Technical review by the editorial board Submission of the signed copyright transfer

2. Selection of peer reviewers

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3. Publication Process 1. Formatting of the manuscripts for publication.

2. Forwarding of the prototype copy of the published manuscript to the authors for confirmation.

3. Submission of signed copyright transfer prior to final printing.

4. Circulation and Advocacy 1.

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Translational Research / Utilization: Policy, Patent, Program, Modules.

Conferment of awards and tracking of citations.

Journal Impact Factor and Author Citation Index International Indexing

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Vol. 1 No. 1 December 2010 ISSN: 2094-15019 pp. 1-24 International Peer Reviewed Journal

Asian Journal of Biodiversity Arthropod Faunal Diversity Section

Diversity and Status of Butterflies across Vegetation Types of Mt. Hamiguitan, Davao Oriental, Philippines Alma B. MOHAGAN almohagan@gmail.com Department of Biology, Central Mindanao University, Musuan, Bukidnon, Philippines Colin G. Treadaway Entomologist II, Senckenberg Museum, Germany Date Submitted: Oct. 7, 2009 Final Revision Complied: Dec. 1, 2009 Gunning Fog Index: 13.24

Plagiarism Detection: Passed Original: 100% English Writing Readability: 36.15

Abstract - An inventory was conducted to determine the diversity and status of butterflies of Mt. Hamiguitan Wildlife Sanctuary, Davao Oriental, using quadrat method in five vegetation types, namely; agroecosystem (10-400 masl), dipterocarp (500-900 masl), montane (900-1400 masl), mossy (1400-1500 masl) and pygmy (1500-1675 masl). Two 20m x 20m plots were established per vegetation type. These inventory techniques revealed 142 species of butterflies plus one new subspecies described and illustrated. Diversity assessment using Shannon-Weiner index showed high level (4.1) in the Montane forest as compared to other vegetation types. BrayCurtis similarity index showed low species similarity in pygmy, mossy and agro-montane forests (< 40 %). Furthermore, this study revealed 7 possible new species, 44 endemics: 2 eastern Mindanao endemic (very rare), 4 Mt. Hamiguitan endemic (very rare), 16 Mindanao endemic and 22 Philippine endemic.

Seven species are new records in Mindanao. Mt. Hamiguitan 1

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Wildlife Sanctuary butterfly species.

is the home of diverse and endemic

Keywords - butterflies, species richness, pygmy vegetation types, Mt. Hamiguitan INTRODUCTION Butterflies are easily selected as organisms for study among arthropods because of their attractiveness, ecological and sociocultural uses. Ecologically, butterflies play an important role in our ecosystems. They are considered as biological components which affect human life in various ways either directly or indirectly, and in tangible or intangible manner. Their larvae transform millions of tons of plant matter into animal and waste matter and are eaten by other animals or eventually recycled into plant matter. The larvae help in controlling weeds and also in cross pollination of many flowering plants (Treadaway 1995). The larvae are sources of genetic material for gene diversity (Weed 1976). They can be biological indicators for environmental quality and component of natural landscape. Butterfly habitats depict the quality of existence of their natural landscape and are indicators of biologically rich environment.

Despite their usefulness, studies leading to the conservation of the Philippine butterflies and the influence of vegetation types on their existence are scanty especially in Mindanao (Gapud 2005).

The work of Ballentes, Mohagan, Espallardo and Zarcilla (2005) on arthropod fauna in Mt. Malindang and its environs documented 764 species. Thus far, the need to conduct surveys is accentuated by rapid destruction of forest communities here in the Philippines, particularly in Mindanao where primary forest has been reduced for livelihood purposes yet basic ecology of most invertebrate fauna remains unknown. Treadaway (1995) reported 895 taxa of butterflies in the Philippines and noted the ecological status of each species.

As can be expected, the larger islands have high number of species.

Mindanao, the second largest island in the Philippine archipelago, is the home of 528 species, in which 41.5 % or 219 species are endemic.

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Diversity and Status of Butterflies Across Vegetation Types of Mt. Hamiguitan, Davao Oriental, Philippines

A.B. Mohagan and C. G. Treadaway

Many of the species are still awaiting to be discovered and named in places which have not been biologically explored.

One of the biologically unexplored mountains in Mindanao for butterfly fauna is Mt. Hamiguitan Wildlife Sanctuary in Davao Oriental. The information on diversity and status of butterflies is useful as one basis for the protection, conservation and management of the sanctuary.

This study was conducted to assess the diversity and status of butterflies in Mt. Hamiguitan Wildlife Sanctuary, Davao Oriental to provide baseline information of the butterfly fauna across vegetation types. Specifically, this study provides trends on species richness, relative abundance, endemism and similarity of communities based on species composition of butterflies across vegetation types.

MATERIALS AND METHODS Study Area Mt. Hamiguitan (Fig. 1) is located at 124° 14’ N and 5°21’E. The Sanctuary is under the jurisdiction of three municipalities : Mati at the southern part, San Isidro at the northern side and Governor Generoso at the eastern side. A portion of Mt. Hamiguitan ( San Isidro side) was declared in February 3, 1994 as protected landscape consisting of 21, 200 has. The mountain range is characterized by different vegetation types: the beach forest starting 0-35 masl, pygmy 36-180 masl, mixed dipterocarp forest at 280- 860 masl, montane at 870- 910 masl, mossy at 920 - 1250 and pygmy (bonsai) at 1260 - 1700 masl. The range is also characterized by three major drainages which carve out a rugged terrain, the Dumagook river (Fig. 2), Mansadok river (Fig. 3) and the Puting Bato (Fig. 4), and with two swamp areas (Figs. 5 & 6) locally called lakes.

The study was conducted within Mt. Hamiguitan, Davao Oriental.

Two transect belts were done in San Isidro and Mati side of Mt. Hamiguitan using the natural trail called transect belt I and II. Transect belt I was established from Sitio Tumaliti to the peak of Mt. Mansadok for the Municipality of San Isidro side. Transect belt II was established 3

Asian Journal of Biodiversity

from Sitio Magum to Lantawan 1 for Mati side. Five vegetation types were identified per transect belt . The five types include the following: agroecosystem dipterocarp forest 1, montane forest 1, mossy 1 and pygmy forest 1 in transect belt I for San Isidro side. The five vegetation types in transect belt 2 include: agroecosystem 2, dipterocarp 2, montane 2, mossy 2 and pygmy forest 2 for Mati side. Two 20 m x 20 m plots/quadrats were established in each sampling site to survey the species richness and diversity of butterflies. Butterflies were collected in these sites with the use of a catching net and bait traps.

Sampling Technique Plot/Quadrat sampling technique was used to collect the data for diversity and richness of butterflies in Mt. Hamiguitan. Butterflies were observed, collected and counted within the two 20 m x 20 m quadrats/ vegetation. These data were recorded for the data on richness, altitude, type of vegetation, distribution, and abundance for the determination of diversity indices along elevation gradient or across vegetation types.

Abundance, species richness and Shannon-Weiner diversity index was determined using BIO PRO software version 2.0. Likewise, cluster analysis determined the similarity of communities based on butterfly composition across vegetation types using BIO PRO software.

Preservation The three specimens of butterflies per species slightly pressed at the thorax were placed in the triangular wax with moth balls to kill and preserve them.

Classification, Identification and Description Classification and initial identification of butterflies were done using books, journals, and photographs of identified specimens.

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Diversity and Status of Butterflies Across Vegetation Types of Mt. Hamiguitan, Davao Oriental, Philippines

A.B. Mohagan and C. G. Treadaway

Assessment of Status Status of butterflies was assessed using Treadawayâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Checklist (1995). The scale of occurrences was used to evaluate the status of butterflies throughout Mt. Hamiguitan: very rare - (1-3 occurrences), rare â&#x20AC;&#x201C; (4-10 occurrences), common- (11-20 occurrences), very common(21-above occurrences).

Results and discussion Species Richness A total of 142 species (Table 1) (Figs. 11-14 pp. 22-24) of butterflies were sampled in Mt. Hamiguitan. These species belong to 97 genera and 6 families of butterflies. Of these, 28 species were family Hesperidae, 27, Lycaenidae; 55, Nymphalidae; 11, Papilionidae; 19, Pieridae; and Rionidae represented by a single species .

Species richness of butterflies showed an increasing trend in agroecosystems (10-400 masl), dipterocarp forests (400-900 masl) and montane forests (900-1400 masl) while it is decreasing from mossy forests (1400 masl-1500 masl) to pygmy forests (1500-1675 masl).

Butterfly abundance was highest in agroecosystem 2 with 26 individuals, followed by agroecosystem 1 with 25 individuals, montane 1 with 18, montane 2 with 17, dipterocarp 1 with 15, dipterocarp 2 with 11, mossy 1 with 6, pygmy 1 with 8 and pygmy 2 with 1 (Table 2 p. 12).

Butterfly abundance decreased with increased elevation using rank dominance plot (Fig.1 p. 12). This suggests that butterfly species in higher elevations have the tendency to become rare or unique.

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Ecological Status common common common common rare very rare very rare rare rare common rare rare rare rare common common rare rare common rare common rare common common

Family

Hesperiidae 1. Aeriomachus musca Mabille 1876 2. Ancestroides nigrita fumatus Mabille 1876 3. Badamia exclamationis Fabricius 1775 4. Baoris oceia Hewitson 1868 5. Choaspes plateni adhara Fruhstorfer 1911 6. Coladenia ochracea Fruhstorfer 1911 7. C. semperi Edwards & Edwards 1897 8. Gangara thrysis philippensis Fruhstorfer 1910 9. Gerosis corona corona Semper 1892 10. Halpe luteisquama Mabille 1896 11. Hasora chromus chromus Cramer 1782 12. H. khoda minsona Swinhoe 1907 13. Isma feralia ferestrata Elwes & Edwards 1897 14. Mooreana princeps Semper 1892 15. Notocrypta feisthamalii alinkara Fruhstorfer 1911 16. N. paralysos volux Mabille 1993 17. Odontoptilum angulatum helisa Semper 1892 18. O. leptogramma Hewitson 1868 19. Oriens californica Scudder 1872 20. Pothantus mingo mingo Edwards 1866 21. Psolos fuligo fuligo Mabille 1876 22. Suada albina Semper 1892 23. Tagiades gana elegans Mabille 1877 24. Tagiades sp endemic

endemic endemic endemic

endemic endemic

endemic endemic new record in Mindanao

endemic in Mindanao Phil. endemic Phil. endemic

Taxonomic status

Table 1. List of butterflies from Mt. Hamiguitan and their status

very rare very rare rare very rare rare Very rare very rare rare very rare very rare very rare very rare very rare very rare rare Very rare very rare very rare very rare rare very rare very rare rare very rare

Local Status

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endemic endemic Phil. endemic Phil. endemic

New record in Mindanao New record in Mindanao

new in Mindanao Phil. endemic New to Science endemic in Mindanao

very rare very rare very rare very rare very rare very rare very rare very rare very rare very rare rare very rare very rare very rare very rare very rare

very rare very rare

rare common rare rare common rare common common rare rare rare rare common rare rare common rare rare common

33. A. arsenius everetti Evans 1957 34. A. corinda corinda Hewitson 1869 35 A. eridanus davalma sspn 36. A. matsutaroi Hayashi 1979 37. Bindahara phocides origenes Fruhstorfer 1912 38. Caleta angola angola Hewitson 1876 39. Curetis tagalica tagalica Felder 1862 40. Euchrysops cnejos Fabricius 1798 41. Horaga lefebvrei osma Fruhstofer 1912 42. Jamides alecto manilana Toxopeus 1930 43. J. bochus pulchrior Grose-Smith 1895 44. J. celeno lydanus FRuhstorfer 1910 45. J. cleodus cleodus Felder-felder 1865 46. J. philatus osias Roeber 1886 47. Monodontides apona Fruhstorfer 1910 48. M. hondai Eliot & Kawazoe 1983 49 Paruparo cebuensis sspn.

50. P. cebuensis cebuensis 51. Pithecops corvus corax Fruhstorfer 1919

New record in the Philippines

very rare very rare very rare very rare very rare

rare common common rare rare

undetermined undetermined endemic m Mindanao

common very rare very rare

common common rare

25. T. trebellius martinus Plotz 1884 26. Taractrocera luzonensis luzonensis Staudinger 1889 27. Telicota ohara jania Evans 1949 Lycaenidae 28. Allotinus corbeti Eliot 1956 29. A. nivalis Semper 1889 30. A. panctatus Semper 1889 31. A. aedius oenotria Hewitson 1869 32. A. alitaenius panta Evans 1957

Table 1 continue Diversity and Status of Butterflies Across Vegetation Types of Mt. Hamiguitan, Davao Oriental, Philippines A.B. Mohagan and C. G. Treadaway

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8

common

57. Zizina otis oriens Butler 1883 Nymphalidae 58. Acrophtalmia leto ochine Semper 1887 59. A. albofasciata Uemura & Yamaguchi 1982 60. Amathusia phidippus pollicaris Butler 1870 61. Athyma maenas semperi Moore 1898 62. Cethosia luzonica magindanica Semper 1888 63. Charaxes antonius antonius Semper 1878 64. Cirrochroa tyche tyche C. & R. Felder 1861 65. Cupha arias dapatana Grose-Smith 1887 66. Cyrestis maenalis rizali Tsukada & Nishiyama 1985 67. Danaus melanippus edmondii Lesson 1837 68. Dischopora philippina Moore 1895 69. Dophla evelina proditrix Fruhstorfer 1913 70. Elymnias beza beza Hewitson 1877 71. Euploea eunice eunice Godart 1819 72. E. tulliolus pollita Erichson 1834 73. E. mulciber mindanensis Staudinger 1885 74. Euthalia lubentina philippensis Fruhstorfer 1899 75. Faunis phaon leucis C. & R. Felder 1861 76. Hypolimnas anomala anomala Wallace 1869 77. H. bolina Butler 1874 78. H. misippus Linnaeus 1769 rare common common rare common rare common common common common rare common common common common common rare common common common common

common common rare common common

52. Poritia philuta phare Druce 1895 53. Prosotas nora semperi Fruhstorfer 1916 54. Rapala varuna nada FRuhstorfer 1912 55. Remilana westermanni Felder & Fekder 1865 56. Tajuria jalajala jalajala Felder & Felder 1862

Table 1 continue

endemic in Mindanao

Phil. endemic

endemic in Mindanao

endemic in Mindanao

endemic in Mindanao new record

common common rare rare very common rare rare very common very common very common very rare very common very common very common very rare rare very rare very common very common very common rare

common

very rare very rare very rare very rare rare

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79. Idea leuconoe obscura Staudinger 1889 80. Ideopsis gaura glaphyra Moore 183 81. I. juventa manillana Moore 1883 82.Junonia hedonia ida Cramer 1775 83. J. orithya leucasia Fruhstorfer 1912 84. Lassipa pata semperi Moore1899 85. Lethe chandica byzaccus Fruhstorfer 1911 86. Lexias panopus miscus Fruhstorfer 1913 87. L. satrapes trapesa Semper 1888 88. Libythea geoffroy philippina Staudinger `889 89. Melanitis atrax lucillus Fruhstorfer 1908 90. M. leda leda Linnaeus 1758 91. Moduza thespias Semper 1889 92. Mycalesis felderi felderi Butler 1868 93. M. tagala semirasa Fruhstorfer 1908 94. M. treadawayi cotabatana Schroder & Treadawayi 95. Neptis pampanga boholica Moore 1899 96. Pantoporia cyrilla athenais C. & R. Felder 1863 97. Parthenos Sylvia philippensis Fruhstorfer 1898 98. Prothoe semperi semperi Honrath1884 99. Ptychrandra loquinii plateni Semper 1891 100. Ragadia melindena melindena C. & R. Felder 1863 101. Symbrethia lilaea semperi Moore 1899 102. Tacola magindana magindana Semper 1878 103. Tanaecia leucotaenia aquamarina Fruhstorfer 1912 104. Terrinos clarissa lucilla Butler 1870 105 Tirumala hamata orientalis Sempper 1879 106. T. ishmoides strymon Fruhstorfer 1911

Table 1 continue common rare common common common rare common common rare common common common rare rare rare common common common common rare rare rare common rare common rare common rare Phil. endemic

Phil. endemic

Phil. endemic

Phil. endemic

endemic in Mindanao

Phil. endemic Phil. endemic

endemic in Mindanao

common Very rare very common very common common very common common very common very common very common common common rare very rare very rare very rare rare very common common very rare very rare common rare rare common very rare rare rare

Diversity and Status of Butterflies Across Vegetation Types of Mt. Hamiguitan, Davao Oriental, Philippines A.B. Mohagan and C. G. Treadaway

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common Very rare common common common common common common common common common common common common common common common common rare

Pieridae 124. Appias nero zamboanga Felder & Felder 1862 125. A. olferna peducea Fruhstorfer 1910 126. Catopsilia pomona pomona Fabricius 1775 127. C. pyranthe pyranthe Linnaeus 1758 128. C. scylla asema Staudinger 1885 129. Cepora aspasia orantia FRuhstorfer 1910 130. C. boisduvaliana semperi Staudinger 1890 131. Delias baracasa baracasa Semper 1890

common common common common common rare

107. Vagras sinha sinha Kollan 1844 108. Vindula dejone dejone Erichson1834 109. Ypthima semperi chaboras Fruhstorfer 1911 110. Y. stellera stellera Eschscholtz 1821 111. Zethera musa C. & R. Felder 1861 112. Zeuxidia sibulana sibulana Honrath 1884 Papilionidae 113. Achillides palinurus daedalus Felder & Felder 1861 114. Arisbe euphratoides sspn.

115. A. eurypilus gordion Felder & Felder 1864 116. Graphium Agamemnon Agamemnon Linnaeus 1758 117. G. sarpedon sarpedon Linnaeus 1858 118. Lamprotera meges decius Felder & Felder 1862 119. Menelaides deiphobus rumanzovia ESchscholtz 1821 120. M. helinus hystaspes Felder & felder 1862 121. M. polytes ledebouria Eschscholtz 1821 122. Papilio demolius libanus Fruhstorfer 1908 123. Troides rhadamantus rhadamantus Lucas 1835

Table 1 continue

Endemic in Mindanao

endemic

Endemic in Mindanao

Phil.endemic Phil. endemic Phil. endemic endemic in Mindanao

very common rare very common very comon rare common rare very rare

very common rare common common common very common very common very common very common very common very rare

rare rare rare rare rare very rare

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132. D. hyparete mindanensis MITIS 1893 133. Delias magsadana Yananoto & Takei 1995 134. Eurema alitha alitha C. & R. Felder 1862 135. E. blanda vallivolans Butler 1883 136. E. brigitta roberto Schroeder,Treadaway & Nuyda 1990 137. E. hecabe tamiathis Fruhstorfer 1910 138. E. sarilata sarilata Semper 1891 139. Gandaca harina mindanensis Fruhstorfer 1910 140. Leptosia nina terentia FRuhstorfer 1920 141. Pareronia boebera trinobantes Fruhstorfer 1911 Riodinidae 142. Abisara mindanensis mindanensis Semper 1892

Table 1 continue

common

common rare common common common

common Very rare common common rare

undetermined

Phil. endemic

endemic

Endemic in Mindanao Endemic in Mindanao Endemic in Mindanao

very rare

common common common very common common

very common very rare very rare very common very rare

Diversity and Status of Butterflies Across Vegetation Types of Mt. Hamiguitan, Davao Oriental, Philippines A.B. Mohagan and C. G. Treadaway

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Table 2. Descriptive statistics on the diversity of butterfly occurrences across vegetation types in Mt. Hamiguitan

Fig. 1. Rank dominance of Butterflies in Mt. Hamiguitan 12

Diversity and Status of Butterflies Across Vegetation Types of Mt. Hamiguitan, Davao Oriental, Philippines

A.B. Mohagan and C. G. Treadaway

Shannon-Weiner index (Fig.2) showed that highest species diversity occurred in montane 1 (4.1), followed by mountain 2 (3.4) the lowest was in mossy 2 (1.5). Species diversity of butterflies in the montane forests is not merely influenced by elevation but also by the vegetation type and other factors. Kruger (2005), in his study on insect diversity in apple and garden orchard, reported that Shannon –Weiner index values of 1.5 to 3 are fair levels, 4 to 6 are high levels of insect diversity.

Montane forest in Mt. Hamiguitan had Shannon –Weiner index value of 4.1, indicating high level of butterfly diversity.

Fig. 2. Shannon-Weiner plot of diversity index of butterfly species across vegetation types of Mt. Hamiguitan

This result is consistent to Cameron (1999) where alpha diversity of insect was higher in woods of Texas prairies. Ballentes, Mohagan, Espallardo and Zarcilla (2005) in their studies conducted in Mt. Musuan, Mt. Kalatungan and Mt. Malindang on butterflies and other arthropods found that diversity was high in the second layer and vegetations were varied. Temperature ranges were similar.

The result could be attributed to the influence of temperature, which decreases with elevation. This is true to butterflies since only few butterflies resist cold especially that their wing structures are dressed with scales which become heavy when wet (14-21°C). This is one reason why highest species richness was observed in montane (2132 °C) forests. This observation was consistent with Cameron (1999) 13

Asian Journal of Biodiversity

where alpha diversity of insects was found highest in the woods sites of Texas prairies and on wildlife distribution. Schmidt (2003) as cited

by Gapud (2005) had documented the change of species composition of trees from higher to lower elevation due to slope position and drainage. Consequently, butterfly fauna composition is also affected due to dependence on food plantsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; availability.

Heaney, Neidema, Rickart, Utzurum and Klompen (1989) studied the factors influencing the distribution of mammals of Mt. Makiling. They found out that variability in patterns of species diversity, endemism and distribution are influenced by two major factors: temporal (date and time) and spatial (country, region, faunal region, ecosystem, habitat and microhabitat). Date, time, microhabitat presence and habitat influenced the patterns of species richness and endemism in the sites of Mt. Hamiguitan (Haribon Foundation 2000).

Dendrogram of cluster analysis (Fig. 3 p. 15) on the similarity of butterfly composition in Mt. Hamiguitan across vegetation had shown that the two agroecosystems are ecologically similar. Montane forests and dipterocarp forests are two related habitats and these were further clustered as agro-montane forest on the bases of butterfly species composition with >55% similarity index. Mossy 1, mossy 2, pygmy 1 and pygmy 2 are clustered as unique habitats with very low similarity index of <40%. The Dendrogram produced in the clustering of habitats in this study did not follow the authorsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; original classification of habitats. Temperature ranges (21-32°C) have clustered agroecosystem, dipterocarp and montane into agro-montane forest. Mossy 1(14001500 masl) and mossy 2 (1200-1300 masl) differ in elevation, sunlight penetration, moss cover, tree heights, and temperature. The two mossy forests in Mt. Hamiguitan are two different habitats unique from each other. Pygmy 1(1500-1675 masl) and pygmy 2 (36-280 masl) differ in elevation, temperature, moss cover and disturbance so it follows that the two pygmy forests in Mt. Hamiguitan had different butterfly composition. Although there are species that can exist in a wide range of habitat, there are species, too, (concordant species) that are specific in terms of habitat preferences (disconcordant species).

This further suggests that conservation of habitat must not focus only on primary forest or higher elevation forest but also the loggedover areas or agroecosystems for the conservation of anthropogenic 14

Diversity and Status of Butterflies Across Vegetation Types of Mt. Hamiguitan, Davao Oriental, Philippines

A.B. Mohagan and C. G. Treadaway

Fig.3. Dendrogram on cluster analysis of butterfly species composition

butterfly species.

The list of butterfly status in Table 1 (p. 6) shows that 42 out of 140 are common (51.4%), 18 are rare (12.9%), seven common endemic (5%), 15 are rare endemic (10.7%), two are very rare endemic (1.4%), two are site endemic (1.4%), and two are Eastern Mindanao endemic (1.4%).

One is common and new record in Mindanao (0.71%), five are rare and new record in Mindanao (3.6%) and one very rare, new record in Mindanao. One has no established status yet.

A total of 44 species of endemic butterflies from Mt. Hamiguitan was listed at about 31% of the total sample plus seven are new records in Mindanao based on the Treadaway, 1997 checklist. Local assessment of status of butterflies had shown that 42.8% are very rare, 20.7% are rare, 13.7% are common and 22.8% are very common.

The trend on endemism across vegetation follows the general distribution of butterflies in Mt. Hamiguitan where elevation influenced the vegetation types and butterfly species composition (Fig. 4). There was no similarity of endemic butterfly species across vegetation. Abundance of endemics and number of unique endemic species decrease with increased elevation.

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Asian Journal of Biodiversity

Fig. 4. Abundance plot for endemic species across vegetation types in Mt. Hamiguitan

Preferred habitat The pygmy forests of Mt. Hamiguitan supported the existence of the most rare site endemic butterfly Delias magsadana, which cannot be found anywhere else in the world except in Mt. Hamiguitan (Treadaway, 1995). The Pygmy forest in Mt. Hamiguitan is the sanctuary of Delias magsadana. This butterfly is locally abundant during the months of August and September. This result is a rediscovery of Delias magsadana since 1994 with only one collected species in August.

Papilionids were abundant in the lower elevation, in the Agroecosystems of Mt. Hamiguitan because their food plants, which are the Rutaceae and the Anonaceae are widely cultivated. Most of them are confined in the lower elevation together with the most abundant species of Pieridae like Catopsilia pomona, C. pyranthe and C. asema; their food plants grow in the lower elevation.

Achillides euphratoides of the Papilionidae were only found in the Montane forests. They were unique in the area, together with the other beautiful species like Terinos lucella, and the rest of the Hesperids.

These natural forest dwelling species are rare and endemic.

Few species were very common like Junonia hedonia ida, Lexias satrapes trapesa, Lexias panopus, Hypolimnas bolina, Hypolimnas anomala, 16

Diversity and Status of Butterflies Across Vegetation Types of Mt. Hamiguitan, Davao Oriental, Philippines

A.B. Mohagan and C. G. Treadaway

Melanitis leda, Cupha areas dapatana are among the wide range habitat butterflies in Mt. Hamiguitan. It can be found from dipterocarp forest to pygmy during sunny weather.

In general, Mt. Hamiguitan is the home of many butterfly species due to the different habitat types. The pygmy forest supports the very rare, site endemic species Delias magsadana.

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS Mt. Hamiguitan is home to 142 species of butterflies. Butterfly diversity increased from agroecosystems (10-400 masl) to montane forest (900-1400 masl). Butterfly species are highly diverse with some concordant species in the montane forest, fair levels of diversity in some unique habitats like dipterocarp, mossy, and pygmy forest of Mt. Hamiguitan had disconcordant species. There is high level of endemism of butterflies in Mt. Hamiguitan (4.7). Rarity increases from lower to higher elevation with Delias magsadana as the rarest species as revealed by the dendrogram of similarity index pointing that Pygmy is a unique habitat. A two-year monitoring on butterflies is recommended to sample more endemic and new species which remain to be discovered in the area. The high level of species diversity and presence of 3 site endemic species in Mt. Hamiguitan are significant for conservation. The mountain must be strictly protected to promote the restoration of butterfly habitats. Butterflies may increase in population where food plants are abundant even those that are in the anthropogenic area where food plants are domesticated by humans.

The pygmy forests should be strictly protected. The collection of the site endemic Delias magsadana must be regulated.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The senior author would like to extend her sincerest gratitude to the late Dr. Mardonio M. Lao, President of Central Mindanao University for his whole hearted support to the research endeavors of the faculty and for granting the authors travel to the field site on official time; Colin G. Treadaway of Senckenberg Museum for the financial support and for helping the author in identifying the specimens; Mr. Jayson 17

Asian Journal of Biodiversity

C. Iba単ez of the Philippine Eagle Foundation for the accommodation on field and entry protocol; and, Dr. Victor B. Amoroso for his professional advice, concern and guidance.

This research is a portion of a dissertation of the primary author with funding support from Senckenberg Museum in partnership with the Philippine Eagle Foundation Inc., CENRO Lupon, Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR), Critical Ecosystem Partnership Fund (CEPF) and Bukidnon Resource Management Foundation, Inc. (BRMFI).

Literature Cited Ballentes, M.G., A.B. Mohagan, C.P. Espallardo and M.O. Zarcilla.

2005. Arthropod faunal diversity and interrelationship of critical factors in Mt. Malindang Environs. Monograph, Central Mindanao University, Musuan, Bukidnon.

Gapud, V. 2005. The status of insect biodiversity in the Philippines. Samut-sari. pp 2-5.

Haribon, 2000. Teaching module for tertiary teachers training for biodiversity conservation. Haribon Foundation.

Heaney, L. R., P.D. Neidema, E. A. Rickart, R. Utzurum and J.S H. Klompen.

1989. Elevational zonation of mammals in Central Philippines.

Journal of Tropical Ecology. 5: 259-280.

Treadaway, C. G. 1995. Checklist of butterflies in the Philippine Islands. (Lepidoptera: Rhopalocera). Nachrichten des Entomologischen Vereins Apollo, Suppl. 14:7-118; Frankfurt am Main. Journal. Frankfurt, Germany.

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Diversity and Status of Butterflies Across Vegetation Types of Mt. Hamiguitan, Davao Oriental, Philippines

A.B. Mohagan and C. G. Treadaway

Weed, M. C. 1976. Butterflies. Double Day Publishers, New York.

Fig. 5. Panoramic view of Mt. Hamiguitan

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Asian Journal of Biodiversity

Fig. 6. Dumagook river

Fig. 7. Mansadok river

Fig. 8. Puting Bato

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Diversity and Status of Butterflies Across Vegetation Types of Mt. Hamiguitan, Davao Oriental, Philippines

A.B. Mohagan and C. G. Treadaway

Fig. 9. Hidden garden

Fig. 10. Tikog garden

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Asian Journal of Biodiversity

Fig. 11. Delias magsadana

Fig. 12. Taraka hamada dustinkeani

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Diversity and Status of Butterflies Across Vegetation Types of Mt. Hamiguitan, Davao Oriental, Philippines

A.B. Mohagan and C. G. Treadaway

Fig. 13. Paruparu cebuensis

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Asian Journal of Biodiversity

Fig. 14. Arhopala eridanus davalma

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Vol. 1 No. 1 December 2010 ISSN: 2094-15019 pp. 25-35 International Peer Reviewed Journal

Asian Journal of Biodiversity Odonata Faunal Diversity Section

Diversity and Status of Odonata across Vegetation Types in Mt. Hamiguitan Wildlife Sanctuary, Davao Oriental Joseph Reagan Villanueva josephreagan@gmail.com Ateneo de Davao University Alma B. Mohagan almohagan@gmail.com Biology Department, Central Mindanao University Date Submitted: August 30, 2009 Final Revision Complied: Oct. 1, 2009 Gunning Fog Index: 13.90

Plagiarism Detection: Passed Original: 98.2% English Writing Readability: 31.49

Abstract - Diversity and status of odonata in Mt. Hamiguitan Wildlife Sanctuary was determined after a year of sampling in five vegetation types: agroecosystem (400 masl), dipterocarp (900 masl), montane (1200 masl), mossy (1400 masl) and pygmy (1600 masl) using 2-Km transect walk sampling to provide information on species richness trend and ecological status of odonata. Study showed 31 species with 94% endemism for damselflies and 33.3% for dragonflies. Species richness and endemism were low in agroecosystem H’=0.631 and 1 endemic; high and increasing in the dipterocarp H’=2.298 and 4 endemic to dense montane forest with H’= 3.056 and 18 endemic; decreasing in mossy H’=2.036 and pygmy H’=1.846.

The effects of disturbance on diversity showed highest in agroecosystem (d=83%), mossy and pygmy had intermediate value d=27% and d=24%. Low disturbance was observed in Montane d=10%, dipterocarp d=18.5%. Bray-curtis similarity index for species composition showed four discernible clusters 25

Asian Journal of Biodiversity

of habitats. Results suggest that odonata has preference for dense forest, undisturbed vegetation, optimum temperature and presence of aquatic habitat.

Keywords - Status of odonata, dragonflies, damselflies, INTRODUCTION Mindanao is the second largest island in the Philippine archipelago.

Biologically, it has extensive lists of interesting flora and fauna, some of which are endemic to the island or in a particular region of the island.

The region besides being biologically interesting is also rich in mineral deposits. This is currently exploited both by small and large mining operators.

Mt. Hamiguitan range is located in the eastern coast and form the southern part of Eastern Mindanao corridor. The area is one of the most interesting regions in Mindanao, and one of the identified biological hot spots. Several field expeditions have been carried during the recent years that resulted to significant improvement in our knowledge for Philippine biodiversity.

Mindanao has over a hundred species of odonata. Davao Oriental, where Mt. Hamiguitan is situated has around 60 species, which include species endemic to the area (Muller & Hamalainen, 1997). Some of these endemic species are based only on type material. However, no material is so far known from this mountain range.The ongoing habitat destruction by mining activity and other habitat stresses, and the presence of several type species from the area make faunal survey in the area urgent. The present study lists species from Mt. Hamiguitan range for the first time. Ecological indices are also preliminarily analyzed to give an initial odonatological picture in the area.

MATERIALS AND METHODS The study was conducted in Mt. Hamiguitan Wildlife Sanctuary in the municipality of San Isidro and Mati, Davao Oriental from May 26

Diversity and Status of Odonata across Vegetation Types in Mt. Hamiguitan Wildlife Sanctuary, Davao Oriental

J. R. Villanueva and A. B. Mohagan

2006 to May 2007. Transect belt was established in San Isidro from Sitio Tumaliti to the peak of Mt. Mansadok, and in Mati from Sitio Magum to Lantawan 1, using the natural trail. Five vegetation types were identified and studied per transect belt, agroecosystem, dipterocarp forest, montane forest, mossy and pygmy forest. Two 20 m x 20 m plots were established for each vegetation-type to survey the diversity and assess the status of odonata.

Odonata was located, netted and recorded in each plot. Species were usually released after recording except for those not frequented.

These data were used in the determination of biodiversity indices along vegetation types. Transect walk sampling was used to increase species diversity and for the determination of diversity indices along elevation gradient.

Odonata was sampled monthly from May 2006 - May 2007.

It was collected using a catching net made of the silk cloth with a measurement of 25 x 60 cm. Collected specimens were euthanized, airdried and stored in both authorâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s collection and in the CMU Museum.

Density, species richness and Shannon-Weiner diversity index were determined using BIO PRO software version 2.0 (Nathaniels, 2000).

Cluster analysis to determine the similarity of odonata composition, abundance rank, and uniqueness of habitat across vegetation types was determined using the same soft ware.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

A total of 31 species under 11 families of odonata are recorded from Mt. Hamiguitan Wildlife Sanctuary during the survey period. It includes two new species and two unverified species of damselflies.

Though, fifty-eight percent of the recorded species are zygopteran suggesting that the area is relatively disturbed (Oppel, 2005). Species accumulation curve was met only in dipterocarp, montane and mossy forest areas, and additional sampling must be done in agro-ecosystem and pygmy. Further exploration to these areas might substantially increase the known fauna and probably more new species could be found.

Species richness and abundance are increasing from agroecosystem (1-400 masl) with 4 species to dipterocarp (400-900 masl) with 14 27

Asian Journal of Biodiversity

species, highest in montane (1000-1200 masl) with 31, mossy (13001400 masl) with 10 and pygmy (1500-1600 masl) with 7 species. Species noted in the study are mostly wide ranging species with no altitudinal preference. The dissimilarity in abundance and richness may be due to vegetation type rather on altitudinal difference.

Shannon-Wiener diversity index was lowest in agro ecosystem (H’=0.631), increasing in dipterocarp forest (H’=2.298), peak at montane forest (H’=3.056), decreasing from mossy (H’=2.036) and pygmy (H’=1.846). Using Kruger (2005) scale, odonata is fairly diverse in Mt. Hamiguitan at the average (H’=1.97). Odonata is highly diverse in montane and dipterocarp forests, fair in mossy and pygmy, low level in agro ecosystem (Fig.1).

Fig. 1. Plot for Shannon diversity index of odonata across vegetation types in Mt. Hamiguitan.

Parker-Berger index measurement of disturbance on the effects of diversity showed highest in agro-ecosystem (83%), followed by pygmy (27%) and mossy (24%). The high disturbance level for odonata in agro-system is attributable to the close association of odonata with water habitat. Utilization of water resources for agricultural production 28

Diversity and Status of Odonata across Vegetation Types in Mt. Hamiguitan Wildlife Sanctuary, Davao Oriental

J. R. Villanueva and A. B. Mohagan

implies that this habitat is disturbed or modified for human use. Habitat disturbance even for small-scale subsistence farming has tremendous impact on odonata diversity (Oppel 2006a). Disturbance is low in dipterocarp (18.5%) and montane (10.5 %). Disturbance to these areas is primarily due to timber cutting. This implies that there is limited change in the waterways, which is located in gorges and ravenous part of the mountain. However, no data is available for phytothelmatan species which can suffer heavily from deforestation. The present study results only to one species, Lyriothemis latro, which suggests that the genus is an opportunistic or probably strict phytothelmatan.

Similarity of species composition using Bray-Curtis showed 4 noteworthy habitats for odonata (Fig.2). Dipterocarp and montane are two related habitats Si=45.6%. The two are both dense forest with water sources and differ primarily on altitudinal difference. The pygmy area is unique and probably the only habitat for the undescribed species noted in the survey.

The present study relies mainly on classical transect and plot sampling. Oppel 2006b demonstrates that classical sampling especially for odonatological studies require 15 months of intensive sampling for complete density estimate. The present data are based on field trip conducted every other month within a year and usually recording is done during the trek going up and down. This limits the density estimate thus the result must be analyzed cautiously.

The present study lists 94% endemism for Zygoptera and 33% for Anisoptera. This clearly demonstrates the high level of endemism in the area especially for damselflies. Eastern Mindanao is identified as center of endemism particularly members of the family Platystictidae and Platycnemididae, (Van Tol, 2005, Gassman, & Hamalainen, 2002).

Unfortunately, members of this family are under threat due to habitat deterioration (Van Tol & Muller 2003, Hamalainen 2004).

To date, no conservation measure is directed primarily for odonata in Mt. Hamiguitan range and even the country in general.

CONCLUSION The 31 species of odonata, the presence of three new species, the 94% endemic damselflies and 33.3% endemic dragonflies of Mt. Hamiguitan Wildlife Sanctuary are significant. Species richness trend 29

Asian Journal of Biodiversity

and abundance for odanata in Mt. Hamiguitan are increasing from agroecosystem, dipterocarp to montane forest. It was decreasing from mossy to pygmy forest, suggesting that odonata has preference for dense and less disturbed vegetation with water sources and optimum temperature. Low similarity of species composition of odonata in the pygmy forest to other clusters of habitats suggest that pygmy forest is a unique habitat and montane and dipterocarp forests are the favorable habitats for odonata in general and for the endemics.

Fig. 2. Dendrogram of similarity of species composition for odonata in Mt. Hamiguitan, Wildlife Sanctuary, Davao Oriental.

RECOMMENDATION It is recommended that additional sampling must be conducted in Mt. Hamiguitan for the study of odonata. Places where malaria and filariasis are highly occurring to investigate further the ecological function of odonata and for the conservation of odonata and the people there in.

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Diversity and Status of Odonata across Vegetation Types in Mt. Hamiguitan Wildlife Sanctuary, Davao Oriental

J. R. Villanueva and A. B. Mohagan

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The researchers are grateful to the Commission on Higher Education for the financial support, Drs. Victor and Cecilia Amoroso for involving us in their CHED Funded Research â&#x20AC;&#x153;Economic, Endangered Endemic Flora and Fauna in Mt. Hamiguitan Wildlife Sanctuaryâ&#x20AC;?, Dr. Nina Ingle, Danilo Balete, Grace Rosell Ambal and Dr. Arvin Diesmos, the trainers, for sharing their knowledge on Conservation Ecology Research, Larry Cahilog and Boy Jeminez for their assistance in collecting odonata for study in Mt. Hamiguitan Wildlife Sanctuary.

We are also thankful to PASU Nestor Pilotos of CENRO Lupon, for facilitating our transport permit and to the Philippine Eagle Foundation for giving us the opportunity to gather preliminary materials for study, to Heidi C. Porquis for reading our paper.

LITERATURE CITED Gassman, D. & M. Hamalainen 2002 A revision of the Philippine subgenus Risiocnemis (Igneocnemis) Hamalainen (Odonata: Pltycnemididae).

Tijdschrift voor entomologie 145 213-266 Hamalainen, M & R.A. Muller, 1997 Synopsis of the Philippine Odonata, with lists of species recorded from forty Islands. Odonatologica 26(3): 249-315 Hamalainen, M. 2004 Critical species of Odonata in the Philippines. IJO 7 (2) 305-310 Oppel, S. 2005 Habitat associations of an odonata community in a lower montane rainforest in Papua New Guinea. IJO. 8(2) 243-257 Oppel, S. 2006a Comparison of two Odonata communities from a natural and a modified rainforest in Papua New Guinea. IJO. 9(1) 89-102 Oppel, S. 31

Asian Journal of Biodiversity

2006b Using distance sampling to quantify Odonata density in tropical rainforests. IJO. 9(1) 81-88 van Tol, J & R.A. Muller, 2003 Forest damselflies of the Philippines, their evolution and present status, with description of Drepanosticta moorei spec nov. from Luzon (Zygoptera: Platystictidae). Odonatologica 32: 39-45, figs 1-5 van Tol, J. 2005 Revision of the Platystictidae of the Philippines (Odonata), excluding the Drepanosticta halterata group, with description of twenty-one ne species. Zool. Med. Leiden 79-2 (10), 195-282 figs 1.

Fig. 3. Idionyx philippa

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Diversity and Status of Odonata across Vegetation Types in Mt. Hamiguitan Wildlife Sanctuary, Davao Oriental

J. R. Villanueva and A. B. Mohagan

Fig. 4. Orthetrum pruinosum clelia

Fig. 5. Risiocnemis erythrura

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Asian Journal of Biodiversity

Fig. 6. Trithemis aurora Burmeiser, 1839

Fig. 7. Orthtrum sabina sabina Brauery, 1773

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Diversity and Status of Odonata across Vegetation Types in Mt. Hamiguitan Wildlife Sanctuary, Davao Oriental

J. R. Villanueva and A. B. Mohagan

Fig. 8. Acisoma panorpides Rambur, 1842

Fig. 9. Prodasineura integra Selys, 1882

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Vol. 1 No. 1 December 2010 ISSN: 2094-15019 pp. 36-48 International Reviewed Journal Asian JournalPeer of Biodiversity

Asian Journal of Biodiversity Avifaunal Section

Birds of Malagos Watershed, Southeastern Philippines Geonyzl L. Alviola geongi@yahoo.com Bernadette I. Del Rosario rosebern_99@yahoo.com Davao Doctors College, Davao City, Philippines Julie B. Otadoy juliebelandres@yahoo.com Ateneo de Davao University, Davao City, Philippines JAYSON C. Iba単ez falcon2car@yahoo.com Philippine Eagle Foundation, Davao City, Philippines Date Submitted: Feb. 4, 2009 Final Revision Complied: July 9, 2009 Gunning Fog Index: 14.10

Plagiarism Detection: Passed Original: 100% English Writing Readability: 39.08

Abstract - Mindanao is considered one of the richest islands in the Philippines, due to high avifaunal biodiversity. Birds play a vital role in determining the condition of certain areas.

The study is a morphological assessment of birds in Malagos watershed, Baguio District, Davao City. It sought to identify and classify the birds species; determine the distribution and compare the taxonomic listing of birds with previous avian surveys in the area. Using point count and mist netting effort, 54 species were identified belonging to 27 families. Three (3) new families were added to the list of previous studies. It included twelve Philippine endemic species, seven Mindanao endemic species, 32 resident species and four species of birds assessed as vulnerable and endangered. The area was also

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Birds of Malagos Watershed, Southeastern Philippines

G. L. Alviolar, B. I. del Rosario, J. B. Otadoy and J. C. Iba単ez

considered disturbed because most of the observed birds were usually found in open and cultivated areas. A comparative study of three other avian surveys showed a steady increase in the population from 1994 to 2002 but a decline in the number of avian species was observed in the present study, a negative trend which is associated with habitat destruction and anthropogenic activities.

Keywords - biodiversity, birds, Malagos watershed, avifaunal INTRODUCTION Mindanao is one of the major islands of the Philippine archipelago which is located in the southern part of the country. It is considered as one of the richest islands due to its high biodiversity in avifauna. The island has a record of almost 341 species of birds that consist of 147 resident species, 93 migratory, 94 endemic species, and 14 migrant and resident species (Kennedy, Gonzales, Dickinson, Miranda and Fisher, 2000). It is also the home of the majestic bird, the Philippine Eagle (Pithecophaga jefferyi).

Many studies utilize the presence of birds in an area because birds play a vital role in determining the condition of a certain environment.

It serves as an ecological and biological indicator that can provide crucial information on the ecosystem (Crosby, 1998). However, the distribution, diversity and community structure of most bird species on small forest fragments, which are important and deemed necessary for conservation, remains poorly studied. Regular bird survey in the vicinity of the watershed or even in any area provide information such as updated list of birds at any given point of time. This enables environmentalists or conservation groups to compare records to improve the management of wildlife in the area.

The assessment of birds at Malagos Watershed is useful to the Philippine Eagle Foundation (PEF) and Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR) for feedback to see if their conservation efforts worked over time as compared to past studies on bird conservation in the area. The community would then be aware of the present ecological condition of the area. It is therefore the purpose of 37

Asian Journal of Biodiversity

this study to conduct an ecological assessment of birds in Malagos Watershed, Baguio District, Davao City specifically to identify and classify the species of birds; determine the distribution of bird species in the protected area; and, compare the taxonomic listing of birds with previous survey researches in the area.

MATERIALS AND METHODS The study site covers an area of 235.32 hectares. It lies along 70 10” 40.11’ North latitude and 1250 24” 36.05’ East longitude which is 32 km away from Davao City proper and approximately 5 km away from Calinan proper (Fig. 1). A portion of the area was planted with bamboo and coconut species, while some parts of the area showed primary succession where vegetation like shrubs, ferns and grasses had grown.

At the mid portion of the watershed, a portion being preserved by DENR (Department of Environment and Natural Resources) and DCWD (Davao City Water District) purposely for the park, are trees with an estimated height ranging from 10 – 60 ft tall. It was observed that human settlement was slowly encroaching into the area. There are 20 different organizations like schools, NGO’s and School Clubs that help in the reforestation program for the watershed since 1990’s.

Aside from the rain, water supply within the watershed comes from the Gumalang Creek and Cugan Creek (Fig. 1b).

a) Map of Davao City

b) Malagos Site

Fig 1. Map of Malagos watershed.

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Birds of Malagos Watershed, Southeastern Philippines

G. L. Alviolar, B. I. del Rosario, J. B. Otadoy and J. C. IbaĂąez

Eight (8) point counts were established 200 m apart from each other. Point count 1 was bounded by a stream of water and vegetation present was mostly bamboo species, young growth trees and few species of vine. During daytime, the area was dark because of the dense vegetation. In Point Count 2, the soil was wet and soft. Vegetation like shrubs, bamboo species, rattan and young growth trees were seen.

The site shows secondary succession. In Point Count 3, the area was occupied mostly by shrubs, young growth trees and few individuals of old growth trees. During the first visit around Malagos Watershed, a group of fruit bats had inhabited the area 900 m to 1000 m away, but later it was observed that fruit bats settled towards the middle portion of the watershed. In Point count 4, rattan and Romblon species, young growth trees and few old growth trees were found. The soil was wet and very soft.

The area in Point count 5 had shrubs, young growth trees, some rattan and some species of bamboo. A creek flowing from a higher elevation to the middle portion of the watershed moisten the dry leaves that covered the earthâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s surface and provide a habitat for insects and reptiles. Point Count 6, consisted of young growth trees, some species of shrubs and species of rattan. The small stream of water from point count 5 continues to flow into the area. It showed evidence of primary to secondary succession due to fallen trees.

Point Count 7 is filled with young growth trees and some species of ferns. Some species of bamboo had grown and a part was fully occupied by tall species of grass near the electrical tower being installed by National Power Corporation (NPC). A group of fruit bats was sighted closer to the forest edge. Point Count 8 was a few meters away from the human settlement, where growing trees and some species of vines were present. A greater part of this area was also rehabilitated and reforested by the Malagos Watershed Management.

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Asian Journal of Biodiversity

Field Sampling and Materials The bird survey was done using point count and mist netting methods Point Count Method Eight (8) point counts were posted 200 meters apart from each other which were accurately measured by a survey meter tape. Markers were then placed in every point as guides. An observer stayed at each point count within 15 to 20 minutes and counted the birds individually while the researcher also identified the bird through their unique bird call or actual sighting. A high powered binocular was used to observe the kind of species that were seen within the point count. Birds flying over the area were also included in the data and counted individually.

The process was repeated at dawn, middle of the day then late in the afternoon at synchronized time and recorded on a data sheet.

Mist Netting Effort Mist netting was used to capture birds that were shy but had flown low in the understory. The nets used were 12m x 2.8m, 36 mm mesh placed at varying distances and positioned pointing up to sky level or ground level. To put up the nets, each end was tied and supported with straight poles planted steadily on the ground depending on the width of the net. With the aid of a digital camera, the exact appearance of the captured bird was used to get a morphologic sampling. Then the data were recorded. Extreme care was observed so as not to harm the birds in the process of being freed.

Species Identification Bird surveys were conducted daily for two weeks in September and daily in November. Point counts started early starting from 0600 hr up to 1700 hr. Birds were identified using a pair of binoculars and a Field Guide to Philippine Birds (Kennedy, Gonzales, Dickinson, Miranda and Fisher, 2000). Nets were opened daily from 04:30 hr to 17:00 hr 40

Birds of Malagos Watershed, Southeastern Philippines

G. L. Alviolar, B. I. del Rosario, J. B. Otadoy and J. C. IbaĂąez

and at 30 minute interval the nets were checked to see captured birds.

Many kinds of birds came from different areas of Davao or Mindanao to feed or build nests. To avoid repetition of recording samples, the birds were marked by cutting a small portion of the claws using a nail cutter before being released back to the environment.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Species Richness and Composition A total of 556 species of birds in the Philippines was reported by Kennedy, Gonzales, Dickinson, Miranda and Fisher (2000) and 827 species of birds were reported by Crosby (1998). The study identified 54 species using the point count and mist netting methods. Based on the Silvatrop data, 12 out of 173 (6.93%) were Philippine endemics, 7 out of 102 (6.83%) were Mindanao endemics, 2 out of 152 (1.32%) were migratory, 32 out of 385 (8.31%) were resident species, and 1 out of 15 (6.67%) was both migrant and resident known to occur in a fragmented forest.

Most of the birds under the families Nectariniidae, Estriidae, Piccidae, and Pycnonotidae were commonly found in the open areas.

Rare or uncommon species of birds were also noted during the survey, namely: Rufous-lored Kingfisher (Halcyon winchelli), Ruddy kingfisher (Halcycon coromanda), Silvery kingfisher (Alcedo argentata), Philippine dwarf kingfisher (Ceyx erithacus), Hodgsonâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s hawk-cuckoo (Cuculus fugax), Black-faced coucal (Centropus melanops), Little slaty flycatcher (Ficedula basilanica), Rufous paradise flycatcher (Terpsiphone cinnamomea), Naked-faced spiderhunter (Arachnothera clarae) and Streaked ground babbler (Ptilocichla mindanensis).

There were three vulnerable uncommon species that are considered endemics namely: Rufous-lored kingfisher (Halcyon winchelli), Silvery kingfisher (Alcedo argentata) and Little Slaty flycatcher (Ficedula basilanica). These rare birds are primarily dependent on the quality of the area (BIODAT, 2004) and the availability of the food item for their life processes (Lefebvre and Poulin, 1996).

Since the forest fragment was too small for all the birds inhabiting the area, the endemic species were threatened due to increased 41

Asian Journal of Biodiversity

competition for the food item and area of occupancy. Unchecked hunting of birds for pet trades, conversion of forest land to agricultural or residential areas, and mismanagement of protected areas are some of the contributing factors affecting the avian population and their survival. The most affected avian groups are the endemic species because they are very sensitive to ecological change (Danielsen, 1994 cited by Crosby 1998). From the survey, there were 4 globally threatened or vulnerable species based on the Red Data Book namely: Rufous-lored Kingfisher (Halcyon winchelli), Silvery kingfisher (Alcedo argentata) Fig. 2. Philippine dwarf kingfisher (Ceyx melanurus) Fig. 3 and Little slaty flycatcher (Ficedula basilanica) Fig. 4.

Fig. 2. Silvery Kingfisher (Alcedo argentata)

42

Birds of Malagos Watershed, Southeastern Philippines

G. L. Alviolar, B. I. del Rosario, J. B. Otadoy and J. C. Iba単ez

Fig. 3. Philippine dwarf kingfisher (Ceyx melanurus)

Fig. 4. Little slaty fly catcher (Ficedula basinalica) 43

Asian Journal of Biodiversity

Comparative Survey from 1994 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 2004

Figure 1 shows the 4 ornithological surveys conducted in Malagos Watershed from 1994 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 2004.

Fig. 5. Number of Avian Species in Malagos Watershed from 1994-2004.

The pioneering study of Banconguis (1994) provided an initial taxonomic listing of birds observed in the area. Forty species of birds and 20 families were accounted using the Mist Netting Effort. It was followed by Mancke in 1999, a volunteer ornithologist who only surveyed the Philippine Eagle Center (a part of the Malagos watershed) using the bird watching method and recorded 45 species of birds and 26 families.

Templado (2002) used the line transect method in all areas and recorded 68 species of birds ad 29 families. Fig. 5 shows a steady increase in population of avian species from the 1994 to 2002 of avian survey. Compared to the 2002 survey, the present survey showed a 20% decline in number of avian species.

There were 7 families of birds from the previous list of 3 surveys, namely: Apodidae (Island swiftlet, Asian-palm swiftlet, Glossy swiftlet, Philippine needletail and House swift), Oriolidae (Blacknaped oriole and Philippine fairy bluebird), Picidae (Philippine pygmy woodpecker), Scolopacidae (Spotted redshank), Turnidae (Oriental 44

Birds of Malagos Watershed, Southeastern Philippines

G. L. Alviolar, B. I. del Rosario, J. B. Otadoy and J. C. IbaĂąez

magpie-robin), Coraciidae (Dollarbird) and Hirundinidae (Pacific swallow) which were not observed in the present study even when the two methods were already used.

Three families of birds which were not present in the previous studies were added to the list, namely: Raliidae (Barred rail and Plain bush-hen), Dicruridae (Spangle drongo) and Psittacidae (Colasisi).

Despite the additional species, a general decrease in the number of avian species was noted. This decrease could be due to the following reasons: a) habitat destruction which leads to increase in demand of land use, b) hunting of birds for food or for selling as pets, c) some species of birds are shy and some of them are migratory (Lefebvre and Poulin, 1996), d) continuous destruction of the environment by converting the forest land into plantation, small time logging and e) insufficient food resource per species.

Continuous forest fragmentation increases the amount of forest edges, forest core decreases and vegetation composition and structural changes may cause a negative effect on the population of sensitive avian species (King, Griffin and Degraaf, 1996). Species that were mostly affected are the uncommon and endemic species due to the following reasons: a) fragments may simply be much too small for them to meet their energy requirement and b) the structure may have been altered sufficiently to reduce availability of prey or food items (Philip, Stouffer and Bierrqoard, 1995). The decrease in land area signifies overlapping of territories, increase in competition and predation of nest. When habitat is altered too fast for resident species to adapt, some species will disappear but some would favor the change (Ching 2004).

Other species present in the recent study are the following: Black bittern (Dupetor flavicollis), Hodgsonâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s hawk-cuckoo (Cuculus fugax), Pechora pipit (Anthus gustavi), Rufous paradise flycatcher (Terpsiphone cinnamomea), Plain-throated sunbird (Anthreptes malacensis), Nakedface spiderhunter (Arachnothera clarae), Philippine leaf-warbler (Phylloscopus olivaceus) and Streaked ground-babbler (Ptilocichla mindanensis). They were listed in the study for the following reasons: a) previous researchers were not sure of their identity, b) some species were migratory like the Brown Shrike (Kennedy, Gonzales, Dickinson, Miranda and Fisher, 2000), c) they were just difficult to observe; and, d) their discovery was accidental (Ching, 2004).

45

Asian Journal of Biodiversity

CONCLUSIONS Using point count and mist-netting methods, this study accounted for 27 families and 54 species of birds broken down as follows: 12 Philippine endemics, 7 Mindanao endemic, 2 migrants, 32 resident species and 1 both migrant and resident species. Of the 54 species, 4 are globally threatened birds namely Silvery kingfisher (Alcedo argentata), Rufous-lored kingfisher (Halcyon winchelli), Philippine dwarf-kingfisher (Ceyx melanurus) and Little slaty flycatcher (Ficedula basilanica).

There were 7 families of birds which were not observed namely: Apodidae, Oriolidae, Picidae, Scolopacidae, Turnidae, Coraciidae and Hirundinidae, but 3 new families of birds were added in the list namely: Dicruridae, Rallidae and Psittacidae. Twelve species of birds were also added in the list namely: Black bittern (Dupetor flavicollis), Hodgsonâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s hawk-cuckoo (Cuculus fugax), Pechora pipit (Anthus gustavi), Rufous paradise flycatcher (Terpsiphone cinnamomea), Plain-throated sunbird (Anthreptes malacensis), Naked-face spiderhunter (Arachnothera clarae), Philippine leaf-warbler (Phylloscopus olivaceus), Spangle drongo (Dicrurus hottentottus ), Colasisi (Loriculus philippensis), Barred rail (Gallirall torquatus), Plain bush-hen (Amaurornis olivaceus) and Streaked ground-babbler (Ptilocichla mindanensis).

Comparing the previous 4 avian surveys, the 3 surveys (1994, 1999 and 2002) showed an increasing trend but in 2004 survey, the trend was reversed and a decrease of 20% compared to 2002 avian survey was noted.

Based on the avian survey, Malagos watershed is a highly disturbed area. Out of 54 species in the study, only 40 species were classified as common and 18 out of the 40 (45%) were commonly found in cultivated areas, 5 were considered as solitary and found on forest floor. Nineteen (19) endemic species were identified, 3 species of which were classified as vulnerable and the rest were considered threatened as noted in the Red Data Book (BIODAT, 2004).

The trend in the survey of the number of avian species showed a relative increase from 1994 to 2002 and a decrease of 20 % of the species in the 2004 study, a negative trend noted in the present study which is associated with habitat destruction and anthropogenic activities.

46

Birds of Malagos Watershed, Southeastern Philippines

G. L. Alviolar, B. I. del Rosario, J. B. Otadoy and J. C. Iba単ez

Literature Cited Baconguis, J. B. 1994. Ecosystematics study of some avian fauna found in Malagos Forest Reserved, Baguio District, Davao City. Monograph BIODAT. 2004. Biodiversity of the Far Eastern Region: Abundance of nesting bird dpecies. Retrieved October 24, 2004http://www.biodat.ru/ db/dv/bio3 e.htm Crosby, M.J. 1998. Avifaunal indicators for biodiversity conservation in an archipelagic setting in sylvatrop. Birdlife International, Wellbrook Court. United Kingdom.

Kennedy. R.S., P.C. Gonzales, E.C. Dickinson, H.C. Miranda and T.H. Fisher.

2000. A guide to the birds of the Philippines. Oxford University Press. Museum of Natural History of Science. Cincinnati Museum Center.

King, D. I., C. R. Griffin, and R. M. Degraaf.

1996. Effects of clear cutting on habitat use and reproductive success of the ovenbirds in forested landscapes. Conservation Biology.

10(5):1380-86.

Lefebvre G. and B. Poulin.

1996. Seasonal abundance of migrant birds and food resources in Panamanian mangrove forest. The Wilson Bulletin. 108(4):748759.

Mancke, R.G. 1999. A paper on bird species in Malagos watershed. Philippine Eagle Center.

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Asian Journal of Biodiversity

Philip, C., Stouffer and R. O. Bierrqoard, Jr. 1995. Use of amazonian fragments by understory insectivorous birds. Ecology. Philippine Red Data Book. 1994. Wildlife Conservation Society of the Philippines.

Templado, C. 2002. Status of avifaunal diversity in Malagos watershed, Baguio

District, Davao City. Monograph.

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Vol. 1 No. 1 December 2010 ISSN: 2094-15019 pp. 49-71 International Peer Reviewed Journal

Asian Journal of Biodiversity Ecological Diversity Section

Diversity and Ecological Status of Bryophytes in Mt. Kitanglad, Bukidnon Andrea G. Azuelo azuelonenecmu@yahoo.com Lalaine G. Sariana lalainesariana@yahoo.com Melanie P. Pabualan melanie_pulvera@yahoo.com Central Mindanao University Musuan, Bukidnon, Philippines

Date Submitted: Aug. 3, 2009 Final Revision Complied: Oct. 1, 2009 Gunning Fog Index: 14.12

Plagiarism Detection: Passed Original: 98.3% English Writing Readability: 29.22

Abstract - The study inventoried and assessed the diversity and ecological status of bryophytes in Mt. Kitanglad Natural Park. Results of the study revealed 428 species of bryophytes.

Of these, 70 genera and 29 families are for mosses, while 98 species, 16 genera and 11 families for liverworts. There are 4 species, 2 genera and 1 family for hornworts. The lower montane forest exhibited high diversity and species richness followed by mossy and upper montane forest. However, the mossy forest exhibited the highest bryophyte cover. The species were confined in specific habitats either as epiphytic on tree trunks, soils, thick litters and on rock surfaces. Local assessment revealed 9 endemic species, 8 for mosses and 1 for liverworts; 2 species, Ectropothecium ferrugenium (C. Mull.)

Jaeg. and Thuidium benguetense Broth ex. Bartr. were found 49

Asian Journal of Biodiversity

endemic to the Philippines. Some 46 species might be possibly new. Of these, 43 are for mosses and 3 for liverworts; and 4 possibly endangered belonging to the genus of Dawsonia sp. and Breutelia sp., 141 species were found to be rare and others are widespread. Some 11 medicinal species for mosses and 6 species for the liverworts were recorded. Field guides, checklist and IEC materials were produced as a result of the research investigation. The bryophyte status showed that the variation in structural forms and the niche preferences attributed to their specific and extreme micro habitats such as those dominated by mosses as epiphytic on trunks, decayed logs, and various substrates indicate high in terms of species richness, as such, has provided a taxonomic, ecological and economic importance.

Keywords - diversity, ecological, bryophytes, Mt. Kitanglad, hornworts, liverworts, mosses introduction Bryophytes are nonvascular plants, small, green, simple, sporebearing and unique among land plants in having relatively large, perennial, photosynthetic, and free-living, haploid gametophytes, unbranched diploid sporophytes that remain attached to the maternal gametophyte throughout their life span, thus it is heteromorphic in their life cycle (Shaw and Beer, 1999). Recently, they include approximately 24, 000 species worldwide, and was divided into three separate divisions, namely: Bryophyta (mosses) with 15,000 species, the Hepatophyta (liverworts) with 8,500 species and Anthocerophyta the (hornworts) with approximately 100 species. These groups are all moisture- loving plants and grow on a wide variety of substrates but differ in their anatomical features. Most importantly, the bryophytes play significant role in the ecosystem in a variety of ways such as biological indicator of air pollution since they are vulnerable to environmental change thus are excellent indicators of climate change; and as model system for research; some species are used in herbal medicine; invaluable in the construction of moss gardens; 50

Diversity and Ecological Status of Bryophytes in Mt. Kitanglad, Bukidnon

A. G. Azuelo, L. G. Sariana and M. P. Pabualan

few species plays a â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;keystoneâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; role in mineral cycling and regulation of microclimate in the forests canopy; they provide food and habitat for a host of invertebrates, (Russell, 1979; Shevock, 2001). They play important role in the dynamics of understory vegetation as well as soil structure, soil stability and interception and retention of water (Bates, 2000).

Mt. Kitanglad is known as one of the natural Parks in Bukidnon, with an elevation up to 2, 938 meters above sea level. The vegetation around its range exhibit richness reflecting the diversity of the montane and mossy forests. However, the said forests were found nearly devastated and tremendous pressures is placed on the mossy forests due to some environmental factors.

Presently, the current state of knowledge of the bryophyte taxa in the Philippines needs to be cryptogamically explored. This should include the identification of its unique and micro-environmental niches that are very limited in extent and threatened by various factors.

Philippine forests are ecologically disturbed for some are converted into agricultural landscape. Thus, it is seen that most bryophyte life-forms show emphasis of their distribution in a limited number of classes of land use intensity (Zechmeister, 2001). More so, the continued forest denudation activities and the alarming natural calamities affecting bryophyte flora need immediate attention before they are lost in the biosphere. Taxonomic data on mosses and its allies could hardly be obtained. Thus, there is an urgent need to look into the systematics and ecological status of bryophyte flora in the Mt. Kitanglad Natural park in Bukidnon. Specifically, the study aimed to: identify, classify and describe the bryophyte species in the mountain sites of Mt. Kitanglad; determine the species richness and ecological status of bryophytes; recognize the species with a) medicinal properties; and b) species identified as rare, widespread, endemic and endangered; and produce an instructional handbook and field guide/ checklist of the bryophyte flora in Bukidnon.

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Asian Journal of Biodiversity

Materials AND METHODS Gratuitous Permit and Entry Protocol A clearance from the Protected Area Management Board (PAMB), Department of Environment and Natural Resources was secured before the conduct of the study, A series of meetings and representations was organized at the PENRO (Provincial Environment and Natural Resources Office) with the National Commission on Indigenous Peoples (NCIP) Coordinator based at the City of Malaybalay. This was followed by an entry protocol with the village officials at Intavas, La Fortuna, Impasug-ong, Bukidnon. Likewise, meetings with the local guides and researchers were conducted with the information for a two year study in Mt. Kitanglad forest. The researchers observed research ethics particularly the entry protocols of indigenous communities.

Informed consent was obtained prior to the interview of respondents.

Location of the Study Site The research sites were located in Mt. Kitanglad Natural Park situated in Sitio Intavas, La Fortuna, Impasug-ong, Bukidnon.

Field site survey of bryophytes was conducted within the potential areas. Site validation was done to determine the occurrence of vegetation and associated habitats and established sample plots according to type of vegetation(Fig. 1 p. 68).

Establishments of Sample Plots The sample plots were established according to vegetation types.

The conduct of inventory and assessment of the bryophytes was done by a transect walk (Alpha Taxonomy) for each vegetation type. This was done by listing all the bryophytes seen or collected along the trail.

The choice of the plots within the sites was executed according to the subjective sampling method. The sampling sites were set-up on the northern and eastern part of the forests for reasons of sunlight intensity 52

Diversity and Ecological Status of Bryophytes in Mt. Kitanglad, Bukidnon

A. G. Azuelo, L. G. Sariana and M. P. Pabualan

which is considered an important factor for assessing the populations of species of bryophytes.

The number of sample plots per vegetation sites was three making it a total of nine plots, with a dimension of 20x20 m quadrat (square), using a calibrated plastic cord. Inside the quadrat, a visual estimates of bryophyte cover was recorded (Fig. 3 p. 69).

Preparation of Herbarium Specimens The collected specimens of bryophytes (mosses, liverworts and hornworts) were placed in a plastic bag with a field label data: altitude, collection number, date of collection and their ecology and associated habitats. This was then air dried and placed in packets (envelope) and were properly labeled for herbarium vouchers.The herbaria were deposited at the Museum Botanical Section of Central Mindanao University.

Identification, Classification and Description of Bryophyte Species The specimens collected were identified, classified and described morphologically by their diagnostic characters such as habit, habitat, leaf arrangement, stem structure, sporophyte characters and rhizoids (Yamaguchi, 1993). Identification was made using the existing herbaria and keys from books and scientific articles and journals. Further examinations was done through microscopy examinations. The species identification were confirmed by Tan (2007), a Bryologist based at the Singapore Botanic Gardens.

Assessment of Conservation Status of Bryophyte Species Assessment of conservation status of bryophyte species maybe rare, widespread, endemic, threatened or endangered based on International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) and from scientific journals and websites search. Also, the new Annotated Philippine Moss Checklist by Tan and Iwatsuki (1991) was used. Local assessment in this study include the rarity and distribution pattern (widespread) of the species. Along with this assessment, bryophyte 53

Asian Journal of Biodiversity

species that have medicinal properties were given preference. The data were taken from a secondary source obtained from science reviews and interviews.

Data Analysis The general level of index diversity among vegetation types was done with the help of BioPro ver.2 (Biodiversity Professional). This statistical tool is helpful in determining the different parameters for measuring the bryofloral species diversity such as: species density, relative abundance, and species similarity composition. The similarity indices and the correlation analysis are shown through a cladogram data and were evaluated between vegetation types (Fig. 5 p. 70).

Photographs and Documentation Photographs were made from actual observations in the field as to the species natural habitat (Figs. 6-14 p. 70).

Checklist of the bryophytes and Information, Education and Communication (IEC) materials were prepared in support for easy accessibility of profile of records. The checklist is done to document some collected species and to provide pictorial data for comparison from the voucher specimens.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION A. Mt. Kitanglad Range and Its Vegetation Types Mt. Kitanglad is a volcanic Lanao- Bukidnon Highland and covers most of the northern half of Central Mindanao with an area of 31,297 hectares and is composed of more than a dozen mountain peaks, with an elevation of 2,938 meters above sea level. It is a Natural Park, hence a protected area since November 9, 2000. It displays a unique ecological diversity characterized by a combination and interplay of human communities and connected landscapes, and immense natural diversity of its flora and fauna. Diversity of vascular and nonvascular 54

Diversity and Ecological Status of Bryophytes in Mt. Kitanglad, Bukidnon

A. G. Azuelo, L. G. Sariana and M. P. Pabualan

plants exists in different microhabitats of Mt. Kitanglad range.

Mossy forest is usually found at altitudes ranging from 2, 315 m asl. to 2, 990 m asl. is also known as the cloud belt, due to the persistence of clouds. The forest trees are almost covered by mosses from the tree base to the uppermost top of the trunk. The relative moisture and rainfall are highest compared to the montane forest.

Upper Montane Forest is usually found at altitudes ranging from 1, 800 m asl. - 2,300 m asl. The forest was characterized by trees with big trunks, taller than those observed in the mossy forest. The moss layer appeared less conspicuous than the mossy forest. The relative moisture and rainfall were also noted high in these regions. The slopes were considerably less steep than mossy forest.

Lower Montane Forest is usually found at altitudes ranging from 1, 400 m asl. to 1, 700 m asl. The forest trees had buttresses and produced prop roots for support. Likewise, some pioneering trees are characterized by tall trees which also occurr in the upper montane forest.

The two vegetation types showed various elevation gradients across the landscape. Observable species were noted for each indicating higher degree of association on their host trees and their natural substrates (Fig. 1 p. 68).

B. Taxonomy A field inventory of the bryophyte flora in Mt. Kitanglad showed 326 species of mosses, 98 species of liverworts and 4 species of hornworts. The specimens were collected, classified and identified using the taxonomic keys, existing herbaria, and related literature.

The given data for each species include the description based on the observed morphology and diagnostic characters using field lens and microscopes.

MOSSES Family Bryaceae Description. Plants in tufts. Stems erect radiculose below, often 55

Asian Journal of Biodiversity

subfloral innovations. Upper leaves usually larger, lower leaves small, lanceolate; costa ending in or near apex; cells linear or rhomboidal, thin-walled, smooth, often narrower in several rows at margins.

Seta elongate; capsule inclined or pendulous, rarely erect, clavate or pyriform with a distinct, tapering neck; peristome double. 16 lanceolate teeth at outer, inner rudimentary or composed of 16 keeled segments alternating with teeth from a high basal membrane; lid short, conical.

Genus Brachymenium Schwaegr.

Description: Plants small to medium-sized. Stems erect with numerous subfloral branches. Leaves erect-spreading, ovate, acuminate; costa excurrent; cells rhomboidal or linear, smooth. Setas elongate; capsule sub-erect; peristome double, teeth 16, papillose, basal membrane of inner peristome high, segments short and rudimentary.

Brachymenium coarctatum Bosch & Lac. Description: Plants slender. Yellow green when fresh and brownish yellow green when dry. Leaves spreading/ patent, oblong- lanceolate, involute from base up to apex, plicate. Leaf base decurrent. Leaf apex setaceous. Leaf margin entire. Presence of alar cells. Midcosta. Capsule erect, oblong ovoid, sulcate, rostrate operculum.

Ecology: on tree trunk ; 1, 825 m asl.- 2, 410 m asl ES/ CS: Widespread VT: Montane & Mossy Forest C. Species Richness Inventory of bryofloral species in all the research sites (sampling plots and transect walk) revealed a total of 428 species.

Of these, 88 genera and 41 families.

Among the groups of bryophytes, 326 species were classified 56

Diversity and Ecological Status of Bryophytes in Mt. Kitanglad, Bukidnon

A. G. Azuelo, L. G. Sariana and M. P. Pabualan

as mosses,with 70 genera and 29 families (Table 1). For the liverworts, there are 98 species, 16 genera and 11 families. For the hornworts, there are 4 species, 2 genera and 1 family. These bryophytes occurred mostly along the transects or along trails and sampling plots from the base (1, 805 m asl.) up to the peak (2, 899 m asl.)

As such, the total number of bryophytes has been shown to be strongly associated with moisture and vegetation types (Dynesius 2006). However, several species still remain unidentified.

Bryophyte Species Distribution Several species of mosses, liverworts and hornworts can be observed as low as 1, 805 m asl. and as high as 2, 900 m asl.

As noted, species of bryophytes are generally epiphytic growing on tree trunks on thick decayed fallen logs and litters on covered wet rocks and soil. This observed pattern of species richness may be attributed to the altitudinal zonations of the vegetation types. Hence, the diversity of bryophytes is not evenly distributed in the landscape (Stieperaere 1997).

Some species of mosses that are found in moderately high altitudes (mossy and montane) occurring invariably as an epiphytic on tree trunks and branches or twigs are those belonging to the family of Orthotrichaceae, Neckeraceae, Pterobryaceae, Bryaceae, Calymperaceae, Dicranaceae, Ditrichaceae, Fissidentaceae, Funariaceae, Hookeriaceae, Hypnaceae, Hypnodendraceae, Leucobryaceae, Mniaceae, Polytrichaceae, Pottiaceae, Racopilaceae, Rhizogoniaceae, Sematophyllaceae, Sphagnaceae, Spiridentaceae, Thuidiaceae, Trachypodiaceae, Meteoriaceae and unidentified species, while other species growing well on moist soil, thick humic-rich subtrates are those belonging to the genus of Sphagnum, Fissidens, Pogonatum,Breutelia, Dawsonia, Hypnodendron, Rhodobryum, Calymperes, Campylopodium, Campylopus, Erythrodontium, Leucobryum, Leucophanes, Plagiomnium, Racopilum, Acroporium, Radulina and Thuidium. Also, other species that usually grows on rock surfaces and crevices, boulders, on exposed tree roots in moderately shaded places either in lowland or in mid-montane forest such as Plagiomnium, Fissidens,Ectropothecium, Trismegistia and Thuidium but the species Campylopus also grows well 57

Asian Journal of Biodiversity

on exposed sunlight and thrives along bare rocks and soil surfaces found exclusively at high elevations and are growing on rock rich with soil substrates.

On the other hand, species of liverworts in the same habitats are those belonging to the family of Lepidoziaceae, Plagiochilaceae, Schistochilaceae and Trichocoleaceae. Some unidentified species also exhibit dominance in the area. Also, the species of hornworts belong to the family of Anthocerotaceae were found to exhibit in the region.

Some species of mosses are indicators of the type of vegetation such as those belonging to the genus of Dicranoloma, Orthodontium, Rhodobryum, Fissidens, Ectropothecium, Hypnodendron, Leucobryum, Aerobryidium, Aerobryopsis, Meteorium, Neckera, Macromitrium, Dawsonia, Pogonatum, Calyptothecium, Trachyloma, Pyrrhobryum, Acroporium, Clastobryopsis, Trismegistia, Sphagnum, Thuidium and Trachypus dominates both in Montane and Mossy forest.

Data revealed that 130 or 39.87 % of mosses were found growing as epiphytic on trunks and branches, 26 or 26.54 % of the liverworts, while one or 25% of hornworts. Fourty-four (44) or 13.49 % of the mosses are confined at the terrestrial habitats, 15 or 15.31 % of the liverworts and one (1) or 25% of the hornworts. Other species of the mosses and liverworts are confined on rock surfaces and crevices with 11 or 3.38 % of the mosses, eight or 8.16 % of the liverworts and two or 50% of the hornworts; and 141 or 43.25 % of the mosses thriving on decaying litters or rotten logs and 41 or 41.84 % of the liverworts and zero (0) or 0% of the hornworts (Fig. 2 p. 69). The high species population confined at decayed logs served as substrate which provide nutrient- rich to lowly plants like mosses can stimulate the growth of all microscopic plants (Bates, 2000).

Findings of the study revealed that of the moss species collected, the most species â&#x20AC;&#x201C;rich is represented by the family of Meteoriaceae, (9 genera, 44 species), followed by the family of Dicranaceae (7 genera, 43 species) and the least species is represented by the families of Bartramiaceae, Ditrichaceae, Entodontaceae, Funariaceae, Hylocomiaceae, Neckeraceae, Fissidentaceae, Rhacocarpaceae, Hookeriaceae, Pottiaceae, Sphagnaceae, Spiridentaceae and Trachypodiaceae with 1- 5 genera and 1-2 species each.

On the other hand, the most species-rich of the liverworts collected 58

Diversity and Ecological Status of Bryophytes in Mt. Kitanglad, Bukidnon

A. G. Azuelo, L. G. Sariana and M. P. Pabualan

is represented by the family of Plagiochilaceae (1 genus, 26 species) and followed by the family of Lepidoziaceae (2 genera, 20 species) and the least species is represented by the families of Aneuraceae, Jungermanniaceae, Schistochilaceae, Metzgeriaceae, Pallaviciniaceae and Trichocoleaceae with only 1 genus each while in hornworts, the species-rich is represented by the genus Anthoceros and the least is the Folioceros. However, there are 10 unidentified species of liverworts noted in the study.

As observed, the lowland regions or the low forest belts have limited growth of mosses for it appears that the distribution of a number of mosses were affected by destruction of their habitats. The present floristic study noted that the bryophytes occur in different specific and extreme microhabitats. More importantly, the life-form of any bryophyte species is an ecological description of its characteristics shape and structure. Likewise, the various life forms result from the interactions of the plantsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; physiological functioning, developmental constraints and environmental relationships (Mishler, 1997).

Several unidentified species of mosses, liverworts and hornworts were noted between vegetation types. These species were identified up to genus level, however, in some cases the families and the genus level cannot be identified for the species displayed uniqueness in their morphology characters.

Bryophyte Diversity Indices The diversity of the three vegetation types was compared as to species richness. A total of 112 bryophytes species in the lower montane forest were recorded in the plots with a diversity value of 4.71. This was followed by the mossy forest with 108 species and with diversity value of 4.68; while a low species richness and diversity value was noted at the upper montane forest with 87 species and diversity value of 4.46 respectively (Fig. 4 p. 70). The high species value and diversity at the lower montane forest may be due to mixed tall trees which moisture and rainfall are stable with the upper montane forest. There were thick diverse substrates allowing specific microhabitat of mosses and liverworts to withstand environmental change. In fact, endangered species such as Dawsonia superba and Breutelia arundinifolia which can 59

Asian Journal of Biodiversity

be observed at high altitudes were observed while at transect walk at the lateral section of the sampling sites.

Similarity indices showed the increasing values from upper montane (59.34%) to mossy forests (63.88%), however, there was a decrease in values from mossy to upper montane (54.58%). There was a least species similarity when compared to lower montane forests.

A cladogram is presented for this purpose (Fig. 5 p. 70). The species similarity among vegetation types showed that the bryophytes species in mossy forests had more similarity to upper montane forest. This might be attributed to the life adaptations of mosses and liverworts, that light intensity, temperature and humidity vary vertically, and both forests displayed equally low temperature and cool environment which allows species of mosses and liverworts in diverse morphological form and structure (del Rosario, 1986). In mossy and upper montane forests, the bryophyte moss cover reaches 90- 95% and 85- 90% growth cover, while lower montane moss cover reaches to 60-70 % (Figure 3 p. 69).

Assessment of Status Assessment of status of the bryoflora revealed 8 species considered as endemic for mosses and 1 species for liverworts and none for hornworts. Two (2) endemic species namely: Ectropothecium ferrugineum (C. Mull.) Jaeg. and Thuidium benguetense Broth ex.

Bartr. were reported by Tan and Iwatsuki (1991). The reason for its endemism might be attributed to the length of time during which the locality was available for colonization, environmental diversity and especially on the availability of moisture content in the regional habitat. One endangered species was seen only in the transect walk and inside sampling plots namely Dawsonia superba. However, 4 possibly endangered species were noted during the conduct of the study. Also, 141 total species were considered as rare based on local assessment while all other species were noted as widespread (Table 2 p. 67).

Fourteen species were recorded as widespread based from the checklist of Tan and Iwatsuki (1991) as previously studied. The study revealed possibly new species for they displayed unique and distinct morphological character as carefully observed through microscopic examinations. For mosses, 17 families and 20 genera were observed and 60

Diversity and Ecological Status of Bryophytes in Mt. Kitanglad, Bukidnon

A. G. Azuelo, L. G. Sariana and M. P. Pabualan

noted. These families include Bryaceae, Calymperaceae, Dicranaceae, Fissidentaceae, Hypnodendraceae, Hypopterygiaceae, Leucobryaceae, Meteoriaceae, Mniceae, Orthotrichaceae, Polytrichaceae, Pterobryaceae, Rhacocarpaceae, Racopilaceae, Rhizogoniaceae, Sematophyllaceae and Thuidiaceae. Three families were possibly new for the liverworts with 2 genera. This includes Lepidoziaceae, Metzgeriaceae and Plagiochilaceae. This is very important in looking at individual species of moss flora and other nonvascular plants to include a new assemblage of taxa representative. The structure and composition among bryophytes occupy a special position in the evolutionary pattern, hence, they should be given priority to promote conservation on a worldwide basis (Tan and Iwatsuki, 1991). As reported, there is a need to study local moss flora. Intensive collections should be made before the countryâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s rain forests will disappear (Tan and Iwatsuki, 1991). Studying endemism of plant species is important since some bryophyte endemic species have been reported as threatened. High priority should be given for the protection and conservation of these species.

The Medicinal Value of Bryophytes (Ethnobotanical Uses) Several species of mosses and liverworts were found extremely useful in the field of medicine. Results of the study identified some bryophyte species with medicinal properties (Table 3 p. 67). Eleven (11) species of mosses were traditionally identified with the genus namely: Philonotis, Bryum, Rhodobryum, Fissidens, Plagiomnium, Mnium,Dawsonia, Pogonatum, Polytrichum and Sphagnum. There are six (6) species of liverworts known for its potential usefulness for manâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s healing ailments. These include species under genus Riccardia, Herbertus, Dumortiera, Marchantia,Pallavicinia and Plagiochila (Asakawa, 2008).

Among the most widely known medicinal uses as exhibited by mosses are: cardiovascular problem, nervous prostration to cure angina, healing wounds such as burns and bruises, fungal infections, diuretics, hair growth stimulation, antibacterial agent (swollen throats), specific treatments such as skin ailments, eye disease, hemorrhoids ailments and colds. Liverworts exhibit treatment on the following: antileukemic activity, antimicrobial activity, antiseptics, specific treatments as 61

Asian Journal of Biodiversity

diuretics, liver ailments, insect bites, boils, abscesses and pulmonary tuberculosis (Saxena and Harinder, 2004). The present status of the medicinal bryophytes has not proved for economical use due to slowgrowing nature and difficulty of culturing the species. However, their pharmaceutical use is very promising.

CONCLUSIONS From the findings of the study, the following are the conclusions: A total of 428 species of bryophytes were collected. Of these, the mosses include 326 species, 70 genera and 29 families, while the liverworts include 98 species, 16 genera and 11 families. 4 species, 2 genera and 1 family for the hornworts.

Diversity exists among the bryophytes since some species of mosses were found at different habitats. At the time of sampling, Lower Montane vegetations exhibited high species richness and diversity values since the forest is characterized by mixed tall trees and enough substrate, and is followed by Mossy Forest and the least is Upper Montane Forest. Some species are epiphytic on tree trunks belonging to the family of Orthotrichaceae, Neckeraceae, Pterobryaceae, and Meteoriaceae; While those species growing on moist soil, thick humicrich substrates are those belonging to the genus of Sphagnum, Fissidens, Pogonatum,Breutelia, Dawsonia, Hypnodendron, and Rhodobryum. Also, other species thriving on rock surfaces and boulders in lowland and montane forest are Fissidens, Thuidium, Ectropothecium, Campylopus and Plagiomnium. The Liverworts thriving on decayed logs and thick litter are those belonging to the family of Lepidoziaceae, Plagiochilaceae, Schistochilaceae and Trichocoleaceae. Species of Anthoceros are confined in varied habitats. Some unidentified species also exhibit dominance in the study site.

Local assessment of status of bryoflora revealed 9 endemic species: Eight (8) species for mosses, 1 species for liverworts and none for hornworts. Two species namely Ectropothecium ferrugineum (C. Mull.)

Jaeg. and Thuidium benguetense Broth ex. Bartr. were noted endemic to the Philippines. Forty-six (46) species might be new (43 for mosses and 3 for liverworts) belonging to different families. Four (4) possible 62

Diversity and Ecological Status of Bryophytes in Mt. Kitanglad, Bukidnon

A. G. Azuelo, L. G. Sariana and M. P. Pabualan

endangered species were noted in mosses belonging to the genus Dawsonia and Breutelia. A total of 141 species are rare and all others are widespread. On the bryophyte medicinal properties, several species that were collected, identified, and recorded showed potential medicinal value. Some 11 species of the mosses were ethnobotanically recorded. These include Philonotis, Bryum, Rhodobryum, Fissidens, Plagiomnium, Mnium, Dawsonia, Pogonatum, Poytrichum, Barbula and Sphagnum. And 6 species of liverworts with their representative genera namely: Riccardia, Herbertus, Dumortiera, Marchantia, Pallavicinia and Plagiochila. Most of these species exhibited antimicrobial activity, antileukemic activity and healing effects.

The overall observations on the diversity and ecological status of bryophyte showed that the variation in structural forms and the niche preferences are attributed to their specific and extreme microhabitats.

Most bryophytes live tightly to their moist habitat, and their biology makes use of the substrate to coordinate overall growth. Thus, the various life-forms result from the interactions of the plantsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; physiology and environmental relationships.

RECOMMENDATIONS As a result of this research, the following are the recommendations: Structural diversity and ecology of bryophytes require an in-depth study to carefully explore and describe their morphology and its representation taxa should properly be documented to show evidence of early divergence and probable relationships between the species studied.

Further studies should be conducted with more sampling plots in other parts of Mt. Kitanglad Range in relation to geographic distribution of bryophyte species and correlate this to climatic factors such as climatic change affecting the species diversity.

There is a need to provide an action plan to review the Philippine status of bryophytes and disseminate new information on its potential usefulness as ethnobotanically significant. With this, scientific exploration should be conducted and determine their antimicrobial components through biological activity.

63

Asian Journal of Biodiversity

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This two-year research was funded by Central Mindanao University.

We also acknowledge the following: Mr. Exequiel Valiente, Mr.Rovel P. Ora and Ms.Rose Ann I. Isada as local researchers; Socorro H. Laraga for Photo documentation; Khail Santia for Poster Presentation; Guiller S. Opiso for the Transect and Location Map assistance; Dr. Alma M. Mohagan for statistical analysis; Walter Galasanay, President, Porter and Guide Association of Mt. Kitanglad Natural Park; Department of Environment and Natural Resources-Region 10; PAMB, PENRO, Malaybalay City, Bukidnon; LGU Officials, CMU University Museum.

LITERATURE CITED Amoroso, V. B. 2000. Status, species richness and ecosystem diversity in Mindanao Island. Pages 17-23 in Proceedings of the National Biodiversity Conservation Priority-Setting Workshop: Mindanao Regional Consultation. Malagos Garden Resort, Davao City, Philippines.

Asakawa, Y. 2008. Liverworts-potential source of medicinal compounds. Current Pharmaceutical Design. Bentham Science Publishers.

Azuelo, A.G. 2005. Bryophyte flora of Mt. Malindang, Misamis Occidental, Philippines, Dissertation. Central Mindanao University.

Bates, J.W. 2000. Mineral nutrition, substratum ecology and pollution.

Bryophyte Biology. Cambridge University Press.248-299.

Del Rosario, R.M.

64

Diversity and Ecological Status of Bryophytes in Mt. Kitanglad, Bukidnon

A. G. Azuelo, L. G. Sariana and M. P. Pabualan

1986. Guide to Philippine flora and fauna. Natural Research Management Educational Center, U.P. Manila.

Dynesius, M. 2006. Species richness correlations among primary producers in boreal forest. Diversity and Distribution, Blackwell Publishing. Abstract 12 (6): 703-713.

Haris, E.S.J. 2008. Ethnobryology: traditional uses and folk classification of Bryophytes. The Bryologist. Vol. III, Issue 2. 169-217.

Kimmerer, R. and Dale Vitt 1997. The dynamics of moss establishment in peatlands. Abstracts: 6 & 7.

Leon, V. and S. Engwald 1997. A comparison of the diversity and life strategies of epiphytic bryophytes and vascular plants in lowland and montane forest in Venezuela. Abstracts: 9.

Lubos, L. C. 2000. Taxonomy, Species Richness and Distribution of Mosses in Selected Mountains in Mindanao. Dissertation. Central Mindanao University.

Mishler, B.D. 1997. Major features of the evolution of bryophytes. Abstract: 22.

Piipo, S., B.C. Tan, Dh. Murphy, A. Juslen and C. Meng-Shyan.

2002. A Guide to the common liverworts and hornworts of Singapore.

Singapore Science Center.

Saxena, D.K. and Harinder.

2004. Uses of Bryophytes. Resonance.

65

Asian Journal of Biodiversity

Shaw, A.J. and S.C. Beer.

1999. Life history variation in gametophyte populations of the moss Ceratodon purpureus (Deptrichaceae). American Journal of Botany. 86 (4): 512-521.

Stevanovic, V. and G. Svetlana 2006. The moss flora in the central urban area of Belgrade. Archives of Biological Sciences. 58 (1); 55-59.

Stieperaere, H., O. Heylen and N. Podoor.

1997. Differences in species composition of the bryophyte layer of some Belgian and Dutch pinewoods with and without the invading hepatic Lophocolea semilters (Lehm.) Mitt. Journal of Bryology.19: 425-434.

Tan, B.C. and Z. Iwatsuki.

1991. A new annotated Philippine moss checklist. Harvard Papers in Botany. 3: 1-65.

Wu Peng Cheng 2007. The medicinal uses of bryophytes. Acta Botanica Yunnanica.

Kunning Institute of Botany, Academia Sinica, China.

Yamaguchi, T. 1993. A revision of the genus Leucobryum (Musci) in Asia. J. Hattori Botany Laboratory. 73: 1-123.

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Diversity and Ecological Status of Bryophytes in Mt. Kitanglad, Bukidnon

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67

Fig. 1. Transect diagram of different vegetation types

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68

Diversity and Ecological Status of Bryophytes in Mt. Kitanglad, Bukidnon

A. G. Azuelo, L. G. Sariana and M. P. Pabualan

Fig. 2. Percentage of bryophytes confined at their main habitat

Fig. 3. Bryophyte cover in Mt. Kitanglad Natural Park, Bukidnon

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Diversity and Ecological Status of Bryophytes in Mt. Kitanglad, Bukidnon

A. G. Azuelo, L. G. Sariana and M. P. Pabualan

Fig. 6. Family BRYACEAE Unidentified sp. (Possibly new species)

Fig. 7. Family POLYTRICHACEAE Dawsonia superva Grev. (Endangered species)

Fig. 8. Family BARTRAMIACEAE Breutilia arundinifolia (Duby) Fleisch (Endangered species)

Fig. 9. Family RHIZOGONIACEAE Unidentified sp. (Possibly new species)

Fig. 10. Family RHACOCARPACEAE Unidentified sp. (Possibly new species)

Fig. 11. Family BRYACEAE Rhodobryum sp. (Possibly new species)

Fig. 12. Family MNIACEAE Unidentified sp. (Possibly new species)

Fig. 13. Unidentified sp. (Possibly new species)

Fig. 14. Family HYPNACEAE Ectropothecium ferrugineum (C Mull) Jaeg. (Endemic)

71

Vol. 1 No. 1 December 2010 ISSN: 2094-15019 pp. 72-90 International Reviewed Journal Asian Journal Peer of Biodiversity

Asian Journal of Biodiversity Species Diversity Section

Species Richness, Distribution, and Status of Mosses in Selected Mountains in Mindanao, Philippines LESLEY CASAS LUBOS Dawsonia@yahoo.com Liceo de Cagayan University, Research and Publication Office Cagayan de Oro City, Mindanao, Philippines

Date Submitted: Sept. 14, 2009 Final Revision Complied: Nov. 9, 2009 Gunning Fog Index: 11.45

Plagiarism Detection: Passed Original: 98.7% English Writing Readability: 46.75

Abstract - The paper determined the species richness, distribution, and status of mosses in selected mountains in Mindanao, Philippines. Field collections of mosses were conducted in Mt. Kalatungan, Bukidnon Province ,Mt. Matutum, South Cotabato Province , and Mt. Malambo, Davao Province at 10 meters on each side of the trails using alphataxonomy method. The mosses were collected, classified, and identified. Its status were also assessed. The study revealed 137 species, 87 genera and 33 families of mosses. Of the 137 species, 109 were found in Mt. Kalatungan , 59 in Mt. Matutum. and 20 in Mt. Malambo. Assessment of status of the species revealed 7 species as Philippine record, 37 new to Mindanao, 1 collected only twice, 29 widespread, 12 rare species, and all species collected were new record in terms of locality. Mt. Kalatungan had the highest species richness, followed by Mt. Matutum, and Mt. Malambo had the least number of species.

Based on the findings, with the alarming rate of degradation of the mountains which is basically caused by human activities such as land clearing, slash and burn method for expanding crop plantation, urbanization, firewood consumption, over collection of moss plant materials of horticulture, landscaping 72

Species Richness, Distribution, and Status of Mosses in Selected Mountains in Mindanao, Philippines

L. C. Lubos

and other commercial purposes. Some species are epiphytes on tree trunks or branches of live trees while others are on rotten logs, rock surfaces, moist stones along the stream banks and some grow well on soil. Hence, the identified habitats of new records in the Philippines, new to Mindanao , new in terms of locality, widespread , and rare species of mosses should be protected through a strict implementation of the forest laws by concerned authorities.

Keywords - Mosses, species richness, distribution, status, Mindanao Island, Philippines.

Introduction The large and diverse Philippine moss flora has a modern checklist (Tan and Iwatsuki, 1991). The history and progress of Philippine bryology were reviewed and summarized by Tan (1992) who discussed in detail the floristic composition and affinity of the archipelagic moss flora (see also Tan, 1984). In Tanâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s publications, Mindanao was cited as an important island, albeit with a still incompletely known flora, which may hold critically the key to a better understanding of the origin and evolution of the entire Philippine moss flora. In recent years, the Island of Mindanao has been postulated to have a different geological origin and plate tectonic history from the rest of the islands forming the Philippine archipelago (Hall, 1998). As such, this second largest southern island of the country may harbor important floristic and bryogeographical information that needs to be documented before the local forests become completely decimated. To date, Mindanao Island has a total of 187 genera and 314 species of mosses (cf. Tan and Iwatsuki 1991), 50 of which are known only from this island. The rest are found also in Luzon and the Visayas Islands. Among the 50 species of Philippine mosses known from Mindanao, 4% are widespread in the tropics, 60% are Malesian taxa, 21% have an Australasian link, 10% have a Bornean link, and only 6% have a continental Asiatic connection. Clearly, the moss flora of Mindanao has a strong southern and Australasian influence compared to other large islands in the country (Tan ,1998). The main objective of this paper is to determine the species richness, distribution, and status of mosses in selected 73

Asian Journal of Biodiversity

mountains in Mindanao, Philippines. materials and methods Survey and Collection Survey of mosses was conducted in Mt. Kalatungan, Bukidnon Province, Mt. Matutum, Tupi, South Cotabato Province, and Mt. Malambo, Datu Salumay, Davao Province. Representative specimens of mosses were collected at 10 m on each side of the trail from base to the upper portion of the three selected areas using alpha- taxonomy method.

Classification and Identification The specimens collected were classified and identified using the taxonomic keys of Bartram (1939). Morphological characters of the leaf (leaf arrangement, midrib, base, apex, margin, cells, shape) and sporophyte (size, shape, texture of capsule and seta, number of teeth) were used to identify the species.

Photographs A camera was used for documentation. Stereomicroscope, trinocular microscope and dissecting microscope were also used to identify and classify the species of mosses.

Preparation of Herbarium specimens The collected specimens of mosses were placed in a plastic bag or ziplock, labelled with the following data: collection number, name of collector, altitude, name of the mountain, date of collection, and associated habitats. This was then air-dried and placed in a standard packets and properly labeled for herbarium vouchers.

74

Species Richness, Distribution, and Status of Mosses in Selected Mountains in Mindanao, Philippines

L. C. Lubos

Assessment of Conservation Status A New Annotated Checklist of Iwatsuki and Tan (1991), print scientific journals and on-line journals were used to determine the status of the collected specimens. Assessment of conservation status of the species, whether new record in the Philippines, new in Mindanao, new in terms of locality, rare, and widespread was made.

Results and Discussion Species Richness and Distribution A total of 137 species, 87 genera and 33 families of mosses were found in the three selected mountains in Mindanao, Philippines (Figs.

1 and 2, p. 87 and Table 1 p. 76).

Mt. Kalatungan (Fig. 3 p. 87) showed the highest species composition with 109 species , followed by Mt. Matutum (Fig. 4 p. 88) with 53 species, and Mt. Malambo (Fig. 5 p. 88) with only 20 species of mosses (Table 1).

75

76

13

12

7 8 9 10 11

6

5

4

3

1 2

Dicranella ( C. Mull.) Besch.

Dicranella setifera ( Mitt.) Jaeg Dicranoloma ( Ren.) Ren. Dicranoloma billarderi cf. ( Brid. ex anon.) Par. Dicranoloma blumii (Nees)Par. Dicranoloma brevisetum var. brevisetum ( Dozyy & Molk) Par. Dicranoloma brevisetum var. samoanum ( Broth.) Tan & Kop. Dicranoloma reflexum ( C. Mull.) Ren. Holomitrium Brid. Nom. Cons Holomitrium cylindraceum ( P. Beauv.) Wijk & Marg.

Leucoloma Brid.Nom. Cons Leucoloma molle ( C. Mull.) Mitt.

Trematodon Michx.

Fissidentaceae Fissidens Hedw.

Fissidens oblongifolius Hook. f. & Wils.

Fissidens nobilis Griff.

Dicranaceae Campylopodium ( C. Mull.) Besch.

Campylopodium medium ( Duby) Giese & Frahm Campylopus Brid.

Campylopus ericoides ( Griff.) Jaeg Campyopus umbellatus ( Arnott) Par.

Family / Genera / Species

/

/

/ / x / /

/

/

x

/

/ /

KALATUNGAN

/

x

/ x x x x

x

x

/

x

x x

MALAMBO

Table 1. Checklist of family, genera, and species of mosses on the selected mountains in Mindanao, Philippines

/

/

x x / x x

x

x

/

x

x /

MATUTUM

NRL

NRL,NRM

NRL NRL,W NRL NRL,W NRL,NRM

NRL,R,NRM

NRL,W

NRL,NRM

NRL,NRM

NRL,NRM NRL,W

STATUS

Asian Journal of Biodiversity

30

29

27 28

25 26

24

23

21 22

16 17 18 19 20

15

14

Trematodon longicolis Michx.

Leucobryaceae Cladopodanthus Dozy & Molk.

Cladopodanthus speciosus ( Dozy & Molk.) Fleisch.

Leucobyum Hampe Leucobryum aduncum Dozy & Molk.

Leucobyum boninense Sull. & Lesq.

Leucobryum chlorophyllum C. Mull.

Leucobyum javense ( Brid.) Mitt.

Leucobyum sanctum ( Brid.) Hampe Leucophanes Brid.

Leucophanes glaucum ( Schwaegr.) Mitt.

Leucophanes angustifolium Ren. & Card.

Octoblepharum Hedw.

Octoblepharum albidum Hedw.

Calymperaceae Calymperes Sw. in Web. Calymperes serratum A. Br. ex C. Mull.

Exostratum Ellis Exostratum blumei ( Ness ex Hampe) Ellis Exostratum sullivantii ( Dozy & Molk.) Ellis Syrrhopodon Schwaegr.

Syrrhopodon gardneri ( Hook.) Schwaegr.

Syrrhopodon japonicus ( Besch.) Broth.

Pottiaceae Barbula Hedw. Nom. Cons Barbula obscuriretis Dix. Hyophila Hyophila involuta ( Hook.) Jaeg.

Table 1 continued

/

/

/ /

/ /

/

/

/ /

/ / / / x

/

/

x

x

x x

x x

x

x

x x

x x x / /

x

x

x

x

x x

x x

/

x

/ /

x x x / x

x

x

NRL,W

NRL,NRM

NRL,NRM NRL,NRM

NRL NRL,NRM

NRL

NRL

NRL NRL

NRL,NRM NRP,NRL,R NRL,NRM NRL NRL

NRL,NRM

NRL,NRM

Species Richness, Distribution, and Status of Mosses in Selected Mountains in Mindanao, Philippines L. C. Lubos

77

78

43

42

41

39 40

37 38

36

35

34

33

32

31

Hyophila rosea Williams Pseudosymblepharis Broth.

Pseudosymblepharis angustata ( Mitt.) Hilp.

Weissia Hedw.

Weissia controversa Hedw.

Funariaceae Funaria Hedw.

Funaria hygrometrica var. calvescens (Schwaegr.) Mont.

Splachnaceae Tayloria Hook.

Tayloria indica Mitt.

Bryaceae Brachymenium Schwaegr.

Brachymenium nepalense Hook.

Bryum Hedw.

Bryum apiculatum Schwaegr.

Bryum sahyadrense Card. & Dix. Rhodobryum Hampe.

Rhodobryum aubertii ( Schwaegr) Thir.

Rhodobryum giganteum ( Schwaegr.) Par. Mniaceae Orthomnion Wills.

Orthomnion elimbatum ( Nog.) T. Kop. Plagiomnium Kop. Plagiomnium integrum ( Bosch. & Lac.) T.Kop. Rhizogoniaceae Hymenodon Hook.F. & Wils.

Hymenodon angustifolius Lac. Pyrrhobryum Mitt.

Table 1 continued

x

/

/

x /

/ /

/

/

/

/

x

/

x

x

x

/ x

x x

x

x

x

x

x

/

/

x

x

x x

x x

/

x

x

x

/

x

NRL

NRL,NRM

NRL,R,NRM

NRL NRL

NRL NRL

NRL,W

NRL

NRL,W

NRL,R

NRL,R,NRM

NRL,NRM

Asian Journal of Biodiversity

58 59 60 61

57

56

52 53 54 55

47 48 49 50 51

46

44 45

Pyrrhobryum latifolium ( Bosch. & Lac.) T. Mitt.

Pyrrhobryum spiniforme ( Hedw.) Mitt.

Rhizogonium Brid.

Rhizogonium graeffeenum ( C. Mull.) Jaeg.

Hypnodendraceae Hypnodendron ( C. Mull.) Lindb. Ex Mitt.

Hypnodendron auricomum Broth. & Geh. Hypnodendron dendroides ( Brid.) Touw Hypnodendron diversifolium Broth. & Geh. Hypnodendron reinwardtii ssp.caducifolium ( Herz.) Touw Hypnodendron subspinervium ( C. Mull.) Jaeg. ssp arborescens ( Mitt.) Touw Bartramiaceae Philonitis Brid.

Philonitis calomicra Broth.

Philonitis mollis ( Dozy & Molk.) Mitt.

Philonitis runcinata C. Mull. Ex aongstr Philonitis thwaitesii Mitt.

Spiridentaceae Spiridens Nees Spiridens reinwardtii Nees Erpodiaceae Erpodium biseriatum (Aust.) Aust.

Orthotrichaceae Macromitrium Brid.

Macromitrium blumei Nees ex Schwaegr.

Macromitrium longicaule C. Mull.

Macromitrium salakanum C. Mull.

Macromitrium ochraceum ( Dozy & Molk.) C. Mull.

Table 1 continued

/ / / /

/

/

x / x x

/ / / x /

x

/ /

x x x x

x

x

x x x x

x x x / x

/

x x

x / / x

x

x

/ x / /

x / x x /

x

x /

NRL NRL NRL NRL

NRL, R,2 C

NRL,W

NRL NRL,NRM NRL NRL,NRM

NRP,NRL,R NRL,W NRL NRL,W NRL

NRL

NRL NRL,W

Species Richness, Distribution, and Status of Mosses in Selected Mountains in Mindanao, Philippines L. C. Lubos

79

80

76

75

72 73 74

71

70

67 68 69

66

65

64

62 63

Racopilum P. Beauv.

Racopilum johannis-winkleri Broth.

Racopilum spectabile Reinw. & Hornsch.

Cyrtopodaceae Bescherellia Duby Bescherellia philippinensis ( C.Mull.) Fleisch.

Pronodontaceae Neolindbergia Fleish.

Neolindbergia cladomniodes Akiyama Pterobryaceae Calyptothecium Mitt.

Calyptothecium recurvulum ( Broth ex C. Mull.) Broth.

Garovaglia Endi.

Garovaglia bauerlenii ( Geh.) Par. Garovaglia elegans ( Dozy & Molk.) Hampe ex Bosch & Lac. Garovaglia luzonensis var. zwickeyi ( Bartr.) During Pterobryopsis Fleisch.

Pterobryopsis gedehensis Fleisch.

Symphysodon Symphysodon neckeroides var. neckeroides Dozy & Molk Symphysodontella Fleisch.

Symphysodontella attenuatula Fleisch.

Symphysodontella subulata Broth.

Symphysodontella parvifolia Bart.

Trachyloma Brid.

Trachyloma indicum Mitt.

Meteoriaceae Aerobryidium Fleisch.

Aerobryidium crispifolium ( Broth.& Geh.) Fleisch. ex Broth.

Table 1 continued

/

/

/ / /

/

/

/ / /

x

x

/

/ /

x

x

x x x

x

x

x / x

x

x

x

x /

x

x

/ x /

x

/

x / x

/

/

/

/ /

NRL,NRM

NRL,W

NRL NRL NRP,NRL,R

NRL

NRL

NRP,NRL,R NRL,W NRL

NRL

NRP,NRL,R

NRL,R

NRL NRL,W

Asian Journal of Biodiversity

91

90

89

87 88

86

84 85

83

82

81

80

79

78

77

Aerobryidium filamentosum ( Hook.) Fleisch.

Aerobryopsis Fleisch.

Aerobryopsis wallichi ( Brid.) Fleisch.

Aerobryum Dozy & Molk.

Aerobryum speciosum (Dozy & Molk.) Dozy & Molk.

Barbella Fleisch. Ex. Broth.

Barbella cubensis ( Mitt.) Broth.

Floribundaria Fleisch.

Floribundaria floribunda ( Dozy & Molk.) Fleisch.

Meteoriopsis Fleisch. Ex Broth Meteoriopsis squarrosa ( Hook.) Fleisch.

Meteonium ( Brid.) Dozy & Broth.

Meteonium subpolytrichum( Brid.) Dozy & Broth.

Papillaria ( C. Mull.) C. Mull.

Papillaria fuscencens ( Hook) Jaeg.

Papillaria leuconeura ( C. Mull.) Jaeg.

Phyllogoniaceae Cryptogonium ( C. Mull.) Mull. On F. Mull.

Cryptogonium phylogonioides ( Sull.) Isov.

Neckeraceae Himantocladium ( Mitt.) Fleisch.

Himantocladium cyclophyllum ( C. Mull.) Fleisch.

Himantocladium plumula ( Ness.) Fleisch.

Homaliodendron Fleisch.

Homaliodendron flabellatum ( Sm.) Fleisch.

Neckera Hedw. Nom. Cons.

Neckera warburgii Broth.

Neckeropsis Reichardt Neckeropsis lepineana ( Mont.) Fleisch.

Table 1 continued

/

/

/

/ x

/

/ /

/

/

/

/

/

x

/

x

x

x

x x

x

x x

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

/

x

/

x /

x

x x

x

x

/

x

x

/

x

NRL,W

NRL

NRL,W

NRL,W NRL

NRL

NRL NRL,NRM

NRL,NRM

NRL

NRL,W

NRL

NRL

NRL,W

NRL

Species Richness, Distribution, and Status of Mosses in Selected Mountains in Mindanao, Philippines L. C. Lubos

81

82

103

102

101

100

99

98

96 97

95

94

92 93

Pinnatella Felisch.

Pinnatella mariei ( Besch.) Broth.

Pinnatella alopecuroides ( Hook.) Fleisch.

Lembophyllaceae Neobarbella Nog. Neobarbella comes ( Griff.) Nog. Hookeriaceae Calliscostella (C. Mull.) Mitt.,nom.cons Calliscostella papillata ( Mont.) Mitt.

Calyptrochaeta Desv.

Calyptrochaeta parviretis cf. ( Fleisch.) Iwats., Tan & Touw Calyptrochaeta remotifolia ( C. Mull.) Iwats., Tan & Touw Chaetomitriopsis Fleisch.

Chaetomitriopsis glaucocarpa ( Reinw.) Fleisch.

Chaetomitrium Dozy & Molk Chaetomitrium warburgii Broth in Warb Cyclodictyon Mitt.

Cyclodictyon blumeanum ( C. Mull.) O. Kuntze Distichophyllum Dozy & Molk.

Distichophyllum tortile Dozy & Molk.ex. Bosch & Lac. Leucomiaceae Leucomium Mitt.

Leucomium strumosum ( Horsch.) Mitt.

Hypopterygiaceae Lopidium Hook. F. & Wils.

Lopidium struthiopteris ( Brid.) Fleisch.

Thuidiaceae Pelekium

Table 1 continued

/

/

/

x

/

/

x /

x

/

/ /

x

x

x

x

x

x

x x

x

x

x x

/

x

x

/

x

x

/ x

/

x

x x

NRL

NRL

NRL,NRM

NRL,W

NRL

NRL

NRL NRL

NRL,W

NRL,NRM

NRL NRL

Asian Journal of Biodiversity

118

117

116

113 114 115

112

111

110

109

108

107

105 106

104

Pelekium velatum Mitt.

Thuidium Schimp in B.S.G. Thuidium cymbifolium ( Dozy & Molk.) Dozy & Molk.

Thiudium glaucinum ( Mitt.) Bosch. & Lac. Brachytheciaceae Eurrhynchium Schimp. In B.S.G. Eurrhynchium vagans ( Jaeg.) Bartr.

Palamocladium C. Mull.

Palamocladium nilgheriense ( Mont.) C. Mull.

Homalothecium Schimp.

Homalothecium appressifolium ( Williams) Broth.

Rhynchostegium B.S.G. Rhynchostegium celebicum ( Lac.) Jaeg.

Entodontaceae Entodon C. Mull.

Entodon plicatus C. Mull.

Erythrodontium Hampe Erythrodontium julaceum C. Mull.

Sematophyllaceae Acroporium Mitt.

Acroporium ramicola ( Hampe) Broth.

Acroporium stramineum ( Reinw. & Horsch.) Fleisch.

Acroporium strepsiphyllum ( Mont.) B.C. Tan Meiotheciella B.C. Tan, ( Mont) B.C.Tan Meiotheciella papillosa ( Broth in ther) B.C. Tan, Schof & Ramsay, comb.nov.

Meiothecium Mitt.

Meiothecium microcarpum ( Hook.) Mitt.

Radulina Buck & Tan Radulina hamata ( Dozy & Molk) Buck & Tan

Table 1 continued

x

/

/

/ x x

/

/

/

/

/

/

/ x

/

/

x

x

x / /

x

x

x

x

x

x

x x

x

x

x

x

/ x x

x

x

/

/

x

/

x /

x

NRL,W

NRL

NRP,NRL,R

NRP,NRL NRL NRL

NRL,W

NRL

NRL

NRL,NRM

NRL

NRL,NRM

NRL,W NRL

NRL,W

Species Richness, Distribution, and Status of Mosses in Selected Mountains in Mindanao, Philippines L. C. Lubos

83

84

133

132

131

130

123 124 125 126 127 128 129

122

121

120

119

Hypnaceae Ectropothecium Mitt.

Ectropothecium dealbatum ( Reinw. & Hornsch.) Jaeg.

Ectropothecium falciforme ( Dozy & Molk.) Jaeg.

Ectropothecium ferrugineum ( C. Mull.) Jaeg.

Ectropothecium ichnotocladum ( C. Mull.) Jaeg.

Ectropothecium monumentorum cf. ( Duby) cf.Jaeg.

Ectropothecium penzigianum Fleisch.

Ectropothecium striatulum Dix. Ex Bartr.

Ctenidium ( Schimp.) Mitt.

Ctenidium luzonensecf. Broth.

Vasicularia ( C. Mull.)C. Mull.

Vasicularia reticulata ( Dozy & Molk.) Broth.

Buxbaumiaceae Diphyscium Mohr.

Diphyscium involutum Mitt.

Polytrichaceae Dawsonia R. Br. Dawsonia longifolia ( Brush & Schimp Zant var. superba ( Grev.)

Zant Pogonatum P. Beauv.

Rhaphidostichum Fleisch.

Rhaphidostichum piliferum ( Broth.) Broth.

Sematophyllum Mitt.

Sematophyllum subpinnatum ( Hook.) Mitt.

Trichosteleum Trichosteleum ruficaule ( Thwaits & Mitt.) Tan Trimegistia ( C. Mull.) C. Mull.

Trimegistia calderensis ( Sull.) Broth.

Table 1 continued

/

/

x

/

/ x x / / / /

x

/

/

x

x

x

x

x

x / x x x x x

x

x

x

/

x

x

/

x

x x / / x x x

/

/

x

x

NRL, R

NRL,NRM

NRL,W

NRL

NRL,W NRL NRL NRL NRL,W NRL,NRM NRL,NRM

NRL

NRL

NRL

NRL,NRM

Asian Journal of Biodiversity

134 135 136 137 109

TOTAL

Legend: x - absent / - present NRP - New record in the Philippines NRM - New record in Mindanao NRL - New Record in terms of Locality R - Rare 2 C - 2nd collection in the Philippines W- Widespread

/ / / x

Pogonatum camusii ( Ther) Touw.

Pogonatum cirratum ssp.cirratum ( Sw.) Brid.

Pogonatum microphyllum ( Dozy & Molk.) Dozy & Molk.

Pogonatum neesii ( C. Mull.) Dozy.

Table 1 continued

20

/ / x x 53

x x / /

NRL NRL,NRM NRL,NRM NRL,W

Species Richness, Distribution, and Status of Mosses in Selected Mountains in Mindanao, Philippines L. C. Lubos

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Asian Journal of Biodiversity

Table 2. Number of family, genera, and species of mosses in the three selected mountains in Mindanao, Philippines MOUNTAIN

FAMILY

GENERA

SPECIES

Kalatungan

32

76

109

Matutum

24

44

53

Malambo

12

17

20

This study confirmed the report and observation of Tan (1992,1994,1998) and Tan, Lubos, and Schwarz (2000) that mosses grow best in moist forest with high altitude. Mt. Kalatungan has the highest altitude compared to Mt. Matutum and Mt. Malambo.

Assessment The three mountains revealed that there are 7 new records of mosses in the Philippines, 37 new to Mindanao, 137 new records in terms of locality, 12 rare species, 1 collected twice, and 29 widespread species (Table 3).

Table 3. Status of mosses in three selected mountains in Mindanao, Philippines.

Status

Kalatungan

Matutum

Malambo

1. New Record in the Philippines (NRP) ( reported by Tan, Lubos, and Schwarz,2000)

6

1

0

2. New record in Mindanao (NRM)

33

8

0

3. New record in terms of locality (NRL)

109

53

20

4. Rare (R)

11

3

0

5. 2nd collection (2C)

1

0

0

7. Widespread (W)

21

13

4

86

Species Richness, Distribution, and Status of Mosses in Selected Mountains in Mindanao, Philippines

Fig. 1. Philippine Map

L. C. Lubos

Fig. 2. Mindanao Map

Fig. 3. Mt. Kalatungan, Bukidnon Province with highest elevation of 2,824 masl

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Asian Journal of Biodiversity

Fig. 4. Mt. Matutum, South Cotabato Province with highest elevation of 2,286 masl.

Fig. 5. Mt. Malambo, Salumay, Davao Province with highest elevation of 1,278 masl.

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Species Richness, Distribution, and Status of Mosses in Selected Mountains in Mindanao, Philippines

L. C. Lubos

Conclusion The study found that there are new records of mosses found in Mindanao, particularly in Mt. Kalatungan in Bukidnon, Mt. Matutum in South Cotabato and Mt. Malambo in Salumay, Davao Province.

LITERATURE CITED Bartram, E.B. 1939. Mosses of the Philippines. Philippine Journal of Science. 68:1425.

Hall, R. 1998. The plate tectonics of Cenozoic SEAsia and the distribution of land and sea,pp. 99-131. In: R. Hall & J. D. Holloway(eds.), Biogeography and Geological Evolution of SE Asia. Backhuys Publisher,Leiden.

Tan, B. C. 1984. A reconsideration of the affinity of Philippine moss flora. 3.

Hattori Bot. Lab. 55: 13-22.

Tan, B. C. 1992. Philippine muscology (1979-1989).In: T. Koponen and J. Hyvรถnen (eds.).Proceedings of the Congress of East Asiatic Bryology, Helsinki, August 12-19, 1990. Bryobrothera 1: 137141.

Tan, B. C. 1994. The bryophytes of Sabah (North Borneo) with special reference to the BRYOTROP transect of Mount Kinabalu. XIX. The genus Acroporium (Sematophyllaceae, Musci) in Borneo, with notes on species of Java and the Philippines. Willdnowia 24: 255-294.

Tan, B. C. 1998. Noteworthy disjunctive patterns of Malesian mosses, pp. 235241. In: R. Hall & J. D. Holloway (eds.), Biogeography and 89

Asian Journal of Biodiversity

Geological Evolution of SE Asia. Backhuys Publisher, Leiden.

Tan, B. C. and Z. Iwatsuki.

1991. A new annotated Philippine moss checklist. Harvard Papers Bot. 3: 1 Tan, B.C., L.C. Lubos, Uwe Schwarz.

2000. New and Biogeographically Noteworthy Records of Philippine Mosses from Mindanao Island. Tropical Bryology 18.pp.27-38,

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Vol. 1 No. 1 December 2010 ISSN: 2094-15019 pp. 91-125 International Peer Reviewed Journal

Asian Journal of Biodiversity Ecological Diversity Section

Checklist of Fishes Found in the Fresh and Brackish Waters of Negros and Siquijor, Philippines Abner A. Bucol abs_evodevo@yahoo.com Silliman University Angelo King Center for Research and Environmental Management, Dumaguete City Esther E. Carumbana esthercarumbana@yahoo.com Negros Oriental State University, Dumaguete City Date Submitted: Nov. 19, 2009 Final Revision Complied: Dec. 5, 2009 Gunning Fog Index: 12.42

Plagiarism Detection: Passed Original: 100% English Writing Readability: 39.65

Abstract - A total of 89 species of fish found in fresh and brackish waters belonging to 45 families is known in Negros and Siquijor islands. The most species rich is the Family Gobiidae (13 species) followed by the Family Eleotridae (10 species), Ophichthidae (six species), Cyprinidae (three species), and Poeciliidae (four species). The Families Muraenidae, Ambassidae and Mugilidae are represented by three species each and the Families Plotosidae, Syngnathidae, Terapontidae, Apogonidae, Carangidae, Lutjanidae, and Cichlidae are represented by two species each. The rest of the families are represented by only one species. Most of the species belonging to the Families Poeciliidae, Clariidae, Cyprinidae, and Loricariidae are all introduced species and brought to the country through the aquarium trade and aquaculture programs.

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Keywords - fresh and brackish water fishes, fish checklist, fish fauna Introduction The fish fauna in the river systems of the Philippines is relatively well-known as reflected in numerous publications (e.g. Herre 1923, 1924, 1927, 1940a,b; Herre 1953, 1959; Roxas & Ablan 1940; Kottelat 1992; Randall 1998; Davies 1999). The Albatross Expedition (19071910) had collected fishes in most islands in the Philippines (Smith & Williams 1999), including southern and northern Negros. Some of the fishes (including those from rivers and estuaries) collected during the Albatross are now deposited in the United States National Museum of Natural History (USNM) and reported by Smith (2004).

Biodiversity studies have been conducted in some river systems such as in Leyte by Kottelat (1992), the Agos River in Luzon by Carumbana (2002), Jalaur River in Panay by Alcala, Bucol and Averia (2010, monograph). In Negros Island, two major studies have been conducted: Siaton River in Negros Oriental by Carumbana (2006, unpublished report), and in Bago River by Pacalioga, Menes, Linaugo, Patiluna & Turbanos (2010, monograph).

There is a need to update and clarify the listing of riverine fishes in the Philippines, including the brackish water species that migrates into the freshwaters systems.

This checklist is an initial step to summarize what has been known about the fishes found in the fresh and brackish waters of Negros and Siquijor islands. The number of species included in this study should be considered only as tentative, since there is an on-going collection in Pagatban River in southern Negros Island which may reveal additional species.

Materials and Methods This checklist is compiled based on published literature and recent collections made by the authors on the freshwater and brackish water fishes of Negros Island (Figs. 1a,b) and the adjacent island of Siquijor.

We made extensive collections in the Siaton River (9°05’47.62” N; 92

Checklist of Fishes Found in the Fresh and Brackish Waters of Negros and Siquijor, Philippines

A. A. Bucol and E. E. Carumbanan

123°01’34.37” E) between May 2004 and October 2005, using various techniques such as gill nets, spear guns, bamboo traps, etc., in four stations.

Samples were immediately fixed in the field using 10% formalin.

After about a week in formalin, the samples were transferred to 70% ethanol. In October 2005, the second author brought the samples to the United States National Museum of Natural History in Smithsonian Institution (USNM) in Washington D.C. as part of her short-term visit as a visiting scientist. The samples were subsequently donated to this institution to be part of the worldwide collection of USNM. We have also examined published accounts and small-scale collections (2006-2010) made by us and our collaborators in the freshwater and brackish waters of Negros such as in Bago River (10.51–10.55°N, 122.83–123.26°E) and the adjacent island of Siquijor (9°09’N; 123°35’E).

Scientific names and sequence of the taxonomic list follows that of Randall & Lim (2000) and Froese & Pauly (2010) with a few modifications. Since there are on-going surveys being implemented in some rivers in Negros and Siquijor, it is expected that additional species will be added in the list.

Note: Museum abbreviations are as follows: USNM (United States National Museum of Natural History in Smithsonian Institution), PNM (Philippine National Museum); ANSP (Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia), and CAS (California Academy of Sciences). checklist We compiled the information of the 89 species of fish found in the fresh and brackish waters belonging to 45 families known in Negros and Siquijor islands. The most species rich is the Family Gobiidae with 13 species followed by the Family Eleotridae (10 species), Ophichthidae (six species), and Poeciliidae (four species). The Families Muraenidae, Ambassidae and Mugilidae are represented by three species each and the Families Plotosidae, Syngnathidae, Terapontidae, Apogonidae, Carangidae, Lutjanidae, and Cichlidae are represented by two species 93

Asian Journal of Biodiversity

each. The rest of the families are represented by only one species.

The checklist of fishes below is arranged according to a broad ecological classification based on their origins and tolerance to seawater as described by Davies (1999) and not according to major taxonomic groups. The major taxonomic category is on the family level. Based on the ecological classification, the 89 species can be further classified as: 1) primary freshwater fishes (11 species in six families); 2) secondary freshwater fishes (two species in a single family Cichlidae); 3) migratory fishes (six species in three families); and 4) sporadic visitors and brackish water species (70 species in 35 families).

Species belonging to the Families Poeciliidae, Clariidae, Cyprinidae (except P. binotatus), and Loricariidae are all introduced species, either through the aquarium trade or aquaculture.

It appears that the majority of the fishes in this river system are either marine or brackish water species that spend only a part of their lives in freshwaters.

ANNOTATED CHECKLIST The photographs of the fishes are found on pages 116-125, Figs. 3 to 30.

Primary freshwater fishes Fishes that have evolved in freshwater and can only survive in low salinity. The following families belong to this category: Cyprinidae, Clariidae, Anabantidae, Belontidae, Poeciliidae and Channidae. All primary freshwater fishes, except the Spotted Barb Puntius binotatus, found in the freshwaters of Negros are all introduced species.

CYPRINIDAE Cyprinus carpio Linnaeus, 1758 Remarks: Common in freshwater systems of Negros Island (e.g.

Bago, Pagatban, La Libertad, and Siaton rivers). It has been introduced in the Twin Lakes Balinsasayao-Danao.

Danio rerio Hamilton, 1822 (Fig. 10) Remarks: Samples were collected from Bago River in Station 2 in 94

Checklist of Fishes Found in the Fresh and Brackish Waters of Negros and Siquijor, Philippines

A. A. Bucol and E. E. Carumbanan

Lopez Jaena. A few individuals were also collected in a creek near the Central Philippine Adventist College campus in Murcia. It may have been introduced through the aquarium trade.

Puntius binotatus Valenciennes, 1842 (Fig. 26) Remarks: We recently collected samples from a small river tributary of Pagatban River in Cabigti-an, Basay, Negros Oriental and also in subterranean streams in Siquijor (Tulawog Cave) and Mabinay (Mambajo Cave), Negros Oriental. It is also common in Cambugahay Falls, which is part of the Se単ora River in Siquijor. This variable cyprinid is widespread in Southeast Asia (Herre 1940b; Froese and Pauly 2010) from Myanmar, Thailand, Indonesia and the Philippines.

POECILIIDAE Gambusia affinis Baird & Girard, 1853 Remarks: This species is popularly known as the mosquito fish as it was introduced in many Asian countries to control mosquitoes, primarily by A. Seale from Honolulu, Hawaii (Herre 1959) but seemed inefficient and competes the native species (Allen 1991). It is common in creeks and streams of Negros Island.

Poecilia sphenops Valenciennes in Cuvier and Valenciennes, 1846 (Fig. 26) Remarks: Our samples of this molly were confirmed by L. Parenti of USNM. This may have been introduced in the area through the aquarium trade. The anal fins of males have modified into a gonopodium used to transfer sperm bundles to females (Parenti 1999).

Poecilia reticulata Peters, 1859 Remarks: Common in canals, creeks, and rivers in Negros Island.

Probably introduced through the aquarium trade.

Xiphophorus hellerii Heckel, 1848 Remarks: A few individuals were collected from the Bago River by means of fine-mesh nets. This may have been introduced through the aquarium trade. Easily distinguished by the presence of a sword-like extension of the caudal fin in males.

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Asian Journal of Biodiversity

LORICARIIDAE

Pterygoplichthys disjunctivus Weber, 1991

Remarks: Six individuals of this species were caught by gillnets in Bago River at Village Lopez-Jaena in Murcia municipality. It is distinguished from P. pardalis in having vermiculated patterns on the belly while the latter possess rounded spots. This is the first account of this fish (or this genus) in a river system in the Visayas. The genus may now be widely distributed due to its popularity in the aquarium trade and has been reported in some places like Zamboanga in Mindanao and Aparri, Cagayan in northern Luzon (Chavez et al. 2006).

CLARIIDAE Clarias batrachus Linnaeus, 1758 Remarks: Common in Bago River, Pagatban, and Siaton River (USNM 385600) CHANNIDAE Channa striata Bloch, 1793 (Fig. 7) Remarks: Common in rivers and streams of Negros Island. We obtained samples from Pagatban and Siaton (USNM 385602) rivers.

The juveniles (reddish-orange in color) can be seen in isolated pools near the river.

BELONTIDAE Trichogaster trichopterus Pallas, 1770 Remarks: Specimens were collected from Siaton River (USNM 385443). This species is potamodromous, which migrates within freshwater bodies only (Forese & Pauly 2010).

Secondary freshwater fishes This category includes fishes of marine origin which are now confined to freshwater. They can tolerate brackish water, but can tolerate full seawater for short periods (Davies 1999).

96

Checklist of Fishes Found in the Fresh and Brackish Waters of Negros and Siquijor, Philippines

A. A. Bucol and E. E. Carumbanan

CICHLIDAE Oreochromis mossambicus Peters, 1852 Remarks: Samples were collected from the estuarine area of Bago River (Pacalioga, Menes, Linaugo and Turbanos 2010 unpublished manuscript).

Oreochromis niloticus Linnaeus, 1758 Remarks: This species is widespread and commonly introduced in most rivers and lakes in the country. In Negros Island, we collected and observed this species from the Siaton River, Pagatban River, Bago River, La Libertad River, Pagatban River, Calango water-impoundment in Zamboanguita, Negros Oriental, Twin Lakes Balinsasayao-Danao Natural Park, Sibulan. D. Lindstrom (pers. comm.) also observed this fish in Lake Nailig, ca. 1600m.a.s.l. in Mt. Talinis, Negros Oriental.

Migratory fishes Fishes in this category make regular migrations from the sea to freshwater or vice versa. Most of them migrate from saltwater to freshwater when juvenile and returns to the sea to spawn when mature (Davies 1999).

ANGUILLIDAE Anguilla marmorata Quoy & Gaimard, 1824 (Fig. 3) Remarks: This eel is common and widespread in the Indo-Pacific.

It can be distinguished easily from other species of Anguilla by its mottled color and long dorsal fin which originates closer to the gill opening than the anus (Smith 1999). Samples were also examined from Siaton River (USNM 385461), Bago River, Negros Occidental (courtesy of J. Linaugo) and Calango water-impoundment in Zamboanguita, Negros Oriental.

MUGILIDAE Liza subviridis Valenciennces, in Cuvier & Valenciennes, 1836 Remarks: Our samples were obtained from Siaton River (USNM 385603). Bluish dorsal coloration, scale serration and forked tail distinguish this species from the two other mullets below.

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Asian Journal of Biodiversity

Liza vaigiensis Quoy & Gaimard, 1825 Remarks: Samples were from the estuary of Bago River (Pacalioga, Menes, Linaugo and Turbanos 2010 unpublished manuscript). Easily distinguished by having truncate caudal fin and fewer scale counts (Harrison & Senou 1999).

Valamugil seheli Forssk책l, 1775 (Fig. 29) Remarks: Relatively smaller than L. vaigensis but often confused with L. subviridis, examining the scale serrations may help distinguish easily the two species (see Harrison & Senou 1999).

CARANGIDAE Caranx sexfasciatus Quoy & Gaimard, 1825 Remarks: Juveniles were often collected using gill nets in the estuary of Bago River.

Carangoides ferdau Forssk책l, 1775 (Fig. 5) Remarks: Samples were collected by means of gill nets in Siaton (USNM 385444), Pagatban, and Bago Rivers.

Sporadic visitors and brackish water inhabitants Fishes in this category make irregular visits to freshwater, especially in the lower reaches of the river. In this category, we included marine fishes that visit irregularly in fresh and brackish waters.

MEGALOPIDAE Megalops cyprinoides Broussonet, 1782 (Fig. 15) Remarks: We collected our samples from Pagatban River (August 25 2010), ca. 1 km upstream from the mouth of the river. A few individuals were also collected from the Bago River in Negros Occidental by J. Linaugo and party in 2009. Like its congener, the tarpon, M. atlanticus spawns in offshore waters (Wade 1962; Smith 1959; Miller & Tsukamoto 2004).

ELOPIDAE Elops machnata Forsskal, 1775 Remarks: Smith (1999) recognized only one species (E. hawaiiensis) 98

Checklist of Fishes Found in the Fresh and Brackish Waters of Negros and Siquijor, Philippines

A. A. Bucol and E. E. Carumbanan

in the Indo-Pacific but noted that it may constitute more species. Other authors, however, recognize two species, E. hawaiensis and E. machnata Forsskal 1775 (Miller & Tsukamoto 2004; McBride, Rocha, Ruiz-Caruz and Bowen, 2010). Juveniles are often caught using fine-nets near the estuaries.

MORINGUIDAE Moringua raitaborua Hamilton, 1822 (Fig. 16) Remarks: Hundreds of individuals of various stages were collected while burrowing in the heavily silted estuary of Bago River.

The description by Hamilton (1822) â&#x20AC;&#x153;vent is behind middle, upper jaw longest, back (dorsal) fin behind the middle...â&#x20AC;? is indicative of the series of samples from the Bago River. It appears that M. cagayana and M. robusta, described by Herre (1923) belong to this species. They may be considered synonyms of M. raitaborua Hamilton.

MURAENIDAE Gymnothorax polyuranodon Bleeker, 1853 Remarks: A single individual (USNM 385604) was captured in the lower reaches of the river (Carumbana 2006). Herre (1924) included this eel as among the rare anguilliform fishes in the Philippines.

Gymnothorax punctatofasciatus Bleeker, 1863 Remarks: Reported by Smith & Bohlke (1997): ANSP 164638 from the tidal inlet (0-1m) of Sabanj (probably Sabang in the municipality of Siquijor, Siquijor) by L. Knapp on May 16, 1979. Also from southwestern Negros CAS by B. Dean in 1901, and Dumaguete by A.W. Herre on July 6, 1948.

Strophidon sathete Hamilton, 1822 (Fig. 27) Remarks: Juvenile specimens were found in the muddy estuary while the single adult specimen was captured from the mouth of the river of the Bago River.

OPHICHTHIDAE Neenchelys sp. (Fig. 17) Remarks: Specimens were found in the estuarine area of Bago 99

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River (October 22 2009).

Muraenichthys thompsoni Jordan & Richardson, 1908 Remarks: A few samples were obtained from the estuarine area with the use of a local gear garab. M. malabonensis was synonymized by McCosker (1970).

Scolecenchelys Ogilby, 1867 Remarks: Distinguished from the genus Muraenichthys by the presence of teeth on vomer, maxilla and dentary (McCosker 1970).

Because we only have limited specimens to examine vertebral counts, identification is at the genus level.

Cirrhimuraena chinensis Kaup, 1856 Remarks: Identification provisionary given that the genus needs revision (McCosker, J. pers. comm.).

Pisodonophis cancrivorus Richardson, 1844 Remarks: Its broad pectoral fin base, paler yellowish coloration on belly and generally dark-brown coloration, and presence of a small papilla protruding halfway between the anterior nostril and the eye (Herre 1923) confirms its identity. The only known specimen was found near the estuary in Pungtod Islet of the Bago River.

Phaenomonas cooperae Palmer, 1970 Remarks: Specimens were found in the muddy estuary of the Bago River estuary.

PLOTOSIDAE Plotosus canius Hamilton, 1822 Remarks: Specimens were found in the estuary of Bago River by J. Linaugo (October 2009).

Plotosus lineatus Thunberg, 1787 Remarks: Common in coastal waters; a few individuals were collected by the local fishers near the mouth of Pagatban River in August 2010.

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CLUPEIDAE Sardinella sp.

Remarks: Samples were obtained from the estuarine area of Pagatban using gill nets.

ENGRAULIDAE Stolephorus indicus van Hasselt, 1823 Remarks: Samples were purchased from the local fishers of Pagatban estuary, Negros Island.

CHANIDAE Chanos chanos Forssk책l, 1775 (Fig. 8) Remarks: Common in the estuarine areas of Negros Island.

Specimens were obtained from Siaton, Pagatban, and Bago Rivers.

HEMIRAMPHIDAE Zenarchopterus dispar Valenciennes in Cuvier and Valenciennes, 1847 (Fig. 30) Remarks: Collected from the Siaton River, (USNM 385451) and in Pagatban River (February and August 2010).

SYNGNATHIDAE Microphis leiaspis Bleeker, 1853 Remarks: Known based on specimens from Siaton River were from the lower reaches of the river (USNM 385601).

Microphis brachyurus Bleeker, 1853 Remarks: Specimens were from Siaton River (USNM 385459).

TETRAROGIDAE Tetraroge niger Cuvier, in Cuvier & Valenciennes, 1829 Remarks: Specimens were gill netted and speared from the middle stations of the Siaton River (USNM 385449).

AMBASSIDAE Ambassis miops G체nther, 1872 Remarks: We tentatively identified the samples from Bago River as 101

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A. miops based on certain characters such as depth and fin ray counts but this will be separately discussed later when sufficient samples are examined.

Ambassis uroteania Bleeker, 1852 Remarks: Specimens were collected from Siaton River (USNM 385450) Ambassis gymnocephalus Lacepède, 1802 Remarks: Specimens were collected from Siaton River (USNM 385455) SILLAGINIDAE Sillago sihama Forsskål, 1775 Remarks: Specimens were collected from Siaton (USNM 384350), Pagatban and Bago rivers.

SERRANIDAE Epinephelus chlorostigma Valenciennes, 1828 Remarks: Specimens collected from the downstream stations in Bago and Pagatban rivers (USNM 385452).

TERAPONIDAE Mesopristes cancellatus Cuvier, 1829 Remarks: Commonly caught in the estuaries of Bago, Pagatban, and Siaton (USNM 385605) rivers.

Terapon jarbua Forsskål, 1775 Remarks: Common and widespread in the Indo-Pacific, usually found in brackish waters.

KUHLIIDAE Kuhlia marginata Cuvier, in Cuvier and Valenciennes, 1829 (Fig. 13) Remarks: Specimens were obtained from Bago and Siaton (USNM 385606) rivers.

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APOGONIDAE Apogon hyalosoma Bleeker, 1852 Remarks: Specimens were collected from the estuary of Pagatban River.

Sphaeramia orbicularis (Cuvier, 1828) Remarks: Specimens were from mangroves and estuaries in Siquijor (USNM 385699).

LEIOGNATHIDAE. Leiognathus equulus Forssk책l, 1775 Remarks: More species could be revealed by the on-going collection trips in some river systems in Negros Island.

LUTJANIDAE Lutjanus argentimaculatus Forssk책l, 1775 (Fig. 14) Remarks: Both adults (reddish coloration) and juveniles (darker color) were obtained from the lower reaches of Pagatban, Bago and Siaton rivers.

Lutjanus fuscesens Valenciennes, 1830 Remarks: Specimens were collected from Siaton River. It is distinguished from L. argentimaculatus by having a rounded dark blotch on the lateral side towards the tail and lighter over-all coloration.

GERREIDAE Gerres filamentosus Cuvier, 1829 Remarks: This species is widespread in the Indo-Pacific. Our samples were from Pagatban, Bago, and Siaton (USNM 385445) rivers.

Lethrinidae Lethrinus harak Forssk책l, 1775 Remarks: Often enters river mouths in Negros and embayments in Siquijor.

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MULLIDAE Mulloides flavolineatus Dor & Ben-Tuvia, 1984 Remarks: Often collected in the estuary of Pagatban and Siaton Rivers using gill nets.

TOXOTIDAE Toxotes jaculatrix Pallas, 1767 (Fig. 28) Remarks: Distinguished by having four dorsal-fin spines and four or five black bars on upper sides (Allen 1991, 1999). Our samples were collected by gill nets in the estuary of Pagatban River in May 2010.

MONODACTYLIDAE Monodactylus argenteus Linnaeus, 1758 Remarks: We recently obtained samples from the estuary of Pagatban River, Negros Oriental.

ELEOTRIDAE Belobranchus belobranchus Valenciennes, 1837 Remarks: A. Alcala (1983, unpub. report) recorded this species from Okoy River. We have not sampled this species so far but it may be common in Negros.

Bostrychus sinensis Lacepède, 1801 (Fig. 4) Remarks: In 2006, J. Rodriguez donated to us a single specimen from Pagatban River.

Butis amboinensis Bleeker, 1853 Remarks: We have examined samples of this eleotrid from the estuary of Bago River through J. Linaugo. Herre (1927) provided an earlier account of this species on Negros.

Butis butis Hamilton, 1822 Remarks: Recorded on Negros earlier by Herre (1927).

Bunaka pinguis Herre, 1927 Remarks: Herre (1927) described specimens from Dumaguete River (now Banica River). We have not examined any specimen of 104

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this species, which appear to be a synonym of any Bunaka species. In addition, it may no longer be found in the said River due to heavy pollution of domestic sewage.

Eleotris fusca Forster, 1801 Remarks: Listed by Herre (1927). Herreâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s specimens included samples from Dumaguete River (Banica River) and also from Lasay (Lazi), Siquijor. We have not examined any specimen that we can attribute to E. fusca, and this will be one of our investigations in the near future.

Hypseleotris cyrpinoides Valenciennes, 1837 Remarks: Known from the accounts of Herre (1927) collected by B. Dean from southern coast of Negros.

Oxyeleotris wisselensis Remarks: Carumbana (2006) collected two specimens (USNM 384351) from Siaton River. Larson & Murdy (1999) listed only three species of the genus Oxyeleotris occurring in the Indo-Pacific: O. marmorata (Bleeker, 1852), O. urophthalmoides (Bleeker, 1853), and O. urophthalmus (Bleeker, 1851). These differences will be treated and reported elsewhere.

Ophiocara porocephala Valenciennces, in Cuvier & Valenciennes, 1837 (Fig. 19) Remarks: Specimens were from Bago and Pagatban rivers. In Siquijor, A. Bucol collected three juvenile specimens from a small river in Sabang, Siquijor.

Ophieleotris aporos (Bleeker, 1854) (Fig. 18) Remarks: Samples were from the upper stations of Pagatban and Bago Rivers. Herre (1927) listed this species as Ophiocara aporos. His specimens included individuals from Dumaguete River (Banica River).

GOBIIDAE Caragobius urolepis Bleeker, 1852 Remarks: Known from Negros Oriental, Philippines: Canauay 105

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River, about 75 m upstream from mouth in tidal mangrove pool: USNM 243404 (Murdy & Shibukawa 2003) and Siquijor Island, Philippines: tidal inlet at Sabanj (probably in Village Sabang, Larena): USNM 243403 (Murdy & Shibukawa 2003). Herre (1927) described B. olivaceus, synonymized with C. urolepis by Murdy & Shibukawa (2003), from La Libertad, Negros Oriental and another specimen collected from a strait (probably referring to Guimaras Strait) between Negros and Iloilo.

Mahidolia mystacina Valenciennes, 1837 Remarks: G. Quinones of the Fish Larvae Project in Silliman University-IEMS allowed us to examine a single specimen collected in the vicinity of Sibulan, Negros Oriental which might be attributed to this species. The fish has first dorsal fin tail and broad with dark bands and/or spots; body with dark oblique bars (Larson & Murdy 1999).

Glossogobius giuris Hamilton, 1822 (Fig. 12) Remarks: Specimens were collected from Bago River, Pagatban River, and Siaton River (USNM 384352).

Glossogobius aureus Akihito and Meguro, 1975 (Fig. 11) Remarks: Two specimens were recently collected from Pagatban River, distinguished from G. giuris in having pit organs arranged in single rows (Akihito and Meguro, 1975).

Pseudogobius javanicus Bleeker 1856 Remarks: Herre (1927) described this as Vaimosa piapensis from Piapi Creek, Dumaguete. Larson et al. (2008) synonymized V. piapensis Herre with P. javanicus Bleeker.

Awaous melanocephalus Bleeker, 1849 Remarks: Herre (1927) reported this species as Chonophorus melanocephalus from the Negros and Lasay (probably Lazi), Siquijor.

Rhinogobius philippinus Herre, 1927 Remarks: Herre (1927) described the lizard goby â&#x20AC;&#x153;Tukugobiusâ&#x20AC;?, including specimens from Fabrica (now Sagay) in Negros Occidental.

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Bago River collected by J. Linaugo and J. Pacalioga in 2009. The gobies have generally dark coloration with eyes located dorsally (Herre 1927).

The genus described by Herre as Rhinogobius has been re-assigned to various marine genera (see FishBase.org for a list of valid species). As a result, Herre’s “real” Philippine Rhinogobius (=Tukugobius) are now limited to Luzon, except R. philippinus which is widely distributed.

Periophthalmodon freycineti Quoy & Gaimard, 1824 (Figs. 20 & 21) Remarks: Herre (1927) reported that specimens from Negros were collected from Polo, Tanjay, Negros Oriental. The species often hide in deep mud burrows (1m and deeper).

Periophthalmus argentilineatus Valenciennces, in Cuvier & Valenciennes, 1837 Remarks: Common in the mangrove embayments of Siquijor.

Periophthalmus kalolo Lesson, 1831 Remarks: In Siquijor, specimens of this species were obtained by A. Bucol in a brackish mangrove swamp within the San Juan embayment.

Scartelaos histophorous Hamilton, 1822 (Fig. 25) Remarks: Herre (1927) cited Jordan & Seale’s list of S. viridis, a synonym of S. histophorous, from southern Negros, collected by B. Dean. The specimens have upper part of caudal with diagonal crossbands (eight or more), the lower part of fin white with black tip.

Sicyopterus longifilis De Beaufort, 1912 Remarks: Distinguished by having gap in the middle of upper jaw tooth rows (Larson & Murdy 1999) and extended rays on the first dorsal fin. We have examined samples from the rivers of Siaton (USNM 385460) in 2005 and Bago in 2009.

Sicyopus zosterophorum Bleeker, 1856-57 Remarks: A single specimen was obtained by Aladin Bucol and party in the middle section of Pagatban River in 2006.

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Rhyacichthyidae Rhyacichthys aspro Valenciennes, 1837 Remarks: Specimens from Siaton, Pagatban, and Bago (courtesy of J. Linaugo & party) were recently examined by us.

EPHIPPIDAE Platax orbicularis Forssk책l, 1775 Remarks: Juveniles were encountered in brackish embayments and tidal inlets near mangroves in Siquijor.

SCATOPHAGIDAE Scatophagus argus Linnaeus, 1766 Remarks: Common in the estuaries of the following rivers: Pagatban, Bago, and Siaton (USNM 385457). It is also common in embayments and mangroves.

SIGANIDAE Siganus guttatus Bloch, 1787 Remarks: Juveniles often enters rivers, especially towards the river mouth, and also in mangroves.

SPHYRAENIDAE Sphyraena jello Cuvier, 1829 Remarks: Both juveniles and adults were collected in the estuaries of Pagatban and Siaton rivers and also in the mangroves of Lapac, Tambisan, San Juan in Siquijor. Other species such as S. putnamae and S. qenie overlap with the species range (Senou 2001; Froese & Pauly 2010), and may be found in the fresh and brackish waters of Negros and Siquijor as well. Unpublished reports by A. Alcala and party listed S. putnamae, however, we have not seen any specimen and hence remained unconfirmed by us.

TETRAODONTIDAE Arothron reticularis Bloch & Schneider, 1801 Remarks: Samples from Siaton River (USNM 385453) were collected in the lower reaches of the river.

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This checklist was made possible through the assistance of several individuals and institutions: The Planning, Research and Extension and International Linkages (PREXIL) of Negros Oriental State University (NORSU) funded the research and collection in Siaton River thru Dr. E. Carumbana; Silliman University-Angelo King Center for Research and Environmental Management (SUAKCREM) provided us with the additional reference materials. Dr. Lynne Parenti (USNM) confirmed the identification of fishes from Siaton River; Dr. David G. Smith (USNM) confirmed the identity of eels and provided additional relevant information; Drs. Edward Murdy (National Science Foundation, USA) and Helen Larson (Museum and Art Gallery of the Northern Territory, Australia) and Ronald Watson identified the photographs of the gobioid fishes. Dr. Carmen Menes and Mr. Joji Linaugo are also thanked for allowing us to examine specimens from Bago River. The comments by Dr. Angel C. Alcala (SUAKCREM) and an anonymous reviewer greatly improved the manuscript. literature cited Akihito, P. and K. Meguro 1975. Description of a new gobiid fish, Glossogobius aureus, with notes on related species of the genus. Japanese Journal of Ichthyology 22(3): 127-142.

Allen, G.R. 1991. Field guide to the freshwater fishes of New Guinea. Christensen Research Institute. Christensen Publication No. 19. Madang, Papua New Guinea, 268p.

Allen, G.R. 1999. Toxotidae: Archerfishes. In: Carpenter, K.E. and Niem, V.H. (eds) FAO species identification guide for fishery purposes.

The living marine resources of the western Central Pacific.

Volume 6. Bony fishes part 4 (Labridae to Latimeriidae). FAO, Rome.

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Bรถhlke, E. B. and D. G. Smith 2002. Type catalogue of Indo-Pacific Muraenidae. Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia 152: 89-172.

Carumbana, E.E. 2002. Taxonomy, abundance and distribution of fishes in Agos River, Central Sierra Madre, Luzon, Philippines. Asia Life Sciences 11(1): 29-58.

Carumbana, E.E. 2006. The limnology and fishery resources of the Siaton River in Southern Negros Oriental, Philippines. A report submitted to PREXIL, Negros Oriental State University, Dumaguete City.

Chavez, P.M., R.M. de la Paz, S.M. Manohar, R.C. Pagulayan and J.R. Carandang VI 2006. New Philippine record of South American Sailfin Catfishes (Pisces: Loricariidae). Zootaxa 1109: 57-68.

Davies, J. 1999. Diversity and endemism in Philippine inland waters. Sylvatrop Technology Journal of the Philippines. Ecosystems and Nat. Res. 7 (1 & 2): 55-70.

Froese, R. and D. Pauly.

2010. Fishbase. electronic database accessible at http://www.fishbase. org.search. Captured on 10 October 2010.

Hamilton, F. 1822. An account of the fishes found in the River Ganges and its branches. Archibald Constable and Co., Edinburgh: vi + 405 pp., pl. 1-39.

Harrison, I.J. and H. Senou 1999. Mugilidae. Pp 2069-2083. In: Carpenter, K.E. and Niem, V.H. (eds) FAO species identification guide for fishery purposes.

The living marine resources of the Western Central Pacific.

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Volume 6. Bony fishes part 4 (Labridae to Latimeriidae). FAO, Rome.

Herre, A.W.C.T. 1923. A review on the eels of the Philippine archipelago. The Philippine Journal of Science 23(2): 123-236.

Herre, A.W.C.T. 1924. Some rare Philippine eels. The Philippine Journal of Science 24(1): 107-111.

Herre, A.W.C.T. 1927. Gobies from the Philippines and the China Sea. The Philippine Bureau of Science Monographic Publications on Fishes, pp.

5-352.

Herre, A.W.C.T. 1940a. Notes on the fishes in the Zoological Museum of Stanford University, VII, New and rare Philippine gobies from the Herre 1936-1937 Oriental expedition and in the collection of the Bureau of Science. Philippine Journal of Science 72(4): 357367.

Herre, A.W.C.T. 1940b. Additions to the fish fauna of Malaya and notes on the little known Malayan and Bornean fishes. Bull. Raffles Mus. 16: 2761.

Herre, A.W.C.T. 1953. Checklist of Philippine Fishes. Fish & Wildlife Service, Research Report No. 20.

Herre, A.W.C.T. 1959. Alvin Seale, Naturalist and Ichthyologist. Science, New Series 129 (3345): 313-314.

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Kottelat, M. 1993. Technical report on the fishes from fresh and brackish waters of Leyte, Philippines. Technical Report prepared for the Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ) GmbH and ViSCA-GTZ Ecology Program, Visayan State College of Agriculture, Philippines. Route de Fregiêcourt 96c, Case postale 57, CH-2952 Cornol, Switzerland. 54 p.

Larson, H.K. and E.O. Murdy 2001. Gobiidae. Gobies. Pp 3578-3603. In: Carpenter, K.E. and Niem, V.H. (eds) FAO species identification guide for fishery purposes. The living marine resources of the western Central Pacific. Volume 6. Bony fishes part 4 (Labridae to Latimeriidae).

FAO, Rome.

Larson, H.K., J. Zaafar, and K.K.P. Lim 2008. An annotated checklist of the gobioid fishes of Singapore. The Raffles Bulletin of Zoology 56(1):135-155.

McBride, R.S., C.R. Rocha, R. Ruiz-Carus and B.W. Bowen 2010. A new species of ladyfish, of the genus Elops (Elopiformes: Elopidae), from the western Atlantic Ocean. Zootaxa 2346: 29– 41.

McCosker, J.E. 1970. Review of Leptenchelys and Muraenichthys, with the description of a new genus, Schismorhynchus, and a new species, Muraenichthys chilensis. Pac. Sci., 24(4): 506-516.

Miller, M.J. and K. Tsukamoto 2004. An introduction to leptocephali biology and identification.

Ocean Research Institute, University of Tokyo. 96pp.

Murdy, E.O. and K. Shibukawa 2003. A revision of the Indo-Pacific fish genus Caragobius (Gobiidae: Amblyopinae). Zootaxa 301: 1–12.

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Pacalioga, J., C. Menes, J. Linaugo, M. Patiluna and F. Turbanos 2010. Fishery resources of the Bago River, Negros Occidental.

Monograph.

Randall, J.E. 1998. Zoogeography of shorefishes of the Indo-Pacific Region.

Zoological Studies 37(4): 227-268.

Randall, J.E. 1999. Mullidae: Goat Fishes (surmullets). Pp. 3175-3186. In: Carpenter, K.E. and Niem, V.H. (eds) FAO species identification guide for fishery purposes. The living marine resources of the western Central Pacific. Volume 6. Bony fishes part 4 (Labridae to Latimeriidae). FAO, Rome.

Randall, J.E. and K.V.P. Lim 2000. A checklist of the fishes of the South China Sea. The Raffles Bulletin of Zoology Supplement No. 8: 569-667.

Roxas, H.A. and G.L. Ablan 1940. New Philippine gobioid fishes. Philippine Journal of Science 73(3): 301-311.

Senou, H. 2001. Sphyraenidae. Barracudas. p. 3685-3697. In: K.E. Carpenter and V. Niem (eds.) FAO species identification guide for fishery purposes. The living marine resources of the Western Central Pacific. Vol. 6. Bony fishes part 4 (Labridae to Latimeriidae), estuarine crocodiles.. FAO, Rome.

Smith, M.M. and P.C. Heemstra (eds.).

1986. Smithâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Sea Fishes. Johannesburg, Macmillan South Africa.

1047 pp.

Smith, D.G. 1999. Elopidae, Anguillidae, Moringuidae In: Carpenter, K.E. and Niem, V.H. (eds) FAO species identification guide for fishery purposes.The living marine resources of the Western Central 113

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Pacific. Volume 6. Bony fishes part 4 (Labridae to Latimeriidae).

FAO, Rome.

Smith, D.G. 2004. Catalog of type specimens of recent fishes in the National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution, 6: Anguilliformes, Saccopharyngiformes, and Notacanthiformes (Teleostei: Elopomorpha).

Smithsonian Contributions to Zoology Number 566. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington D.C. 50pp.

Smith, D.G. and E.B. Bohlke 1997. A review of the Indo-Pacific banded morays of the Gymnothorax reticularis group, with descriptions of three new species (Pisces, Anguilliformes, Muraenidae). Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia 148: 177-188.

Smith, D.G. and J. T. Williams 1999. The great Albatross Philippine Expedition and its fishes.

Marine Fisheries Review 61(40: 31-41.

Wade, R. A. 1962. The biology of the tarpon, Megalops atlanticus, and the ox-eye, Megalops cyprinoides, with emphasis on larval development.

Bulletin of Marine Science of the Gulf and Caribbean 12(4): 545-622.

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Fig. 1. Satellite images of two rivers on Negros Island (left: Bago River; right: Siaton River).

Fig. 2. Map of Siquijor Island showing collecting localities.

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Fig. 3. The Mottled Eel, Anguilla marmorata from Bago River

Fig. 4. Bostrychus sinensis

Fig. 5. Carangoides ferdau

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Fig. 6. Caranx sp.

Fig. 7. Channa striata

Fig. 8. Chanos chanos

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Fig. 9. Cirrhimuraena sp.

Fig. 10. Danio rerio

Fig. 11. Glossogobius aureus

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Fig. 12. Glossogobius giuris

Fig. 13. Kuhlia marginata

Fig. 14. Lutjanus argentimaculatus juvenile

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Fig. 15. Megalops cyprinoides

Fig. 16. Moringua raitaborua from Bago River estuary, Negros Occidental

Fig. 17. The snake eel Neenchelys sp. from the estuary of Bago

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Fig. 18. Ophieleotris aporos

Fig. 19. Ophiocara porocephala

Fig. 20. Periophthalmodon freycineti

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Fig. 21. Periophthalmodon freycineti

Fig. 22. Periopthalmus argentilineatus

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Fig. 23. Phaenomonas sp.

Fig. 24. Poecilia sphenops

Fig. 25. Scartelaos histophorus

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Fig. 26. Puntius binotatus

Fig. 27. Strophidon sathete

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Fig. 28. Toxotes jaculatrix

Fig. 29. Valamugil seheli

Fig. 30. Zenarchopterus dispar

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Vol. 1 No. 1 December 2010 ISSN: 2094-15019 pp. 126-138 International Reviewed Journal Asian JournalPeer of Biodiversity

Asian Journal of Biodiversity Species Diversity Section

An Annotated Checklist of Eels in Bago River, Negros Occidental, Philippines Abner A. Bucol abs_evodevo@yahoo.com Silliman University Angelo King Center for Research and Environmental Management, Dumaguete City Carmen C. Menes carmen_menes@yahoo.com Joji D. Linaugo enarlinaugo@yahoo.com La Consolacion College-Bacolod, Bacolod City Date Submitted: October 19, 2010 Final Revision Complied: Nov. 7, 2010 Gunning Fog Index: 11.59

Plagiarism Detection: Passed Original: 91.30% English Writing Readability: 44.18

Abstract - The eels occurring in Bago River, Negros Occidental, Philippines are briefly annotated. Order Synbranchiformes is represented by the swamp eel Ophisternon bengalense while Anguilliformes (or true-eels) consist of 10 species belonging to four families. Snake-eels (Ophichthidae) consist of seven species while Freshwater Eels (Anguillidae), Spaghetti Eels (Moringuidae), Moray Eels (Muraenidae) are represented by a single species each.

Keywords: Eels, river, brackish water, freshwater, Negros Occidental

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A. A. Bucol, C. C. Menes and J. D. Linaugo

Introduction

Eels are a diverse group of fishes characterized by having elongate, snake-like or worm-like bodies (Smith & McCosker 1999) and, except the synbranchids, all have leptocephalic larval stage (Smith 1979; Smith & Castle 1972; Castle 1966, 1968; Miller & Tsukamoto 2004).

The eels in the Philippines have been the subject of numerous studies. Among the earliest publications included, but not limited to, the following: Bleeker (1864), Herre (1923, 1924). The Albatross Expedition had collected fishes in most islands in the Philippines (Smith & Williams 1999), including southern and northern Negros.

Some of the species collected during the Albatross are now deposited in the United States National Museum of Natural History (USNM) and reported by Smith (2004). Since the late 1990s, several new species have been added to the eel fauna of the Philippines (e.g. McCosker 1998; Castle & Smith 1999; Bรถhlke 2000; Bรถhlke & Smith 2002; Smith & Karmovskaya 2003; McCosker 2010). Several undescribed species that have been discovered recently, awaiting formal description while certain groups such as moringuids and ophichthids need taxonomic revision (D.G. Smith and J.E. McCosker pers.comm.).

Armada (1997) briefly reported on the larvae (leptocephalic) in the Visayan and Sulu Seas and partly in the Guimaras Strait where our study site is located.

The purpose of this paper is to present the species of eels thus far known from Bago River, Negros Occidental.

Materials and methods We collected samples of eels from the four collecting stations in Bago River, Negros Occidental (Fig. 1 p. 136) using a variety of gears such as garab (an indigenous gear), spears, fine-nets and bamboo 127

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traps. Some of the samples were purchased directly from local fishers.

Collected samples were immediately fixed in 10% formalin and 70% ethanol. Presently, our samples are retained in the R.B. Gonzales Museum of Natural History at Silliman University, Dumaguete City.

Photographs were also obtained for each species then sent to eel specialists (D.G. Smith in the Division of Fishes, United States National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution and J.E. McCosker of the California Academy of Sciences, USA) for verification.

Identification follows Smith & McCosker (1999) for ophichthids, Böhlke et al. (1999) for muraenids, and Smith (1999) for moringuids.

CHECKLIST Below is an annotated checklist of the 11 species of eels (including one synbranchid or swamp eel) recently collected from the Bago River, majority are known as burrowers inhabiting the estuarine area, belonging to the Moringuidae and Ophichthidae families. The photographs of the eels are found on pages 137-138 Figs. 2-6.

Some of the eel species need further taxonomic attention; some of these aspects are briefly discussed.

ORDER SYNBRANCHIFORMES FAMILY SYNBRANCHIDAE (Swamp Eels) Ophisternon bengalense McClelland, 1844 One-gilled Eel, sili-sili Remarks: The current accepted name is Ophisternon bengalense (Froese & Pauly 2010) but early authors often used the original name Synbranchus bengalensis (see Herre 1923). Although indicated above as McClelland 1844, other authors (e.g. Herre 1923), however, indicated “McClelland 1845”. Rudimentary fins are reduced to mere folds of skin, anal opening far back, and the gillopenings are confluent in 128

An Annotated Checklist of Eels in Bago River, Negros Occidental, Philippines

A. A. Bucol, C. C. Menes and J. D. Linaugo

a single ventral slit. In Lopez Jaena, Murcia, a single specimen was purchased from a local fisher. The eel was brought to the surface using electro-fishing. Despite of their resemblance to true-eels, they differ significantly from the latter in terms of morphology and osteology.

They also lack the leptocephalus larval stage, which is common among true-eels and their allies.

ORDER ANGUILLIFORMES FAMILY ANGUILLIDAE (Freshwater Eels) Anguilla marmorata Quoy and Gaimard, 1824 (Fig. 2) Giant Mottled Eel, bais Remarks: Distinguished easily from other Anguilla by its mottled color and long dorsal fin which originates closer to the gill opening than the anus (Smith 1999a). The largest individual that we caught (Station 1 in Don Salvador Benedicto) measures ca 2m and weighs 14 kg.

FAMILY MORINGUIDAE (Spaghetti Eels) Moringua raitaborua Hamilton, 1822 (Fig. 3) Purple Spaghetti eel, sili-sili Remarks: Ontogenetic and sexual variations (Smith & Castle 1972; Smith 1999) have caused taxonomic confusion within the genus Moringua. Some of the species have been assigned erroneously to different families and genera. The immature forms of Moringua were described many times in the literature as Apthalmichthys, Stilbiscus, and Anguillichthys (Gosline & Strasburg 1956; Gordon 1954; Castle 1968; Castle & Smith 1972).

The actual number of species of Moringua has not yet been determined.

Numerous names have been published in the literature (see Castle 1968), but the actual number of species is probably small (Smith 1999, 2010 pers.comm).

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Herre (1924) published nominal names such as Moringua cagayana and M. robusta. It appears that M. robusta might be a maturing female of M. raitaborua. However, the entire genus needs revision and variations within the genus will be discussed later.

Careful examination of the body proportions, vertebral counts, developmental changes and sexual dimorphism suggest the samples we obtained are Moringua raitaborua.

Aside from Kottelat (1993), no other report of its occurrence in the Philippines is available to us (see also fishbase.org). The eel documented

by Lesley Lubos of Liceo de Cagayan from the estuary of Oro River, Cagayan de Oro might be attributed to this species.

In Bago River, M. raitaborua is priced 200-300 pesos per kilo.

FAMILY OPHICHTHIDAE (Snake or Worm Eels) Subfamily Myrophinae Neenchelys sp. (Fig. 4) Worm Eel, sili-sili Remarks: Specimens were found in the estuarine area of Bago River.

Due to the fact that the genus is taxonomically confusing, identification is limited to the generic level.

Muraenichthys thompsoni Jordan & Richardson, 1908 (Fig. 5) Worm Eel, sili-sili Remarks: A few samples were obtained from the estuarine area with the use of a local gear garab. McCosker (1970) considered M. malabonensis as a synonym of M. thompsoni.

Scolecenchelys Ogilby, 1867 Scolecenchelys sp.

Worm Eel, sili-sili

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A. A. Bucol, C. C. Menes and J. D. Linaugo

Remarks: Distinguished from the genus Muraenichthys by the presence of teeth on vomer, maxilla and dentary (McCosker 1970). Because only a single specimen is available and the number of vertebrae cannot be determined at this time, we limit our identification up to the genus level.

Cirrhimuraena chinensis Kaup, 1856 Worm Eel, sili-sili Remarks: Identification provisionary given that the genus needs revision (McCosker, J. pers. comm.). It has been erroneously used by many authors.

Pisodonophis cancrivorus Richardson, 1844 Worm Eel, sili-sili Remarks: Its broad pectoral fin base, paler yellowish coloration on belly and generally dark-brown coloration, and presence of a small papilla protruding halfway between the anterior nostril and the eye (Herre 1923) confirms its identity. The only known specimen was found near the estuary in Pungtod Islet of the Bago River.

Phaenomonas cooperae Palmer, 1970 Worm Eel, sili-sili Remarks: Small, slender specimens were obtained in the muddy estuary of the Bago River estuary using the indigenous gear garab.

FAMILY MURAENIDAE (Morays) Strophidon sathete Hamilton, 1822 (Fig. 6) Moray eel, nipa-nipa (Ilonggo) Remarks: Juvenile samples were found in the muddy estuary while the single adult specimen was captured from the mouth of the river of the Bago River.

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Acknowledgments We wish to acknowledge the Commission on Higher Education (CHED) for funding the research project “Hydrology and Ecology of the Bago River”. We are also thankful to Dr. Angel C. Alcala (Director of SU-CHED ZRC and SUAKCREM) for the encouragement and guidance throughout the conduct of the study. The help on the taxonomic identification provided by Dr. David G. Smith (USNM) and Dr. J.E. McCosker (California Academy of Sciences) are also acknowledged. D.G. Smith also provided additional relevant reference materials used in this study.

Literature Cited Armada, N.B. 1997. Larval and early juvenile fishes of the Sulu and adjacent waters.

UPV Journal of Natural Sciences 2: 102-137.

Bleeker, P. 1864. Atlas ichthyologique des Indies orientales Neerlandaises, publies sous les auspices du Gouvernement colonial Neerlandaises. Tome IV. Murenes, Synbranches, Leptocephales.

Amsterdam: Versl. Akad., p. 150, pls. 145-193.

Böhlke, E., J.E. McCosker and D.G. Smith 1999. Muraenidae. Pp. 1643-1657. In: Carpenter, K.E. and Niem, V.H. (eds) FAO species identification guide for fishery purposes.

The living marine resources of the western Central Pacific.

Volume 6. Bony fishes part 4 (Labridae to Latimeriidae). FAO, Rome.

Böhlke, E. B. 2000. Notes on the identify of small, brown, unpatterned IndoPacific moray eels, with descriptions of three new species (Anguilliformes: Muraenidae). Pacific Science 54(4):395–416.

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A. A. Bucol, C. C. Menes and J. D. Linaugo

Bรถhlke, E. and D.G. Smith 2002. Type catalog of Indo-Pacific Muraenidae. Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia 152: 89-172.

Castle, P.H.J. 1966. Les leptocephales dans le Pacifique, O.R.S.T.O.M., ser., Oceanogr., 12(4): 51-71.

Sud-quest.

Cah.

Castle, P.H.J. 1968. A contribution to a revision of the moringuid eels. Special Publication Department of Ichthyology Rhodes University, South Africa (3): 29 p.

Castle, P.H.J. and J.E. Bรถhlke 1976. Sexual dimorphism in size and vertebral number in the Western Atlantic eel Moringua edwardsi (Anguilliformes: Moringuidae).

Bulletin of Marine Science 26(4): 615-619.

Castle, P.H.J. and D.G. Smith 1999. A reassessment of the eels of the genus Bathycongrus in the Indo-west Pacific. Journal of Fish Biology 54: 973-995.

Carumbana, E.E. 2006. The limnology and fishery resources of the Siaton River, Negros Oriental. Unpublished report submitted to the Planning Research and Extension, Negros Oriental State University.

Gordon, M.S. 1954. The eel genus Stilbiscus. Copeia 1954: 11-14.

Hamilton, F. 1822. An Account on the Fishes Found the River Ganges and its Branches. Archibal Constable and Company, Edinburgh. 25-26 pp.

Herre, A.W.C.T. 1923. A review on the eels of the Philippine archipelago. The Philippine Journal of Science 23(2): 123-236.

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Herre, A.W.C.T. 1924. Some rare Philippine eels. The Philippine Journal of Science 24(1): 107-111.

Kottelat, M. 1993. Technical report on the fishes from fresh and brackish waters of Leyte, Philippines. Technical Report prepared for the Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ) GmbH and ViSCA-GTZ Ecology Program, Visayan State College of Agriculture, Philippines. Route de Fregiêcourt 96c, Case postale 57, CH-2952 Cornol, Switzerland. 54 p McCosker, J.E. 1970. Review of Leptenchelys and Muraenichthys, with the description of a new genus, Schismorhynchus, and a new species, Muraenichthys chilensis. Pac. Sci., 24(4): 506-516.

McCosker, J.E. 1998. A revision of the snake-eel genus Callechelys (Anguilliformes: Ophichthidae) with the description of two new Indo-Pacific species and a new callechelyin genus. Proc. Calif. Acad. Sci., 50(7): 185-215.

McCosker, J.E. 2010. Deepwater Indo-Pacific species of the snake-eel genus Ophichthus (Anguilliformes: Ophichthidae), with the description of nine new species. Zootaxa 2505: 1–39.

Miller, M.J. and K. Tsukamoto 2004. An Introduction to Leptocephali: Biology and Identification. Ocean Research Institute, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, vii+96 pages, 3 plates.

Smith, D.G. 1979.

Guide to the Leptocephali (Elopiformes, Anguilliformes, and Notacanthiformes). NOAA Technical Report NMFS Circular 424.

39pp.

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A. A. Bucol, C. C. Menes and J. D. Linaugo

Smith, D.G. 2004. Catalog of Type Specimens of Recent Fishes in the National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution, 6: Anguilliformes, Saccopharyngiformes, and Notacanthiformes (Teleostei: Elopomorpha). Smithsonian Contributions to Zoology Number 566. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington D.C. 50pp.

Smith, D.G. and J.E. McCosker 1999. Ophichthidae. Pp. 1662-1669. In: Carpenter, K.E. and Niem, V.H. (eds) FAO species identification guide for fishery purposes.The living marine resources of the western Central Pacific. Volume 6.

Bony fishes part 4 (Labridae to Latimeriidae). FAO, Rome.

Smith, D.G. and J. T. Williams 1999. The great Albatross Philippine Expedition and its fishes. Marine Fisheries Review 61(40: 31-41.

Smith, D.G. and P.H.J. Castle 1972. The eel genus Moringua raitaborua Girard: systematic, osteology, and life history. Bulletin of Marine Science 22(1): 195-249.

Smith, D.G. 1999. Moringuidae: spaghetti eels. In: Carpenter, K.E. and Niem, V.H. (eds) FAO species identification guide for fishery purposes.The living marine resources of the western Central Pacific. Volume 6.

Bony fishes part 4 (Labridae to Latimeriidae). FAO, Rome.

Smith, D.G. and E.S. Karmovskaya 2003. A new genus and two new species of congrid eels (Teleostei: Anguilliformes: Congridae) from the Indo-West Pacific, with a redescription and osteology of Chiloconger dentatus. Zootaxa 343: 1-19.

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Fig. 1. A map showing the entire Bago River, Negros Occidental.

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An Annotated Checklist of Eels in Bago River, Negros Occidental, Philippines

A. A. Bucol, C. C. Menes and J. D. Linaugo

Fig. 2. The Mottled Eel Anguilla marmorata from Bago River

Fig. 3. Moringua raitaborua from Bago River Estuary, Negros Occidental.

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Fig. 4. The snake eel Neenchelys sp. from the estuary of Bago.

Fig. 5. Muraenichthys thompsoni from Bago River estuary.

Fig. 6. A moray eel (Strophidon sathete) from Bago River.

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Vol. 1 No. 1 December 2010 ISSN: 2094-15019 pp. 139-164 International Peer Reviewed Journal

Asian Journal of Biodiversity Ecological Diversity Section

Fish Diversity, Ecological Status, and Conservation Measures of the Coastal Waters in Tubay, Agusan del Norte, Philippines Mark Anthony P. Alima Jose Hermis P. Patricio sporting_ph@yahoo.com Department of Environmental Science Central Mindanao University Date Submitted: Oct. 7, 2009 Final Revision Complied: Dec. 1, 2009 Gunning Fog Index: 12.60

Plagiarism Detection: Passed Original: 100% English Writing Readability: 43.65

Abstract - This study was conducted primarily to determine fish diversity of the coastal waters of mining areas in Tubay, Agusan del Norte. There were 23 fish species identified belonging to 19 genera and 12 families. Indo-pacific sergeant fish (Abudefduf vaigiensis) was relatively the most abundant in all the three stations comprising more than 25% of the total. Station 1 had the most numerous (556) and diverse (1.969) fish species. There was a significant difference in the number of fish individuals but had no significant difference on species diversity index with respect to sampling stations.

Station 2 had the highest species richness index (0.633), while Station 3 had the most even distribution (0.817). Stations 1 and 2 were 77.8% similar. The average water depth, temperature, transparency, pH and salinity were 4.52 meters, 26.53 ยบC, 3.97 meters, 8 and 34.33 ppt, respectively. These all fall within the DENR standards for Class SC water.

Keywords - Fish diversity, properties, conservation, coastal waters

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INTRODUCTION The Philippines being an archipelago is abundant with highly productive habitats and coastal waters. In fact, Conlu (1986) revealed that there are 2,202 species, 718 genera and 207 families of fishes in the country. Because of their vastness, fish resources in the country provide substantial benefits primarily to Filipino fisherfolks in the form of income, food and essential body nutrients. It is likewise a source of valuable foreign exchange for the countryâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s developing economy.

While most of us recognize their economic and ecological importance, still fisheries and coastal resources are seriously threatened due to human activities such as illegal fishing and habitat destruction. These practices are exacerbated by the increased demand for fish brought about by an ever increasing number of Filipinos. The unsustainable utilization of the same has led to declining fish catch, size and species composition around the country.

In Tubay, Agusan del Norte in the southern part of the Philippines, people claimed that the rapid decline of fish catch has become a major problem as majority of those who live in the coastal villages are dependent on fishing. These changes have been observed in recent years since polluting industrial mining and many other destructive human activities take place. It is also noteworthy to mention that the entire area of Tubay had been declared as bird sanctuary while five marine sanctuaries had also been declared in the area.

Such observation had driven the authors of this study to examine and analyze fish diversity of three (3) coastal villages as study sites.

These villages are located close to two mining companies that operate in the area. Specifically, the study aimed to: 1) identify fish species in the study area and their ecological status; 2) determine fish diversity and abundance; 3) determine physico-chemical characteristics of the seawater of the study area; 4) find out existing threats and conservation practices on fish species in the study area; and 5) propose policy measures for the conservation of fish species in the study area.

MATERIALS AND METHODS Locale of the study. The study was conducted in the coastal waters of Tubay, Agusan del Norte in the southern part of the Philippines 140

Fish Diversity, Ecological Status, and Conservation Measures of the Coastal Waters in Tubay, Agusan del Norte, Philippines

M. A. P. Alima and J. H. P. Patricio

with grid coordinates of 9º9’37’ to 9º18’ north latitude and 125º31’ to 125º37’ east longitude (MPDO, 2008). With a total land area of 13,800 has, the Municipality is comprised of eight coastal villages and five inland villages. Three coastal villages had been chosen as study sites owing to their proximity to two mining sites in the municipality. These villages include Tinigbasan (Station 1), Binuangan (Station 2), and La Fraternidad (Station 3).

Village Tinigbasan is a coastal village which is about ten kms from the nearest mining site. Located northwest of town proper, it has a total land area of 2,159 has, roughly 30% of which is allotted to residential or settlement district and the rest are distributed as farmlands or alienable or disposable areas (MPDO, 2008). On the other hand, Village Binuangan is likewise a coastal village which is about five kms from the town center and is about two kms from one of the two mining sites. It has a total land area of 764.43 has of which 11.28% is declared as alienable and disposable land. The village lies in the northern coast of the Butuan Bay along the seashore of Tubay. Finally, Village La Fraternidad is located nearest to the town proper and is also about two kms from the other mining site. The entire village is declared as alienable and disposable land.

Underwater fish sampling. Underwater fish visual census method was used to estimate diversity of fishes in the study area. One transect each in belt form was established per sampling station. Following the method used by Labrosse, Kulbicki and Ferraris (2002), each belt transect covered an area of 250 m2 (50m x 5m) which was laid on a constant depth contour to facilitate identification, counting and recording of fishes found within transect boundaries. Snorkeling was used in diving as it was more ideal since the three study sites had water depth average of only 4.52 meters. Starting at one end of the line, fishes were counted for the first 5-meter mark and forward to next 5-meter mark until the 50-meter transect was completed.

Sampling was undertaken on July 1-3, 2008 for Station 1; July 9-11, 2008 for station 2; and July, 14-16, 2008 for Station 3. It was done two times a day (once during high tide and once during low tide) for three consecutive days per study station. A calendar was used to determine the time of tidal changes of the day.

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Fish identification and counting, and assessment of ecological status. Fish species observed in the study area were identified using the taxonomic keys of Conlu (1986) and from the Salt Corner and Fish Base Organizations (http://www.saltcorner.com and http://www. fishbase.org). Identification of fish species was confirmed by Prof.

Victoria Quimpang, an aqua-marine expert from Central Mindanao University. Fish familiarization during onsite exercise was done beforehand to enhance correct identification of different varieties of fishes. Simple sketches to illustrate fish body and characteristics were done to facilitate fish identification. Underwater and digital camera was also used to verify the identified fish species.

Fish counting was done with the use of underwater slates with attached pencil to record underwater observations. Difficulty in counting fish had been encountered in the conduct of the study due to the limitations of the human eye which can only count four objects at any one time. For this reason, group-counting method which consisted of counting a group of 10 to 20 fishes was used (Labrosse, Kulbicki and Ferraris 2002). To avoid counting same fish more than once, the most abundant fish species was counted first.

The ecological status of all observed fish species was determined based on the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List (www.iucnredlist.org).

Determination of Physico-chemical Properties of Seawater in the Study Area. Seawater in the three sampling stations was characterized in terms of water depth, temperature, salinity, pH and transparency.

This was done once during high tide and another during low tide for three consecutive days per study station. The mean of the measurements was derived.

Perception survey and key informant interview. A perception survey was done using a structured questionnaire. Thirty respondents per village for a total of 90 were chosen through random sampling.

Each respondent was selected based on the following criteria: must be a resident of the village and must be at least 18 years old. The survey questionnaire was divided into two parts: 1) respondentâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s demographic profile, and 2) their perceptions on the threats of fish diversity, and their knowledge and local practices on the conservation 142

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M. A. P. Alima and J. H. P. Patricio

and protection of fish resources in the study area. Key informants such as village captains and fisher folks were also interviewed to extract more information necessary in the study.

Statistical Analysis. Data gathered in the study were analyzed based on the following: 1) relative abundance, 2) Shannon-Weiner diversity index, 3) Simpson’s dominance index, 4) Shannon’s evenness index, and 5) Sorensen’s index of similarity.

To test any significant difference in terms of the number of fish individuals and Shannon-Weiner diversity index values among sampling stations and between water tide levels, Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) and the Tukey’s Studentized Range (HSD) Test were employed. Meanwhile, data on perception survey conducted were analyzed using simple descriptive statistics such as frequency counts, means, and percentages.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Fish Species Composition, Distribution and Ecological Status A total of 23 fish species, belonging to 19 genera and 12 families were recorded in the study area (Table 1 and Figs. 1-23). These comprise 1.04% of the total fish species in the Philippines as accounted by Conlu (1986). (The photographs of the fish species are found on pages 157-164 Figs. 1 to 23). The most represented fish species was from the family Pomacentridae which had 11 species while the family Acanthuridae had 2 species. The rest had only one representative species each namely: Balistidae, Chaetodontidae, Labridae, Lutjanidae, Microdesmidae, Mullidae, Nemipteridae, Synodontidae, Tetraodontidae, and Zanclidae. Species under the families Chaetodontidae, Zanclidae, Lutjanidae, Pomacentridae, Synodontidae and Labridae were widely distributed in all the three sampling stations.

All the 23 fish species identified in the study were not in the IUCN red list. This implies that all of these species are not endangered or threatened. Despite this, all fish species must still be conserved and protected because some of them might be useful in some other purposes, e.g. indicator of the health and biodiversity of a coral reef, useful in assessing marketable food species, (Labrosse, Kulbicki and 143

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Ferraris 2002).

In terms of number of species, it is sampling Station 2 which had the highest particularly during low tides (Table 2). However, in terms of individuals, Station 1 significantly had the highest number with a mean of 556 while Station 3 had the least with 310. It is interesting to note that Station 1 was located farthest from the mining areas than Stations 2 & 3. It is however difficult to attribute the relative abundance of fish in any sampling station to the presence of mining activities in the study area as it is beyond the scope of this study.

Meanwhile, the number of fish individuals during low tides (481) was significantly higher than during high tides (398). This is possible since underwater space is widened during high tide which results to the less number of fishes that could be observed. Fishes during this time were also very mobile and the chance of seeing them along the transect is lessened. Indo-pacific sergeant (Abudefduf vaigiensis) was relatively the most abundant in all sampling stations.

As indicated in Table 3, fish diversity mean values in the study area are relatively high ranging from 1.922 to 1.992 wherein the difference among stations is not significant. However, it is during low tide that fish diversity is significantly higher as indicated in the ANOVA results.

In terms of evenness index, mean values are likewise high ranging from 0.748 to 0.817 which is an indication of a high number of fish species thriving in the study area. Mean dominance values are relatively low as expected as this index is the reverse of diversity and evenness indices. This means that no single fish species is thriving dominantly in the study area.

Sorensenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s index of similarity is shown in Table 4. Stations 1 and 2 had the most number of species commonly present to each other with 77.8% similarity. This could be attributed to the presence of healthy corals and lesser sedimentation as observed during the conduct of the study. On the other hand, Stations 2 and 3 were only about 55% similar.

It is again noteworthy to mention that these two sampling stations are located more adjacent to the mining areas in the study area.

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Common Name

Tomini tang

White cheek surgeonfish

Orange-lined triggerfish

Vagabond butterflyfish

Moon wrasse

Checkered snapper

Scissortail dartfish

Dash-dot goatfish

Two-lined monocle bream

Indo-pacific sergeant

Family Name

Acanthuridae

Acanthuridae

Balistidae

Chaetodontidae

Labridae

Lutjanidae

Microdesmidae

Mullidae

Nemipteridae

Pomacentridae

Station 1 (June 1-3) x / / / / / x x x /

Scientific Name Ctenochaetus tominiensis Randall Acanthurus nigricans Linn.

Balistapus undulatus Park Chaetodon vagabundis Linn.

Thalassoma lunare Linn.

Lutjanus decussatus Cuvier Ptereleotris evides Jordan & Hubbs Parupeneus barberinus Lacepede Scolopsis bilineata Bloch Abudefduf vaigiensis Linn

/

/

x

/

/

/

/

/

/

/

Station 2 (June 9-11)

Table 1. Fish species recorded in the study sites of Tubay, Agusan del Norte (sampling period: July 1-3, 9-11, 14-16, 2008)

/

/

/

x

/

/

/

x

x

/

Station 3 (June 14-16)

Fish Diversity, Ecological Status, and Conservation Measures of the Coastal Waters in Tubay, Agusan del Norte, Philippines M. A. P. Alima and J. H. P. Patricio

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146

False clown anemonefish

Pink skunk anemonefish

Pearl-scaled angelfish

Humbug dascyllus

Bowtie damselfish

Speckled damselfish

Neon damselfish

Lemon damselfish

Variegated lizardfish

Yellow dogface pufferfish

Moorish idol

23

Pomacentridae

Pomacentridae

Pomacentridae

Pomacentridae

Pomacentridae

Pomacentridae

Pomacentridae

Pomacentridae

Synodontidae

Tetraodontidae

Zanclidae

TOTAL

x-absent

Clarkâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s anemonefish

Pomacentridae

Legend: /- present

Staghorn damselfish

Pomacentridae

Table 1 continued

/ / x / / / / / / / / /

Amphiprion clarkii Bennett Amphiprion ocellaris Lacepede Amphiprion perideraion Bleeker Centropyge vroliki Bleeker Dascyllus aruanus Linn.

Neoglyphidodon melas Cuvier Pomacentrus bankanensis Bleeker Pomacentrus coelestis Jordan & Starks Pomacentrus moluccensis Bleeker Synodus variegatus Lacepede Arothron nigropunctatus Bloch & Schneider Zanclus cornutus Linn.

18

/

Amblyglyphidodon curacao Bloch

20

/

x

/

/

/

x

/

/

/

/

/

/

/

16

/

x

/

/

/

/

/

x

/

x

/

x

/

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13

3

22

15

19

16

23

16

20

18

TOTAL

398b

298

372

524

HIGH TIDE

1.907

1.844

1.904b

2

3

MEAN

2.018a

2.0

2.077

1.977

Low Tide

0.781

0.767

0.809

0.824

1.922

0.755

0.761

0.737

Low Tide

a

0.758

High Tide

1.992a

1.969a

Mean

0.817

0.758

0.748

Mean

EVENNESS INDEX

Note: Means with the same letter superscript are not significantly different.

1.960

High Tide

SHANNON-WEINER DIVERSITY INDEX

1

STATION

0.188

0.179

0.181

0.203

High Tide

1319

310c

453b

556a

MEAN

0.166

0.160

0.160

0.177

Low Tide

0.170

0.171

0.190

Mean

DOMINANCE INDEX

Table 3. Diversity, evenness and dominance indices of fish species in the study area.

481a

322

534

587

LOW TIDE

NUMBER OF INDIVIDUALS

Note: Means with the same letter superscript are not significantly different.

TOTAL

19

15

2

MEAN

14

LOW TIDE

NUMBER OF SPECIES

HIGH TIDE

1

STATION

Table 2. Abundance of fish species and individuals in the study area.

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Table 4. Similarity index of fish species observed in the sampling stations.

STATION

SIMILARITY INDEX, % 1

2

3

1

-

77.8

74.1

2

77.8

-

55.2

3

74.1

55.2

-

Physico-chemical Properties of Seawater in the Study Area Certain physical and chemical properties of seawater in the three sampling stations were determined in the course of the study (Table 5). The study area has an average water depth of 4.52 meters, water temperature of 26.53 째C, water transparency of 3.59 meters, water pH of 8, and salinity of 34.33 ppt. These parameters were determined as these might affect the distribution pattern and abundance of fish species in the study area. The measured parameters all fall within the acceptable standards set by the DENR (2008) for Class SC waters.

Perceived Threats to Fishery Resources in the Study Area A perception survey was conducted representing 30 respondents from each village covered in the study for a total of 90 respondents.

Majority of them were fisherfolks themselves who had been staying in the area for almost 20 years. Four major environmental threats were identified which include mining, overfishing, improper domestic waste disposal and fish poisoning. Respondents from Village La Fraternidad all perceived that mining activities in the area are causing decline in fish population in their locality (Table 6 p. 151). The same observation was shared by almost all respondents from the other two sampled villages. Such perception is expected as Villages Binuangan and La Fraternidad are hosts to two mining companies in the area, namely: SR Metals, Inc. and Minimax Mineral Exploration Corporation. If not properly managed, mining activities could lead to soil erosion and sedimentation. Such is then detrimental to sea grasses and coral reefs of impact villages. This is very crucial because the greatest marine 148

Legend:

34.33

34.33

8

2.26

26.28

2.26

MEAN

34.33

8

4.55

26.33

6.72

HT

34.67

8

3.72

27.0

4.84

LT

2

34.5

8

4.14

26.67

5.78

MEAN

HT-high tide; LT-low tide; ppt- parts per thousand

34.33

Salinity, ppt

8

1.50

3.01

8

26.11

1.50

LT

26.44

3.01

HT

pH

Temperature, ยบC Transparency, m

Depth, m

PROPERTIES

1

STATIONS

34.33

8

4.35

26.67

6.55

HT

34.0

8

4.41

26.65

4.51

LT

3

Table 5. Physico-chemical properties of the seawater in the study area.

34.17

8

4.38

26.66

5.53

MEAN

34.33

8

3.59

26.53

4.52

GRAND MEAN

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biodiversity can be found in the mixed coastal fauna of coral reefs, mangroves and seagrass beds, including approximately 2000 species of fish (NFEFI, 2008).

Overfishing has likewise been the cause of fish catch decline according to most of the respondents. Like in many cases, this can be attributed to the open access nature of the fishery in the coastal area.

Anybody can fish at any time and harvest without limit. The use of catch-efficient gears such as fine mesh nets is prevalent in the area.

This has proliferated because of the very poor enforcement of fishery laws. Bohnsack (1994) reported that if too many fish are removed too quickly, the reproductive capacity of the stock or population may be impaired and the fishery declines. Acknowledging that fishes in the Philippines are generally being harvested at very high levels, Trinidad, Pomeroy, Corpuz and Aguero (1993) have long recommended that the country must decrease fisheries activities by about 50-65%.

Many respondents also believed that improper solid waste disposal and poor sewage facilities have led to reduction in fish abundance and diversity in the area. The municipality has no systematic garbage collection. It does not even have an in-place Ecological Solid Waste Management Plan. Consequently, garbage has found its way to rivers and coastal waters. Sewage treatment systems are likewise deficient which would expectedly lead to contamination of well waters, rivers and coastal waters. Smith (2006) reported that only 10% of sewage in the Philippines undergoes treatment or disposal through environmentally sound manner. Improperly disposed solid waste and sewage would eventually end up in the sea. About 50% source of marine pollution in the country is due to runoff and land-based discharges. All these contaminants may cause red tide events that kill or make shellfish and some fish species toxic.

The problem of overfishing is further aggravated by the use of poisons (poisonous plants like tubli and lagtang) to increase fish catch in the area. This practice is unsustainable as it may kill juvenile fishes and coral polyps. Based on studies conducted, the most common chemical utilized in fish poisoning is cyanide. Smith (2006) reported that collectively, the so-called â&#x20AC;&#x153;search and destroyâ&#x20AC;? fisherman sprays nearly 400,000 kilos of sodium cyanide on Philippine coral reefs annually. Reefs where cyanide is spread will first form black slime, 150

28

25

20

98

Overfishing

Domestic waste

Fish poisoning

TOTAL

* With multiple responses

25

100

20.4

25.5

28.6

25.5

87

13

18

29

27

100

15.0

20.7

33.3

31.0

%

Frequency

Frequency

%

STATION 2 (Brgy.

Binuangan

STATION 1 (Brgy.

Tinigbasan

Mining

PERCEIVED THREAT*

78

13

19

16

30

Frequency

100

16.7

24.3

20.5

38.5

%

STATION 3 (Brgy. La Fraternidad)

263

46

62

73

82

100

17.5

23.5

27.8

31.2

%

GRAND TOTAL Frequency

Table 6. Threats to fishery resources in the study area as perceived by the respondents (July 4, 8 & 13, 2008).

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and eventually become dead coral rock, driving away marine life.

However, other chemical substances such as poisonous plants, bleach, chlorine, and even liquid dish soup are also used.

Existing Coastal Resource Management Practices Adopted in the Study Area Based on the results of the key informant interview and perception survey conducted, the local government units together with fisherfolks in the area adopted the following management practices so as to protect and conserve fishery resources in the area: 1) establishment of a fish sanctuary; 2) conduct of information, education and communication campaigns (IEC); 3) putting up of artificial coral reefs; and 4) establishment of mangrove plantations.

Russ & Alcala (1999) said that the creation of a fish sanctuary can contribute effectively to the enhancement of fisheries and protection of reefs from destructive fishing. All of the respondents from the three sampled villages fully agreed that indeed the establishment of fish sanctuary in the area has helped in the conservation and protection of their fishery resources. Meanwhile, the conduct of IEC campaigns particularly seminars have also been instituted in the area as reported by more than 25% of the respondents. Increased awareness through seminars and other similar activities could lead to educating and empowering the local people to control their situation, and the sustainability of the protected area will be prolonged (Russ and Alcala, 1999).

Another strategy adopted was the putting up of artificial coral reefs although this practice has not been widely applied in the study area as people claimed that it is relatively expensive. However, the local government should strive to adopt this practice as providing suitable substrates for coral recruits speeds up the recovery of destroyed or degraded reefs and increase coral cover (Heeger, Sotto, Gatus. Laron and Huttche 2000; Edwards & Clark 1998).

Finally, although only a very few of the respondents adopt this management strategy, it is really important to establish and protect mangrove plantations in the area as they serve as habitat and nursery ground for fish species, prevent siltation and can balance the nutrient 152

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level of the sea water (Russ and Alcala, 1999).

Conclusions Based on the results of the study, the following conclusions are drawn: 1. The study area during the sampling period is composed of 23 species of fish belonging to 19 genera and 12 families, the most abundant of which is Indo-pacific sergeant fish (Abudefduf vaigiensis). All of the species identified were not found in the IUCN red list.

2. There was a significant difference in the number of fish individuals but had no significant difference on species diversity index with respect to sampling stations. However, the number of fish individuals and species diversity are significantly higher during low tides.

3. Coastal waters of the study area still fall within the DENR standards for Class SC water.

4. The identified local threats to fishery resources in the study area include mining, overfishing, improper disposal of domestic waste and fish poisoning.

5. The identified fish conservation practices in the study area include the creation of fish sanctuary, the conduct of seminars, construction of artificial coral reefs and establishment of mangrove plantation.

Recommendations Based on the foregoing, the researchers would like to recommend the following: 1. Participatory assessment and monitoring of fishery resources in the area including sea grasses and mangroves should be done regularly. This should be a multi-partite undertaking which may be composed of researchers, and representatives of DENR, local government units, the business sector such as that of mining companies, peopleâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s organizations such as fisherfolks, church and other stakeholders in the area. Participatory assessment and monitoring is not only a research tool, but it also serves as an agent 153

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to educate both resource users and decision makers; 2. Knowing the various threats to fishery resources in the area, the Municipality of Tubay together with other stakeholders should strive to come up with an integrated and comprehensive comanagement agreement plan for the protection and conservation of fishery resources in the area. This is in compliance to Executive Order No. 533 as a strategy to ensure sustainable development of their coastal and marine resources; 3. While waiting for the co-management agreement scheme to get in-place, an intensified public awareness and education campaign must be done so as not to further aggravate the extent of destructive fishing-related activities in the area. Information on the importance and status of coastal and marine resources in the area and how they could be managed should be published not only in English but also in the vernacular; 4. Considering the presence of mining activities and the lack of a systematic solid waste management plan in the area, the LGU in coordination with other concerned government agencies and NGOs should strictly implement with strong political will pertinent environmental laws particularly those that address violations of provisions of RA 7942 (Phil. Mining Act of 1995), RA 9003 (Ecological Solid Waste Management Act of 2000), and RA 9275 (Philippine Clean Water Act). It is also important for the concerned LGUs to continue the strengthening local organizations to enforce coastal laws, such as the coast guard (Bantay Dagat); 5. Alternative local livelihood programs should be provided to ease pressure on fishery resources in the area. This could be in the form of employment through ecotourism, businesses/industries nearby or perhaps engaging in agriculture. However, the provision of any livelihood program for the local populace particularly fisherfolks should not, in the process, result to the creation of a new environmental problem which has happened in many cases; and, 6. The LGU should also spearhead in addressing impacts of climate 154

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M. A. P. Alima and J. H. P. Patricio

change such as sea-level rise and destruction of coral reefs on coastal and marine resources in the area. While it was beyond the scope of this study, finding viable solutions to this environmental problem would consequently result also to enhancing fish diversity and abundance in the area.

Literature Cited Bohnsack, J.A. 1994. Marine reserves: they enhance fisheries, reduce conflicts and protect resources. Naga, Philippines: 4-7pp.

Conlu, V. 1986. Guide to Philippine flora and fauna: fishes. Volume IX. Natural Resources Management Center, University of the Philippines.

DENR [Department of Environment and Natural Resources].

2005. The State of Philippine biodiversity. Retrieved from the World Wide Web, August 15, 2008. http:/www.bwf.org.

Edwards, A.J. and S. Clark 1998. Coral transplantation: a useful management tool or misguided meddling? Marine Pollution Bulletin. 474-487pp.

Heeger, T., F. Sotto, J. Gatus, C. Laron, and C. Huttche 2000. Coral Farming, A Tool for Reef Rehabilitation and Community Ecotourism. Coral Farm Project for the Sea and the People of the Sea:1-3pp.

IUCN [International Union for Conservation of Nature] Red List.

2001. Retrieved from the World Wide Web September 1, 2008. http:// www.iucnredlist.org.

Labrosse P., M Kulbicki and J. Ferraris 2002. Underwater visual fish census surveys. Reef Resource

155

Asian Journal of Biodiversity

Assessment Tools (REAT), Secretarial of the Pacific Community Noumea, New Caledonia.

MPDO [Municipal planning and development office].

2008. Municipal profile. Tubay, Agusan del Norte, Philippines. Hon. Municipality Mayor Fidel E. Garcia Jr. NFEFI [Negros Forest and Ecological Foundation, Incorporated].

2008. Biodiversity in the Philippines. Retrieved from the World Wide Web. http:/www.nfefi.org.

Russ, G.R. and A.C. Alcala 1999. Management histories of Sumilon and Apo Marine Reserves, Philippines, and their Influence of National Marine Resource Policy. Coral Reefs:307-319pp.

Trinidad, A.C., R.S. Pomeroy, P.V. Corpuz and M. Aguero.

1993. Bioeconomics of the Philippine Small Pelagic Fishery: 38pp.

Smith, R. 2006. Go easy on the sea, the fisheries improved for sustainable Harvest Project, Cebu City Philippines. Retrieved from the World Wide Web, December 19, 2007. www.oneocean.org.ph.

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Species observed in the study sites.

Fig. 1. Ctenochaetus tominiensis Randall*

Fig. 2. Acanthurus nigricans Linn.*

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Fig. 3. Balistapus undulatus Park*

Fig. 4. Chaetodon vagabundis Linn.

Fig. 5. Thalassoma lunare Linn.

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Fig. 6. Lutjanus decussatus Cuvier

Fig. 7. Ptereleotris evides Jordan & Hubbs

Fig. 8. Parupeneus barberinus Lacepede

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Asian Journal of Biodiversity

Fig. 9. Scolopsis bilineata Bloch*

Fig.10. Abudefduf vaigiensis Linn

Fig. 11. Amblyglyphidodon curacao Bloch

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Fig. 12. Amphiprion clarkii Bennett*

Fig. 13. Amphiprion ocellaris Lacepede

Fig. 14. Amphiprion perideraion Bleeker*

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Fig. 15. Centropyge vroliki Bleeker

Fig. 16. Dascyllus aruanus Linn.*

Fig. 17. Neoglyphidodon melas Cuvier

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Fig. 18. Pomacentrus bankanensis Bleeker*

Fig. 19. Pomacentrus coelestis Jordan & Starks

Fig. 20. Pomacentrus moluccensis Bleeker

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Fig. 21. Synodus variegatus Lacepede

Fig. 22. Arothron nigropunctatus Bloch & Schneider*

Fig. 23. Zanclus cornutus Linn.* Note: Photos with asterisk (*) sign were sourced from the internet (http://en.wikipedia.org/ wiki/FishBase) while those without asterisk were actual shots in the study sites.

164

Vol. 1 No. 1 December 2010 ISSN: 2094-15019 pp. 165-184 International Peer Reviewed Journal

Asian Journal of Biodiversity Biodiversity Modelling Section

The Use of a Kernel Ecological System in a Multi Species Predator-Prey Model and Climate Change Impact on Biodiversity Roberto N. Padua rnpadua@yahoo.com Liceo de Cagayan University Dexter S. Ontoy dexter_s_ontoy@yahoo.com Cebu Normal University Date Submitted: Sept. 20, 2010 Final Revision Complied: Oct. 26, 2010 Gunning Fog Index: 15.5

Plagiarism Detection: Passed Original: 90.81% English Writing Readability: 50.90

Abstract - The interaction of multiple species of animals in an ecological system is modeled by first reducing the ecological system to a kernel ecological system consisting of keystone species and top predators in the environment through Graph Theory. From the reduced kernel ecological system of keystone species, a system of Lotka-Volterra differential equations is used to describe the predator-prey relationships that exist. The equations for the number of organism per species were derived and additive environmental stochasticity or noise is added to each equation. The noise is assumed to come from an extreme value distribution or Gumbel distribution to reflect the impact of extreme weather conditions on the population dynamics of the entire ecological system. Results reveal a rich dynamical behavior for the system which otherwise would not have been revealed by straight application of deterministic predator-prey models.

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Keywords - predator, prey, graph theory, Lotka-Volterra, multi-species model, stochastic model Introduction Predator-prey models are important tools used in describing the population dynamics of animal populations. The most commonly used model is the Lotka-Volterra system of differential equations (Rainville and Bedient 1987) for a two-animal system which could easily be extended to a multi-species model. The busts and booms of animal populations are, for a large part, accounted for by the natural processes of predation, death, birth, and density-dependence. The International Panel of Climate Change (IPCC) estimates that for every 1o rise in global temperature, 3% of animal species become extinct (IPCC, 2010). The interaction of population-regulating parameters (i.e. birth, death, predation) had been studied in the past (Brauer & Castillo-Chavez 2000) but the interaction of these with climate change or environmental change has not been dealt with extensively in the literature.

We attempt to: a) generalize the classical Lotka-Volterra System of differential equations using directed graphs as basis for the formulation of the equations, b) input environmental stochasticity as an additive component in the solution vector in (a) using an extremevalue distribution, and c) analyze the interactions of populationregulating parameters and environmental changes via simulation and Monte Carlo methods. Almost all mathematical models involving the Lotka-Volterra system of differential equations deal exclusively with deterministic events when in reality, the complex interactions that occur in real-life can be best described in terms of a stochastic model. This is the strength of the present approach. Moreover, the large number of species involved in a food web makes modeling by differential equations untenable when individual species is considered. This study also makes further simplification of an ecological system by modeling only the behavior of â&#x20AC;&#x153;keystoneâ&#x20AC;? species and top predators which are 166

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R. N. Padua & D. S. Ontoy

found by using methodologies from graph theory. For instance, an ecological system consisting of hundreds of species can be reduced to a kernel interaction model of may be 3 to 4 keystone species. Necessary and sufficient conditions for the long term survival of all of the species in the ecosystem are derived based on the behavior of the kernel ecological subsystem.

The Classical Two-Species Lotka-Volterra Model The Lotka–Volterra predator–prey model was developed by Alfred J. Lotkain the context of the theory of auto-catalytic chemical reactions” in 1910. In 1920, Lotka tried out the model to biological systems using a plant species and an herbivorous animal species as an example and in 1925 he utilized the equations to analyze predator-prey interactions in his book arriving at the equations discussed below. Vito Volterra, made a statistical analysis of fish catches in the Adriatic independently to verify the validity of the Lotka’s model in 1926.

C.S. Holling further extended this model, in two papers in 1959, where he proposed the idea of a functional response. Both the LotkaVolterra model and Holling’s extensions have been used to model the moose and wolf populations in Isle Royale National Park. It is one of the best studied predator-prey relationships with over 50 published papers dealing with the two animal populations.

We re-state the classical Lotka-Volterra Model for a two-species system here for convenience. Let:

X(t) = number of prey at time t; Y(t) = number of predators at time t; βi = birth rate of the ith species i=1,2 δi = death rate of the ith species i=1,2 η = interaction rate between X(t) and Y(t) leading to the predation of ηX(t) preys N(t) = X(t) + Y(t) for t є T, a time index.

The rate at which the population of preys changes is given by:

[1] 167

Asian Journal of Biodiversity

i.e. the population of preys changes due to birth, death and predation.

The rate at which the population of predators changes is:

[2]

i.e. the population of predators changes due to birth, natural death only, assuming that the predators are not preyed upon by other species.

This is a simplified Lotka-Volterra Model which, from [2], yields the solution:

[3] and assuming that Y(0) is the predator population at time t =0, we have:

[4] We can now plug in Equation [4] to [2] to obtain:

[5] Equation [5], of course, is variable separable:

[6] In the succeeding discussion, we let Đ&#x161; = ΡY(0). Thus:

[7a]

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[7b]

Hence:

[8]

In normal situations, βi> δifor all i, that is, there will be more “births” than “deaths” ensuring the continuity of species. The decline in the population of preys can then be attributed to the intensity of predation К. The number of preys will continue to grow provided:

[9]

Otherwise, the preys will become extinct. Notice that the rate of interaction К is highly affected by population densities, i.e., the probability that a prey encounters a predator is higher for denser populations.

Assumptions of the Lotka-Volterra Model The Lotka-Volterra model has a number of assumptions about the environment and dynamic behavior of the predator and prey populations: 1. The prey population finds sufficient food at all times.

2. The food supply of the predator population is entirely dependent on the prey populations.

3. The rate of change of population is proportional to its size.

4. During the process, the environment does not change in favors of one species and the genetic adaptation is sufficiently slow.

Since differential equations are used, the solution will be purely deterministic and continuous. This, in turn, implies that the generations of both the predator and prey are continually overlapping.

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Addition of Environmental Stochasticity The solutions (4) and (8) can now be modified to account for environmental stochasticity:

X*(T) = X(t) + Ń&#x201D;(t) Y*(t) = Y(t) + Ń&#x201D;(t)

[9a]

where Ń&#x201D;(t) are independent and identically distributed random environmental noise assumed to come from the Gumbel or extreme value distribution G(.). The choice of the Gumbel distribution is consistent with the intent of examining the population dynamics during climate change or extreme weather disturbances.

Multi-Species Interaction Model We depict a food web by means of nodes and edges representing species and interaction, respectively. In the language of Graph Theory, we have a graph consisting of vertices V and edges E, denoted by G(E,V).

The vertices and the edges have some form incidence relation. The graph representing the food web in this study belongs to the category of directed graphs. Arrows going into the node represents number of species predating that organism, while arrows going out represent species being preyed upon by the other species. The difference in the number of arrows going in and going out of a node is called the valence of the node.

Figure 1 shows a 7-species interaction in an ecological system (food web): C B

G F

A D

E

Fig. 1. Species Interaction in a System (Food Web) 170

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R. N. Padua & D. S. Ontoy

Based on the species interaction shown in figure 1, different consequences will be observed when a species is removed from the system. If C is removed, B will have a positive valence because one predator is removed effectively increasing the size of B, D will have a negative valence because D loses a food source, E will have a positive valence, F will have a negative valence.

Hence: Valence of C = +B â&#x20AC;&#x201C;D +E â&#x20AC;&#x201C;F = 0.

Computations for the rest are similarly done.

We can simplify the analysis by letting: Vi = Ii â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Oi; where:

Vi = valence of the ith organism Ii = the number of arrows going into the node (number of species eating the ith species) Oi = the number of arrows going out of the node (number of species being eaten by the ith species) Thus: Vi = positive when Ii> Oi; = zero when Ii = Oi; and = negative when Ii< Oi.

In terms of this formulation, we can analyze the effects of removing a species from the food web as we have earlier done but now formulated in terms of valences. For instance, the valence of C is zero because there are equal number of arrows going in and out of the node C. What this means in reality is that the removal of species C from the system does not have any effect on the species sizes of the other organisms. On the other hand, the valence of node B is two (2) because there are three arrows going into B but only one arrow going out of 171

Asian Journal of Biodiversity

it. This means that if we remove B, then the sizes of the other species will be drastically affected because B is the food of three species in the system. Therefore, the following can be concluded: 1) species with positive valence will induce a change in the system, either on the existence of the ith species or the population of the ith species; 2) species with zero valence has no effect on the system; and 3) species with negative valence are the top predators in the system.

Species belonging to category (1) will be called keystone species because of their impact on the sizes of the other species in the system.

We will not be so much concerned with species belonging to category (2) because they have no discernible effect on the other species. We define the kernel of an ecological system as the set: Ker(E) = { keystone species, top predators}.

The kernel of an ecological system, ker(E), provides all the information needed to analyze the long term performance of all the other species in the ecological system itself. Thus, ker(E) provides a convenient summary of the multi-species interactions that occur in the whole ecosystem.

Multi-Species Interaction Model for Ker(E) Consider next the interaction of the species in kernel of the ecological system. For convenience, we use the same illustration as Figure 1. The kernel of this ecological system is: ker (E) = {B,E,G}:

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G

B

E

Fig. 2. Kernel of the 7-Species Ecological System.

If we remove species G from the system, this will result into positive valences for both species B and E because the removal of a predator will consequently increase both their populations. On the other hand, if we remove species E, species G will have a negative valence due to the removal of its prey. The removal of the same species E, however, will result into positive valence for species B because this removes one of its predators. However, if we remove species B, it will cause negative valences for both species E and G because species B is their common food. If this happens, the entire system will ultimately collapse. are:

The Lotka-Volterra differential equations describing this system

dB/dt = β1B(t) – δ1 B(t)E(t) – δ2B(t)G(t) – δ3B(t) dE/dt = β2E(t) – δ4 G(t)E(t) – δ5E(t) dG/dt = β3G(t) – – δ6G(t)

[11]

The rate at which E(t) changes with respect to G(t) is obtained from:

dE/dG = dE/dt/dG/dt = from which we derive:

E(t) = [Gθ ](exp(-δ4G(t)] where θ =

[12]

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As the number of top predators G(t) increase without bound (G(t)→∞), we note that the number of species E tends to zero (E(t) →0) because the rate of predation δ4 remains constant and positive. This is exactly what will happen if the birth rate of the top predators G(t) exceeds the death rate and predation rate is constant. Similarly, once the alternative food of G(t) (namely, E(t) ) is exhausted, the predator G(t) turns to B(t) and the relationship (12) holds for B(t) and G(t) also.

Thus, B(t) will also be exhausted. This leaves only the top predator in the system. Since both E(t) and B(t) are zero, the population G(t) will soon be wiped out due to starvation (resource limitation).

Suppose that a conservation measure is adopted to ensure the survival of the species in the system. Such a conservation effort must focus on the keystone species B as we now demonstrate. The following conditions are necessary to ensure the survival of the species in the system: 1. The quantity a = β1 – δ3 which is the difference between the birth rate and the natural death rate of species B must exceed b = β2 – δ5 (the difference in the birth rate and natural death rate of species E) and c = β3 – δ6 (the difference in the birth rate and natural death rate of species G); 2. The rate of interaction or predation of G on E must be less than b. Equivalently, condition [9] must hold.

If in addition to these necessary conditions, we also impose a sufficiency condition, namely, that the quantity a is related to b and c as follows: a > b + c, then all the species in the system will survive indefinitely.

The first necessary condition ensures that there will always be enough number of species B which will serve as food (prey) of the other species in the kernel. The second necessary condition ensures that E will survive. The sufficient condition which says that the number of species B is greater than the number of species E plus the number of species G ensures that the species survive in perpetuity. Survival of all the species in the kernel of the ecosystem ensures survival of all the other species outside of the kernel.

The obvious next question is to identify conservation measures that satisfy both the necessary and sufficient conditions for species 174

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survival. We can provide general features of “optimal” conservation measures that satisfy the criteria above: 1. Conservation measures must target keystone species in an ecosystem. Conservation efforts that attempt to conserve multiple species, even those whose valence is zero, are far more difficult to implement in practice without resistance from stakeholders. This means that national government policymakers need to consult expert biologists whenever such an effort is to be launched.

2. Conservation measures need to ensure survival of the kernel species in the ecosystem. Conservation efforts, such as declaring a large area as a protected or reserved area, must make sure that the kernel species in the ecosystem are indeed going to survive.

In other words, even if we undertake a shot-gun approach of protecting all species (including those not found in the kernel of the ecosystem) there is no assurance that the species will survive in the long run if the control parameters for the kernel species are not observed. This is scientifically proven by the systems of differential equations derived.

3. Finally, all conservation efforts must be rooted in science.

Otherwise, such efforts will only result in needless conflicts without achieving their desired goals.

Simulation Set-Up and Results The purpose of this section is to provide some numerical calculations to illustrate the impact of climate change on the dynamics of the predator-prey relationships that occur in a multi-species ecosystem. The 7-species “small world” ecosystem used to derive the various differential equations and valences served as the basis for the simulation experiments. Two (2) simulation set-ups are established, the deterministic set up and the stochastic set up.

Deterministic Set-Up The regulating parameters for the population dynamics of the 175

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species found in the kernel ecological subsystem are fixed such that no abrupt or catastrophic events are expected. For this experiment, we set: a = β1 – δ3 = 0.8 which is the difference between the birth rate and the natural death rate of the keystone species B b = β2 – δ5 = 0.4 (the difference in the birth rate and natural death rate of species E) and c = β3 – δ6 = 0.2 (the difference in the birth rate and natural death rate of the top predator G) δ1 = 0.5, δ2 = δ4 = 0.2 (the predation rates) We simulated the population growth/changes over t = 100 generations. At time t= 0, we assumed that there are equal number of individuals (n = 10) for species B,E and G. We solved the system of differential equations earlier presented and put the result in a logistic sigmoidal form: G(t) = G(0) exp (ct) E(t) = E(0) exp [bt – θexp(ct)] where θ = δ4/c G(0) B(t) = B(0) exp [at – δ2/cG(0) exp(ct) – δ1E(0)∫ exp(bt – θexp(ct)) dt] The integral expression for the function B(t) was approximated by a fourth-order Maclaurin’s polynomial.

Stochastic (Monte Carlo) Set Up The stochastic model for the Lotka-Volterra predator-prey equations is obtained by simply adding a random noise to the equation for the keystone species B while the population growths of the top predator G and secondary predator E follow a time-delay feedback system. This means that species E follow the growth curve of its prey , species B, but with a time delay Δt, that is, it takes Δt time before the population of predators feels the loss of its prey. The noise or error 176

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terms are obtained from the smallest extreme value distribution or the Gumbel distribution with location parameter 0 and scale parameter 2.

Results: As shown in Figure 3, the population size of species B is smaller than that of species G at t=1. However, there is a reversal between t=5 and t=6 wherein the population size of species B becomes larger than that of species G (the intersection implies that the population size of both species are equal) due to faster growth rate of species B than that of species G. Species B reaches maximum (N=10) at t=12, while species G reaches its maximum t=50. On the other hand, species E has the smallest population at t=1, capping at t=62.

12.000 10.000 8.000 Species B 6.000

Species E S[ecies G

4.000 2.000

1 5 9 13 17 21 25 29 33 37 41 45 49 53 57 61 65 69 73 77 81 85 89 93 97

0.000

Fig. 3. Population of species B, E and G at time t.

This pattern has implications on biodiversity conservation: 1) Slower growth rate for both species E and G would ensure the existence of species B; 2) Given the faster growth rate of species B (than both species E and G), the ecosystem would be dominated by them thus 177

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minimizing the interaction between E and G. This would then reduce the possibility of species E being wiped out due to its predation by G. In the absence of species B, however, slower growth rate of species E than species G would ultimately result in the annihilation of the former (species E will become extinct due to predation).

3) This pattern further validates the importance of focusing conservation efforts to keystone species (as represented by species B) if we want to maintain higher biodiversity.

Stochastic (Monte Carlo) Results Let us now consider environmental nuisance (i.e. environmental factors such as temperature changes brought about by climate change) which affect the population size of species B and E in the natural systems. In the simulation, we included a time lag of Î&#x201D;t=2 for the predatorâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s population changes. As shown in Figure 4, environmental nuisance led to the stochasticity of the population size of both species.

14 12 10 8 6 4 Species B 2

Species E

0 13579

11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35 37 39 41 43 45 47 49

Fig. 4. Stochastic Population Sizes of Predator (E) and Prey (B).

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When the population of predators (E) is high, the population of the preys (B) is low since many of the preys are consumed by the predators. It is, however, unclear which one drives the population size of the other. Perhaps, a mutual feedback mechanism may effectively explain the outcomes of the experiment. Drops in the population levels of species E are followed by drops in the population of species B after the specified time lag, that is, when the predator population dips, they begin to compensate by consuming more of the prey so that after the specified time lag, the prey population also dips low. Shortages in food supply (species B) takes about two time lags before being felt by the consumers (predator E). The environmental factor (climate change) drives the population levels of the prey population B in a rather erratic and irregular trajectory over time. The environmental nuisance factor, in fact, had caused a collapse in the predator population at t=35 followed by a collapse in the prey population at t=37. Note that this phenomenon is not expected in the ideal world of pure predatorprey interaction or the deterministic model. Note, likewise, that at the lowest point in the predator population (species E at t=35), the number of preys is highest which inevitably signals that the population of preys would be decimated by over-predation after two time lags. The strong interaction of environmental noise and predation caused the collapse of the prey population.

Next, we consider impact of environmental factors on species B and E in the natural system, this time with the top predator (species G). The population also follows erratic and irregular trajectory.

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12

10

8

6

4 Species B Species E

2

Species G

0 13579

11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35 37 39 41 43 45 47 49

Fig. 4. Stochastic Population Sizes of Predators (E and G) and Prey (B).

When the population of species B dropped at t=5, there was a corresponding drop in the population of both species E and G at t=7 (time lag of Î&#x201D;t=2). The drop in the population of the prey resulted in the drop of the population of both E and G. Interestingly, the effect of climate change is significant on species G compounded with the drop in the population of the prey species (t=18). The top predator G is the last species to feel the adverse impact of climate change as the graph clearly demonstrates. The analogy to the human species is almost trite viz. human beings will feel the effects of climate change last, perhaps, at a time when it is too late to respond appropriately.

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Conclusions The classical deterministic predator-prey interaction model of Lotka-Volterra, even when extended to a multi-species model, is insufficient to explain the population dynamics of species in an ecosystem. A stochastic component, to incorporate the impact of climate change, has to be considered. The study has demonstrated that a stochastic kernel sub-ecosystem can realistically model the population dynamics of animal species in an ecological system through the use of graph theory, differential equations and statistical modeling.

When applied in a “small-world” ecosystem results have shown that climate change can have catastrophic effects on keystone species and subsequently, on the predators of the ecosystem. Effects on individual species, however, are difficult to predict i.e. some species actually increase in size with climate change, thus, disrupting the normal flow in a food web.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT This research was supported by Liceo De Cagayan University under Grant No.021,s 2010.

LITERATURE CITED Berryman, A.A. 1992. “The Origins and Evolution of Predator-Prey Theory”, Ecology, 73(5), 1530-1535 Brauer, F. and C. Castillo-Chavez 2000. Mathematical Models in Population Biology and Epidemiology, Springer-Verlag Cooke, D. and R.W. Hiorns 1981. The Mathematical Theory of the Dynamics of Biological Populations II, Academic Press Inc. 181

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Desai, M. and P. Ormerod 1998. “Richard Goodwin: A Short Appreciation”, The Economic Journal, 108(450), 1431-1435 Freedman, H.I. 1980. Deterministic Mathematical Models in Population Ecology, Marcel Dekker Gandolfo, G., 2008. “Giuseppe Palomba and the Lotka-Volterra equations”, Rendiconti Lincei, 19(4), 347-257 Goel, N.S. et al., 1971. “On the Volterra and Other Non-Linear Models of Interacting Populations”, Academic Press Inc. Goodwin, R.M. 1967. “A Growth Cycle”, Socialism, Capitalism and Economic Growth, Feinstein, C.H. (ed.), Cambridge University Press Haken, H. 2004. Synergetics: introduction and advanced topics, Springer-Verlag Holling, C.S., 1959a. “The components of predation as revealed by a study of small mammal predation of the European Pine Sawfly”, Can. Ent, 91, 293-320 Holling, C.S. 1959b. “Some characteristics of simple types of predation and parasitism”, Can. Ent, 91, 385-398 Hoppensteadt, F., 2006. “Predator-prey model”, Scholarpedia, 1(10), 1563 Jost, C., Devulder, G., Vucetich, J.A. 2005. Peterson, R., and Arditi, R., “The wolves of Isle Royale display 182

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scale-invariant satiation and density dependent predation on moose”, J. Anim. Ecol., 74(5), 809-816 Leigh , E. R. 1968. The ecological role of Volterra’s equations, in Some Mathematical Problems in Biology – a modern discussion using Hudson’s Bay Company data on lynx and hares in Canada from 1847 to 1903.

Lotka, A.J. 1920. “Analytical Note on Certain Rhythmic Relations in Organic Systems”, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S., 6, 410-415 Lotka, A.J. 1910. “Contribution to the Theory of Periodic Reaction”, J. Phys.

Chem., 14 (3), pp 271–274 Lotka, A.J. 1925. Elements of Physical Biology, Williams and Wilkins Mollison, D. 1991. “Dependence of epidemic and population velocities on basic parameters”, Math. Biosci., 107, 255-287 Murray, J.D. 2003. Mathematical Biology I: An Introduction. Springer-Verlag Nasritdinov, G. and Dalimov, R.T. 2010. “Limit cycle, trophic function and the dynamics of intersectoral interaction”, Current Research J. of Economic Theory, 2(2), 32-40 Rainville, G and R. Bedient 1987. Elementary Differential Equations (McGraw-Hill) Tong, H. 1983. Threshold Models in Non-linear Time Series Analysis, Springer– Verlag

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Understanding Nonlinear Dynamics. Daniel Kaplan and Leon Glass.

Verhulst, P.H., 1838. “Notice sur la loi que la population poursuit dans son accroissement”. Corresp. mathématique et physique10, 113–121 Volterra, V. 1926. “Variazioni e fluttuazioni del numero d’individui in specie animali conviventi”, Mem. Acad. Lincei Roma, 2, 31-113 Volterra, V. 1931. Variations and fluctuations of the number of individuals in animal species living together in Animal Ecology, Chapman, R.N. (ed), McGraw–Hill

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Dean, College of Information Technology

Dr. Estelita G. Dy

Dean, College of Radiological Technology

Mr. Denise O. Orong

Dean, College of Physical Therapy

Engr. Emilio F. Matheu, Jr.

Assistant Dean, Graduate Studies

Ms. Elvy Q. Malabo

OIC Principal, Grade School

Mrs. Joan B. Gallaron

Principal, High School

Dr. Ma. Fe D. Opina

Consultant, Grade School

Mrs. Fritzie C. Estoque

Director, Liceo Center for Community Development

Ms. Jen Boo

Director, Institute of Short Studies

196

Academic Department Heads Mrs. Sherlita M. Barrun

University Registrar

Mrs. Evangeline N. Cabe

Director, Guidance and Placement Office

Dr. Genaro V. Japos

Director, Research and Publication Office

Dr. Lesley C. Lubos

Associate Director, Research and Publication Office

197

Asian Journal of Biodiversity

AUTHOR INDEX A

M

Alima, Mark Anthony P., 139 Alviola, Geonyzl L. , 36 Azuelo, Andrea G., 49

Mohagan, Alma B., 1, 25 Menes, Carmen C., 126 O

B Bucol, Abner A., 91, 126

Ontoy, Dexter S., 165 Otadoy, Julie B., 36

C

P

Carumbana, Esther E., 91 D

Pabualan, Melanie P., 49 Padua, Roberto N., 165 Patricio, Jose Hermis P. , 139

del Rosario, Bernadette I., 36

S

I

Sariana, Lalaine G., 49

Iba単ez, Jayson, 36

T

L

Treadaway, Colin G., 1

Lubos, Lesley C., 72 Linaugo, Joji D., 126

V Villanueva, Joseph Reagan, 25

198

ASIAN JOURNAL BIODIVERSITY The Asian Journal of Biodiversity is published annually by the Liceo Press, Liceo de Cagayan University, Rodolfo N. Pelaez Boulevard, Kauswagan, Cagayan de Oro City, Philippines.

Subscription Rates: Php 3000.00 for three years pre-paid within the Philippines and US$250.00 for foreign subscribers. Price of a single copy is Php 1000.00. Claims for missing issues should be made within 6 months from the date of dispatch. Payments can be made by bank deposit, cheque, credit card and international money order.

Send Cheque to: Asian Journal of Biodiversity

Liceo de Cagayan University RN Pelaez Blvd.

Kauswagan, Cagayan de Oro City

Philippines 9000 Articles may be research manuscripts and notes on original and applied research, and research reviews on issues, problems and discoveries of interest to researchers and stakeholders in biodiversity.

All papers undergo double-blind review. The Editorial Board makes the final decision on the acceptability of a manuscript after reviewing the compliance of the researcher to the instructions of the peer reviewers.

The editorial policy is published in this issue and can be accessed through the journal website http//www.ejournals.ph. Inquiries can be sent via email at asianbiojournal@gmail.com.

Online Selection: As from Vol. 1 No. 1, the Asian Journal of Biodiversity is also available online.

Š 2010